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+Project Gutenberg's Outline of Universal History, by George Park Fisher
+
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+Title: Outline of Universal History
+
+Author: George Park Fisher
+
+Release Date: September, 2005 [EBook #8896]
+[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule]
+[This file was first posted on August 21, 2003]
+
+Edition: 10
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUTLINE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Charles Aldarondo, Tiffany Vergon,
+Jim OConnor and Distributed Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Comment
+
+In the original text, the author sought, "by the use of different sorts
+of type, ... to introduced a considerable amount of detail without
+breaking the main current of the narrative, or making it too long". In
+the text below, paragraphs in the smallest type have been indented.
+
+
+
+OUTLINES OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY
+
+Designed as a Text-book and for Private Reading
+
+By
+
+George Park Fisher, D.D., LL.D.
+Professor in Yale University
+
+Inscribed by the author as a token of love and thankfulness to his
+daughter
+
+C. R. F.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE.
+
+
+In writing this work I have endeavored to provide a text-book suited to
+more advanced pupils. My idea of such a work was, that it should
+present the essential facts of history in due order, and in conformity
+to the best and latest researches; that it should point out clearly the
+connection of events and of successive eras with one another; that
+through the interest awakened by the natural, unforced view gained of
+this unity of history, and by such illustrative incidents as the
+brevity of the narrative would allow to be wrought into it, the dryness
+of a mere summary should be, as far as possible, relieved; and that,
+finally, being a book intended for pupils and readers of all classes,
+it should be free from sectarian partiality, and should limit itself to
+well-established judgments and conclusions on all matters subject to
+party contention. Respecting one of the points just referred to, I can
+say that, in composing this work, I have myself been more than ever
+impressed with _the unity of history_, and affected by this great
+and deeply moving drama that is still advancing into a future that is
+hidden from view. I can not but hope that this feeling, spontaneous and
+vivid in my own mind, may communicate itself to the reader in his
+progress through these pages.
+
+The most interesting object in the study of history is, to quote Dr.
+Arnold's words, "that which most nearly touches the inner life of
+civilized man, namely, the vicissitudes of institutions, social,
+political, and religious." But, as the same scholar adds, "a knowledge
+of the external is needed before we arrive at that which is within. We
+want to get a sort of frame for our picture....And thus we want to know
+clearly the geographical boundaries of different countries, and their
+external revolutions. This leads us in the first instance to geography
+and military history, even if our ultimate object lies beyond."
+Something more is aimed at in the present work than the construction of
+this "frame," without which, to be sure, a student wanders about
+"vaguely, like an ignorant man in an ill-arranged museum."  By the use
+of different sorts of type, it has been practicable to introduce a
+considerable amount of detail without breaking the main current of the
+narrative, or making it too long. By means of these additional
+passages, and by appending lists of books at the close of the several
+periods, the attempt has been made to aid younger students in carrying
+forward the study of history beyond the usual requirements of the
+class-room. I make no apology for the sketches presented of the history
+of science, literature, art, and of moral and material decline or
+improvement. Professor Seeley, in his interesting book on _The
+Expansion of England_, is disposed to confine history to the civil
+community, and to the part of human well-being which depends on
+that. "That a man in England," he tells us, "makes a scientific
+discovery or paints a picture, is not in itself an event in the history
+of England." But, of course, as this able writer himself remarks,
+"history may assume a larger or a narrower function;" and I am
+persuaded that to shut up history within so narrow bounds, is not
+expedient in a work designed in part to stimulate readers to wide and
+continued studies.
+
+One who has long been engaged in historical study and teaching, if he
+undertakes to prepare such a work as the present, has occasion to
+traverse certain periods where previous investigations have made him
+feel more or less at home. Elsewhere at least his course must be to
+collate authorities, follow such as he deems best entitled to credit,
+and, on points of uncertainty, satisfy himself by recurrence to the
+original sources of evidence. Among the numerous works from which I
+have derived assistance, the largest debt is due, especially in the
+ancient and mediĉval periods, to Weber's _Lehrbuch der
+Weltgeschichte_, which (in its nineteenth edition, 1883) contains
+2328 large octavo pages of well-digested matter. Duruy's _Histoire
+du Moyen Age_ (eleventh edition, 1882), and also his _Histoire
+des Temps Modernes_ (ninth edition), have yielded to me important
+aid. From the writings of Mr. E. A. Freeman I have constantly derived
+instruction. In particular, I have made use of his _General Sketch
+of European History_ (which is published in this country, under the
+title, _Outlines of History_), and of his lucid, compact, and
+thorough _History of European Geography_. The other writings,
+however, of this able and learned historian, have been very
+helpful. Mr. Tillinghast's edition of Ploetz's _Epitome_ I have
+found to be a highly valuable storehouse of historical facts, and have
+frequently consulted it with advantage. The superior accuracy of
+George's _Genealogical Tables_ is the reason why I have freely
+availed myself of the aid afforded by them. Professor (now President)
+C. K. Adams's excellent _Manual of Historical Literature_, to
+which reference is repeatedly made in the following pages, has been of
+service in preparing the lists of works to be read or consulted. Those
+lists, it hardly need be said, aim at nothing like a complete
+bibliography. No doubt to each of them other valuable works might
+easily be added. As a rule, no mention is made of more technical or
+abstruse writings, collections of documents, and so forth. The titles
+of but few historical novels are given. Useful as the best of these
+are, works of this class are often inaccurate and misleading; so that
+a living master in historical authorship has said even of Walter
+Scott, who is so strong when he stands on Scottish soil, that in his
+Ivanhoe "there is a mistake in every line." With regard, however, to
+historical fiction, including poems, as well as novels and tales, the
+student will find in Mr. Justin Winsor's very learned and elaborate
+monograph (forming a distinct section of the catalogue of the Boston
+Public Library), the most full information up to the date of its
+publication. Most of the historical maps, to illustrate the text of
+the present work, have been engraved from drawings after Spruner,
+Putzger, Freeman, etc. Of the ancient maps, several have been adopted
+(in a revised form) from a General Atlas. That the maps contain more
+places than are referred to in the text, is not a disadvantage.
+
+I wish to express my obligation to a number of friends who have kindly
+lent me aid in the revisal of particular portions of the proof-sheets
+of this volume. My special thanks are due, on account of this service,
+to Professor Francis Brown of the Union Theological School; to
+Professors W. D. Whitney, Tracy Peck, T. D. Seymour, W. H. Brewer, and
+T. R. Lounsbury, of Yale College; to Mr. A. Van Name, librarian of
+Yale College; and to Mr. W. L. Kingsley, to whose historical knowledge
+and unfailing kindness I have, on previous occasions, been indebted
+for like assistance. To other friends besides those just named, I am
+indebted for information on points made familiar to them by their
+special studies.
+
+G. P. F.
+
+
+
+PREFACE TO REVISED EDITION.
+
+The characteristics of this work are stated in the Preface to the
+First Edition, which may be read on page v and the next following
+pages of the present volume.
+
+The work has been subjected to a careful revision. The aim has been to
+make whatever amendments are called for by historical investigations
+in the interval since it was published. Besides corrections, brief
+statements have been woven here and there into the text. The revision
+has embraced the bibliography connected with the successive periods or
+chapters. Titles of books which are no longer of service have been
+erased. Titles of select recent publications, as well as of
+meritorious writings of a remoter past, have been inserted.
+
+In preparing this edition for the press I have not been without the
+advantage of aid from friends versed in historical studies. Professor
+Henry E. Bourne, of Western Reserve University, besides particular
+annotations, has prolonged the history so far as to include in its
+compass, in Chapter VII, the last decade of the nineteenth century and
+events as recent as the close of the South African War and the
+accession of President Roosevelt. Professor Charles C. Torrey, Ph.D.,
+of Yale University, has placed in my hands notes of his own on
+Oriental History, a portion of history with which, as well as with the
+Semitic languages, he is conversant. It will not be for lack of
+painstaking if any part of the new edition fails, within the limits of
+its plan, to correspond to the present state of historical knowledge.
+
+G. P. F.
+Yale University, January, 1904.
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+PART I.  ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+_From the Beginning of Authentic History to the Migrations of the
+Teutonic Tribes (A.D. 375)_
+
+DIVISION I.  ORIENTAL HISTORY.
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+SECTION  I.  CHINA AND INDIA.
+
+CHAPTER  I.--CHINA
+
+CHAPTER II.--INDIA
+
+
+SECTION II.  THE EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS.
+
+CHAPTER   I.--EGYPT
+
+CHAPTER  II.--ASSYRIA AND BABYLON
+
+CHAPTER III.--THE PHOENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS
+
+CHAPTER  IV.--THE HEBREWS
+
+CHAPTER   V.--THE PERSIANS
+
+
+DIVISION II.  EUROPE.
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+SECTION I.  GRECIAN HISTORY.
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+PERIOD I.  GREECE PRIOR TO THE PERSIAN WARS.
+
+CHAPTER  I.--THE PREHISTORIC AGE
+
+CHAPTER II.--THE FORMATION OF THE PRINCIPAL STATES
+
+
+PERIOD II.  THE FLOURISHING ERA OF GREECE.
+
+CHAPTER   I.--THE PERSIAN WARS
+
+CHAPTER  II.--THE ASCENDENCY OF ATHENS
+
+CHAPTER III.--THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR
+
+CHAPTER  IV.--RELATIONS WITH PERSIA: THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN HEGEMONY
+
+
+PERIOD III.  THE MACEDONIAN ERA.
+
+CHAPTER  I.--PHILIP AND ALEXANDER
+
+CHAPTER II.--THE SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER
+
+
+SECTION II.  ROMAN HISTORY.
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+PERIOD I.  ROME UNDER THE KINGS AND THE PATRICIANS (753-304 B.C.).
+
+CHAPTER  I.--ROME UNDER THE KINGS (753-509 B.C.)
+
+CHAPTER II.--ROME UNDER THE PATRICIANS (509-304 B.C.)
+
+
+PERIOD II.  TO THE UNION OF ITALY (304-264 B.C.).
+
+CHAPTER  I.--CONQUEST OF THE LATINS AND ITALIANS (304-282 B.C.)
+
+CHAPTER II.--WAR WITH PYRRHUS AND UNION WITH ITALY (282-264 B.C.)
+
+
+PERIOD III.  THE PUNIC WARS.
+
+To the Conquest of Carthage and of the Greek States (264-146 B.C.)
+
+CHAPTER  I.--THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS (264-202 B.C.)
+
+CHAPTER II.--CONQUEST OF MACEDONIA: THE THIRD PUNIC WAR: THE DESTRUCTION
+OF CORINTH (202-146 B.C.)
+
+
+PERIOD IV.  THE ERA OF REVOLUTION AND OF THE CIVIL WARS (146-3l B.C.).
+
+CHAPTER   I.--THE GRACCHI: THE FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR: MARIUS AND SULLA
+(146-78 B.C.)
+
+CHAPTER  II.--POMPEIUS AND THE EAST: TO THE DEATH OF CRASSUS (78-53 B.C.)
+
+CHAPTER III.--POMPEIUS AND CAESAR: THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.
+
+
+PERIOD V.  THE IMPERIAL MONARCHY.
+
+To the Migrations of the Teutonic Tribes (375 A.D.)
+
+CHAPTER   I.--THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS
+
+CHAPTER  II.--THE EMPERORS OF THE AUGUSTAN HOUSE
+
+CHAPTER III.--THE FLAVIANS AND THE ANTONINES
+
+CHAPTER  IV.--THE EMPERORS MADE BY THE SOLDIERS: THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY:
+THE TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY
+
+
+
+PART II. MEDIAEVAL HISTORY.
+
+_From the Migrations of the Teutonic Tribes to the Fall of
+Constantinople (A.D. 375-1453)._
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+PERIOD I.  TO THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE OF FRANK RULERS (A.D. 375-751).
+
+CHAPTER   I.--CAUSES OF THE FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE: THE TEUTONIC
+CONFEDERACIES
+
+CHAPTER  II.--THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS AND KINGDOMS
+
+CHAPTER III.--THE EASTERN EMPIRE
+
+CHAPTER  IV.--MOHAMMEDANISM AND THE ARABIC CONQUESTS
+
+
+PERIOD II.  FROM THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE OF FRANK KINGS TO THE
+ROMANO-GERMANIC EMPIRE (A.D. 751-962).
+
+CHAPTER   I.--THE CARLOVINGIAN EMPIRE TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE
+(A.D. 814)
+
+CHAPTER  II.--DISSOLUTION OF CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE: RISE OF THE KINGDOMS
+OF FRANCE, GERMANY, AND ITALY
+
+CHAPTER III.--INVASIONS OF THE NORTHMEN AND OTHERS: THE FEUDAL SYSTEM
+
+
+PERIOD III.  FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ROMANO-GERMANIC EMPIRE TO THE
+END OF THE CRUSADES (A.D. 962-1270).
+
+CHAPTER   I.--THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE: PREDOMINANCE OF THE EMPIRE: TO
+THE CRUSADES (A.D. 1096)
+
+CHAPTER  II.--THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE: PREDOMINANCE OF THE CHURCH: TO
+THE END OF THE CRUSADES (A.D. 1270)
+
+CHAPTER III.--ENGLAND AND FRANCE: THE FIRST PERIOD OF THEIR RIVALSHIP
+(A.D. 1066-1217)
+
+CHAPTER  IV.--RISE OF THE BURGHER CLASS: SOCIETY IN THE ERA OF THE
+CRUSADES
+
+
+PERIOD IV.  FROM THE END OF THE CRUSADES TO THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE
+(A.D. 1270-1453): THE DECLINE OF ECCLESIASTICAL AUTHORITY:
+THE GROWTH OF THE NATIONAL SPIRIT AND OF MONARCHY.
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+CHAPTER   I.--ENGLAND AND FRANCE: SECOND PERIOD OF RIVALSHIP: THE HUNDRED
+YEARS' WAR (A.D. 1339-1453)
+
+CHAPTER  II.--GERMANY: ITALY: SPAIN: THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES: POLAND
+AND RUSSIA: HUNGARY: OTTOMAN TURKS: THE GREEK EMPIRE
+
+CHAPTER III.--THE COUNTRIES OF EASTERN ASIA
+
+
+
+PART III.  MODERN HISTORY.
+
+_From the Fall of Constantinople_ (1453) _to the Present Time_
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+PERIOD I.  FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE TO THE REFORMATION
+           (1453-1517).
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+CHAPTER  I.--FRANCE: ENGLAND: SPAIN: GERMANY: ITALY: THE OTTOMAN TURKS:
+RUSSIA: THE INVASIONS OF ITALY
+
+CHAPTER II.--INVENTION AND DISCOVERY: THE RENAISSANCE
+
+
+PERIOD II.  THE ERA OF THE REFORMATION (1517-1648).
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+CHAPTER   I.--THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY: TO THE TREATY OF NUREMBERG
+(1517-1532)
+
+CHAPTER  II.--THE REFORMATION IN TEUTONIC COUNTRIES: SWITZERLAND,
+DENMARK, SWEDEN, ENGLAND
+
+CHAPTER III.--THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY, FROM THE PEACE OF NUREMBERG TO
+THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG (1532-1555)
+
+CHAPTER  IV.--CALVINISM IN GENEVA: BEGINNING OF THE CATHOLIC
+COUNTER-REFORMATION
+
+CHAPTER   V.--PHILIP II., AND THE REVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS
+
+CHAPTER  VI.--THE CIVIL WARS IN FRANCE, TO THE DEATH OF HENRY IV. (1610)
+
+CHAPTER VII.--THE THIRTY-YEARS' WAR, TO THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA
+(1618-1648)
+
+CHAPTER VIII.--SECOND STAGE OF THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND: TO THE DEATH
+OF ELIZABETH (1547-1603)
+
+CHAPTER  IX.--THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION AND THE COMMONWEALTH (1603-1658)
+
+CHAPTER   X.--COLONIZATION IN AMERICA: ASIATIC NATIONS: CULTURE AND
+LITERATURE (1517-1648)
+
+
+PERIOD III.  FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
+(1648-1789).
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+CHAPTER   I.--THE PREPONDERANCE OF FRANCE: FIRST PART OF THE REIGN OF
+LOUIS XIV. (TO THE PEACE OF RYSWICK, 1697): THE
+RESTORATION OF THE STUARTS: THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION OF 1688
+
+CHAPTER  II.--WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION (TO THE PEACE OF UTRECHT,
+1713): DECLINE OF THE POWER OF FRANCE: POWER AND MARITIME SUPREMACY OF
+ENGLAND
+
+CHAPTER III.--THE GREAT NORTHERN WAR: THE FALL OF SWEDEN: GROWTH OF THE
+POWER OF RUSSIA
+
+CHAPTER IV.--WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION: GROWTH OF THE POWER OF
+PRUSSIA: THE DESTRUCTION OF POLAND
+
+CHAPTER V.--CONTEST OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN AMERICA: WAR OF AMERICAN
+INDEPENDENCE: THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+CHAPTER VI.--LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND RELIGION
+
+
+PERIOD IV.  THE ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION (1789-1815).
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+CHAPTER   I.--FROM THE ASSEMBLING OF THE STATES-GENERAL TO THE EXECUTION
+OF LOUIS XVI. (1789-1793)
+
+CHAPTER  II.--FROM THE EXECUTION OF LOUIS XVI. TO THE FALL OF ROBESPIERRE
+(JAN. 21, 1793-JULY 27, 1794)
+
+CHAPTER III.--FROM THE FALL OF ROBESPIERRE TO THE EMPIRE OF NAPOLEON
+(1794-1804)
+
+CHAPTER  IV.--FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIRE TO THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN
+(1804-1812)
+
+CHAPTER   V.--FROM THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN (1812) TO THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA
+(1814-15)
+
+CHAPTER  VI.--AMERICAN HISTORY IN THIS PERIOD (1789-1815)
+
+CHAPTER VII.--LITERATURE, ART, AND SCIENCE (1789-1815)
+
+
+PERIOD V.  FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1815) TO THE PRESENT TIME.
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+CHAPTER   I.--EUROPE, FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1815) TO THE FRENCH
+REVOLUTION OF 1830
+
+CHAPTER  II.--EUROPE, FROM THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 TO THE REVOLUTIONARY
+EPOCH OF 1848
+
+CHAPTER III.--EUROPE, FROM THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848 TO THE
+AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1866)
+
+CHAPTER  IV.--EUROPE, FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR TO
+THE END OF THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR (1866-1871)
+
+CHAPTER V.--EUROPE, FROM THE THIRD FRENCH REPUBLIC, AND
+THE UNION OF ITALY (1871)
+
+CHAPTER VI.--THE UNITED STATES SINCE 1815: THE SOUTH AMERICAN STATES:
+EASTERN ASIA
+
+CHAPTER VII.--THE LAST DECADE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
+
+CHAPTER VIII.--DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: SCIENCE AND LITERATURE: PROGRESS
+OF HUMANE SENTIMENT: PROGRESS TOWARDS THE UNITY OF MANKIND
+
+
+
+LIST OF MAPS.
+
+  THE WORLD AS KNOWN TO THE ANCIENTS
+
+  PHYSICAL FEATURES OF ASIA
+
+  ANCIENT EGYPT
+
+  ANCIENT PALESTINE
+
+  PHYSICAL FEATURES OF EUROPE
+
+  ANCIENT GREECE AND THE AEGEAN ISLANDS
+
+  GREEK AND PHOENICIAN COLONIES
+
+  EMPIRE OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT
+
+  KINGDOMS OF THE SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER
+
+  ANCIENT ITALY (NORTHERN PART)
+
+  ANCIENT ITALY (SOUTHERN PART)
+
+  ANCIENT ROMAN EMPIRE
+
+  THE NEW NATIONS AFTER THE GREAT MIGRATIONS (ABOUT A.D. 500)
+
+  EMPIRE OF THE SARACENS (ABOUT A.D. 750)
+
+  EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE
+
+  EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE A.D. 843
+
+  EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE A.D. 887
+
+  CENTRAL EUROPE ABOUT A.D. 980
+
+  MEDITERRANEAN LANDS AT THE TIME OF THE CRUSADES
+
+  FRANCE AND ENGLAND, A.D. 1154-1189
+
+  CENTRAL EUROPE, A.D. 1360
+
+  CENTRAL EUROPE, A.D. 1660
+
+  ITALY ABOUT THE MIDDLE OF IHE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
+
+  EUROPE AT THE TIME OF NAPOLEON'S GREATEST POWER (ABOUT A.D. 1810)
+
+  CENTRAL EUROPE IN 1815
+
+  EUROPE AFTER 1878
+
+  AUSTRO-HUNGARY SINCE 1878
+
+  FRANCE SINCE 1871
+
+  GERMAN EMPIRE SINCE 1871
+
+  TURKISH EMPIRE, GREECE, ETC., SINCE 1878
+
+  TERRITORIAL GROWTH OF THE UNITED STATES
+
+  ASIA AT THE PRESENT TIME
+
+
+
+
+UNIVERSAL HISTORY.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+DEFINITION OF HISTORY.--The subject of history is man. History has for
+its object to record his doings and experiences. It may then be
+concisely defined as a narrative of past events in which men have been
+concerned. To describe the earth, the abode of man, to delineate the
+different kingdoms of nature, and to inquire into the origin of them,
+or to explain the physical or mental constitution of human beings, is
+no part of the office of history. All this belongs to the departments
+of natural and intellectual science.
+
+But history, as we now understand the term, is more than a bare record
+of what men have done and suffered. It aims to point out the
+connection of events with one another. It seeks to explain the causes
+and the consequences of things that occur. It would trace the steps
+that mark the progress of the race, and of the different portions of
+it, through extended periods. It brings to light the thread which
+unites each particular stage in the career of a people, or of mankind
+as a whole, with what went before, and with what came after.
+
+NATIONS.--History has been called "the biography of a society."
+Biography has to do with the career of an individual. History is
+concerned with the successive actions and fortunes of a community; in
+its broadest extent, with the experiences of the human family. It is
+only when men are connected by the social bond, and remain so united
+for a greater or less period, that there is room for history. It is,
+therefore, with nations, in their internal progress and in their
+mutual relations, that history especially deals. Of mere clans, or
+loosely organized tribes, it can have little to say. History can go no
+farther than to explore their genealogy, and state what were their
+journeyings and habits. The nation is a form of society that rests on
+the same basis--a basis at once natural and part of a divine
+system--as the family. By a nation is meant a people dwelling in a
+definite territory, living under the same government, and bound
+together by such ties as a common language, a common religion, the
+same institutions and customs.  The elements that enter into that
+national spirit which is the bond of unity, are multiple. They vary to
+a degree in different peoples. As individuals are not alike, and as
+the history of any particular community is modified and molded by
+these individual differences, so the course of the history of mankind
+is shaped by the peculiar characteristics of the various nations, and
+by their interaction upon one another. In like manner, groups of
+nations, each characterized by distinctive traits derived from
+affinities of race or of religion, or from other sources, act on each
+other, and thus help to determine the course of the historic stream.
+
+SCOPE OF HISTORY.--The rise and progress of _culture_ and
+_civilization_ in their various constituents is the theme of
+history. It does not limit its attention to a particular fraction of a
+people, to the exclusion of the rest. Governments and rulers, and the
+public doings of states,--such as foreign wars, and the struggles of
+rival dynasties,--naturally form a prominent topic in historical
+writings. But this is only one department in the records of the
+past. More and more history interests itself in the character of
+society at large, and in the phases through which it has passed. How
+men lived from day to day, what their occupations were, their comforts
+and discomforts, their ideas, sentiments, and modes of intercourse,
+their state as regards art, letters, invention, religious
+enlightenment,--these are points on which history, as at present
+studied and written, undertakes to shed light.
+
+POINTS OF VIEW.--An eminent German philosopher of our day, _Hermann
+Lotze_, intimates that there are five phases of human development,
+and hence five points of view from which the course of history is to
+be surveyed. These are the _intellectual_ (embracing the progress
+of truth and knowledge), the _industrial_, the _aesthetic_
+(including art in all its higher ramifications), the _religious_,
+and the political. An able English scholar, _Goldwin Smith_,
+resolves the elements of human progress, and thus the most general
+topics of history, into three, "the moral, the intellectual, and the
+productive; or, _virtue_, _knowledge_, and _industry_."
+"But these three elements," he adds, "though distinct, are not
+separate, but closely connected with each other."
+
+THE PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY.--That there is, in some sense, a "reign of
+law" in the succession of human events, is a conviction warranted by
+observed facts, as well as inspired by religion. Events do not spring
+into being, disjoined from antecedents leading to them. Even
+turning-points in history, which seem, at the first glance, abrupt,
+are found to be dependent on previous conditions. They are perceived
+to be the natural issue of the times that have gone before. Preceding
+events have foreshadowed them. There are laws of historical progress
+which have their root in the characteristics of human nature. Ends are
+wrought out, which bear on them evident marks of design. History, as a
+whole, is the carrying out of a plan:
+
+  "... through the ages one increasing purpose runs."
+
+  _Augustine_ long ago argued, that he who has not left "even the
+  entrails of the smallest and most insignificant animal, or the
+  feather of a bird, or the little flower of a plant, or the leaf of a
+  tree, without a harmony, and, as it were, a mutual peace among all
+  its parts,--that God can never be believed to have left the kingdoms
+  of men, their dominations and servitudes, outside of the laws of his
+  providence."
+
+To discern the plan of history, and the causes or laws through which
+it is accomplished, as far as our limited capacity will allow, is the
+object of what is called the philosophy of history.
+
+FREEDOM AND LAW.--It must not be forgotten, however, that man is a
+free agent. History, although it is not an aimless process, is,
+nevertheless, not subject to the forces and laws which govern in the
+realm of matter. Physical analogies are not a literal image of what
+takes place in the sphere of intelligence and freedom. Moral evil,
+wherever it is a factor in history, has its origin in the will of
+man. In respect to it, the agency of God is permissive and
+overruling. Through his providence, order is made to emerge, a worthy
+goal is at last reached, despite the elements of disorder introduced
+by human perversity.
+
+Nor is progress continuous and unbroken. It is often, as one has said,
+a spiral rather than a straight line. It is not an unceasing advance:
+there are backward movements, or what appear to be such. Of particular
+nations it is frequently evident, that, intellectually and morally, as
+well as in power and thrift, they have sunk below a level once
+attained.
+
+  Of the inscrutable blending of human freedom with a pre-ordained
+  design, GUIZOT says: "Man advances in the execution of a plan which
+  he has not conceived, and of which he is not even aware. He is the
+  free and intelligent artificer of a work which is not his own."
+  "Conceive a great machine, the design of which is centered in a
+  single mind, though its various parts are intrusted to different
+  workmen, separated from, and strangers to, each other. No one of
+  them understands the work as a whole, nor the general result which
+  he concurs in producing; but every one executes with intelligence
+  and freedom, by rational and voluntary acts, the particular task
+  assigned to him." (_Lectures on the History of Civilization_,
+  Lect. xi.)
+
+PERSONAL POWER.--The progress of society has been inseparably
+connected with the agency of eminent persons. Signal changes, whether
+wholesome or mischievous, are linked to the names of individuals who
+have specially contributed to bring them to pass. The achievements of
+heroes stand out in as bold relief in authentic history as in the
+obscure era of myth and fable. Fruitful inventions, after the earlier
+steps in civilization are taken, are traceable to particular authors,
+exalted by their genius above the common level. So it is with the
+literary works which have exerted the deepest and most lasting
+influence. Nations have their pilots in war and in peace. Epochs in
+the progress of the fine arts are ushered in by individuals of
+surpassing mental power. Reforms and revolutions, which alter the
+direction of the historic stream, emanate from individuals in whose
+minds they are conceived, and by whose energy they are effected. The
+force thus exerted by the leaders in history is not accounted for by
+reference to general laws. Great men are not puppets moved by the
+spirit of the time. To be sure, there must be a preparation for them,
+and a groundwork of sympathy among their contemporaries: otherwise
+their activity would call forth no response. Independently of the age
+that gives them birth, their power would lose its distinctive form and
+hue: they would be incapable of influence.
+
+_Cromwell_ would not have been Cromwell had he been born in any
+other period of English history. Nor could he have played his part,
+being what he was, had not the religious and political struggles of
+England for generations framed a theater adapted to his talents and
+character. _Michael Angelo_ could not have arisen in a
+half-civilized tribe. His creative power would have found no field in
+a society rude, and blind to the attractions of art. Nevertheless, his
+power _was_ creative. Cromwell and Michael Angelo, and such as
+they, are not the passive organs, the mere outcome, of the communities
+in which they appear. Without the original thought and personal energy
+of leaders, momentous changes in the life of nations could never have
+taken place. A great man may be obliged to wait long for the answering
+sympathy which is required to give effect to his thoughts and
+purposes. Such a mind is said to be in advance of the age. Another
+generation may have to appear before the harvest springs from the seed
+that he has sown. Moreover, it is not true that great men, efficient
+leaders, come forward whenever there is an exigency calling for them,
+or an urgent need. Rather is it true that terrible disasters sometimes
+occur, at critical points in history, just for the lack of leaders fit
+for the emergency.
+
+  THE MEANING OF HISTORY.--A thoughtful student can hardly fail to
+  propose to himself the question, "What is the meaning of history?
+  Why is this long drama with all that is noble and joyous in it, and
+  with its abysses of sin and misery, enacted at all?" It is only a
+  partial answer that one can hope to give to this grave inquiry, for
+  the designs of Providence can not be fully fathomed. But, among the
+  ends in view, the moral training of mankind stands forth with a
+  marked prominence. The deliverance of the race from moral evil and
+  error, and the building-up of a purified society, enriched with all
+  the good that belongs to the ideal of humanity, and exalted by
+  fellowship with God, is not only an end worthy in itself, but it is
+  the end towards which the onward movement of history is seen to be
+  directed. Hence, a central place in the course of history belongs to
+  the life and work of Jesus Christ.
+
+  No more satisfactory solution of this problem of the significance of
+  history has ever been offered than that brought forward by the
+  Apostle Paul in Acts xvii. 27, where he says that the nations of men
+  were assigned to their places on the earth, and their duration as
+  well as boundaries determined, "that they should seek the Lord, if
+  haply they might feel after him, and find him."
+
+  WORKS ON THE PHILOSOPHY OF HISTORY.-(Professor C. K. ADAMS'S
+  _Manual of Historical Literature_ (1882) is an excellent guide
+  in historical reading. Briefer lists of works in _Methods of
+  Teaching and Studying History_, edited by G. Stanley Hall.)
+  _Books on the Philosophy of History_: R. FLINT, _The
+  Philosophy of History_, vol. i.,--Writers on the subject in
+  France and Germany. Vol. ii. will treat of England and Italy. The
+  work is a critical review of the literature on the
+  subject. Schlegel, _The Philosophy of History_; Shedd's
+  _Lectures on the Philosophy of History_; Bunsen's _God in
+  History_ (3 vols., 1870); LOTZE, _Mikrokosmus_, vol. iii,
+  book vii.; Montesquieu's _Spirit of the Laws_; Buckle,
+  _History of Civilization in England_ (2 vols.). This work is
+  based on the denial of free-will, and the doctrine that physical
+  influences,--climate, soil, food, etc.,--are the main causes of
+  intellectual progress. Draper's _History of the Intellectual
+  Development of Europe_(2 vols., 2d edition, 1876) is in the same
+  vein. Opposed to this philosophy are GOLDWIN SMITH'S _Lectures on
+  the Study of History_; C. Kingsley, in his _Miscellanies, The
+  Limits of Exact Science as applied to History_; Froude, in
+  _Short Studies_, vol. i., _The Science of History_; Lotze,
+  as above; also, Flint, and Droysen, _Grundriss der
+  Historik_. Hegel's _Philosophy of History_ has profound
+  observations, but connected with an _a priori_ theory.
+
+  HISTORICAL WRITING.--The beginning of historical writing was in the
+  form of lists of kings, or bare records of battles, or the simple
+  registration of other occurrences of remarkable interest. The
+  Egyptians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Chinese, and other nations,
+  furnish examples of this rudimental type of historical writing. More
+  continuous annals followed; but these are meager in contents, and
+  make no attempt to find links of connection between events. The
+  ancient Hebrew historians are on a much higher plane, and, apart
+  from their religious value, far surpass all other Asiatic
+  histories. It was in _Greece_, the fountain-head of science,
+  that history, as an art, first appeared. _Herodotus_, born
+  early in the fifth century B.C., first undertook to satisfy
+  curiosity respecting the past by a more elaborate and entertaining
+  narrative. He begins his work thus: "These are the researches of
+  Herodotus of Halicarnassus, which he publishes, in the hope of
+  thereby preserving from decay the remembrance of what men have done,
+  and of preventing the great and marvelous actions of the Greeks and
+  the barbarians from losing their due meed of glory, and withal to
+  put on record what were the grounds of their hostility." In
+  Herodotus, history, owing to the inquiry made into the causes of
+  events, begins to rise above the level of a mere chronicle, its
+  primitive type. _Thucydides_, who died about 400 B.C.,
+  followed. He is far more accurate in his investigations, having a
+  deep insight into the origin of the events which he relates, and is
+  a model of candor. He, too, writes to minister to the inquisitive
+  spirit of his countrymen, and of the generations that were to
+  follow. He began to write his history of the war between the
+  Athenians and the Peloponnesians while it was still going on, in the
+  belief, he says, "that it would turn out great, and worthier of
+  being recorded than any that had preceded it." The attention of
+  historical writers was still confined to a particular country, or to
+  insulated groups of events. Before there could spring up the idea of
+  universal history, it was necessary that there should be a broader
+  view of mankind as a whole. The ancient _Stoics_ had a glimpse
+  of the race as a family, and of the nations as forming one complex
+  unity. The conquests and extended dominion of Rome first suggested
+  the idea of universal history. _Polybius_, a Greek in the
+  second century B.C., had watched the progress of Rome, in its career
+  of conquest, until "the affairs of Italy and Africa," as he says,
+  "joined with those of Asia and Greece, and all moved together
+  towards one fixed and single point." He tells us that particular
+  histories can not give us a knowledge of the whole, more than the
+  survey of the divided members of a body once endowed with life and
+  beauty can yield a just conception of all the comeliness and vigor
+  which it has received from Nature. To Polybius belongs the
+  distinction of being the first to undertake a universal
+  history. Christianity, with its doctrine of the unity of mankind,
+  and with all the moral and religious teaching characteristic of the
+  gospel, contributed effectively to the widening of the view of the
+  office and scope of history. It is only in quite recent times that
+  history has directed its attention predominantly to _social
+  progress_, and to its causes and conditions.
+
+  History, in its etymological sense (from the Greek, historia), meant
+  the ascertaining of facts by inquiry; then, the results of this
+  inquiry, the knowledge thus obtained. The work of Herodotus was
+  "history" in the strictest sense: he acquired his information by
+  travel and personal interrogation.
+
+  The German philosopher, _Hegel_, has divided histories into
+  three classes: 1. _Original histories_; i.e., works written by
+  contemporaries of the events described, who share in the spirit of
+  the times, and may have personally taken part in the
+  transactions. Such are the works of Herodotus, Thucydides,
+  Xenophon's Anabasis, Clarendon's History of the Great Rebellion in
+  England, Caesar's Commentaries. 2. _Reflective histories_,
+  where the author writes at a later point of time, on the basis of
+  materials which he gathers up, but is not himself a partaker in the
+  spirit of the age of which he treats. 3. _Philosophical
+  histories_, which set forth the rational development of history
+  in its inmost idea.
+
+  Another classification is the following: 1. _Genealogies_, like
+  the records of Manetho, the Egyptian priest. 2. _The
+  chronicle_, following the chronological order, and telling the
+  story in a simple, popular way. 3. _The "pragmatic"_ form of
+  writing, which aims to explain by reference to the past some
+  particular characteristic or phase of the present, and uses history
+  to point a special moral lesson. 4. The form of history which traces
+  the rise and progress of "_ideas_," tendencies, or ruling
+  forces,--such as the idea of civil equality in early Rome or in
+  modern France, the religious ideas of Mohammedanism, the idea of
+  representative government, the idea of German unity, etc.
+
+  A broad line of distinction has been drawn between "the old or
+  _artistic_ type of history," and the new or _sociological_
+  type which belongs to the present century. The ancient historians
+  represented the former type. They prized literary form. They aimed
+  to interweave moral and political reflections. Polybius often
+  interrupts his narrative to introduce remarks of this sort. But they
+  were not, as a rule, diligent and accurate in their researches. And,
+  above all, they had no just conception of society as a whole, and of
+  the complex forces out of which the visible scene springs. The
+  Greeks were the masters in this first or artistic form of
+  history. The French Revolution was one stimulus to a profounder and
+  more comprehensive method of studying history. The methods and
+  investigations of natural science have had a decided influence in
+  the same direction.
+
+THE SOURCES OF HISTORY.--History must depend for credence on credible
+evidence. In order to justify belief, one must either himself have
+seen or heard the facts related, or have the testimony, direct or
+indirect, of witnesses or of well-informed contemporaries. The sources
+of historic knowledge are mainly comprised in _oral tradition_,
+or in some form of _written records_.
+
+_Tradition_ is exposed to the infirmities of memory, and to the
+unconscious invention and distortion which grow out of imagination and
+feeling. Ordinarily, bare tradition, not verified by corroborative
+proofs, can not be trusted later than the second generation from the
+circumstances narrated. It ceases to be reliable when it has been
+transmitted through more than two hands. In the case of a great and
+startling event, like a destructive convulsion of nature or a
+protracted war, the authentic story, though unwritten, of the central
+facts, at least, is of much longer duration. There may be visible
+monuments that serve to perpetuate the recollection of the occurrences
+which they commemorate. _Institutions_ may exist--popular
+festivals and the like--which keep alive the memory of past events,
+and, in certain circumstances, are sufficient to verify them to
+generations far removed in time. Events of a stirring character, when
+they are embodied in _songs_ of an early date, may be transmitted
+orally, though in a poetic dress. Songs and legends, it may be added,
+even when they do not suffice to verify the incidents to which they
+refer, are valuable as disclosing the sentiments and habits of the
+times when they originated, or were cherished. The central fact, the
+nucleus of the tradition, may be historical when all the details
+belonging with it have been effaced, or have been superseded by other
+details, the product of imagination. The historical student is to
+distinguish between traditionary tales which are _untrustworthy
+throughout_, and traditions which have _their roots in
+fact_. Apart from oral tradition, the sources of historical
+knowledge are the following:--
+
+1. Contemporary registers, chronicles, and other documents, either
+now, or known to have been originally, in a manuscript form.
+
+2. Inscriptions on monuments and coins. Such, for example, are the
+inscriptions on the monuments of Egypt and on the buried ruins of
+Nineveh and Babylon. Such are the ancient epitaphs, heathen and
+Christian, in the Roman catacombs. The study of ancient inscriptions
+of various sorts has thrown much light of late upon Grecian and Roman
+antiquity.
+
+3. The entire literature of a people, in which its intellectual,
+moral, and social condition, at any particular era, is mirrored.
+
+4. Material structures of every kind, as altars, tombs, private
+dwellings,--as those uncovered at Pompeii,--public edifices, civil and
+religious, paintings, weapons, household utensils. These all tell a
+story relative to the knowledge and taste, the occupations and
+domestic habits, and the religion, of a past generation or of an
+extinct people.
+
+5 Language is a memorial of the past, of the more value since it is
+not the product of deliberate contrivance. _Comparative
+philology_, following languages back to their earlier stages and to
+the parent stocks, unveils the condition of society at remote
+epochs. It not only describes the origin of nations, but teaches
+something respecting their primitive state.
+
+6. Histories written at former periods, but subsequently to the events
+described in them, are a secondary but valuable source of historical
+knowledge. This is especially true when their authors had access to
+traditions that were nearer their fountain, or to literary monuments
+which have perished.
+
+  HISTORICAL CRITICISM.--Historical scholars are much more exacting as
+  regards evidence than was formerly the case. The criticism of what
+  purports to be proof is more searching. At the same time, what is
+  called "historical divination" can not be altogether
+  excluded. Learned and sagacious scholars have conjectured the
+  existence of facts, where a gap in recorded history--"the logic of
+  events"--seemed to presuppose them; and later discoveries have
+  verified the guess. This is analogous to the success of Leverrier
+  and Adams in inferring the existence of an unknown planet, which the
+  telescope afterwards discovered. An example of historical divination
+  on a large scale is furnished by the theories of the great German
+  historian, _Niebuhr_, in respect to early Roman history. He
+  propounded opinions, however, which in many particulars fail to
+  obtain general assent at present.
+
+  CREDIBILITY OF HISTORY.--At the opposite pole from credulity is an
+  unwarrantable historical skepticism. The story is told of Sir Walter
+  Raleigh, that when he was a prisoner in the Tower, and was engaged
+  in writing his _History of the World_, he heard the sounds of a
+  fracas in the prison-yard. On inquiry of those who were concerned in
+  it, and were on the spot, he found so many contradictions in their
+  statements that he could not get at the truth. Whereupon, it
+  occurred to him as a vain thing to undertake to describe what had
+  occurred on the vast theater of the world, when he could not
+  ascertain the truth about an event occurring within a bow-shot. The
+  anecdote simply illustrates, however, the difficulty of getting at
+  the exact truth respecting details,--a difficulty constantly
+  exemplified in courts of justice. The fact of the conflict in the
+  court of the Tower, the general cause, the parties engaged, the
+  consequences,--as, for example, what punishment was inflicted,--were
+  undisputed. The great facts which influence the course of history,
+  it is not difficult to ascertain. Moreover, as against an
+  extravagant skepticism, it may be said that history provides us with
+  a vast amount of authentic information which contemporaries, and
+  even individual actors, were not possessed of. This is through the
+  bringing to light of documents from a great variety of sources, many
+  of which were secret, or not open to the view of all the leaders in
+  the transactions to which they refer. The private correspondence of
+  the Protestant leaders,--Luther, Melanchthon, Cranmer, etc.,--the
+  letters of Erasmus, the official reports of the Venetian
+  ambassadors, the letters of William the Silent and of Philip II.,
+  put us in possession of much information, which at the time was a
+  secret to most of the prominent participants in the events of the
+  sixteenth century. The correspondence of Washington, Hamilton,
+  Jefferson, John Adams, Wolcott, Pickering, etc., introduces us into
+  the secret counsels of the American political leaders of that
+  day. Numerous facts conveyed from one to another under the seal of
+  privacy, and not known to the others, are thus revealed to us.
+
+  On the nature and value of tradition, a very valuable discussion is
+  that of EWALD, _History of Israel_, vol. i. pp. 13-38; Sir
+  G. C. LEWIS, _ Essays on the Credibility of Early Roman
+  History_, in which Niebuhr's conclusions are criticised;
+  A. Bisset, _Essays on Historical Truth_. On the sources of
+  history, Art. by GAIRDNER in _The Contemporary Review_,
+  vol. xxxviii.
+
+HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY.--Political Geography, which describes the earth
+as inhabited, and as parceled out among nations, has a close relation
+to history. Without a distinct idea of the position of places and the
+boundaries of countries, historical narrations are enveloped in a sort
+of haze. _France_, for example, is a name with very different
+meanings at different dates in the past. Unless the varying uses of
+the word _Burgundy_ are understood, important parts of European
+history are left in confusion.
+
+PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.--Even more helpful is _Physical Geography_,
+which surveys the earth in its three great divisions,--land, sea, and
+air,--without reference to lines of political demarkation. The
+configuration of the different portions of the globe, with the
+varieties of climate, the relations of mountain and plain, of land and
+water, have strongly affected the character of nations and the
+currents of history. In regions extremely hot or extremely cold man
+can not thrive, or build up a rich and enduring civilization. The
+occupations of a people are largely dependent on its
+situation,--whether it be maritime or away from the sea,--and on
+peculiarities of soil and temperature. The character of the Nile
+valley, and its periodical inundation, is a striking illustration of
+the possible extent of geographical influences. The peninsular and
+mountainous character of Greece went far to shape the form of Greek
+political society. The high plateau which forms the greater portion of
+Spain, with the fertile belts of valley on the Atlantic and
+Mediterranean border, have helped to determine the employments and the
+character of the Spanish people. Had the physical characteristics of
+the Spanish peninsula been essentially different, the success of
+Wellington in expelling the French, with the forces at his disposal,
+would not have been possible. Were there a chain of mountains along
+our Atlantic coast as near as are the Andes to the Pacific, what
+different results would have arisen from the English settlements in
+North America! The Alpine barrier in the north of Italy was
+indispensable to the building-up and maintenance of the dominion of
+ancient Rome. Of the great basin or plain between the Alps and the
+Apennines, open to the sea only on the east, through which flows one
+great river, fed by streams from the mountains on either side,
+Dr. Arnold says: "Who can wonder that this large and richly watered
+plain should be filled with flourishing cities, or that it should have
+been contended for so often by successful invaders?" While the agency
+of climate, soil, and other physical circumstances may easily be
+exaggerated, that agency must be duly considered in accounting for
+historical phenomena.
+
+  The best historical Atlas is the copious German work of VON
+  SPRUNER. FREEMAN'S _Historical Geography of Europe_ is a work
+  of great value. DROVSEN'S _Allg. Hist. Atlas._ Smaller atlases
+  are those of PUTZGER, Rhode, Appleton's _Hist. Atlas_, the
+  _International_, and the _Collegiate_. Smaller still,
+  Keith Johnston's Crown Atlases and Half-Crown Atlases. On Mediĉval
+  History, Labberton's Atlas; also, Koeppen: in Ancient Geography,
+  SMITH'S work, KIEPERT'S, Long's. On Physical Geography, GUYOT'S
+  text-books; Vaughan's _Connection between History and Physical
+  Geography_, in _Contemp. Review_, vol. v.; Hall's _Methods
+  of Studying History_, etc., p. 201 _seq._,
+  _Encycl. Brit._, Art. _Geography_.
+
+CHRONOLOGY.--An exact method of establishing dates was slowly reached.
+The invention of eras was indispensable to this end. The earliest
+definite time for the dating of events was established at
+Babylon,--the era of Nabonassar, 747 B.C. The Greeks, from about 300
+B.C., dated events from the first recorded victory at the Olympic
+games, 776 B.C. These games occurred every fourth year. Each Olympiad
+was thus a period of four years. The Romans, though not until some
+centuries after the founding of Rome, dated from that event; i.e.,
+from 753 B.C. The Mohammedan era begins at the Hegira, or flight of
+Mohammed from Mecca, 622 A.D. The method of dating from the birth of
+Jesus was introduced by Dionysius Exiguus, a Roman abbot, about the
+middle of the sixth century. This epoch was placed by him about four
+years too late. This requires us to fix the date of the birth of
+Christ at 4 B.C.
+
+  The day was the simplest and earliest division of time. The week has
+  been in use for this purpose in the East from time immemorial. It
+  was not introduced among the Romans until after the spread of
+  Christianity in the Empire. The month was the earlier unit for
+  periods of greater length. To make the lunar and the solar years
+  correspond, and to determine the exact length of the solar year, was
+  a work of difficulty, and was only gradually effected. _Julius_
+  _Cĉsar_ reformed the calendar in 46 B.C., the date of the
+  Julian era. This made the year eleven minutes too long. _Pope
+  Gregory XIII_. corrected the reckoning, in 1582, by ordering
+  Oct. 5th to be called the 15th, and instituted the "Gregorian
+  calendar." The change, or the "New Style," was subsequently adopted
+  by Great Britain (in 1752), and by the other Protestant nations. The
+  difference for the present century between the Old and the New Style
+  is twelve days: during the last century it was eleven. The Julian
+  civil year began with Jan. 1. It was not until the eighteenth
+  century that this became the uniform date for the commencement of
+  the legal year among the Latin Christian nations.
+
+  On the general subjects of chronology: _Encycl. Britt_.,
+  Arts. _Chronology_ and _Calendar_. Manuals of Reference:
+  ROSSE'S _Index of Dates_ (1858); Haydn's _Dictionary of
+  Dates_ (Vincent's edition, 1866); BLAIR'S _Chronological
+  Tables_; Woodward and Cates, _Encycl. of Chronology_ (1872).
+
+
+ETHNOLOGY.
+
+Ethnology is a new science. Its function is to ascertain the origin
+and filiation, the customs and institutions, of the various nations
+and tribes which make up, or have made up in the past, the human
+race. In tracing their relationship to one another, or their
+genealogy, the sources of information are mainly three,--_physical
+characteristics, language_, and _written memorials_ of every
+sort.
+
+Ethnology is a branch of Anthropology, as this is a subdivision of
+Zoölogy, and this, again, of Biology. Ethnography differs from
+Ethnology in dealing more with details of description, and less with
+rational exposition.
+
+RACES OF MANKIND.--Authorities differ widely from one another in their
+classification of races. _Prichard_ made seven, which were
+reduced by _Cuvier_ to three; viz., _Caucasian, Mongolian,
+Ethiopic.  Blumenbach_ made five, and _Pickering_ eleven. It
+is the Caucasian variety which has been chiefly distinguished in
+history, and active in the building-up of civilization. None of the
+numerous schemes of division, from a zoölogical point of view,
+however, are satisfactory.
+
+  _Huxley_ has proposed a fourfold classification: 1. The
+  Australoid, represented by the Australians and the indigenous tribes
+  of Southern India. 2. The Negroid. 3. The Mongoloid. 4. The
+  Xanthochroi, or fair whites, among whom are comprised most of the
+  inhabitants of Northern Europe. To these are added a fifth variety,
+  the Melanochroi, to which belong a part of the Celts, the Spaniards,
+  Greeks, Arabs, etc.
+
+  Of the various methods of race-division, _A. van Humboldt_
+  says: "We fail to recognize any typical sharpness of definition, or
+  any general or well-established principle, in the division of these
+  groups. The extremes of form and color are certainly separated, but
+  without regard to the races which can not be included in any of
+  these classes." (_Cosmos_, i. 365.) For example, black skin,
+  woolly hair, and a negro-like cast of countenance, are not
+  necessarily connected together.
+
+MONOGENISM.--Zoölogists, from the point of view of their own science,
+now more generally favor the _monogenist_ doctrine, which traces
+mankind to a single pair, than the polygenist, which assumed different
+centers of origin. The present tendencies of natural science,
+especially since Darwin, are favorable to the monogenist view.
+
+  "The opinion of modern Zoölogists, whose study of the species and
+  breeds of animals makes them the best judges, is against this view
+  of the several origins of man, for two principal reasons. First,
+  That all tribes of men, from the blackest to the whitest, the most
+  savage to the most cultured, have such general likeness in the
+  structure of their bodies and the working of their minds, as is
+  easiest and best accounted for by their being descended from a
+  common ancestry, however distant. Second, That all the human races,
+  notwithstanding their form and color, appear capable of freely
+  intermarrying, and forming crossed races of every combination, such
+  as the millions of mulattoes and mestizoes sprung in the New World
+  from the mixture of Europeans, Africans, and native Americans; this
+  again points to a common ancestry of all the races of man. We may
+  accept the theory of the unity of mankind as best agreeing with
+  ordinary experience and scientific research." (Tylor's
+  _Anthropology_, etc., pp. 5, 6.)
+
+EVIDENCE OF LANGUAGE.--Languages, through marked affinities, are
+grouped together into several great families, i. The _Aryan_, or
+Indo-European, of which the oldest known branch is the Sanskrit, the
+language in which the ancient books of the Hindus, the Vedas, were
+written. With the Sanskrit belong the Iranian or Persian, the Greek,
+the Latin or Italic, the Celtic, the Germanic or Teutonic (under which
+are included the Scandinavian tongues), the Slavonian or
+Slavo-Lettic. 2. The _Semitic_, embracing the communities
+described in Genesis as the descendants of Shem. Under this head are
+embraced, first, the Assyrian and Babylonian; secondly, the Hebrew and
+Phoenician, with the Syrian or Aramaic; and thirdly, the Arabic. The
+Phoenician was spread among numerous colonies, of which Carthage was
+the chief. The Arabic followed the course of Mohammedan conquest. It
+is the language of the northern border of Africa, and has strongly
+affected various other languages,--the Persian, Turkish, etc. 3. The
+_Turanian or Scythian_. This is an extensive family of
+languages. The Finno-Hungarian, which includes two cultivated peoples,
+the Fins and Hungarians; the Samoyed, stretching from the North Sea
+far eastward to the boundary between Russia and China; and the Turkish
+or Tartar, spreading from European Turkey over a great part of Central
+Asia, are connected together by family ties. They spring from one
+parent stock. Whether the Mongolian and the Tungusic--the last is the
+language of the Manchus--are also thus affiliated, is a point not
+absolutely settled.
+
+Besides these three great divisions, there are other languages, as the
+_Chinese_, and the monosyllabic tongues of south-eastern Asia,
+which possibly are connected lineally with it; the _Japanese_;
+the _Malay-Polynesian_, a well-developed family; the
+_Hamitic_ (of which the Egyptian or Coptic is the principal
+member); the _Dravidian_ or _South Indian_; the _South
+African_; the _Central African_; the _American Indian_
+languages, etc.
+
+  On language and the divisions of language, W. D. WHITNEY,
+  _Language, and the Study of Language_ (1867), _Oriental and
+  Linguistic Studies_ (two series, 1872-74), _Life and Growth of
+  Language_ (1875); Art. _Philology_, in _Encycl. Brit_.,
+  vol. xviii.; Max Müller's _Lectures on the Science of Language_
+  (two series), and other writings by the same author.
+
+ETHNOLOGY AND HISTORY.--History is generally written from the
+political point of view. It is the history of nations considered
+separately and in relation to one another. There are, also, histories
+of culture. History, from a cultural point of view, without paying
+regard to national boundaries, seeks to unfold the rise and progress
+of arts and industry, of inventions, of customs, manners, and
+institutions. It is the history of culture and civilization. History,
+from the ethnological point of view, would describe the migrations and
+experiences of the different races of men, and the formation of the
+various nationalities by these races, through conquest and
+intermixture. Following the divisions of linguistic science, we should
+have, first, the _Egyptian_ race and their history. Then we
+should have the _Semitic_ race, in the three eras of their
+pre-eminence, and in their various branches. Then would come the
+_Aryan_, or Indo-European family, whose power, except when
+interrupted and partially broken by the Mohammedan conquests, has
+continued to dominate in history since the rise of the ancient Persian
+Empire.
+
+  There have been three periods of Semitic ascendency,--the era of the
+  Assyrian and Babylonian empires; that of the Phoenician cities and
+  of Carthage (a Tyrian settlement), with their colonies; and that of
+  the Arabic-Mohammedan Conquests. This last epoch falls within the
+  Christian era. In this course of Semitic history would be embraced
+  the narrative of the Israelites, and of their dispersion in ancient
+  and in modern times. The Indo-European, or Aryan family, follows
+  next in order. In recording its history, we should consider, first,
+  its oldest representative of which we have knowledge,--the Indian
+  race, with its literature, its social organization, and its
+  religions, Brahmanism and Buddhism. Then come the Persians, with
+  their religion founded by _Zoroaster_, and the Armenians. With
+  the fall of the Ancient Persian Empire, the center of power was
+  transferred from Asia to Europe, where it has since continued,
+  though still in the hands of the same Aryan race. The history of the
+  Greeks and of the Romans succeeds; then the history of the three
+  races,--the Celtic, Teutonic, and Slavonian,--as they present
+  themselves at the threshold of authentic history. The forming of the
+  several nationalities of Europe would have to be traced: the
+  Slavonian, including Russia and Poland; the Teutonic, comprising
+  England, Holland, Germany, and the Scandinavian peoples (viz.,
+  Denmark, Sweden, Norway, and Iceland); the Romanic or Italic nations
+  (viz., Portugal, Spain, Provence, Italy, Wallachia, the Grisons of
+  Switzerland), which are the nations the basis of whose languages is
+  the rustic or people's Latin of the middle ages. Such, in brief
+  outline, is the method which history, from the point of view of race
+  affinities, as these are indicated by language, would adopt.
+
+UNITY OF DESCENT.--Whether mankind are all descended from one
+pair--the _Monogenist_ view, or spring from more than one center
+of origin--the _Polygenist_ view, is a question which
+philological science can not answer. The facts of language are
+reconcilable with either doctrine. While cautious philologists are
+slow in admitting distinct affinities between the generic families of
+speech,--as the Semitic and Indo-European,--which would be indicative
+of a common origin, they agree in the judgment, that, on account of
+the mutability of language, especially when unwritten, and while in
+its earlier stages, no conclusion adverse to the monogenist doctrine
+can be drawn from the diversities of speech now existing, or that are
+known to have existed at any past time. As far as science is
+concerned, the decision of the question must be left to zoölogy. The
+tendencies of natural science at present, as we have said above, are
+strongly toward the monogenist view. The variety of physical
+characteristics not only affords no warrant for assuming diversity of
+species among men; they do not even imply diversity of parentage at
+the beginning.
+
+  "Nothing," says Max Müller, "necessitates the admission of different
+  independent beginnings for the _material_ elements" [the
+  vocabulary] "of the Turanian, Semitic, and Aryan branches of
+  speech."  The same thing Müller affirms of "the formal elements"
+  [the grammatical structure] "of these groups of languages." "We can
+  perfectly understand how, either through individual influences or by
+  the wear and tear of speech in its continuous working, the different
+  systems of grammar of Asia and Europe may have been produced."
+  (_Lectures on Language_, 1st series, p. 340.) The same
+  conclusions are reached by Professor W. D. Whitney, who, while
+  disclaiming for linguistic science the power to prove that the human
+  race in the beginning formed one society, says, that it is "even far
+  more demonstrable" that it can "never prove the variety of human
+  races and origins." (_Life and Growth of Language_, p. 269.)
+
+  We know that nations can learn and unlearn a language. The Irish,
+  adopting the language of their English conquerors, is one of many
+  examples of the same sort in history. What effects upon language
+  took place, prior to recorded history, from the mingling of tribes
+  and peoples, it is impossible to ascertain. The consequences to
+  language, of mixture among different forms of speech, were like
+  those which must have been produced upon the physical man from the
+  mingling of diverse physical types in remote ages. Science, if it
+  has no decided verdict to render, does not stand in conflict with
+  the monogenist doctrine, which has generally been understood to be
+  the teaching of the Scriptures.
+
+
+MYTHOLOGY.
+
+The polytheistic religions are in themselves a highly interesting part
+of the history of mankind. In the multiform character that belongs to
+them we find reflected the peculiar traits of the several peoples
+among whom they have arisen. The history of religion stands in a close
+connection with the development of the fine arts,--architecture and
+sculpture, painting, music, and also poetry. The earliest rhythmical
+utterance was in hymns to the gods. To worship, all the arts are
+largely indebted for their birth and growth. This, however, is only
+one of the ways in which religion is interwoven with the rise and
+progress of civilization.
+
+  By _mythology_; we mean the collective beliefs of any tribe or
+  nation respecting deities or semi-divine personages. Recent studies
+  in language, or the science of _comparative philology_, have
+  thrown light on the origin of mythology, and upon the affinities of
+  different polytheistic religions with one another. Among various
+  nations belonging to the same family (as, for example, the peoples
+  of the _Aryan_ race), names of gods, and, to some extent,
+  qualities and deeds attributed to them, have been identified. Myths
+  are found to have traveled in different guises from land to land. At
+  the same time, these discoveries have given rise to much unverified
+  theory and conjecture. Too much stress has been laid, by certain
+  writers, on _mistakes in language_ as a source of mythology. In
+  the primitive stage of language, all nouns had a _gender_,
+  either male or female; and verbs, even auxiliary verbs, it is
+  alleged, expressed _activity_ of some sort. On the basis of
+  these facts it has been inferred, that, at a later day, figurative
+  expressions, descriptive of natural changes, were taken as literal;
+  as if one should interpret the saying, "the sun follows the dawn,"
+  as meaning that one person pursues another. By this kind of
+  misunderstanding, it has been thought, a throng of mythological
+  tales arose. By some it is held that the names of animals, which had
+  been given to ancestors, were interpreted literally by their savage
+  descendants, or that traditions of having come from a certain
+  _mountain_ or _river_ caused these natural objects to be
+  mistakenly regarded as actual progenitors. These suggestions are of
+  very limited value in solving the problem of the origin of the
+  ethnic religions. Much, however, has been learned from observing the
+  rites and beliefs of existing savage nations. Not a few religious
+  notions and ceremonies, once in vogue among cultivated heathen
+  peoples, may be plausibly considered a survival from a more remote
+  and barbarous condition of society.
+
+  That mythology is the product of a mere exaggeration of actual
+  events, or is an allegorical picture, either of the operations of
+  nature or of human traits, is an untenable and obsolete view.
+
+  We shall not err in defining the main sources of the religions to
+  be, _first_, the sense of dependence, and the yearning for the
+  fellowship and favor of powers "not ourselves," by which the lot of
+  men is felt to be determined; _secondly_, the effort to explain
+  the world of nature above and beneath, and the occurrences of life;
+  and _thirdly_, the personifying instinct which belongs to the
+  childhood of nations as of individuals. This tendency leads to the
+  attributing of conscious life to things inanimate. A like tendency
+  may impel the savage and the child to ascribe mind to the lower
+  animals. The fact that language, in its earlier stage, was charged
+  with personal life and activity, is itself the work of the
+  personifying instinct. When nature is thus personified, where there
+  is no sense of its unity and no capacity to rise in faith to a
+  living God above nature, the result is a multitude of divinities of
+  higher and lower rank. _Myths_ respecting them are the
+  spontaneous invention of unreflecting and uncritical, but
+  imaginative, peoples. Thus they serve to indicate the range of
+  ideas, and the moral spirit of those who originate and give credence
+  to them.
+
+  This is not the place to consider the question, What was the
+  primitive religion of man? The earliest deities that history brings
+  to our notice were not fetiches, but heavenly beings of lofty
+  attributes. Whether the religions of savage tribes, in common with
+  their low grade of intelligence, are, or are not, the result of
+  _degeneracy_, is a question which secular history affords no
+  means of deciding with confidence,
+
+  It may be added, that, in historic eras, the mythopoeic fancy is not
+  inactive. Stories of marvelous adventure clustered about the old
+  Celtic King Arthur of England and the "knights of the Round-Table,"
+  and fill up the chronicles relating to Charlemagne. Wherever there
+  is a person who kindles popular enthusiasm, myths accumulate. This
+  is eminently true in an atmosphere like that which prevailed in the
+  mediaeval period, when imagination and emotion were dominant.
+
+
+PREHISTORIC TIMES.
+
+PREHISTORIC RELICS.--Within the last half century, in various
+countries of Europe, and in other countries, also, which have been,
+earlier or later, seats of civilization, there have been found
+numerous relics of uncivilized races, which, at periods far remote,
+must have inhabited the same ground. Many of these antiquities are met
+with in connection with remains of fossil elephants, hyenas, bears,
+etc.,--with animals which no longer live in the regions referred to,
+and some of which have become wholly extinct. Dwelling-places of these
+far-distant peoples--such as caves and rock-shelters, and the remains
+of the lake-habitations that were built on piles, in Switzerland and
+elsewhere--sepulchers, camps, and forts, and an immense number of
+implements and ornaments of stone and metal, have been examined. The
+most ancient of these monuments carry us as far back as the era called
+by geologists the _Quaternary_ or _Drift_ period.
+
+THE THREE STAGES.--But there are marked distinctions in the relative
+age of the various relics referred to. They indicate different degrees
+of knowledge and skill; and this proof of a succession of peoples, or
+of stages of development, is confirmed by geological evidence. The
+prehistoric time is divided into _the Stone Age_, _the Age of
+Bronze_, and _the Age of Iron_, according as the implements in
+use were of one or another of these materials. But the Stone Age
+includes an _earlier_ and a _later_ sub-division. In the
+first and most ancient section, the weapons and utensils, mostly of
+flint, were very rude in their manufacture. This was the
+_Paleolithic Age_, where there are no signs of habitations
+constructed by the hand, or of domesticated plants and animals. Men
+lived in caves, and their vestments were the skins of beasts. Yet,
+among their implements are found fragments of bone, horn, ivory, and
+stone, on which are carved in outline, often with much skill,
+representations of the reindeer, the bear, the ox, and of other
+animals. In the _Neolithic_ period, there was a decided
+advance. Implements are better made and polished. There were domestic
+animals and cultivated plants. The lake-dwellings in Switzerland were
+well contrived for shelter and defense. Every hut had its hearth. It
+is probable that most of them were furnished with a loom for
+weaving. Fragments of pottery are found, and flax was grown and made
+into cord, nettings, etc. Stalls were constructed near the huts for
+the ox, the goat, the horse, sheep, and pigs. The lake-dwellers
+cultivated wheat and barley. The _Bronze Age_, when implements
+were made of copper or of a mixture of copper and tin, exhibits proof
+of decided improvement in various directions; and the _Age of
+Iron_, a still more marked advance. In the Swiss remains referred
+to are distinct traces of a transition from the Stone Age to the Age
+of Bronze, and then to the Age of Iron. The kitchen-middens, or
+shell-mounds, of Denmark belong exclusively to the Neolithic
+period. Where the transition was made from the Stone Age to the Age of
+Bronze, it apparently occurred in some cases by degrees, and
+peacefully; but sometimes by the incoming of an invading people more
+advanced. It should be observed that the lines of division between
+these periods are not sharply drawn: implements of stone continued to
+be used after the Bronze and even the Iron periods had been
+introduced. Nor were these several ages in one region contemporaneous
+with like conditions in every other. Moreover, it is not possible to
+find in all countries once civilized proofs of a passage through these
+successive eras. In Egypt, the evidences of a Stone Age are
+scanty. The most ancient human remains show that man in his physical
+characteristics was on a level with man at present.
+
+  _Dr. Daniel Wilson_, speaking of the age of the Flint-folk,
+  says: "It is of no slight importance to perceive that the interval
+  which has wrought such revolutions in the earth" [involving great
+  geological changes and mutations of climate] "as are recorded in the
+  mammaliferous drift, shows man the same reasoning, tentative, and
+  inventive mechanician, as clearly distinguished then from the
+  highest orders of contemporary life of the Elephantine or Cave
+  periods, as he is now from the most intelligent of the brute
+  creation.... The oldest art-traces of the paleotechnic men of
+  central France not only surpass those of many savage races, but they
+  indicate an intellectual aptitude in no degree inferior to the
+  average Frenchman of the nineteenth century."  (_Prehistoric
+  Man_, pp. 33, 34.)
+
+  Literature.--Wilson, _Prehistoric Man_, etc. (2 vols., 1876);
+  Joly, _Man before the Metals_ (1883); Keary, _The Dawn of
+  History_. The writings of E. B. Tylor, _Primitive Culture_
+  (2 vols.), _Anthropology, Early History of Mankind_; his
+  Art. _Anthropology, Encycl. Britt_.; Lubbock's _Prehistoric
+  Times_, and his _Origin of Civilization_; Argyll, _The
+  Unity of Nature _(1884); J. Geikie, _Prehistoric Europe_
+  (1881); Lyell, _The Antiquity of Man_; W. E. Hearn, _The
+  Aryan Household_; L. H. Morgan, _Ancient Society_.
+
+
+THE ANTIQUITY OF MAN.--Science does not furnish us with the means of
+fixing the date of the first human inhabitants of the earth. But its
+various departments of investigation concur in pronouncing the
+interval between the creation of man and the present to be far longer
+than the traditional opinion has assumed. For the growth of language
+and its manifold ramifications; for the development of the different
+races of mankind, physically considered; for the geological changes
+since the beginning of the Stone Age in the regions where its relics
+are uncovered; for the rise of the most ancient civilization in Egypt
+as well as in Babylon and China,--it is thought that periods of very
+long duration are indispensable.
+
+As to the date of the Neolithic man, or of the last section of the
+Stone Age, Professor J. Geikie writes: "Any term of years I might
+suggest would be a mere guess; but I have written to little purpose,
+however, if the phenomena described in the preceding chapters have
+failed to leave the impression upon the reader, that the advent of
+Neolithic man in Europe must date back far beyond fifty or seventy
+centuries."  (_Prehistoric Europe_, p. 558.)
+
+  The chronology gathered from Genesis has been supposed to place the
+  date of man's creation at a point far less remote. Usher's
+  calculation, attached to the authorized English Version of the
+  Bible, sets this date at 4004 B.C. The discussion of these questions
+  of Scriptural chronology belongs to theology and biblical
+  criticism. It may be observed here, however, that of the three forms
+  in which Genesis is handed down to us,--the Hebrew text, the
+  Samaritan Pentateuch, and the Septuagint, or ancient Greek
+  translation,--no two agree in the numbers on which the estimate is
+  founded. Hence Hales and Jackson, following the larger numbers in
+  the genealogies of the Septuagint, place the date of the creation at
+  a point about fourteen hundred years prior to that fixed upon by
+  Usher.
+
+
+ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY.
+
+The periods of history are not divided from one another by merely
+chronological limits, according to intervals of time of a definite
+duration. Such a classification may be of use to the memory, but it is
+arbitrary in its character. The landmarks of history are properly
+placed at the turning-points where new eras take their start, whether
+the intervals between them are longer or shorter.
+
+Of these natural divisions, the most general and the most marked is
+that between ancient and modern history. Ancient history not only
+precedes modern in time: it is distinguished from the latter as
+relating to a by-gone state of things. Modern history, on the
+contrary, deals with an order of things now existing. Between the two
+there is this line of demarkation.
+
+History (with the exception of China and India, which require distinct
+consideration, as standing apart) begins with Egypt, and flows down in
+a continuous stream, until, in the fourth century A.D., the Roman
+Empire, into which the ancient civilized peoples were incorporated,
+was broken up. Then the new nations, especially the tribes of the
+Germanic race, took power into their hands; Christianity was
+established among them; out of the chaos of elements there emerged the
+European nations, with their offshoots,--the peoples at present on the
+stage of action. Ancient history had its center in the
+Mediterranean. It embraced the peoples who dwelt on the shores of that
+sea, in the three continents, and the nations that were brought into
+relations with them. The Roman Empire, the final outcome of ancient
+history, was "the monarchy of the Mediterranean." With the breaking-up
+of the Empire, new races, new centers of power, a universal religion
+in the room of national religions, and a new type of culture and
+civilization, were introduced. Invaluable legacies were handed over
+from the past, surviving the wreck of ancient civilization. There is,
+however, a unity in history: the transition from the ancient to the
+modern era was gradual.
+
+
+MEDIAEVAL AND LATER MODERN HISTORY.
+
+Since the fall of the Roman Empire, there has occurred no revolution
+to be compared with the circumstances and results of that event. An
+old world passed away, and a new world began to be. Yet the student,
+as he travels hitherward, arrives at another epoch of extraordinary
+change,--a period of ferment, when modern society in Europe takes on a
+form widely different from the character that had belonged to it
+previously. The long interval between _ancient_ history and
+_modern_ (in this more restricted sense of thes term) is styled
+the Middle Ages. Its termination may be found in the fifteenth
+century, and a convenient date to mark the boundary-line is the
+capture of Constantinople by the Turks (1453).
+
+History thus divides itself into three parts:--
+
+Part I. Ancient History, to the migrations of the Germanic Tribes (375
+A.D).
+
+Part II. Mediĉval History, from A.D. 375 to the Fall of Constantinople
+(1453).
+
+PART III. Modern History, from 1453 until the present.
+
+  Works on General History.--Ranke, _Universal History_; Ploetz,
+  _Epitome of Ancient, Mediĉval, and Modern History_ (Boston,
+  1884); Weber, _Weitgeschichte_ (2 vols.); Assmann, _Handbuch
+  d. allgemeinen Geschichte_ (5 vols., 1853-1862); by the same,
+  _Abriss d. allgem. Gesch._ (in 3 parts); Oncken, _Allgem.
+  Geschichte in Einzeidarstellungen_ (a series of full monographs
+  of high merit). Copious works on Universal History, in German, by
+  Weber, Schlosser, Becker, Leo. Laurent, _Études sur l'Histoire de
+  l'Humanitè_ (this is an extended series of historical
+  dissertations),--_The Orient and Greece_ (2 vols.); _Rome_
+  (1 vol.); _Christianity_ (1 vol.), etc. Prévost-Paradol,
+  _Essai sur l'Histoire Universelle_ (2 vols.: a suggestive
+  critical survey of the course of history, with the omission of
+  details). S. Willard, _Synopsis of History_.
+
+
+
+
+PART I.  ANCIENT HISTORY.
+
+
+FROM THE BEGINNING OF AUTHENTIC HISTORY TO THE MIGRATIONS OF THE
+TEUTONIC TRIBES (A.D. 375).
+
+DIVISIONS OF ANCIENT HISTORY.--Ancient history separates itself into
+two main divisions. In the first the Oriental nations form the
+subject; in the second, which follows in the order of time, the
+European peoples, especially Greece and Rome, have the central
+place. The first division terminates, and the second begins, with the
+rise of Grecian power and the great conflict of Greece with the
+Persian Empire, 492 B.C.
+
+SECTIONS OF ORIENTAL HISTORY.--But Oriental history divides itself
+into two distinct sections. The first embraces China and India,
+nations apart, and disconnected from the Mediterranean and adjacent
+peoples. China and India have a certain bond of connection with one
+another through the spread in China of the Buddhistic religion. The
+second section includes the great empires which preceded, and paved
+the way for, European history; viz., Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria, and
+Persia. In this section, along the course of the historic stream,
+other nations which exercised a powerful influence, attract special
+attention, especially the Phoenicians and the Hebrews. All these
+Oriental peoples are so connected together that they stand in history
+as the _Earliest Group of Nations_. The historic narrative must
+be so shaped as to describe them in part singly, but, at the same
+time, in their mutual relations.
+
+Ancient history, from an _ethnographical_ point of view, would
+embrace two general divisions,--Eastern peoples and Western
+peoples. The first would comprise Egyptians (Hamitic); Jews,
+Babylonians, Assyrians, Phoenicians, Lydians (Semitic); Hindus,
+Bactrians, Medes, Persians (Aryan); Parthians, Chinese, Japanese. The
+second would include Celts, Britons, _Greeks_, _Romans_,
+Teutons (Aryan). (Ploetz, _Universal History_, p. 1.)
+
+From a _geographical_ point of view, ancient history would fall
+into three general divisions: I. Asia, including (1) India, (2) China
+(with Japan), (3) Babylonia and Assyria, (4) Phoenicia, (5) Palestine,
+(6) Media and Persia. II. Africa, including (1) Egypt, (2) Carthage.
+III. Europe including (1) Greece, with its states and colonies; (2)
+Italy.
+
+
+
+
+DIVISION I.
+
+
+ORIENTAL HISTORY.
+
+PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.--Europe and Asia together form one vast continent,
+yet have a partial boundary between them in the Ural Mountains and
+River, and in the deep bed of the Caspian and Black seas. Asia, which
+extends from the Ural Mountains to the Pacific, and from the Arctic
+Sea to the Indian Ocean, embraces an immense plateau, stretching from
+the Black Sea to Corea. This plateau spreads like a fan as it advances
+eastward. It is traversed by chains of mountains, and bordered also by
+lofty mountains, of which the Himalayas is the principal range. From
+this girdle of mountains descend slopes which lead down into the
+lowlands. The great plateau is broken into two by the Hindu-Kush
+range. The eastern division, the extensive plateau of Central Asia, is
+bordered on the north by the barren plains of Siberia. In the lowlands
+on the east and south are included the fertile plains of Central China
+and of Hindustan. The plateau of eastern Asia has been the natural
+abode of nomad tribes, Tartars and Mongols, whose invading hosts have
+poured through the passes of the mountains into the inviting
+territories below.  The plateau of western Asia, stretching westward
+from the Indus, is not so high as that of the east. It begins with the
+lofty tablelands of Iran, and extends, ordinarily at a less elevation,
+to the extremity of the continent. On the south lie the plains of
+Mesopotamia. Arabia is a low plateau of vast extent, connected by the
+plateau and mountains of Syria with the mountain region of Asia
+Minor. As might be expected, civilization sprang up in the alluvial
+valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates, the Indus and the Ganges, and on
+the soil watered by the great rivers of China, the Hoang-Ho and the
+Yang-tse-Kiang. Egypt was looked on by the Ancients as a part of
+Asia. Its language was distinct from the languages of the African
+nations. The seat of its power and thrift was the valley of the
+Nile. The conflicts of the nations settled in the lowlands with the
+mountainous peoples, eager for spoil and conquest, are a
+characteristic feature of Oriental History.
+
+CHARACTER OF THE ASIATIC NATIONS.--Generalizations covering so wide a
+field are, of necessity, inexact. As a rule, in the oriental mind, the
+intuitive powers eclipse the severely rational and logical.
+Civilization--as, for example, in Egypt and China--attains to a
+certain grade, and is there petrified. Immobility belongs to the
+Eastern nations. Revolutions bring a change of masters, but leave
+character and customs unchanged. The sense of individuality has been
+less vivid, and freedom less understood or valued. Governments have
+taken the despotic form. Law has had its seat in the ruler's sovereign
+will. The ruler has been regarded as clothed with divine
+authority. Before him the subject prostrates himself with groveling
+servility.
+
+RELIGION IN ASIA.--Asia is the cradle of the principal religions of
+the world. Here _monotheism_ appears, as in the faith of the
+Hebrews, and in the Mohammedan revival of it in a less pure form. Here
+have flourished _polytheistic_ systems, each with its throng of
+divinities. In the east, _pantheism_, dropping out of the
+conception of the Deity the element of personality, has found a
+cherished home.
+
+PRIESTHOODS.--Connected with the controlling influence of religion
+have arisen the priesthoods,--sometimes ruling as an aristocratic
+caste or class, sometimes dividing power with the reigning despot, to
+whom sacred attributes are ascribed.
+
+LITERATURE AND ART.--The Oriental nature has been mirrored in the
+literature and art of the East. Its products lack the measure, the
+grace and symmetry, and the human interest, which characterize the
+creations of the European mind. In the mechanical arts, invention and
+discovery push on progress to a certain point, then languish and die
+out.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION I.  CHINA AND INDIA.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  CHINA.
+
+
+China proper comprises less than half of the present Chinese
+Empire. It was called the land of Sinae or Seres by the ancients, and
+in the middle ages bore the name of Cathay. In the north of China are
+the broad alluvial plains, and in the north-eastern portion of the
+empire, an immense delta. The rest of the country is hilly and
+mountainous.
+
+The nucleus of the Chinese nation is thought to have been a band of
+immigrants, who are supposed by some to have started from the region
+south-east of the Caspian Sea, and to have crossed the head waters of
+the Oxus. They followed the course of the Hoang-Ho, or Yellow River,
+having entered the country of their adoption from the north-west; and
+they planted themselves in the present province of Shan-se. Although
+nomads, they had some knowledge of astronomy, brought from their
+earlier homes; and they quickly made for themselves settled
+abodes. The native tribes by degrees were extirpated or driven
+out. The new-comers cultivated grain. They raised flax, out of which
+they wove garments.
+
+LEGENDARY ERA, TO THE CHOW DYNASTY (1123 B.C.).--The early annals of
+the Chinese, like those of other nations, are made up of myth and
+fable. The annalists placed the date of the creation at a point more
+than two millions of years prior to Confucius. The intervening period
+they sought to fill up with lines of dynasties. Preceding the Chow
+dynasty, the chroniclers give ten epochs. Prior to the eighth of
+these, there are no traces of authentic history. To _Yew-Chaou
+She_ (the Nest-having) is given the credit of teaching the people
+to make huts of the boughs of trees. Fire was discovered by
+_Suy-jin-She_ (the Fire-producer), his successor. Another ruler
+(_Fuh-he_), whose date is fixed at 2852 B.C., discovered iron. He
+also divided the people into classes. His successor invented the
+plow. These tales, perhaps, retain vague reminiscences of the methods
+in which useful inventions originated, or of the order in which they
+appeared.
+
+With _Yaou_ (2356 B.C.) we reach the period where the narratives
+which were compiled many centuries later by Confucius, begin their
+story. In the mass of fable, there is a larger infusion of historical
+fact, which, however, it is well-nigh hopeless to separate from the
+fiction that is mingled with it. In that golden age, few laws were
+required. We are told that the house-door could safely be left
+open. Yaou extended the empire: he established fairs and marts over
+the land. During the reign of _Shun_, who followed him, a
+tremendous inundation is said to have occurred; and _Yu_, called
+"the Great," was energetic in draining off the waters. He ascended the
+throne in 2205 B.C. His degenerate successors provoked a revolt and
+the introduction of a new dynasty, called the _Shang_ dynasty,
+whose first Emperor, _Tang_ (1760 B.C.), had a wise and
+beneficent reign. Tyranny and disaster followed under the later kings
+of this house; until finally _Woo-Wang_, the first sovereign of
+the Chow dynasty, acceded to the throne (1123 B.C.).
+
+THE CHOW DYNASTY (1123-255 B.C.).--The traditions now become decidedly
+more trustworthy, although still largely mixed with
+fable. _Woo-Wang_ was brave and upright. Under him a momentous
+change in government took place. By him the kingdom was divided into
+seventy-two feudal states. Internal divisions and struggles resulted
+from this new political system. The Tartars availed themselves of the
+weakened condition of the nation, to make predatory incursions. In
+this period of disorder and danger, _Confucius_, the great
+teacher of China, was born (551 B.C.). His father was a district
+magistrate, and died when the son was only three years old. He was
+trained and taught by his mother. When she died, he gave up all
+employments to mourn for her, during three years. His only occupation
+during this period was study. A grave and learned youth, he at length
+resolved to become an instructor of his countrymen in the ancient
+writings, to which he was devoted. He was regular in all his ways, and
+never ate or drank to excess. He gathered about him scholars; his fame
+increased; and, in 500 B.C., he was made magistrate of _Chung-tu_
+by the sovereign, Duke _Ting_, an office which he justly and
+discreetly administered for three years. Sometimes persecuted, he
+compared himself to a dog driven from his home. "I have the fidelity
+of that animal, and I am treated like it. But what matters the
+ingratitude of men? They can not hinder me from doing all the good
+that has been appointed me. If my precepts are disregarded, I have the
+consolation of knowing in my own breast that I have faithfully
+performed my duty." Both by his literary works and by the lessons
+taught to his disciples, he laid the foundation of a most powerful and
+lasting influence over his countrymen. He died in 478 B.C., at the age
+of seventy-three. _Laou-tsze_, another famous thinker, was a few
+years older than Confucius. "Three precious things," he said, "I
+prize, and hold fast,--humility, compassion, and economy."
+_Mencius_, a celebrated teacher and reformer, who followed in the
+path of Confucius, after a long life died in 289 B.C. One of his
+doctrines was, that the nature of man is good, and that evil is owing
+to education and circumstances. One of his maxims was, that the people
+can be led aright, but can not be taught the reasons for the guidance
+to which they are subjected.
+
+DYNASTY OF TSIN (255-206 B.C.).--Reverting to the course of Chinese
+history, the next grand epoch is the enthronement of the Tsin dynasty,
+in the person of the ruler of one of the provinces, which, in the
+intestine strife among the feudal princes, gained the victory. This
+was in 255 B.C. In this line belongs the famous Emperor _Che
+Hwang-te_, who, in 246 B.C., at the age of thirteen years,
+succeeded to the crown. His palace in his capital, the modern Se-gan
+Foo, the edifices which he built elsewhere, the roads and canals
+constructed by him, excited wonder. He routed and drove out the Tartar
+invaders, and put down the rebellion of the feudal princes. He
+enlarged the kingdom nearly to the limits of modern China proper. For
+the protection of the northern frontier he began the "Great Wall,"
+which he did not live to finish. It was finished 204 B.C., ten years
+after it was begun. When finished, it was not less than fifteen
+hundred miles in length. It would reach "from Philadelphia to Topeka,
+or from Portugal to Naples." The innovations and maxims of government
+of Che Hwang-te were offensive to the scholars and the conservative
+class, who pointed the people to the heroes of the feudal days and to
+the glories of the past. For this reason, the monarch commanded that
+all books having reference to the history of the empire should be
+destroyed. He would efface the recollection of the old times.  He
+would not allow his system to be undermined by tradition. The decree
+was obeyed, although hidden copies of many of the ancient writings
+were undoubtedly preserved. Numerous scholars were buried alive. His
+death, in 210 B.C., was followed by disturbances, growing out of the
+disaffection of the higher classes. In the civil war that ensued, his
+dynasty was subverted. The throne was next held by
+
+THE HAN RULERS (206 B.C.-22l A.D.).--Their sway, which lasted for four
+hundred years, covers a brilliant period in the Chinese annals. During
+the reign of _Ming-te_, 65 A.D., a deputation was sent to India,
+to obtain the sacred writings and authorized teachers of the
+Buddhistic religion, which had begun to spread among the Chinese. The
+power of the feudal lords was reduced. Northern Corea was conquered,
+and the bounds of the empire extended on the west as far as Russian
+Turkestan, In this period, there was a marked revival of learning and
+authorship. Then lived a famous public officer, _Yang Chên_, who,
+when asked to take a bribe, and assured that no one would know it,
+answered, "How so?  Heaven would know, Earth would know, you would
+know, and I should know."  Under this dynasty, a custom of burying
+slaves with the dead was abolished.
+
+BEGINNING IN 221 A.D., there followed the "era of the three kingdoms."
+It was an age of martial prowess, civil war, and bloodshed. This long
+period of division was interrupted in 265 A.D. by a re-union of the
+greater part of the empire for a brief period. But discord soon sprang
+up; and it was not until 590 A.D. that unity and order were restored
+by _Yang-Kian_, who founded the dynasty, named from his local
+dominion, _Suy_.
+
+RELIGION IN CHINA.--The ancient religion of China was
+polytheistic. The supreme divinity was called _Tien_ or
+_Shang-ti_. Tien signifies Heaven. Was Heaven, or Shang-ti--or
+the Lord--the visible heaven, the expanse above, clothed with the
+attribute of personality?  This has been, and still is, the prevailing
+opinion of missionaries and scholars. Dr. _Legge_, however, holds
+that Tien is the lord of the heavens, a power above the visible
+firmament; and thus finds monotheism as the basis of the Chinese
+religious creed.
+
+The prevailing religions of China are three,--_Buddhism_ (which
+in its original form was brought in from India in the first century of
+the Christian era), _Confucianism_, and _Taouism_. It may be
+observed, that, in all these systems, there is but a vague sense of
+personality as inhering in the heavenly powers, in comparison with the
+creeds in vogue among heathen nations generally. Another fact to be
+noted is, that, in Chinese worship, the veneration for ancestors, a
+feeling inbred in the Chinese mind, is a very prominent and pervading
+element.
+
+Confucius did not profess to reveal things supernatural. His teaching
+is made up of moral and political maxims. He builds on the past, and
+always inculcates reverence for the fathers and for what has
+been. There is much wise counsel to parents and to rulers. His
+morality reaches its acme in the Golden Rule, which he gives, however,
+only in its negative relation: "Do not unto others what you would not
+that others should do unto you."  Laou-tsze is a more speculative and
+mystical thinker. In his moral aphorisms, he approaches the theory of
+the ancient Stoics. TEH--i.e., virtue--is lauded. Teh proceeds from
+TAO. To explain what the Chinese sage means by Tao,--a word that
+signifies the "way,"--is a puzzle for commentators and inquirers. From
+Tao all things originate: they conform to Tao, and to Tao they
+return. There are noble maxims in Laou-tsze,--precepts enjoining
+compassion, and condemning the requital of evil with evil. Taouism is
+a type of religion which traces itself to the teaching of
+Laou-tsze. That teaching became mixed with wild speculations. Then
+certain Buddhistic rites and tenets were added to it. The result,
+finally, was a compound of knavery and superstition. Taouism is at
+once mystical and rationalistic in its tone.
+
+LITERATURE IN CHINA.--The Chinese language was crystallized, in the
+written form, in the monosyllabic stage of its development. Beginning
+in hieroglyphs, literal pictures of objects, and having no alphabet,
+it has so multiplied its characters and combinations of characters as
+to put great hindrances in the way of the acquisition of it. The utter
+absence of inflection may have crippled the development of poetry and
+of the drama, for which the Chinese have a natural taste. In these
+departments, Chinese productions do not rise above mediocrity. For
+this, however, the lack of imagination and of creative power is
+largely accountable. It is in the province of pure prose--as in
+historical narrations, topographical writings, such as geographies,
+and in the making of encyclopedias--that the Chinese have
+excelled. But the yoke of tradition has everywhere weighed heavily. In
+one sense, the Chinese have been a literary people. The system of
+competitive examinations for public offices has diffused through the
+nation a certain degree of book-learning; yet the masses have been
+kept in a state of ignorance. At the foundation of all learning are
+the "nine classics," which consist of five works, edited or written by
+Confucius, of which the "Shoo King," or Book of History, stands at the
+head, together with the four books written by his disciples and the
+disciples of Mencius. Great as have been the services of Confucius,
+his own slavish reverence for the past, so stamped upon his writings,
+has had the effect to cramp the development of the Chinese mind, and
+to fasten upon it the fetters of tradition.
+
+GOVERNMENT AND CIVILIZATION.--The government of China is "a
+patriarchal despotism." As father of his people, the king has absolute
+authority. The power of life and death is in his hand. Yet the right
+of revolution was taught by Confucius and Mencius, and the Chinese
+have not been slow to exercise it. The powers of the emperor are
+limited by ceremonial regulations, and by a body of precedents which
+are held sacred. He administers rule with the help of a privy
+council. Officers of every rank in the employ of the government
+constitute the aristocratic class of Mandarins, who are divided into
+different ranks.
+
+INVENTION.--Printing by wooden blocks was known in China as early as
+the sixth century A.D. Printing did not come into general use until
+the thirteenth century. The use of movable types, although devised, it
+is said, many centuries earlier, did not come into vogue until the
+seventeenth century. Gunpowder was used as early as 250 A.D., in the
+making of fire-crackers; but it was certainly as late as the middle of
+the twelfth century that it was first employed in war. The Chinese
+were early acquainted with the polarity of the loadstone, and used the
+compass in journeys by land long before that instrument was known in
+Europe. In various branches of manufactures,--as silk, porcelain,
+carved work in ivory, wood, and horn,--the Chinese, at least until a
+recent period, have been pre-eminent. In the mechanical arts their
+progress has been slow. Their crude implements of husbandry are in
+contrast with their exhibitions of skill in other directions. Although
+imitation long ago supplanted the activity of inventive talent, to
+China belongs the distinction of being a civilized land before the
+Christian nations of Europe had emerged into being.
+
+  LITERATURE.--_The Middle Kingdom_, by S. WELLS WILLIAMS (2
+  vols.);_ Encycl. Brit.,_ Art. _China_ by Professor
+  Douglas; Arts. _Confucius and Mencius_ by Dr. Legge; Legge,_
+  The Religions of China_; Richthofen, _China_(3 vols.);
+  Giles, _Historic China, and Other Sketches_ (1882); Legge,
+  _The Chinese Classics_; BOULGER, _History of China_
+  (1881-84); Thornton, _History of China_.
+
+JAPAN.--The authentic history of Japan belongs mainly in the modern
+period, since the tenth century A.D. The most ancient religion of
+Japan, designated by a term which means "the way of the gods,"
+included a variety of objects of worship,--gods, deified men, the
+mikados, or chief rulers, regarded as "the sons of heaven," animals,
+plants, etc. Unquestioning obedience to the mikado was the primary
+religious duty. It was a state-religion. Buddhism, brought into the
+country in 552 A.D., spread, and became prevalent.
+
+The Japanese are a mixed race. Kiôto and the adjacent provinces are
+said to have been occupied by the conquerors. Prior to 660 B.C. we
+have no trustworthy history of the island. This is the date assigned
+by the Japanese to their hero, _Jimmu Tenno_, the first mikado,
+the founder of an unbroken line. For several centuries, however, the
+history is open to question. The tenth mikado, Sujin, is noted as a
+reformer, and promoter of civilization. An uncrowned princess,
+_Jingu-Kogo_ (201-269 A.D.), is famous for her military
+prowess. She suppressed a rebellion, and subdued Corea. _Ojin_, a
+celebrated warrior, is still worshiped as a god of war. The
+introduction of Chinese literature and civilization at this period,
+makes a turning-point in Japanese history.
+
+  LITERATURE.--J. J. REIN, _Japan: Travels and Researches_,
+  vol. I. (1881); E. J. Reed, _Japan_ (2 vols., 1880); Siebold,
+  _Nippon_ (5 vols. 410, and plates); Kampfer, _History of
+  Japan_ (2 vols. fol., 1728); _Encycl. Brit._,
+  Art. _Japan_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  INDIA.
+
+
+India is the central one of the three great peninsulas of Southern
+Asia. On the north is the mountainous region of the Himalayas, below
+which are the vast and fertile river plains, watered by the
+_Indus_, the _Ganges_, and other streams. On the south,
+separated from the Ganges by the Vindhyá range, is the hilly and
+mountainous tract called the Deccan.
+
+THE ARYAN INVADERS.--The history of India opens with glimpses of a
+struggle on the borders of the great rivers,--first of the Indus and
+then of the Ganges,--between an invading race, the Sanskrit-speaking
+Aryans from the north-west, and the dusky aborigines. These rude
+native tribes have left few relics but their tombs. Before they
+tenanted the soil, there dwelt upon it still earlier inhabitants,
+whose implements were of stone or bronze. The incoming people referred
+to above were of that Indo-European stock to which we belong. From
+their home, perhaps in central Asia, they moved in various
+directions. A part built up the Persian kingdom; another portion
+migrated farther, and were the progenitors of the Greek nation; and a
+third founded Rome. The Indian Aryans migrated southward from the
+headwaters of the Oxus at some time prior, doubtless, to 2000 B.C. Our
+knowledge of them is derived from their ancient sacred books, the
+_Vedas_; of these the oldest, the _Rig-Veda_, contains ten
+hundred and seventeen lyrics, chiefly addressed to the gods. Its
+contents were composed while the Aryans dwelt upon the Indus, and
+while they were on their way to the neighborhood of the Ganges. The
+Rig-Veda, therefore, exhibits this people in their earliest stage of
+religious and social development. They were herdsmen, but with a
+martial spirit, which enabled them by degrees to drive out the native
+tribes, and compel them to take refuge in the mountains on the north,
+or on the great southern plateau. Among them women were held in
+respect, and marriage was sacred. There are beautiful hymns written by
+ladies and queens. No such cruel custom as the burning of widows
+existed: it was of far later origin. They were acquainted with the
+metals. Among them were blacksmiths, coppersmiths, goldsmiths,
+carpenters, and other artisans. They fought from chariots, but had not
+come to employ elephants in war. They were settled in villages and in
+towns. Mention is made of ships, or river-boats, as in use among
+them. They ate beef, and drank a sort of fermented beer made from the
+_soma_ plant.
+
+THE VEDIC RELIGION.--The early religion of the Indian Aryans was quite
+different from the system that grew up later among them. We do not
+find in it the dreamy pantheism that appears afterwards. It is
+cheerful in its tone, quite in contrast with the gloomy asceticism
+which is stamped on it in after times. The head of each family is
+priest in his own household. It is only the great tribal sacrifice
+which is offered by priests set apart for the service. The worship is
+polytheistic, but not without tendencies to monotheism. The principal
+divinities are the powers of nature. The deities (_deva_) were
+the heavenly or the shining ones. "It was the beautiful phenomenon of
+light which first and most powerfully swayed the Aryan mind." The
+chief gods were the Father-heaven; Indra, the god of thunder and of
+rain, from whom the refreshing showers descended; Varuna, the
+encompassing sky; and Agni, the god of fire. Among these _Indra_,
+from his beneficence, more and more attracted worship. _Soma_,
+too, was worshiped; soma being originally the intoxicating juice of a
+plant. _Brihaspati_, the lord of prayer, personifying the
+omnipresent power of prayer, was adored. Thirty-three gods in all were
+invoked. The bodies of the dead were consumed on the funeral-pile. The
+soul survived the body, but the later doctrine of transmigration was
+unknown. All the attributes of sovereign power and majesty were
+collected in _Varuna_. No one can fathom him, but he sees and
+knows all. He is the upholder of order; just, yet the dispenser of
+grace, and merciful to the penitent. Worship is made up of oblations
+and prayers. It must be sincere. The gods will not tolerate
+deceit. They require faith. Of the last things and the last times the
+Rig-Veda hardly speaks. The Vedic hymns have much to say of the origin
+of things, but little, except in the last book, of the final issues.
+
+  There are four Vedas,--the _Rig-Veda_, which has the body of
+  hymns; the _Yajur-Veda_, in which the prescribed formulas to be
+  used in acts of sacrifice are collected; the _Sama-Veda_,
+  containing the chants; and the _Atharva-Veda_, a collection of
+  hymns, in part of a later date. Besides, each Veda contains, as a
+  second part, one or more Brâhmanas, or prose treatises on the
+  ceremonial system. In addition, there are theological works
+  supplementary, and of later origin,--the intermediate
+  _Aranyakas_, and the _Upanishads_, which are of a
+  speculative cast.
+
+Not only is nature--mountains, rivers, trees, etc.--personified in the
+Vedas: the animals--as the cow, the horse, the dog, even the apparatus
+of worship, the war-chariot, the plow, and the furrow--are addressed
+in prayer. The sacrificial fire is deified in _Agni_, the
+sacrificial drink in _Soma_. Indra has for his body-guards the
+_Maruts_, gods of the storm and lightning. He is a warlike god,
+standing in his chariot, but also a beneficent giver of all good
+gifts. _Varuna_ is the god of the vast luminous heavens, in their
+serene majesty.  _Indra_, on the other hand, represents the
+atmosphere in its active and militant energy. The number of the gods
+is variously given. In passages, they are said to be many thousands.
+
+RITES.--There is no hierarchy among the gods. But there is a tendency
+to confuse the attributes of the different divinities. Occasionally,
+for the time being, one eclipses all the rest, and is addressed as if
+all others were forgotten. There is sometimes a tendency to regard
+them as all one, under different names. But this tendency develops
+itself later. Offerings consisted of rice, cakes, soma, etc. Victims
+also were sacrificed, the horse especially; also the goat, the
+buffalo, and other animals. Sacrifice purchases the gifts and favor of
+the gods. It is an expression of gratitude and dependence. It has,
+moreover, a deep, mysterious energy of an almost magical character.
+
+THE ARYANS ON THE GANGES.--Later, but earlier than 1000 B.C., we find
+that the Aryan invaders have moved onward in their career of conquest,
+and have planted themselves on the plains of the Ganges. A marvelous
+transformation has taken place in their social constitution, their
+religion, and in their general spirit. The caste system has sprung up,
+of which there are few traces in the Rig-Veda. In the first or lowest
+of these distinct classes are the _Sudras_, or despised serfs,
+who are the subjugated aborigines; the second, or next higher, class
+is composed of the tillers of the soil, who are of a lower rank than
+the third, the warrior caste. These, in turn, fall below the
+_Brahmans_, or priests, who, as rites of worship grew more
+complicated, and superstition increased, gained, though not without a
+struggle, a complete ascendency. This marks the beginning of the
+sacerdotal era. The tendency of the farmer caste was to decrease,
+until, in modern times, in various provinces they are hardly
+found. The supremacy of the Brahmans was largely owing to their
+eminence as the great literary caste. They arose out of the families
+by whom the hymns had been composed, and who managed the tribal
+sacrifices. They alone understood the language of the hymns and the
+ritual. _Brahman_, in the earliest Veda, signifies a worshiper.
+
+BRAHMINICAL PANTHEISM.--The polytheism of the earlier type of religion
+was converted into pantheism. _Brahma_, the supreme being, is
+impersonal, the eternal source of all things, from which all finite
+beings--gods, nature, and men--emanate. It is by _emanation_,--an
+outflow analogous to that of a stream from its fountain, in
+distinction from _creation_, implying will and
+self-consciousness,--that all derived existences emerge into
+being. With this doctrine was connected the belief in the
+transmigration of souls. All animated beings, including plants as well
+as animals, partake of the universal life which has its origin and
+seat in Brahma. Alienation from Brahma, finite, individual being, is
+evil. To work the way back to Brahma is the great aim and
+hope. Absorption in Brahma, return to the primeval essence, is the
+supreme good. The sufferings of the present are the penalty of sins
+committed in a pre-existent state. If they are not purged away, the
+soul is condemned to be embodied again and again,--it may be, in some
+repulsive animal. This process of metempsychosis might be repeated far
+into the indefinite future. With the doctrine of Brahma and of
+transmigration was connected the feeling that all life is sacred. The
+Brahman spared even trees and plants from destruction. Pollution or
+defilement might be contracted in a great variety of ways. There grew
+out of these ideas of sin, rigorous penances, most painful forms of
+self-torment. It was only by practices of this sort that there was
+hope of avoiding the retribution so much dreaded.
+
+THE BRAHMINICAL CODES.--The principal of these codes is the _Laws of
+Manu_. Manu was imagined to be the first human being, conceived of
+as a sage. This code is a digest compiled by the priests at a date
+unknown, but comprising in it materials of a very high
+antiquity. Hence, while exhibiting Brahmanism in its maturer form, it
+affords glimpses of society at a much earlier date. A second code was
+compiled not earlier than the second century A.D. These codes present
+Hindu law under three heads: (1) domestic and civil rights and duties,
+(2) the administration of justice, (3) purification and penance. In
+truth, the codes prescribe regulations for every department of
+life. The obligations of kings, of Brahmans, and of every other class,
+are defined in detail. One motive that is kept in view is to set forth
+and fortify the special privileges of the Brahminical order.
+
+THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE BRAHMINS.--In process of time, commentaries on
+the Vedas were multiplied. Discord arose in the interpretation of the
+sacred books. Out of this debate and confusion there emerged, in the
+seventh and sixth centuries B.C., several philosophical systems. These
+aimed to give peace to the soul by emancipating it from the bondage of
+matter, and by imparting a sense of independence of the body and of
+the external world.
+
+  These old philosophies are preserved in the _Upanishads_, or
+  Instructions. The main idea in these diverse systems--the
+  _Sankhya_, the _Vedanta_, etc.--is, that the soul's notion
+  of itself as separate from the supreme, impersonal being, is the
+  fallen state. This duality must be overcome. Conscious of its
+  identity with the Supreme, the soul enters into _yoga_, or the
+  state of unison with the Infinite. He who is thus taken away from
+  the illusions of sense, or the _yogin_, is free from the power
+  of things perishable. Death brings a complete absorption into the
+  source of all being. It is the bliss of personal extinction. This
+  sort of philosophy attached great value to contemplation and
+  self-renunciation. It led to a light esteem of ritual practices and
+  ceremonies.
+
+
+
+BUDDHISM.
+
+The Brahminical system has not ceased to maintain its supremacy in
+India since the time when it was presented to view in the
+law-codes. But it has not escaped alteration and attack. New
+movements, religious and political, have appeared to modify its
+character. Of these, Buddhism is by far the most memorable.
+
+THE LIFE OF BUDDHA.--Of the life of Buddha we have only legendary
+information, where it is impossible to separate fact from romance. The
+date of his death was between 482 and 472 B.C. He was then old. He
+belonged to the family of Gautamas, who were said to be of the royal
+line of the Çâkyas, a clan having its seat about a hundred and
+thirty-seven miles north of Benares. The story is, that, brought up in
+luxury, and destined to reign, he was so struck with the miseries of
+mankind, that, at the age of twenty-nine, he left his parents, his
+young wife, and an only son, and retired to a solitary life to
+meditate upon the cause of human suffering. From Brahminical teachers
+he could obtain no solution of the problem. But after seven years of
+meditation and struggle, during which sore temptations to return to a
+life of sense and of ease were successfully resisted, he attained to
+truth and to peace. For forty-four years after this he is said to have
+promulgated his doctrine, gathering about him disciples, whom he
+charged with the duty of spreading it abroad.
+
+THE BUDDHISTIC DOCTRINE.--Buddhism was not a distinct revolt against
+the reigning system of religion. Buddha left theology to the
+Brahmans. Indra, Agni, and the other divinities, and the services
+rendered to them, he left untouched. Being an anchorite, he was not
+required to concern himself with the rites and observances in which
+others took part. His aim was practical. His doctrine, though resting
+on a theoretical basis, was propounded simply as a way of salvation
+from the burdens that oppressed the souls of men. Nor did he undertake
+a warfare against caste. The blessing of deliverance from the woes of
+life he opened to all without distinction. This was the limit of his
+opposition to caste.
+
+THE ROAD TO NIRVANA.--Buddha taught, (1) that existence is always
+attended with misery; (2) that all modes of misery result from
+passion, or desire unsatisfied; (3) that desire must be quenched; (4)
+that there are four steps in doing this, and thus of arriving at
+NIRVANA, which is the state in which self is lost and absorbed, and
+vanishes from being. These four ways are (1) the awakening to a
+perception of the nature and cause of evil, as thus defined; (2) the
+consequent quenching of impure and revengeful feelings; (3) the
+stifling of all other evil desires, also riddance from ignorance,
+doubt, heresy, unkindliness, and vexation; (4) the entrance into
+Nirvana, sooner or later, after death.  The great boon which Buddha
+held out was escape from the horrors of transmigration. He attributed
+to the soul no substantial existence. It is the _Karma_, or
+another being, the successor of one who dies, the result and effect of
+all that he was, who re-appears in case of transmigration. Buddhism
+involved atheism, and the denial of personal immortality, or, where
+this last tenet was not explicitly denied, uncertainty and
+indifference respecting it. On the foundation of Buddha's teaching,
+there grew up a vast system of monasticism, with ascetic usages not
+less burdensome than the yoke of caste. The attractive feature of
+Buddhism was its moral precepts. These were chiefly an inculcation of
+chastity, patience, and compassion; the unresisting endurance of all
+ills; sympathy and efficient help for all men.
+
+DEIFICATION OF BUDDHA.--By the pupils of Buddha he was glorified. He
+was placed among the Brahminical gods, by whom he was served. A
+multitude of cloisters were erected in his honor, in which his relics
+were believed to be preserved. On the basis of the simpler doctrine
+and precepts of the founder, there accumulated a mass of superstitious
+beliefs and observances.
+
+THE SPREAD OF BUDDHISM.--After the death of Buddha, it is said that
+his disciples, to the number of five hundred, assembled, and divided
+his teaching into three branches,--his own words, his rules of
+discipline, and his system of doctrine. During the next two centuries
+Buddhism spread over northern India. One of the most conspicuous
+agents in its diffusion was _Asoka_, the king of Behar, who was
+converted to the Buddhistic faith, and published its tenets throughout
+India. His edicts, in which they were set forth, were engraved on
+rocks and pillars and in caves. He organized missionary efforts among
+the aborigines, using only peaceful means, and combining the healing
+of disease, and other forms of philanthropy, with preaching. He
+carried the Buddhistic faith as far as _Ceylon_. It spread over
+_Burmah_ (450 A.D.). _Siam_ was converted (638 A.D.), and
+_Java_ between the fifth and seventh centuries of our
+era. Through Central Asia the Buddhistic missionaries passed into
+_China_ in the second century B.C., and Buddhism became an
+established system there as early as 65 A.D. At present, this religion
+numbers among its professed adherents more than a third of the human
+race.
+
+THE BRAHMINICAL RE-ACTION.--In India Buddhism did not supplant the old
+religion. The Brahmans modified their system. They made their theology
+more plain to the popular apprehension. They took up Buddhistic
+speculations into their system. But they rendered their ceremonial
+practices more complex and more burdensome. Their ascetic rule grew to
+be more exacting and oppressive. In diffusing and making popular their
+system, customs, like the burning of widows, were introduced, which
+were not known in previous times. The divinities, _Brahma_, the
+author of all things, _Vishnu_ the preserver, and _Siva_ the
+destroyer, were brought into a relation to one another, as a sort of
+triad. Successive incarnations of Vishnu became an article of the
+creed, _Krishna_ being one of his incarnate names. For centuries
+Brahmanism and Buddhism existed together. Gradually Buddhism decayed,
+and melted into the older system; helping to modify its character, and
+thus to give rise to modern Hinduism. For ten centuries Buddhism, with
+multitudinous adherents abroad, has had no existence in the land of
+its birth.
+
+THE GREEK-ROMAN PERIOD.--In 327 B.C., _Alexander the Great_
+advanced in his victorious career as far as India, entered the Punjab,
+which was then divided among petty kingdoms, and defeated one of the
+kings, _Porus_, who disputed the passage of the river Jhelum. The
+heat of the climate and the reluctance of his troops caused the
+Macedonian invader to turn back from his original design of
+penetrating to the Ganges. Near the confluence of the five rivers he
+built a town, Alexandria. He founded, also, other towns, established
+alliances, and left garrisons. On the death of Alexander (323 B.C.)
+and the division of his empire, Bactria and India fell to the lot of
+Seleucus Nicator, the founder of the Syrian monarchy. About this time
+a new kingdom grew up in the valley of the Ganges, under the auspices
+of _Chandra Gupti_, a native. After various conflicts, Seleucus
+ceded the Greek settlements in the Punjab to this prince, to whom he
+gave his daughter in marriage. The successors of Seleucus sent
+Grĉco-Bactrian expeditions into India. Thus Greek science and Greek
+art exerted a perceptible influence in Hindustan. During the first six
+centuries of the Christian era, Scythian hordes poured down into
+northern India. They were stoutly resisted, but effected settlements,
+and made conquests. The events as well as the dates of the long
+struggle are obscure. The non-Aryan races of India, both on the north
+and on the south of the Ganges, many of whom received the Buddhistic
+faith, were not without a marked influence--the precise lines of which
+it is difficult to trace--upon the history and life of India during
+the period of Greek and Scythic occupation and warfare. The
+_Dravidian_ people in southern India, made up of non-Aryans,
+number at present forty-six millions.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Mill's _History of India_ (Wilson's edition, 9
+  vols.); MONIER WILLIAMS, _Indian Wisdom_; Max Müller's
+  _History of Sanskrit Literature_; EARTH'S _The Religions of
+  India_, 1882; _Encycl. Brit._, Arts. _India, Brahmanism,
+  Buddhism_.
+
+
+
+
+SECTION II.  THE EARLIEST GROUP OF NATIONS.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  EGYPT.
+
+
+THE LAND AND THE PEOPLE.--When the curtain that hides the far distant
+past is lifted, we find in the valley of the Nile a people of a dark
+color, tinged with red, and a peculiar physiognomy, who had long
+existed there. Of their beginnings, there is no record. It is not
+likely that they came down the river from the south, as some have
+thought; more probably they were of Asiatic origin. Their language,
+though it certainly shows affinities with the Semitic tongues in its
+grammar, is utterly dissimilar in its vocabulary: its modern
+descendant is the Coptic, no longer a spoken dialect. The Egyptians
+were of the Caucasian variety, but not white like the Lybians on the
+west. On the east were tribes of a yellowish complexion and various
+lineage, belonging to the numerous people whom the Egyptians
+designated as _Amu_. On the south, in what was called
+_Ethiopia_, was a negro people; and, also beyond them and
+eastward, a dusky race, of totally different origin, a branch of the
+widely diffused _Cushites_.
+
+THE NILE: DIVISIONS OF THE COUNTRY.--Egypt (styled by its ancient
+inhabitants, from the color of the soil deposited by the Nile,
+_Kem_ or the Black Land, and by the Hebrews called
+_Mizraim_) is the creation of the great river. "Egypt," says
+Herodotus, "is the gift of the Nile;" and this is not only true, as
+the historian meant it, physically, because it is the Nile that
+rescued the land from the arid waste by which it is bordered; but the
+course of Egyptian history--the occupations, habits, and religion of
+the people--was largely determined by the characteristics of the
+river. The sources of the Nile have had in all ages the fascination of
+mystery, and have been a fruitful theme for conjecture. It was
+reserved for modern explorers to ascertain that it takes its rise in
+equatorial Africa, in the two great lakes, the _Albert_ and
+_Victoria Nyanzas_. From that region, fed by few tributaries, it
+flows to the Mediterranean, a distance of two thousand miles, but
+breaks, as it nears the sea, into two main and several minor
+arms. These spread fruitfulness over the broad plain called, from its
+shape, the _Delta._ Above the Delta the fringe of productive land
+has a width of only a few miles on either side of the stream. Its
+fertility is due to the yearly inundation which, as the effect of the
+rainfall of Abyssinia, begins early in July, and terminates in
+November, when the river, having slowly risen in the interval to an
+average height of twenty-three or twenty-four feet, reaches in its
+gradual descent the ordinary level. This narrow belt of territory,
+annually enriched with a layer of fertile mud, is in striking contrast
+with the barren regions, parched by the sun, on either side, with the
+long chain of Arabian mountains that adjoin it on the east, and with
+the low hills of the Lybian desert on the west. By dikes, canals, and
+reservoirs, the beneficent river from the most ancient times has been
+made to irrigate the land above, where are the towns and dwellings of
+the people, and thus to extend and keep up its unrivaled
+fertility. The country of old was divided into two parts,--_Upper
+Egypt,_ as it is now called, with _Thebes_ for its principal
+city, extending from the first cataract, near _Syene,_ to the
+Memphian district; and _Lower Egypt,_ embracing the rest of the
+country on the north, including the Delta. The two divisions were
+marked by differences of dialect and of customs. The country was
+further divided into _nomes,_ or districts, about forty in all,
+but varying in number at different times. They were parted from one
+another by boundary stones. Each had its own civil organization, a
+capital, and a center of worship.
+
+EARLY CULTURE.--At a far remote day, there existed in Lower Egypt an
+advanced type of culture. Sepulchers, with their inscriptions and
+sculptures, were made of so solid material that they have remained to
+testify to this fact. When the pyramids were built, mechanical skill
+was highly developed, Egyptian art had reached a point beyond which it
+scarcely advanced, and the administration of government had attained
+substantially to the form in which it continued to exist. The use of
+writing, the division of the year, the beginnings of the sciences and
+of literature, are found in this earliest period. Egyptian culture, as
+far as we can determine, was not borrowed. It was a native
+product. The earliest period was the period of most growth. The
+prevailing tendency was to crystallize all arts and customs into
+definite, established forms, and to subject every thing to fixed
+rules. The desire to preserve what had been gained overmastered the
+impulses to progress: individuality and enterprise were blighted by an
+excessive spirit of conservatism. Moreover, the culture of the
+Egyptians never disengaged itself from its connection with every-day
+practical needs, or the material spirit that lay at its root. They did
+not, like the Greeks, soar into the atmosphere of theoretical science
+and speculation. They did not break loose from the fetters of
+tradition.
+
+THE HIEROGLYPHICS.--We owe our knowledge of ancient Egypt chiefly to
+hieroglyphical writing. The hieroglyphs, except those denoting
+numbers, were pictures of objects. The writing is of three kinds. The
+_first_, the hieroglyphical, is composed of literal pictures, as
+a circle, O, for the sun, a curved line for the moon, a pointed oval
+for the mouth. The _second_ sort of characters, the hieratic, and
+the _third_, the demotic, are curtailed pictures, which can thus
+be written more rapidly. They are seldom seen on the monuments, but
+are the writing generally found on the papyrus rolls or
+manuscripts. They are written from right to left. The hieroglyphs
+proper may be written either way, or in a perpendicular line. In the
+demotic, or people's writing, the characters are somewhat more
+curtailed, or abridged, than in the hieratic, or priestly,
+style. There were four methods of using the hieroglyphics in
+historical times. _First_, there were the primary,
+representational characters, the literal pictures. _Secondly_,
+the characters were used figuratively, as symbols. Thus a circle, O,
+meant not only the sun, but also "day"; the crescent denoted not only
+the moon, but also "a month;" a pen and inkstand signified "writing,"
+etc. So one object was substituted for another analogous to it,--as
+the picture of a boot in a trap, which stood for "deceit." A
+conventional emblem, too, might represent the object. Thus, the hawk
+denoted the sun, two water-plants meant Upper and Lower Egypt.
+_Thirdly_, hieroglyphics were used as determinatives. That is, an
+object would be denoted by letters (in a way that we shall soon
+explain), and a picture be added _to determine_, or make clear,
+what was meant. After proper names, they designated the sex; after the
+names of other classes, as animals, they specified the particular
+genus. _Fourthly_, the bulk of the hieroglyphs are phonetic. They
+stand for sounds. The picture stood for the initial sound of the name
+of the object depicted. Thus the picture of an eagle, _akhôm_,
+represented "A." Unfortunately, numerous objects were employed for a
+like purpose, to indicate the same sound. Hence the number of
+characters was multiplied. The whole number of signs used in writing
+is not less than nine hundred or a thousand. The discovery of the
+Rosetta Stone--a large black slab of stone--with an identical
+inscription in hieroglyphics, in demotic and in Greek, furnished to
+_Champollion_ (1810) and to _Young_ the clew to the
+deciphering of the Egyptian writing, and thus the key to the sense of
+the monumental inscriptions. The Egyptian manuscripts were made of the
+pith of the byblus plant, cut into strips. These were laid side by
+side horizontally, with another layer of strips across them; the two
+layers being united by paste, and subjected to a heavy pressure. The
+Egyptians wrote with a reed, using black and red ink.
+
+  SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE OF EGYPTIAN HISTORY.--These are (1) the
+  inscriptions on the monuments. These, it must be remembered, are
+  commonly in praise of the departed, and of their achievements. (2)
+  The list of kings in the Turin papyrus, a very important Egyptian
+  manuscript, discovered by Champollion. (3) _Manetho_. An
+  Egyptian priest, he wrote, about 250 B.C., a history. Only his lists
+  of dynasties are preserved as given in an Armenian version of
+  _Eusebius_, a writer of the fourth century, and in _George
+  Syncellus_, a writer of the eighth century, who professed to
+  embody the statements of Eusebius and of another author, _Julius
+  Africanus_, probably of the second century, who had also quoted
+  the lists of Manetho. Manetho is of great importance; but we do not
+  know accurately what his original text was, it being so differently
+  reported. His details frequently clash with the monuments. Moreover,
+  the method adopted by him in making his lists is, in essential
+  points, subject to doubt. (4) The Greek historians. _Herodotus_
+  had visited Egypt (between 460 and 450 B.C.), and conferred with
+  Egyptian priests. _Diodorus_, also, in the time of Julius
+  Caesar, had visited Egypt. He is largely a copyist of Herodotus. (5)
+  The Old Testament. Here we have many instructive references to
+  Egypt. But, until Rehoboam, the kings of Egypt have in the
+  Scriptures the general name of _Pharaoh_. Hence it is not
+  always easy to identify them with corresponding kings on the
+  Egyptian lists.
+
+CHRONOLOGY.--The date of the beginning of the first dynasty of
+Egyptian rulers is a controverted point; there are advocates of a
+longer and of a shorter chronology. The data are not sufficient to
+settle accurately the questions in dispute. Some judicious scholars
+put the beginning of _the first dynasty_ as early as 5000 B.C.;
+others have wished to bring it down even lower than 3000 B.C. Egyptian
+history, prior to the Persian conquest (525 B.C.), divides itself into
+three sections,--the _Old Empire_, having its seat at Memphis;
+the _Middle Empire_, following upon a period of strife and
+division, and embracing the rule of foreign invaders, _the
+Hyksos;_ and the _New Empire_, the era of conquest, by foreign
+power, and of downfall.
+
+  The expedition of Shishak, king of Egypt, against Rehoboam, is
+  ascertained, from both Egyptian and Hebrew sources, to have been not
+  earlier than 971 B.C., and within twenty-five years of that
+  date. The nineteenth Egyptian dynasty began about the year 1350
+  B.C. The Middle Empire is thought by some to have commenced as early
+  as 2200 B.C.; by others as late as 1720 B.C. When we go backward
+  into the Old Empire, the sources of uncertainty are multiplied. The
+  main difficulty is to determine whether the lists of dynasties are
+  _consecutive_ throughout, or in part _contemporary_. One
+  class of scholars place the date of the first historic king,
+  _Menes_, two or three thousand years earlier than the point
+  assigned by the other class! The date of Menes given by _Böckh_
+  is 5702 B.C.; by _Lenormant_, 5004 B.C.; by _Brugsch_,
+  4455 B.C.; by _Lepsius_, 3852 B.C.; by _Bunsen_, 3623 or
+  3059 B.C.; _E. Meyer_ makes 3180 B.C. the lowest possible date
+  for Menes; 3233 B.C. is the date assigned by _Duncker_. On the
+  contrary, _R. S. Poole_ gives 2717 B.C.; _Wilkinson_, 2691
+  B.C.; and _G. Rawlinson_, between 2450 and 2250 B.C. There are
+  no means of fully determining the controversy, as Rawlinson has
+  shown (_History of Ancient Egypt_, vol. ii., p. 19). It appears
+  to be well ascertained that Egyptian civilization was in being at
+  least as far back as about 4000 B.C.
+
+THE POLITICAL SYSTEM.--The bulk of the people were farmers and
+shepherds, indisposed to war. The land was owned in large estates by
+the nobles, who were possessed of multitudes of serfs and of
+cattle. They had in their service, also, artisans, oarsmen, and
+traffickers. The centers of industry were the numerous cities. Here
+the nobles had their mansions, and the gods their temples with
+retinues of priests. But the Nomes had each its particular
+jurisdiction. The traces of two original communities are preserved in
+the mythological legends and in the titles of the kings. The oldest
+inscriptions discover to us a systematic organization of the
+state. The king is supreme: under him are the rulers of the two halves
+of the kingdom. He creates the army, and appoints its generals. The
+whole strength of the kingdom is given to him for the erection of the
+temples which he raises to the gods, or of the stupendous pyramid
+which is to form his sepulcher. The nobility make up his court; from
+them he selects his chief officers of state,--his secretary, his
+treasurer, his inspector of quarries, etc. The princes and princesses
+are educated in connection with the children of the highest nobles. A
+body-guard protects the monarch: he shows himself to the people only
+in stately processions. All who approach him prostrate themselves at
+his feet. He is the descendant of the gods. The Pharaohs are even
+looked upon as gods incarnate. They are clothed with all power on
+earth. When they die, they go to the gods; and rites of worship are
+instituted for them. That there was a well-ordered and efficient civil
+administration admits of no doubt. Whether there existed a thrifty
+middle class or not we can not decide. The tendency was for the child
+to follow the vocation of the parent, but there were no rigid barriers
+of caste. Not until the New Empire, was there an attempt to build up
+such a wall even about the priesthood.
+
+THE RELIGION.--With the Egyptians, religion was a matter of supreme
+and absorbing interest. There was a popular religion; and there arose
+early, in connection with it, an esoteric or secret doctrine relative
+to the gods and to the legends respecting them,--a lore that pertained
+especially to the priesthood. Moreover, while the religious system,
+from the earliest date, is polytheistic, we have proof that the
+educated class, sooner or later, put a monotheistic interpretation
+upon it, and believed in one supreme deity, of whom all the particular
+gods were so many forms and manifestations, or that one being under
+different names. Whether this more elevated faith preceded the
+reigning system, or was a later offspring of it, is a matter of
+dispute. For a long period the two co-existed, and without collision.
+
+The great divinities of Egypt are pre-eminently gods of light. They
+are associated with the SUN. With the agency of that luminary, with
+his rising and setting, they stand in a close relation. All Egypt
+worships the sun under the names of _Ra_ and _Horus_. Horus
+is the adversary of _Seth_ (called _Typhon_ by the Greeks),
+the god of darkness, and is born anew every morning to attack and
+conquer him. In honor of Ra, the lofty obelisks, or symbols of the
+sun's rays, are erected, each of which has its own name and
+priests. With the sun-gods are joined the goddesses of the
+heavens,--_Nut_, _Hather_, _Isis_, and others. But
+_Osiris_ became the most famous sun-god. His worship was
+originally at Abydos and Busiris. At length his cult spread over the
+whole land. In the legend, he is murdered by Seth; but Horus is his
+avenger. Horus conquers the power of darkness. Henceforward Osiris
+reigns in the kingdom of the West, the home of the dead. He is the sun
+in the realm of the shades.  He receives the dead, is their protector,
+and the judge whose final award is blessedness or perpetual
+misery. The departed, if their lives have not been wicked, become one
+with him. They are each of them called by his name. To Osiris, all
+sepulchral inscriptions are addressed. His career, with the victory of
+the power of darkness over him, and his glorious revival in the
+regions of the West, typifies human life and destiny. The principal
+god at Memphis is _Ptah_, the primal divinity, the former of
+heaven and earth; yet, perhaps, a god of light, since he is styled by
+the Greeks, _Hephaestus_. At Thebes, _Ammon_ was revered as
+the king of the gods: he shared in the properties of the
+sun. _Thoth_ is the chief moon-god, who presides over the
+reckoning of time. He is the god of letters and of the arts, the
+author of sacred books. The Nile is worshiped under the name of
+_Hapi_, being figured as a man with pendent breasts, an emblem of
+the fertility of the river. The gods were often connected in triads,
+there being in each a father, a mother, and a son. To bring to them
+the right offerings, and to repeat the right formulas, was a matter of
+momentous concern. Homage was directed to the material objects with
+which the activity of the god was thought to be connected, and in
+which he was believed to be present. All nature was full of
+deities. There were sacred trees, stones, utensils. Above all,
+animals, in their mysterious life, were identified with the
+divinities. Worship was offered to the crocodile, the cat, the bull,
+etc. In the temples these creatures were carefully tended and
+obsequiously served.
+
+EMBALMING.--Believing that the soul survives death, the Egyptians
+linked its weal with the preservation of the body, from which they
+could not conceive its destiny to be wholly dissevered. Thus arose the
+universal practice of embalming, and of presenting, at intervals,
+offerings of food and drink to the departed. The tomb contains a room
+for sacred services to the dead. The most ancient structures are
+sepulchers. They were the germ of the pyramid, in which rested the
+sarcophagus of the king.
+
+RELIGION AND MORALITY.--The leading gods were held to be the makers of
+the world and of men, the givers of good, the rulers and disposers of
+all things. Morality was not separated from religion. The gods
+punished unrighteousness and inhumanity. In the age of the
+pyramid-builders, family life was not wanting in purity; the wife and
+mother was held in respect: monogamy prevailed. _Ma-t_ was the
+goddess of truth: in the myth of Osiris, it is in her hall that the
+dead are judged.
+
+THE PRIESTS.--The priests are the guardians of religious rites. They
+are acquainted with the origin and import of them. Their knowledge is
+communicated only to select believers. It was a body of traditions,
+guarded as a mysterious treasure. But the priests, certainly until a
+late period, do not control the king. The civil authority is
+uppermost.
+
+LITERATURE AND SCIENCE.--The most important Egyptian book that has
+come down to us is the _Book of the Dead._ It relates, in a
+mystical strain, the adventures of the soul after death, and explains
+how, by reciting the names and titles of numberless gods, and by means
+of other theological knowledge, the soul can make its way to the hall
+of Osiris. It is a monument of the pedantic and punctilious formalism
+of the Egyptian ritual. Most of the papyri that have been preserved
+are of a religious character. There are songs not void of beauty. The
+moral writings are of a decidedly higher grade. Works of fiction are
+constructed with considerable skill, and are sometimes not wanting in
+humor. Some of the hymns are not destitute of merit. It can not be
+doubted that there were important mathematical writings. Astronomical
+observations were very early made. In medicine, we have writings which
+prove that considerable proficiency was attained in this
+department. But here, as in other branches, the spirit was empirical
+rather than scientific in the higher sense; and the result was to
+petrify knowledge in an unalterable form. At length rules of medical
+treatment, with specific remedies, were definitely settled, from which
+it was a crime against the state to deviate.
+
+THE OLD EMPIRE (to about 2100 B.C.).--_Senoferu,_ who belongs to
+the third dynasty, is the first king who has left behind him a
+monumental inscription. A rock-tablet in the peninsula of Sinai gives
+him the title of conqueror. By some, the pyramid of Meydoun, built in
+three distinct stages to a height of 125 feet, is ascribed to him, and
+is believed to be his sepulcher. At Saccarah is a pyramid of like
+form, 200 feet in height. _Khufu,_ the Cheops of Herodotus, was
+the builder of the "Great Pyramid" of Ghizeh, the largest and loftiest
+building on earth. Its original perpendicular height was not less than
+480 feet, the length of its side 764 feet, and the area covered by it
+more than thirteen acres. Near it are the small pyramids, which were
+the sepulchers of his wives and other relatives. The statues of
+_Khafra_ remain, and the wooden mummy-case of _Menkaura,_
+with the myth of Osiris recorded on it. These were the builders of the
+two other most celebrated pyramids, the second and the third. With the
+long reign of _Unas_ closes the first era in Egyptian
+history. His unfinished pyramid, built of huge blocks of limestone,
+indicates that he died too soon to complete it. From this date, back
+to the epoch of _Senoferu_, are included nearly three
+centuries. In this period of prevalent peace, art had the opportunity
+to develop. The spirit of progress in this department had not yet been
+cramped by the "hieratic canon," the fixed rules set for artistic
+labor. There is evidence of considerable knowledge in anatomy and
+medicine. The myth of Osiris expanded, and his worship spread.
+
+With the sixth dynasty a new epoch begins. The most powerful monarch
+in this series is _Pepi_. He levied armies, conquered the negroes
+of Nubia, and waged war against the nomads of the eastern desert. The
+interval from the sixth to the tenth dynasty was marked by usurpations
+and insurrections. The district governors sought to make themselves
+independent. Monarchs rose and fell. Syrian invaders appear to have
+seized the occasion to attack the country. _Heliopolis_, with
+_Tum_ for its sun-god, is the center of the new symbolical lore
+of the priesthood. Power is transferred to _Thebes_, and
+_Ammon_ becomes the embodiment of the monotheistic conception,
+the supreme deity.
+
+The Theban ruling-house gradually extended its supremacy over the
+land. The kings of the twelfth dynasty have left their inscriptions
+everywhere, and of several of them gigantic portrait-statues
+remain. _Amenemhat I._ and his successors are prosperous
+sovereigns. They carry on a lively intercourse of trade with the small
+states of Syria, reaching possibly to Babylon. Under the twelfth
+dynasty, the valley of the upper Nile was conquered. _Usurtasen
+III._, in after times, was revered as the subduer of the Nubian
+land. By monarchs of this epoch, vast structures, like the temple of
+Ammon at Thebes and the temple of the Sun at Heliopolis, were
+erected. _Amenemhat III._ built the immense artificial reservoir,
+Lake Moeris, to receive and dispense the waters of the Nile. Under the
+twelfth dynasty is the blossoming period of literature. The carving of
+hieroglyphics and the execution of the details of art reach their
+perfection. It is the culminating point of Egyptian culture.
+
+THE MIDDLE EMPIRE (FROM ABOUT 2100 TO 1600 B.C.).--The season of
+prosperity under the twelfth dynasty was followed by anarchy and the
+downfall of the Theban rule. According to _Manetho_, it was under
+a king named _Timaos_ that a horde of invaders--the
+_Hyksos_, or _"shepherds"_--came in from the north,
+devastated the country, and made themselves its rulers. They were
+probably of Semitic descent, but nothing more is known as to their
+origin. In connection with them, Semitic, and in particular Canaanite,
+elements penetrated into Egypt, and left their traces in its
+language. The residence of their kings was _Tanis_, on the
+eastern Delta, a splendid city, which they still more adorned. They
+conquered Memphis, but their power was not permanently established in
+Lower Egypt. The duration of their control was a number of
+centuries,--how many can only be conjectured. It is believed by some
+scholars that either _Apepi,_ or _Nub_, kings of the Hyksos
+line, was the sovereign who made _Joseph_ his prime minister, and
+invited his family to settle in the land of Goshen. The elevation of a
+foreigner and a Semite to an exalted office is thought to be less
+improbable in connection with a Semitic dynasty.
+
+The New Empire (from 1600 to 525 B.C.).--The expulsion of the Hyksos
+was effected by _Aahmes I_., first king of the eighteenth
+dynasty. It was accomplished, however, not all at once, but
+gradually. From this event Egypt enters on a new stage in its
+career. It becomes a military, an aggressive, and a conquering
+state. Notwithstanding the enormous sacrifice of life that must have
+been involved in the erection of pyramids and in other public works,
+the Egyptians had not been a cruel people: compared with most Semitic
+peoples, they had been disposed to peace. But now a martial spirit is
+evoked. A military class arises. Wars for plunder and conquest
+ensue. The use of horses in battle is a new and significant fact. The
+character of the people changes for the worse.  The priestly class
+become more compact and domineering. Temples are the principal
+edifices, in the room of massive sepulchers.
+
+Under _Thothmes I_. and his successors, especially _Thothmes
+III_., wars were successfully waged against the Syrians, and
+against the Ethiopians on the south. The palaces and temples of
+Thebes, including the gigantic structures at _Karnak_ and
+_Luxor_, are witnesses to the grandeur of these monarchs. The
+Egyptian arms were carried through Syria, and as far even as
+Nineveh. During the reigns of _Amenophis III_. and _Amenophis
+IV_., that is, in the latter half of the fifteenth century B.C.,
+the _Amarna Letters_ (see p. 44) were written. Under the
+_Ramessides_, the conquests of Egypt reached their farthest
+limit.
+
+RAMSES II.--Ramses II., or Ramses the Great (1340-1273 B.C.),--who was
+called by the Greeks Sesostris, a name with which they linked many
+fabulous narratives,--is the most brilliant personage in Egyptian
+history. He is the first of the renowned conquerors, the forerunner of
+the Alexanders and Napoleons. His monuments are scattered over all
+Egypt. In his childhood he was associated on the throne with his
+father, himself a magnificent monarch, _Seti I_. In the seventh
+year of the sole reign of the son he had to encounter a formidable
+confederacy under the lead of the Syrian _Hittites_--the
+"Khita"--in the north-east, a powerful nation. How he saved himself by
+his personal valor, on the field of _Kadesh_, is celebrated in
+the Egyptian Iliad, the heroic poem of _Pentaur_. A subsequent
+treaty with this people is one of the most precious memorials of his
+reign.
+
+THE HITTITES.--Recent explorations have shown that the _Hittites_
+of Scripture were families, or smaller communities, in Palestine, of a
+people whose proper seat was in northern Syria, especially the country
+lying along the Orontes; their territory being bounded on the east by
+the Euphrates, and extending westward into the Taurus Mountains. In
+one place they are spoken of as distant (Judg. i. 26). The "Khita" of
+the Egyptians, called "Khatti" by the Assyrians, were a civilized and
+powerful nation, whose sway was so extended that their outposts were
+at times on the western coast of Asia Minor. They were a non-Semitic
+people. The great victory of Ramses (1320 B.C.)  was with difficulty
+won. The Hittites were also rivals of the Assyrians from an early
+period. At length Sargon captured their capital, _Carchemish_
+(717 B.C.), and broke down their power. Numerous Hittite inscriptions
+have been discovered, written in a hieroglyphic script which has not
+yet (1903) been deciphered.
+
+Subsequently we find _Ramses_ in _Galilee_, as it was called
+later: we find him storming the city of _Askalon_ in Philistia,
+and in various military expeditions, in which he brought home with him
+multitudes of captives. The mighty temples which he built at Abydos,
+Thebes, and Memphis, and the gorgeous palace, "the House of Ramses,"
+south of Karnak, were in keeping with other displays of his energy and
+magnificence.
+
+THE BONDAGE OF THE ISRAELITES.--Ramses II. has been generally believed
+to be "the Pharaoh of the oppression," under whom the Hebrews
+suffered; and his son _Menephthah_, to be the Pharaoh under whom
+the exodus took place. Recent discoveries have rendered these
+conclusions very doubtful, however. It is also quite uncertain how
+long the Egyptian bondage lasted. According to the Hebrew Old
+Testament, its duration was 430 years; according to the
+_Septuagint_, or Greek version, half that period (as implied in
+Gal. iii. 17).
+
+To THE PERSIAN CONQUEST.--From about 1500 to 1300 B.C., Egypt was the
+foremost nation in culture, arts, and military prowess. Under the
+later kings bearing the name of Ramses, the empire began to decay. The
+Ethiopians in the south revolted, and set up an independent kingdom,
+_Meroe_, of which _Napata_ was the capital. _Shishak_
+(961-940 B.C.) aspired to restore the Egyptian rule in the East. He
+marched into Judĉa, and captured and plundered Jerusalem. He made
+_Rehoboam_, king of Judah, a tributary, and strengthened
+Jeroboam, the ally of Egypt. He even led his forces across the valley
+of the Jordan. At length (730 B.C.) the Ethiopians gained the upper
+hand in Egypt. Their three kings form the twenty-fifth dynasty. As the
+power of Egypt was on the wane, the power of Assyria was more and more
+in the ascendant. _Shabak_ joined hands with _Hoshea_, king
+of Israel, but was defeated by the Assyrians, under _Sargon II_.,
+in a pitched battle at _Raphia_, in which the superiority of the
+Asiatic kingdom was evinced. Later (701 B.C.) _Sennacherib_
+defeated an Egyptian army, sent for the relief of Ekron, and made
+_Hezekiah_ a tributary. _Tirhakah,_ the ally of Hezekiah,
+continued the struggle. His army was saved from overthrow by the
+disaster which happened to Sennacherib's host in the neighboring camp
+on the eve of battle. Twenty years later, he was vanquished by an
+invading army under the son and successor of Sennacherib,
+_Esarhaddon._ The rule of the Ethiopian dynasty was
+subverted. The Assyrians intrusted the government to twenty governors,
+of whom the most were natives. Of these governors, one, then king of
+Sais, _Psammeticus I._ (663-616 B.C.), in alliance with Gyges,
+king of Lydia, and with the aid of Carians, Phoenicians, and Lycians,
+cast off the Assyrian yoke, and became sole ruler of Egypt. This epoch
+is marked by the introduction of numerous foreigners into the country,
+and by the exertion of a powerful and lasting Greek influence. _Neku
+II._--the _Necho_ of Scripture--(610-594 B.C.), the son of
+Psammeticus I., defeated _Josiah,_ king of Judah, at
+_Megiddo_ (608 B.C.); and Josiah fell in the battle. But,
+advancing to _Carchemish_ by the Euphrates, Neku, in turn, was
+vanquished by _Nebuchadnezzar,_ king of Babylon, which had now
+become the formidable power. The defeat of Neku ended Egyptian rule in
+the East. _Apries_ (588 B.C.), the _Hophra_ of Scripture,
+was dethroned by a revolt of his own soldiers, in a war with the
+Greeks of Cyrene, and was succeeded by _Aahmes,_ or _Amasis_
+(570-526), under whose auspices foreigners, and especially Greeks,
+acquired an augmented influence. Egypt had escaped from permanent
+subjection to Assyria or Babylon; but a new empire, the Persian Empire
+of Cyrus, was advancing on the path to universal
+dominion. _Cyrus_ was too busy with other undertakings to attack
+Egypt; but _Cambyses,_ his successor, led an army into that
+country; and, having defeated _Psammeticus III.,_ at the battle
+of _Pelusium,_ he made it a Persian province (525 B.C.).
+
+  LITERATURE.--See the list on p. 16. 1. Works on Oriental History as
+  a whole: DUNCKER'S _History of Antiquity._ It includes, also,
+  Greece. Lenormant and Chevalier, _Manual of the Ancient History of
+  the East_ (2 vols.); G. Rawlinson, _The Five Great
+  Monarchies_ (3 vols.), _The Sixth Great Monarchy_ (Parthia),
+  _The Seventh Great Monarchy_ (the Sassanidĉ), _The Origin of
+  Nations_ (1 vol.), _Manual of Ancient History_ (1 vol.),
+  _Egypt and Babylon_ (1 vol.). LENORMANT, _The Beginnings of
+  History_ (1 vol.); P. Smith, _The Ancient History of the
+  East_ (1 vol.), _History of the World_ (_Ancient
+  History_, 3 vols.); Maspero, _History of the Ancient Orient_
+  (3 vols.); Doublier, _Gesch. des Alterthums_ (from the cultural
+  point of view, 1 vol.); E. Meyer, _Gesch. des Alterthums._
+
+  2. Works on the History of Egypt. BRUGSCH-BEY, _History of Egypt
+  under the Pharaohs_ (2 vols.); G. Rawlinson, _History of
+  Ancient Egypt_ (2 vols.);, _Aperçu de l'Histoire d'Egypte_
+  (1864), and numerous other writings; WILKINSON, _Manners and
+  Customs of Egypt_ (3 vols.); ERMAN, _Egypt_; Petrie,
+  _History of Egypt_; Erman, _Egyptian Life_ (1894); Birch,
+  _Records of the Past_ (translations of Egyptian and Assyrian
+  Monuments, 11 vols.), _Egypt from the Earliest Times_; Perrot
+  and Chipiez, _History of Art in Ancient Egypt_ (1883);
+  FERGUSSON'S _History of Architecture_; the great illustrative
+  works of the French _savans_ under Napoleon I.; the great
+  illustrated works of Rossellini, and the works of Lepsius; the
+  novels of Ebers, _The Sisters; Uarda; The Egyptian Princess_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+
+ASSYRIA AND BABYLON.
+
+THE GEOGRAPHY.--Assyria and Babylonia were geographically
+connected. They were inhabited by the same race, and, for the greater
+part of their history, were under one government. Babylonia comprised
+the lower basin of the _Euphrates_ and _Tigris,_ while
+Assyria included the hilly region along the upper and middle Tigris;
+the boundary being where the two rivers, in their long progress from
+their sources in the mountains of Armenia, at length approach one
+another at a place about three hundred and fifty miles from their
+outlet in the Persian Gulf. Both streams, in particular the Euphrates,
+annually flooded the adjacent territory, and by canals and dams were
+made to add to its productiveness. The shores of the Euphrates, after
+its descent from the plateau to the plains, were fertile beyond
+measure. Here the date-palm, whose juice as well as fruit were so
+highly prized, flourished. Even now wheat grows wild near the river's
+mouth.
+
+THE EARLY INHABITANTS.--The oldest inhabitants of this region of whom
+we have any knowledge were the _Sumerians,_ whose territory
+included both _Sumer_ ("Shinar"), or southern Babylonia, and
+_Akkad,_ or northern Babylonia. On the east were the
+_Elamites,_ with _Susa_ for their capital; to the north of
+these were the warlike _Kassites._ The Sumerians, who preceded
+the Semites in the occupancy of Babylonia, were of an unknown
+stock. They were the founders of Babylonian culture. Even by them the
+soil was skillfully cultivated with the help of dikes and canals. They
+were the inventors of the cuneiform writing. The cuneiform characters
+were originally pictures; but these were resolved into wedge-shaped
+characters of uniform appearance, the significance of which was
+determined by their position and local relation to one another. It is
+not known how long the Sumerian period lasted, nor even when it
+closed; the chronology of the earliest Semitic period is also very
+uncertain. The south-Babylonian kings _Urukagina,_ of
+_Shirpurla_ (Lagash), and _Enshagkushana,_ of a district
+which included _Nippur,_ are dated by most Assyriologists as
+early as 4000 B.C., or even earlier. Whether they were Sumerians, or
+Semites, is not certain; their inscriptions do not settle the
+question. It was probably not far from this time, however, that the
+one race supplanted the other. A Semitic people--coming either
+directly from the ancestral home, Arabia, or from a previous
+settlement in Mesopotamia, north-west of Babylonia--invaded the land
+and conquered the Sumerians. They planted themselves first in northern
+Babylonia, and then gradually extended their power over the districts
+on the south. The conquerors adopted the civilization of the
+conquered. The earliest Semitic kings all used the Sumerian dialect in
+their inscriptions. It was only by slow degrees that the native
+language was superseded by that of the new rulers. Later,--before the
+time of _Hammurabi_; see below,--these Semites carried their
+settlements northward, and became the founders of Assyria.
+
+  SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE.--_Berosus_, a Babylonian priest, wrote a
+  history of his country as early as 250 B.C. He was a trustworthy
+  writer, as far as his means of knowledge went; but it is only
+  fragments of his work that we possess, and these in inaccurate
+  quotations, partly at second hand. Greek writers, as _Ctesias_,
+  drew from Persian sources; and their narratives up to the later
+  times of the Persian rule can not be relied on. The great source of
+  knowledge is the rapidly increasing store of records in the
+  cuneiform character. A vast number of inscriptions on stone and
+  clay, representing nearly every department of literature, have been
+  unearthed, and the material which they afford has already given us
+  an extensive knowledge of Babylonian and Assyrian history. The site
+  of _Nineveh_ has been extensively excavated, and we have,
+  therefore, especially full information as to the history and
+  literature of Assyria. Babylonian monuments in considerable number
+  have more recently come to light. Aside from Nineveh and Babylon,
+  especially important excavations have been undertaken at _Nifpur,
+  Lagash_ (Telloh)--thus far the chief source of Sumerian
+  material--and _Susa_.
+
+
+I. THE OLD KINGDOM OF BABYLON.
+
+EARLY HISTORY.--The history of ancient Babylonia is still very
+obscure, and the chronology only tentative. We see at first a number
+of independent cities, each ruled by a petty king, who was also a
+priest. Then appear groups of cities, one of which exercised sway over
+a more or less extended district. The center of power was now in
+Erech, now in Ur, or Babylon, or some other city, whose king ruled
+supreme over numerous vassal kings. Among the first important names
+known to us are those of _Sargon I._ (3800 B.C.), king of Agade,
+a great conqueror and builder, and his son, _Naram-sin_. Another
+great builder was _Gudea_, king of Shirpurla. Most conspicuous of
+all is _Hammurabi_ (2250 B.C.), king of Babylon, who is probably
+the "Amraphel" of Gen. xiv. His kingdom included not only the whole of
+Babylonia proper, but also Assyria, and probably even the "West Land"
+as far as the Mediterranean. The records show him to have been a truly
+great ruler, both in war and in peace. He is known to us chiefly from
+a collection of his _Letters_ to certain officials of his
+kingdom, and from his elaborate _Code_ of civil laws, found at
+Susa in 1899, and first published in 1902; perhaps the most important
+single monument of early civilization which has thus far come to
+light. The laws, written in the Babylonian (Semitic) language, and
+engraved on a stele of hard black stone, were about two hundred and
+eighty in number, and bear an interesting general resemblance to the
+old Hebrew laws, especially those preserved in Exodus xxi. and xxii.
+
+In the time of the kings _Kadashman-bel_ and _Burnaburiash
+II_. (about 1400 B.C.) falls the _Amarna Correspondence_ (see
+p. 40). At _Tell el-Amarna_, in upper Egypt, were unearthed, in
+1887, more than three hundred clay tablets containing diplomatic
+dispatches, written in the cuneiform character, and nearly all in the
+Babylonian language. They were addressed to the Egyptian king, or to
+his ministers, and had been sent from various officials and royal
+personages in Babylonia, Assyria, Palestine (including a number of
+letters from _Abdi-khiba_ of _Jerusalem_), and other
+districts. They furnish a large amount of important information as to
+conditions in western Asia at that early period.
+
+An important _Kassite_ dynasty occupied the throne of Babylon
+from the eighteenth century to the twelfth century B.C. Under these
+Kassite rulers, the kingdom at length declined, while the neighboring
+Assyrian state had increased in power. Later still, apparently not
+earlier than the ninth century B.C., the _Chaldoeans_ (of Semitic
+stock?) pushed north-westward into Babylonia from their district about
+the mouth of the Euphrates, and eventually made themselves masters of
+the land.
+
+RELIGION AND SCIENCE.--If the events connected with old Babylon are
+less known, more is ascertained respecting its civilization. The
+groundwork, as was stated, was laid by the earlier conquered
+people. The religion of the Babylonians rested on the basis of the old
+Sumerian worship. There was homage to demons, powerful for good or for
+evil, who were brought together into groups, and were figured now as
+human beings, now as lions or other wild animals, or as dragons and
+that sort of monsters. Of the great gods, _Anu_, the god of the
+sky, was the father and king of all. _Sin_, the moon-god, a
+Sumerian divinity, at the outset had the highest rank. _Bel_, or
+_Baal_, however, a Semitic divinity, was the god of the earth,
+and particularly of mankind.  _Ea_ was the god of the deep, and
+of the underworld. The early development of astrology and its great
+influence in old Babylon were closely connected with the supposed
+association of the luminaries above with the gods. The stars were
+thought to indicate at the birth of a child what his fortunes would
+be, and to afford the means of foretelling other remarkable
+events. _Ishtar_, a goddess of war and of love, was worshiped
+also under the name _Beltis_, the Greek _Mylitta_. This
+deity embodied the _generative principle_, the spring of
+fertility, whose beneficent agency was seen in the abundant
+harvest. She was clothed with sensual attributes, and propitiated with
+unchaste rites. It was in the worship of this divinity that the coarse
+and licentious side of the Semitic nature expressed itself. At the
+same time, there was an opposite ascetic side in the service of this
+deity. Her priests were eunuchs: they ministered at her altar in
+woman's attire. On the relation of the human soul to the gods, and its
+condition after death, there was little speculation. In general, the
+Babylonians were more interested in religion and worship, than the
+Assyrians. The former erected temples; the latter, palaces.
+
+The attainments of the early Babylonians in mathematics and astronomy
+were far beyond those of the Egyptians. They divided the year into
+twelve months, and arrived at the signs of the ecliptic or zodiac. The
+week they fixed at seven days by the course of the moon. They divided
+the day into twelve hours, and the hour into sixty minutes. They
+invented weights and measures, the knowledge of which went from them
+to the other Asiatic nations. Architecture, as regards taste, was in a
+rude state. In pottery, they showed much skill and ingenuity, and
+invented the potter's wheel. In the engraving of gems, and in the
+manufacture of delicate fabrics,--linen, muslin, and silk,--they were
+expert. Trade and commerce, favored by the position of Babylon, began
+to flourish. As regards literature, the libraries of Nineveh and
+Babylon, at a later day, contained many books translated from the
+early Sumerian language. Among them are the "Gilgamesh legends," in
+which is contained a story of the flood that resembles in essential
+features the account in Genesis.
+
+
+II. THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE.
+
+GROWTH OF ITS POWER.--Assyria was even greater, as a conquering power,
+than Babylon. In the legends current among the Greeks, the building-up
+of the monarchy, and of Nineveh its capital, as well as of Babylon, is
+referred to the legendary heroes, _Ninus_ and his queen
+_Semiramis_. The name of Ninus is not recorded on the monuments,
+and is, perhaps, a kind of mythical personification of Assyrian
+conquests and grandeur; and the name of Semiramis does not appear
+until the ninth century B.C. She may have been a princess or even
+queen. Assyrian independence began before 2300 B.C. Between 1500 and
+1400 B.C., Assyria was a weak state. It gained a brief mastery over
+Babylon through a conquest by _Tukulti-Ninib_ (1300
+B.C.). _Tiglath-Pileser I_. (1100 B.C.) spread his conquests to
+the Mediterranean and the Caspian on the west, and south to the
+Persian Gulf. But these early acquisitions of Assyria were
+transient. There ensued a long interval, until the middle of the tenth
+century, when the monarchy was mostly confined within its own proper
+borders. A new series of strong and aggressive princes arose. The
+conflicts of Damascus and of the nations of Palestine with one another
+left room for the growth of the Assyrian might and for the spread of
+Assyrian dominion.  _Asshur-nasir-pal_ (formerly called
+_Sardanapalus I._) levied tribute upon Tyre, and the other rich
+cities of the Syrian coast, and founded the Assyrian rule in
+_Cilicia_. About the middle of the eighth century, the kingdom of
+Israel, having renounced its vassalage to Assyria, in league with
+_Rezin_ of Damascus, the ruler of Syria, made war upon the
+kingdom of Judah. _Ahaz_, the Judaean king, against the protest
+of the prophet _Isaiah_, invoked the aid of the Assyrian monarch,
+_Tiglath-Pileser II_. The call was answered. The league was
+overthrown by him in a great battle fought near the Euphrates, and
+numerous captives, according to the Assyrian practice, were carried
+away from Samaria and Damascus. We are told that _Ahaz_, seeing
+the offerings made by Tiglath-Pileser at Damascus, commanded his
+priests at Jerusalem, despite the remonstrance of Isaiah, to make
+offerings to the Assyrian gods. Judah, as the result of these events,
+became tributary to Assyria. All Syria, together with Babylonia, which
+was then made up of several states, western Iran, and Armenia, were
+subdued by this Assyrian conqueror. He formally assumed the title of
+"King of Babylon."  _Shalmaneser IV._ (727-722 B.C.), bent on
+completing the subjugation of Syria, subdued anew the revolted cities,
+and conquered, as it would seem, the island of _Cyprus_. Tyre
+alone, that is, the insular city of that name, withstood a siege of
+five years. _Hoshea_, the king of Israel (733-722 B.C.), in order
+to throw off the Assyrian yoke, sent an embassy to _Shabak_, the
+king of Egypt, to procure his assistance. Hearing of this,
+_Shalmaneser_ attacked Israel. After a siege of three years,
+Samaria, the capital, fell into the hands of _Sargon_, who had
+succeeded him, the kingdom of Israel was subverted, and a great part
+of the people dragged off into captivity. In 720 B.C., _Sargon_
+encountered _Shabak_, in the great battle of _Raphia_, in
+southern Palestine, whom he defeated, and put to flight. He received
+tribute from Egypt, conquered a part of Arabia, and received the
+homage of the king of _Meroe_, who made a journey from Ethiopia
+to bow before him. The reign of _Sennacherib_ (705-681 B.C.) was
+an eventful one, both for Assyria and for the neighboring
+countries. _Hezekiah_, king of Judah, hoped with the aid of Egypt
+to achieve his independence. Sennacherib was obliged to raise the
+siege of Jerusalem, after Hezekiah had vainly sought to propitiate him
+with large offerings of silver and gold; but the Assyrian was
+prevented from engaging in battle with _Tirhaka_ of Egypt by a
+great calamity that befell his army. Against Babylon, which frequently
+revolted, he was more successful. "Berodach-baladan," as he is called
+in Scripture (2 Kings, chap. 20), who at an earlier day had sent an
+embassy from Babylon to Hezekiah, was overcome, and a new ruler
+enthroned in his place. _Esarhaddon_ (681-668 B.C.) not only
+restored the Assyrian sway over Syria, Phoenicia, Cyprus, Judah, and a
+part of Arabia, countries that lost no opportunity to shake off the
+cruel and hateful rule of Nineveh, but also conquered Egypt, and
+parceled it out among twenty governors. By Esarhaddon, or by his
+successor, _Manasseh_, king of Judah, was conquered, and carried
+off as a captive, but afterwards restored to his throne. Assyria was
+now at the summit of its power. _Asshur-bani-pal V._ (668-626
+B.C.), called Sardanapalus, although he lost Egypt, confirmed the
+Assyrian power in the other subject states, and received tribute from
+_Lydia_, on the western border of Asia Minor. Under him, Assyrian
+art made its farthest advance. He was the builder of magnificent
+palaces. It is his library, dug up from the grave in which it had been
+buried for two and a half decades of centuries, that has yielded a
+vast amount of welcome information concerning Assyrian and Babylonian
+history far back into the Sumerian period.
+
+RELIGION AND ART.--It has been stated that the Assyrian culture was
+transplanted from Babylon. The religion was substantially the same,
+except that _Asshur_, the tutelary deity of the country, was made
+supreme. The Assyrians from the start were devoted to war, pillage,
+and conquest. Their unsparing cruelty and brutal treatment of their
+enemies are abundantly witnessed by their own monuments. They lacked
+the productive power in literature and art which belonged to the
+Babylonians. Although they might have built their edifices of stone,
+they generally made use of brick. Their sculptures in relief were much
+better than the full figures. They laid color upon their works in
+sculpture. But their art was merely a pictorial record of events. The
+sense of beauty and creative power were wanting. The more religious
+character of the Babylonians created a difference in the architecture
+of the two peoples. In gem-cutting both were singularly expert. The
+Assyrians gave less attention to the burial of the dead. They showed
+an aptitude for trade; and Nineveh, in the eighth and seventh
+centuries, was a busy mart.
+
+THE FALL OF ASSYRIA.--The first important blow at the Assyrian
+imperial rule was struck by the _Medes_. After nearly a century
+of resistance, they had been subdued (710 B.C.), and were subject to
+Assyria for a century after. In 640 B.C., they rose in revolt, under
+_Phraortes_, one of their native chiefs, who fell in battle. The
+struggle was continued by his son, _Cyaxares_. His plans were
+interrupted, however, by
+
+THE IRRUPTION OF THE SCYTHIANS (623 B.C.).--More than a century
+before, these wandering Asiatic tribes had begun to make predatory
+incursions into Asia Minor. When _Cyaxares_ was before Nineveh,
+they came down in greater force, and a horde of them, moving southward
+from the river Halys, invaded Syria. Jerusalem and the stronger cities
+held out against them, but the open country was devastated. They were
+met by _Psammeticus I._, king of Egypt, and bribed to turn
+back. They entered Babylonia; but _Nabopolassar_, the viceroy of
+Asshur-bani-pal (Sardanapalus), successfully defended the city of
+Babylon against their attacks. By _Cyaxares_, either these or
+another horde were defeated; but it was not until 605 B.C. that the
+region south of the Black Sea was cleared of them. The kingdom of
+_Lydia_ had now come to play an important part in the affairs of
+western Asia.
+
+  Our first knowledge of the peoples of Asia Minor is from the Homeric
+  poems (about 900 B.C.). The _Chalybeans_ were in Pontus; west
+  of them, the _Amazonians_ and _Paphlagonians_; west of
+  these, the _Mysians_; on the Hellespont, small tribes related
+  to the _Trojans_; on the Ĉgean, the _Dardanians_ and the
+  _Trojans_ (on the north), the _Carians_ and the
+  _Lycians_ (on the south); on the north-east of these last, the
+  _Phrygians_.
+
+  A large portion of the early inhabitants of Asia Minor were
+  _Semitic_, and closely related to the Syrians. Semitic
+  divinities were worshiped; a goddess, _Mylitta_, under other
+  names, was adored in Pontus, at Ephesus, in Phrygia, and in Lydia.
+
+The Lydians were of the Semitic race. _Cybele_, the female
+divinity whom they served, was the same deity whose altars were at
+Babylon, Nineveh, and Tyre. The rulers of the dynasty of the
+_Mermnadĉ, Gyges_ and his successors, spread the Lydian dominion
+until it extended to the Hellespont, and included Mysia and
+Phrygia. _Alyattes_ was able to extirpate the Cimmerian hordes
+from the Sea of Azoff, who had overrun the western part of Asia Minor,
+and to make the Halys his eastern boundary. Gyges had been slain in
+the contest with those fierce barbarians, called in the Old Testament
+_Gomer_. At first he had sought help from the Assyrians, but he
+broke away from this dependence.
+
+Liberated from the troubles of the Scythian irruption, _Cyaxares_
+formed an alliance with _Nabopolassar_, the viceroy in Babylon,
+who had revolted, and gained his independence. The Median ruler had
+subdued Armenia, and established his control as far as the Halys,
+making a treaty with Lydia. Now ensued the desperate conflict on which
+hung the fate of the Assyrian Empire. Nineveh was taken (606 B.C.) by
+the Medes under _Cyaxares_, and the Babylonians under
+_Nebuchadnezzar_, the son of Nabopolassar. The Grecian story of
+Sardanapalus burning himself on a lofty bier, is a myth. Assyria was
+divided by the _Tigris_ between the _Medes_ and
+_Babylonians._
+
+THE THREE POWERS: EGYPT.--On the fall of Nineveh, there were three
+principal powers left on the stage of action, which were bound
+together by treaty, _Lydia, Media,_ and _Babylon._ Egypt
+proved itself unable to cope with Babylonian power. _Necho,_
+during the siege of Nineveh, had attacked Syria, and defeated the Jews
+on the plain of Esdraelon, where king _Josiah_ was slain. He
+dethroned _Jehoahaz,_ Josiah's son, and enthroned
+_Jehoiakim_ in his stead. But when, in 605 B.C., he confronted
+Nebuchadnezzar at _Carchemish,_ and was defeated, he was
+compelled to give up Syria, and to retire within the boundaries of
+Egypt.
+
+
+III. THE NEW BABYLONIAN EMPIRE.
+
+TRIUMPS OF NEBUCHADNEZZAR.--Syria was now at the mercy of
+Nebuchadnezzar. He captured Jerusalem (597 B.C.), despoiled the temple
+and palace, and led away Jehoiakim as a captive. He placed on the
+throne of Judah Jehoiakim's uncle, _Zedekiah._ But this king,
+having arranged an alliance between Egypt and the Phoenician cities,
+revolted (590 B.C.), refusing to pay his tribute. Again Nebuchadnezzar
+laid siege to Jerusalem, but raised the siege, in order to drive home
+_Apries II._ (Hophra), the Egyptian ally of Zedekiah. The city
+was taken, the king's sons were killed in his presence, his own eyes
+were put out; and, after the temple and palace had been burned and the
+city sacked, he, with all the families of the upper class who had not
+escaped to the desert, was carried away to Babylon (586 B.C.). Tyre
+(the old city) in like manner was taken by assault (585 B.C.).
+
+By Nebuchadnezzar, Babylon was enlarged, and adorned on a scale of
+unequaled splendor. The new palace, with its "hanging gardens," the
+bridge over the Euphrates, the Median wall connecting the Euphrates
+and the Tigris on his northern boundary, and magnificent waterworks,
+are famous structures which belong to this reign. Wealth and luxury
+abounded. But vigor of administration fell away under his successors;
+and Babylon, after a dominion short when compared with the long sway
+of Nineveh, was conquered by _Cyrus,_ the Medo-Persian king, in
+538 B.C. The last king was _Nabonetus._
+
+THE CITY OF BABYLON.--Babylon was a city of the highest antiquity. The
+name (_Bab-ili,_ "Gate of God") is Semitic. The city is mentioned
+in the earliest cuneiform records, and from the time of Hammurabi was
+the chief city of the land. Destroyed by Sennacherib (690 B.C.), it
+was rebuilt by Esarhaddon, but not fully restored and adorned until
+the reigns of Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar.
+
+Babylon surpassed all ancient cities in size and magnificence. Its
+walls were forty miles in circumference. This extent of wall probably
+included Borsippa, or "Babylon the Second," on the right bank of the
+river. Babylon proper was mainly on the left. Within the walls were
+inclosed gardens, orchards, and fields: the space was only filled in
+part by buildings; but the whole area was laid out with straight
+streets intersecting one another at right angles, like the streets of
+Philadelphia. The wall was pierced by a hundred gates, probably
+twenty-five in each face. The Euphrates, lined with quays on both
+sides, and spanned with drawbridges, ran through the town, dividing it
+into two nearly equal parts. The city was protected without by a deep
+and wide moat. The wall was at least seventy or eighty feet in height,
+and of vast and unusual thickness. On the summit were two hundred and
+fifty towers, placed along the outer and inner edges, opposite to one
+another, but so far apart, according to Herodotus, that there was room
+for a four-horse chariot to pass between. The temple of _Bel_ was
+in a square inclosure, about a quarter of a mile both in length and
+breadth. The tower of the temple was ascended on the outside by an
+inclined plane carried around the four sides. An exaggerated statement
+of _Strabo_ makes its height six hundred and six feet. Possibly,
+this represents the length of the inclined plane. In the shrine on the
+top were a golden table and a couch; according to _Diodorus_,
+before the Persian conquest there were colossal golden images of three
+divinities, with two golden lions, and two enormous serpents of
+silver. It is thought that Herodotus may have described the splendid
+temple of _Nebo_ (now _Birs Nimrûd_), and have mistaken it,
+by reason of its enormous ruins, for the temple of _Bel_, which
+it rivaled in magnificence. The great palace is represented to have
+been larger than the temple of Bel, the outermost of its three
+inclosing walls being three miles in circumference. Its exterior was
+of baked brick. The "Hanging Gardens" was a structure built on a
+square, consisting of stages or stories, one above another, each
+supported by arches, and covered on the top, at the height of at least
+seventy-five feet, with a great mass of earth in which grew flowers
+and shrubs, and even large trees. The ascent to the top was by
+steps. On the way up were stately and elegant apartments. The smaller
+palace was on the other side of the river.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Works on Oriental History mentioned on p. 42. Tiele,
+  _Babylonisch-assyrische Geschichte_ (1888); Kaulen, _Assyrien
+  und Babylonien_ (5th ed., 1899); Rogers, _History of Babylonia
+  and Assyria_ (1901); Goodspeed, _History of the Babylonians and
+  Assyrians_ (1902); King, Articles _Assyria_ and
+  _Babylonia_ in the _Encyclopedia Biblica_; Sayce,
+  _Babylonians and Assyrians: Life and Customs_ (1899); Schrader,
+  _The Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament_; Jastrow,
+  _Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_ (1898); Perrot & Chipiez,
+  _Histoire de l'art dans l'antiquité_, vol. ii., _Chaldèe et
+  Assyrie_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.  THE PHOENICIANS AND CARTHAGINIANS.
+
+
+PHOENICIA.--A narrow strip of territory separates the mountains of
+Syria and Palestine from the Mediterranean. Of this belt the northern
+part, west of Lebanon, about one hundred and fifty miles long, varies
+in width from five to fourteen miles. In some places the cliffs
+approach close to the sea. This belt of land was occupied by the first
+of the great maritime and commercial peoples of antiquity, the
+Phoenicians. Their language was Semitic, closely akin to Hebrew.
+
+COMMERCE AND PROSPERITY OF THE PHOENICIANS.--The most important of the
+Phoenician cities were Sidon--which was the first of them to rise to
+distinction and power--and Tyre, which became more famous as a mart,
+and comprised, besides the town on the coast, New Tyre, the city built
+on the neighboring rocky island. In New Tyre was the sanctuary of the
+tutelary god, _Melkart_. The spirit of trade stimulated
+ingenuity. The Phoenicians were noted for their glass, their purple
+dyes, their improved alphabet, and knowledge of the art of writing. In
+mining and in casting metals, in the manufacture of cloth, in
+architecture, and in other arts, they were not less proficient. From
+their situation they naturally became a seafaring race. Not only did
+they transport their cargoes of merchandise to the islands and shores
+of the Mediterranean, conveying thither not merely the fruits of their
+own industry and skill, but also the productions of the East: they
+ventured to steer their vessels beyond the Strait of Gibraltar; and,
+if they did not procure amber directly from the North Sea, they
+brought tin either directly from Cornwall or from the Scilly
+Islands. Through the hands of Phoenician merchants "passed the gold
+and pearls of the East, the purple of Tyre, slaves, ivory, lions' and
+panthers' skins from the interior of Africa, frankincense from Arabia,
+the linen of Egypt, the pottery and fine wares of Greece, the copper
+of Cyprus, the silver of Spain, tin from England, and iron from Elba."
+These products were carried wherever a market could be found for
+them. At the instigation of Necho, king of Egypt (610-594 B.C.), they
+are said to have made a three years' voyage round the southern cape of
+Africa.
+
+COLONIES: OPULENCE.-The Phoenicians were the first great colonizing
+nation of antiquity. It was the fashion of Assyrians and other
+conquerors to transport to their own lands multitudes of people, whom
+they carried away as captives from their homes. The Phoenicians--in
+this particular the forerunners of the Greeks and of the Dutch and the
+English--planted trading settlements in Cyprus and Crete, on the
+islands of the Ĉgean Sea, in southern Spain, and in North
+Africa. _Cadiz_, one of the oldest towns in Europe, was founded
+by these enterprising traders (about 1100 B.C.). _Tarshish_ was
+another of their Spanish settlements. "Ships of Tarshish," like the
+modern "East Indiamen," came to signify vessels capable of making long
+voyages. The coast of modern Andalusia and Granada belonged to the
+Phoenicians. Through caravans their intercourse was not less lively
+with the states on the Euphrates, with Nineveh and Babylon, as well as
+with Egypt. Tyre was a link between the East and the West.
+
+HIRAM: SETTLEMENT OF CARTHAGE.--The Tyrian power attained to its
+height under King _Hiram I._, the contemporary and ally of
+_Solomon_. Two Greek historians make his reign to extend from 969
+to 936 B.C. The alliance with Solomon extended the traffic of Tyre,
+and increased its wealth. Hiram connected old and New Tyre by a
+bridge. The Tyrians adorned their city with stately palaces and
+temples, and built strong fortifications. Engrossed in manufactures
+and commerce, and delighting in the affluence thus engendered, the
+Phoenicians were not ambitious of conquest. Although conquerors upon
+the sea, they were not a martial people: like commercial states
+generally, they preferred peace. Of the people of Laish (Dan), it is
+said in the Book of Judges (xviii. 7), "They dwelt careless, after the
+manner of the Zidonians, quiet and secure." This pacific temper was
+coupled with a fervent attachment to their own land and to their
+countrymen wherever they went. But they lacked the political
+instinct. They did not appreciate liberty, and their love of traffic
+and of gain often made them prefer to pay tribute rather than to
+fight. Their colonies were factories, but were not centers of further
+conquest, or germs of political communities. When, the family of
+_Hiram_ was exterminated (about 850 B.C.) by the high-priest of
+the goddess Astarte, who seized on power, civil strife and disorder
+ensued. _Pygmalion_, the great-grandson of the high-priest, as it
+is related by a Grecian authority, slew his uncle, who was to marry
+Pygmalion's sister, _Elissa_. On account of this internal
+conflict, and from dread of the Assyrian power, a large number of the
+old families emigrated to North Africa, and founded Carthage (about
+814 B.C.).
+
+The Phoenician cities were confederated together under hereditary
+kings, whose power was limited by the lay and priestly
+aristocracy. The common people, many of whom were skilled artisans,
+made themselves felt in some degree in public affairs. The mercantile
+class were influential. Thus there was developed a germinant municipal
+feeling and organization. The "strong city," Tyre, is mentioned in
+_Joshua_ xix. 29. In _Isaiah_ xxiii., Tyre is described as
+"the crowning city, whose merchants are princes, whose traffickers are
+the honourable of the earth." "He stretched out his hand over the sea,
+he shook the kingdoms."  The fate of Babylon is pointed at by the
+Prophet, to show what Tyre had to expect from Assyria. Later, before
+the conquest by Nebuchadnezzar, _Ezekiel_ thus speaks of Tyre
+(chap, xxvii.): "They have taken cedars from Lebanon to make masts for
+thee." "Of the oaks of Bashan have they made thine oars." "Tarshish
+was thy merchant."
+
+RELIGION AND LETTERS.--A very prominent feature of the religion of the
+Phaenicians is the local character of their divinities. The word
+_baal_("lord" or "god") was not used in Phaenicia as the proper
+name of any one god. But such names as _Baal-sidon_, "Lord of
+Sidon," _Baal-libanon_, "God of Lebanon," etc., are
+common. _Astarte_ was the most common name for the local female
+divinities. The gods were often thought of as dwelling in stones,
+trees, and other objects; the worship of stone-pillars and sacred
+poles (_ashera_; translated "grove" in the English Bible) was
+especially common in Phaenicia. On the other hand, a "god of heaven"
+and a "goddess of heaven" were worshiped. In the religion of the
+Phaenicians, the more elevated ingredients of the Semitic heathenism
+are in the background. The sensual features of it are more prominent,
+and savage elements are introduced. It was more adapted to foster than
+to check lust and cruelty. To Astarte, maidens sacrifice their
+chastity. There was the same double ritual, made up of gross
+sensuality on the one hand, and of ascetic practices by the priesthood
+on the other, that belonged to the service of Mylitta at
+Babylon. Human sacrifice by fire was another horrible
+feature. Children, especially, were offered to _El _("god";
+possibly also called _Melek_ (Moloch), "the king," as among the
+Hebrews). To appease him at Tyre and Carthage, girls and boys,
+sometimes in large numbers, and of the highest families, were cast
+into the flames; while the wailing of their relatives, if it was not
+stifled by themselves at the supposed demand of piety, was drowned by
+the sound of musical instruments. As late as 310 B.C., when Agathocles
+was besieging Carthage, and had reduced the city to the direst
+straits, we are told that the people laid two hundred boys of their
+noblest families upon the arms of the brazen image of the god, whence
+they were allowed to fall into the fire beneath. On similar occasions,
+even the head of the state sometimes offered himself as a
+sacrifice. _Hamilcar_, the Carthaginian, son of Hanno, in Sicily,
+when the tide of battle was turning against him, threw himself into
+the fire (480 B.C.). Juba, king of Numidia, prepared to do the same
+after the battle of Thapsus. Large and costly temples were built,
+generally in the Egyptian style. Such were the temples of
+_Melkart_ at Tyre and Cadiz, of _Eshmun_ at Sidon, and of
+"the Lady of Byblos" at that city. Nature--as dying in the autumn, and
+again reviving in the spring--is figured as the god _Adonisz_,
+who is honored first by a protracted season of mourning, and then by a
+joyous festival.
+
+The Phoenicians were not a literary people. Their alphabet (invented
+by them?) was the old Semitic alphabet. Every character represented a
+sound. From the Phaenicians it spread, and became the mother of most
+of the graphic systems now existing. Cadmus, however, by whom it was
+said to be carried to the Greeks, is a fabulous person. The alleged
+history of _Sanchuniathon_, which was published in Greek by
+_Philo_ of Byblus, in the second century A.D., is now generally
+believed to be the work of Philo himself.
+
+HISTORICAL EVENTS.--In the struggles against the Mesopotamian empires,
+the Phaenicians defended themselves with valor and perseverance. When
+_Sargon_ (722-705 B.C.) had subjugated their cities on the
+mainland, insular Tyre for five years repelled his assaults, although
+the conduits bringing fresh water from the shore were cut off, and the
+besieged were obliged to content themselves with the scanty supply to
+be gained from wells dug with great labor. Soon the Tyrian fleets
+regained their mastery on the sea. When Nebuchadnezzar captured old
+Tyre, and a multitude of its inhabitants shared the lot of the Jews,
+and were dragged off by the conqueror to the Euphrates, the island
+city withstood his attack for thirteen years, and did not yield until
+it extorted from him a treaty. But the power of resistance was
+weakened by the repeated invasions and domination of Nineveh and
+Babylon. Tyre submitted to Persia after the downfall of the Babylonian
+monarchy, and added her fleet to the Persian forces; although to the
+Phoenician towns was left a degree of freedom and their local
+government. Sidon, Tyre, and Arados had a council of their own, which
+met with their respective kings and senators at Tripolis, for the
+regulation of matters of common interest. Manufactures and commerce
+continued to flourish. Under the Persian supremacy, Sidon once more
+became the chief city. In the middle of the fourth century B.C., it
+revolted against the tyranny of the foreign governors. The Persian
+king, _Ochus_, ordered that the noblest citizens should be put to
+death; whereupon the inhabitants set the city on fire, and destroyed
+themselves and their treasures in the flames. Tyre remained, but
+ventured to resist _Alexander the Great_, after his conquest of
+the Persians, and by him was captured and partly demolished (332
+B.C.). After the death of Alexander, the Phoenicians fell under the
+sway of the _Seleucidĉ_ at Antioch, and, for a time, of the
+Egyptian _Ptolemies_. Both Tyre and Sidon were rebuilt, and
+flourished anew. It is probably to the third century B.C. that we
+should assign the native Sidonian dynasty which included the Kings
+_Eshmunazar I., Sedek-yaton, Tabnit, Bodashtart_, and
+_Eshmunazar II._, whose names are known to us from inscriptions.
+In the time of the last-named king, the cities Dor and Joppa, with the
+plain of Sharon, belonged to Sidon.
+
+CARTHAGINIAN HISTORY.--The most prominent of all the Phoenician
+settlements was Carthage. It had remarkable advantages of
+situation. Its harbor was sufficient for the anchorage of the largest
+vessels, and it had a fertile territory around it. These
+circumstances, in conjunction with the energy of its inhabitants,
+placed it at the head of the Phoenician colonies. In Carthage, there
+was no middle class. There were the rich landholders and merchants,
+and the common people. The government was practically an
+oligarchy. There were two kings or judges (_Shofetes_), with
+little power, and a _council_ or _senate_; possibly a second
+council also. But the senate and magistrates were subordinate to an
+aristocratic body, the _hundred judges_. The bulk of the citizens
+had little more than a nominal influence in public affairs.
+
+ASCENDENCY OF CARTHAGE.-When the Greeks (about 600 B.C.)  spread their
+colonies, the rivals of the Phoenician settlements, in the west of the
+Mediterranean, Carthage was moved to deviate from the policy of the
+parent cities, and to make herself the champion, protector, and
+mistress of the Phoenician dependencies in all that region. Thus she
+became the head of a North-African empire, which asserted its
+supremacy against its Greek adversaries in Sicily and Spain, as well
+as in Lybia. When Tyre was subjugated by Persia, Carthage was
+strengthened by the immigration of many of the best Tyrian
+families. As the Tyrian strength waned, the Carthaginian power
+increased. _Syracuse_, in Sicily, became the first Greek naval
+power, and the foremost antagonist of the Carthaginian dominion. In
+480 B.C., Carthage made war upon the Greek cities in Sicily. The
+contest was renewed from time to time. In the conflicts between
+439-409 B.C., she confirmed her sway over the western half of the
+island. In later conflicts (317-275 B.C.), in which _Agathocles_,
+tyrant of Syracuse, was a noted leader of the Greeks, and, after his
+death, _Pyrrhus_, king of Epirus, was their ally, Carthage
+alternately lost and regained her Sicilian cities. But the result of
+the war was to establish her maritime ascendency.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Works mentioned on pp. 16, 42: Pietschmann,
+  _Geschichte der Phönizier_ (1889); Rawlinson, _History of
+  Phoenicia_ (1889); E. Meycr, Art. _Phoenicia_ in the
+  _Encycl. Bibl._; Perrot & Chipiez, _History of Art in
+  Phoenicia and Cyprus_, 2 vols.; Renan, _Mission de Phenicie_
+  (1874); Meltzer, _Geschichte der Karthager_; F. W. Newman's
+  _Defense of Carthage_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.  THE HEBREWS.
+
+
+PECULIARITY OF THE HEBREWS.--While the rest of the nations worshiped
+"gods many and lords many," whom they confounded with the motions of
+the heavenly bodies, or with other aspects of nature, there was one
+people which attained to a faith in one God, the Creator and Preserver
+of the universe, who is exalted above nature, and whom it was deemed
+impious to represent by any material image. More than is true of any
+other people, religion was consciously the one end and aim of their
+being. To bring the true religion to its perfection, and to give it a
+world-wide diffusion and sway, was felt by them to be their
+heaven-appointed mission. The peculiarity of their faith made them
+stand alone, and rendered them exclusive, and intolerant of the
+surrounding idolatries. The mountainous character of their land,
+separated by Lebanon from Phoenicia, and by the desert from the
+nations on the East and South, was well adapted to the work which they
+had to fulfill in the course of history.
+
+THE PATRIARCHAL AGE.--The Israelites traced their descent from
+_Abraham_, who, to escape the infection of idolatry, left his
+home, which was in _Ur_ on the lower Euphrates, and came into the
+land of Canaan, where he led a wandering life, but became the father
+of a group of nations. According to the popular narrative,
+_Isaac_, his son by _Sarah_, was recognized as the next
+chief of the family; while _Ishmael_, Abraham's son by
+_Hagar_, became the progenitor of the _Arabians_. Of the two
+sons of Isaac, _Esau_, who was a huntsman, married a daughter of
+the native people: from him sprung the _Edomites_. _Jacob_
+kept up the occupation of a herdsman. Of his twelve sons,
+_Joseph_ was an object of jealousy to the other eleven, by whom
+he was sold to a caravan of merchants on their way to Egypt. There,
+through his skill in interpreting dreams, he rose to high dignities
+and honors in the court of Pharaoh; and, by his agency, the entire
+family were allowed to settle oh the pasture-lands of _Goshen_ in
+northern Egypt (p. 40). Here in the neighborhood of _Heliopolis_,
+for several centuries, they fed their flocks. From Israel, the name
+given to Jacob, they were commonly called _Israelites_. The name
+_Hebrews_ was apparently derived from a word signifying "across
+the river" (Euphrates); but the original application is quite
+uncertain.
+
+THE EXODUS (see p. 41).--The time came when the Israelites were no
+longer well treated. A new Egyptian dynasty was on the throne. Their
+numbers were an occasion of apprehension. An Egyptian princess saved
+_Moses_ from being a victim of a barbarous edict issued against
+them. He grew to manhood in Pharaoh's court, but became the champion
+of his people. Compelled to flee, he received in the lonely region of
+_Mount Sinai_ that sublime disclosure of the only living God
+which qualified him to be the leader and deliverer of his brethren. A
+"strong east wind," parting the Red Sea, opened a passage for the
+Israelites, whom a succession of calamities, inflicted upon their
+oppressors by the Almighty, had driven Pharaoh (Menephthah?) to permit
+to depart in a body; but the returning waves ingulfed the pursuing
+Egyptian army. "The sea covered them: they sank as lead in the mighty
+waters." For a long period _Moses_ led the people about in the
+wilderness. They were trained by this experience to habits of order
+and military discipline. At _Horeb_, the Decalogue, the kernel,
+so to speak, of the Hebrew codes, the foundation of the religious and
+social life of the people, was given them under circumstances fitted
+to awaken the deepest awe. They placed themselves under Jehovah as the
+Ruler and Protector of the nation in a special sense. The worship of
+other divinities, every form of idolatry, was to be a treasonable
+offense. The laws of Jehovah were to be kept in the Ark of the
+Covenant, in the "Tabernacle," which was the sanctuary, and was
+transported from place to place. The priesthood was devolved on
+_Aaron_ and his successors, at the side of whom were their
+assistants, the _Levites_. The civil authority in each tribe was
+placed in the hands of the patriarchal chief and the "elders," the
+right of approval or of veto being left to the whole tribe gathered in
+an assembly. The heads of the tribes, with seventy representative
+elders, together with Aaron and Moses, formed a supreme council or
+standing committee. On particular occasions a congregation of all the
+tribes might be summoned. The ritual was made up of sacrifices and
+solemn festivals. The _Sabbath_ was the great weekly
+commemoration, a day of rest for the slave as well as for the master,
+for the toiling beast as well as for man. Every seventh year and every
+fiftieth year were sabbaths, when great inequalities of condition,
+which might spring up in the intervals, respecting the possession of
+land, servitude consequent on debts, etc., were removed.
+
+  Hebrew Laws.--The Israelites, in virtue of their covenant with
+  Jehovah, were to be a holy people, a nation of priests. They were
+  thus to maintain fraternal equality. There was to be no enslaving of
+  one another, save that which was voluntary and for a limited
+  time. Only prisoners not of their race, or purchased foreigners,
+  could be held as slaves. Every fiftieth year, land was to revert to
+  its original possessor. In the sabbatical years the land was not to
+  be tilled. What then grew wild might be gathered by all. There were
+  careful provisions for the benefit of the poor.
+
+HEADS OF TRIBES.--The progenitors of the tribes, the sons of Jacob, as
+given in _Exodus_, were Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar,
+Zebulon, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Joseph, and Benjamin.
+
+THE HEBREW RELIGION--Such, in brief, were the beginnings of a religion
+as unique as it was elevated in its character,--a religion which stood
+from the outset in mortal antagonism to the Egyptian worship of
+sun-gods, and to the star-worship, the service of Baal, and of sensual
+or savage divinities joined with him,--to that service which was
+diffused through the Semitic nations of western Asia. A people was
+constituted to be the guardian of this light, kindled in the midst of
+the surrounding darkness, to carry it down to later ages, and to make
+it finally, in its perfected form, the heritage of mankind.
+
+THE PROPHETS.--_Moses_ was not only a military leader and a
+legislator: he stands at the head of the _prophets_, the class of
+men who at different times, especially in seasons of national peril and
+temptation, along the whole course of Israelitish history, were raised
+up to declare the will of Jehovah, to utter the lessons proper to the
+hour, to warn evil-doers, and to comfort the desponding.
+
+CONQUEST OF CANAAN: THE ERA OF THE JUDGES.--Moses himself did not
+enter "the promised land," where the patriarchs were buried, and which
+the Israelites were to conquer. According to Deut. vii. 2, a war of
+extermination was commanded. The reason given for the command was that
+the people must avoid the contagion of idolatry, that it was the fit
+reward of the nation which they were bidden to dispossess.
+
+  The word _"Canaanite"_ was used especially to designate the
+  inhabitants of the coast region of Palestine. It was applied,
+  however, to all the tribes, who were under thirty-one kings or
+  chiefs, in the time of Joshua, There were six principal tribes,--the
+  _Hittites_, _Hivites_, _Amorites_, _Jebusites_,
+  _Perizzites_, and _Girgashites_. These, with the exception
+  of the _Hittites_, and possibly the _Amtorites_, were
+  Semitic in their language. The Canaanites had houses and
+  vineyards. From them the Israelites learned agriculture. "They were
+  in possession of fortified towns, treasures of brass, iron, gold,
+  and foreign merchandise" Their religious rites were brutal and
+  debasing,--"human sacrifice, licentious orgies, the worship of a
+  host of divinities."
+
+On the death of Moses, _Joshua_ succeeded to the post of a
+leader. He defeated the _Amontes_ and other tribes on the east of
+the Jordan. After the first victories of Joshua, each tribe carried on
+for itself the struggle with Canaanites, victory over them being often
+followed by indiscriminate slaughter. It is plain, however, especially
+from the account in the first chapter of the Book of Judges, that
+there was a process of assimilation as well as one of conquest. The
+actual settlement was effected by peaceful as well as by warlike
+methods. Resistance was stubborn, and the progress of occupation
+slow. It was not until David's time, centuries after the invasion,
+that _Jebus_, the site of Jerusalem, was captured. This delay was
+due largely to a lack of union, not to a lack of valor. The strength
+of the Israelites was in their infantry. Hence they preferred to fight
+upon the hills, rather than to cope with horsemen and chariots on the
+plains below.
+
+THE PERIOD OF THE JUDGES.--The era of the Judges extends from about
+1300 B.C. over at least two centuries. Powerful tribes--as
+_Moabites_, _Midianites_, _Ammonites_,
+_Philistines_--were unsubdued.  The land was desolated by
+constant war. It was one sure sign of the prevailing disorder and
+anarchy, that "the highways were unoccupied, and the travelers walked
+through byways" (Judg. v. 6). Not unfrequently the people forgot
+Jehovah, and fell into idolatrous practices. In this period of
+degeneracy and confusion, men full of sacred enthusiasm and of heroic
+courage arose to smite the enemies of Israel, and to restore the
+observance of the law. Of these heroic leaders, _Deborah_,
+_Gideon_, _Jepththa_, and _Samson_ were the most
+famous. There remains the song of Deborah on the defeat and death of
+_Sisera_ (Judg. v.).
+
+The _Philistines_, on the western coast, captured the sacred
+ark,--an act that spread dismay among the Israelites. Then they
+pushed on their conquests as far as the Jordan, took away from the
+Israelites their weapons, and grievously oppressed them. The
+_Ammonites_ threatened the tribes on the east of the Jordan with
+a like fate. At this juncture, an effective leader and reformer
+appeared, in the person of _Samuel_, who had been consecrated
+from his youth up to the service of the sanctuary, and whose devotion
+to the law was mingled with an ardent patriotism. He roused the
+courage of the people, and recalled them to the service of Jehovah. In
+the "schools of the prophets" he taught the young the law, trained
+them in music and song, and thus prepared a class of inspiring
+teachers and guides to co-operate with the priesthood in upholding the
+cause of religion.
+
+THE MONARCHY: SAMUEL AND SAUL.--In the distracted condition of the
+country, the people demanded a king, to unite them, and lead them to
+victory, and to administer justice. They felt that their lack of
+compact organization and defined leadership placed them at a
+disadvantage in comparison with the tribes about. This demand
+_Samuel_ resisted, as springing out of a distrust of Jehovah, and
+as involving a rejection of Him. He depicted the burdens which regal
+government would bring upon them. Later history verified his
+prediction. A strong, centralized authority was not in harmony with
+the family and tribal government which was the peculiarity of their
+system. It brought in, by the side of the prophetic order, another
+authority less sacred in its claims to respect. Collisions between the
+two must inevitably result. But, whatever might be the ideal political
+system, the exigency was such that Samuel yielded to the persistent
+call of the people. He himself chose and anointed for the office a
+tall, brave, and experienced soldier, _Saul_. Successful in
+combat, the king soon fell into a conflict with the prophet, by
+failing to comply with the divine law, and by sparing, contrary to the
+injunction laid upon him, prisoners and cattle that he had
+captured. Thereupon Samuel secretly anointed _David_, a young
+shepherd of the tribe of Judah; thus designating him for the
+throne. The envy of Saul at the achievements of David, and at his
+growing popularity, coupled with secret suspicion of what higher
+honors might be in store for the valiant youth, embittered the king
+against him. David was befriended and shielded by _Jonathan_,
+Saul's son, who might naturally be looked upon as his suitable
+successor. The memorials of the friendship of these two youths, in the
+annals of that troublous time, are like a star in the darkest
+night. David was obliged to take refuge among the Philistines, where
+he led a band of free lances, whom the Philistines did not trust as
+auxiliaries, but who were inured by their daring combats for the
+struggles that came afterwards. Saul and Jonathan were slain, Saul by
+his own hand. For six years David was king in _Hebron_, over the
+tribes of Judah and Benjamin. The other tribes were ruled by Saul's
+son, _Ishbaal_ ('Ishbosheth'). At length David was recognized as
+king by all the tribes. Saul's family were exterminated.
+
+CHRONOLOGY.--There is much difficulty in settling the chronology in
+the early centuries of the regal period of Hebrew history. Apart from
+the questions which arise in comparing the biblical data, the
+information derived from Egyptian and especially from Assyrian sources
+has to be taken into account. Hence the dates given below must be
+regarded as open to revision as our knowledge increases.
+
+Assyriologists find that Shalmaneser II. received tribute from
+_Ahab_, King of Israel, 854 B.C., and from _Jehu_, 842 B.C.;
+that _Tiglath-Pileser III_ (745-727 B.C.) received tribute from
+_Menahem_ in 738 B.C. and that Samaria fell in 722
+B.C. Assyriology, on the basis of its data, _as at present
+ascertained_, would make out a chronology something like the
+following: Era of the judges, 1300-1020; Saul, 1020-1000; David,
+1000-960; Solomon, 960-930; Reho-boam, 930-914 (Jeroboam I., 930-910);
+Jehoshaphat, 870+-850 (Ahab, 875-853); Azanah (or Uzziah), 779-740
+(Jehu, 842-815); (Jeroboam II., 783-743); (Menahem, 744-738).
+
+DAVID AND SOLOMON.--David's reign (about 1000-970 B.C.)  is the period
+of Israel's greatest power. He extended his sway as far as the Red Sea
+and the Euphrates; he overcame Damascus, and broke down the power of
+the Philistines; he subdued the Moabites, Ammonites, and Edomites; he
+conquered the Jebusites, and made Jerusalem his capital and the center
+of national worship. A poet himself, he enriched the religious
+service, which he organized, by lyrics--some of them composed by
+himself--of unrivaled devotional depth and poetic beauty. He organized
+his military force as well, and established an orderly civil
+administration. His favorite son, _Absalom_, led away by
+ambition, availed himself of disaffection among the people to head a
+revolt against his father, but perished in the attempt. David left his
+crown to _Solomon_ at the close of a checkered life, marked by
+great victories, and by flagrant misdeeds done under the pressure of
+temptation.
+
+CHARACTERS OF SOLOMON'S REIGN.--Solomon's reign (about 970-933 B.C.)
+was the era of luxury and splendor. He sought to emulate the other
+great monarchs of the time. With the help of _Hiram_, king of
+Tyre, who furnished materials and artisans, he erected a magnificent
+temple on Mount Moriah in Jerusalem. He built costly palaces. He
+brought horses from Egypt, and organized a standing army, with its
+cavalry and chariots. He established a harem, bringing into it women
+from the heathen countries, whom he allowed in their idolatrous
+rites. He was even seduced to take part in them himself. Renowned for
+his knowledge and for his wisdom--which was admired by the _Queen of
+Saba_ (Sheba), who came to visit him from the Arabian coast--famous
+as the author of wise aphorisms, he nevertheless entailed disasters on
+his country. He established a sort of Oriental despotism, which
+exhausted its resources, provoked discontent, and tended to undermine
+morality as well as religion.
+
+THE DIVIDED KINGDOM.--The bad effect of Solomon's magnificence soon
+appeared. Before his death a revolt was made under the lead of
+_Jeroboam_, which was put down. Of _Rehoboam_, the successor
+of Solomon, the ten tribes north of Judah required pledges that their
+burdens should be lightened. In the room of the heads and elders of
+the tribes, the late king's officers had come in to oppress them with
+their hard exactions. The haughty young king spurned the demand for
+redress. The tribes cast off his rule, and made _Jeroboam I._
+their king (about 933 B.C.). The temple was left in the hands of
+_Judah_ and _Benjamin_. The division of the kingdom into
+two, insured the downfall of both. The rising power of the
+Mesopotamian Empire could not be met without union. On the other hand,
+the concentration of worship at Jerusalem, under the auspices of the
+two southern tribes, may have averted dangers that would have arisen
+from the wider diffusion, and consequent exposure to corruption, of
+the religious system. The development and promotion of the true
+religion--the one great historical part appointed for the Hebrews--may
+have been performed not less effectively, on the whole, for the
+separation.
+
+HEATHEN RITES.--From this time the energetic and prolonged contest of
+the prophets with idolatry is a conspicuous feature, especially in the
+history of Israel, the northern kingdom. _Jeroboam_ set up golden
+calves at _Dan_ and _Bethel_, ancient seats of the worship
+of Jehovah. Wars with Judah and Damascus weakened the strength of
+Israel. The Egyptian king, _Shishak_, captured Jerusalem, and
+bore away the treasures collected by Solomon (p. 41). Under
+_Jehoshaphat_ (about 873-849 B.C.) the heathen altars were
+demolished and prosperity returned.
+
+STRUGGLE WITH IDOLATRY: ELIHAH AND ELISHA.--The contemporary of
+Jehoshaphat in the northern kingdom was _Ahab_ (about 876-854
+B.C.). He expended his power and wealth in the building up of
+Baal-worship, at the instigation of the Tyrian princess,
+_Jezebel_, whom he had married. At Samaria, his capital, he
+raised a temple to Baal, where four hundred and fifty of his priests
+ministered. The priests of Jehovah who withstood these measures were
+driven out of the land, or into hiding-places. The austere and
+intrepid prophet _Elijah_ found refuge in _Mount
+Carmel_. The people, on the occasion of a famine, which he declared
+to be a divine judgment, rose in their wrath, and slew the priests of
+Baal. In a war--the third of a series--which Ahab waged against
+_Syria_, he still fought in his chariot, after he had received a
+mortal wound, until he fell dead. He had previously thrown the prophet
+_Micaiah_ into prison for predicting this result. By the marriage
+of _Athalia_, a daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, with Jehoshaphat's
+son, Baal-worship was introduced into Jerusalem. _Joram_
+succeeded Ahab. The prophet _Elisha_, who followed in the steps
+of Elijah, anointed _Jehu_ "captain of the host of Joram." He
+undertook, with fierce and unsparing energy, to destroy Baal-worship,
+and to extirpate the house of Ahab, root and branch. The two kings of
+Israel and of Judah he slew with his own hand. The priests and
+servants of Baal were put to the sword. These conflicts reduced the
+strength of Israel, which fell a prey to Syria, until its power was
+revived by _Jeroboam II_. (783-743 B.C.). The death of
+_Athalia_ brought on the expulsion of the Phoenician idolatry
+from Jerusalem. The southern kingdom suffered from internal strife,
+and from wars with Israel, until _Uzziah_ (779-740 B.C.)
+restored its military strength, and caused agriculture and trade once
+more to flourish.
+
+THE ASSYRIAN CAPTIVITY.--The two kingdoms, in the ninth and eighth
+centuries, instead of standing together against the threatening might
+of Assyria, sought heathen alliances, and wasted their strength in
+mutual contention. Against these hopeless alliances, and against the
+idolatry and the formalism which debased the people, the prophets
+contended with intense earnestness and unflinching
+courage. _Amos_, called from feeding his flocks, inveighed
+against frivolity and vice, misgovernment and fraud, in
+Israel. _Hosea_ warned _Menahem_ (743-737 B.C.)  against
+invoking the help of Assyria against Damascus, but in vain. He was
+terribly punished by what he suffered from the Assyrians; but Jotham
+(740-736 B.C.) and Ahaz (736-728 B.C.), the Judaean kings,
+successively followed his example. _Tiglath-Pileser_ made Judaea
+tributary. The Assyrian rites were brought into the temple of
+Jehovah. The service of Canaanitish deities was introduced. The one
+incorruptible witness for the cause of Jehovah was the fearless and
+eloquent prophet, _Isaiah_. Hosea, king of Israel, by his
+alliance with Egypt against _Sargon_, so incensed this most
+warlike of the Assyrian monarchs, that, when he had subdued the
+Phoenician cities, he laid siege to Samaria; and, having captured it
+at the end of a siege of three years, he led away the king and the
+larger part of his subjects as captives, to the Euphrates and the
+Tigris, and replaced them by subjects of his own (722 B.C.). The later
+Samaritans were the descendants of this mixed population.
+
+The Babylonian Captivity.--When _Sargon_, the object of general
+dread, died, _Hezekiah_, king of Judah (727-699 B.C.), flattered
+himself that it was safe to disregard the warnings of Isaiah, and, in
+the hope of throwing off the Assyrian yoke, made a treaty of alliance
+with the king of Egypt, and fortified Jerusalem. He abolished,
+however, the heathen worship in "the high places."
+_Sennacherib_, Sargon's successor, was compelled to raise the
+siege (p. 46). _Manasseh_ (698-643 B.C.), in defiance of the
+prophets, fostered the idolatrous and sensual worship, against which
+they never ceased to lift their voices. _Josiah_ (640-609 B.C.)
+was a reformer. As a tributary of Babylon, he sought to prevent
+_Necho_, king of Egypt, from crossing his territory, but was
+vanquished and slain at _Megiddo_, on the plain of
+Esdraelon. _Nebuchadnezzar's_ victory over Necho, at
+_Carchemish_, enabled the Babylonian king to tread in the
+footsteps of the Assyrian conquerors. The revolt of _Zedekiah_,
+which the prophet _Jeremiah_ was unable to prevent, and his
+alliance with Egypt, led to the Babylonian captivity of the Jews. In
+this period of national ruin, the prophetic spirit found a voice
+through _Jeremiah_ and _Ezekiel_. It was during the era of
+Assyrian and Babylonian invasion that the predictions of a MESSIAH, a
+great Deliverer and righteous Ruler who was to come, assumed a more
+definite expression. The spiritual character of _Isaiah's_
+teaching has given him the name of "the evangelical prophet."
+
+_Cyrus_, the conqueror of Babylon, opened the way (538 B.C.)  for
+the return of the exiles. A small part first came back under
+_Zerubbabel_, head of the tribe of Judah, who was made Persian
+governor. They began to rebuild the temple, which was finished in 516
+B.C. Later (458 B.C.) _Ezra_ "the scribe" and _Nehemiah_ led
+home a larger body. The newly returned Jews were fired with a zeal for
+the observance of the Mosaic ritual,--a zeal which had been sharpened
+in the persecutions and sorrows of exile. The era of the
+_"hagiocracy,"_ of the supreme influence of the priesthood and
+the rigid adherence to the law, with an inflexible hostility to
+heathen customs, ensued. The spirit of which prophecy had been the
+stimulant, and partially the fruit, declined. The political
+independence of the land was gone for ever. The day of freedom under
+the _Maccabees_, after the insurrection (168 B.C.) led by that
+family against the Syrian successors of Alexander, was short. But
+Israel "had been thrown into the stream of nations." Its religious
+influence was to expand as its political strength dwindled. Its
+subjugation and all its terrible misfortunes were to serve as a means
+of spreading the leavening influence of its monotheistic faith.
+
+  In the year 63 B.C., _Pompeius_ made the Jews tributary to the
+  Romans. In the year 40 B.C., _Herod_ began to reign as a
+  dependent king under Rome.
+
+_Hebrew Literature_.--The literature of the Hebrews is
+essentially religious in its whole motive and spirit. This is true
+even of their historical writings. The marks of the one defining
+characteristic of their national life--faith in Jehovah and in his
+sovereign and righteous control--are everywhere seen. Hebrew poetry is
+mainly lyrical. Relics of old songs are scattered through the
+historical books. In the _Psalms_, an anthology of sacred lyrics,
+the spirit of Hebrew poesy attains to its highest flight. Examples of
+didactic poetry are the Book of _Job_, and books like the
+_Proverbs_, composed mainly of pithy sayings or gnomes. Nowhere,
+save in the Psalms, does the spirit of the Hebrew religion and the
+genius of the people find an expression so grand and moving as in the
+_Prophets_, of whom _Isaiah_ is the chief.
+
+ART.--In art the Hebrews did not excel. The plastic arts were
+generally developed in connection with religion. But the religion of
+the Hebrews excluded all visible representations of deity. Nor were
+they proficients in science. "Israel was the vessel in which the water
+of life was inclosed, in which it was kept cool and pure, that it
+might thereafter refresh the world."
+
+  The HISTORICAL BOOKS of the Old Testament comprise, first, the
+  _Pentateuch_, which describes the origin of the Hebrew people,
+  the exodus from Egypt, and the Sinaitic legislation. Questions
+  pertaining to the date and authorship of these five books, and of
+  the materials at the basis of them, are still debated among
+  historical critics. It may be regarded as certain, however, that
+  materials belonging to nearly every period of Hebrew literature,
+  from the earliest times, are here combined. The early part of
+  Genesis is designed to explain the genealogy of the Hebrews, and to
+  show how, step by step, they were sundered from other peoples. The
+  narratives in the first ten chapters--as the story of the creation,
+  the flood, etc.--so strikingly resemble legends of other Semitic
+  nations, especially the _Babylonians_and _Phoenicians_, as
+  to make it plain that all these groups of accounts are historically
+  connected with one another. But the Genesis narratives are
+  distinguished by their freedom from the polytheistic ingredients
+  which disfigure the corresponding narratives elsewhere. They are on
+  the elevated plane of that pure theism which is the kernel of the
+  Hebrew faith. This whole subject is elucidated by Lenormant, in
+  _The Beginnings of History_ (1882). The Book of _Joshua_
+  relates the history of the conquest of Canaan; _Judges_, the
+  tale of the heroic age of Israel prior to the monarchy; the Books of
+  _Samuel_ and of _Kings_, of the monarchy in its glory and
+  its decline; the Books of _Chronicles_ treat of parts of the
+  same era, more from the point of view of the priesthood; _Ruth_
+  is an idyl of the narrative type; _Ezra_, _Nehemiah_, and
+  _Esther_ have to do with the return of the Jews from exile, and
+  the events next following.
+
+  The POETIC WRITINGS include the _Psalter_, by many authors; the
+  _Proverbs_ of Solomon and others; _Ecclesiastes_, which
+  gives the sombre reflections of one who had tasted to the full the
+  pleasures and honors of life; the _Canticles_, or _Song of
+  Solomon_, which depicts a young woman's love in its constancy,
+  and victory over temptation.
+
+  The PROPHETS are divided into four classes: i. Those of the early
+  period from the twelfth to the ninth century, including
+  _Samuel_, _Elijah_, _Eliska_, etc, who have left no
+  prophetical writings. 2. The prophets of the Assyrian age (800-700
+  B.C.), where belong _Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah,_ and
+  _Nahum_. 3. The prophets of the Babylonian age, _Zephaniah,
+  Jeremiah, Habakkuk, Ezekiel_. Here some scholars would place a
+  part of _Isaiah_. 4. The post-exilian prophets, _Haggai,
+  Zachariah, Malackt, Jonah., Daniel, Joel, Obadiah_, and
+  considerable portions of _Isaiah_ and _Jeremiah_.
+
+  The APOCRYPHAL BOOKS belong between the closing of the Old-Testament
+  canon and the New Testament. They are instructive as to that
+  intermediate period. The _first_ Book of _Maccabees_ is
+  specially important for its historical matter; the Books of
+  _Wisdom_ and the _Son of Sirach_ for their moral
+  reflections and precepts.
+
+  WORKS RELATING TO HEBREW HISTORY.--EWALD, _History of the
+  Israelitish People_ (Eng. trans., 5 vols.); Milman, _History of
+  the Jews_ (3 vols.); Stade, _Geschichte des Volkes Israel_
+  (2 vols., 1889); Renan, _History of the People of Israel_
+  (Eng. trans., 1896); Wellhausen. _Israelitische und judische
+  Geschichte_ (3d ed., 1897); Kent, _History of the Hebrew
+  People_ (1898); Guthe, _Geschichte des Volkes Israel_
+  (1899); the Art. _Israel_ by Wellhausen, in the
+  _Encycl. Brit_., and the one by Guthe in the
+  _Encycl. Bibl._ The historical works of Jewish scholars,
+  Herzfeld, Jost, Zunz, Graetz, DERENBOURG, etc., are valuable.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.  THE PERSIANS.
+
+
+In the western part of the plateau of Iran, which extends from the
+Suleiman Mountains to the plains of Mesopotamia, were the
+_Medes_. On the southern border of the same plateau, along the
+Persian Gulf, were the _Persians_. Both were offshoots of the
+Aryan family, and had migrated westward from the region of the upper
+Oxus, from Bactria, the original seat of their religion.
+
+RELIGION.--The ancient religion of the Iranians, including the Medes
+and Persians, was reduced to a system by the Bactrian sage,
+_Zoroaster_ (or Zarathustra), who, in the absence of authentic
+knowledge respecting him, may be conjecturally placed at about 1000
+B.C. The _Zendavesta_, the sacred book of the Parsees, the
+adherents of this religion, is composed of parts belonging to very
+different dates. It is the fragment of a more extensive literature no
+longer extant. The Bactrian religion differed from that of their
+Sanskrit-speaking kindred on the Indus, in being a form of dualism. It
+grew out of a belief in good demons or spirits, and in evil spirits,
+making up two hosts perpetually in conflict with each other. At the
+head of the host of good spirits, in the Zoroastrian creed, was
+_Ormuzd_, the creator, and the god of light; at the head of the
+evil host, was _Ahriman_, the god of darkness. The one made the
+world good, the other laid in it all that is evil. The one is disposed
+to bless man, the other to do him harm. The conflict of virtue and
+vice in man is a contest for control on the part of these antagonistic
+powers. In order to keep off the spirits of evil, one must avoid what
+is morally or ceremonially unclean. He who lived pure, went up at
+death to the spirits of light. The evil soul departed to consort with
+evil spirits in the region of darkness. _Mithra_, the sun-god in
+the Zoroastrian system, is the equal, though the creature, of
+_Ormuzd_. Mithra is the conqueror of darkness, and so the enemy
+of falsehood. The Medes and Persians were fire-worshipers. To the good
+spirits, they ascribed life, the fruitful earth, the refreshing
+waters, fountains and rivers, the tilled ground, pastures and trees,
+the lustrous metals, also truth and the pure deed. To the evil spirits
+belonged darkness, disease, death, the desert, cold, filth, sin, and
+falsehood. The animals were divided between the two realms. All that
+live in holes, all that hurt the trees and the crops, rats and mice,
+reptiles of all sorts, turtles, lizards, vermin, and noxious insects,
+were hateful creatures of _Ahriman_. To kill any of these was a
+merit. The dog was held sacred; as was also the cock, who announces
+the break of day. In the system of worship, sacrifices were less
+prominent than in India. Prayers, and the iteration of prayers, were
+of great moment.
+
+THE MAGI.--The Zoroastrian religion was not the same at all times and
+in every place. The primitive Iranian emigrants were monotheistic in
+their tendencies. In their western abodes, they came into contact with
+worshipers of the elements,--fire, air, earth, and water. It is
+thought by many scholars, that the _Magian_ system, with its more
+defined dualism and sacerdotal sway, was ingrafted on the native
+religion of the Iranians through the influence of tribes with whom
+they mingled in Media. The Magi, according to one account, were
+charged by Darius with corrupting the Zoroastrian faith and
+worship. Whatever may have been their origin, they became the leaders
+in worship, and privy-counselors to the sovereign. They were likewise
+astrologers, and interpreters of dreams. They were not so distinct a
+class as the priests in India. A hereditary order, they might still
+bring new members into their ranks. From the Medes, they were
+introduced among the Persians.
+
+PERSIAN RELIGIOUS CUSTOMS.--Peculiar customs existed among the Medes
+in disposing of the dead. They were not to be cast into the fire or
+the water, or buried in the earth, for this would bring pollution to
+what was sacred; but their bodies were to be exposed in the high
+rocks, where the beasts and birds could devour them. Sacrifices were
+offered on hill-tops. Salutations of homage were made to the rising
+sun. On some occasions, boys were buried alive, as an offering to the
+divinities. In early times, there were no images of the gods. As far
+as they were introduced in later times, it was through the influence
+of surrounding nations. In the supremacy and the final victory, which,
+in the later form of Zoroastrianism, were accorded to _Ormuzd_,
+there was again an approach to monotheism. Hostility to deception of
+all sorts, and thus to stealing, was a Persian trait. _Herodotus_
+says that the Persians taught their children to ride, to shoot the
+bow, and to speak the truth. To prize the pursuits of agriculture and
+horticulture, was a part of their religion. They allowed a plurality
+of wives, and concubines with them; but there was one wife to whom
+precedence belonged. Voluntary celibacy in man or woman was counted a
+flagrant sin.
+
+HISTORY.--The first authentic notice that we have of the MEDES shows
+them under Assyrian power. This is in the time of _Shalmaneser
+II._, 840 B.C. Their rise is coincident with the fall of
+Assyria. _Phraortes_ (647-625 B.C.) began the Median struggle for
+independence; although the name of _Deioces_ is given by
+_Herodotus_ as a previous king, and the builder of
+_Ecbatana_ the capital. It was reserved for _Cyaxares_
+(625-585 B.C.), having delivered his land from the Scythian marauders
+(p. 47), to complete, in conjunction with the Babylonian king,
+_Nabopolassar_, the work of breaking down the Assyrian empire
+(p. 48). He brought under his rule the _Bactrians_, and the
+_Persians_ about _Pasargadĉ_ and _Persepolis_, and made
+the _Halys_, dividing Asia Minor, the limit of his kingdom. His
+effeminate son, _Astyages_, lost what his father had won. The
+Persian branch of the Iranians gained the supremacy. _Cyrus_, the
+leader of the Persian revolt, by whom _Astyages_ was defeated, is
+described as related to him; but this story, as well as the account of
+his being rescued from death and brought up among shepherds, is
+probably a fiction.
+
+CYRUS.--In the sixth century B.C., this famous ruler and conqueror
+became the founder of an empire which comprised nearly all the
+civilized nations of Asia. During his reign of thirty years (559-530
+B.C.), he annexed to his kingdom the two principal states, LYDIA and
+BABYLON. The king of Lydia was _Croesus_, whose story,
+embellished with romantic details, was long familiar as a signal
+example of the mutations of fortune. Doomed to be burned after the
+capture of _Sardis_, his capital, he was heard, just when the
+fire was to be kindled, to say something about _Solon_. In answer
+to the inquiry of Cyrus, whose curiosity was excited, he related how
+that Grecian sage, after beholding his treasures, had refused to call
+him the most fortunate of men, on the ground that "no man can be
+called happy before his death," because none can tell what disasters
+may befall him. Cyrus, according to the narrative, touched by the
+tale, delivered Croesus from death, and thereafter bestowed on him
+honor and confidence.
+
+  There is another form of the tradition, which is deemed by some more
+  probable. Croesus is said to have stood on a pyre, intending to
+  offer himself in the flames, to propitiate the god _Sandon_,
+  that his people might be saved from destruction; but he was
+  prevented, it is said, by unfavorable auguries.
+
+The subjection of the Greek colonies on the Asia-Minor coast followed
+upon the subjugation of Lydia. From these colonies, the
+_Phocoeans_ went forth, and founded _Elea_ in Lower Italy,
+and Massilia (Marseilles) in Gaul. The Asian Greek cities were each
+allowed its own municipal rulers, but paid tribute to the Persian
+master. The conquest of _Babylon_ (538 B.C.), as it opened the
+way for the return to Jerusalem of the Jewish exiles, enabled Cyrus to
+establish a friendly people in Judaea, as a help in fortifying his
+sway in Syria, and in opening a path to _Egypt_. But in 529 he
+lost his life in a war which he was waging against the
+_Massagetae_, a tribe on the Caspian, allied in blood to the
+Scythians.
+
+There was a tradition that the barbarian queen, _Tomyris_,
+enraged that Cyrus had overcome her son by deceit, dipped the slain
+king's head in a skin-bag of blood, exclaiming, "Drink thy fill of
+blood, of which thou couldst not have enough in thy lifetime!"
+
+CAMBYSES.--The successor of Cyrus, a man not less warlike than he, but
+more violent in his passions, reigned but seven years (529-522
+B.C.). His most conspicuous achievement was the conquest of EGYPT. One
+ground or pretext of his hostility, according to the tale of
+Herodotus, was the fact that Amasis, the predecessor of _Psammeticus
+III._, not daring to refuse the demand of his daughter as a wife,
+to be second in rank to the Persian queen, had fraudulently sent,
+either to Cambyses, or, before his time, to Cyrus, _Nitetis_, the
+daughter of the king who preceded him, Apries. Defeated at
+_Pelusium_, and compelled to yield up _Memphis_ after a
+siege, it is said that Psammeticus, the _Psammenitus_ of
+Herodotus, the unfortunate successor of the powerful Pharaohs, was
+obliged to look on the spectacle of his daughters in the garb of
+working-women, bearing water, and to see his sons, with the principal
+young nobles, ordered to execution. But this tale lacks
+confirmation. His cruelties were probably of a later date, and were
+provoked by the chagrin he felt, and the satisfaction manifested by
+the people, at the failure of great expeditions which he sent
+southward for the conquest of _Meroe_, and westward against the
+_Oasis of Ammon_. His armies perished in the Lybian deserts. Even
+the story of his stabbing the sacred steer (_Apis_), after these
+events, although it may be true, is not sanctioned by the Egyptian
+inscriptions. His attack upon Ammon probably arose, in part at least,
+from a desire to possess himself of whatever lay between Egypt and the
+Carthaginian territory. But the Phoenician sailors who manned his
+fleet refused to sail against their brethren in
+Carthage. _Cambyses_ assumed the title and character of an
+Egyptian sovereign. The story of his madness is an invention of the
+Egyptian priests.
+
+DARIUS (521-485 B.C.).--For a short time, a pretender, a Magian, who
+called himself _Smerdis_, and professed to be the brother of
+Cambyses, usurped the throne. Cambyses is said to have put an end to
+his own life. After a reign of seven months, during which he kept
+himself for the most part hidden from view, Smerdis was destroyed by a
+rising of the leading Persian families. Darius, the son of Hystaspes,
+of the royal race of the _Achaemenidae_, succeeded. He married
+_Atossa_, the daughter of Cyrus. The countries which composed an
+Oriental empire were so loosely held together that the death of a
+despot or the change of a dynasty was very likely to call forth a
+general insurrection. Darius showed his military prowess in conquering
+anew various countries, including Babylon, which had revolted. He made
+Arabia tributary, and spread the bounds of his vast empire as far as
+India and in North Africa. A mighty expedition which he organized
+against the Scythians on the Lower Danube failed of the results that
+were hoped from it. The barbarians wasted their own fields, filled up
+their wells, drove off their cattle, and fled as the army of Darius
+advanced. He returned, however, with the bulk of his army intact,
+although with a loss of prestige, and enrolled "the Scyths beyond the
+sea" among the subjects of his empire. His armies conquered the tribes
+of _Thrace_, so that he pushed his boundaries to the frontiers of
+Macedonia. The rebellion of the Greek cities on the Asia-Minor coast
+he suppressed, and harshly avenged. Of his further conflicts with the
+Greeks on the mainland, more is to be said hereafter. He had built
+_Persepolis_, but his principal seat of government appears to
+have been _Susa_. He did a great work in organizing his imperial
+system. The division into _satrapies_--large districts, each
+under a _satrap_, or viceroy--was a part of this work. He thus
+introduced a more efficient and methodical administration into his
+empire,--an empire four times as large as the empire of Assyria, which
+it had swallowed up.
+
+GOVERNMENT.--Persia proper corresponded nearly to the modern province
+of _Farsistan_ or _Fars_. The Persian Empire stretched from
+east to west for a distance of about three thousand miles, and was
+from five hundred to fifteen hundred miles in width. It was more than
+half as large as modern Europe. It comprised not less than two
+millions of square miles. Its population under Darius may have been
+seventy or eighty millions. He brought in uniformity of
+administration. In each satrapy, besides the satrap himself, who was a
+despot within his own dominion, there was at first a commander of the
+troops, and a secretary, whose business it was to make reports to the
+GREAT KING. These three officers were really watchmen over one
+another. It was through spies ("eyes" and "ears") of the king that he
+was kept informed of what was taking place in every part of the
+empire. At length it was found necessary to give the satraps the
+command of the troops, which took away one important check upon their
+power. There was a regular system of taxation, but to this were added
+extraordinary and oppressive levies. Darius introduced a uniform
+coinage. The name of the coin, "daric," is probably not derived from
+his name, however. Notwithstanding the government by satraps, local
+laws and usages were left, to a large extent, undisturbed. Great
+roads, and postal communication for the exclusive use of the
+government, connected the capital with the distant provinces. In this
+point the Persians set an example which was followed by the
+Romans. From _Susa_ to _Sardis_, a distance of about
+seventeen hundred English miles, stretched a road, along which, at
+proper intervals, were caravansaries, and over which the fleet
+couriers of the king rode in six or seven days. The king was an
+absolute lord and master, who disposed of the lives and property of
+his subjects without restraint. To him the most servile homage was
+paid. He lived mostly in seclusion in his palace. On great occasions
+he sat at banquet with his nobles. His throne was made of gold,
+silver, and ivory. All who approached him kissed the earth. His
+ordinary dress was probably of the richest silk. He took his meals
+mostly by himself. His fare was made up of the choicest
+delicacies. His seraglio, guarded by eunuchs, contained a multitude of
+inmates, brought together by his arbitrary command, over whom, in a
+certain way, the queen-mother presided. His chief diversions were
+playing at dice within doors, and hunting without. _Paradises_,
+or parks, walled in, planted with trees and shrubbery, and furnished
+with refreshing fountains and streams, were his hunting-ground. Such
+inclosures were the delight of all Persians. In war he was attended
+with various officers in close attendance on his person,--the
+stool-bearer, the bow-bearer, etc. In peace, there was another set,
+among whom was "the parasol-bearer,"--for to be sheltered by the
+parasol was an exclusive privilege of the king,--the fan-bearer,
+etc. There were certain privileged families,--six besides the royal
+clan of the _Achĉmenidĉ_, the chiefs of all of which were his
+counselors, and from whom he was bound to choose his legitimate
+wives. When the monarch traveled, even on military expeditions, he was
+accompanied by the whole varied apparatus of luxury which ministered
+to his pleasures in the court,--costly furniture, a vast retinue of
+attendants, of inmates of the harem, etc.
+
+ARMY AND NAVY.--The arms of the footman were a sword, a spear, and a
+bow. Persian bowmen were skillful. Persian cavalry, both heavy and
+light, were their most effective arm. The military leaders depended on
+the celerity of their horsemen and the weight of their numbers. It is
+doubtful whether they employed military engines. They were not wholly
+ignorant of strategy. Their troops were marshaled by nations, each in
+its own costume, the commander of the whole being in the center of the
+line of battle. The body-guard of the king was "the Immortals," a body
+of ten thousand picked footmen, the number being always kept
+intact. The enemies of the Persians, except in the case of rebels,
+were not treated with inhumanity. In this regard the Persians are in
+marked contrast with the Semitic ferocity of the Assyrians. Their
+navies were drawn from the subject-peoples. The _trireme_, with
+its projecting prow shod with iron, and its crew of two hundred men,
+was the principal, but not the only vessel used in sea-fights.
+
+LITERATURE AND ART.--A Persian youth was ordinarily taught to read,
+but there was little intellectual culture. Boys were trained in
+athletic exercises. It was a discipline in hardy and temperate
+habits. Etiquette, in all ranks of the people, was highly
+esteemed. The Persians, as a nation, were bright-minded, and not
+deficient in fancy and imagination. But they contributed little to
+science. Their religious ideas were an heirloom from remote
+ancestors. The celebrated Persian poet, _Firdousí_, lived in the
+tenth century of our era. His great poem, the _Shahnameh_, or
+Book of Kings, is a storehouse of ancient traditions. It is probable
+that the ancient poetry of the Persians, like this production, was of
+moderate merit. Of the Persian architecture and sculpture, we derive
+our knowledge from the massive ruins of _Persepolis_, which was
+burned by Alexander the Great, and from the remains of other
+cities. They had learned from Assyria and Babylon, but they display no
+high degree of artistic talent. They were not an intellectual people:
+they were soldiers and rulers.
+
+  LITERATURE--Works mentioned on pp 16, 42; _Encycl. Brit.,_
+  Art. Persia; Vaux, Persia from the Monuments (1876); Nöldeke,
+  _Aufsdtze zur persischen Geschichte_ (1887); Justi,
+  _Geschichte trans_ (1900); Markham, _General Sketch of the
+  History of Persia_ (1874).
+
+
+RETROSPECT.
+
+In Eastern Asia the _Chinese nation_ was built up, the principal
+achievement of the Mongolian race. Its influence was restricted to
+neighboring peoples of kindred blood. Its civilization, having once
+attained to a certain stage of progress, remained for the most part
+stationary. China, in its isolation, exerted no power upon the general
+course of history. Not until a late age, when the civilization of the
+Caucasian race should be developed, was the culture of China to
+produce, in the mingling of the European and Asiatic peoples, its full
+fruits, even for China herself. _India_--although the home of a
+Caucasian immigrant people, a people of the Aryan family too--was cut
+off by special causes from playing an effective part, either actively
+or passively, in the general historic movement.
+
+_Egypt_, from 1500 to 1300 B.C., was the leading community of the
+ancient world. But civilization in Egypt, at an early date,
+crystallized in an unchanging form. The aim was to preserve unaltered
+what the past had brought out. The bandaged mummy, the result of the
+effort to preserve even the material body of man for all future time,
+is a type of the leaden conservatism which pervaded Egyptian life. The
+pre-eminence of Egypt was lost by the rise of the Semitic states to
+increasing power. _Semitic_ arms and culture were in the
+ascendant for six centuries (1300 to 700 B.C.). _Babylonia_
+shares with Egypt the distinction of being one of the two chief
+fountains of culture. From Babylonia, astronomy, writing, and other
+useful arts were disseminated among the other Semitic peoples. It was
+a strong state even before 2000 B.C. Babylon was a hive of industry,
+and was active in trade, a link of intercourse between the East and
+the West. But this function of an intermediate was discharged still
+more effectively by the _Phoenicians_, the first great commercial
+and naval power of antiquity. _Tyre_ reached the acme of its
+prosperity under _Hiram_, the contemporary of _Solomon_,
+about 1000 B.C. Meantime, among the Hebrew people, the foundations of
+the true religion had been laid,--that religion of monotheism which in
+future ages was to leaven the nations. Contemporaneously, the
+_Assyrian Monarchy_ was rising to importance on the banks of the
+Tigris. The appearance, "in the first half of the ninth century B.C.,
+of a power advancing from the heart of Asia towards the West, is an
+event of immeasurable importance in the history of the world."  The
+_Israelites_ were divided. About the middle of the eighth century
+B.C., both of their kingdoms lost their independence. Assyria was
+vigorous in war, but had no deep foundation of national life. "Its
+religion was not rooted in the soil, like that of Egypt, nor based on
+the observation of the sky and stars, like that of Babylon." "Its gods
+were gods of war, manifesting themselves in the prowess of ruling
+princes." The main instrument in effecting the downfall of Assyria was
+the _Medo-Persian_ power. Through the _Medes_ and
+_Persians_, the Aryan race comes forward into conspicuity and
+control. One branch of the Iranians of Bactria, entering _India_,
+through the agency of climate and other physical influences converted
+their religion into a mystical and speculative pantheism, and their
+social organization into a caste-system under the rule of a
+priesthood. The Medes and Persians, under other circumstances, in
+contact with tribes about them, turned their religion into a dualism,
+yet with a monotheistic drift that was not wholly extinguished. The
+conquest of Babylon by _Cyrus_ annihilated Semitic power. The
+fall of _Lydia_, the conquest of _Egypt_ by _Cambyses_,
+and the victories of _Darius_, brought the world into subjection
+to Persian rule.
+
+The dates of some of the most important historical events in this
+Section are as follow
+  Menes, the first historic king of Egypt....... about 4000 B.C.
+  Accession of Ramses II. to the Egyptian throne...... 1340 B.C.
+  Rise of the Babylonian kingdom................ about 4000 B.C.
+  Reign of Hiram at Tyre, and of Solomon........ about  950 B.C.
+  Assyrian captivity: downfall of Israel............... 722 B.C.
+  Fall of Nineveh...................................... 606 B.C.
+  Babylonian captivity: downfall of Judah.............. 586 B.C.
+  Reign of Cyrus begins................................ 559 B.C.
+  Fall of Lydia: capture of Sardis..................... 546 B.C.
+  Fall of Babylon...................................... 538 B.C.
+  Reign of Darius begins............................... 521 B.C.
+
+BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION.--In the history of _Western Asia_ we
+discern the beginnings of civilization and of the true religion. In
+the room of useless and destructive tribal warfare, great numbers are
+banded together under despotic rule. CITIES were built, where property
+and life could be protected, and within whose massive walls of vast
+circumference the useful arts and the rudiments of science could
+spring up. Trade and commerce, by land and sea, naturally
+followed. Thus nations came to know one another. Aggressive war and
+subjugation had a part in the same result. The power of the peoples of
+western Asia, the guardians of infant civilization, availed to keep
+back the hordes of barbarians on the north, or, as in the case of the
+great Scythian invasion (p. 47), to drive them back to their own
+abodes.
+
+DEFECTS OF ASIATIC CIVILIZATION.--But the civilization of the Asiatic
+empires had radical and fatal defects. The development of human nature
+was in some one direction, to the exclusion of other forms of human
+activity. As to knowledge, it was confined within a limit beyond which
+progress was slow. The _geometry_ of Egypt and the
+_astronomy_ of Babylon remained where the necessity of the
+pyramid-builders and the superstition of the astrologers had carried
+them. Even the art of war was in a rudimental stage. In battle, huge
+multitudes were precipitated upon one another. There are some
+evidences of strategy, when we reach the campaigns of Cyrus. But war
+was full of barbarities,--the destruction of cities, the expatriation
+of masses of people, the pitiless treatment of
+captives. _Architecture_ exhibits magnitude without
+elegance. Temples, palaces, and tombs are monuments of labor rather
+than creations of art. They impress oftener by their size than by
+their beauty. _Statuary_ is inert and massive, and appears
+inseparable from the buildings to which it is
+attached. _Literature_, with the exception of the Hebrew, is
+hardly less monotonous than art. The religion of the Semitic nations,
+the _Hebrews_ excepted, so far from containing in it a purifying
+element, tended to degrade its votaries by feeding the flame of
+sensual and revengeful passion. What but debasement could come from
+the worship of Astarte and the Phoenician El?
+
+The great empires did not assimilate the nations which they
+comprised. They were bound, but not in the least fused, together.
+Persia went farther than any other empire in creating a uniform
+administration, but even the Persian Empire remained a conglomerate of
+distinct peoples.
+
+ORIENTAL GOVERNMENT.--The government of the Oriental nations was a
+despotism. It was not a government of laws, but the will of the one
+master was omnipotent. The counterpart of tyranny in the ruler was
+cringing, abject servility in the subject. Humanity could not thrive,
+man could not grow to his full stature, under such a system. It was on
+the soil of Europe and among the Greeks that a better type of manhood
+and a true idea of liberty were to spring up.
+
+
+
+
+DIVISION II.  EUROPE.
+
+
+PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.--The Alps, continued on the west by the Pyrenees
+and the Cantabrian mountains, and carried eastward to the Black Sea by
+the Balkan range, form an irregular line, that separates the three
+peninsulas of Spain, Italy, and Greece from the great plain of central
+Europe. On the north of this plain, there is a corresponding system of
+peninsulas and islands, where the Baltic answers in a measure to the
+Mediterranean. This midland sea, which at once unites and separates
+the three continents, is connected with the Atlantic by the narrow
+Strait of Gibraltar, and on the east is continued in the Aegean Sea,
+or the Archipelago, which leads into the Hellespont, or the Strait of
+the Dardanelles, thence onward into the Propontis, or Sea of Marmora,
+and through the Bosphorus into the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azoff
+beyond. From the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean the Mediterranean is
+parted by a space which is now traversed by a canal. The irregularity
+of the coast-line is one of the characteristic features of the
+European continent. Especially are the northern shores of the
+Mediterranean indented by arms of the sea; and this, along with the
+numerous islands, marks out the whole region as remarkably adapted to
+maritime life and commercial intercourse.
+
+ITS INHABITANTS.--Europe was early inhabited by branches of the
+_Aryan_ race. The cradle or primitive seat of the Aryan family
+--from which its two main divisions, the European and the Asiatic,
+went forth--is not known. It is a matter of theory and debate. We find
+the _Graeco-Latin_ peoples on the south, the more central nations
+of _Celtic_ speech, the more northern _Teutons_, and in the
+north-east the _Slavonians_. But how all these Aryan branches are
+mutually related, and of the order and path of their prehistoric
+migrations, little is definitely known. The _Celts_ were
+evidently preceded by _non-Aryan_ inhabitants, of whom the
+_Basques_ in Spain and France are a relic. The
+_Celtiberians_ in Spain, as the name implies, were a mixture of
+the _Celts_ with the native non-Aryan _Iberians_. The
+_Greeks_ and the _Italians_ had a common ancestry, as we
+know by their languages; but of that common ancestry neither Greeks
+nor Latins in the historic period retained any recollection; nor can
+we safely affirm, that, of that earlier stock, they alone were the
+offspring.
+
+  "All the known Indo-European languages," writes Professor Whitney,
+  "are descended from a single dialect, which must have been spoken at
+  some time in the past by a single limited community, by the spread
+  and emigration of which--not, certainly, without incorporating also
+  bodies of other races than that to which itself belonged by
+  origin--it has reached its present wide distribution." "Of course,
+  it would be a matter of the highest interest to determine the place
+  and period of this important community, were there any means of
+  doing so; but that is not the case, at least at present." "The
+  condition of these languages is reconcilable with any possible
+  theory as to the original site of the family." "One point is
+  established, that 'the separation of the five European branches must
+  have been later than their common separation from the two Asiatic
+  branches,' the Iranians and Indians."  (Whitney's _The Life and
+  Growth of Language_, pp. 191, 193.)
+
+
+
+
+SECTION I.  GRECIAN HISTORY.
+
+
+THE LAND.--"Greeks" is not a name which the people who bore it applied
+to themselves. It was a name given them by their kinsfolk, the
+Romans. They called themselves _Hellenes_, and their land they
+called _Hellas_. Hellas, or Greece proper, included the southern
+portion of the peninsula of which it is a part, the portion bounded on
+the north by Olympus and the Cambunian Mountains, and extending south
+to the Mediterranean. Its shores were washed on the east by the
+Aegean, on the west by the Adriatic, or Ionian Gulf. The length of
+Hellas was about two hundred and fifty English miles: its greatest
+width, measured on the northern frontier, or from Attica on a line
+westward, was about a hundred and eighty miles. It is somewhat smaller
+than Portugal.
+
+Along its coast are many deep bays. Long and narrow promontories run
+out into the sea. Thus a great length is given to the sea-coast, which
+abounds in commodious harbors. The tideless waters are safe for
+navigators. Scattered within easy distance of the shore are numerous
+islands of great fertility and beauty. So high and rugged are the
+mountains that communication between different places is commonly
+easier by water than by land. A branch of the Alps at the forty-second
+parallel of latitude turns to the south-east, and descends to
+_Toenarum_, the southern promontory. On either side, lateral
+branches are sent off, at short intervals, to the east and the
+west. From these in turn, branches, especially on the east, are thrown
+out in the same direction as the main ridge; that is, from north to
+south. Little room is left for plains of much extent. _Thessaly_,
+with its single river, the _Peneus_, was such a plain. There were
+no navigable rivers. Most of the streams were nothing more than
+winter-torrents, whose beds were nearly or quite dry in the
+summer. They often groped their way to the sea through underground
+channels, either beneath lakes or in passages which the streams
+themselves bored through limestone. The physical features of the
+country fitted it for the development of small states, distinct from
+one another, yet, owing especially to the relations of the land to the
+sea, full of life and movement.
+
+THE GRECIAN STATES.--The territory of Greece included (1) Northern
+Greece, comprising all north of the Malian (Zeitoum) and Ambracian
+(Arta) gulfs; (2) Central Greece, extending thence to the Gulf of
+Corinth; (3) the peninsula of Peloponnesus (Morea) to the south of the
+isthmus. The country was occupied, in the flourishing days of Greece,
+by not less than seventeen states.
+
+_Northern Greece_ contained two principal countries,
+_Thessaly_ and _Epirus_, separated from one another by the
+_Pindus_. Thessaly was the largest and most fertile of the
+Grecian states. The _Peneus_, into which poured the mountain
+streams, passed to the sea through a narrow gorge, the famous _Vale
+of Tempe_. In the mountainous region of _Epirus_ were numerous
+streams flowing through the valleys. Within it was the ancient
+_Dodona_, the seat of the oracle. _Magnesia_, east of
+Thessaly, on the coast, comprised within it the two ranges of
+_Ossa_ and _Pelion_. _Central Greece_ contained eleven
+states. _Malis_ had on its eastern edge the pass of
+_Thermopylae_. In _Phocis_, on the southern slope of Mount
+Parnassus, was _Delphi_. _Boeotia_ was distinguished for the
+number and size of its cities, the chief of which was _Thebes_.
+_Attica_ projected from Boeotia to the south-east, its length
+being seventy miles, and its greatest width thirty miles. Its area was
+only about seven hundred and twenty square miles. It was thus only a
+little more than half as large as the State of Rhode Island, which has
+an area of thirteen hundred and six square miles. Its only important
+town was _Athens_. Its rivers, the _Ilissus_ and the two
+_Cephissusses_, were nothing more than torrent courses. In
+_Southern Greece_ were eleven countries. The territory of
+_Corinth_ embraced most of the isthmus, and a large tract in
+Peloponnesus. It had but one considerable city, _Corinth_, which
+had two ports,--one on the Corinthian Gulf, _Lechoeum_, and the
+other on the Saronic Gulf, _Cenchreae_. _Arcadia_, the
+central mountain country, has been called the Switzerland of
+Peloponnesus. It comprised numerous important towns, as
+_Mantinea_, _Orchomenus_, and, in later times,
+_Megalopolis_. In the south-east was _Laconia_, with an area
+of about nineteen hundred square miles. It consisted mainly of the
+valley of the _Eurotas_, which lay between the lofty mountain
+ranges of _Parnon_ and _Taygetus_. "Hollow Lacedaemon" was a
+phrase descriptive of its situation. _Sparta_, the capital, was
+on the _Eurotas_, twenty miles from the sea. It had no other
+important city. _Argolis_, projecting into the sea, eastward of
+Arcadia, had within it the ancient towns of _Mycenae_ and
+_Argos_.
+
+THE ISLANDS.--It must be remembered that the waters between Europe and
+Asia were not a separating barrier, but a close bond of
+connection. There is scarcely a single point "where, in clear weather,
+a mariner would feel himself left in a solitude between sky and water;
+the eye reaches from island to island, and easy voyages of a day lead
+from bay to bay." Greek towns, including very ancient places, were
+scattered along the western coast of Asia Minor, between the mountains
+and the shore. The Aegean was studded with Greek islands. These,
+together with the islands in the Ionian Sea, on the west, formed a
+part of Greek territory.
+
+The principal island near Greece was _Euboea_, stretching for a
+hundred miles along the east coast of Attica, Boeotia, and Locris. On
+the opposite side of the peninsula, west of Epirus, was the smaller
+but yet large island of _Corcyra_ (Corfu). On the west, besides,
+were _Ithaca_, _Cephallenia_, and _Zacynthus_ (Zante);
+on the south, the _Oenussae_ Islands and _Cythera_; on the
+east, _Aegina_, _Salamis_, etc. From the south-eastern
+shores of Euboea and Attica, the _Cyclades_ and _Sporades_
+extended in a continuous series, "like a set of stepping-stones,"
+across the Aegean Sea to Asia Minor. From Corcyra and the
+Acroceraunian promontory, one could descry, in clear weather, the
+Italian coast. These were all littoral islands. Besides these, there
+were other islands in the northern and central Aegean, such as
+_Lemnos_, _Samothrace_, _Delos_, _Naxos_, etc.;
+and in the southern Aegean, _Crete_, an island mountainous but
+fertile, a hundred and fifty miles in length from east to west, and
+about fifteen in breadth, and containing more than two thousand square
+miles. The Greek race was still more widely diffused through the
+settlements in and about the western Mediterranean.
+
+THE BOND OF RACE.--The Greeks, or Hellenes, were not so much a nation
+as a united race. Politically divided, they were conscious of a
+fraternal bond that connected them, wherever they might be found, and
+parted them from the rest of mankind. Their sense of brotherhood is
+implied in the fabulous belief in a common ancestor named
+_Hellen_. Together with a fellowship in _blood_, there was a
+community in _language_, notwithstanding minor differences in
+dialect. Moreover, there was a common religion. They worshiped the
+same gods. They had the same ritual, and cherished in common the same
+beliefs respecting things supernatural. In connection with these ties
+of _blood_, of _language_, and of _religion_, they
+celebrated together great national festivals, like the Olympic games,
+in which Greeks from all parts of the world might take part, and into
+which they entered with a peculiar enthusiasm. As the Jews, following
+the impulses of a holier faith, went up to Jerusalem to celebrate as
+one family their sacred rites; so the Greeks repaired to hallowed
+shrines of Zeus or Apollo, assembling from afar on the plain of
+Olympia and at the foot of Parnassus.
+
+
+DIVISIONS OF GREEK HISTORY.
+
+Greek history embraces _three general periods_. The first is the
+formative period, and extends to the Persian wars, 500 B.C. The second
+period covers the flourishing era of Greece, from 500 B.C. to 359
+B.C. The third is the Macedonian period, when the freedom of Greece
+was lost,--the era of Philip and Alexander, and of Alexander's
+successors.
+
+PERIOD I. is divided into (1) the mythical or prehistoric age,
+extending to 776 B.C.; (2) the age of the formation of the principal
+states. PERIOD II. includes (1) the Persian wars, 502-479 B.C.; (2)
+the period of Athenian supremacy, 478-431 B.C.; (3) the Peloponnesian
+war, 431-404 B.C., with the Spartan, followed by the Theban
+ascendency, 404-362 B.C. PERIOD III. includes (1) the reigns of Philip
+and Alexander, 359-323 B.C.; (2) the kingdoms into which the empire of
+Alexander was divided.
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD I.  GREECE PRIOR TO THE PERSIAN WARS.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I. THE PREHISTORIC AGE.
+
+
+ORIGIN OF THE GREEKS--Before the Hellenes parted from their Aryan
+ancestry, they had words for "father," "mother," "brother," "son," and
+"daughter," as well as for certain connections by marriage. They lived
+in houses, pastured flocks and herds, possessed dogs and horses. They
+had for weapons, the sword and the bow. "They knew how to work gold,
+silver, and copper; they could count up to a hundred; they reckoned
+time by the lunar month; they spoke of the sky as the
+'heaven-father.'" The differences between the Greek and the Latin
+languages prove, also, that the Greeks and Italians, after their
+common progenitors broke off from the primitive Aryan stock, had long
+dwelt apart. The Greeks, when they first become known to us in
+historical times, consist of two great branches, the _Dorians_
+and _Ionians,_ together with a less distinct branch, the
+_Aeolians,_ which differs less, perhaps, from the parent
+_Hellenes_ than do the two divisions just named.
+
+It is a probable opinion of scholars, that the halting-place of the
+Hellenes, whence, in successive waves, they passed over into Greece,
+was _Phrygia,_ in the north-west of Asia Minor. Preceding the
+Greeks both in northern Greece and in Peloponnesus, and spread over
+the coasts and islands of the Archipelago, was a people of whom they
+had an indistinct knowledge, whom they called _Pelasgians._ They
+were husbandmen or herdsmen. Their national sanctuary was at
+_Dodona,_ in Epirus. The "Cyclopean" ruins, composed of huge
+polygonal blocks of stone, which they left behind in various places,
+are the remnant of their walls and fortifications. The Greeks looked
+back on these Pelasgian predecessors as different from themselves. Yet
+no reminiscences existed of any hostility towards them. It is
+plausibly conjectured that this prehistoric people were emigrants from
+the region of Phrygia at a more ancient date, and that the Hellenes, a
+more energetic and gifted branch of the same stock, followed them,
+and, without force or conflict, became the founders and leaders of a
+new historic movement, in which the Pelasgians disappeared from
+view. In this second migration, the ancestors of the _Ionians_
+went down from Phrygia to the coast of Asia Minor, and began the
+career which made them a maritime and commercial people. The
+_Dorians_ crossed over to the highlands of northern Greece, where
+they became hardy mountaineers, not addicted to the sea. The one tribe
+were to be eventually the founders of _Athens_; the other, of
+_Sparta_. Besides these two main tribes, the _Aeolians_
+occupied Thessaly, Boeotia, Aetolia, and other districts. To them the
+_Achaeans_, who were supreme in Peloponnesus in the days of
+Homer, were allied.
+
+FOREIGN INFLUENCES.--Besides Phrygia, the legends of the Greeks bear
+traces of a foreign influence from _Phoenicia_ and
+_Egypt_. The Phoenicians were unquestionably early connected with
+the Greeks, first by commercial visits to Greek ports, to which they
+brought foreign merchandise. The story of _Cadmus_, who is said
+to have founded _Thebes_, and to have brought in the Phoenician
+alphabet, is fabulous. But it is probable, that, as early as the close
+of the ninth century B.C., the _alphabet_ was introduced by
+Phoenicians, and diffused over Greece. Another legend is that of
+_Cecrops_, conceived of later as an Egyptian, who is said to have
+built a citadel at Athens, and to have imported the seeds of
+civilization and religion. _Danaus_, another emigrant from Egypt,
+coming with his fifty daughters, is said to have built the citadel of
+_Argos_. In the later times, the Greeks were fond of tracing
+their knowledge of the arts to Egyptian sources. It is remarkable that
+the agents by whom germs of civilization were said to have been
+imported from abroad, though foreign, are nevertheless depicted as
+thoroughly Greek in their character. Whatever the Greeks may have owed
+to Egypt, it is probable was mainly derived from Ionians who had
+previously planted themselves in that country.
+
+THE DORIAN EMIGRATION.--It was in the prehistoric time that the
+Dorians left their homes in northern Greece, and migrated into
+Peloponnesus, where they proved themselves stronger than the Ionians
+and the Achaeans dwelling there. They left the Achaeans on the south
+coast of the Corinthian Gulf, in the district called Achaia. Nor did
+they conquer Arcadia. But of most of Peloponnesus they became
+masters. This is the portion of historic truth contained in the myth
+of the _Return of the Heraclidae_, the descendants of Hercules,
+to the old kingdom of their ancestor.
+
+MIGRATIONS TO ASIA MINOR.--The Dorian conquest is said to have been
+the cause of three distinct migrations to Asia Minor. The Achaeans,
+with their Aeolic kinsmen on the north, established themselves on the
+north-west coast of Asia Minor, _Lesbos_ and _Cyme_ being
+their strongholds, and by degrees got control in _Mysia_ and the
+_Troad_. Ionic emigrants from Attica joined their brethren on the
+same coast. The Dorians settled on the south-west coast; they also
+settled _Cos_ and _Rhodes_, and at length subdued
+_Crete_. The Dorian conquest of Peloponnesus, and the migrations
+just spoken of, were slow in their progress, and possibly stretched
+over centuries.
+
+CHARACTER OF THE GREEKS.--_Originality_ is a distinguishing trait
+of the Greeks. Whatever they borrowed from others they made their own,
+and reproduced in a form peculiar to themselves. They were never
+servile copyists. All the products of the Greek mind, whether in
+government, art, literature, or in whatever province of human
+activity, wear a peculiar stamp. When we leave Asiatic ground, and
+come into contact with the Greeks, we find ourselves in another
+atmosphere. A spirit of humanity, in the broad sense of the term,
+pervades their life. A regard for reason, a sense of order, a
+disposition to keep every thing within measure, is a marked
+characteristic. Their sense of form--including a perception of beauty,
+and of harmony and proportion--made them in politics and letters the
+leaders of mankind. "Do nothing in excess," was their favorite
+maxim. They hated every thing that was out of proportion. Their
+language, without a rival in flexibility and symmetry and in
+perfection of sound, is itself, though a spontaneous creation, a work
+of art. "The whole language resembles the body of an artistically
+trained athlete, in which every muscle, every sinew, is developed into
+full play, where there is no trace of tumidity or of inert matter, and
+all is power and life." The great variety of the spiritual gifts of
+this people, the severest formulas of science, the loftiest flights of
+imagination, the keenest play of wit and humor, were capable of
+precise and effective expression in this language "as in ductile
+play." The use of the language, so lucid and so nice in its
+discriminations, was itself an education for the young who grew up to
+hear it and to speak it. In a genial yet invigorating climate, in a
+land where breezes from the mountain and the sea were mingled, the
+versatile Greeks produced by physical training that vigor and grace of
+body which they so much admired; and they developed the civil polity,
+the artistic discernment, and the complex social life, which made them
+the principal source of modern culture. Their moral traits are not so
+admirable. As a race they were less truthful, and less marked for
+their courage and loyalty, than some other peoples below them in
+intellect.
+
+RELIGION.--In the early days, when Greece was open to foreign
+influences, the simple religion of the Aryan fathers was enlarged by
+new elements from abroad. The Tyrian deity, Melkart, appears at
+Corinth as _Melicertes_. Astarte becomes _Aphrodite_
+(Venus), who springs from the sea. The myth of _Dionysus_ and the
+worship of _Demeter_ (Ceres) may be of foreign
+origin. _Poseidon_ (Neptune), the god of the sea, and
+_Apollo_, the god of light and of healing, whose worship carried
+in it cheer and comfort, though they were brought into Greece, were
+previously known to the lonians. By _Homer_ and _Hesiod_,
+the great poets of the prehistoric age, the gods in these successive
+dynasties, their offices and mutual relations, were depicted. In
+Hesiod they stand in a connected scheme or theogony.
+
+  1. There are the twelve great gods and goddesses of Olympus, who
+  were named by the Greeks,--Zeus, Poseidon, Apollo, Arês, Hêphaestos,
+  Hermês, Hêrê, Athênê, Artemis, Aphrodite, Hestia,
+  Dêmêtêr. 2. Numerous other divinities, not included among the
+  Olympic, but some not less important than the twelve. Such are
+  Hadês, Hêlíos, Dionysus, the Charites, the Muses, the Nereids, the
+  Nymphs, etc. 3. Deities who perform special service to the greater
+  gods,--Iris, Hêbe, the Horae;, etc. 4. Deities whose personality is
+  less distinct,--Atê, Eris, Thanatos, Hypnos, etc. 5. Monsters,
+  progeny of the gods,--the Harpies, the Gorgons, Pegasus, Chimaera,
+  Cerberus, Scylla and Charybdis, the Centaurs, the Sphinx. Below the
+  gods are the demigods or heroes.
+
+LEGENDS OF HEROES.--The space which precedes the beginning of
+authentic records, the Greeks filled up with mythical tales, in which
+gods and heroes are the central figures. The heroes are partly of
+divine parentage. They are in near intercourse with the deities. Their
+deeds are superhuman, and embody those ideals of character and of
+achievement which the early Greeks cherished. The production of a
+lively imagination, before the dawn of the critical faculty or the
+growth of reflection, these tales may yet include a nucleus of
+historical incident or vague reminiscences of historical relations and
+changes. To attempt to extract these from the fictitious form in which
+they are embodied, is for the most part hopeless.
+
+The exploits of _Heracles_ (Hercules) have a prominent place in
+the legends. This hero of Argos submitted to serve a cruel tyrant,
+but, by prodigious labors (twelve in number), delivered men from
+dangerous beasts,--the Lernaean hydra, the Nemean lion, etc.,--and
+performed other miraculous services. _Theseus_, the national hero
+of Attica, cleared the roads of savage robbers, and delivered his
+country from bondage. _Minos_, the mythical legislator of Crete,
+cleared the sea of pirates, and founded a maritime state. Of the
+legendary stories, three of the most famous are _The Seven against
+Thebes The Argonautic Expedition_, and _The Trojan
+War_. I. _Laius_, king of Thebes, was told by an oracle that
+he should be killed by his son. He exposed him, therefore, as soon as
+he was born, on Mount Cithaeron. Saved by a herdsman, Oedipus was
+brought up by Polybus, king of Corinth, as his own son. Warned by the
+oracle that he should kill his father, and marry his mother, the son
+forsook Corinth, and made his abode at Thebes. Meeting Laius in a
+narrow pass, and provoked by his attendants, he slew them and him. At
+Thebes there was a female monster, the Sphinx, who propounded a
+riddle, and each day devoured a man until it should be solved. Oedipus
+won the prize which the Queen _Jocaste_ had offered; namely, the
+crown and her own hand to whomsoever should free the city. When his
+two sons and daughters had grown up, a pestilence broke out; and the
+oracle demanded that the murderer of Laius should be
+banished. Oedipus, in spite of the warnings of the blind priest,
+_Tiresias_, finds out the truth. He puts out his eyes, and is
+driven into exile by his sons, whom he curses. Under the guidance of
+his daughter _Antigone_, he finds a resting-place at
+_Colonus_, a suburb of Athens, in a grove of the
+_Eumenides_, whose function it was to avenge such crimes as his.
+He received expiation at the hands of _Theseus_, and died in a
+calm and peaceful way. This legend was the basis of some of the finest
+of the Greek dramas, "Oedipus Tyrannus," and the "Oedipus at Colonus"
+of _Sophocles_, and "The Seven against Thebes" of
+_Aeschylus_. The curse of Oedipus still rested on his sons. The
+story of _Antigone_, defying the tyrant _Creon_, and burying
+her slain brother, _Polynices_, is the foundation of the drama of
+_Sophocles_, bearing her name. Finally, the _Epigoni_,
+descendants of the Seven who had fought Thebes, captured and destroyed
+that city.
+
+2. _Argonauts_ were described as a band of heroes, who, through
+perilous and unknown seas, sailed from Iolcos in Thessaly, in the ship
+"Argo," to Colchis, whence they brought away the golden fleece which
+had been stolen, and which they found nailed to an oak, and guarded by
+a sleepless dragon. _Jason_, the leader, was accompanied on his
+return by the enchantress, _Medea_, who had aided him. She, in
+order to delay their pursuers, killed her brother _Absyrtus_, and
+threw his body, piece by piece, into the sea. Her subsequent story
+involves various other tragic events.
+
+3. The most noted of the legends is the story of the Trojan war. The
+deeds of the heroes of this war are the subject of the
+_Iliad_. _Paris_, son of Priam, king of _Ilios_ (Troy),
+in Asia Minor, carried off _Helen_, the wife of _Menelaus_,
+king of Sparta. To recover her, the Greeks united in an expedition
+against Troy, which they took after a siege of ten years. Agamemnon,
+Achilles, Odysseus (Ulysses), Ajax son of Telamon, and Ajax son of
+Oileus, Diomedes, and Nestor were among the chiefs on the Greek
+side. Troy had its allies. The "Odyssey" relates to the long journey
+of _Odysseus_ on his return to Ithaca, his home. That there was
+an ancient city, Troy, is certain. A conflict between the Greeks and a
+kindred people there, is probable. Not unlikely, there was a military
+expedition of Grecian tribes. Every thing beyond this is either
+plainly myth, or incapable of verification.
+
+UNIONS OF TRIBES.--During the period when the Greek population was
+dispersing itself in the districts which its different fractions
+occupied in the historic ages, there arose unions among tribes near
+one another, for religious purposes. They preceded treaties and
+alliances of the ordinary kind. Such tribes agreed to celebrate, in
+common, certain solemn festivals. Deputies of these tribes met at
+stated intervals to look after the temple and the lands pertaining to
+it. Out of these unions, there grew stipulations relative to the mode
+of conducting war and other matters of common interest. Treaties of
+peace and of mutual defense might follow. Thus arose combinations of
+states, in which one state, the strongest, would have the
+_hegemony_, or lead. This became an established characteristic of
+Greek political life. It was a system of federal unions under the
+headship of the most powerful member of the confederacy. When such a
+union was formed, it established a common worship or festival.
+
+THE DELPHIC AMPHICTYONY.--In the north of Greece, there was formed, in
+early times, a great religious union. It was composed of twelve tribes
+banded together for the worship of _Apollo_ at _Delphi_, and
+to guard his temple. It was called the Delphic Amphictyony, or "League
+of Neighbors." The members of this body agreed not to destroy one
+another's towns in war, and not to cut off running water from a town
+which they were besieging.
+
+THE DELPHIC ORACLE.--The sanctuary at Delphi, where the Amphictyonic
+Council met, became the most famous temple in Greece. Here the oracle
+of Apollo gave answers to those who came to consult that divinity. The
+priests who managed the temple kept themselves well informed in regard
+to occurrences in distant places. Their answers were often discreet
+and wholesome, but not unfrequently obscure and ambiguous, and thus
+misleading. In early times their moral influence in the nation
+promoted justice and fraternal feeling. In later times they lost their
+reputation for honesty and impartiality. In civil wars the priests
+were sometimes bribed to support one of the contending parties.
+
+THE HOMERIC POEMS.--Within the last century, there has been much
+discussion about the authorship of the two poems, the _Iliad_ and
+the _Odyssey_. The place where they were composed, whether among
+the Ionians in Greece proper or in Asia Minor, is still a matter of
+debate. It was probably Asia Minor. Seven places contended for the
+honor of having given birth to the blind bard. But nothing is known of
+Homer's birthplace or history. It is doubtful whether the art of
+writing was much, if at all, in use among the Greeks at the time of
+the composition of the Iliad and Odyssey. We know that the custom
+existed of repeating poems orally by minstrels or _rhapsodists_
+at popular festivals. This may have been the mode in which for a time
+the Homeric poems were preserved and transmitted. The Odyssey has more
+unity than the Iliad, and seems to be of a somewhat later date. The
+nucleus of the Iliad is thought by some scholars to be embedded in the
+group of poems which, it is supposed, constitute the work at present;
+but there is no evidence making it possible to identify any portion as
+the work of Homer. Whatever may be the truth on these questions, the
+Iliad and Odyssey present an invaluable picture of Greek life in the
+period when they were composed, which was probably as early as 900
+B.C.
+
+SOCIAL LIFE IN THE HOMERIC AGE.--(1) _Government._ In the Homeric
+portraiture of Greek life, there are towns; but the tribe is
+predominant over the town. The tribe is ruled by a king, who is not
+like an Eastern despot, but has about him a council of chiefs, and is
+bound by the _themistes_, the traditional customs. There is,
+besides, the _agora_, or popular assembly, where debates take
+place among the chiefs, and to which their decisions, or rather the
+decision of the king, on whom it devolves finally to determine every
+thing, are communicated. Public speaking, it is seen, is practiced in
+the infancy of Greek society. (2) _Customs._ People live in
+hill-villages, surrounded by walls. Life is patriarchal, and, as
+regards the domestic circle, humane. Polygamy, the plague of Oriental
+society, does not exist. Women are held in high regard. Slavery is
+everywhere established. Side by side with piracy and constant war, and
+the supreme honor given to military prowess, there is a fine and
+bountiful hospitality which is held to be a religious duty. In the
+Homeric poems, there is often exhibited a noble refinement of thought
+and sentiment, and a gentle courtesy. (3) _Arts and Industry_. In
+war, the chariot is the engine: cavalry are unknown. The useful arts
+are in a rudimental stage. Spinning and weaving are the constant
+occupation of women. All garments are made at home: noble women join
+with their slaves in washing them in the river. The condition of the
+common freeman who took one temporary job after another, was
+miserable. Of the condition of those who pursued special
+occupations,--as the carpenter, the leather-dresser, the fisherman,
+etc.,--we have no adequate information. The principal metals were in
+use, and the art of forging them. There was no coined money: payment
+was made in oxen. But there is hereditary individual property in land,
+cultivated vineyards, temples of the gods, and splendid palaces of the
+chiefs. (4) _Geographical Knowledge._ In Homer, there is a
+knowledge of Greece, of the neighboring islands, and western Asia
+Minor. References to other lands are vague. The earth is a sort of
+flat oval, with the River Oceanus flowing round it. _Hesiod_ is
+better informed about places: he knows something of the Nile and of
+the Scythians, and of some places as far west as Syracuse.
+
+RELIGION IN THE HOMERIC AGE.--The Homeric poems give us a full idea of
+the early religious ideas and practices, (I) _The Nature of the
+Gods_.--The gods in Homer are human beings with greatly magnified
+powers. Their dwelling is in the sky above us: their special abode is
+Mount Olympus. They experience hunger, but feed on ambrosia and
+nectar. They travel with miraculous speed. Their prime blessing is
+exemption from mortality. Among themselves they are often discordant
+and deceitful. (2) _Relation of the Gods to Men_. They are the
+rulers and guides of nations. Though they act often from mere caprice
+or favoritism, their sway is, on the whole, promotive of justice. Zeus
+is supreme: none can contend with him successfully. The gods hold
+communication with men. They also make known their will and intentions
+by signs and portents,--such as thunder and lightning, or the sudden
+passing of a great bird of prey. They teach men through dreams. (3)
+_Service of the Gods_. Sacrifice and supplication are the chief
+forms of devotion. There is no dominant hierarchy. The temple has its
+priest, but the father is priest in his own household. (4) _Morals
+and Religion_. Morality is interwoven with religion. Above all,
+_oaths_ are sacred, and oath-breakers abhorred by gods as well as
+by men. In the conduct of the divinities, there are found abundant
+examples of unbridled anger and savage retaliation. Yet gentle
+sentiments, counsels to forbearance and mercy, are not wanting. The
+wrath of the gods is most provoked by lawless self-assertion and
+insolence. (5) _Propitiation: the Dead_. The sense of sin leads
+to the appeasing of the deities by offerings, attended with
+prayer. The offerings are gifts to the god, tokens of the honor due to
+him. The dead live as flitting shadows in Hades. _Achilles_ is
+made to say that he would rather be a miserable laborer on earth than
+to reign over all the dead in the abodes below.
+
+GREEK LITERATURE.--The chief types, both of poetry and of prose,
+originated with the Greeks. Their writings are the fountainhead of the
+literature of Europe. They prized simplicity: they always had an
+intense disrelish for obscurity and bombast. The earliest poetry of
+the Greeks consisted of _hymns_ to the gods. It was
+_lyrical_, an outpouring of personal feeling. The lyrical type
+was followed by the _epic_, where heroic deeds, or other events
+of thrilling interest, are the theme of song, and the personal emotion
+of the bard is out of sight through his absorption in the
+subject. Description flows on, the narrator himself being in the
+background. This epic poetry culminates in the _Iliad_ and
+_Odyssey_ (900-700 B.C.). Their verse is the hexameter. These
+poems move on in a swift current, yet without abruptness or
+monotony. They are marked by a simplicity and a nobleness, a
+refinement and a pathos, which have charmed all subsequent
+ages. _Homer_, far more than any other author, was the educator
+of the Greeks. There was a class called _Homeridae_, in
+_Chios_; but whether they were themselves poets, or reciters of
+Homer, or what else may have been their peculiar work, is not
+ascertained. There was, however, a class of _Cyclic_ poets, who
+took up the legends of Troy, and carried out farther the Homeric
+tales. _Hesiod_ was the founder of a more didactic sort of
+poetry. He is about a century later than the Iliad. Besides the
+_Theogony_, which treats of the origin of the gods and of nature,
+his _Works and Days_ relates to the works which a farmer has to
+do, and the lucky or unlucky days for doing them. It contains
+doctrines and precepts relative to agriculture, navigation, civil and
+family life. Hesiod was the first of a Boeotian school of poets. He
+lacks the poetic genius of Homer, and the vivacity and cheerfulness
+which pervade the Iliad and the Odyssey.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  THE FORMATION OF THE PRINCIPAL STATES.
+
+
+ARISTOCRATIC GOVERNMENT.--The early kings were obeyed as much for
+their personal qualities, such as valor and strength of body, as for
+their hereditary title. By degrees the noble families about the king
+took control, and the kingship thus gave way to the rule of an
+aristocracy. The priestly office, which required special knowledge,
+remained in particular families, as the _Eumolpidae_e at
+Athens,--families to whom was ascribed the gift of the seer, and to
+whom were known the _Eleusinian mysteries_. The nobles were
+landholders, with dependent farmers who paid rent. The nobles held
+sway over tillers of the soil, artisans and seamen, who constituted
+the people (the "demos"), and who had no share in political
+power. This state of things continued until the lower class gained
+more property and more knowledge; and the example of the colonial
+settlements, where there was greater equality, re-acted on the parent
+state. The struggle of the lower ranks for freedom was of long
+continuance. In all Greek cities, there were _Metoeci_, or
+resident foreigners without political rights, and also slaves from
+abroad. Free-born Greeks busied themselves with occupations connected
+with the fine arts, or with trade and commerce on an extended
+scale. They commonly eschewed all other employments, and especially
+menial labor.
+
+THE CONSTITUTION OF THE LYCURGUS.--According to the legend, disorders
+in Sparta following the Dorian conquest, and strife between the
+victors and the conquered, moved _Lycurgus_, a man of regal
+descent, to retire to Crete, where the old Dorian customs were still
+observed. On his return he gave to the citizens a constitution, which
+was held in reverence by the generations after him. To him, also, laws
+and customs which were really of later date, came to be ascribed. The
+Spartan population consisted (1) of the _Spartiatĉ_, who had full
+rights, and those of less means,--both comprising the Dorian
+conquerors. They were divided into three Phylĉ, or tribes, each
+composed of ten divisions (Obĉ); (2) the _Periĉci_, Achaeans who
+paid tribute on the land which they held, were bound to military
+service, but had no political rights; (3) the _Helots_, serfs of
+the State, who were divided among the Spartiatĉ by lot, and cultivated
+their lands, paying to them a certain fraction of the harvest. The
+form of government established by Lycurgus was an aristocratic
+republic. The Council of Elders, twenty-eight in number, chosen for
+life by the Phylĉ, were presided over by two hereditary kings, who had
+little power in time of peace, but unlimited command of the forces in
+war. The popular assembly, composed of all Spartiatĉ of thirty years
+of age or upwards, could only decide questions without debate. Five
+_Ephors_, chosen yearly by the Phylĉ, acquired more and more
+authority. Lycurgus is said to have divided the land into nine
+thousand equal lots for the families of the Spartiatĉ, and thirty
+thousand for the Periceci. To keep down the helots required constant
+vigilance, and often occasioned measures of extreme cruelty. The
+_Crypteia_ was an organized guard of young Spartans, whose
+business it was to prevent insurrection.
+
+LAWS AND CUSTOMS.--The Spartan state was thus aristocratic and
+military. It took into its own hands the education of the young. Weak
+and deformed children were left to perish in a ravine of Taygetus, or
+thrust down among the Periceci. Healthy children at the age of seven
+were taken from their homes, to be reared under the supervision of the
+State. They had some literary instruction, but their chief training
+was in gymnastics. They were exercised in hunting and in drills; took
+their meals together in the _syssitia_ (the public mess), where
+the fare was rough and scanty; slept in dormitories together; and by
+every means were disciplined for a soldier's life. The Spartan men
+likewise fed at public tables, and slept in barracks, only making
+occasional visits to their own houses. No money was in circulation
+except iron: no one was permitted to possess gold or silver. Girls
+were separately drilled in gymnastic exercises and made to be as hardy
+as boys. Marriage was regulated by the State. There was more purity,
+and women had a higher standing, in Sparta than in other parts of
+Greece. The strength of the Spartan army was in the _hoplites_,
+or heavy-armed infantry. In battle, messmates stood
+together. Cowardice was treated with the utmost contempt. The rigorous
+subordination of the young to their elders was maintained in war as in
+peace. The legend held, that after this constitution of Lycurgus had
+been approved by the Delphian oracle, he made the citizens swear to
+observe it until he should return from a projected journey. He then
+went to Crete, and stayed there until his death.
+
+HEGEMONY OF SPARTA.--Having thus organized the body politic, Sparta
+took the steps which gave it the _hegemony_ in Peloponnesus and
+over all Greece. First, it conquered the neighboring state of
+_Messenia_ in two great wars, the first ending about 725 B.C.,
+and the second about 650 B.C. In the first of these wars, the
+Messenians submitted to become tributary to Sparta, after their
+citadel, _Ithome_, had been captured, and their defeated hero,
+_Aristodemus_, had slain himself. Many of the vanquished
+Messenians escaped from their country to Arcadia and Argolis. Some of
+them fled farther, and founded _Rhegium_ in Lower Italy. In the
+second war, the Messenians revolted against the tyrannical rule of
+Sparta, and at first, under _Aristomenes_, were successful, but
+were afterwards defeated by the Spartans, who were inspirited for the
+conflict by the war-songs of the Athenian poet,
+_Tyrtaeus_. _Aristomenes_ fled to Rhodes. Most of his people
+were made helots. The _Arcadians_, after long resistance,
+succumbed, and came under the Spartan hegemony (about 600
+B.C.). _Argos_, too, was obliged to renounce its claim to this
+position in favor of its Spartan antagonist, after its defeat by
+_Cleomenes_, the Lacedaemonian king, at Thyrea (549 B.C.). The
+_Argive League_ was dissolved, and Sparta gained the right to
+command in every war that should be waged in common by the
+Peloponnesian states, the right, also, to determine the contingent of
+troops which each should furnish, and to preside in the council of the
+confederacy. She now began to spread her power beyond Peloponnesus,
+entered into negotiations with _Lydia_ (555 B.C.), and actually
+sent an expedition to the coast of Asia (525 B.C.). Moreover as early
+as 510 B.C., by interfering in the affairs of the states north of the
+Corinthian isthmus, and with _Attica_ in particular, she sowed
+among the Athenians the seeds of a lasting enmity.
+
+GOVERNMENT IN ATHENS: DRACO.--According to the legend, _Codrus_,
+who died about 1068 B.C., was the last of the Athenian kings. The
+_Eupatrids_, the noble families, abolished monarchy, and
+substituted for the king an _Archon_, chosen for life by them out
+of the family of Codrus. The Eupatrids stood in a sort of patriarchal
+relation to the common people. The inhabitants were divided into four
+tribes. These were subdivided, first into _Brotherhoods_ and
+_Clans_, and secondly, into classes based on consanguinity, and
+classes arranged for taxation, military service, etc. The entire
+community comprised the _Nobles_,--in whose hands the political
+power was lodged,--the _Farmers_, and the _Artisans_. The
+farmers and the artisans might gather in the _Agora_, and express
+assent to public measures, or dissent. In process of time the archons
+came to be chosen not from the family of Codrus exclusively, but from
+the _Eupatrids_ generally. From 682 B.C. they were nine in
+number, and they served but for one year. The administration of
+justice was in the hands of the nobles, who were not restrained by a
+body of written laws. The archon _Draco_, about 621 B.C., in
+order to check this evil, framed a code which seemed harsh, though
+milder than the laws previously enforced. Later it was said of his
+laws that they were written in blood. This legislation was a
+concession to which the nobles were driven by an uprising. Their hard
+treatment of debtors, many of whom were deprived of their liberty, had
+stirred up a serious conflict between the people and their masters. A
+rebellion, led by _Cylon_, one of the Eupatrids, was put down,
+and punished by means involving treachery and sacrilege. The
+insurgents were slain clinging to the altars of the gods, where they
+had taken refuge. Not long after it became necessary to introduce
+other reforms at the advice of _Solon_, one of "the seven wise
+men of Greece." He had acquired popularity by recovering
+_Salamis_ from the Megarians, and in a sacred war against towns
+which had robbed the temple of Apollo at Delphi.
+
+LEGISLATION OF SOLON--The design of Solon was to substitute a better
+system for the tyrannical oligarchy, but, at the same time, to keep
+power mainly in the hands of the upper class. He divided the people
+into four classes, according to the amount of their income. To the
+richest of these the archonship, and admission into the
+_Areopagus_, were confined. A new council was established, which
+had the right to initiate legislation, composed of one hundred from
+each of the four old tribes, and annually elected by the body of the
+citizens. The _Ecclesia_, or assembly of the whole people, having
+the right to choose the archons and councilors, was revived. _Courts
+of Appeal_, with jury trials, were instituted. The old council of
+the _Areopagus_ was clothed with high judicial and executive
+powers. There were laws to relieve a portion of the debtors from their
+burdens, and to abolish servitude for debt. Every father was required
+to teach his son a handicraft.
+
+PARTIES IN ATHENS.--The legislation of Solon was a measure of
+compromise. It satisfied neither party. After journeys abroad, he
+passed his old age in Athens, and was a spectator of the rising
+contests between the discordant factions, which his constitution was
+only able for a time to curb. There were three parties,--a
+re-actionary party under _Lycurgus_, a progressive party led by
+_Pisistratus_, and a moderate or middle party under
+_Megacles_.
+
+THE TYRANTS.--At this time, in almost all of the Grecian states,
+monarchy had given place to aristocracy. The reign of an
+_oligarchy_, the unbridled sway of a few, was commonly the next
+step. Against this the people in different states,--the
+_demos_,--rose in revolt. The popular leader, or "demagogue," was
+some conspicuous and wealthy noble, who thus acquired supreme
+authority. In this way, in the seventh and sixth centuries, most of
+the states were ruled by "tyrants,"--a term signifying absolute
+rulers, whether their administration was unjust and cruel, or fair and
+mild. They endeavored to fortify their rule by collecting poets,
+artists, and musicians about them, for their own pleasure and for the
+diversion of the populace. Occasionally they gave the people
+employment in the erection of costly buildings. They formed alliances
+with one another and with foreign kings. Not unfrequently they
+practiced violence and extortion. The _oligarchies_ sought to
+dethrone them. Their overthrow often had for its result the
+introduction of popular sovereignty. Among the most noted tyrants were
+Periander of Corinth (625-585 B.C.), _Pittacus_ in Lesbos
+(589-579 B.C.), and _Polycrates_ in Samos (535-522 B.C.).
+
+The PISISTRATIDS.--The government of Athens, framed by Solon, was in
+effect a "timocracy," or rule of the rich. At the head of the popular
+party stood _Pisistratus_, a rich nobleman of high descent. He
+succeeded, by means of his armed guard, in making himself master of
+the citadel. Twice driven out of the city, he at length returned (538
+B.C.), and gained permanent control by force of arms. He managed his
+government with shrewdness and energy. Industry and trade
+flourished. He decorated Athens with buildings and statues. Religious
+festivals he caused to be celebrated with splendor. He ruled under the
+legal forms by having _archons_ chosen to suit him. He died 527
+B.C. _Hippias_, his son, governed with mildness until his younger
+brother and colleague in power, _Hipparchus_, was slain by the
+two friends, _Harmodius_ and _Aristogiton_. Then he gave the
+rein to revengeful passion, and laid upon the people burdensome
+taxes. _Hippias_ was driven out of the city by the
+_Alcmaeonidae_ and other exiled nobles, assisted by the Spartan
+king, _Cleomenes_ (510 B.C.). He fled to Asia Minor in order to
+secure Persian help.
+
+THE ATHENIAN DEMOCRACY.--Clisthenes, a brilliant man, the head of the
+Alcmaeonid family, connected himself with the popular party, and
+introduced such changes in the constitution as to render him the
+founder of the Athenian Democracy. The power of the archons was
+reduced. All of the free inhabitants of Attica were admitted to
+citizenship. New tribes, ten in number, each comprising ten
+_denes_, or hamlets, with their adjacent districts, superseded
+the old tribes. A _council of five hundred_, fifty from each
+tribe, supplanted Solon's council of four hundred. The courts of law
+were newly organized. The _Ostracism_ was introduced; that is,
+the prerogative of the popular assembly to decree by secret ballot,
+without trial, the banishment of a person who should be deemed to be
+dangerous to the public weal. Certain officers were designated by
+lot. Ten _Strategi_, one from each tribe, by turns, took the
+place of the _archon polemarchus_ in command of the army.
+
+EFFECT OF DEMOCRACY.--Under this system of free government, the
+energy of the Athenian people was developed with amazing rapidity. The
+spirit of patriotism, of zeal for the honor and welfare of Athens,
+rose to a high pitch. The power and resources of the city increased in
+a proportionate degree. Culture kept pace with prosperity.
+
+LYRICAL POETRY.--In the eighth century, when monarchy was declining,
+and the tendency to democracy began to manifest itself, a new style of
+poetry, different from the epic, arose. The narrative poems of
+minstrels were heard at the great religious festivals. But there was a
+craving for the expression of individual feeling. Hence, lyrical
+poetry re-appeared, not in the shape of religious songs, as in the old
+time, but in a form to touch all the chords of sentiment. Two new
+types of verse appeared,--the _Elegiac_ and the _Iambic_. At
+first the elegy was probably a lament for the dead. It was accompanied
+by the soft music of the Lydian flute. The instruments which the
+Greeks had used were string-instruments. The early Greek elegies
+related to a variety of themes,--as war, love, preceptive wisdom. The
+iambic meter was first used in satire. Its earliest master of
+distinction was _Arckilochus_ of Paros (670 B.C.). It was
+employed, however, in fables, and elsewhere when pointed or intense
+expression was craved. The earliest of the Greek elegists,
+_Callinus_ and _Tyrtaus_, composed war-songs. _Mimnermus,
+Solon, Theognis, Simonides_ of _Ceos_, are among the most
+famous elegists. Music developed in connection with lyric poetry. The
+Greeks at first used the four-stringed lyre. Terpander made an epoch
+(660 B.C.) by adding three strings. _Olympus_ and _Thaletas_
+made further improvements. Greek lyric poetry flourished, especially
+from 670 to 440 B.C. The Aeolian lyrists of _Lesbos_ founded a
+school of their own. The two great representatives are _Alcaus_,
+who sang of war and of love, and _Sappho_, who sang of
+love. "Probably no poet ever surpassed Sappho as an interpreter of
+passion in exquisitely subtle harmonies of form and sound."
+_Anacreon_, an Ionian, resembled in his style the Aeolian
+lyrists. He was most often referred to by the ancients as the poet of
+sensuous feeling of every sort. The _Dorian_ lyric poetry was
+mostly choral and historic in its topics. Greek lyric poetry reaches
+the climax in _Simonides_ and _Pindar_. The latter was a
+Boeotian, but of Dorian descent. _Simonides_ was tender and
+polished; _Pindar_, fervid and sublime The extant works of Pindar
+are the _Epinicia_, or odes of victory.
+
+HISTORICAL WRITING.--This age witnesses the beginnings of historical
+writing. But the _logographers_, as they were called, only wrote
+prose epics. They told the story of the foundation of families and
+cities, reconciling as best they could the myths, so far as they
+clashed with one another.
+
+PHILOSOPHY: THE IONIAN SCHOOL.--The Greeks were the first to
+investigate rationally the causes of things, and to try to comprehend
+the world as a complete system. The earliest phase of this movement
+was on the side of physics, or natural philosophy. _Homer_ and
+_Hesiod_ had accounted for the operations of nature by referring
+them to the direct personal action of different divinities. The
+earliest philosophers brought in the conception of some kind of matter
+as the foundation and source of all things. The _Ionian School_
+led the way in this direction. _Thales_ of Miletus (about 600
+B.C.) made this primary substance to be
+_water_. _Anaximander_ (611-? B.C.) made all things spring
+out of a primitive stuff, without definite qualities, and without
+bounds. He taught that the earth is round, invented the sun-dial,
+engraved a map on a brass tablet, and made some astronomical
+calculations. _Anaximenes_ (first half, 6th C.) derived all
+things from _air_, which he made to be eternal and infinite.
+
+THE ELEATIC SCHOOL.--The _Eleatic School_ conceived of the world
+as one in substance, and held that the natural phenomena which we
+behold, in all their variety and change, are unreal. _Xenophanes_
+(who flourished from 572 to 478 B.C.) asserted this. _Parmenides_
+(504-460 B.C.) taught that succession, change, the manifold forms of
+things, are only _relative_; that is, are only our way of
+regarding the one universal essence. _Zeno_ sought to vindicate
+this theory logically by disproving the possibility of motion.
+
+OTHER PHILOSOPHERS.--Another set of philosophers attempted definitely
+to explain the appearances of things, the changing phenomena, which
+had been called unreal. _Heraclitus_ made the world to be nothing
+but these: There is no substratum of things: there is only an endless
+flux, a cycle. All things begin and end in fire, the symbol of what is
+real. _Empedocles_ ascribed all things to fire, air, earth, and
+water, which are wrought into different bodies by "love" and "hate;"
+or, as we should say, attraction and repulsion. _Democritus_ was
+the founder of the _Atomists_, who made all things spring out of
+the motions and combinations of primitive atoms. _Anaxagoras_
+brought in intelligence, or reason, as giving the start to the
+development of matter,--this principle doing nothing more, however,
+and being inherent in matter itself.
+
+PYTHAGORAS.--A different spirit in philosophy belonged to
+_Pythagoras_ (580-500 B.C.), who was born in Samos, traveled
+extensively, and settled in Croton, in southern Italy. His theory was,
+that the inner substance of all things is number. Discipline of
+character was a prime object. Pythagoras was sparing in his diet,
+promoted an earnest culture, in which music was prominent, and gave
+rise to a mystical school, in which moral reform and religious fueling
+were connected with an ascetic method of living.
+
+COLONIES.--It was during the era of the oligarchies and tyrannies that
+the colonizing spirit was most active among the Greeks. Most of the
+colonies were established between 800 and 550 B.C. Their names alone
+would make a very long catalogue. They were of two classes: first,
+_independent communities_, connected, however, with the parent
+city by close ties of friendship; and secondly, _kleruchies_,
+which were of the nature of garrisons, where the settlers retained
+their former rights as citizens, and the mother city its full
+authority over them. In _Sicily_, on the eastern side, were the
+Ionian communities,--Naxos, Catana, etc. _Syracuse_ (founded by
+Corinth 734 B.C.), _Gela_, and _Agrigentum_, which were
+among the chief Dorian settlements, lay on the south-eastern and
+south-western coasts. The oldest Greek town in _Italy_ was
+_Cumae_ (not far from Naples), said to have been founded in 1050
+B.C. _Tarentum_ (Dorian), _Sybaris_, and _Croton_
+(Aeolic) were settled in the latter part of the eighth
+century. _Locri_ (Aeolic) and _Rhegium_ (Ionic) were on the
+south. The south-western portion of Italy was termed _Magna
+Graecia_. _Massilia_ (Marseilles) was founded by the Phocaean
+Ionians (about 600 B.C.). In the western Mediterranean the Greeks were
+hindered from making their settlements as numerous as they would have
+done, by the fact that Carthage and her colonies stood in the
+way. _Cyrene_, on the coast of Africa, was a Dorian colony (630
+B.C.), planted from _Thera_, an earlier Spartan
+settlement. _Cyrene_ founded _Barca_. _Corcyra_ was
+colonized by Corinth (about 700 B.C.). Along the coast of Epirus were
+other Corinthian and Corcyrasan settlements. Chalcis planted towns in
+the peninsula of Chalcidice, and from thence to _Selymbria_ (or
+Byzantium), which was founded by Megara (657 B.C.). The northern
+shores of the Ĉgean and the Propontis, and the whole coast of the
+Euxine were strewn with Greek settlements. The Greek towns, especially
+_Miletus_, on the western coast of Asia Minor, themselves sent
+out colonies,--as _Cyzicus_ and _Sinope_, south of the
+Propontis and the Euxine. The foregoing statements give only a general
+idea of the wide extent of Greek colonization.
+
+  An exhaustive statement of the Greek colonies is given in
+  Rawlinson's _Manual of Ancient History_, p. 148 _seq_. See
+  also Abbott, _A History of Greece_, I. 333 _seq_.
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD II.  THE FLOURISHING ERA OF GREECE.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  THE PERSIAN WARS.
+
+
+THE IONIAN REVOLT.--Hardly were the Greeks in possession of liberty
+when they were compelled to measure their strength with the mighty
+Persian Empire. The cities of Asia Minor groaned under the tyranny of
+their Persian rulers, and sighed for freedom. At length, under
+propitious circumstances, _Miletus_ rose in revolt under the lead
+of _Aristagoras_. Alone of the Grecian cities, Athens, and
+Eretria on the island of Euboea, sent help. The insurrection was
+extinguished in blood: its leaders perished. Miletus was destroyed by
+the enemy 495 B.C.; and the Ionian towns were again brought under the
+Persian yoke, which was made heavier than before. The Persian monarch,
+_Darius_, swore vengeance upon those who had aided the rebellion.
+
+THE BATTLE OF MARATHON.--_Mardonius_, the son-in-law of Darius,
+moved with a fleet and an army along the Ĉgean coast. A storm
+shattered the fleet upon the rocky promontory of Athos, and the land
+force was partly destroyed by the Thracians. Mardonius retreated
+homeward. The heralds who came to demand, according to the Persian
+custom, "water and earth" of Athens and Sparta, were put to
+death. Enraged at these events, Darius sent a stronger fleet under
+_Datis_ and _Artaphernes_. They forced _Naxos_ and the
+other _Cyclades_ to submission, captured and destroyed
+_Eretria_, and sent off its inhabitants as slaves to the interior
+of Asia. Guided on their path of destruction by the Athenian refugee,
+_Hippias_, the Persians landed on the coast of Attica, and
+encamped on the shore adjacent to the plain of _Marathon_. The
+Athenians sent _Philippides_, one of the swiftest of couriers, to
+Sparta for assistance, who reached that city, a hundred and
+thirty-five or a hundred and forty miles distant, the next day after
+he started. He brought back for answer that the Spartans were deterred
+by religious scruples from marching to war before the full moon, which
+would be ten days later. There was a Greek, as well as a Judaic,
+Pharisaism. Left to themselves, the Athenians were fortunate in having
+for their leader _Miltiades_, an able and experienced soldier,
+who had been with the Persians in the Scythian campaign. At the head
+of the Athenian infantry, ten thousand in number, whose hearts were
+cheered before the onset by the arrival of a re-inforcement of one
+thousand men, comprising the whole fighting population of the little
+town of _Platĉa_, Miltiades attacked the Persian army, ten times
+as large as his own. The Athenians ran down the gentle slope at
+Marathon, shouting their war-cry, or pĉan, and, after a fierce
+conflict, drove the Persians back to their ships, capturing their camp
+with all its treasures (Sept. 12, 490 B.C.). This brilliant victory
+was not the end of danger. The Greek watchmen saw a treacherous
+signal, a glistening shield, on _Mount Pentelicus_, put there to
+signify to the Persians that Athens was open to their attack. In that
+direction, round Cape Sunium, the Persian fleet sailed. But
+_Miltiades_, by a rapid march of twenty-three miles, reached the
+city in season to prevent the landing. _Datis_ and
+_Artaphernes_ sailed away. The traitor, _Hippias_, died on
+the return voyage. The patriotic exultation of the Athenians was well
+warranted. Never did they look back upon that victory without a thrill
+of joyful pride. It proved what a united free people were capable of
+achieving. More than that, MARATHON was one of the decisive battles
+which form turning-points in the world's history. It was a mortal
+conflict between the East and the West, between Asia and Europe,--the
+coarse despotism under which individual energy is stifled, and the
+dawning liberty which was to furnish the atmosphere required for the
+full development and culture of the human mind.
+
+ARISTIDES AND THEMISTOCLES.--_Miltiades_ subsequently failed in
+an attempt against _Paros_, one of the Ĉgean islands which had
+submitted to the Persians, and which he sought to conquer. Accused of
+making false promises to the people, he was fined fifty talents, but
+died before the sum could be collected (489 B.C.). His son
+_Cimon_ paid the fine. The two leading men in Athens at that time
+were _Aristides_ and _Themistocles_. The former, from his
+uprightness, was styled "the just." _Themistocles_ was a man of
+genius, of an ambitious spirit, whom the laurels of _Miltiades_
+robbed of sleep. Devoted to Athens, he was not scrupulous in regard to
+the means of advancing her prosperity and glory. Duplicity and
+intrigue were weapons in the use of which he was not less willing than
+expert.  He aspired to make Athens a great naval and maritime
+power. _Aristides_ believed that the strength of the country lay
+in the landholders and in the land forces. In the attainment of public
+ends, he would not deviate from a straightforward course. Themistocles
+was by far the more captivating of the two men; and, in 484 B.C.,
+Aristides was ostracised. Themistocles was thus left free to build up
+a powerful fleet.
+
+THE WAR WITH XERXES: THERMOPYLĈ.--_Darius_ died while he was
+preparing another grand expedition against Greece. He left his
+successor, _Xerxes_ (485 B.C.), to complete and carry out the
+plan. This proud monarch drew together from his immense dominions an
+army which tradition, as given in Herodotus, made to number one
+million seven hundred thousand men and a fleet of twelve hundred large
+vessels. He had for a counselor, _Demaratus_, a fugitive king of
+Sparta. The vast array of troops was assembled near _Sardes_, and
+thence marched to the _Hellespont_. Seven days were spent by this
+mighty gathering of nations in passing over the two bridges of
+boats. They marched through Thrace, Macedonia, and Thessaly, the
+Persian fleet proceeding along the coast. _Bĉotia_ and several
+smaller states yielded without resistance. The most of the other Greek
+states, inspired by Themistocles, joined hands for defense under the
+hegemony of Sparta. In July, 480, the Persian army arrived at the
+narrow pass of _Thermopylĉ_. There the Lacedĉemonian king,
+_Leonidas_, with his three hundred Spartans and some thousands of
+allies, had taken his stand, to stem the vast current that was pouring
+down to overwhelm Greece. To the Persian command to give up their
+weapons, the "laconic" reply was given by Leonidas, "Come and get
+them." For several days the band of Spartans defended the pass,
+beating back the Persians, thousands of whom were slain, and
+repulsing, even, the ten thousand "immortals," who constituted the
+royal guard. At length a treacherous Greek showed the enemy a by-path,
+which enabled them to fall on the rear of the gallant troops, every
+one of whom fell, bravely fighting, with his weapon in his hand. A
+lion made of iron was afterwards placed on the spot where the heroes
+had died, "obedient to the commands of Sparta."  The Persians pushed
+forward to _Athens_, and burned the city. All citizens capable of
+bearing arms were on board the fleet: the women, children, and movable
+property had been conveyed to _Salamis_, _Ĉgina_, and
+_Trĉzcne_.
+
+SALAMIS.--The Greek fleet, under the Spartan _Eurybiades_, had
+come from victory at Artemisium into the Gulf of Salamis. By means of
+a device of Themistocles, the Spartans were prevented from withdrawing
+their forces to the Corinthian isthmus, where they had built a wall
+for their own protection; and a sea-fight was brought on, of which the
+Athenians in Salamis, and Xerxes himself from a hill on the mainland,
+were anxious spectators (Sept. 27, 480). Once more the cause of
+civilization was staked on the issue of a conflict. The Greeks were
+completely victorious, and their land was saved. Xerxes hastily
+marched towards home, thousands of his army perishing on the way from
+hunger, cold, and fatigue. The _Spartiatĉ_ gave to
+_Eurybiades_ the prize of valor, to _Themistocles_ an olive
+crown for his wisdom and sagacity.
+
+PLATĈA: MYCALE: EURYMEDON.--Xerxes left three hundred thousand men
+behind in Thessaly, under the command of _Mardonius_. In the
+spring, incensed at the proud rejection of his overtures, he marched
+to Athens, whose people again took refuge in Salamis. In the great
+battle of _Platĉa_ (479 B.C.), the Greeks, led by the Spartan
+_Pausanias_, inflicted on him such a defeat that only forty
+thousand Persians escaped to the Hellespont. On the same day at
+_Mycale_, the Persian fleet was vanquished in a sharp encounter
+where a Spartan commanded, but where the Athenians were the most
+efficient combatants. Sestos, Lemnos, Imbros, and Byzantium were taken
+by the Greeks; and a double victory of _Cimon_, the son of
+Miltiades, at the Pamphylian river, _Eurymedon_, over both the
+land and naval forces of the Persians, brought the war to an end (467
+B.C.).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  THE ASCENDENCY OF ATHENS.
+
+
+PAUSANIAS AND THEMISTOCLES.--Both of the generals by whom the Persians
+had been overcome, fell under the displeasure of the states to which
+they belonged. _Pausanias_ was so far misled by ambition as to
+engage in a negotiation with the Persians for the elevation of
+himself, by their aid, to supreme power in Greece. His plots were
+discovered, and he was compelled by his countrymen to starve to death
+in a temple to which he had fled for refuge. _Themistocles_
+caused Athens to be surrounded by a wall, and built long walls from
+the city to the _Pirĉus_. This provoked the hatred of the
+Spartans, so jealous were they of the power of Athens. In conjunction
+with his Athenian enemies, they contrived to procure his banishment
+for ten years (471 B.C.). Themistocles fled to Persia, where he was
+treated with honor and favor. _Artaxerxes I._ gave him a princely
+domain in Asia Minor where he died (458 B.C.). Grave as his faults
+were, Themistocles was the founder of the historical greatness of
+Athens.
+
+CONFEDERACY OF DELOS.--It was through the influence of
+_Aristides_ that the confederacy of Delos was formed, in which
+the Grecian islands and seaports combined with Athens, and under her
+leadership, for the further prosecution of the war. By this means, the
+Athenians, already so efficient on the sea, were enabled still more to
+strengthen their fleet, and gradually to bring the Ĉgean islands and
+smaller maritime states under their sway. _Cimon_ rendered great
+service as a naval commander. He drove the Persians out of Thrace
+altogether, and he conquered _Scyros_. He wrested the Chersonese
+from the Persians, and freed the Greek cities on the coast. In the
+single battle on the _Eurymedon_, he sunk or captured two hundred
+galleys (467 B.C.).
+
+TO THE PEACE OF PERICLES.--Under the leadership of such men, the
+Athenian Republic became more and more powerful. _Ĉgina_, a rich
+and prosperous island, was conquered, and planted with Athenian
+colonists. _Megara_ became a dependency of Athens. Sparta, partly
+in consequence of a struggle with Argos, a state friendly to the
+Persians, and still more on account of an earthquake which laid the
+most of the city in ruins (465 B.C.), was so crippled as not to be
+able to check the progress of the rival community. She was even
+obliged to invoke Athenian help against the revolting Messenians and
+helots; but after the troops of Athens had joined them, the Spartans,
+jealous and afraid of what they might do, sent them back. This
+indignity led to the banishment of _Cimon_, who had favored the
+sending of the force, and to the granting of aid to the Spartans. The
+Spartans now did their best to reduce the strength and dominion of
+Athens by raising _Thebes_ to the hegemony over the Boeotian
+cities. Everywhere, in all the conflicts, Sparta was the champion of
+the _aristocratic_ form of government; Athens, of the
+_democratic_. The Athenians were defeated at _Tanagra_ (457
+B.C.). This induced them to recall _Cimon_, a great general and a
+worthy citizen. Two months after her victory, Sparta was defeated by
+_Myronides_; and the Athenians became masters of Phocis, Locris,
+and Boeotia. Cimon brought about a truce between Athens and Sparta. He
+left his country on a high pinnacle of power and dominion. Nearly all
+the allies in the confederacy of Delos had fallen into the position of
+tributaries, whose heavy contributions were carried no longer to the
+sanctuary at Delos, but to the temple of Athena on the Acropolis, and
+who had no power to decide on questions of peace and war. The nobles,
+however, who were driven into exile in all conquered places, were the
+mortal enemies of Athens. At _Coronea_ (447 B.C.), the Boeotian
+refugees and aristocrats were so strong that the Athenians experienced
+a disastrous defeat. The peril of the situation moved _Pericles_
+to secure, by astute management, a peace with Sparta, the terms of
+which were that each of the two cities was to maintain its hegemony
+within its own circle, and the several states were to attach
+themselves at their option to either confederacy. In market and
+harbor, there was to be a free intercourse of trade (445 B.C.).
+
+THE AGE OF PERICLES.--Pericles belonged to one of the principal
+Athenian families, but was democratic in his politics, and made
+himself a popular leader. By his influence the _Areopagus_ was
+stripped of high prerogatives that had belonged to it. He caused it to
+be enacted, that every citizen, when engaged in the public service,
+even in attending the popular assembly, should receive a stipend. For
+fifteen years, as the first citizen of Athens, with none of the
+trappings of power, he virtually ruled the commonwealth. One of his
+works was the building the third of the _long walls_ which
+protected the _Pirĉus_ and the neighboring ports on the land
+side, and connected them with Athens. His patriotism was as sincere as
+his talents were versatile and brilliant. He was at once a soldier, an
+orator, a statesman of consummate ability, and a man imbued with the
+best appreciation of letters and of art. In his hospitable house,
+where _Aspasia_ from Miletus, a beautiful and cultured woman, was
+his companion, men of genius found a welcome. Under him, Athens became
+the metropolis of literature, philosophy, and art for the whole
+Hellenic race, and, considering the influence of Athens, it might
+almost be said for mankind in all ages. Magnificent buildings--of
+which the _Parthenon_, the temple of Athena that crowned the
+Acropolis, whose ruins are the model of architectural perfection, was
+one--gave to the city an unrivaled beauty. _Sculpture_ vied with
+architecture in this work of adornment. _Phidias_, who wrought
+the frieze of the Parthenon, counted among his wonderful creations the
+colossal sitting statue of Zeus at Olympia. It was the blossoming
+season of the Greek intellect, as regards _literature_ and the
+_fine arts_. The _drama_ reached its perfection in the
+masterly tragedies of _Aeschylus, Sophocles,_ and
+_Euripides_, and in the comedies of _Aristophanes_. The
+Athenian community, through its political eminence, its intellectual
+character, so original and diversified, its culture,--such that almost
+every citizen was qualified for civil office,--has no parallel in
+history. It is the elevation, not of a select class of the citizens,
+but of the whole society, which gives to Athens its unique
+distinction. Public spirit and enterprise, which made her navy
+dominant in the Aegean and over the sea-coast of Asia Minor, went hand
+in hand with delight in eloquence and in the creations of
+genius. There was not, however, as some have affirmed, in the
+prevalent absorption in the affairs of state, a neglect of the labors
+of agriculture and of mechanical industry.
+
+THE ACROPOLIS--It was customary for a Greek town to be built about an
+acropolis,--an eminence by which it was commanded, and on which stood
+the citadel. On the acropolis at Athens were the buildings and statues
+in which the glory of Athenian art was impressively displayed. There
+were three edifices which excelled all the rest in splendor. On the
+south side of the elevated area was the _Parthenon_, built of
+Pentelic marble, two hundred and twenty-eight feet in length, and of
+faultless proportions. On the northern edge was the _Erechtheum_,
+an Ionic temple of extraordinary beauty. The _Propylcea_,
+approached by sixty marble steps, was a noble gateway: it stood on the
+western end of the acropolis, which it magnificently adorned.
+
+ATHENS--No other description of Athens, in the age of Pericles, equals
+his own in the _Funeral Oration_ (431 B.C.), as given by
+Thucydides, for those who had fallen in the war. It shows how an
+Athenian looked upon his city.
+
+  "It is true that we are called a democracy; for the administration
+  is in the hands of the many, and not of the few. But while the law
+  secures equal justice to all alike in their private disputes, the
+  claim of excellence is also recognized; and when a citizen is in any
+  way distinguished, he is preferred to the public service, not as a
+  matter of privilege, but as the reward of merit. Neither is poverty
+  a bar; but a man may benefit his country, whatever be the obscurity
+  of his condition. There is no exclusiveness in our public life; and
+  in our private intercourse we are not suspicious of one another, nor
+  angry with our neighbor if he does what he likes: we do not put on
+  sour looks at him, which, though harmless, are not pleasant. While
+  we are thus unconstrained in our private intercourse, a spirit of
+  reverence pervades our public acts: we are prevented from doing
+  wrong by respect for authority and the laws, having an especial
+  regard to those which are ordained for the protection of the
+  injured, as well as to those unwritten laws which bring upon the
+  transgressor of them the reprobation of the general sentiment.
+
+  "And we have not forgotten to provide for our weary spirits many
+  relaxations from toil. We have regular games and sacrifices
+  throughout the year. At home the style of our life is refined, and
+  the delight which we daily feel in all these things helps to banish
+  melancholy. Because of the greatness of our city, the fruits of the
+  whole earth flow in upon us; so that we enjoy the goods of other
+  countries as freely as of our own.
+
+  "Then, again, our military training is in many respects superior to
+  that of our adversaries. Our city is thrown open to the world; and
+  we never expel a foreigner, or prevent him from seeing or learning
+  any thing of which the secret, if revealed to an enemy, might profit
+  him. We rely not upon management or trickery, but upon our own
+  hearts and hands. And in the matter of education, whereas they from
+  early youth are always undergoing laborious exercises which are to
+  make them brave, we live at ease, and yet are equally ready to face
+  the perils which they face. And here is the proof,--the
+  Lacedaemonians come into Attica, not by themselves, but with their
+  whole confederacy following; we go alone into a neighbor's country;
+  and, although our opponents are fighting for their homes, and we are
+  on a foreign soil, we have seldom any difficulty in overcoming
+  them. Our enemies have never yet felt our united strength. The care
+  of a navy divides our attention, and on land we are obliged to send
+  our own citizens everywhere. But they, if they meet and defeat a
+  part of our army, are as proud as if they had routed us all; and,
+  when defeated, they pretend to have been vanquished by us all.
+
+  "If, then, we prefer to meet danger with a light heart, but without
+  laborious training, and with a courage which is gained by habit, and
+  not enforced by law, are we not greatly the gainers? since we do not
+  anticipate the pain, although, when the hour comes, we can be as
+  brave as those who never allow themselves to rest. And thus, too,
+  our city is equally admirable in peace and war; for we are lovers of
+  the beautiful, yet simple in our tastes, and we cultivate the mind
+  without loss of manliness. Wealth we employ, not for talk and
+  ostentation, but when there is real use for it. To avow poverty with
+  us is no disgrace: the true disgrace is in doing nothing to avoid
+  it. An Athenian citizen does not neglect the State because he takes
+  care of his own household, and even those of us who are engaged in
+  business have a very fair idea of politics. We alone regard a man
+  who takes no interest in public affairs, not as harmless, but as a
+  useless character; and, if few of us are originators, we are all
+  sound judges of policy. The great impediment to action is, in our
+  opinion, not discussion, but the want of that knowledge which is
+  gained by discussion preparatory to action. For we have a peculiar
+  power of thinking before we act, and of acting too; whereas other
+  men are courageous from ignorance, but hesitate upon reflection. And
+  they are surely to be esteemed the bravest spirits who, having the
+  clearest sense both of the pains and pleasures of life, do not on
+  that account shrink from danger. In doing good, again, we are unlike
+  others: we make our friends by conferring, not by receiving,
+  favors. Now, he who confers a favor is the firmer friend, because he
+  would fain by kindness keep alive the memory of an obligation; but
+  the recipient is colder in his feelings, because he knows that in
+  requiting another's generosity he will not be winning gratitude, but
+  only paying a debt. We alone do good to our neighbors, not upon a
+  calculation of interest, but in the confidence of freedom, and in a
+  frank and fearless spirit. To sum up, I say that Athens is the
+  school of Hellas, and that the individual Athenian in his own person
+  seems to have the power of adapting himself to the most varied forms
+  of action with the utmost versatility and grace. This is no passing
+  and idle word, but truth and fact; and the assertion is verified by
+  the position to which these qualities have raised the State. For in
+  the hour of trial Athens alone among her contemporaries is superior
+  to the report of her. No enemy who comes against her is indignant at
+  the reverses which he sustains at the hands of such a city: no
+  subject complains that his masters are unworthy of him. And we shall
+  assuredly not be without witnesses; there are mighty monuments of
+  our power, which will make us the wonder of this and of succeeding
+  ages. We shall not need the praises of Homer or of any other
+  panegyrist, whose poetry may please for the moment, although his
+  representation of the facts will not bear the light of day; for we
+  have compelled every land and every sea to open a path for our
+  valor, and have everywhere planted eternal memorials of our
+  friendship and of our enmity. Such is the city for whose sake these
+  men nobly fought and died: they could not bear the thought that she
+  might be taken from them, and every one of us who survive should
+  gladly toil on her behalf."
+
+RELIGION.--We find in _Sophocles_ a much purer tone of moral and
+religious feeling than in _Homer_. Greek thought upon divine
+things is expanded and purified, (i) _Higher Conception of the
+Gods_. The gods are still conceived of as in bodily form. Their
+images abide in their temples. Take them away, and the god leaves his
+abode. The divinities need not be present, as in Homer, in order to
+exert their power. The monotheistic tendency is manifest. The "gods"
+are referred to as if a single agency were in the writer's mind. The
+regal sway of Zeus is emphasized. He is less subject to Fate. (2)
+_Divine Government_. The gods, especially _Zeus_, are the
+fountain of law. The righteousness of the divine government is
+especially evinced in the punishment of evil-doers. Transgressors
+generally, and not those of the worst class alone, as in Homer, are
+punished in _Hades_. Pride and insolence call down the vengeance
+of the gods. Unsleeping justice pursues the criminal. The theory of
+_Nemesis_, which pursues the prosperous, if they are proud, to
+their hurt and ruin, is held. (3) _Number of the Gods_. The
+number of divinities is multiplied as time advances. The worship of
+the heroes, children of the gods or goddesses, grows in
+importance. (4) _Revelation_. There was direct revelation, it was
+believed, by prophecy, uttered now in an ecstatic, and now in a
+tranquil, mood. _Oracles_ acquired a new and vast importance. (5)
+_Rites_. Visible objects of devotion were multiplied; religious
+ceremonies ramified in all directions; sacred processions, festivals,
+amusements involving religious observances, abounded. (6)
+_Morality_. Moral excellence centered in moderation and
+self-government, through which the individual keeps both his own
+nature as to its parts, and himself in relation to others, within due
+limits. This spirit includes temperance and justice. The stern spirit
+of law prevails: the requital of injuries is approved. Yet feelings of
+compassion find a beautiful expression. At Athens, there was public
+provision for orphans and for the help of the poor. (7) _Domestic
+Life: Patriotism_. The wife lived in retirement, and in submission
+to her husband. When he entertained friends at his table, she was
+absent; yet domestic affection was evidently strong. Every other duty
+merged in patriotism. The Greek placed a great gulf between himself
+and the "barbarian." He was conscious of higher intellectual gifts,
+superior culture, better customs. (8) _Sin. The Future
+Life_. There was a deeper sense of sin than in the Homeric
+era. There was a pathetic consciousness of the trouble and sorrow that
+beset human life. _Hades_ was regarded as a scene of trial and
+judgment, and of rewards as well as sufferings. The soul was not so
+closely identified with the body. Death was an object of gloomy
+anticipation.  _Pericles_, in his funeral oration for the fallen
+patriots, is silent as to a future life. In the tragic poets, it is
+only the select few whose lot is blessed. As concerns the mass of the
+people, it is probable that the Homeric notions respecting the state
+of the dead still prevailed. Generally speaking, we are not warranted
+in ascribing the more elevated views of religion entertained by the
+best minds to the mass of the people.
+
+THE TRAGIC DRAMA.--The songs which were sung in the worship of
+Dionysus (dithyrambs) were accompanied with dance and pantomime. The
+custom followed of mingling speeches and dramatic action with these
+lyrics.  The change is ascribed to _Thespis_ (about 536 B.C.), a
+little later than Solon. Thespis is said to have brought in the stage
+for the performers. The Greek theaters were large, open to the sky,
+and sometimes on sites which commanded fine views. There was the
+amphitheater, with graded seats for spectators, and the stage,
+together with the orchestra where the choir in song or musical
+recitation reflected the sympathies and views of the spectators of the
+play. At first there was only one actor, and, of course, a
+monologue. _Aeschylus_ is said to have brought in a second actor,
+and _Sophocles_ a third. These, with _Euripides_, were the
+three great dramatists of Greece. The choral song, which had been the
+chief thing, was made secondary to the dialogue. Aeschylus, at the age
+of forty-five, fought in the battle of Salamis; Sophocles, then
+fifteen years old, took part in the festival in honor of the victory;
+and Euripides was born, it was supposed, on the very day of the
+battle. These three brought the tragic drama to perfection. Of the
+productions of Aeschylus (525-456 B.C.), seven remain. They are
+inspired with the heroic and elevated mood which was engendered by the
+great struggle against the Persians. Of the numerous plays of
+Sophocles (495-406 B.C.), the number of those extant is also
+seven. They so combine vigor and force with refinement of thought and
+style that they are surpassed, if indeed they are equaled, by the
+literary products of no age or country. In Euripides (480-406 B.C.),
+while there is an insight into the workings of the heart, and the
+antique nobleness of sentiment, there is less simplicity, and there is
+manifest the less earnest and believing tone of the later day. In the
+dramas, the "unities" of time, place, and action are observed. The
+acts together seldom stretch over a single day.
+
+COMEDY--Comedy, in which _Aristophanes_ (452-388 B.C.), a great
+poet as well as a great wit, was the principal author, dealt largely
+in satire. Conspicuous men, and those active in public affairs, were
+represented on the stage in satirical pieces, so that they were at
+once identified. The spirit of the "old comedy" was patriotic,
+although it might be unjust, as in the case of Socrates, who was a
+target for the wit of Aristophanes. The "middle comedy" was nothing
+really distinct from the "new comedy." The "new comedy," in which
+Menander (342-290 B.C.) was an eminent author, ceased to present
+actual persons, and dealt with imaginary characters alone. Among the
+Greeks in Lower Italy and Sicily, mimes were much in vogue.
+
+GREEK ART: ARCHITECTURE--The Greeks more and more broke away in a free
+and joyous spirit from the stiff and conventional styles of Egyptian
+and Oriental art. In the room of the somber, massive edifices of
+Egypt, they combined symmetry and beauty with grandeur in the temples
+which they erected. The temples were originally colored within and
+without. Three styles were developed,--the _Doric_, the
+_Ionic_, and the _Corinthian_. In the _Doric_, the
+column and entablature have the most solid and simple form. The column
+has no other base than the common platform on which the pillars rest,
+and the capital that surmounts it is a plain slab.
+
+In the _Ionic_ style, the column has a distinct base, is more
+tall and slender, and its capital has two _volutes_, or spiral
+moldings. The capital of the _Corinthian_ column is peculiar,
+representing flower calices and leaves, "pointing upwards, and curving
+like natural plants." The _acanthus_, on account of its graceful
+form, was generally copied. The most ancient Doric temples, of a date
+prior to the Persian war, of which the ruined temple of Neptune at
+Paestum is one, are, in comparison with later edifices, of a severe
+and massive style. In the period extending from the Persian war to the
+Macedonian rule, the stern simplicity of the Doric is modified by the
+softer and more graceful character of the Ionic. The temple of
+_Theseus_ at Athens is an example. The _Parthenon_ was the
+most beautiful specimen of the Doric, which has appropriated the grace
+of the Ionic column without losing its own distinctive character. In
+the later period, after freedom was lost, there was much more
+ornamentation. It was then that the more decorated Corinthian style
+flourished.
+
+SCULPTURE.--Before the Persian wars, in the earliest sculpture the
+restraint of Egyptian and Oriental styles is perceptible in the
+sculptors, of whom Daedalus is the mythical representative. The oldest
+statues were of wood, which was subsequently covered with gold and
+ivory, or painted. The lofty style of _Phidias_ (488-432 B.C.),
+and of _Polycletus_ of Argos, became prevalent in the flourishing
+period of Greek liberty. _Myron_, to whom we owe the
+_Discobolus_ (Disk-Thrower), belongs to the school of
+Aegina. Statues were now made in brass and marble. They were
+everywhere to be seen. The pediments and friezes of the temples were
+covered with exquisitely wrought sculptures. The most beautiful
+sculptures that have come down from antiquity are the marbles of the
+Parthenon. The Greeks appreciated to the full the beauty of
+nature. They gave to their gods ideal human forms, in which were
+blended every attribute of majesty and grace which are conceived to
+belong to perfected humanity. Sculpture in Greece, as elsewhere, was
+ally to religion; "but whilst the religion of the Egyptians was a
+religion of the tomb, and their ideal world a gloomy spot peopled by
+sleeping lions, dreamy sphinxes, or weird unearthly monsters, the
+mythology of the Greeks, rightly understood, is an exquisite poem, the
+joint creation of the master-minds of infant Greece; and their art is
+a translation of that poem into visible forms of beauty." In the
+_third period_, which may be made to terminate with the death of
+_Alexander the Great_ (323 B.C.), there were masters in
+sculpture, among whom _Praxiteles_ and _Scopas_ are at the
+head. More and more, as we come down to the Roman period, while
+extraordinary technical perfection is still manifested, the loftier
+qualities of art tend to disappear.
+
+PAINTING.--In Greece, painting first ceased to be subordinate to
+architecture, and became independent. In early days, there was skill
+in the ornamentation of vases and in mural painting. Yet, with much
+spirit and feeling, there was a conventional treatment. The earliest
+artist of whom we know much is _Polygnotus_ (about 420 B.C.),
+whose groups of profile figures were described as remarkable for their
+life-like character and fine coloring. _Apollodorus_ of Athens
+was distinguished, but _Zeuxis_ of Heraclea is said to have been
+the first to paint movable pictures. He is famed for his marvelous
+power of imitation: the birds pecked at a bunch of grapes which he
+painted. But even he was outdone by _Parrhasius_. Zeuxis,
+however, had far higher qualities than those of a literal copyist. The
+most successful of the Greek painters was _Apelles_. Among his
+masterpieces was a painting of Venus rising from the waves, and a
+portrait of Alexander the Great. We have not in painting, as in
+sculpture, a store of monuments of Greek art; but the skill of the
+Greeks in painting fell behind their unequaled genius in molding the
+human form in bronze and marble.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.  THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR.
+
+
+I. TO THE PEACE OF NICIAS (421 B.C.).
+
+TO THE DEATH OF PERICLES.--Wonderful as was the growth of Athens under
+Pericles, it is obvious that she stood exposed to two principal
+sources of danger. Her allies and dependants, the stay of that naval
+power in which her strength lay, were discontented with her spirit of
+domination and of extortion. The _Peloponnesian Alliance_, which
+was led by _Sparta_, the bulwark of the aristocratic interest,
+comprised, with the Dorian, most of the Aeolian states,--as Boeotia,
+Phocis, Locris, etc. Its military strength lay mainly in its
+heavy-armed infantry. Thus Sparta had the advantage of strong
+allies. The motive at the bottom of this alliance was what Thucydides
+tells was the real cause of the Peloponnesian war,--the jealousy which
+the growth of Athens excited in other states. This feeling really
+involved a conviction of the need of maintaining in Greece that which
+in modern times is called a "balance of power." When Greece was no
+longer one, as in the best days of the wars with Persia, but was
+divided into two opposite camps, watchful and jealous of one another,
+an occasion of conflict could not fail to arise. It was complained
+that Athens gave help to _Corcyra_ in a war with _Corinth_,
+its mother city, made war upon _Potidaea_ in Macedonia, a
+Corinthian colony, and also shut out _Megara_ from the harbors of
+Attica.
+
+The demands made by Sparta, which included the granting of
+independence to _Aegina_, were rejected. Attica was ravaged by
+Spartan troops, and the coast of Peloponnesus by the Athenian fleet
+(431 B.C.). This desolating warfare was kept up until a frightful
+pestilence broke out at Athens,--a plague having its origin in Egypt,
+and passing thence over Asia and the Greek islands. Two of the sons of
+Pericles died, and an accumulation of public burdens and private
+sorrows brought on his own death (Sept., 429).
+
+  THE PESTILENCE.--The horrors of the pestilence are thus described in
+  a celebrated passage of the best of the Greek historians,
+  _Thucydides:_ "The crowding of the people out of the country
+  into the city aggravated the misery, and the newly arrived suffered
+  most. For, haying no houses of their own, but inhabiting, in the
+  height of summer, stifling huts, the mortality among them was
+  dreadful, and they perished in wild disorder. The dead lay as they
+  had died, one upon another; while others, hardly alive, wallowed in
+  the streets, and crawled about every fountain, craving for
+  water. The temples in which they lodged were full of the corpses of
+  those who died in them; for the violence of the calamity was such
+  that men, not knowing where to turn, grew reckless of all law, human
+  and divine. The customs which had hitherto been observed at funerals
+  were universally violated, and they buried their dead, each one as
+  best he could. Many, having no proper appliances, because the deaths
+  in their household had been so frequent, made no scruple of using
+  the burial-place of others. When one man had raised a funeral-pile,
+  others would come, and, throwing on their dead first, set fire to
+  it; or, when some other corpse was already burning, before they
+  could be stopped, would throw their own dead upon it, and depart.
+
+  "There were other and worse forms of lawlessness which the plague
+  introduced at Athens. Men who had hitherto concealed their
+  indulgence in pleasure, now grew bolder. For, seeing the sudden
+  change,--how the rich died in a moment, and those who had nothing,
+  immediately inherited their property,--they reflected that life and
+  riches were alike transitory, and they resolved to enjoy themselves
+  while they could, and to think only of pleasure. Who would be
+  willing to sacrifice himself to the law of honor when he knew not
+  whether he would ever live to be held in honor? The pleasure of the
+  moment, and any sort of thing which conduced to it, took the place
+  both of honor and of expediency: no fear of God or law of man
+  deterred a criminal. Those who saw all perishing alike, thought that
+  the worship or neglect of the gods made no difference. For offenses
+  against human law, no punishment was to be feared: no one would live
+  long enough to be called to account. Already a far heavier sentence
+  had been passed, and was hanging over a man's head: before that
+  fell, why should he not take a little pleasure?"
+
+TO THE TRUCE WITH SPARTA.--The loss of Pericles, coupled with the
+terrible calamities which had befallen Athens, let loose the winds of
+party passion. New leaders of the democracy, of whom _Cleon_ was
+the most noted, who lacked the refinement and self-restraint of
+Pericles, took his place. The Athenians were not able to save
+_Plataea_, to which they owed so much, from destruction at the
+hands of the _Spartans_ and _Boeotians_ (427 B.C.); but
+_Lesbos_ they recovered, and captured _Mytilene_, the bulk
+of whose citizens, against the will of Cleon, they spared. To the
+cruelties of war, which the revengeful temper of the Spartans
+promoted, there was added another plague at Athens, besides an
+earthquake, and tremendous rain-storms, alternating with drought.
+
+_Demosthenes_, a brave and enterprising Athenian general, took
+possession of Pylos in Messenia. The Spartans, under _Brasidas_,
+were on the island of _Sphacteria_ opposite; and their retreat
+was cut off by the fleet under _Nicias_, who was the leader of
+the more aristocratic faction at Athens. _Cleon_, made strategus
+in the room of Nicias, took Sphacteria by storm, contrary to general
+expectation, and brought home nearly three hundred Spartan
+prisoners. Athens had other successes; but when her forces had been
+defeated by the Boeotians at _Delium_, and Brasidas had captured
+_Amphipolis_, and when in a battle there (422 B.C.) Brasidas was
+victorious over _Cleon_, who fell during the flight, the
+aristocratic party, which was desirous of peace, gained the upper
+hand. _Nicias_ concluded a truce with Sparta for fifty
+years. Each party was to restore its conquests and prisoners.
+
+
+II. THE INFLUENCE OF ALCIBIADES.
+
+THE SICILIAN EXPEDITION.--From this time, _Alcibiades_, a
+relative of Pericles, but lacking his sobriety and disinterested
+spirit, plays an active part. Beautiful in person, rich, a graceful
+and effective orator, but restless and ambitious, he quickly acquired
+great influence. Three years after the peace of Nicias, he persuaded
+Athens to join a league of disaffected Peloponnesian allies of Sparta;
+but in the battle of _Mantinea_ (418 B.C.) the Spartans regained
+their supremacy. It was at the suggestion of Alcibiades that the
+Athenians undertook the great _Sicilian Expedition_, which
+resulted in the worst disasters they ever suffered. This expedition
+was aimed at the Dorian city of _Syracuse_, and the hope was that
+all Sicily might be conquered. It consisted of about forty thousand
+men, besides the sailors. The commanders were _Alcibiades_,
+_Nicias_, and _Lamachus_. Alcibiades was recalled to answer
+a charge of sacrilege. At Thurii he managed to escape and went over to
+the side of Sparta. _Gylippus_ went with a small Spartan fleet to
+aid Syracuse. The Athenians were repulsed in their attack on the
+city. Although re-inforced by land and naval forces under a gallant
+and worthy general, _Demosthenes_, they fought under great
+disadvantages, so that their fleet was destroyed in the Syracusan
+harbor. Their retreating forces on land were cut to pieces or
+captured.  _Nicias_ and _Demosthenes_ died either at the
+hands of the executioner or by a self-inflicted death.
+
+NAVAL CONTESTS.--No such calamity had ever overtaken a Grecian
+army. The news of it brought anguish into almost every family in
+Athens. The Spartans had fortified the village of _Decelea_ in
+Attica, and sought on the sea, with Persian help, to annihilate the
+Athenian navy. The allies of Athens, _Chios_, _Miletus_,
+etc., revolted. The oligarchs at Athens overthrew the democratic
+constitution, and placed the Government in the hands of a _Council
+of Four Hundred_. The popular assembly was limited to five thousand
+members, and was never called together. The object was to make peace
+with Sparta. But the army before Samos, of which _Thrasybulus_, a
+patriotic man, was the leader, refused to accept this change of
+government. _Alcibiades_, who had left the Spartans out of anger
+on account of their treatment of him, was recalled, and assumed
+command. The oligarchical rule was overturned in four months after its
+establishment, and the democracy restored,--the assembly being still
+limited, however, to five thousand citizens. Three brilliant naval
+victories, the last at _Cyzicus_ (410 B.C.), were won over the
+Spartans by Alcibiades who came back to Athens in triumph (408
+B.C.). _Lysander_ was the commander of the Spartan fleet on the
+coast of Asia Minor, and (407 B.C.) gained a victory over the Athenian
+ships during a temporary absence of Alcibiades. Alcibiades was not
+reëlected general. He now withdrew, and, three years later, died. The
+new Spartan admiral, _Callicratidas_, surrounded the Athenian
+fleet under _Conon_ at Mitylene. By very strenuous exertions of
+the Athenians, a new fleet was dispatched to the help of Conon; and in
+the battle of _Arginusĉ_ (406 B.C.), the Peloponnesians were
+completely vanquished. The public spirit of Athens and the resources
+of a free people were never more impressively shown than in the
+prodigious efforts made by the Athenians to rise from the effect of
+the crushing disaster which befell the Sicilian expedition on which
+their hopes were centered. But these exertions only availed to furnish
+to coming generations an example of the heroic energy and love of
+country which are possible under free government.
+
+
+III. THE FALL OF ATHENS.
+
+_Lysander_ once more took command of the Spartan fleet. Shrewd in
+diplomacy, as well as skillful in battle, he strengthened his naval
+force by the aid of _Cyrus_ the Younger, the Persian governor in
+Asia Minor. Watching his opportunity, he attacked the Athenians at
+_Ĉgospotami_, opposite Lampsacus, when soldiers and sailors were
+off their guard (405 B.C.). Three thousand of them, who had not been
+slain in the assault, were slaughtered after they had been taken
+captive. _Conon_ escaped to Cyprus with only eight ships. One
+fast-sailing trireme carried the news of the overwhelming defeat to
+Athens. Lysander followed up his success cautiously, but with
+energy. Islands and seaports surrendered to him, and in them he
+established the aristocratic rule. The Athenians were shut in by land
+and by sea. A treacherous aristocratic faction within the walls was
+working in the interest of the Spartans. Famine conspired with other
+agencies to destroy the multitude of homeless and destitute people who
+had crowded into the city. Starvation compelled a surrender to the
+Spartan general. The long walls and fortifications were demolished by
+the ruthless conqueror, the work of destruction being carried on to
+the sound of the flute. All but twelve vessels were given up to the
+captors. The democratic system was subverted, and thirty men--the
+"_Thirty Tyrants_"--of the oligarchical party were established in
+power, with _Critias_, a depraved and passionate, though able,
+man, at their head (404-403 B.C.). They put a Spartan garrison in the
+citadel, and sought to confirm their authority by murdering or
+banishing all whom they suspected of opposition. _Thrasybulus_, a
+patriot, collected the democratic fugitives at _Phyle_, defeated
+the Thirty, and seized the _Piraeus_. Critias was slain. _Ten
+oligarchs_ of a more moderate temper were installed in power. In
+co-operation with the Spartan king, _Pausanias_, the two parties
+at Athens were reconciled. An amnesty was proclaimed, and democracy in
+a moderate form was restored, with a revision of the laws, under the
+archonship of _Euclides_ (403 B.C.). It was shortly after this
+change that the trial and death of _Socrates_ occurred, the
+wisest and most virtuous man of ancient times (399 B.C.).
+
+PHILOSOPHY: SOCRATES.--At the head of the Greek philosophers is the
+illustrious name of _Socrates_. He was the son of Sophroniscus, a
+sculptor, and was born 469 B.C., just as Pericles was assuming the
+leadership at Athens. Socrates was the founder of moral philosophy. He
+was original, being indebted for his ideas to no previous school. He
+was as sound in body as in mind. His appearance was unique. His
+forehead was massive, but his flat nose gave to his countenance an
+aspect quite at variance with the Greek ideal of beauty. He looked, it
+was said, like a satyr. He taught, in opposition to the
+_Sophists_, a class of men (including _Gorgias, Protagoras_,
+and others) who instructed young men in logic and grammar, taking
+fees,--which was contrary to the custom of the Greek
+philosophers,--and cultivating intellectual keenness and dexterity,
+often at the expense of depth and sincerity. Their work as thinkers
+was negative, being confined mainly to pointing out fallacies in
+existing systems, but providing nothing positive in the room of
+them. _Socrates_ had been called by the oracle at Delphi the
+wisest of men. He could only account for this by the fact, that, in
+contrast with others, he did not erroneously deem himself to be
+knowing. "Know thyself" was his maxim. His daily occupation was to
+converse with different classes, especially young men, on subjects of
+highest moment to the individual and to the state. By a method of
+quiet cross-examination, the "_Socratic irony_," he made them
+aware of their lack of clear ideas and tenable, consistent opinions,
+and endeavored to guide them aright. The _soul_ and its moral
+improvement was his principal subject. He asserted _Theism_ and
+the spiritual nature and obligations of religion, without calling in
+question the existence of the various divinities. He taught the
+doctrine of a universal _Providence_. Absolute loyalty to
+conscience, the preference of virtue to any possible advantage without
+it, he solemnly inculcated. He believed, perhaps not without a
+mingling of doubt, in the immortality of the soul. Taking no part in
+public affairs, he devoted his time to this kind of familiar
+instruction,--to teaching by dialogue, in compliance with what he
+believed to be an inward call of God. An impulse within him, which he
+called a divine "voice," checked him when he was about to take a wrong
+step. He was charged with corrupting the youth by his teaching, and
+with heresy in religion. His rebukes of the shallow and the
+self-seeking had stung them, and had made him many enemies. Such men
+as _Alcibiades_ and _Critias_, who had been among his
+hearers, but for whose misconduct he was really not in the least
+responsible, added to his unpopularity. The _Apology_, as given
+by Plato, contains the substance of his most impressive defense before
+his judges. He took no pains to placate them or his accusers, or to
+escape after he was convicted. Conversing with his disciples in the
+same genial, tranquil tone which he had always maintained, he drank
+the cup of hemlock, and expired (May, 399 B.C.). An account of his
+teaching and of his method of life is given by his loving scholar,
+_Xenophon_, in the _Memorabilia_. The dialogues of
+_Plato_, in which Socrates is the principal interlocutor, mingle
+with the master's doctrine the pupil's own thoughts and speculations.
+
+PLATO.--_Plato_ (427-347 B.C.), the foremost of the disciples of
+Socrates, founded the philosophical school known as the _Academy_
+from the place where his pupils were wont to meet him. One of his
+prominent tenets was the doctrine of _ideas_ which he regarded as
+spiritual realities, intermediate between God and the world, of which
+all visible things are the manifestation. They are the shadow, so to
+speak, of which ideas are the substance. He defined virtue in man to
+be resemblance to God according to the measure of our ability. In the
+_Republic_, he sets forth his political views, and sketches the
+ideal state. More speculative than Socrates, Plato, from the wide
+range of his discussions, from their poetic spirit as well as their
+depth of thought, not less than their beauty of style, is one of the
+most inspiring and instructive of all authors. No other heathen writer
+presents so many points of affinity with Christian teaching.
+
+ARISTOTLE.--Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) studied under Plato, but
+elaborated a system of his own, which was on some points dissonant
+from that of his instructor. His investigations extended over the
+field of material nature, as well as over the field of mind and
+morals. With less of poetry and of lofty sentiment than Plato, he has
+never been excelled in intellectual clearness and grasp. He was
+possessed of a wonderful power to observe facts, and an equally
+wonderful talent for systemizing them, and reasoning upon them. He is
+the founder of the science of _Logic_. His treatises on
+_Rhetoric_ and on _Ethics_ have been hardly less important
+in their influence. His _Politics_ is a masterly discussion of
+political science, based on a diligent examination of the various
+systems of government. In truth, in all departments of research he
+exhibits the same capacity for scientific observation and
+discussion. In religion he was a theist; but he is less spiritual in
+his vein of thought, and more reserved in his utterances on this
+theme, than Plato. The names of these two philosophers have been very
+frequently coupled. Their influence, like their fame, is imperishable.
+
+LATER SCHOOLS: THE CYNICS.--The impulse given by Socrates gave rise to
+still other schools of philosophers. _Aristippus_ of Cyrene
+(about 380 B.C.)  founded a sect which held that happiness is the
+chief end, the goal of rational effort. _Antisthenes_, who was
+born 422 B.C., and especially _Diogenes_, went to the opposite
+extreme, and founded the school of _Cynics_, who looked with
+disdain, not only on luxuries, but on the ordinary comforts of life,
+and inured themselves to do without them. Their manners were often as
+savage as their mode of living.
+
+HISTORICAL WRITINGS.--The three principal historical writers were
+_Herodotus_ (c. 484-0.425 B.C.), the charming but uncritical
+chronicler of what he heard and saw, by whom the interference of the
+gods in human affairs is devoutly credited; _Thucydides_, who
+himself took part in the Peloponnesian war, the history of which he
+wrote with a candor, a profound perception of character, an insight
+into the causes of events, a skill in arrangement, and a condensation
+and eloquence of style, which are truly admirable; and
+_Xenophon_, an author characterized by naturalness, simplicity,
+and a religious spirit.
+
+  GREEK LIFE.--It will be convenient to bring together here some
+  features of Greek life, (1) _Public Buildings and
+  Dwellings_. The Greeks almost always preferred to live in
+  cities. These grew up about an _Acropolis_, which was a fort on
+  a hill, generally a steep crag. This was a place of refuge, and the
+  site of the oldest temple. It became often, therefore, a sacred
+  place from which private dwellings were excluded. At the nearest
+  harbor, there would be a seaport town. The _Piraeus_ was more
+  than four miles from Athens,--a mile farther than the nearest shore,
+  but was chosen as being an excellent harbor. Sparta, alone, had no
+  citadel,--the access from the plain being easily defended,--and no
+  walls. The attractive buildings in a Greek town were the public
+  edifices. Private houses, as to the exterior, were very plain, with
+  flat roofs, with few stories, and low. Towards the street "the house
+  looked like a dead wall with a strong door in it," It was built
+  round an open court: in the case of the best houses, round two
+  courts,--one bordered by apartments for the men, the other with the
+  rooms for women. Bedrooms and sitting-rooms were small, admitting
+  but little light. Fresco-painting on the walls and ceilings came to
+  be common. The furniture of the house was plain and simple, but
+  graceful and elegant in form. The poorer classes slept on skins; the
+  richer, on woolen mattresses laid on girths. The Greeks lived so
+  much in the open air that they took less pains with their
+  dwellings. The public buildings were costly and substantially
+  built. (2) _Meals, Gymnastics, etc._ The Greeks rose
+  early. There are no notices of a morning bath. The first meal was
+  light. It was succeeded, as was the custom at Rome, by calls on
+  friends. Business might follow until noon, the hour of the
+  _dèjeuner_, or breakfast, which, in the case of the rich, was a
+  substantial meal. Later in the day, males went to the practice of
+  gymnastics, which were followed, in later times, by a warm
+  bath. Towards sunset came the principal meal of the
+  day. Conversation and music, or the attending of a feast with
+  friends, took up the evening; if there was a festal company, often
+  the whole night. At the dinner-table, the Greeks reclined on
+  couches. Ladies, if allowed to be present, and children, were
+  required to sit. Spoons, sometimes knives, but never forks, were
+  used. (3) _Costume: Use of Wine._ The dress of the Greeks, both
+  of men and women, was simple and graceful. The men were generally
+  bareheaded in the streets. In bad weather they wore close-fitting
+  caps, and, in traveling, broad-brimmed hats. In Athens and Sparta
+  they always carried walking-sticks. The use of wine was
+  universal. It was always mixed with water. (4) _Slaves_. Slaves
+  were regarded as chattels. No one objected to slavery as
+  wrong. Slaves were better treated at Athens than elsewhere, but even
+  at Athens they were tortured when their testimony was required. They
+  were let out, sometimes by thousands, to work in pestiferous
+  mines. (5) _Women and Children_.  In Athens, the wife had
+  seldom learned any thing but to spin and to cook. She lived in
+  seclusion in her dwelling, and was not present with her husband at
+  social entertainments, either at home or elsewhere. She had few if
+  any legal rights, although at Athens she might bring a suit against
+  her husband for ill-treatment. Concubinage was not condemned by
+  public opinion. There was no law against exposing infants whom the
+  parents did not wish to bring up,--that is, leaving them where they
+  would perish. When found and brought up, they were the slaves of the
+  person finding them. This cruelty was frequent in the case of
+  daughters, or of offspring weak or deformed. There were toys and
+  games for children. _Archytas_, a philosopher, was said to have
+  invented the child's rattle. Dolls, hoops, balls, etc., were common
+  playthings. Boys and girls played hide and seek, blind man's buff,
+  hunt the slipper, etc. Older people played ball, and gambled with
+  dice. (6) _Education_. The education of boys was careful; that
+  of girls was neglected. The boy went to or from school under the
+  care of a slave, called _pedagogue_, or leader. Teachers were
+  of different social grades, from the low class which taught small
+  children, to the professors of rhetoric and philosophy. It is
+  needless to say how much stress was laid on gymnastic and aesthetic
+  training. Boys read _Homer_ and other authors at an early age,
+  committing much of them to memory. They were taught to play on the
+  harp or the flute, and to sing. Lyric poems they learned by
+  heart. _Music_ held a very high place in the esteem of the
+  Greeks for its general influence on the mind. Running, wrestling,
+  throwing the dart, etc., the games practiced at the public contests,
+  were early taught. Boys at sixteen or eighteen came of age, and were
+  enrolled as citizens. (7) _Musical Instruments: the
+  Dance_. Instrumental music was common among the Greeks at games
+  and meals, and in battle. They used no bows on the stringed
+  instruments, but either the fingers or the _plectrum_,--a stick
+  of wood, ivory, or metal. There were three sorts of stringed
+  instruments, the lyre, the cithara (or zithern), and the harp. The
+  wind-instruments were the pipe, the clarionet, and the
+  trumpet. Besides these, there were clanging instruments which were
+  used chiefly in religious ceremonies: such were castanets, the
+  cymbal, and the tambourine. Dancing was originally connected with
+  religious worship. Mimetic dances were a favorite diversion at
+  feasts. There were warlike dances by men in armor, who went through
+  the movements of attack and defense. In mimetic dances the hands and
+  arms played a part. There were peaceful dances or choral dances,
+  marked by rhythmic grace. Sometimes these were slow and measured,
+  and sometimes more lively. Specially brisk were the dances at the
+  festivals of Dionysus (Bacchus). Symbolic dances of a religious
+  character, these Bacchic dances were the germ of the
+  drama. Recitations were first introduced between hymns that attended
+  the choric dances. Then, later, followed the dialogue. (8)
+  _Weddings and Funerals_. Marriage was attended by a religious
+  ceremonial. There was a solemn sacrifice and a wedding-feast. The
+  bride was conveyed to her husband's house, accompanied on the way
+  with music and song. When a person died, his body was laid out for
+  one day, during which the relatives and hired mourners uttered
+  laments round the bier. Burial was at the dawn of day. In later
+  times, a coin was put into the mouth of the corpse, with which to
+  pay his passage to the world below. There was a funeral procession,
+  and at the tomb a solemn farewell was addressed to the deceased by
+  name. There was then a funeral-feast. Mourning garments were worn
+  for a short period. The dead were buried in the suburbs of the
+  cities, generally on both sides of a highway. In the tomb many
+  little presents, as trinkets and vases, were deposited. (9)
+  _Courts of Law_. At law men pleaded their own causes, but might
+  take advice or have their speeches composed for them by others. In
+  some cases, friends were allowed to speak in behalf of a
+  litigant. Men like _Demosthenes_ received large fees for
+  services of this kind. There being no public prosecutor, informers
+  were more numerous. They became odious under the name of
+  _sycophants_, which is supposed to have been first applied to
+  those who informed against breakers of an old law forbidding the
+  exportation of figs from Athens.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.  RELATIONS WITH PERSIA.--THE SPARTAN AND THEBAN HEGEMONY.
+
+
+THE RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND.--The _Anabasis_, the principal
+work of _Xenophon_, describes the retreat from the Tigris to the
+coast of Asia Minor, of a body of ten thousand mercenary Greek
+troops,--a retreat effected under his own masterly leadership. The
+Persian Empire, now in a process of decay, was torn with civil
+strife. _Xerxes_ and his eldest son had been murdered (465 B.C.).
+The story of several reigns which follow is full of tales of treason
+and fratricide. On the death of _Darius II_. (Darius Nothus)
+(423-404 B.C.), the younger _Cyrus_ undertook to dethrone his
+brother _Artaxerxes II_., and for that purpose organized, in Asia
+Minor, a military expedition, made up largely of hired Greek
+troops. At _Cunaxa_, not far from Babylon, Cyrus fell in the
+combat with his brother. The Persians enticed the Greek generals to
+come into their camp, and slew them. _Xenophon_, an Athenian
+volunteer who had accompanied the army, conducted the retreat of his
+countrymen, with whom he encountered incredible hardships in the slow
+and toilsome journey through _Armenia_ to _Trapezus_
+(Trebizond), and thence to _Byzantium_. The story of this march,
+through snow, over rugged mountains, and across rapid currents, is
+told in the _Anabasis_. A very striking passage is the
+description of the joy of the Greeks when from a hilltop they first
+descried the Black Sea. The soldiers shouted, "The sea! the sea!" and
+embraced one another and their officers.
+
+THE CORINTHIAN WAR AND THE PEACE OF ANTALCIDAS.--_Tissaphernes_,
+the antagonist and successor of the younger _Cyrus_, was Persian
+governor in Asia Minor, and set out to bring under the yoke the Ionic
+cities which had espoused the cause of Cyrus. Sparta came to their
+aid, and King _Agesilaus_ defeated the Persians near the
+_Pactolus_ (395 B.C.). The Persians stirred up an enemy nearer
+home, by the use of gold, and the _Boeotians, Corinthians_, and
+_Argives_, jealous of Sparta, and resentful at the tyranny of her
+governors (harmosts), and joined by Athens, took up arms against the
+Lacedaemonians. _Lysander_ fell in battle with the allies (395
+B.C.). The course of the war in which Conon, the Athenian commander,
+destroyed the Spartan fleet at _Cnidus_, made it necessary to
+recall Agesilaus. His victory at _Coronea_ (394 B.C.) did not
+avail to turn the tide in favor of Sparta. Conon rebuilt the long
+walls at Athens with the assistance of Persian money. The issue of the
+conflict was the _Peace of Antalcidas_ with Persia (387
+B.C.). The Grecian cities of Asia Minor were given up to the Persians,
+as were the islands of _Clazomenae_ and _Cyprus_. With the
+exception of _Lemnos, Imbros_, and _Scyros_, which the
+Athenians were to control, all of the other states and islands were to
+be free and independent. This was a great concession to Persia. Greek
+union was broken up: each state was left to take care of itself as it
+best could. Antalcidas cared little for his country: his treaty was
+the natural result of Spartan aggressiveness and selfishness.
+
+CONTEST OF THEBES AND SPARTA.--The Spartans had fallen away from the
+old rules of life ascribed to Lycurgus. They were possessed by a greed
+for gold. There were extremes of wealth and poverty among them. After
+the treaty of Antalcidas, they still lorded it over other states, and
+were bent on governing in Peloponnesus. At length they were involved
+in a contest with _Thebes_. This was caused by the seizure of the
+_Cadmeia_, the Theban citadel, by the Spartan _Phoebidas_
+acting in conjunction with an aristocratic party in Thebes (383
+B.C.). The Theban democrats, who, under _Pelopidas_, made Athens
+their place of rendezvous, liberated Thebes, and expelled the Spartans
+from the Cadmeia. Hostile attempts of Sparta against Athens induced
+the Athenians to form a new confederacy (or symmachy) composed of
+seventy communities (378 B.C.); and, after they had gained repeated
+successes on the sea, the two states concluded peace. Athens had
+become alarmed at the increased power of Thebes, and was ready to go
+over to the side of Sparta, her old enemy. It was a feeling in favor
+of a balance of power like that which had prompted Sparta at the close
+of the Peloponnesian war, to refuse to consent to the destruction of
+Athens, which Thebes and Corinth had desired. _Cleombrotus_, king
+of Sparta, again invaded Boeotia. The principal Boeotian leader was
+_Epaminondas_, one of the noblest patriots in all Grecian
+history,--in his disinterested spirit and self-government resembling
+Washington. The Spartan king was defeated by him in the great battle
+of _Leuctra_ (371 B.C.), and was there slain. At this time the
+rage of party knew no bounds. The wholesale massacre of political
+antagonists in a city was no uncommon occurrence.
+
+THEBAN HEGEMONY.--The victory of Leuctra gave the hegemony to
+Thebes. Three times the Boeotians invaded the Spartan territory. They
+founded _Megalopolis_ in Arcadia, to strengthen the Arcadians
+against their Lacedĉmonian assailants (370 B.C.). They also revived
+the _Messenian_ power, recalled the Messenians who had long been
+in exile, and founded the city of _Messene_. In the battle of
+_Mantinea_ (362 B.C.), _Epaminondas_, though victorious
+against the Spartans and their allies, was slain. Peace followed among
+the Grecian states, Sparta alone refusing to be a party to it. In the
+course of this intestine war, the Thebans had broken up the new
+maritime sway gained by them.
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD III.  THE MACEDONIAN ERA.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  PHILIP AND ALEXANDER.
+
+
+THE MACEDONIANS.--The Greeks, exhausted by long-continued war with one
+another, were just in a condition to fall under the dominion of
+_Macedonia_, the kingdom on the north which had been ambitious to
+extend its power. The Macedonians were a mixed race, partly Greek and
+partly Illyrian. Although they were not acknowledged to be Greeks,
+their kings claimed to be of Greek descent, and were allowed to take
+part in the Olympian games. At first an inland community, living in
+the country, rough and uncultivated, made up mostly of farmers and
+hunters, they had been growing more civilized by the efforts of their
+kings to introduce Greek customs. _Archelaus_ (413-399 B.C.) had
+even attracted Greek artists and poets to his court. At the same time
+they were exerting themselves to extend their power to the sea. The
+people were hardy and brave. When _Epaminondas_ died,
+_Philip_ (359-336 B.C.) was on the Macedonian throne. He had
+lived three years at _Thebes_, and had learned much from
+Epaminondas, the best strategist and tactician of his day. The decline
+of public spirit in Greece had led the states to rely very much on
+mercenary troops, whose trade was war. Philip had a well-drilled
+standing army. Every thing was favorable to the gratification of his
+wish to make himself master of Greece. First he aimed to get
+possession of Greek cities in _Chalcidice_, of which
+_Olynthus_ was the chief. The Athenians had towns in that region,
+besides _Amphipolis_, which was formerly theirs. Philip contrived
+to make the Olynthians his allies; and then, crossing the river
+_Strymon_, he conquered the western part of _Thrace_, where
+there were rich gold mines. There, for purposes of defense, he founded
+the city of _Philippi_.
+
+THE SACRED WAR.--A pretext for interfering in the affairs of Greece,
+Philip found in the _Sacred War_ in behalf of the temple of
+Delphi, which had been forced to loan money to the _Phocians_
+during a war waged by them against Thebes, to throw off the Theban
+supremacy. _Athens_ and _Sparta_ joined the Phocians. The
+Thessalian nobles sided with Philip. He gained the victory in his
+character of champion of the _Amphictyonic Council_, and took
+his place in that body, in the room of the Phocians (346 B.C.). But
+this was not accomplished until he had made peace with the Athenians,
+so that there was no Athenian force at the pass of Thermopylae to
+resist his progress.
+
+DEMOSTHENES.--The Athenians had placed themselves at the head of an
+_Aegean League_, and, had they managed with more spirit and
+prudence, they might have checked Philip. There was one man, worthy of
+the best days of Greece, who penetrated the designs of Philip, and
+exerted his great powers to stimulate his countrymen to a timely
+resistance. This was _Demosthenes_ (385-322 B.C.). He was the
+prince of the school of orators who had sprung up in these troublous
+times. Overcoming natural obstacles, he had trained himself with such
+assiduity that a place at the head of all orators, ancient and modern,
+is generally conceded to him. He was a great statesman, moved by a
+patriotic spirit: his speeches were for the welfare and salvation of
+the state. In 358 B.C., a war broke out between Athens and its
+maritime allies, in which Athens was unsuccessful. It was on the
+conquest of Thessaly by Philip, that _Demosthenes_ made against
+him the first of that series of famous speeches known as
+_Philippics_ (351 B.C.). In vain he urged the Athenians to rescue
+Olynthus. The inefficiency of the aid rendered, enabled Philip to
+conquer and destroy that city, and to sell its inhabitants as slaves
+(348 B.C.). Thirty cities he destroyed, and annexed all
+_Chalcidice_ to Macedon. A Macedonian party was formed at Athens,
+the foremost leader of which was _Aeschines_, not a good citizen,
+but an orator only second in rank to Demosthenes. They contended that
+it was futile to resist the advance of the Macedonian
+power. Demosthenes went at the head of an embassy to the Peloponnesian
+states which had taken sides with Philip, but his efforts to dissuade
+them from this suicidal policy were unavailing. What he wanted was a
+union of all Greeks against the common enemy, who was bent on robbing
+them of their liberty. He gathered, at length, a strong party about
+him at Athens. The overtures of peace from Philip, who was prosecuting
+his conquests in Thrace, were rejected. Athenian forces obliged the
+king to give up the siege of _Byzantium_ (341 B.C.). The
+consequent enlarged influence of Demosthenes was used by him to secure
+an increase of the fund for carrying on the war. But Philip had his
+paid supporters in all the Greek states. _Aeschines_ at Athens
+proved an efficient helper. A deputy at the _Amphictyonic
+Council_, in 338 B.C., he contrived to bring about another "holy
+war" against _Amphissa_ in Locris, the end being to give Philip
+the command. Philip seized _Elatea_, in the east of Phocis, which
+commanded the entrance to Boeotia and Attica. Dismay spread through
+Greece. _Demosthenes_ roused the Athenian assembly, where all
+were silent through fear, to confront Philip boldly, and himself went
+to Thebes, which he induced to form an alliance with Athens. But the
+allies were defeated at the fatal battle of _Chaeronea_ (August,
+338 B.C.), where _Alexander_, Philip's youthful son, decided the
+fortune of the day by vanquishing the Theban "sacred band." Philip
+treated the Thebans with great severity. He placed a garrison in the
+_Cadmeia_. To Athens he granted favorable terms. Marching into
+Peloponnesus, he took from Sparta a large part of its territory, and
+apportioned it to the Messenians, Argives, and Arcadians. At a
+national assembly at _Corinth_, from which the Spartans were
+absent, Philip caused himself to be created leader of the Grecian
+forces against Persia, with the powers of a dictator. Each of the
+Greek states was to retain its autonomy; and a congress, to meet at
+Corinth, was to settle differences among them. Two years after the
+battle of Chaeronea, at the marriage festival of his daughter with the
+king of Epirus, Philip was assassinated by means of a conspiracy, in
+which his queen is thought to have been a partner.
+
+ALEXANDER THE GREAT.--Alexander was twenty years old when his father
+died. His bodily health and vigor qualified him for combats and toils
+which few soldiers in his army could endure. His energy, rapidity, and
+military skill lift him to a level with Hannibal and the foremost
+commanders of any age. He was not without a generous appreciation of
+art and literature. The great philosopher, _Aristotle_, was one
+of his tutors. For the eminent authors and artists of Greece he
+cherished a warm admiration. But his temper was passionate and
+imperious. _Homer_ was his delight, and in Homer he took
+Agamemnon for his model; but the direst act of cruelty done by
+Achilles--that of dragging _Hector_ after his chariot--he
+exceeded when he dragged _Batis_, a general who had opposed him,
+at the tail of his chariot through the streets of
+_Gaza_. Especially when his passions were inflamed by strong
+drink,--as at banquets, occasions where Macedonian princes before him
+had been wont to drink to excess,--he was capable of savage deeds.
+
+ALEXANDER IN GREECE: HIS ARMY.--At a congress in Corinth, Alexander
+was recognized as the leader and general of Greece. In the spring of
+335 B.C., he made a campaign against the barbarous peoples north of
+Macedonia,--the Thracians, the Getae, and the Illyrians. A false
+report of his death led to an uprising of the Greeks. Quickly
+returning, he took vengeance on the _Thebans_ by razing their
+city to the ground, sparing only the temples and _Pindar's_
+house, and by selling its thirty thousand inhabitants into
+slavery. Athens prayed for pardon, which was granted, even the demand
+for the surrender of Demosthenes and other leaders being revoked. All
+resistance in Greece was over. Alexander's hands were free to complete
+his preparations for the task of conquering the Persian Empire. His
+army was strong through its valor and discipline rather than its
+numbers. The Macedonian _phalanx_ was the most effective force
+which had hitherto been used in war. It was made up of foot soldiers
+drawn up in ranks, three feet apart, with spears twenty-one feet in
+length, held fifteen feet from the point. The length of the spears and
+the projection of so many in front of the first rank, gave to the
+phalanx a great advantage, although such a body of troops could be
+turned around with difficulty. Alexander began his battles with other
+troops, and used the phalanx for the decisive charge. Only native
+Macedonians served in the phalanx. This was the case, also, with
+_the Guard_, a body of infantry, and with two divisions of
+cavalry, one clad in heavy armor, and one in light. With these troops
+were Greek and barbarian soldiers, infantry and cavalry, and a
+division for hurling stones, which was used not only in sieges, but
+also in battles. There was a band of young Macedonian soldiers called
+_pages_, also a body-guard selected from these by promotion; and
+out of this the king chose his generals. The army consisted of not
+more than forty thousand men, but it was so organized as to be
+completely under the control of Alexander; and he was a military
+genius of the first order.
+
+THE CAMPAIGN OF ALEXANDER: TO THE BATTLE OF ISSUS.--In the spring of
+334 B.C., Alexander crossed the _Hellespont_ at _Abydos_. At
+_Ilium_ (Troy) he performed various rites in honor of the heroes
+of the Trojan war, his romantic sympathy with whom was the principal
+tie between him and the Greeks. A Persian army disputed the passage of
+the _Granicus_. He was the first to enter the river, and in the
+battle displayed the utmost personal valor. His decisive victory
+caused nearly the whole of _Asia Minor_ to submit to
+him. _Halicarnassus_, and the few other towns that held out, were
+taken by storm. At _Tarsus_ he was cured by his physician,
+Philip, of a dangerous fever, brought on by a bath in the chilly
+waters of the river _Cydnus_. _Darius III_., the king of
+Persia, with a large army, approaching from the Euphrates, encountered
+him in a valley near _Issus_, in Cilicia. There (333 B.C.) was
+fought the memorable battle which settled the fate of the Persian
+Empire. The host of Darius was defeated with great slaughter; and his
+camp, with his treasures and his family, fell into the hands of the
+victor.
+
+TO THE BATTLE OF ARBELA.--After the victory of Issus, _Syria_ and
+_Phoenicia_ submitted, except _Tyre_, which was captured
+after a siege of seven months. Two thousand of the inhabitants were
+hung on the walls, and thirty thousand were sold into slavery. Gaza
+resisted, and there Alexander was severely wounded. After it was
+taken, he entered _Egypt_, and founded the city of ALEXANDRIA, in
+its consequences one of the most memorable acts of his life. He
+marched through _Lybia_ to the temple of _Jupiter Ammon_
+(331 B.C.). Having thus subdued the lands on the west, he passed
+through _Palestine_ and _Syria_ by way of _Damascus_,
+crossed the _Euphrates_ and the _Tigris_, and met the
+Persian army in the plains of Gaugamela, near _Arbela_,--an army
+more than twenty times as large as his own (October, 331 B.C.). After
+a hotly contested battle, the Persians were routed, and their empire
+destroyed.
+
+TO THE INVASION OF INDIA.--_Babylon_ and _Susa_ with all
+their treasures, and, afterwards, _Persepolis_ and
+_Pasargadae_, fell into the conqueror's hands. He set fire to
+Persepolis, and sold its male inhabitants into slavery. He pursued
+_Darius_ into Media, Hyrcania, and Parthia, where the flying king
+was murdered by _Bessus_, one of his own nobles, that he might
+not give himself up to Alexander. He then marched east and south
+through _Persia_ and the modern _Afghanistan_. He tarried at
+_Prophthasia_ (Furrah) for two months. Here it was that he
+charged _Philotas_, one of his best officers, with a conspiracy
+against his life, and put him to death; and after this he ordered the
+murder of _Parmenio_, his best general, who had been a companion
+in arms of King Philip. Founding cities in different places as he
+advanced, he crossed the _Oxus_, marched through _Sogdiana_,
+and crossed the _Jaxartes_ (Sir-Daria). While at
+_Samarcand_, in a drunken revel, he slew _Clitus_, the
+friend who had saved his life in the battle of the Granicus. In a fit
+of remorse he went without food or drink for three days. In
+_Bactra_, the capital of _Bactria_, he married
+_Roxana_, a princess of the country. By this time his head was
+turned by his unexampled victories, conquests and power. He began to
+demand of his followers the cringing adulation that was paid to
+Oriental monarchs, and when it was denied was ready to inflict summary
+vengeance.
+
+TO THE DEATH OF ALEXANDER.--Crossing the eastern Caucasus (the
+_Hindu-Kush_), Alexander moved down the right bank of the
+_Indus_, subduing the tribes whom he met in his path. On the
+further side of the _Hydaspes_, he met the Indian prince
+_Porus_, whom he defeated and captured, and converted into an
+ally. He continued his marches and his line of victories as far as the
+river _Hyphasis_. Here the Macedonian troops would go no farther.
+Alexander turned back (327 B.C.), and with his army and fleet moved
+down the _Hydaspes_ to the _Indus_, and down the
+_Indus_ to the sea. _Nearchus_, his admiral, sailed along
+the shore to the west, while Alexander conducted the rest of the army
+amid infinite hardships through the desert, and finally met him on the
+coast. In the beginning of the year 325, he reached _Susa_. Here
+he plainly manifested his purpose of combining Macedonia and Greece
+with the East in one great empire. He adopted the Persian costume and
+ceremonial, and married both the daughter of _Darius III_. and
+the sister of _Artaxerxes III_. He prevailed on eighty of his
+Macedonian officers and ten thousand Macedonian soldiers to take
+Persian wives. For himself he exacted the homage paid to a
+divinity. These measures, looking to the amalgamation of Macedon and
+Greece with the East on terms of equality, were most offensive to the
+old comrades and subjects of Alexander. He was obliged to quell a
+mutiny, which he accomplished with consummate address and courage
+(July, 324 B.C.). In the marshes about Babylon, a place which he
+intended to make his capital, he contracted a fever, which was
+aggravated by daily revels, and which terminated his life (323 B.C.),
+after a reign of twelve years and eight months.
+
+INFLUENCE OF ALEXANDER.--The Persian Empire, when it was attacked by
+Alexander, was a gigantic body without much vitality. Yet to overcome
+it, there was requisite not only the wonderful military talents of the
+conqueror, but the vigilance and painstaking which equally
+characterized him. He has been called "an adventurer."  To fight and
+to conquer, and to spread his dominion wherever there were countries
+to subdue, seems to have been his absorbing purpose. The most
+substantial result of his exploits, which read more like fable than
+authentic history, was to spread _Hellenism_,--to diffuse at
+least a tincture of Greek civilization, together with some
+acquaintance with the Greek language, over the lands of the East. This
+was a most important work in its bearing on the subsequent history of
+antiquity, and more remotely on the history of all subsequent times.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  THE SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER.
+
+
+DIVISIONS OF THE EMPIRE.--Alexander left no legitimate children. The
+child of Roxana, _Alexander the Younger_, was born after his
+father's death. The empire naturally fell to his principal generals,
+of whom _Perdiccas_, having command of the great army of Asia,
+had the chief power. He was obliged to content his military
+colleagues, which he did by giving to them provinces. The principal
+regents, or guardians, were soon reduced to three,--_Antipater_
+and _Craterus_ in Europe, and _Perdiccas_. The government
+was carried on in the name of Roxana's son, and of _Arrhidaeus_,
+the half-brother of Alexander. But _Perdiccas_ soon found that
+each general was disposed to be in fact a king in his own dominion. He
+formed the plan of seizing the empire for himself. This combined the
+satraps against him. Perdiccas was supported by his friend
+_Eumenes_, but had against him _Antipater_ and
+_Craterus_, the other regents, and the powerful governors,
+_Ptolemy Lagi_ in Egypt, and _Antigonus_ in Phrygia, Lycia,
+and Pamphilia (322 B.C.). There followed a series of wars lasting for
+twenty-two years, involving numerous changes of sovereignty, and fresh
+partitions of territory. The rebellious satraps triumphed over the
+royalists, whose aim was to keep the empire intact for the family of
+Alexander. The ambition of _Antigonus_ to make himself the sole
+ruler, led to a league against him (315 B.C.). In a treaty of peace,
+_Cassander_, the son of Antipater, was to retain the government
+of Macedonia. By him _Roxana_ and the young _Alexander_ were
+put to death. In a second war against Antigonus, in which, as before,
+he was supported by his son, _Demetrius Poliorcetes_, they were
+completely defeated in the battle of _Ipsus_, in Phrygia (301
+B.C.). Antigonus was slain: Demetrius fled to Greece. The result of
+this protracted contest was, that the Macedonian empire was broken
+into three principal states,--Macedonia under the _Antigonidae_,
+the descendants of Antigonus; Egypt under the _Ptolemies_; Syria
+under the _Seleucidae_. Besides these, there were the smaller
+kingdoms of _Pergamon_ and of _Bithynia_. Other states broke
+off from the Syrian realm of the Seleucidae.
+
+
+I. THE KINGDOM OF THE PTOLEMIES.
+
+PTOLEMY LAGI (323-285 B.C.).--When _Alexander_ transferred the
+seat of power in Egypt from Memphis to _Alexandria_, he
+accomplished results which he could not at all foresee. The Greek
+element became predominant in Egyptian affairs. A great stimulus was
+given to commerce and to foreign intercourse. The Egyptians themselves
+entered zealously into industrial pursuits. _Ptolemy Lagi_
+(Soter), the first of the new sovereigns, was wise enough to guard his
+own territory, and even to establish his rule in _Palestine_,
+_Phoenicia_, and _Coele-Syria_, but to avoid extensive
+schemes of conquest.  Cyrenaica, on the west of Egypt, and the
+intermediate Lybian tribes, he subdued. Ptolemy was an absolute
+monarch, but he retained prominent features in the old Egyptian
+administrative system, gave offices to Egyptians, and protected their
+religion. The most important civil stations and all military offices
+were reserved for Graeco-Macedonians: Alexandria was a Greek
+city. From the beginning he fostered learning and science. He set to
+work to collect a great library in a building connected with his
+palace. He founded the _Museum_, which was a college of
+professors. It attracted a great body of students, and became the
+university of the eastern world. Under the patronage of
+_Ptolemy_, mathematicians, poets, and critics of high repute
+flourished. Among the structures raised by him were the lighthouse of
+vast height on the island of _Pharos_, which was connected with
+the shore by a mole, or causeway, a mile in length; the _Soma_,
+or mausoleum, containing the body of _Alexander_; the _Temple
+of Serapis_, completed by his son; and the _Hippodrome_.
+
+PTOLEMY PHILADELPHIA.--_Ptolemy II_., surnamed
+_Philadelphus_ (285-247 B.C.), with less talent for war than his
+father, did much to encourage commerce, and was especially active in
+his patronage of learning. In this last province he did a greater work
+than his father. He greatly enlarged the library. He drew learned men
+to his court from all directions. In his time the Hebrew scriptures
+were translated into Greek, in the version called the
+_Septuagint_.  Under his auspices _Manetho_ composed his
+_History of Egypt_.
+
+PTOLEMY EUERGETES.--_Ptolemy III_. (247-222 B.C.), surnamed
+_Euergetes_ (the benefactor), was the most enterprising and
+aggressive of this line of monarchs. Most of his conquests were not
+permanent, but some of them were. He was a patron of art and of
+literature. He raised Egypt to the highest pitch of prosperity that
+she ever enjoyed. The first three Ptolemies whose reigns had covered a
+century, were followed by a series of incompetent and depraved kings,
+nine in number.
+
+  Ptolemy IV. (Philopator) (222-205 B.C.) was a weak and dissolute
+  prince. In war with _Antiochus III_. (the Great) of Syria, he
+  saved his kingdom; but his own subjects were rebellious and
+  disaffected. _Ptolemy VI_. (Philometor) (181-148 B.C.) was a
+  boy at his accession. His guardians engaged in war with Syria, which
+  would have conquered Egypt but for the interposition of the Romans
+  in his behalf (170 B.C.).
+
+
+II. MACEDON AND GREECE.
+
+When Alexander was in the far East, the Spartan king, _Agis III_.
+(330 B.C.), headed a revolt against _Antipater_; but Agis was
+vanquished and slain. The death of Alexander kindled the hope of
+regaining liberty among patriotic Greeks. Athens, under
+_Demosthenes_ and _Hyperides_, led the way. A large
+confederacy was formed. _Leosthenes_, the Greek commander,
+defeated Antipater, and shut him up within the walls of _Lamia_
+(in Thessaly). But the Greeks were finally beaten at
+_Crannon_. Favorable terms were granted to their cities, except
+Athens and Aetolia. Twenty-one thousand citizens were deported from
+Athens to Thrace, Italy, and other places. The nine thousand richest
+citizens, with _Phocion_ at their head, the anti-democratic
+party, had all power left in their hands. Demosthenes, Hyperides, and
+other democratic leaders, were proscribed. _Demosthenes_ took
+refuge in the temple of Neptune, on the little island of
+_Calaurea_. Finding himself pursued by _Archias_, the
+officer of Antipater, he took poison, which he had kept by him in a
+quill, and died. Thus closed the life of an intrepid statesman who had
+served the cause of liberty and of his country through the direst
+perils and trials with unfaltering constancy. The democracy again
+acquired power temporarily, and _Phocion_ was condemned to death.
+
+  _Cassander_, excluded from the Macedonian throne by his father,
+  Antipater, supplanted _Polysperchon_, the regent (316 B.C.). He
+  placed _Demetrius_ of _Phaleron_ in power at Athens over a
+  democracy with restricted prerogatives. He was driven out by
+  _Demetrius Poliorcetes_, who was helped by Athens to possess
+  himself of Macedonia and of the most of Greece, but was compelled
+  (287 B.C.) to give up his throne, which, however, was gained by his
+  son, _Antigonus Gonatas_ (277 B.C.).
+
+THE ACHAEAN LEAGUE.--In 279 B.C., there occurred an irruption of the
+Gauls into Greece, "one of those vast waves of migration which from
+time to time sweep over the world." The Macedonian king, _Ptolemy
+Ceraunus_, was defeated by them in a great battle, captured, and
+put to death. It was two years before these marauders were driven out,
+and Macedonia acquired a settled government. This episode in history
+favored the growth of two leagues--the _Achaean League_ and the
+_Aetolian League_. In these leagues the several cities gave up to
+the central council much more power than Greek cities had been in the
+habit of granting in former unions. The Achaean League was at first
+made up of ten Achaean cities. About 240 B.C. _Aratus_ of Sicyon,
+who had brought _Sicyon_ into the league, delivered
+_Corinth_ from the Macedonians. To free Greek cities from
+subjection to them, was long a great object of the
+league. _Peloponnesus_, except Sparta, with _Athens_ and
+_Aegina_, joined it.
+
+THE AETOLIAN LEAGUE: WAR OF THE LEAGUES.--The rough Aetolians north of
+the Corinthian Gulf, semi-barbarous in their mode of life, formed
+another league, and got command of _Phocis_, _Locris_, and
+_Boeotia_. A praiseworthy attempt at reform was made in Sparta by
+the king, _Agis IV_. (240 B.C.), who was opposed by the rich, and
+put to death. _Cleomenes_, his successor, who had the same spirit
+as Agis, engaged in conflict with the Achaean League, which then
+called in Macedonian help (223 B.C.). It had to give up to Macedon the
+Corinthian citadel. _Sparta_ was overthrown. Soon a war between
+the two leagues broke out, when the Achaeans again called on the
+Macedonians for aid. These conflicts were followed by the interference
+of the Romans.
+
+THE EVIL OF FACTION.--The bane of Greece, from the beginning to the
+end of its history, was the suicidal spirit of disunion. Her power was
+splintered at many crises, when, if united, it might have saved the
+land from foreign tyranny. Her resources were drained, generation
+after generation, by needless local contests. She owed her downfall to
+the desolating influence of faction.
+
+
+
+III. THE SYRIAN KINGDOM.
+
+_Seleucus I_. (Nicator) (312-280 B.C.) was the founder of the
+Syrian kingdom. From Babylon he extended his dominion to the _Black
+Sea_, to the _Jaxartes_, and even to the _Ganges_, so far
+as to make the Indian prince, _Sandracottus_, acknowledge him as
+suzerain. From Babylon he removed his capital to _Antioch_ on the
+Orontes, which he founded,--a city destined to be the rival of
+Alexandria among the cities of the East. The effect of this removal,
+however, was to loosen his hold upon the Eastern provinces of his
+empire. _Seleucia_, on the west bank of the Tigris, he likewise
+founded, which became a great commercial city, but was outstripped
+later by the Parthian city opposite, _Ctesiphon_. The provinces
+beyond the Euphrates he committed to his son, _Antiochus_. With
+him (Antiochus I.) begins the decline of the empire through the
+influence of Oriental luxury and vice. Under him Syria lost the
+eastern part of Asia Minor through the invading Gauls, who converted
+northern Phrygia into _Galatia_, while north-western Lydia became
+the kingdom of _Pergamon_. _Antiochus II_. (261-246 B.C.)
+could not hold the provinces in subjection. The Parthian and Bactrian
+kingdoms began under his reign. _Antiochus III_. (the Great)
+(223-1876.0.) checked the Parthians and Bactrians, and expelled the
+Egyptians from Asia, but prepared for the downfall of the Syrian
+Empire by provoking the hostility of the Romans.
+
+  BACTRIA, PARTHIA, PERGAMON, GALATIA.--_Bactria_, after it broke
+  off from Syria, was under Greek princes until, having been weakened
+  by the Parthians, it was conquered by the Scythians (134 B.C.). The
+  _Parthians_ issued, as marauders, from the north border of
+  _Iran_ (256 B.C.), under the _Arsacidae_. They gradually
+  acquired civilization from contact with Greek culture, especially
+  after they established the trading-city of _Ctesiphon_. About
+  200 B.C. the rulers of _Pontus_ made the Greek city of
+  _Sinope_ their residence, and attained to a high degree of
+  strength under _Mithridates VI_. (the Great). _Pergamon_
+  became a flourishing state under the Greek rule of _Attalus
+  I_. (241 B.C.). It was famed for its wealth and its
+  trade. _Eumenes II_. (197-159 B.C.) founded the library at
+  Pergamon. For him parchment was improved, if not invented, the
+  Egyptians having forbidden the exportation of
+  papyrus. _Galatia_ was so named from the swarm of Gallic
+  invaders (about 279 B.C.), who, after incursions in the East, which
+  were continued for forty years, settled there, and by degrees
+  yielded to the influences of Greek culture.
+
+PALESTINE: THE MACCABEES: THE IDUMAEAN PRINCES.--_Palestine_
+fared comparatively well in the times when the _Ptolemies_ had
+control.  Not so after it fell under the permanent sway of
+_Syria_. The Jews were surrounded and invaded by Gentilism. On
+three sides, there were Greek cities. The perils to which their
+religion was exposed by the heathen without, and by a lukewarm party
+within, made earnest Jews, the bulk of the people, more inflexible in
+their adherence to their law and customs. The party of the
+_Pharisees_ grew out of the intensity of the loyal and patriotic
+feeling which was engendered in the periods following the exile. The
+synagogues, centers of worship and of instruction scattered over the
+land, acted as a bulwark against the intrusion of heathen doctrine and
+heathen practices. The resistance to these dreaded evils came to a
+head when the Syrian ruler, _Antiochus Epiphanes_, embittered by
+his failures in conflict with Egypt, resolved to break down religious
+barriers among his subjects, and, for this end, to exterminate Jewish
+worship. In 168 B.C. he set up an altar to Jupiter in the temple at
+_Jerusalem_, and even compelled Jewish priests to immolate
+swine. Then the revolt broke out in which the family of Maccabees were
+the heroic leaders. _Judas Maccabees_ recovered the temple, but
+fell in battle (160. B.C.). Under his brother _Simon_, victory
+was achieved, and the independence of the nation secured. The chief
+power remained in the hands of this family, the _Asmonaean_
+princes, until their degeneracy paved the way for Roman intervention
+under _Pompeius_. His adviser was the _Idumeaean_,
+_Antipater_, a Jewish proselyte, whose son _Herod_ was made
+king (39 B.C.).
+
+PHILOSOPHY: THE STOICS AND THE EPICUREANS.--In the Greek world the
+progress of investigation and reflection tended to produce disbelief
+in the old mythological system. Social confusion and degeneracy tended
+to undermine all religious faith. _Pyrrho_ (about 330 B.C.)
+brought forward the skeptical doctrine, that the highest wisdom is to
+doubt every thing. _Euhemrus_ (315 B.C.) interpreted the whole
+mythology as an exaggeration, by imagination and invention, of
+historical events which form its slender nucleus. With the loss of
+liberty and the downfall of the Greek states, philosophy became, so to
+speak, more _cosmopolitan_. It no longer exalted, in the same
+narrow spirit, the _Greek_ above the _barbarian_. It looked
+at mankind more as one community. This was a feature of the first of
+the two principal sects, the _Stoics_, of whom _Zeno_ (about
+330 B.C.), and Chrysippus (280-207 B.C.) were the founders. They
+taught that _virtue_ is the _only good_; that is consists
+_in living according to nature_; that reason should be dominant,
+and tranquillity of spirit be maintained by the complete subjugation
+of feeling. The emotions are to be kept down by the force of and iron
+will. This is the Stoic _apathy_. The world is wisely ordered:
+whatever is, is right; yet the cause of all things is not
+personal. Mankind form on great community, "one city." The
+_Epicureans_, the second of the prominent sects,--so called from
+_Epicurus_, their founder (342-370 B.C.),--made _pleasure_
+the chief good, which is to be secured by _prudence_, or such a
+regulation of our desires as will yield, on the whole, the largest
+fruit of happiness. They believed that the gods exist, but _denied
+Providence_.
+
+CULTURE.--In the Greek cities which were founded by the Macedonians,
+the political life and independence which Greece had enjoued did not
+exist. The "Hellenistic" literature and culture, as it is called,
+which followed, lacked the spontaneous energy and original spirit of
+the old time. The civilization was that of people not exclusively
+Greek in blood. _Alexandria_ was its chief seat. Poetry
+languished. It was _prose_--and prose in the form of _learned
+inquiries, criticism_, and _science_--that flourished. The
+path was the same as that marked out by Aristotle. _Theocritus_,
+born in Syracuse, or Cos, under _Ptolemy I._ (about 320 B.C.),
+had distinction as a pastoral or bucolic poet. _Euclid_, under
+_Ptolemy Soter_, systemized geometry. _Archimedes_, who died
+in 212 B.C., is said to have invented the screw, and was skillful in
+mechanics. _Eratosthenes_ founded descriptive astronomy and
+scientific chronology. "The Alexandrian age busied itself with
+literary or scientific research, and with setting in order what the
+Greek mind had done in its creative time." After Greece became subject
+to Rome (146 B.C.) the _Graeco Roman period_ in Greek literature
+begins. The Greek historian _Polybius_ stands on the border
+between the Alexandrian age and this next era. He was born about 210
+B.C., and died about 128 B.C.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Works mentioned on p. 16: Histories of Greece by GROTE
+  (12 vols.)  (democratic in his sympathies), E. CURTIUS (5 vols.),
+  THIRLWALL (8 vols.), W. Smith (1 vol.), G. W. Cox. Busolt,
+  _Griechische Geschichte_; Fyffe, _History of Greece_
+  (primer); Duncker, _History of Greece_ [separately published];
+  Abbott (2 vols.); Holm (4 vols.); Bury; Oman.
+
+  On special periods: The writings of the ancient authors,--Herodotus
+  (Rawlinson's translation, 4 vols.), Xenophon, THUCYDIDES (Jowett's
+  translation, 2 vols.), Polybius, Plutarch's _Lives_. Schäfer,
+  _Demosthenes und seine Zeit_ (3 vols.); DROYSEN, _Geschichte
+  des Hellenismus_ (3 vols.); E. A. FREEMAN, _History of Federal
+  Government_ (vol. i.); FINLAY, _History of Greece from the
+  Conquest of the Romans_ (7 vols.); G. W. Cox, _History of
+  Greece from the Earliest Period to the End of the Persian War_ (2
+  vols.), and _Lives of Greek Statesmen_ (1 vol.); Freeman,
+  _History of Sicily_ (4 vols.).
+
+  On special topics: BOECKH, _The Public Economy of Athens_;
+  Coulanges, _The Ancient City_, etc.: Gġll, _Kulturbilder aus
+  Hellas und Rom_ (3 vols.); Guhl and Koner, _The Life of the
+  Greeks and Romans_, etc.; Green, _Greece and Greek
+  Antiquities_ (primer); J. P. Mahaffy, _Social Life in
+  Greece_, also _Rambles in Greece, Old Greek Education_, and
+  _History of Greek Literature_ (2 vols.); Becker,
+  _Charicles_ (a story illustrative of Greek life); F. A. Paley,
+  _Greek Wit_ (2 vols.); Church, _Stories from Homer_;
+  Black, _The Wise Men of Greece_; Neares, _Greek Anthology_
+  [in Ancient Classics for English Readers], _Chief Ancient
+  Philosophies_ [Stoicism, etc.] (1 vol., 1880); Müller and
+  Donaldson, _History of the Literature of Ancient Greece_ (3
+  vols.); Mure, _A Critical History of the Language and Literature
+  of Ancient Greece_ (5 vols.); Jebb, _Attic Orators_ (2
+  vols.); Symonds, _The Greek Poets_ (2 vols.); G. F. Schömann,
+  _The Antiquities of Greece_; Gladstone, _Studies on the
+  Homeric Age_ and _Homer_; Lübke, _Outlines of the History
+  of Art_; FERGUSSON, _History of Architecture_; D'Anvers,
+  _Elementary History of Art_; Botsford, _Development of the
+  Athenian Constitution_; W. W. Fowler, _The City-State of the
+  Greeks and Romans_; Gilbert, _Constitutional Antiquities of
+  Sparta and Athens_; Greenidge, _Handbook of Greek
+  Constitutional History_; H. N. Fowler, _History of Greek
+  Literature_; Marshall, _Short History of Greek Philosophy_;
+  Gardner, _Handbook of Greek Sculpture_; Tarbell, History of
+  Greek Art_; Tozer, _Primer of Classical Geography_; Kiepert,
+  _Atlas Antiquus_; Cunningham, _Western Civilization_
+  (vol. 1); Smith (Wayte & Marindin), _Dictionary of Greek and Roman
+  Antiquities_ (2 vols., 1890); Seyffert (Nettleship and Sandys),
+  _Dictionary of Classical Antiquities_.
+
+
+MACEDONIAN ROYAL HOUSES
+
+
+
+A.--House of Alexander the Great.
+
+(1) AMYNTAS II.
+|
++--(4) PHILIP, _m._
+|      1, Olympias;
+|      |
+|      +--ALEXANDER THE GREAT, _m._
+|         1, Roxana;
+|         |
+|         +--(7) ALEXANDER.
+|
+|         2, Concubines.
+|         |
+|         +--Hercules.
+|
+|      2, Cleopatra;
+|
+|      3, Concubines.
+|      |
+|      +--(6) PHILIP ARRHIDAEUS, _m._ Eurydicé.
+|      |
+|      +--Thessalonica, _m._ Cassander.
+|      |
+|      +--Cynané _m._ Amyntas.
+|
++--(2) ALEXANDER II.
+|
++--(3) PERDICCAS III.
+   |
+   +--Amyntas, _m._ Cynané
+      |
+      +--Eurydicé, _m._ Philip Arrhidaeus.
+
+
+
+B.--House of Antipater.
+
+ANTIPATER.
+|
++--(8) CASSANDER, _m._ Thessalonica.
+|  |
+|  +--(9) PHILIP II.
+|  |
+|  +--(10) ANTIPATER II.
+|  |
+|  +--(11) ALEXANDER.
+|
+|
++--Philip.
+|
++--Eurydicé, _m._ Ptolemy Lagi,
+|
++--Phila, _m._
+|  1, Craterus;
+|  2, Demetrius Poliorcetes.
+|
++--Nicaea, _m._ Perdiccas.
+
+
+
+C.--House of Antigonus.
+
+Antigonus I.
+|
+|
++--(12) DEMETRIUS I (Poliorcetes), _m._
+|   Phila, daughter of Antipater.
+|   |
+|   +--(13) Antigonus II (Gonatas), _m._
+|   |  Phila, daughter of Seleucus Nicator.
+|   |  |
+|   |  +--(14) Demetrius II, _m._
+|   |     1, Stratonice;
+|   |     |
+|   |     +--(16) PHILIP III.
+|   |     |   |
+|   |     |   +--(17) PERSEUS, _m._
+|   |     |   |  Laodicé, daughter of Seleucus Philopator.
+|   |     |   |
+|   |     |   +--Demetrius
+|   |     |
+|   |     +--Apama.
+|   |
+|   |     2, Phthia.
+|   |
+|   +--Craterus.
+|   |  |
+|   |  +--Alexander
+|   |
+|   +--Demetrius the Handsome.
+|   |  |
+|   |  +--Antigonus III (Doson), _m._
+|   |  |  Phthia, widow of Demetrius II
+|   |  |
+|   |  +--Echecrates,
+|   |     |
+|   |     +--Antigonus.
+|   |
+|   +--Stratonice, _m._
+|   |  1, Seleucus Nicator;
+|   |  2, Antiochus Theus.
+|   |
+|   +--Phila.
+|
++--Philip.
+
+[From Rawlinson's _Manual of Ancient History_.]
+
+
+
+
+SECTION II.  ROMAN HISTORY.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+PLACE OF ROME IN HISTORY.--Rome is the bridge which unites, while it
+separates, the ancient and the modern world. The history of Rome is
+the narrative of the building up of a single City, whose dominion
+gradually spread until it comprised all the countries about the
+Mediterranean, or what were then the civilized nations. "In this great
+empire was gathered up the sum total that remained of the religions,
+laws, customs, languages, letters, arts, and sciences of all the
+nations of antiquity which had successively held sway or
+predominance." Under the system of Roman government and Roman law they
+were combined in one ordered community. It was out of the wreck of the
+ancient Roman Empire that the modern European nations were
+formed. Their likeness to one another, their bond of fellowship, is
+due to the heritage of laws, customs, letters, religion, which they
+have received in common from Rome.
+
+THE INHABITANTS OF ANCIENT ITALY.--Until a late period in Roman
+history, the Apennines, and not the Alps, were the northern boundary
+of Italy. The most of the region between the Alpine range and the
+Apennines, on both sides of the Po, was inhabited by _Gauls_,
+akin to the Celts of the same name north of the Alps. On the west of
+Gallia were the _Ligurians_, a rough people of unknown
+extraction. People thought to be of the same race as the Ligurians
+dwelt in _Sardinia_ and in _Corsica_, and in a part of
+_Sicily_. On the east of Gallia were the Venetians, whose lineage
+is not ascertained. The Apennines branch off from the Alps in a
+southeasterly direction until they near the Adriatic, when they turn
+to the south, and descend to the extreme point of the peninsula, thus
+forming the backbone of Italy. On the west, in the central portion of
+the peninsula, is the hilly district called by the ancients,
+_Etruria_ (now Tuscany), and the plains of _Latium_ and
+_Campania_. What is now termed _Campania_, the district
+about Rome, is a part of ancient Latium. The _Etrurians_ differed
+widely, both in appearance and in language, from the Romans. They were
+not improbably _Aryans_, but nothing more is known of their
+descent. In the east, in what is now _Calabria_, and in
+_Apulia_, there was another people, the _Iapygians_, whose
+origin is not certain, but who were not so far removed from the Greeks
+as from the Latins. The southern and south-eastern portions of the
+peninsula were the seat of the _Greek_ settlements, and the
+country was early designated _Great Greece_. Leaving out the
+Etrurians, Iapygians, and Greeks, Italy, south of Gallia, was
+inhabited by nations allied to one another, and more remotely akin to
+the Greeks. These Italian nations were divided into an eastern and a
+western stock. The western stock, the _Latins_, whose home was in
+Latium, were much nearer of kin to the Greeks than were the
+eastern. The eastern stock comprised the _Umbrians_ and the
+_Oscans_. It included the Sabines, Samnites, and Lucanians.
+
+  We are certain, that, "from the common cradle of peoples and
+  languages, there issued a stock which embraced in common the
+  ancestors of the Greeks and the Italians; that from this, at a
+  subsequent period, the Italians branched off; and that these divided
+  again into the western and eastern stocks, while, at a still later
+  date, the eastern became subdivided into Umbrians and Oscans."
+  (Mommsen's _History of Rome_, vol. i., p. 36.)
+
+ITALY AND GREECE.--In two important points, Italy is geographically
+distinguished from Greece. The sea-coast of Italy is more uniform, not
+being broken by bays and harbors; and it is not cut up, like Greece,
+by chains of mountains, into small cantons. The Romans had not the
+same inducement to become a sea-faring people; there were fewer
+cities; there was an opportunity for closer and more extended
+leagues. It is remarkable that the outlets of Greece were towards the
+east; those of Italy towards the west. The two nations were thus
+averted from one another: they were, so to speak, back to back.
+
+THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.--The Greeks and Romans, although sprung from a
+common ancestry, and preserving common features in their language, and
+to some extent in their religion, were very diverse in their natural
+traits. The Greeks had more genius: the Romans more stability. In art
+and letters the Romans had little originality. In these provinces they
+were copyists of the Greeks: they lacked ideality. They had, also, far
+less delicacy of perception, flexibility, and native refinement of
+manners. But they had more sobriety of character and more
+endurance. They were a _disciplined_ people; and in their
+capacity for discipline lay the secret of their supremacy in arms and
+of their ability to give law to the world. If they produced a much
+less number of great men than the Greeks, there was more widely
+diffused among Roman citizens a conscious dignity and strength. The
+Roman was naturally _grave_: the fault of the Greek was
+_levity_. _Versatility_ belonged to the Greek:
+_virility_ to the Roman. Above all, the sense of right and of
+justice was stronger among the Romans. They had, in an eminent degree,
+the political instinct, the capacity for governing, and for building
+up a political system on a firm basis. This trait was connected with
+their innate reverence for authority, and their habit of
+obedience. The noblest product of the Latin mind is the _Roman
+law_, which is the foundation of almost all modern codes. With all
+their discernment of justice and love of order, the Romans, however,
+were too often hard and cruel. Their history is stained here and there
+with acts of unexampled atrocity. In private life, too, when the rigor
+of self-control gave way, they sunk into extremes of vulgar
+sensuality. If, compared with the Greeks, they stood morally at a
+greater height, they might fall to a lower depth.
+
+THE ROMAN RELIGION.--The difference between the Greek and Roman mind
+was manifest in the sphere of religion. Before their separation from
+one another they had brought from the common hearthstone elements of
+worship which both retained. _Jupiter_, like _Zeus_, was the
+old Aryan god of the shining sky. But the Greek conception, even of
+the chief deity, differed from the Roman. When the Romans came into
+intercourse with the Greeks, they identified the Greek divinities with
+their own, and more and more appropriated the tales of the Greek
+mythology, linking them to their own deities. Of the early worship
+peculiar to the Romans, we know but little. But certain traits always
+belonged to the Roman religion. Their mood was too prosaic to invent a
+theogony, to originate stories of the births, loves, and romantic
+adventures of the gods, such as the Greek fancy devised. The Roman
+myths were heroic, not religious: they related to the deeds of valiant
+men. Their deities were, in the first place, much more abstract, less
+vividly conceived, less endowed with distinct personal
+characteristics. And, secondly, their service to the gods was more
+punctilious and methodical. It was regulated, down to the minutiĉ, by
+fixed rules. Worship was according to law, was something due to the
+gods, and was discharged, like any other debt, exactly, and at the
+proper time. The Roman took advantage of technicalities in dealing
+with his gods: he was legal to the core. The word _religion_ had
+the same root as _obligation_. It denoted the bondage or service
+owed by man to the gods in return for their protection and favor; and
+hence the anxiety, or scrupulous watchfulness against the omission of
+what is required to avert the displeasure of the powers above.
+
+ORIGIN OF THE ROMANS.--The Romans attributed their origin to the
+mythical _Ĉneas_, who fled, with a band of fugitives, from the
+flames of _Troy_, and whose son, _Ascanius_, or
+_Iulus_, settled in _Alba Longa_, in Latium. What is known
+of the foundation of Rome is, that it was a settlement of Latin
+farmers and traders on the group of hills, seven in number, near the
+border of Latium, on the _Tiber_. It was the head of navigation
+for small vessels, and Rome was at first, it would seem, the
+trading-village for the exchange of the products of the
+farming-district in which it was placed. Such an outpost would be
+useful to guard Latium against the _Etrurians_ across the
+river. Of the three townships, or clans, which united to form
+Rome,--the _Ramnes_, the _Tities_, and the
+_Luceres_,--the first and third were Latin. The second, which was
+_Sabine_, blended with the Roman element, as the language
+proves. The clans, or tribes, in Latium together formed a league, the
+central meeting-place of which was at first _Alba Longa_. There
+is some reason to think that the Sabines were from _Cures_ near
+Rome. Certain it is that Rome, even at the outset, derived its
+strength from a combination of tribes.
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD I.  ROME UNDER THE KINGS AND THE PATRICIANS. (753-304 B.C.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  ROME UNDER THE KINGS (753-509 B.C.).
+
+
+CHARACTER OF THE LEGENDS.--There is no doubt that the Romans lived for
+a time under the rule of kings. These were not like the Greek kings,
+hereditary rulers, nor were they chosen from a single family. But the
+stories told in later times respecting the kings, their names and
+doings, are quite unworthy of credit. They rest upon no contemporary
+evidence or sure tradition. To say nothing of the miraculous elements
+that enter into the narratives, they are laden with other
+improbabilities, which prove them to be the fruit of imagination. They
+contain impossibilities in chronology. They ascribe laws,
+institutions, and religion, which were of slow growth, to particular
+individuals, apportioning to each his own part in an artificial
+way. Many of the stories are borrowed from the Greeks, and were
+originally told by them about other matters. In short, the Roman
+legends, including dates, such as are recorded in this chapter, are
+fabrications to fill up a void in regard to which there was no
+authentic information, and to account for beliefs and customs the
+origin of which no one knew. They are of service, however, in helping
+us to ascertain the character of the Roman constitution, and something
+about its growth, in the prehistoric age.
+
+THE LEGENDARY TALES.--_Romulus_ and _Remus_, so the legend
+runs, were sons of the god _Mars_ by _Rhea Silvia_, a
+priestess of Vesta, whose father, _Numitor_, had been slain by
+his wicked brother, _Amulius_, who thereby made himself king of
+Alba Longa. The twins, by his command, were put into a basket, and
+thrown into the Tiber. The cradle was caught by the roots of a
+fig-tree: a she-wolf came out, and suckled them, and _Faustulus_,
+a shepherd, brought them up as his own children. _Romulus_ grew
+up, and slew the usurper, _Amulius_. The two brothers founded a
+city on the banks of the Tiber where they had been rescued (753
+B.C.). In a quarrel, the elder killed the younger, and called the city
+after himself, _Roma_. Romulus, to increase the number of the
+people, founded an asylum on the Capitoline Hill, which gave welcome
+to robbers and fugitives of all kinds. There was a lack of women; but,
+by a cunning trick, the Romans seized on a large number of Sabine
+women, who had been decoyed to Rome, with their fathers and brothers,
+to see the games. The angry Sabines invaded Rome. _Tarpeia_, the
+daughter of the Roman captain, left open for them a gate into the
+Capitoline citadel, and so they won the Capitol. In the war that
+followed, by the intervention of the Sabine women, the Romans and
+Sabines agreed to live peaceably together as citizens of one town,
+under _Romulus_ and the Sabine, _Tatius_. After the death of
+Tatius, _Romulus_ reigned alone, and framed laws for the two
+peoples. During a thunder-storm he was translated to the skies, and
+worshiped as the god _Quirinus_ (716 B.C.). After a year _Numa
+Pompilius_, a Sabine, was elected king (715-673 B.C.). He stood in
+close intercourse with the gods, was full of wisdom and of the spirit
+of peace. He framed the religious system, with its various offices and
+rites. The gates of the temple of _Janus_, closed only in peace,
+were shut during his mild reign. He died of old age, without illness
+or pain. The peaceful king was followed by the warlike king, _Tullus
+Hostilius_ (673-641 B.C.). War breaks out with _Alba_. The two
+armies face each other, and the contest is decided by the single
+combat of the three _Horatii_, champions of the Romans, and the
+three _Curiatii_, champions of Alba. One Roman, the victor and
+sole survivor, is led to Rome in triumph. Thus _Alba_ became
+subject to _Rome_. Afterwards Alba was destroyed, but the Albans
+became Roman citizens. The fourth king, _Ancus Marcius_ (641-616
+B.C.), loved peace, but could not avoid war. He fought against four
+Latin towns, brought their inhabitants to Rome, and planted them on
+the _Aventine_ hill. He fortified the hill _Janiculum_, on
+the right bank of the Tiber, and connected it by a wooden bridge with
+the town. The next king was by birth an Etruscan. _Lucumo_ and
+his wife, _Tanaquil_, emigrated to Rome. Lucumo took the name of
+_Lucius Tarquinius_, was stout, valiant, and wise, a counselor of
+_Ancus_, and chosen after him, instead of one of the sons of
+Ancus, whose guardian he was. _Tarquinius Priscus_ (616-578
+B.C.)--for so he was called--waged successful wars with the Sabines,
+Latins, and Etruscans. The _Etruscans_ owned him for their king,
+and sent a crown of gold, a scepter, an ivory chair, an embroidered
+tunic, a purple toga, and twelve axes in as many bundles of rods. He
+made a reform of the laws. He built the temple of Jupiter, or the
+Capitol, laid out the forum for a market-place, made a great sewer to
+drain the lower valleys of the city, leveled a race-course between the
+_Aventine_ and _Palatine_ hills, and introduced games like
+those of the Etruscans. Tarquinius was killed by the sons of Ancus;
+and _Servius Tullius_ (578-534 B.C.), the son of _Ocrisia_,
+a slave-woman, and of a god, was made king through the devices of
+_Tanaquil_. He united the seven hills, and built the wall of
+Rome. He remodeled the constitution by the census and the division of
+the centuries. Under him Rome joined the Latin league. He was murdered
+by his flagitious son-in-law, _Tarquinius Superbus_ (534-510
+B.C.)--Tarquin the Proud. He ruled as a despot, surrounding himself
+with a bodyguard, and, upon false accusation, inflicting death on
+citizens whose property he coveted. By a treacherous scheme, he got
+possession of the town of _Gabii_. He waged war against the
+_Volscians_, a powerful people on the south of Latium. He adorned
+Rome with many buildings, and lived in pomp and extravagance, while
+the people were impoverished and helpless. The inspired _Sibyl_
+of _Cumae_ offered him, through a messenger, nine books of
+prophecies. The price required excited his scorn, whereupon the woman
+who brought them destroyed three. She came back with the remaining
+six, which she offered at the same price. On being refused in the same
+manner, she destroyed another three. This led Tarquin to pay the price
+when she appeared the third time with the books that were left. They
+were carefully preserved to the end, that in times of danger the will
+of the gods might be learned. Another story told of the haughty king
+was, that, when he had grown old, and was frightened by dreams and
+omens, he sent his two sons to consult the oracle at Delphi. With them
+went his sister's son, _Junius_, who was called _Brutus_ on
+account of his supposed silliness, which was really feigned to deceive
+the tyrant. The offering which he brought to the Delphian god was a
+simple staff. His cousins, who laughed at him, did not know that it
+was stuffed with gold. The god, in answer to a question, said that he
+would reign at Rome who should first kiss his mother. _Brutus_
+divined the sense of the oracle, pretended to stumble, and kissed the
+mother earth. The cruel outrage of _Sextus Tarquinius_, the
+king's son, of which _Lucretia_, the wife of their cousin, was
+the pure and innocent victim, caused the expulsion of the house of
+Tarquin, and the abolishing of regal government. Her father and
+husband, with Brutus and the noble _Publius Valerius Poplicola_,
+to whom she related "the deed of shame" wrought by Sextus, swore, at
+her request, to avenge her wrong. She herself plunged a dagger into
+her heart, and expired. _Brutus_ roused the people, and drove out
+the _Tarquins_. Two _consuls_ were appointed in the room of
+the king, who should rule for one year. _Brutus_ was one. When it
+was ascertained that his own sons had taken part in a conspiracy of
+the higher class to restore Tarquinius, the stern Roman gave orders to
+the lictors to scourge them, and to cut off their heads with the ax.
+Now the senate and people decreed that the whole race of Tarquinius
+should be banished for ever. Tarquinius went among the Etruscans, and
+secured the aid of the people of _Tarquinii_, and of
+_Veii_. In a battle, _Aruns_, the son of Tarquinius, and
+_Brutus_, both mounted, ran upon one another, and were
+slain. Each army marched to its home. Tarquinius then obtained the
+help of _Porsena_, king of the Etruscans, with a strong
+army. They took _Janiculum_; but _Horatius Cocles_, with two
+companions, posted himself at the entrance of the bridge, and kept the
+place, Horatius remaining until the bridge had been torn away behind
+him. He then, with his armor on, leaped into the river, and swam back
+to the shore. The town was hard pressed by the enemy and by
+famine. _Mucius Scaevola_ went into _Porsena's_ camp,
+resolved to kill him. But he slew another whom he mistook for the
+king. When threatened with death, he thrust his right hand into the
+fire, to show that he had no fear. _Porsena_, admiring his
+courage, gave him his freedom; and, on being informed that three
+hundred young Romans were sworn to undertake the same deed which
+_Mucius_ had come to perform, _Porsena_ made peace without
+requiring the restoration of Tarquinius. _Tarquinius_, not
+despairing, persuaded the _Tusculans_ and other _Latins_ to
+begin war against Rome. The Romans appointed a dictator to meet the
+exigency, _Marcus Valerius_. In a battle near _Lake
+Regillus_, when the Romans began to give way, the dictator invoked
+_Castor_ and _Pollux_, vowing to dedicate a temple to them
+in case he was victorious. Two young men on white chargers appeared at
+the head of the Roman troops, and led them to
+victory. _Tarquinius_ now gave up his effort, and went to
+_Cumae_ to the tyrant _Aristodemus_, where he lived until
+his death.
+
+TRUTH IN THE LEGENDS.--There are certain facts which are embedded in
+the legends. _Alba_ was at one time the head of the Latin
+confederacy. The _Sabines_ invaded Latium, settled on some of the
+hills of Rome, allied themselves with the _Romans_, and the two
+peoples were resolved into one federal state. This last change was a
+very important step. The tradition of a doubling of the senate and of
+two kings, _Romulus_ and _Taiius_, although not in literal
+form historical, is believed to be a reminiscence of this union. It is
+thought that the earliest royalty was priestly in its character, and
+that this was superseded by a military kingship. It is probable that
+the _Etruscans_ who had made much progress in civilization, in
+the arts and in manufactures, gained the upper hand in
+_Latium_. The insignia of the Roman kings were Etruscan. The
+Etruscan kings were driven out. There were advances in civilization
+under them, the division of the people into classes took place, and at
+that period structures like the "Servian" wall were built.
+
+PATRICIANS AND PLEBEIANS.--The Romans from the beginning were divided
+into the upper class, the _Patricians_, and the common people, or
+_Plebeians_, who were free, but, like the _perioeci_ and
+_metoeci_ in Greece, had no political rights. The plebeians, as
+they included the conquered class, were not all poor. A part of them,
+who were under the special protection of citizens, their
+_Patrons_, were called _Clients_. The patricians were the
+descendants of the first settlers and proprietors. Under the old
+constitution, ascribed in the legends to _Romulus_, the
+patricians alone formed the military force, and were styled the
+_Populus_. They were divided into _curiae_ (districts or
+wards), at first ten in number, and, after the union of the Romans
+with the _Tities_ and _Luceres_, thirty. Each _curia_
+was divided into ten families, or _gentes_. The assembly of the
+citizens was called the _Comitia Curiata_. The _Comitia_
+chose the _King_. The _Senate_ was a council of elders
+representing in some way the gentes.
+
+  The clan, or _gens_, was always of great consequence among the
+  Romans. Its name was a part of the proper name of every citizen. The
+  particular or individual names in vogue were not numerous. The name
+  of the gens was placed between the personal name, or the
+  _praenomen_, and the designation of the special family
+  (included in the gens). Thus in the case of Caius Julius Caesar,
+  "Julius" was the designation of the gens, "Caesar," of the family,
+  while "Caius" was the personal name.
+
+THE EARLY CONSTITUTION.--The "Servian constitution" made all
+land-owners, whether patrician or plebeian, subject to taxation, and
+obliged to do military service. The cavalry--the _Equites_, or
+knights,--was made up, by adding to the six patrician companies
+already existing, double the number from both classes. The infantry
+were organized without reference to rank, but were graded according to
+their property. The whole people were divided thus into five classes,
+and, when assembled, formed the _Comitia Centuriata_,--as being
+made up of the companies called "centuries," or "hundreds." At first
+this body was only consulted by the king in regard to offensive
+wars. Gradually it drew away more and more power from the _Comitia
+Curiata_, which consisted solely of patricians. Those who had no
+land were now distinguished from the land-owning plebeians. For the
+purposes of conscription, the city was divided into four
+_Tribes_, or wards. Every four years a _census_ was to be
+taken.
+
+MAGISTRATES.--When the kingship was abolished, and under the system
+that followed, the two _Consuls_ were to be patricians. They
+exercised regal power during their term of office. They appointed the
+senators and the two _Quaestors_, who came to have charge of the
+treasury, under consular supervision. The consuls were attended by
+twelve _Lictors_, who carried the _fasces_--bundles of rods
+fastened around an ax,--which symbolized the power of the magistrate
+to flog or to behead offenders. The _Comitia Centuriata_ acquired
+the right to elect the consuls, to hear appeals in capital cases from
+their verdicts, and to accept or reject bills laid before it. This was
+a great gain for the plebeians. Yet the patricians were strong enough
+in this assembly to control its action. On occasions of extraordinary
+peril, a _Dictator_ might be selected by one of the consuls, who
+was to have absolute authority for the time. The Senate commonly had
+an important part, however, in the selection of this officer. There
+was a _Master of Horse_ to command the knights under him. He was
+appointed by the dictator.
+
+RELIGION.--Worship in families was conducted by the head of the
+household, the _paterfamilias_, who offered the regular
+sacrifices. But, as regards the whole people, worship was under the
+direction of the pontiffs, with the chief pontiff, the _Pontifex
+Maximus_, at their head, and in the hands of the priests. These
+were all officers of the state, elected to their places, and entirely
+subordinate to the civil magistrates. The _pontiffs_ were not so
+much priests as they were guardians and interpreters of divine
+law. They were masters of sacred lore. They looked out that the
+numberless and complex rules in respect to religious observances
+should be strictly complied with. At the same time they had enough
+knowledge of astronomy to enable them to fix the days suitable for the
+transaction of business, public or private. They had the control of
+the calendar. The _Augurs_ consulted the will of the gods as
+disclosed in omens. The augur, his eyes raised to the sky, with his
+staff marked off the heavens into four quarters, and then watched for
+the passage of birds, from which he took the auspices. In early times,
+there was an implicit faith in these supposed indications of the will
+of the divinities; but this credulity passed away, and the auguries
+became a political instrument for helping forward the schemes of some
+person or party. Besides the college of pontiffs and the college of
+augurs, there was the college of _Fetiales_, who were the
+guardians of the public faith in relation to other peoples, and
+performed the rites attending the declaration of war or the conclusion
+of peace. The _Soothsayers_ (haruspices) were of Etruscan
+origin. They ascertained the will of the gods by inspecting the
+entrails of the slaughtered victims. The _Flamens_ were the
+priests having charge of the worship of particular divinities. The
+_Vestals_ were virgin priestesses of Vesta, who ministered in her
+temple, and kept the sacred fire from being extinguished.
+
+  The chief gods worshiped by the Romans were _Jupiter_, god of
+  the sky; his wife, _Juno_, the goddess of maternity;
+  _Minerva_, the goddess of wisdom; _Apollo_, the god of
+  augury and the arts; _Diana_, the goddess of the chase and
+  archery; _Mars_, the god of war; _Bellona_, the goddess of
+  war; _Vesta_, patron of the Roman state and of the national
+  hearthstone; _Ceres_, the goddess of agriculture;
+  _Saturnus_, the patron of husbandry; _Hercules_, the Greek
+  god, early naturalized in Italy as the god of gain and of mercantile
+  contracts; _Mercury_, the god of trade; _Neptune_ god of
+  the sea. _Venus_ was an old Roman goddess, who presided over
+  gardens, but gradually was identified with the Grecian
+  _Aphrodite_. _Lares_ and _Penates_ were household
+  divinities, guardians of the family.
+
+The Romans assigned a spirit to almost every thing. Each individual
+had his own protecting _genius_. _Janus_ was the god of
+beginnings, _Terminus_ was the god of the boundary,
+_Silvanus_ of the forest, _Vertumnus_ of the circling
+year. The farmer, in each part of his labor,--in harrowing, plowing,
+sowing, etc.,--invoked a spirit. So marriage, birth, and every natural
+event had each a sacred life of its own. Not less than forty-three
+distinct divinities are spoken of by name as having to do with the
+actions of a child. Thus the number of divinities was countless. Gods
+were great or small, according to the department of nature or of life
+where they severally were present and active.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  ROME UNDER THE PATRICIANS (509-304 B.C.).
+
+
+RIVALRY OF CLASSES.--The abolishing of royalty left Rome as "a house
+divided against itself." The power granted to the _Comitia
+Centuriata_ did not suffice to produce contentment. The patricians
+still decided every thing, and used their strength in an oppressive
+way. Besides the standing contest between the patricians and
+plebeians, there was great suffering on the side of the poorer class
+of plebeians. Many were obliged to incur debts; and their creditors
+enforced the rigorous law against them, loading them with chains, and
+driving their families from their homes. A great and constant
+grievance was the taking by the patricians of the public lands which
+had been obtained by conquest, for a moderate rent, which might not be
+paid at all. If they granted a share in this privilege to some rich
+plebeian houses, this afforded no help to the mass of the people, who
+were more and more deprived of the opportunity to till the smaller
+holdings in consequence of the employment of slaves. Yet the plebeians
+had to bear the burden of military service. At length they rose in a
+body, probably in returning from some victory, and encamped on a hill,
+the _Sacred Mount_, three miles from Rome, where they threatened
+to stay, and found another town. This bold movement led to an
+agreement. It was stipulated that they should elect magistrates from
+their own class, to be called _Tribunes of the People_, who
+should have the right to interpose an absolute veto upon any legal or
+administrative measure. This right each consul already had in relation
+to his colleague. To secure the commons in this new right, the
+tribunes were declared to be inviolable. Whoever used violence against
+them was to be an outlaw. The power of the tribunes at first was
+merely protective. But their power grew until it became
+controlling. One point where their authority was apt to be exerted was
+in the conscription, or military enrollment. This, if it were
+undertaken in an unfair way, they could stop altogether, and thus
+compel a change.
+
+THE PLEBEIAN ASSEMBLY.--Not far from this time, there was instituted a
+new assembly, the _Comitia of Tribes, or Comitia Tributa_. There
+was a new division of the people into tribes or wards,--first twenty,
+then twenty-one, and, later, thirty-five. In this comitia, the
+plebeians were at the outset, if not always, the exclusive voters. The
+patricians had their assembly, the _Comitia Curiata_. The Comitia
+of the Tribes, which was then controlled by the plebeians, chose the
+tribunes. By degrees, both the other assemblies lost their
+importance. The plebeian body more and more extended its
+prerogatives. Besides the tribunes, the _Aediles_, two in number,
+who were assistants of the tribunes, and superintended the business of
+the markets, were chosen by the _Comitia Tributa_.
+
+THE LAW OF CASSIUS.--The anxiety of the plebeians to be rid of the
+restrictions upon the holding and enjoyment of land, led to the
+proposal of a law for their relief by the consul _Spurius
+Cassius_ (486 B.C.). Of the terms of the law, we have no precise
+knowledge. We only know, that, when he retired from office, he was
+condemned and put to death by the ruling class.
+
+WAR WITH THE AEQUIANS AND THE VOLSCIANS.--About this time Rome
+concluded a league with the _Latins_, and soon after with another
+people, the _Hernicans_, who lived farther eastward, between the,
+Aequians and Volscians. It was a defensive alliance, in which Rome had
+the leading place. Then follow the wars with the _Aequians_ and
+_Volscians_, where the traditional accounts are mingled with many
+fictitious occurrences. There are two stories of special note,--the
+story of Coriolanus, and the story of Cincinnatus. It is related that
+a brave patrician, _Caius Marcius Coriolanus_, at a time when
+grain was scarce, and was procured with difficulty from Etruria and
+Sicily for the relief of the famishing, proposed that it should be
+withheld from the plebeians unless they would give up the
+tribunate. The anger of this class, and the contempt which he showed
+for it, caused him to be banished. Thereupon he went to the
+_Volscians_, and led an army against Rome,--an army too strong to
+be resisted. One deputation after another went out of the city to
+placate him, but in vain. At length _Veturia_, his mother, and
+_Volumnia_, his wife, at the head of a company of matrons, went
+to his camp, and entreated him. Their prayer he could not deny, but
+exclaimed, "O my mother!  Rome thou hast saved, but thou hast lost thy
+son." He died among the Volscians (491 B.C.). The tale, certainly in
+most of its parts, is fictitious. For example, he is said to have been
+called _Coriolanus_, from having previously conquered
+_Corioli_; but such designations were not given among the Romans
+until centuries later. The story of _Cincinnatus_ in essential
+particulars is probably true. At a time when the Romans were hard
+pressed by the _Ĉquians_, the messengers of the Senate waited on
+Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, formerly a senator and a consul of
+renown in peace and war, and asked him to become dictator. They found
+him plowing in his field. He accepted the post, by his prudence and
+vigor delivered the state, and on the sixteenth day laid down his
+office, and went back to his farm. The time required by the hero for
+his task was doubtless much longer than the legend allows.
+
+  There is an authentic tradition of a war with the _Etruscans_,
+  who had retained certain towns on the Roman side of the Tiber. The
+  Romans established a fort on the _Cremera_, not far from
+  _Veii_, which was one of them. In the course of this struggle,
+  it is said that all the _Fabii_,--a distinguished Roman
+  family,--except one boy, were perfidiously slain. This is an
+  exaggerated tale. A truce was concluded with _Veii_-in 474
+  B.C. for forty years, which left Rome free to fight her enemies on
+  the east and south.
+
+THE DECEMVIRS.--The internal conflict of the patricians against the
+commons in Rome went on. In 471 B.C. the _Publilian Law_ was
+passed to establish fully the right of the plebeians alone to elect
+their tribunes, or to exclude the upper class from their comitia. The
+claims of the plebeians, who formed the greater part of the fighting
+men, rose. They demanded first, however, that they should have the
+same _private_ rights as the patricians, and that the laws should
+be made more efficient for their protection by being reduced to a
+code. This was the object of the _Terentilian Law_, proposed in
+462. The result was a great dispute. Some concessions failed to
+satisfy the plebeians. Finally it was agreed that ten men,
+_Decemvirs_, should be chosen indiscriminately from both classes
+to frame a code, they, meantime, to supersede the consuls and tribunes
+in the exercise of the government (451 B.C.). They were to equalize
+the laws, and to write them down. The story of the mission to Athens
+for the study of the laws of _Solon_, is not worthy of
+credit. There is no doubt, however, that many obstacles were put in
+the way of the project by the conservative patricians, and that one of
+their order, _Appius Claudius_, took a prominent part, probably
+on the side of the people.
+
+  VIRGINIUS.--Here comes in the story of _Virginia_. It is
+  related that _Appius Claudius_ was an ambitious and bad man,
+  who, being one of the decemvirs, wished to hold on to power. He
+  conceived a base passion for the daughter of _Virginius_, a
+  brave plebeian centurion, and claimed her on the pretense that she
+  was the daughter of one of his slaves. Standing at his
+  judgment-seat, _Virginius_, seeing that he could do nothing to
+  save his child from the clutch of the villainous judge, plunged his
+  dagger in her heart. This was the signal for another revolt of the
+  people, which extorted the consent of the upper class to the sacred
+  laws and the restoration of the tribuneship. It is a plausible
+  theory that _Appius Claudius_ favored the plebeian claims, and
+  that the tale told above is a later invention to his discredit.
+
+POLITICAL EQUALITY.--The laws of the twelve tables lay at the basis of
+all subsequent legislation in Rome, and were always held in
+reverence. The plebeians soon gained further advantages. In 449 B.C.,
+it was ordained, under the consuls _Horatius_ and
+_Valerius_, that the plebeian assembly of tribes should be a
+sovereign assembly, whose enactments should be binding on the whole
+Roman people. In 445 B.C., the law of _Canuleius_ legalized
+marriage between the plebeians and patricians. This was an important
+step towards the closer union of the two classes. The executive power
+was still in the hands of the patricians. But in 444 a new office,
+that of _military tribunes_ with consular power, to be chosen
+from the plebeians, was established. By way of offset to this great
+concession, a new patrician office, that of _Censor_, was
+created. The function of the two censors, who were to be chosen by the
+_Comitia Centuriata_, was to take the census at short intervals,
+to make out the tax-lists, to appoint senators and knights, to manage
+the collection of taxes, to superintend public buildings, and,
+finally, to exercise an indefinite supervision over public manners and
+morals. These were very great powers. We find that considerable time
+elapsed before the plebeians actually realized the advantage which
+they had legally won in this compromise. About the year 400, they
+succeeded in electing several military tribunes. As early as 410
+B.C. three out of the four treasurers, or paymasters
+(_quĉstors_), were plebeians. About forty years after (367 B.C.),
+they obtained, by the _Licinian Laws_, the political equality for
+which they had so long contended.
+
+WAR WITH THE ETRUSCANS.--But before this result should be reached,
+other events of much consequence were to occur. The _Etruscans_,
+who were not only proficients in the arts, but were also active in
+trade and commerce, had been defeated at sea by the Greeks, in 474
+B.C. But on the north they had a more formidable foe in the
+_Gauls_, by whom their power was weakened. The Romans took
+advantage of the situation to lay siege to _Veii_, which, after
+ten years, was captured by their general, _Marcus Furius
+Camillus_. The capture of other towns followed.
+
+  It was told of _Camillus_ that _Falerii_ surrendered to
+  him of its own accord, for his magnanimity in sending back a
+  treacherous schoolmaster who had taken out to his camp the sons of
+  the chief citizens. Camillas tied his hands behind him, and ordered
+  the boys to flog him back into the city. Camillus was sent into
+  exile, it was related, on a charge of injustice in dividing the
+  booty obtained at Veii.
+
+INVASION OF THE GAULS.--But the Romans joined with the Etruscans in
+the attempt to drive back a dreaded enemy of both, the
+_Gauls_. In the battle of the _Allia_, a brook eleven miles
+north of Rome, on the 18th of July, 390 B.C., the Roman army was
+routed by them, and Rome left without the means of defense. All the
+people fled, except a few brave men, who shut themselves up in the
+Capitol, and, according to the tradition, some aged patricians, who,
+in their robes of state, waited for the enemy. The Gauls, under
+_Brennus_, rushed in, and plundered and burned the city. In later
+times the story was told, that, when the Gauls were climbing up to the
+Capitol secretly by night, the cackling of the geese awoke _Marcus
+Manlius_, and so the enemy was repulsed. There was another story,
+that, when the Romans were paying the ransom required by
+_Brennus_, and complained of false weight, the insolent Gaul
+threw his sword into the scale, exclaiming, "Woe to the conquered!"
+and that just then _Camillus_ appeared, and drove the Gauls out
+of the city. This is certain, that the Gauls retired of their own free
+will from their occupation of the city. The destruction of the temples
+involved the loss of early chronicles, which would have given us
+better information as to the times preceding. The city was rebuilt
+without much delay.
+
+THE LICINIAN LAWS.--The agitation for political reform soon commenced
+again. The _Licinian Laws_, which make an epoch in the
+controversy of parties, were proposed in 376, but were not passed
+until 367. Besides provisions for the relief of debtors and for
+limiting the number of acres of public lands to be held by an
+individual, it was enacted that the military tribuneship should be
+given up, and that at least one of the two consuls must be chosen from
+the plebeians. A new patrician office, the _praetorship_, was
+founded, the holders of which were to govern in the absence of the
+consuls. The patricians did not at once cease from the effort to keep
+the reins in their hands. Several times they broke the law, and put in
+two patrician consuls. They yielded at last, however; and, as early as
+the year 300, all Roman offices were open to all Roman citizens. The
+patrician order became a social, not a legal, distinction. A new sort
+of nobility, made up of both patricians and plebeians, whose families
+had longest held public offices, gradually arose. These were the
+_optimates_. The Senate became the principal executive body. It
+was recruited by the _censors_, principally from those who had
+held high stations and were upwards of thirty years old. One
+_censor_ was required to be a plebeian. The condition of the
+people was improved by other enactments, one of which (in 326 or 313)
+secured to the debtor his personal freedom in case he should transfer
+his property to the creditor. At about this time, there was a change
+in the constitution of the army. The sort of arms assigned was no
+longer to depend on property qualifications. There were to be three
+lines in battle,--the first two to carry a short spear (_pilum_),
+and the third the long lance (_hasta_).
+
+INFULENCE OF PARTY CONFLICTS.--The long contest of parties in Rome was
+an invaluable political education. It was attended with little
+bloodshed. It involved discussion on questions of justice and right,
+and on the best civil constitution. It was not unlike party conflicts
+in English history. It trained the Romans in a habit of judicious
+compromise, of perseverance in asserting just claims, and of yielding
+to just demands.
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD II.  TO THE UNION OF ITALY.  (304-264 B.C.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  CONQUEST OF THE LATINS AND ITALIANS (304-282 B.C.).
+
+
+WARS WITH THE GAULS.--The increased vigor produced by the adjustment
+of the conflict of classes manifested itself in a series of minor
+wars. The Romans were now able to face the Gauls, who had permanently
+planted themselves in Northern Italy. Against them they waged four
+wars in succession, the last of which ended in a signal victory for
+the Roman side (367-349). Wars with the Etruscan cities brought the
+whole of Southern _Etruria_ under Roman rule (358-351).
+
+FIRST SAMNITE WAR.--The neighbor that was the hardest for the Romans
+to conquer was the nation of _Samnites_, who lived among the
+Apennines of Central Italy, east of Latium. The conflict with this
+tough tribe lasted, with intermissions, for fifty years.
+
+The immediate occasion of the struggle was the appeal of
+_Capua_--a Greek city in Campania in which Samnites had before
+settled--for help against their kinsmen in the mountains (343). This
+prayer the Romans granted when Capua had placed itself under their
+sway. In the first battle, the Romans under _Valerius Corvus_ won
+the day. A second Roman army was rescued from imminent danger by the
+heroism of the elder _Decius Mus_, and a Roman victory
+followed. After a third victory at _Suessula_, the Romans, on
+account of the threatening attitude of their Latin confederates, made
+peace. The Samnites, too, were involved in a war with _Tarentum_,
+a Greek city on the eastern coast.
+
+WAR WITH THE LATINS.--The Latins were not disposed to recognize Rome
+any longer as the head of the league. They demanded perfect equality
+and an equal share of the Roman public offices (340). In a battle near
+_Vesuvius_, the plebeian consul, _Decius Mus_, having
+devoted himself to death for his country, rode into the thickest ranks
+of the enemy, and perished, having secured victory for the Roman
+army. Before the battle, the patrician consul, _Titus Manlius_,
+punished his son with death for presuming to undertake, without
+orders, a military exploit, in which, however, he had succeeded. After
+a second victory of Manlius at _Trifanum_, the Latins were
+subdued (340), the league was broken up, and most of the cities were
+made subject to Rome, acquiring citizenship without the right of
+suffrage; but they were forbidden to trade or to intermarry with one
+another. Some became Roman colonies.
+
+Several had to cede lands, which were apportioned among Roman
+citizens.  The beaks (_rostra_) of the old ships of _Antium_
+ornamented the Roman forum. Colonies of Roman citizens were settled in
+the district of the _Volscii_ and in _Campania_. This was an
+example of the Roman method of separating vanquished places from one
+another, and of inclosing as in a net conquered territories.
+
+
+SECOND SAMNITE WAR.--The establishment by the Romans of the military
+colony of _Fregellae_, in connection with other encroachments,
+brought on the second Samnite war, which lasted for twenty-two
+years. The prize of the contest was really the dominion over Italy. A
+great misfortune befell the Roman arms in 321. The incautious consuls,
+_Veturinus_ and _Postumius_, allowed themselves to be
+surrounded in the _Caudine Pass_, where they were compelled to
+capitulate, swear to a treaty of peace, and give up six hundred Roman
+knights as hostages. The whole Roman army was compelled to pass under
+the yoke. The Roman Senate refused to sanction the treaty, and gave up
+the consuls, at their own request, in fetters to the Samnites. The
+Samnites refused to receive them, spared the hostages, and began the
+war anew. The Roman consuls, _Papirius Cursor_ and _Fabius
+Maximus_, gained a victory at _Capua_, drove the Samnites out
+of Campania, and reconquered _Fregellae_. A great military road,
+the _Appian Way_, the remains of which may still be seen, was
+built from _Rome_ to _Capua_ (312).
+
+The _Etruscan_ cities joined in the war against Rome. All Etruria
+was in arms to overcome the advancing power of the Romans. The
+coalition was broken by the great defeat of the Etrurians at the
+_Vadimonian Lake_, in 310. The Samnites had their numerous
+allies; but the obstinate valor of the Romans, who were discouraged by
+no reverses, triumphed. The capture of _Bovianum_, the capital of
+the Samnite league (305), ended the war. The Samnites sued for
+peace. The old treaties were renewed. In the course of this protracted
+struggle, various Roman colonies were established, and military roads
+were constructed.
+
+THIRD SAMNITE WAR.--Peace was not of long continuance. The Samnites
+once more armed themselves for a desperate conflict, having on their
+side the _Etruscans_, the _Umbrians_, and the _Gauls_
+(300). The Italian peoples, which had been at war with one another,
+joined hands in this contest against the common enemy. A decisive
+battle was fought at _Sentinum_,--where _Decius Mus_ the
+younger, following his father's example, devoted himself to
+death,--resulting in the defeat of the Samnites, and of their allies
+(295). Soon after, the Samnite general, _Pontius_, fell into the
+hands of the Romans. The Samnites kept up the contest for several
+years. But in 290 they found that they could hold out no longer. The
+Romans secured themselves by fortresses and by colonies, the most
+important of which was that of _Venusia_, at the boundary of
+Samnium, Apulia, and Lucania, where they placed twenty thousand
+colonists.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+
+WAR WITH PYRRHUS AND UNION OF ITALY (282-264 B.C.).
+
+TARENTUM AND PYRRHUS.--The Samnites were overcome. The Greeks and
+Romans were now to come into closer intercourse with one another,--an
+intercourse destined to be so momentous in its effect on each of the
+two kindred races, and, through their joint influence, on the whole
+subsequent course of European history. _Alexander the Great_ had
+died too soon to permit him to engage in any plan of conquest in the
+West. In the wars of his successors the Romans had stood aloof. Now
+they were brought into conflict with a Greek monarch, _Pyrrhus_,
+king of Epirus, who was a relative of Alexander, and had married into
+the royal family of Egypt. He was a man of fascinating person and
+address, a brilliant and famous soldier, but adventurous, and lacking
+the coolness and prudence requisite to carry out his project of
+building up an Hellenic Empire in the western Mediterranean. In the
+war against the Samnite coalition, the _Lucanians_ had rendered
+decisive support to the Romans. This was one reason why
+_Tarentum_, the rich and prosperous Dorian city on the Tarentine
+Gulf, had been a spectator of the contest in which it had abundant
+occasion to feel a deep interest. Rome had given up to the Lucanians
+the non-Dorian Greek cities in that region. But when they sought to
+subdue _Thurii_, and the Thurines besought the help of Rome,
+offering to submit themselves to her, the Romans warned the Lucanians
+to desist. This led to another combination against Rome, in which they
+took part. A Roman army was destroyed by the _Senonian Gauls_. In
+consequence of this, the Romans slaughtered, or drove out of Umbria,
+this people, and, gaining other decisive victories, put their
+garrisons into _Locri_, _Crotona_, and _Thurii_. The
+Romans were already masters of Central Italy. Only the Greek cities on
+the south remained for them to conquer. It was high time for
+_Tarentum_ to bestir itself. It was from the side of Tarentum
+that the immediate provocation came. The Tarentines were listening to
+a play in the theater as ten Roman ships came into the harbor. Under a
+sudden impulse of wrath, a mob attacked them, and destroyed five of
+them. Even then the Romans were in no haste to engage in
+hostilities. The Tarentines themselves were divided as to the policy
+best to be pursued. But the war-party had the more voices. An embassy
+was dispatched to solicit the help of _Pyrrhus_. At Tarentum an
+embassy from Rome was treated with contempt. _Pyrrhus_ came over
+with a large army. He obliged the Tarentines themselves to arm, and to
+join his forces.
+
+EVENTS OF THE WAR.--The Romans were fully alive to the peril, and
+prepared to meet it. Even the proletarians, who were not liable to
+military service, were enrolled. The first great battle took place at
+_Heraclea_, near the little river Siris (280 B.C.). Then the
+Roman cohort and the Macedonian phalanx met for the first time. It was
+a collision of trained mercenary troops with the citizen soldiery of
+Rome. It was a struggle between the Greek and the Roman for the
+ascendency. The confusion caused by the elephants of _Pyrrhus_,
+an encounter with which was something new and strange to the Romans,
+turned the tide in his favor. "A few more such victories," said
+Pyrrhus, "and I am ruined." He desired peace, and sent _Cineas_
+as a messenger to the Senate. But _Appius Claudius_, who had been
+consul and censor, and was now old and blind, begged them not to make
+peace as long as there was an enemy in Italy. _Cineas_ reported
+that he found the Senate "an assembly of kings." In the next year, the
+two armies, each with its allies numbering seventy thousand men, met
+at _Asculum_ (279). After a bloody conflict, _Pyrrhus_
+remained in possession of the field, but with an enormous loss of
+men. The _Syracusans_ in Sicily, who had been hard pressed by the
+_Carthaginians_, now called upon him to aid them. He was not
+reluctant to leave Italy. The Romans captured all the cities on the
+south coast, except _Tarentum_ and _Rhegium_. After two
+years' absence, _Pyrrhus_ returned to Italy. His fleet, on the
+passage from Sicily, was defeated by the Carthaginians. At
+_Beneventum_, he was completely vanquished by the Romans, who
+captured thirteen hundred prisoners and four elephants. Pyrrhus
+returned to Epirus; and, after his death (272), _Milon_, who
+commanded the garrison left by him in _Tarentum_, surrendered the
+city and fortress. The Tarentines agreed to deliver up their ships and
+arms, and to demolish their walls.  One after another of the resisting
+tribes yielded to the Romans, ceding portions of their territory, and
+receiving Roman colonies. In 266, the Roman sway was established over
+the whole peninsula proper, from the _Rubicon_ and the
+_Macra_ to the southern extremity of _Calabria_.
+
+CITIZENSHIP.--In order to understand Roman history, it is necessary to
+have a clear idea of the Roman system in respect to citizenship. All
+burgesses of Rome enjoyed the same rights. These were both
+_Public_ and _Private_. The private rights of a Roman
+citizen were (1) the power of legal marriage with the families of all
+other citizens; (2) the power of making legal purchases and sales, and
+of holding property; and (3) the right to bequeath and inherit
+property. The public rights were, (1) the power of voting wherever a
+citizen was permitted to vote; (2) the power of being elected to all
+offices.
+
+CONQUERED TOWNS.--"The Roman dominion in Italy was a dominion of a
+city over cities." With regard to conquered towns, there were, (i)
+Municipal cities (_municipia_) the inhabitants of which, when
+they visited Rome, could exercise all the rights of citizens. (2)
+Municipal cities which had the private, but not the public, rights of
+citizenship. Some of them chose their own municipal officers, and some
+did not. (3) _Latin Colonies_, as they were called. Lands ceded
+by conquered places were divided among poor Roman citizens, who
+constituted the ruling class in the communities to which they were
+transplanted. In the Latin colonies, the citizens had given up their
+_public_ rights as citizens. (4) Towns of a lower class, called
+_Praefectures_. In these, the principal magistrate was the
+_Prefect_, who was appointed by the _Praetor_ (_Praeter
+Urbanus_) at Rome.
+
+THE ALLIES (_Socii_).--These were a more favored class of cities.
+They had their relation to Rome defined by treaty. Generally they
+appointed their own magistrates, but were bound, as were all subject
+cities, to furnish auxiliary troops for Rome.
+
+THE LATIN FRANCHISE.--This was the privilege which was first given to
+the cities of _Latium_ and then to inhabitants of other
+places. It was the power, on complying with certain conditions, of
+gaining full citizenship, and thus of taking part in elections at
+Rome.
+
+ROMAN COLONIES.--The _Roman Colony_ (which is not to be
+confounded with the _Latin Colony_ referred to above) was a small
+body of Roman citizens, transplanted, with their families, to a spot
+selected by the government. They formed a military station. To them
+lands taken from the native inhabitants were given. They constituted
+the ruling class in the community where they were established. Their
+government was modeled after the government at Rome. They retained
+their rights as Roman burgesses, which they could exercise whenever
+they were in that city. By means of these colonies, planted in places
+wisely chosen, Italy was kept in subjection. The colonies were
+connected together by roads. The _Appian Way_, from _Rome_
+to _Capua_, was built in the midst of the conflict with
+_Samnium_. It was made of large, square stones, laid on a
+platform of sand and mortar. In later times the Roman Empire was
+traversed in all directions by similar roads.
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD III.  THE PUNIC WARS: TO THE CONQUEST OF CARTHAGE AND OF THE
+GREEK STATES.  (264-146 B.C.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WABS (264-202 B.C.).
+
+
+THE FIRST PUNIC WAR.--By dint of obstinacy, and hard fighting through
+long centuries, the Romans had united under them all Italy, or all of
+what was then known as Italy. It was natural that they should look
+abroad. The rival power in the West was the great commercial city of
+_Carthage_. The jealousy between Rome and Carthage had slumbered
+so long as they were threatened by the invasion of _Pyrrhus_,
+which was dangerous to both. _Sicily_, from its situation, could
+hardly fail to furnish the occasion of a conflict. The
+_Mamertines_, a set of Campanian pirates, had captured
+_Messana_. They were attacked by _Hiero II_., king of
+Syracuse. A part of them besought help of the Romans, and a part
+applied to the Carthaginians. The gravity of the question, whether
+Rome should enter on an untried path, the end of which no man could
+foresee, caused hesitation. The assemblies voted to grant the
+request. The Romans had begun as early as 311 to create a fleet. The
+ships which they now used, however, were mostly furnished by their
+South Italian allies. They crossed the channel, and drove out the
+Carthaginian garrison from _Messana_. The Carthaginians declared
+war (264). _Hiero_ was gained over to the side of the Romans; and
+after a bloody conflict, with heavy losses to both armies, the city of
+_Agrigentum_ was captured by the Romans. The Romans were novices
+on the sea, where the Carthaginians were supreme. Successful on the
+land, the former were beaten in naval encounters. One of the most
+characteristic proofs of the energy of the Romans is their creation of
+a fleet, at this epoch, to match that of their sea-faring
+enemies. Using, it is said, for a model, a Carthaginian vessel wrecked
+on the shore of Italy, they constructed quinqueremes, vessels with
+five banks of oars, furnished with bridges to drop on the decks of the
+hostile ships,--thus giving to a sea-fight a resemblance to a combat
+on land. At first, as might be expected, the Romans were defeated; but
+in 260, under the consul _Caius Duilius_, they won their first
+naval victory at _Mylae_, west of Messana. The Roman Senate
+decided to invade Africa. A fleet of three hundred and thirty vessels
+sailed under the command of the consul _M. Atilius Regulus_,
+which was met by a Carthaginian fleet at _Ecnomus_, on the south
+coast of Sicily. The Carthaginians were completely vanquished. The
+Romans landed at _Clupea_, to the east of Carthage, and ravaged
+the adjacent district. There _Regulus_ remained with half the
+army, fifteen thousand men. The Carthaginians sued for peace; but when
+he required them to surrender all their ships of war except one, and
+to come into a dependent relation to Rome, they spurned the
+proposal. Re-enforcing themselves with mercenaries from Greece under
+the command of the Spartan, _Xanthippus_, they overpowered and
+captured _Regulus_ in a battle at _Tunis_ (255). A Roman
+fleet, sent to _Clupea_ for the rescue of the troops, on the
+return voyage lost three-fourths of its ships in a storm. The
+Carthaginians, under _Hasdrubal_, resumed hostilities in
+Sicily. He was defeated by the consul _Caecilius Metellus_, at
+_Panormus_, who included among his captures one hundred elephants
+(251). The story of the embassy of _Regulus_ to Rome with the
+Carthaginian offer of peace, of his advising the Senate not to accept
+it, of his voluntary return according to a promise, and of his cruel
+death at the hands of his captors, is probably an invention of a later
+time. The hopes of the Romans, in consequence of their success at
+_Panormus_, revived; but two years later, under _Appius
+Claudius_ at _Drepanum_, they were defeated on sea and on
+land. Once more their naval force was prostrated. Warfare was now
+carried forward on land, where, in the south of Sicily, the
+Carthaginian leader, _Hamilcar Barca_, maintained himself against
+Roman attacks for six years, and sent out privateers to harass the
+coasts of Italy.  Finally, at Rome, there was an outburst of patriotic
+enthusiasm. Rich men gave liberally, and treasures of the temples were
+devoted to the building of a new fleet. This fleet, under command of
+_C. Lutatius Catulus_, gained a decisive victory over the
+Carthaginian _Hanno_, at the Aegatian Islands, opposite
+_Lilybaeum_ (241). The Carthaginians were forced to conclude
+peace, and to make large concessions. They gave up all claim to Italy
+and to the neighboring small islands. They were to pay an indemnity,
+equal to four million dollars, in ten years. The western part of
+Sicily was now constituted a _province_, the _first_ of the
+Roman provinces.
+
+CONQUEST OF CISALPINE GUAL.--The Carthaginians were for some time busy
+at home in putting down a revolt of mercenary troops, whose wages they
+refused to pay in full. The Romans snatched the occasion to extort a
+cession of the island of _Sardinia_ (238), which they
+subsequently united with _Corsica_ in one province. They entered,
+about ten years later (229-228), upon an important and successful war
+against the _Illyrian pirates_, whose depredations on the coasts
+of the Adriatic and Ionian seas were very daring and destructive. The
+Greek cities which the pirates held were surrendered. The sway of the
+Romans in the Adriatic was secured, and their supremacy in
+_Corcyra_, _Epidamnus_, and other important places. The next
+contest was a terrific one with the _Cisalpine Gauls_, who were
+stirred up by the founding of Roman military colonies on the Adriatic,
+and by other proceedings of Rome. They called in the help of
+transalpine Gauls, and entered _Etruria_, on their way to Rome,
+with an army of seventy thousand men. They met the Roman armies near
+_Telamon_, south of the mouth of the Umbro, but were routed, with
+a loss of forty thousand men slain, and ten thousand men prisoners
+(225). The Romans marched northward, crossed the _Po_, and
+subdued the most powerful of the Gallic tribes, the _Insubrians_
+(223). Other victories in the following year reduced the whole of
+upper Italy, with _Mediolanum_ (Milan) the capital of the
+_Insubrians_, under Roman rule. Fortresses were founded as usual,
+and the great _Flaminian_ and _Aemilian_ roads connected
+that region with the capital. Later, _Cisalpine Gaul_ became a
+Roman province.
+
+CARTHAGINIANS IN SPAIN.--Meantime Carthage endeavored in Southern
+Spain to make up for its losses. The old tribes, the
+_Celtiberians_ and _Lusitanians_ in the central and western
+districts, and the _Cantabrians_ and _Basques_ in the north,
+brave as they were, were too much divided by tribal feuds to make an
+effectual resistance.  The national party at Carthage, which wished
+for war, had able leaders in _Hamilcar_ and his three sons. By
+the military skill of _Hamilcar_, and of _Hasdrubal_ his
+son-in-law, the Carthaginians built up a flourishing dominion on the
+south and east coasts. The Romans watched the growth of the
+Carthaginian power there with discontent, and compelled
+_Hasdrubal_ to declare in a treaty that the _Ebro_ should be
+the limit of Carthaginian conquests (226). At the same time Rome made
+a protective alliance with _Saguntum_, a rich and powerful
+trading-city on the south of that river. _Hasdrubal_ was murdered
+in 221; and the son of Hamilcar Barca, _Hannibal_, who was then
+only twenty-eight years old, was chosen by the army to be their
+general. He laid hold of a pretext for beginning an attack upon
+_Saguntum_, which he took after a stout resistance, prolonged for
+eight months (219). The demand of a Roman embassy at Carthage--that
+_Hannibal_ should be delivered up--being refused, Rome declared
+war.
+
+When the Carthaginian Council hesitated at the proposal of the Roman
+embassy, their spokesman, _Quintus Fabius_, said that he carried
+in his bosom peace or war: they might chose either. They answered, "We
+take what you give us;" whereupon the Roman opened his toga, saying,
+"I give you war!"  The Carthaginians shouted, "So let it be!"
+
+THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.--When the treaty of _Catulus_ was made
+(241), all patriots at Carthage felt that it was only a truce. They
+must have seen that Rome would never be satisfied with any thing short
+of the abject submission of so detested and dangerous a rival. There
+was a peace party, an oligarchy, at Carthage; and it was their
+selfishness which ultimately brought ruin upon the state. But the
+party which saw that the only safety was in aggressive action found a
+military leader in _Hannibal_,--a leader not surpassed, and
+perhaps not equaled, by any other general of ancient or modern
+times. He combined skill with daring, and had such a command over men,
+that under the heaviest reverses his influence was not broken. If he
+was cruel, it is doubtful whether he went beyond the practices
+sanctioned by the international law of the time and by Roman
+example. When a boy nine years old, at his father's request he had
+sworn upon the altar never to be the friend of the Roman people. That
+father he saw fall in battle at his side. The oath he kept, for Rome
+never had a more unyielding or a more powerful enemy.
+
+HANNIBAL IN ITALY.--In the summer of 218, _Hannibal_ crossed the
+_Ebro_, conquered the peoples between the _Ebro_ and the
+_Pyrenees_, and, leaving his brother _Hasdrubal_ in Spain,
+pushed into _Gaul_ with an army of fifty thousand foot, twelve
+thousand horse, and thirty-seven elephants. He crossed the swift
+_Rhone_ in the face of the Gauls who disputed the passage, and
+then made his memorable march over the _Alps_, probably by the
+way now known as the _Little St. Bernard_ pass. Through ice and
+snow, climbing over crags and circling abysses, amid perpetual
+conflicts with the rough mountaineers who rolled stones down on the
+toiling soldiers, the army made its terrible journey into Northern
+Italy. Fifteen days were occupied in the passage. Half the troops,
+with all the draught-animals and beasts of burden, perished on the
+way. The _Cisalpine Gauls_ welcomed Hannibal as a deliverer. No
+sooner had the valiant consul, _Cornelius Scipio_, been defeated
+in a cavalry battle on the _Ticinus_, a northern branch of the
+_Po_ (218), and, severely wounded, retreated to _Placentia_,
+and his rash colleague, _Sempronius_, been defeated with great
+loss in a second battle on the _Trebia_, than the Gauls joined
+_Hannibal_, and reinforced him with sixty thousand troops inured
+to war. Hannibal, by marching through the swampy district of the
+_Arno_, where he himself lost an eye, flanked the defensive
+position of the Romans. The consul _Flaminius_ was decoyed into a
+narrow pass; and, in the battle of _Lake Trasumenus_ (217), his
+army of thirty thousand men was slaughtered or made prisoners. The
+consul himself was killed. All _Etruria_ was lost. The way seemed
+open to Rome; but, supported by the Latins and Italians, the Romans
+did not quail, or lower their mien of stern defiance. They appointed a
+leading patrician, _Quintus Fabius Maximus_,
+dictator. _Hannibal_, not being able to surprise and capture the
+fortress of _Spoletium_, preferred to march towards the
+sea-coast, and thence south into _Apulia_. His purpose was to
+open communication with _Carthage_, and to gain over to his
+support the eastern tribes of Italy. _Fabius, the Delayer
+(Cunctator)_, as he was called, followed and watched his enemy,
+inflicting what injuries he could, but avoiding a pitched battle. The
+Roman populace were impatient of the cautious, but wise and effective,
+policy of _Fabius_. In the following year (216) the consulship
+was given to _L. Aemilius Paulus_--who was chosen by the upper
+class, the _Optimates_--and _C. Terentius Varro_, who was
+elected by the popular party for the purpose of taking the
+offensive. _Varro_ precipitated a battle at _Cannae_, in
+Apulia, where the Romans suffered the most terrible defeat they had
+ever experienced. At the lowest computation, they lost forty thousand
+foot and three thousand horse, with the consul _Aemilius Paulus_,
+and eighty men of senatorial rank. No such calamity since the capture
+of Rome by the Gauls had ever occurred. The Roman Senate did not lose
+heart. They limited the time of mourning for the dead to thirty
+days. They refused to admit to the city the ambassadors of
+_Hannibal_, who came for the exchange of prisoners. With lofty
+resolve they ordered a levy of all who could bear arms, including boys
+and even slaves. They put into their hands weapons from the temples,
+spoils of former victories. They thanked _Varro_ that he had not
+despaired of the Republic. Some of the Italian allies went over to
+Hannibal. But all the Latin cities and all the Roman colonies remained
+loyal. The allies of Rome did not fall away as did the allies of
+Athens after the Syracusan disaster. It has been thought, that, if
+_Hannibal_ had followed up the victory at _Cannae_ by
+marching at once on the capital, the Roman power might have been
+overthrown. What might then have been the subsequent course of
+European history? Even the Roman school-boys, according to Juvenal,
+discussed the question whether he did not make a mistake in not
+attacking Rome. But it is quite doubtful whether he could have taken
+the city, or, even if he had taken it, whether his success would then
+have been complete. He took the wiser step of getting into his hands
+_Capua_, the second city in Italy. He may have hoped to seize a
+Campanian port, where he could disembark reinforcements "which his
+great victories had wrung from the opposition at home."
+_Hannibal_ judged it best to go into winter-quarters at
+_Capua_, where his army was in a measure enervated by pleasure
+and vice. _Carthage_ made an alliance with _Philip V_. of
+Macedonia, and with _Hiero_ of Syracuse. But fortune turned in
+favor of the Romans. At _Nola_, _Hannibal_ was repulsed by
+_Marcellus_ (215); and, since he could obtain no substantial help
+from home, he was obliged to act on the defensive. _Marcellus_
+crossed into Sicily, and, after a siege of three years, captured
+_Syracuse_, which had been aided in its defense by the
+philosopher _Archimedes_. _Capua_, in 211, surrendered to
+the Romans, and was visited with a fearful chastisement. Hannibal's
+Italian allies forsook him, and his only reliance was on his brother
+in Spain. For a long time, the two brothers, _Publius_ and
+_Cnaeus Scipio_, maintained there the Roman cause successfully;
+but they were defeated and slain (212).
+
+SCIPIO: ZAMA.--_Publius Cornelius Scipio_, son of one and nephew
+of the other Scipio just named, a young man twenty-five years old, and
+a popular favorite, took the command, and gained important successes;
+but he could not keep _Hasdrubal_ from going to his brother's
+assistance in Italy. The Romans, however, were able to prevent a
+junction of his force with that of _Hannibal_; and
+_Hasdrubal_ was vanquished and slain by them in the battle of
+_Sena Gallica_, near the little river _Metaurus_
+(207). _Scipio_ expelled the Carthaginians from Spain, and,
+having returned to Rome, was made consul (205). His plan was to invade
+Africa. He landed on the coast, and was joined by _Masinissa_,
+the king of Numidia, who had been driven from his throne by
+_Syphax_, the ally of Carthage. The defeat of the Carthaginians,
+and the danger of Carthage itself, led to the recall of
+_Hannibal_, who was defeated, in 202, by _Scipio_ in the
+decisive battle of _Zama_. Carthage made peace, giving up all her
+Spanish possessions and islands in the Mediterranean, handing over the
+kingdom of _Syphax_ to _Masinissa_, and agreeing to pay a
+yearly tribute equal to two hundred and fifty thousand dollars, for
+fifty years, to destroy all their ships of war but ten, and to make no
+war without the consent of the Romans (201). _Scipio Africanus_,
+as he was termed, came back in triumph to Rome. The complete
+subjugation of _Upper Italy_ followed (200-191).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  CONQUEST OF MACEDONIA: THE THIRD PUNIC WAR:
+THE DESTRUCTION OF CORINTH (202-146 B.C.).
+
+
+PHILIP V.: ANTIOCHUS III.--The Romans were now dominant in the
+West. They were strong on the sea, as on the land. Within fifty years
+Rome likewise became the dominant power in the East. Philip V. of
+Macedon had made an alliance with Hannibal, but had furnished him no
+valuable aid. The Senate maintained that a body of Macedonian
+mercenaries had fought against the Romans at
+_Zama_. _Rhodes_ and _Athens_, together with _King
+Attalus_ of Pergamon, sought for help against _Philip_. The
+Romans were joined by the _Ĉtolians_, and afterwards by the
+_Achaians_. In 197, the consul _T. Quintius Flamininus_
+defeated him at the battle of _Cynoscephalĉ_ in Thessaly, and
+imposed upon him such conditions of peace as left him powerless
+against the interests of Rome. At the Isthmian games, amid great
+rejoicing, _Flamininus_ declared the Greek states
+independent. When they found that their freedom was more nominal than
+real, and involved a virtual subjection to Rome, the _Ĉtolians_
+took up arms, and obtained the support of _Antiochus III_., king
+of Syria. Another grievance laid at the door of this king was the
+reception by him of _Hannibal_, a fugitive from Carthage, whose
+advice, however, as to the conduct of the war, _Antiochus_ had
+not the wisdom to follow. In 190 he was vanquished by a Roman army at
+_Magnesia_, under _L. Cornelius Scipio_, with whom was
+present, as an adviser, _Scipio Africanus_. He was forced to give
+up all his Asiatic possessions as far as the _Taurus_
+mountains. The territory thus obtained, the Romans divided among their
+allies, _Pergamon_ and _Rhodes_. About seven years later
+(183), _Hannibal_, who had taken refuge at the court of
+_Prusias_, king of Bithynia, finding that he was to be betrayed,
+took poison and died. The ingratitude of his country, or of the ruling
+party in it, did not move him to relax his exertions against Rome. He
+continued until his death to be her most formidable antagonist,
+exerting in exile an effective influence in the East to create
+combinations against her.
+
+PERSEUS.--_Philip V_. laid a plan to avenge himself on the
+Romans, and regain his lost Macedonian territory. _Perseus_, his
+son, followed in the same path, having slain his brother
+_Demetrius_, who was a friend of Rome. The war broke out in
+171. For several campaigns the management of the Roman generals was
+ill-judged; but at last _L. Ĉmilius Paulus_, son of the consul
+who fell at _Cannĉ_, routed the Macedonians at the battle of
+_Pydna_.  Immense spoils were brought to Rome by the
+conqueror. _Perseus_ himself, who had sat on the throne of
+Alexander, adorned the consul's triumphal procession through the
+streets of Rome. The cantons of Greece, where there was nothing but
+continual strife and endless confusion, were subjected to Roman
+influence. One thousand Achaians of distinction, among them the
+historian _Polybius_, were carried to Italy, and kept under
+surveillance for many years. The imperious spirit of Rome, and the
+deference accorded to her, is illustrated in the interview of
+_C. Popilius Lĉnas_, who delivered to _Antiochus IV_. of
+Syria a letter of the Senate, directing him to retire from before
+Alexandria. When that monarch replied that he would confer with his
+counselors on the matter, the haughty Roman drew a circle round him on
+the ground, and bade him decide before he should cross that
+line. _Antiochus_ said that he would do as the Senate ordered.
+
+THE THIRD PUNIC WAR.--The treaty with Carthage had bound that city
+hand and foot. Against the encroachments of _Masinissa_, the
+Carthaginians could do nothing; but at length they were driven to take
+up arms to repel them. This act the Romans pronounced a breach of the
+treaty (149). That stern old Roman, who in his youth had served
+against Hannibal, _M. Porcius Cato_, had been unceasing in his
+exhortation to destroy Carthage. He was in the habit of ending his
+speeches with the saying, "But I am of opinion that Carthage should be
+destroyed." The Roman armies landed at _Utica_. Their hard
+demands, which included the surrender of war-ships and weapons, were
+complied with. But when the Carthaginians were required to abandon
+their city, and to make a new settlement ten miles distant, they rose
+in a fury of patriotic wrath. The women cut off their hair to make
+bowstrings. Day and night the people worked, in forging weapons and in
+building a new fleet in the inner harbor. The Romans were repulsed;
+but _P. Scipio Ĉmilianus_, the adopted son of the first Scipio
+Africanus, shut in the city by land and by sea, and, in 146, captured
+and destroyed it. Its defenders fought from street to street, and from
+house to house. Only a tenth part of the inhabitants were left
+alive. These were sold into slavery. Carthage was set on fire, and
+almost entirely consumed. The fire burned for seventeen days. The
+remains of the Carthaginian wall, when excavated in recent times,
+"were found to be covered with a layer of ashes from four to five feet
+deep, filled with half-charred pieces of wood, fragments of iron, and
+projectiles."  _Scipio_ would have preserved the city, but the
+Senate was inexorable. With the historian Polybius at his side, the
+Roman commander, as he looked down on the horrors of the
+conflagration, sorrowfully repeated the lines of Homer,--
+
+  "The day shall come when sacred Troy shall be leveled with the
+  plain, And Priam and the people of that good warrior slain."
+
+"Assyria," he is said to have exclaimed, "had fallen, and Persia and
+Macedon. Carthage was burning: Rome's day might come next." Carthage
+was converted into a Roman province under the name of _Africa_.
+
+DESTRUCTION OF CORINTH.--The atrocious crime of the destruction of
+Carthage was more than matched by the contemporaneous destruction of
+_Corinth_. Another rising in Macedonia resulted, in 146, in the
+conversion of that ancient kingdom into a Roman province. The return
+to Greece of three hundred Achaian exiles who had been detained in
+Italy for sixteen years, strengthened the anti-Roman party in Greece,
+and helped to bring on war with the Achaian league. In 146, after the
+battle of _Leucopetra_, Corinth was occupied by the consul
+_L. Mummius_. The men were put to the sword; the women and
+children were sold at auction into slavery; all treasures, all
+pictures, and other works of art, were carried off to Rome, and the
+city was consigned to the flames. The other Greek cities were mildly
+treated, but placed under the governor of Macedonia, and obliged to
+pay tribute to Rome. At a later date Greece became a Roman province
+under the name of _Achaia_.
+
+THE PROVINCES.--At this epoch, there were eight
+provinces,--_Sicily_ (241), _Sardinia_ (238) and
+_Corsica_, two provinces in _Spain_ (205), _Cisalpine
+Gaul, Illyricum_ (168), _Africa_ (146), _Macedonia_
+(146), and _Achaia_. The first four were governed by
+_Prĉtors_. Later, however, the judicial functions of the praetors
+kept them in Rome. At the end of the year, the prĉtor, on laying down
+his office at home, went as _proprĉtor_ to rule a province. But
+where there was war or other grave disturbances, the province was
+assigned to a _consul_ in office, or to a _proconsul_, who
+was either the consul of the preceding year, or an ex-consul, or an
+ex-prĉtor who was appointed proconsul. The provinces were generally
+organized by the conquering general and a senatorial commission. Some
+cities retained their municipal government. These were the "free
+cities." The taxes were farmed out to collectors called
+_publicans_, who were commonly of the equestrian order. The last
+military dictator was appointed in 216. In times of great danger,
+dictatorial power was given to a consul.
+
+LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY.--The intercourse of the Romans with the
+Greeks opened to the former a new world of art, literature, and
+philosophy, and a knowledge of other habits and modes of life. There
+were those who regarded the Greek authors and artists with sympathy,
+and showed an intelligent enthusiasm for the products of Greek
+genius. Under the patronage of the _Scipios_, Roman poets wrote
+in imitation of Greek models. Such were _Plautus_ (who died in
+184), and the less original, but more refined, _Terence_
+(185-159), who had been the slave of a senator. _Ennius_
+(239-169), a Calabrian Greek, wrote epics, and also tragedies and
+comedies. Him the later Romans regarded as the father of their
+literature. The beginnings of historical writing--which go beyond mere
+chronicles and family histories--appear, as in the lost work on Roman
+history by _M. Portias Cato_ (Cato the Censor, 234-149). The
+great historian of this period, however, was the Greek
+_Polybius_. The Greek philosophy was introduced, in spite of the
+vigorous opposition of such austere conservatives as
+Cato. _Panaetius_ (185-112), the Stoic from _Rhodes_, had a
+cordial reception at Rome. The Stoic teaching was adapted to the Roman
+mind. The Platonic philosophy was brought in by _Carneades_. This
+was frequently more acceptable to orators and statesmen. Along with
+the _Stoic_, the _Epicurean_ school found
+adherents. Cato--who, although a historian and an orator, was, in
+theory and practice, a rigid man, with the simple ways of the old
+time--procured the banishment of_ Carneades_, together with
+_Critolaus_ the Peripatetic, and the Stoic _Diogenes_. The
+schools of oratory he caused to be shut up. He did what he could to
+prevent the introduction of the healing art, as it was practiced by
+the Greeks. He preferred the old-fashioned domestic remedies.
+
+THE STATE OF MORALS.--If the opposition of the Conservatives to Greek
+letters and philosophy was unreasonable, as it certainly proved
+futile, there was abundant ground for alarm and regret at the changes
+that were going on in morals and in ways of living. The conquest of
+Greece and of the East brought an amazing increase of wealth. Rome
+plundered the countries which she conquered. The _optimates_, the
+leading families, who held the chief offices in the state and in the
+army, grew very rich from the booty which they gained. They left their
+small dwellings for stately palaces, which they decorated with works
+of art, gained by the pillage of nations. They built villas in the
+country, with extensive grounds and beautiful gardens. Even women,
+released from the former strict subordination of the wife to her
+husband, indulged lavishly in finery, and plunged into gaieties
+inconsistent with the household virtues. The _optimates_, in
+order to enrich themselves further, often resorted to extortion of
+various sorts. In order to curry favor with the people, and thereby to
+get their votes, they stooped to flattery, and to demagogical arts
+which the earlier Romans would have despised. They provided games, at
+great expense, for the entertainment of the populace. In the room of
+the invigorating and of the intellectual contests, which had been in
+vogue among the Greeks, the Romans acquired an increasing relish for
+bloody gladiatorial fights of men with wild beasts, and of men against
+one another. Slaves multiplied to an enormous extent: "as cheap as a
+Sardinian" was a proverb. The race of plain farmers dwindled away. The
+trade in slaves became a flourishing branch of business. Field-hands
+toiled in fetters, and were often branded to prevent escape. If slaves
+ran away, and were caught, they might be crucified. If a householder
+were killed by a slave, all the slaves in his house might be put to
+death. As at Athens, the testimony of slaves was given under
+torture. Hatred to the master on the part of the slave was a thing of
+course. "As many enemies as slaves," was a common saying.
+
+NUMANTIAN WAR.--The intolerable oppression of the provinces
+occasionally provoked resistance. It was in _Spain_ that the
+Romans found it most difficult to quell the spirit of freedom. The
+_Lusitanians_ in the territory now called Portugal, under a
+gallant chieftain, _Viriathus_, maintained for nine years a war
+in which they were mostly successful, and were finally worsted only in
+consequence of the perfidious assassination of their leader
+(149-140). The _Celtiberians_, whose principal city,
+_Numantia_, was on the upper _Douro_, kept up their
+resistance with equal valor for ten years (143-133). On one occasion a
+Roman army of twenty thousand men was saved from destruction by
+engagements which the Senate, as after the surrender at the Caudine
+Forks, repudiated. In 133, after a siege of eighteen months, Numantia
+was taken by _Scipio Africanus Ĉmilianus_. It was hunger that
+compelled the surrender; and the noblest inhabitants set fire to the
+town, and slew themselves, to avoid falling into the hands of the
+enemy.
+
+PERGAMON.--More subservience the Romans found in the East. In the same
+year that the desperate resistance of the _Numantians_ was
+overcome, _Attalus III_., king of _Pergamon_, an ally of
+Rome, whose sovereignty extended over the greater part of _Asia
+Minor_, left his kingdom and all his treasures, by will, to the
+Roman people. There was a feeble struggle on the part of the expectant
+heir, but the Romans formed the larger part of the kingdom into a
+province. _Phrygia Major_ they detached, and gave to
+_Mithridates IV_., king of _Pontus_, who had helped them in
+this last brief contest.
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD IV.  THE ERA OF REVOLUTION AND OF THE CIVIL WARS. (_146-31
+B.C_.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  THE GRACCHI: THE FIRST MITHRIDATIC WAR: MARIUS
+            AND SULLA (146-78 B.C.).
+
+
+CONDITION OF ROME.--We come now to an era of internal strife. The
+Romans were to turn their arms against one another: Yet it is
+remarkable that the march of foreign conquest still went on. It was by
+conquests abroad that the foremost leaders in the civil wars rose to
+the position which enabled them to get control in the government at
+home. The power of the _Senate_ had been more and more
+exalted. Foreign affairs were mainly at its disposal. The increase in
+the number of voters in the _comitia_, and their motley
+character, made it more easy for the aristocracy to manage
+them. Elections were carried by the influence of largesses and by the
+exhibition of games. Practically the chief officers were limited to a
+clique, composed of rich families of both patrician and plebeian
+origin, which was diminishing in number, while the numbers of the
+lower class were rapidly growing larger. The gulf between the poor and
+the rich was constantly widening. The last Italian colony was sent out
+in 177 B.C., and the lands of Italy were all taken up. Slaves
+furnished labor at the cost of their bare subsistence. It was hard for
+a poor man to gain a living. Had the _Licinian Laws_ (p. 137)
+been carried out, the situation would have been different. The public
+lands were occupied by the members of some forty or fifty aristocratic
+families, and by a certain number of wealthy Italians. A great
+proletariate--a needy and disaffected lower class--was growing up,
+which boded no good to the state.
+
+TIBERIUS GRACCHUS.--This condition of things moved _Tiberius
+Gracchus_, the son of _Cornelia_, who was the daughter of the
+great _Scipio Africanus_, to bring forward his _Agrarian
+Laws_. The effect of them would have been to limit the amount of
+the public domain which any one man could hold, and to divide portions
+of it among poor citizens. In spite of the bitter opposition of the
+nobility, these laws were passed (133). But _Gracchus_ had been
+obliged to persuade the people to turn a tribune, who resisted their
+passage, out of office, which was an unconstitutional act. In order to
+carry out the laws, he would have to be re-elected tribune. But the
+_optimates_, led by the consul _Scipio Nasica_, had been
+still more infuriated by other proposals of _Gracchus_. They
+raised a mob, and slew him, with three hundred of his followers. This
+gave the democratic leaders a temporary advantage; but violent
+measures on their own side turned the current again the other way, and
+proceedings under the laws were quashed.
+
+CAIUS GRACCHUS.--The laws of _Caius Gracchus_, the brother of
+Tiberius, were of a more sweeping character. He caused measures to be
+passed, and colonies to be sent out, by decrees of the people, without
+any action of the Senate. He renewed the agrarian law. He caused a law
+to be passed for selling corn for less than the cost, to all citizens
+who should apply for it. He also caused it to be ordained, that juries
+should be taken from the knights, the _equites_, instead of the
+Senate. These were composed of rich men. The tendency of the law would
+be to make the equestrian order distinct, and thus to divide the
+aristocracy. The proposal (122), which was not passed, to extend the
+franchise to the Latins, and perhaps to the Italians, cost him his
+popularity, although the measure was just. The Senate gave its support
+to a rival tribune, _M. Livius Drusus_, who outbid
+_Gracchus_ in the contest for popular favor. In 121
+_Gracchus_ was not made tribune. In the disorder that followed,
+he, with several hundred of his followers, was killed by the
+_optimates_. Before long most of his enactments were
+reversed. The law for the cheap sale of corn, the most unwise of his
+measures, continued.
+
+THE JUGURTHINE WAR.--An interval of tranquility followed. But the
+corruption of the ruling class was illustrated in connection with the
+Jugurthine war. _Jugurtha_, the adopted son of the king of
+_Numidia_, the ally of Rome, wishing the whole kingdom for
+himself, killed one of the sons of the late king, and made war upon
+the other, who applied to the Romans for help. The commission sent out
+by the Senate was bribed by _Jugurtha_. Not until he took the
+city of _Cirta_, and put to death the remaining brother, with all
+his army, was he summoned to Rome. There, too, his money availed to
+secure him impunity, although he caused a Numidian prince to be
+murdered in Rome itself. When the Romans finally entered on the war
+with _Jugurtha_, he bribed the generals, so that little was
+effected. The indignation of the people was raised to such a pitch
+that they would not leave the direction of the war in the hands of
+_Quintus Metellus_, whom the Senate had sent out, and who
+defeated _Jugurtha_ (108), but insisted on giving the chief
+command to one of his subordinate officers, _Caius Marius_ (107),
+the son of a peasant, wild and rough in his manners, but of
+extraordinary talents as a soldier. He brought the war to an
+end. _Jugurtha_ was delivered up by the prince with whom he had
+taken refuge to _L. Cornelius Sulla_, one of the generals under
+_Marius_, and in 105, with his two sons, marched in chains before
+the triumphal car of _Marius_ through the streets of
+Rome. _Marius_ was now the leader of the popular party, and the
+most influential man in Rome.
+
+THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES.--The power of _Marius_ was augmented by
+his victories over the _Cimbri_ and the _Teutones_. These
+were hordes of barbarians who appeared in the Alpine regions, the
+_Cimbri_ being either _Celts_, or, like the _Teutones_,
+_Germans_. The _Cimbri_ crossed the Alps in 113, and
+defeated a Roman consul. They turned westward towards the Rhine,
+traversed Gaul in different directions, defeating through a series of
+years the Roman armies that were sent against them. These defeats the
+democratic leaders ascribed, not without reason, to the corrupt
+management of the aristocratic party. In 103 the _Cimbri_ and the
+_Teutones_ arranged for a combined attack on Italy. _Marius_
+was made consul; and in order to meet this threatened invasion, which
+justly excited the greatest anxiety, he was chosen to this office five
+times in succession (104-100). Having repulsed the attack of the
+barbarians on his camp, he defeated them in two great battles, the
+first at _Aquce Sextice_ (Aix in Provence) in 102, and the second
+at _Vercellce_, in Upper Italy, in 101. These successes, which
+really saved Rome, made _Marius_ for the time the idol of the
+popular party.
+
+THE ARMY.--At about this time a great change took place in the
+constitution of the army. The occupation of a soldier had become a
+trade. Besides the levy of citizens, there was established a
+recruiting system, which drew into the ranks the idle and lazy, and a
+system of re-inforcements, by which cavalry and light-armed troops
+were taken from subject and vassal states. Thus there arose a military
+class, distinct, as it had not been of old, from the civil orders, and
+ready to act separately when its own interest or the ambition of
+favorite leaders might prompt.
+
+SATURNINUS.--_Marius_ lacked the judgment and the firmness
+required by a statesman, especially in troublous times. When
+_Saturninus_ and _Glaucia_ brought forward a series of
+measures of a radical character in behalf of the democratic cause, and
+the consul _Metellus_, who opposed them, was obliged to go into
+voluntary exile, _Marius_, growing ashamed of the factious and
+violent proceedings of the popular party, was partially won over to
+the support of the Senate. When _C. Memmius_, candidate for
+consul, was killed with bludgeons by the mob of _Saturninus_ and
+_Glaucia_, and there was fighting in the forum and the streets,
+he helped to put down these reckless innovators (99). But his want of
+hearty cooperation with either party made him hated by
+both. _Metellus_ was recalled from banishment. _Marius_ went
+to Asia, and visited the court of _Mithridates._
+
+THE MURDER OF DRUSUS.--Nearly ten years of comparative quiet
+ensued. The long continued complaints of the Italians found at last a
+voice in the measures of _M. Livius Drusus,_ a tribune, who, in
+91, proposed that they should have the right of citizenship. Two other
+propositions, one referring to the relations of the _Equites_ and
+the _Senate,_ and the other for a new division of lands, had been
+accepted by the people, but were by the Senate declared null. Before
+_Drusus_ could bring forward the law respecting Italian
+citizenship, he was assassinated. Neither Senate nor people was
+favorable to this righteous measure.
+
+THE ITALIAN OR SOCIAL WAR (90-88 B.C.).--The murder of _Drusus_
+was the signal for an insurrection of the _Italian_
+communities. They organized for themselves a federal republic. The
+peril occasioned by this great revolt reconciled for the moment the
+contending parties at Rome. In the North, where _Marius_ fought,
+the Romans were generally successful: in the South, the allies were at
+first superior; but in 89, in spite of _Sulla's_ bold forays,
+they were worsted. But it was by policy, more than by arms, that the
+Romans subdued this dangerous revolt. They promised full citizenship
+to those who had not taken part in the war, and to those who would at
+once cease to take part in it (90). Finally, when it was plain that
+Rome was too strong to be overcome, the conflict was ended by granting
+to the allies all that they had ever claimed (89). Rome had now made
+ALL ITALY (south of _Cisalpine Gaul_), except the _Samnites_
+and _Lucanians,_ EQUAL WITH HERSELF. But Italy had been ravaged
+by desolating war: the number of small proprietors was more than ever
+diminished, and the army and the generals were becoming the
+predominant force in the affairs of the state.
+
+WAR WITH MITHRIDATES.--_Mithridates,_ king of Pontus, in the
+north-east of Asia Minor, was as ardent an enemy of the Romans as
+Hannibal had been. With the help of his son-in-law _Tigranes,_
+king of Armenia, he had subdued the neighboring kings in alliance with
+Rome. The Asiatic states, who were ruled by the Romans, were impatient
+of the oppression under which they groaned. When checked by the
+Romans, _Mithridates_ had paused for a while, and then had
+resumed again his enterprise of conquest. In 88 the Grecian cities of
+Asia joined him; and, in obedience to his brutal order, all the
+Italians within their walls, not lelss than eighty thousand in number,
+but possibly almost double that number, were put to death in one
+day. The whole dominion of the Romans in the East was in jeopardy.
+
+MARIUS AND SULLA.--_Sulla_ was elected consul in 88, and was on
+the point of departing for Asia. He was a soldier of marked talents, a
+representative of the _aristocratic_ party, and was more cool and
+consistent in his public conduct than _Marius_. _Marius_
+desired the command against _Mithridates_ for
+himself. _P. Sulpicius_, one of his adherents, brought forward a
+revolutionary law for incorporating the Italians and freedmen among
+the thirty-five tribes. The populace, under the guidance of the
+leaders of the Marian faction, voted to take away the command from
+_Sulla_, and to give it to _Marius_. _Sulla_ refused to
+submit, and marched his army to Rome. It was impossible to resist
+him. _Sulpicius_ was killed in his flight. _Marius_ escaped
+from Italy, and, intending to go to Africa, was landed at
+_Minturnae_. To escape pursuit, he had to stand up to the chin in
+a marsh. He was put in prison, and a Gaulish slave was sent to kill
+him. But when he saw the flashing eyes of the old general, and heard
+him cry, "Fellow, darest thou kill _Caius Marius_?" he dropped
+his sword, and ran. _Marius_ crossed to Africa. Messengers who
+were sent to warn him to go away, found him sitting among the ruins of
+Carthage.
+
+THE MARIANS IN ROME.--_Sulla_ restored the authority of the
+Senate. During _Sulla's_ absence, _Cinna_, the consul of the
+popular party, sought to revive the laws of _Sulpicius_ by
+violent means (87). Driven out of the city, he came back with an army
+which he had gathered in _Campania_, and with old Marius, who had
+returned from Africa. He now took vengeance on the leaders of the
+_Optimates_. For five days the gates were closed, and every noble
+who was specially obnoxious, and had not escaped, was killed by
+_Marius_, who marched through the streets at the head of a body
+of soldiers. In 86 _Marius_ and _Cinna_ were made
+consuls. _Sulla_ was declared to be deposed. _Marius_, who
+was now more than seventy years old, died (86). The fever of revenge,
+and the apprehension of what might follow on _Sulla's_ return,
+drove sleep from his eyelids. A brave soldier, he was incompetent to
+play the part of a statesman. He went to his grave with the curse of
+all parties resting upon him.
+
+RETURN OF SULLA.--_Sulla_ refused to do any thing against his
+adversaries at home, or for the help of the fugitive nobles who
+appealed to him, until the cause of the country was secure abroad. He
+captured _Athens_ in 86, defeated _Archelaus_, the general
+of _Mithridates_, in a great battle at _Chaeronea_; and, by
+this and subsequent victories, he forced _Mithridates_ to
+conclude peace, who agreed to evacuate the Roman province of Asia, to
+restore all his conquests, surrender eighty ships of war, and pay
+three thousand talents (84). _Sulla's_ hands were now free. In 83
+he landed at _Brundisium_. He was joined by _Cneius
+Pompeius_, then twenty-three years old, with a troop of
+volunteers. _Sulla_ did not wish to fight the Italians. He issued
+a proclamation, therefore, giving them the assurance that their rights
+would not be impaired. This pledge had the desired effect. The army of
+the _Consuls_ largely outnumbered his own. _Sulla_ lingered
+in South Italy to make good his position there. The _Samnites_
+joined the _Marians_, and moved upon Rome with the intent to
+destroy it. They were defeated before they could enter the city. The
+_Marians_ in Spain were defeated afterwards, as were the same
+party in _Sicily_ and _Africa_ by _Pompeius_.
+
+CRUELTY OF SULLA.--The cruelty of Sulla, after his victory, was more
+direful than Rome had ever witnessed. It appeared to spring from no
+heat of passion, but was cold and shameless. After a few days, there
+was a massacre of four thousand prisoners in the _Circus_. Their
+shrieks and groans were heard in the neighboring Temple of
+_Bellona_, where Sulla was in consultation with the Senate. Many
+thousands--not far from three thousand in Rome alone--were proscribed
+and murdered, and the property of all on these lists of the condemned
+was confiscated.
+
+THE LAWS OF SULLA.--In his character as _Dictator_, _Sulla_
+remade the constitution, striking out the popular elements to a great
+extent, and concentrating authority in the _Senate_. The
+_Tribunes_ were stripped of most of their power. The
+_Senate_ alone could propose laws. In the Senate, the places in
+the juries were given back (p. 154). Besides these and other like
+changes, the right of suffrage was bestowed on ten thousand
+emancipated slaves; while _Italians_ and others, who had been on
+the Marian side, were deprived of it. In the year 80 B.C.,
+_Sulla_ caused himself to be elected _Consul_. The next year
+he retired from office to his country estate, and gave himself up to
+amusements and sensual pleasure. A part of his time--for he was not
+without a taste for literature--he devoted to the writing of his
+memoirs, which, however, have not come down to us. He died in 78.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  POMPEIUS AND THE EAST: TO THE DEATH OF CRASSUS (78-53
+B.C.).
+
+
+WAR WITH SERTORIUS.--Not many years after _Sulla's _death, his
+reforms were annulled. This was largely through the agency of
+_Cneius Pompeius_, who had supported _Sulla_, but was not a
+uniform or consistent adherent of the aristocratic party. He did not
+belong to an old family, but had so distinguished himself that Sulla
+gave him a triumph. Later he rose to still higher distinction by his
+conduct of the war against _Sertorius_ in Spain, a brave and able
+man of the Marian party, who was supported there for a long time by a
+union of Spaniards and Romans. Not until jealousy arose among his
+officers, and _Sertorius_ was assassinated, was the formidable
+rebellion put down (72).
+
+THE GLADIATORIAL WAR.--_Pompeius_ had the opportunity still
+further to distinguish himself on his way back from Spain. A
+gladiator, _Spartacus_, started a revolt among his companions. He
+called about him slaves and outlaws until with an army of one hundred
+thousand men he defeated the Roman generals, and threatened Rome
+itself. For two years they ravaged Italy at their will. They were
+vanquished by _Marcus Crassus_ in 71, in two battles, in the last
+of which _Spartacus fell_. The remnant of them, a body of five
+thousand men, who had nearly reached the Alps, were annihilated by
+_Pompeius_.
+
+POMPEIUS: CRASSUS: CICERO.--_Crassus_ was a man of great wealth
+and of much shrewdness. _Pompeius_ was bland and dignified in his
+ways, a valiant, though sometimes over-cautious, general. These two
+men, in 70 B.C., became consuls. They had resolved to throw themselves
+for support on the middle class at Rome. _Pompeius_, sustained by
+his colleague, secured the abrogation of some of the essential changes
+made by _Sulla_. The _Tribunes_ received back their powers,
+and the independence of the _Assembly of the Tribes_ was
+restored. The absolute power of the Senate over the law-courts was
+taken away. These measures were carried in spite of the resistance of
+that body. Pompeius was aided by the great advocate, _Marcus Tullius
+Cicero_. He was born at _Arpinum_ in 106 B.C., of an
+equestrian family. He had been a diligent student of law and politics,
+and also of the Greek philosophy, and aspired to distinction in civil
+life. He studied rhetoric under _Molo_, first at Rome and then at
+_Rhodes_, during a period of absence from Italy, which continued
+about two years. On his return (in 77 B.C.), he resumed legal
+practice. _Cicero_ was a man of extraordinary and various
+talents, and a patriot, sincerely attached to the republican
+constitution. He was humane and sensitive, and much more a man of
+peace than his eminent contemporaries. His foibles, the chief of which
+was the love of praise, were on the surface; and, if he lacked some of
+the robust qualities of the great Roman leaders of that day, he was
+likewise free from some of their sins. The captivating oratory of
+Cicero found a field for its exercise in the impeachment of
+_Verres_, whose rapacity, as Roman governor of Sicily, had fairly
+desolated that wealthy province.  _Cicero_ showed such vigor in
+the prosecution that _Verres_ was driven into exile. This event
+weakened the senatorial oligarchy, and helped _Pompeius_ in his
+contest with it.
+
+WAR WITH THE PIRATES.--In 69 B.C., _Pompeius_ retired from
+office; but, two years later, he assumed command in the war against
+the pirates. These had taken possession of creeks and valleys in
+Western _Cilicia_ and _Pamphylia_, and had numerous
+fleets. Not confining their depredations to the sea, they plundered
+the coasts of Italy, and stopped the grain-ships on which Rome
+depended for food. _Pompeius_ undertook to exterminate this
+piratical community. By the _Gabinian Law_, he was clothed with
+more power than had ever been committed to an individual. He was to
+have absolute command over the Mediterranean and its coasts for fifty
+miles inland. He used this unlimited authority for war purposes alone,
+and, in three months, completely accomplished the work assigned
+him. He captured three thousand vessels, and put to death ten thousand
+men. Twenty thousand captives he settled in the interior of
+_Cilicia_.
+
+POMPEIUS IN THE EAST.--The success of Pompeius was the prelude to a
+wider extension of his power and his popularity. After the return of
+_Sulla_ from the East, another _Mithridatic War_ (83-81),
+the second in the series, had ended in the same terms of peace that
+had been agreed upon before (p. 157). In 74 the contest began anew
+against _Mithridates_, and _Tigranes_ of Armenia, his
+son-in-law. For a number of years _Lucullus_, the Roman
+commander, was successful; but finally _Mithridates_ regained
+what he had lost, and kept up his aggressive course. In 66 B.C., on a
+motion that was supported by _Cicero_, but opposed by the
+aristocratic party in the Senate, _Pompeius_ was made commander
+in the East for an indefinite term. So extensive powers had never
+before been committed to a Roman. He drove _Mithridates_ out of
+Pontus into Armenia. _Tigranes_ laid his crown at the feet of the
+Roman general, and was permitted to retain
+_Armenia_. _Mithridates_ fled beyond the Caucasus, and, in
+63 B.C., committed suicide. _Pompeius_ overthrew the Syrian
+kingdom of the _Seleucidae_. He entered _Judaea_, captured
+Jerusalem from _Aristobulus_ the reigning prince, and placed his
+brother _Hyrcanus_ on the throne, who became tributary to Rome.
+_Pompeius_ with his officers entered the sanctuary of the temple,
+and was surprised to find there neither image nor statue. He
+established in the Roman territories in Asia the two provinces,
+_Pontus_ and _Syria_, and re-organized the province of
+_Cilicia_. Several kingdoms he allowed to remain under Roman
+protection. After this unexampled exercise of power and responsibility
+as the disposer of kingdoms, he slowly returned to Italy, dismissed
+his army at _Brundisium_, and entered the capital as a private
+citizen, where, in 61 B.C., he enjoyed a magnificent triumph that
+lasted for two days.
+
+THE ROMAN TRIUMPH.--The most coveted reward of a victorious general
+was a triumph. It was granted by a vote of the Senate and according to
+certain rules, some of which, however, were often relaxed. The general
+must have held the office of dictator, consul, or praetor; at least
+five thousand of the enemy must have been slain in a single battle;
+the war must have been against public foes, etc. The general, with his
+army, remained without the city until the triumph had been decreed by
+the Senate, which also assembled without the walls to deliberate on
+the question. The pageant itself, in later times, was of the most
+splendid character. It consisted of a procession which entered the
+"Triumphal Gate," and passed through the _Via Sacra_, up the
+Capitoline Hill to the Temple of Jupiter, where sacrifices were
+offered. In front were the Senate, headed by the magistrates. Then
+came a body of trumpeters, who immediately preceded the long trains of
+carriages and frames which displayed the spoils of conquest, including
+statues, pictures, gorgeous apparel, gold and silver, and whatever
+else had been borne away from the conquered people. Pictures of the
+country traversed or conquered, and models of cities and forts, were
+exhibited. Behind the spoils came flute-players, and these were
+followed by elephants and other strange animals. Next were the arms
+and insignia of the hostile leaders; and after them marched the
+leaders themselves and their kindred, and all the captives of less
+rank, in fetters. The crowns and other tributes voluntarily given to
+the general by Roman allies next appeared, and then the central figure
+of the procession, the _imperator_ himself, standing in a chariot
+drawn by four horses, clad in a robe embroidered with gold, and a
+flowered tunic, in his right hand a bough of laurel and in his left a
+scepter, with a wreath of laurel on his brow, and a slave standing
+behind, and holding a crown over his head. Behind him in the
+procession were his family, then the mounted _equites_ and the
+whole body of the infantry, their spears adorned with laurels, making
+the air ring with their shouts and songs. Meantime the temples were
+open, and incense was burned to the gods; buildings were decorated
+with festal garlands; the population, in holiday dress, thronged the
+steps of the public buildings and stages erected to command a view,
+and in every place where a sight of the pageant could be obtained. As
+the procession climbed the Capitoline Hill, some of the captives of
+rank were taken into the adjoining _Mamertine_ prison, and
+barbarously put to death. In the lower chamber of that ancient
+dungeon, which the traveler still visits, _Jugurtha_ and many
+other conquered enemies perished. After the sacrifices had been
+offered, the _imperator_ sat down to a public feast with his
+friends in the temple, and was then escorted home by a crowd of
+citizens.
+
+The _ovation_ was a lesser triumph. The general entered the city
+on foot, and the ceremonies were of a much inferior cast.
+
+CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE.--Meanwhile at Rome, the state had been
+endangered by the combination of democrats and anarchists in the
+conspiracy of _Catiline_. The well-contrived plot of this
+audacious and profligate man was detected and crushed by the vigilance
+and energy of the consul _Cicero_, whose four speeches on the
+subject, two to the Senate and two to the people, are among the most
+celebrated of all his orations. _Catiline_ was forced to fly from
+Rome; and several of his prominent accomplices were put to death by
+the advice of _Cato_ (the younger), the leader of the Senatorial
+party, and by the vote of the Senate. This was done without asking for
+the verdict of the people, and for this reason was not warranted by
+the law; but it was declared to be needful for the salvation of the
+state. The next year _Catiline_ was killed in battle, and his
+force dispersed by the army of the Senate. A turn of party feeling
+afterwards exiled _Cicero_ for departing from the law in the
+execution of the conspirators.
+
+JULIUS CAESAR.--Another person strong enough to be the rival of
+_Pompeius_ was now on the stage of action. This was _Caius
+Julius Caesar_, who proved himself to be, on the whole, the
+foremost man of the ancient Roman world. Caesar's talents were
+versatile, but in nothing was he weak or superficial. He was great as
+a general, a statesman, an orator, and an author. With as much power
+of personal command over men as _Hannibal_ had possessed, he was
+likewise an agreeable companion of men of letters and in general
+society. Every thing he did he appeared to do with ease. By his family
+connections he was naturally designated as the leader of the popular,
+Marian party. He was the nephew of _Marius_ and the son-in-law of
+_Cinna_. _Sulla_ had spared his life, although he had
+courageously refused to obey the dictator's command to put away his
+wife; but he had been obliged to quit Rome. At the funeral of
+_Julia_, the widow of _Marius_, he had been bold enough to
+exhibit the bust of that hero,--an act that involved risk, but pleased
+the multitude. He was suspected of being privy to _Catiline's_
+plot, and in the Senate spoke against the execution of his
+confederates. In 65 he was elected _Aedile_, but his profuse
+expenditures in providing games plunged him heavily in debt; so that
+it was only by advances made to him by _Crassus_ that he was
+able, after being praetor, to go to _Spain_ (in 61), where, as
+propraetor, he first acquired military distinction. Prior to his
+sojourn in Spain, by his bold political conduct, in opposition to the
+Senate, and on the democratic side, he had made himself a favorite of
+the people.
+
+THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE.--Pompeius was distrusted and feared by the
+Senate; but, on seeing that he took no measures to seize on power at
+Rome, they proceeded to thwart his wishes, and denied the expected
+allotments of land to his troops. The circumstances led to the
+formation of the first _Triumvirate_, which was an informal
+alliance between _Pompeius_, _Caesar_, and _Crassus_,
+against the Senatorial oligarchy, and for the protection and
+furtherance of their own interests. _Caesar_ became consul in 59
+B.C. He gave his daughter _Julia_ in marriage to
+_Pompeius_. Gaul, both Cisalpine, and Transalpine (_Gallia
+Narbonensis_), was given to _Caesar_ to govern for five
+years. _Cato_ was sent off to take possession of the kingdom of
+_Cyprus_. _Cicero_, who was midway between the two parties,
+was exiled on motion of the radical tribune, _Clodius_. But the
+independent and violent proceedings of this demagogue led
+_Pompeius_ to co-operate more with the Senate. _Cicero_ was
+recalled (57 B.C.). A jealousy, fomented by the Senate, sprang up
+between _Pompeius_ and _Crassus_. By _Caesar's_
+efforts, a better understanding was brought about between the
+triumvirs, and it was agreed that his own proconsulship should be
+prolonged for a second term of five years. _Pompeius_ received
+the _Spains_, and _Crassus_, who was avaricious, was made
+proconsul of _Syria_, and commander of the armies in the Oriental
+provinces. In an expedition against the _Parthians_ in 53, he
+perished.
+
+CAESAR IN GAUL.--The campaigns of _Caesar_ in Gaul covered a
+period of eight years. An admirable narrative of them is presented by
+himself in his _Commentaries_.
+
+  THE GAULS.--The Gauls were _Celts_. The Celts were spread over
+  the most of Gaul, over Britain and the north of Italy. In
+  _Gaul_, there were three general divisions of people, each
+  subdivided into tribes. These were the _Belgae_, the
+  _Galli_, and the _Aquitani_, the last of whom, however,
+  were not Celts, but, like the _Iberians_ in Spain, belonged to
+  a _pre-Celtic_ race. The _Helvetii_ and _Vindelici_
+  were in Switzerland. The Celts of _Gaul_ had attained to a
+  considerable degree of civilization. Their gods were the various
+  objects of nature personified. Their divinities are described by
+  Caesar as corresponding in their functions to the gods of
+  Rome. Their priests were the _Druids_, a close corporation, but
+  not hereditary. They not only conducted worship: they were the
+  lawgivers, judges, and physicians of the people. They possessed a
+  mysterious doctrine, which they taught to the initiated. They held a
+  great yearly assembly for the trial of causes. The _Bards_
+  stood in connection with the Druidical order. In worship, human
+  sacrifices were offered in large numbers, the victims being
+  prisoners, slaves, criminals, etc. There were temples, but thick
+  groves were the favorite seats of worship. _Caesar_ says that
+  the Gauls were strongly addicted to religious observances. In their
+  character they are described as brave and impetuous in an onset, but
+  as lacking persistency.
+
+  The Celts in _Britain_ were less civilized than their kinsfolk
+  across the channel. But in their customs and religious beliefs and
+  usages, they were similar to them. They probably came over from
+  Gaul.
+
+CONQUEST OF GAUL.--The first victory of Caesar was in conflict with
+the Helvetii, who had invaded Gaul, and whom he drove back to their
+homes in the Alps. The Gallic tribes applied to him for help against
+the _Germans_, who had been led over the Rhine by
+_Ariovistus_, chief of the _Suevi_. Him _Caesar_ forced
+to return to the other side of the river. The Gallic tribes, fearing
+the power of Caesar, stirred up the _Belgae_, the most warlike of
+all the Gauls. These Csesar subdued, and also, with less difficulty,
+conquered the other nations of Gaul. _Twice_, in conflict with
+the Germans, he crossed the Rhine near _Bonn_ and
+_Andernach_ (55 and 53 B.C.).  _Twice_, also (55 and 54
+B.C.), he landed in _Britain_. On the second expedition he
+crossed the _Thames_. In 52 there was a general insurrection of
+the Gauls under _Vercingetorix_, a brave chieftain, to conquer
+whom required all of Caesar's strength and skill. The result of eight
+years of hard and successful warfare was the subjugation of all Gaul
+from the Rhine to the Pyrenees. The _Celts_ were subdued, and
+steps taken which resulted in their civilization. A barrier was placed
+in the way of the advance of the _Germans_, which availed for
+this end during several centuries. By his successes in Gaul, Csesar
+acquired a fame as a general, which partly eclipsed the glory
+previously gained by _Pompeius_ in the East. He became, also, the
+leader of veteran legions who were devoted to his interests.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.  POMPEIUS AND CAESAR: THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.
+
+
+THE CIVIL WAR.--The rupture between _Pompeius_ and _Caesar_
+brought on another civil war, and subverted the Roman republic. They
+were virtually regents. The triumvirs had arranged with one another
+for the partition of power. The death of _Crassus_ took away a
+link of connection which had united the two survivors. The death of
+_Julia_, the beautiful daughter of _Caesar_, in 54 B.C., had
+previously dissolved another tie. _Pompeius_ contrived to remain
+in Rome, and to govern Spain by legates. Each of the two rivals had
+his active and valiant partisans in the city. The spoils of Gaul were
+sent to be expended in the erection of costly buildings, and in
+providing entertainments for the populace. To _Pompey_, in turn,
+Rome owed the construction of the first stone theater, which was
+dedicated with unprecedented show and splendor. Bloody conflicts
+between armed bands of adherents of the two leaders were of daily
+occurrence. _Clodius_, an adherent of Caesar and a reckless
+partisan, was slain by _Milo_, in a conflict on the Appian
+Way. The Senate and the republicans, of whom _Cato_ was the
+chief, in order to curb the populace, and out of enmity to Caesar,
+allied themselves with _Pompeius_. It was determined to prevent
+him from standing as a candidate for the consulship, unless he should
+lay down his command, and come to Rome. He offered to resign his
+military power if _Pompeius_ would do the same. This was
+refused. Finally he was directed to give up his command in Gaul before
+the expiration of the time which had been set for the termination of
+it. This order, if carried into effect, would have reduced him to the
+rank of a private citizen, and have left him at the mercy of his
+enemies. The tribunes, including his devoted supporter, _Marcus
+Antonius_, in vain interposed the veto, and fled from the
+city. _Caesar_ determined to disobey the order of the Senate. His
+legions--two had been withdrawn on the false pretext of needing them
+for the Parthian war--clung to him, with the exception of one able
+officer, _T. Labienus_. _Caesar_ acted with great
+promptitude. He crossed the _Rubicon_, the boundary of the Gallic
+Cisalpine province, before _Pompeius_--who had declared, that
+with a stamp of his foot he could call up armed men from the
+ground--had made adequate preparations to meet him. The strength of
+_Pompeius_ was mainly in the _East_, the scene of his former
+glory; and he was, perhaps, not unwilling to retire to that region,
+taking with him the throng of aristocratic leaders, who fled
+precipitately on learning of the approach of
+_Caesar_. _Pompeius_ sailed from Brundisium to
+_Epirus_. _Cicero_, who had ardently desired an
+accommodation between the rivals, was in an agony of doubt as to what
+course it was right and best for him to take, since he saw reason to
+dread the triumph of either side. Reluctantly he decided to cast in
+his lot with the Senate and its newly gained champion.
+
+PHARSALUS: THAPSUS: MUNDA.--Caesar gained the advantage of securing
+the state treasure which _Pompeius_ had unaccountably left behind
+him, and was able to establish his power in _Italy_. Before
+pursuing Pompeius, he marched through _Gaul_ into _Spain_
+(49 B.C.), conquered the Pompeian forces at _Ilerda_, and secured
+his hold upon that country. He then crossed the Adriatic, He
+encountered Pompeius, who could not manage his imprudent officers, on
+the plain of _Pharsalus_ (48 B.C.), where the senatorial army was
+completely overthrown. _Pompeius_ sailed for Egypt; but, just as
+he was landing, he was treacherously assassinated. His head was sent
+to _Caesar_, who wept at the spectacle, and punished the
+murderers. _Caesar_ gained friends everywhere by the exercise of
+a judicious clemency, which accorded with his natural disposition. He
+next went to _Egypt_. There he was met by _Cleopatra_, whose
+dazzling beauty captivated him. She reigned in conjunction with her
+younger brother, who, according to the Egyptian usage, was nominally
+her husband. The Egyptians were roused against Caesar, and, on one
+occasion, he saved his life by swimming; but he finally defeated and
+destroyed the Egyptian army. At _Zela_, in _Pontus_, he met
+and vanquished _Pharnaces_, the revolted son of
+_Mithridates_, and sent the laconic message, "Veni, vidi, vici"
+(I came, I saw, I conquered). Early in 46 he landed in _Africa_,
+and, at _Thapsus_, annihilated the republican forces in that
+region. A most powerful combination was made against him in
+_Spain_, including some of his old officers and legionaries, and
+the two sons of _Pompeius_. But in the hard-fought battle at
+_Munda_ (March, 45 B.C.), when Caesar was himself in great
+personal danger, he was, as usual, triumphant.
+
+CAESAR AS A CIVILIAN.--Marvelous as the career of Caesar as a general
+was, his merit as a civilian outstrips even his distinction as a
+soldier. He saw that the world could no longer be governed by the
+Roman rabble, and that monarchy was the only alternative. He ruled
+under the forms of the old constitution, taking the post of dictator
+and censor for life, and absorbing in himself the other principal
+republican offices. The whole tendency of his measures, which were
+mostly of a very wholesome character, was not only to remedy abuses of
+administration, but to found a system of orderly administration in
+which Rome should be not the sole _mistress_, but simply the
+_capital_, of the world-wide community which had been subjected
+to her authority.
+
+THE GOVERNMENT OF CAESAR.--Caesar made the _Senate_ an advisory
+body. He increased the number of senators, bringing in provincials as
+well as Roman citizens. He gave full citizenship to all the
+_Transpadane Gauls_, and to numerous communities in
+_Transalpine Gaul_, in _Spain_, and elsewhere. He
+established a wide-spread colonization, thus planting his veterans in
+different places abroad, and lessening the number of proletarians in
+Italy. He rebuilt _Carthage_ and _Corinth_. He re-organized
+the army, and the civil administration in the provinces. In the space
+of five years, while he was busy in important wars, he originated
+numerous governmental measures of the utmost value.
+
+THE MOTIVES OF CAESAR.--The designs of Caesar and of his party are to
+be distinguished from what they actually accomplished. Caesar was not
+impelled by a desire to improve the government of the provinces, in
+taking up arms against the Senate. Nor did he owe his success to the
+support of provincials; although, in common with the rest of the
+democratic party at Rome, he was glad to have them for allies. The
+custom had grown up of virtually giving to eminent generals, absolute
+power for extended intervals. This was done, for example, in the case
+of _Marius_, on the occasion of the invasion of the
+_Cimbrians_ and _Teutones_. In such exigencies, it was found
+necessary to create what was equivalent to a military
+dictatorship. The idea of military rule became familiar. The
+revolution made by Caesar was achieved by military organization, and
+was a measure of personal self-defense on his part. Being raised to
+the supreme power, he sought to rule according to the wise and liberal
+ideas which were suggested by the actual condition of the world, and
+the undesirableness of a continued domination of a single city, with
+such a populace as that of Rome. Before he could carry out his large
+schemes, he was cut down.
+
+ASSASSINATION OF CAESAR.--Caesar was tired of staying in Rome, and was
+proposing to undertake an expedition against the Parthians. Neither
+his clemency nor the necessity and the merits of the government
+sustained by him, availed to shield him against the machinations of
+enemies. The aristocratic party detested his policy. He was suspected
+of aiming at the title, as well as the power, of a king. A conspiracy
+made up of numerous senators who secretly hated him, of other
+individuals influenced by personal spite, and of republican
+visionaries like _Cassius_ and _Junius Brutus_, who gloried
+in what they considered tyrannicide, assaulted him on the ides of
+March (March 15, 44 B.C.) in the hall of _Pompeius_, whither he
+had come to a session of the Senate. He received twenty-three wounds,
+one of which, at least, was fatal, and fell, uttering, a tradition
+said, a word of gentle reproach to Brutus, one who had been counted a
+special friend. _Cicero_ had acquiesced in the new government,
+and eulogized _Caesar_ and his administration. But even he
+expressed his satisfaction at the event which left the republic
+without a master. An amnesty to those who slew Caesar was advocated by
+him, and decreed by the Senate.
+
+THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.--The Senate gave to the leading conspirators
+provinces; to _Decimus Brutus_, Cisalpine Gaul. But at Rome there
+was quickly a re-action of popular wrath against the enemies of
+Csesar, which was skillfully fomented by _Marcus Antonius_ in the
+address which he made to the people over his dead body, pierced with
+so many wounds. The people voted to give Cisalpine Gaul to
+_Antonius_, and he set out to take it from _Decimus Brutus_
+by force of arms. _Cicero_ delivered a famous series of harangues
+against Antonius, called the _Philippics. Antonius,_ being
+defeated, fled to _Lepidus_, the governor of Transalpine
+Gaul. _Octavius_, the grand-nephew and adopted son of
+_Caesar_, a youth of eighteen, now became prominent, and at first
+was supported by the Senate in the hope of balancing the power of
+_Antonius_. But in October, 43, _Octavianus_ (as he was
+henceforward called), _Antonius,_ and _Lepidus_ together
+formed a second triumvirate, which became legal, by the ratification
+of the people, for the period of five years. A proscription for the
+destruction of the enemies of the three contracting parties was a part
+of this alliance. A great number were put to death, among them
+_Cicero_, a sacrifice to the vengeance of Antonius. War against
+the republicans was the necessary consequence. At _Philippi_ in
+Thrace, in the year 42, _Antonius_ and _Octavianus_ defeated
+_Brutus_ and _Cassius_, both of whom committed
+suicide. _Porcia_, the wife of _Brutus_, and the daughter of
+_Cato_, on hearing of her husband's death, put an end to her own
+life. Many other adherents of the republic followed the example of
+their leaders. The victors divided the world between themselves,
+_Antonius_ taking the east, _Octavianus_ the west, while to
+the weak and avaricious _Lepidus_, Africa was assigned; but he
+was soon deprived of his share by _Octavianus_.
+
+CIVIL WAR: ACTIUM.--_Antonius_ was enamoured of _Cleopatra_,
+and, following her to Egypt, gave himself up to luxury and sensual
+gratification. Civil war between _Octavianus_ and the followers
+of _Antonius_ in Italy (40, 41 B.C.) was followed by the marriage
+of _Octavia_, the sister of _Octavianus_, to
+_Antonius_. But after a succession of disputes between the two
+regents, there was a final breach. _Antonius_ (35) went so far as
+to give Roman territories to the sons of _Cleopatra_, and to send
+to _Octavia_ papers of divorce. The Senate, at the instigation of
+_Octavianus_, deprived his unworthy colleague of all his
+powers. War was declared against _Cleopatra_. East and West were
+arrayed in arms against one another. The conflict was determined by
+the naval victory of _Octavianus_at _Actium_ (Sept. 2, 31
+B.C.). Before the battle was decided, _Cleopatra_ fled, and was
+followed by _Antonius_. When the latter approached
+_Alexandria_, _Antonius_, deceived by the false report that
+_Cleopatra_ had destroyed herself, threw himself upon his sword
+and died. _Cleopatra_, finding herself unable to fascinate the
+conqueror, but believing that he meant that she should adorn his
+public triumph at Rome, poisoned herself (30). _Egypt_ was made
+into a Roman province. The month _Sextilis_, on which
+_Octavianus_returned to Rome, received in honor of him the name
+of "August," from "Augustus," the "venerated" or "illustrious," the
+name given him in 27 B.C. by the Roman people and Senate. He
+celebrated three triumphs; and, for the third time since the city was
+founded, the Temple of Janus was closed.
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD V.  THE IMPERIAL MONARCHY: _TO THE MIGRATIONS OF THE TEUTONIC
+TRIBES (375 A.D.)._
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  THE REIGN OF AUGUSTUS.
+
+
+AUGUSTUS AS A RULER.--The long-continued, sanguinary civil wars made
+peace welcome. _Augustus_ knew how to conceal his love of power
+under a mild exterior, and to organize the monarchy with a nominal
+adherence to republican forms. The controlling magistracies, except
+the censorship, were transferred to him. As _Imperator_, he had
+unlimited command over the military forces, and was at the head of a
+standing army of three hundred and forty thousand men. To him it
+belonged to decide on peace and war. The _Senate_ became the real
+legislative body, issuing _senatus-consulta_. There was also a
+sort of "cabinet council" chosen by him from its members. The
+authority of the _Tribunes_ belonged to him, and thus the popular
+assemblies became more and more a nullity. "The Senate was made up of
+his creatures; the people were won by bread and games; the army was
+fettered to him by means of booty and gifts." While the forms of a
+free state remained, all the functions of authority were exercised by
+the ruler.
+
+STATE OF THE EMPIRE.--(1) _Its Extent_. The Roman Empire extended
+from the Atlantic to the Euphrates, a distance of more than three
+thousand miles, and from the Danube and the English Channel--later,
+from the friths of Scotland--to the cataracts of the Nile and the
+African desert. Its population was somewhere from eighty millions to
+one hundred and twenty millions. It was composed of the _East_
+and the _West_, a distinction that was not simply geographical,
+but included deeper characteristic differences. (2) _The
+Provinces_.  The provinces were divided (27 B.C.) into the
+_proconsular_, ruled by the Senate, and the _imperial_,
+ruled by the legates of Augustus. His authority, however, was
+everywhere supreme. Over all the empire extended the system of Roman
+law, the rights and immunities of which belonged to Roman citizens
+everywhere. (3) _The Two Languages_. It was a
+_Romano-Hellenic_ monarchy. Local dialects remained; but the
+_Greek_ language was the language of commerce, and of polite
+intercourse in all places. The Greek tongue and Hellenic culture were
+the common property of the nations. The _Latin_ was prevalent
+west of the Adriatic. It was adopted in Africa, Spain, Gaul, and in
+other provinces. It was the language of courts and of the camp. (4)
+_Journeys and Trade_. The Roman territory was covered with a
+net-work of magnificent roads. Journeys for purposes of trade and from
+motives of curiosity were common. Religious pilgrimages to famous
+shrines were frequent. The safety and peace which followed upon the
+civil wars stimulated traffic and intercourse between the different
+regions united under the imperial government.
+
+LITERATURE.--The Augustan period was the golden age of Roman
+literature. Literary works were topics of conversation in social
+circles. Libraries were collected by the rich. The shops of
+booksellers were places of resort for cultivated people. There were
+active and liberal patrons of poets and of other men of letters. Such
+patrons were _Maecenas_, _Horace's_ friend, and
+_Augustus_ himself. Then favors were repaid by praises and
+flattery, as we see in the verses of _Horace_, _Virgil_, and
+especially of _Ovid_. The lectures of grammarians and
+rhetoricians, of philosophers and physicians, were largely
+attended. Literary societies were formed. Periodicals and bulletins
+were published, in which the proceedings of the Senate and of the
+courts were recorded. The business of _scribes_--copyists of
+manuscripts--engaged a vast number of persons.
+
+WRITINGS OF CICERO.--Cicero (106-43), in his philosophic writings,
+reproduces the thoughts and speculations of the Greek sages, in the
+manner of a cultivated and appreciative student. His speeches and his
+epistles, especially those to his friend, _Atticus_, lift the
+veil, as it were, and afford us most interesting glimpses of the civil
+and social life of the Romans of that day.
+
+THE POETS.--One of the most original of the Latin poets is
+_Lucretius_ (95-51 B.C.), whose poem "On the Nature of Things" is
+an effort to dispel superstitious fear by inculcating the Epicurean
+doctrine that the world is self-made through the movement and
+concussion of atoms, and that the gods leave it to care for itself. A
+contemporary of Lucretius, and a poet of equal merit, but in an
+altogether different vein, is _Catullus_. He is chiefly noted for
+his lyrics. _Virgil_ (70-19 B.C.), in the _Aeneid_, has
+produced a genuine Roman epic, although his dependence on Homer is
+obvious throughout, and in the _Bucolics_, and in particular in
+the _Georgics_, where he shows most originality, has made himself
+immortal as a pastoral poet. _Horace_ (65-8 B.C.), like most of
+the Roman authors, in many of his poems is inspired by his Greek
+models, but, in his _Satires_ and _Poetic Epistles_,
+expresses the character of his own genius. His "Odes," for their
+beauty and melody and the variety of their topics, rank among the best
+of all productions of their kind. _Ovid_ (43 B.C.-A.D. 18), in
+his chief work, the _Metamorphoses_, handled the mythical tales
+of the Greeks, and, in his poems on _Love_, likewise introduced
+many Grecian tales. He was much influenced by the Alexandrian poets.
+
+THE HISTORIANS.--In historical composition, most of the Roman authors
+had Greek patterns before their eyes. Nevertheless, _Livy_ (59
+B.C.-A.D. 17), thirty-five of the one hundred and forty-two books of
+whose "Annals" have been preserved, and _Sallust_, to whom we are
+indebted for narratives of the conspiracy of Cataline and of the
+Jugurthine war, are far from being servile copyists. The simple and
+lucid but graceful style of the _Commentaries_ of _Caesar_
+makes this work an example of the purest Latin prose.
+
+LAW WRITERS.--In one department, that of jurisprudence, the Romans
+were eminently original. The writings of the great jurists were simple
+and severe, and free from the rhetorical traits which Roman authors in
+other departments borrowed from the Greeks.
+
+  OTHER AUTHORS.--Among other eminent authors of this period are the
+  great Roman antiquary _Varro_ (116-27 B.C.); the elegiac poets,
+  _Tibullus_ and _Propertius_; _Phaedrus_, the Roman
+  Aesop; the historian, _Cornelius Nepos_; and the Greek
+  historical writers of that day, _Diodore_ of Sicily and
+  _Dionysius_ of Halicarnassus; also _Strabo_, the Greek
+  geographer (64 B.C.-A.D. 24).
+
+
+
+THE INTRODUCTION OF CHRISTIANITY.
+
+THE JEWS AND THEIR DISPERSION.--There were three ancient peoples, each
+of which fulfilled an office of its own in history. The _Greeks_
+were the intellectual people, the _Romans_ were founders in law
+and politics: from the _Hebrews_ the true religion was to
+spring. At the epoch of the birth of Jesus, the Hebrews, like the
+Greeks and Romans, were scattered abroad, and mingled with all other
+nations. Wherever they went they carried their pure monotheism, and
+built their synagogues for instruction in the law and for common
+worship. In the region of _Babylon_, a multitude of Jews had
+remained after the captivity. Two out of the five sections of
+_Alexandria_ were occupied by them. At _Antioch_ in Syria,
+the other great meeting-place of peoples of diverse origin and
+religion, they were very numerous. In the cities of Asia Minor, of
+Greece and Macedonia, in Illyricum and in Rome, they were planted in
+large numbers. Jewish merchants went wherever there was room for
+profitable trade. Generally regarded with aversion on account of their
+religious exclusiveness, they nevertheless made so many proselytes
+that the Roman philosopher, _Seneca_, said of them, "The
+conquered have given laws to the conquerors." Prophecy had inspired
+the Jews with an abiding and fervent expectation of the ultimate
+conquest of heathenism, and prevalence of their faith. If the hope of
+a temporal Messiah to free them from the Roman yoke, and to lead them
+to an external victory and dominion, burned in the hearts of most,
+there were some of a more spiritual mind and of deeper aspirations,
+who looked for One who should minister to the soul, and bring in a
+reign of holiness and peace.
+
+PREPARATION FOR CHRISTIANITY AMONG THE HEATHEN.--In the heathen world,
+there was not wanting a preparation for such a Deliverer. The union of
+all the nations in the Roman Empire had lessened the mutual antipathy
+of peoples, melted down barriers of feeling as well as of intercourse,
+and weakened the pride of race. An indistinct sense of a common
+humanity had entered the breasts of men. Writers, like _Cicero_,
+talked of a great community, a single society of gods and men. The
+_Stoic philosophy_ had made this idea familiar. Mankind, it was
+said, formed one city. Along with this conception, precepts were
+uttered in favor of forbearance and fraternal kindness between man and
+man. In religion, there was a drift towards monotheism. The old
+mythological religion was decaying, and traditional beliefs as to
+divine things were dissolving.  Many minds were yearning for something
+to fill the void,--for a more substantial ground of rest and of
+hope. They longed for a goal on which their aspirations might center,
+and to which their exertions might tend. The burden of sin and of
+suffering that rested on the common mass excited at least a vague
+yearning for deliverance. The Roman Empire, with all its treasures and
+its glory, failed to satisfy the hearts of men. The dreams of
+philosophy could not be realized on the basis of ancient society,
+where the state was every thing, and where no higher, more
+comprehensive and more enduring kingdom could spring into being.
+
+CHRIST AND THE APOSTLES.--Four years before the date assigned for the
+beginning of the Christian era, _Jesus_ was born. _Herod_, a
+tyrannical king, servile in his attitude toward the Romans, and
+subject to them, was then ruling over the Jews in Palestine. But, when
+Jesus began his public ministry, the kingship had been abolished, and
+Judaea was governed by the procurator, _Pontius Pilate_
+(A.D. 26). Jesus announced himself as the _Messiah_, the founder
+of a kingdom "not of this world;" the members of which were to be
+brethren, having God for their Father. He taught in a tone of
+authority, yet with "a sweet reasonableness;" and his wonderful
+teaching was accompanied with marvelous works of power and mercy, as
+"he went about doing good." He attached to himself twelve disciples,
+among whom _Peter_, and the two brothers _James_ and
+_John_, were the men of most mark. These had listened to the
+preaching of _John_, the prophet of the wilderness, by whom Jesus
+had been recognized as the Christ who was to come. The ministry of the
+Christ produced a wide-spread excitement, and a deep impression upon
+humble and truth-loving souls. But his rebuke of the ruling class, the
+_Pharisees_, for their formalism, pretended sanctity,
+self-seeking, and enslavement to tradition, excited in them rancorous
+enmity. His disappointment of the popular desire for a political
+Messiah chilled the enthusiasm of the multitude, many of whom had
+heard him gladly. After about three years, he was betrayed by one of
+his followers, _Judas Iscariot_; was accused of heterodoxy and
+blasphemy before the Jewish Sanhedrim; the consent of Pilate to his
+death was extorted by a charge of treason based on the title of
+"king," which he had not refused; and he was crucified between two
+malefactors. Not many days elapsed before his disciples rallied from
+their despondency, and boldly and unitedly declared, before
+magistrates and people, that he had manifested himself to them in
+bodily form, in a series of interviews at definite places and
+times. They proclaimed his continued though invisible reign, his
+perpetual presence with them, and his future advent in power. In his
+name, and on the ground of his death, they preached the forgiveness of
+sins to all who should believe in him, and enter on a life of
+Christian obedience. In the year 33 or 34, the death of
+_Stephen_, the first martyr, at the hands of a Jewish mob, for a
+time dispersed the church at Jerusalem, and was one step towards the
+admission of the Gentiles to the privileges of the new faith. But the
+chief agent in effecting this result, and in thus giving to
+Christianity its universal character and mission, was the Apostle
+_Paul_, a converted Pharisee. _Antioch_ in Syria became the
+cradle of the Gentile branch of the church, and of the missions to the
+heathen, in which Paul was the leader; while _Peter_ was
+efficient in spreading the gospel among the Jews in Palestine and
+beyond its borders. By Paul numerous churches were founded in the
+course of three extended missionary journeys, which led him beyond
+Asia into Macedonia, Greece, and Illyricum. By him the gospel was
+preached from Jerusalem to Rome, where he died as a martyr under
+_Nero_ in 67 or 68. Not far from the same time, according to a
+credible tradition, Peter, also, was put to death at Rome. The
+preachers of the Christian faith pursued their work with a fearless
+and untiring spirit, and met the malignant persecution of the Jews and
+the fanatical assaults of the heathen with patient endurance and with
+prayer for the pardon and enlightenment of their persecutors.
+
+THE VICTORY OF THE GERMANS.--Augustus avoided war when he could. His
+aim was to defend the frontiers of the empire rather than to extend
+them. The Parthians were prevailed on to return of their own accord
+the standards and prisoners taken from the army of _Crassus_. But
+in Germany, _Drusus_, the brave step-son of _Augustus_, made
+four campaigns on the east of the Rhine, as far as the Weser and the
+Elbe. On his way back from the Elbe, a fall from his horse terminated
+his life (9 B.C.). His brother, _Tiberius_, managed to establish
+the Roman power over a part of the Germanic tribes on the right bank
+of the river (4 B.C.) Long before (27 B.C.) the western shore of the
+river had been formed into two provinces, _Upper_ and _Lower
+Germany_. An incapable and incautious general, _Quintilius
+Varus_, excited the freedom-loving Germans to revolt under the
+brave chief of the _Cherusci_, _Arminius_ (or
+Hermann). Three Roman legions were annihilated in the _Teutoburg_
+forest, Varus taking his own life. The civil and military chiefs who
+were taken captive, the Germans slew as a sacrifice to their gods. The
+rest of the prisoners were made slaves. "Many a Roman from an
+equestrian or a senatorial house grew old in the service of a German
+farmer, as a servant in the house, or in tending cattle without."
+There in the forest of _Teutoburg_ the Germans practically won
+their independence. On hearing the bad news, Augustus, for several
+days, could only exclaim, "Varus! give me back my legions!" After the
+death of Augustus, in his seventy-sixth year, the noble son of Drusus,
+_Germanicus_, conducted three expeditions against _Arminius_
+(A.D. 14-16), obtained a victory over him, and took his wife prisoner,
+who died in captivity; but the Romans permanently held only the left
+bank of the Rhine.
+
+ROMAN LIFE.--Various particulars characteristic of Roman ways have
+been, or will be, incidentally referred to. A few special statements
+may be given in this place. The Romans, like the Greeks, built a town
+round a height (or capitol) where was a stronghold (_arx_), a
+place of refuge. Here temples were erected. The _forum_, or
+market-place, was near by, where the courts sat, and where the people
+came together to transact business. The dwellings were on the sides of
+the hill, or on the plain beneath. The streets were narrow. The
+exterior of the houses was plain. They were of brick, generally
+covered with stucco, and whitewashed. Glass was too costly to be much
+used: hence the openings in the walls were few. When the space became
+valuable, as in Rome, the houses were built high. The chief room in
+the house was the _atrium_, which, in earlier times, was not only
+the common room but also the bedroom of the family. In the primitive
+dwellings it had been the only room. A passage led from it through a
+door-way into the street. In front and on both sides were apartments,
+and in the rear a walled court, or garden. Large houses had several
+inclosed courts. Rich men and nobles built magnificent palaces. The
+walls of Roman dwellings within were decorated with fresco-paintings,
+some of which at Pompeii are left in all their freshness. Round the
+dinner-table were couches, on which those who partook of the meal
+reclined. In other rooms chairs were plentifully supplied. Lamps were
+very numerous and of beautiful design, but the wick was so small that
+they gave but little light. There was little furniture in the
+_atrium_. Statues stood round the walls of this room, if the
+house were one of the better sort, and in open presses on the walls
+were the images or masks of the distinguished ancestors of the
+family. At a funeral of a member of the household they were worn in
+the procession by persons representing the deceased progenitors.
+
+DRESS.--The principal material of a Roman's dress was woolen
+cloth. The main article of wearing apparel for a man was the
+_toga_, thrown over the shoulders, and brought in folds round the
+waist in a way to leave the right arm free. Under it was a tunic. At
+the age of about seventeen, the boy publicly laid aside the
+_toga_ with a purple hem, and put on the white toga, the token of
+citizenship. Women wore a long tunic girded about the waist, with a
+tunic and a close-fitting vest beneath. Except on a journey or in an
+open theater, as a protection from the sun, neither men nor women wore
+any covering on the head. Women, when they walked abroad, wore veils
+which did not cover the face. The color and form of the shoes varied
+with the rank of the individual, and were significant of it. In the
+house, sandals were used.
+
+ORDER OF OCCUPATIONS.--The interval from sunrise to sunset was divided
+into twelve hours. The seventh hour of the day began at noon. At the
+third hour, there was usually a light meal, which was followed by
+business, or visits of friendship. The wealthy Roman was followed
+about the city by a throng of clients, who called on him with their
+morning greeting before he rose, and received their gift of food or
+money. At noon came the _prandium_, or more substantial
+breakfast. This was followed by a short sleep, in the case of those
+who were at leisure to take it. Then came games and physical exercise
+of various sorts. A favorite recreation, both for young and old, was
+ball-games. Exercise was succeeded by the bath, for which the Romans
+from the later times of the republic had a remarkable fondness. In
+private houses the bathing conveniences were luxurious. The emperors
+built magnificent bath-houses, which included gymnasia, and sometimes
+libraries. What is now called the Turkish bath was very much in
+vogue. Dinner, or the _cena_, the principal meal, was about
+midway between noon and sunset. The fork was not used at the table,
+but only in carving; but spoons, and sometimes, it would appear,
+knives, were used by the host and his guests. The food was so carved
+that it was usually taken with the fingers. At the table, the toga was
+exchanged for a lighter garment, and sandals were laid aside. The
+beverage was wine mixed with water. At banquets of the rich, after the
+dessert of fruit and cakes had been taken, there was, in later times,
+the _convivium_, or social "drinking-bout." Under the empire,
+this became often a scene of indecent revelry. The Roman dinner-table
+was not so likely as a Greek repast to be enlivened by flashes of
+intellect and of wit, or by music furnished by the guests. Musicians
+were more commonly hired performers, as were also the dancers. The
+Romans enjoyed games of chance. Playing with dice, and gambling along
+with it, became common.
+
+MARRIAGE AND THE HOUSEHOLD.--There were two kinds of marriage. By one
+the wife passed entirely out of the hands (_manus_) of the father
+into the hands of the husband, or under his control. There was
+frequently a religious rite (_confarreatio_); but, when this did
+not take place, the other customary ceremonies were essentially the
+same. At the betrothal the prospective bride was frequently presented
+with a ring, and with some more valuable gift, by the man whom she was
+to marry. In the household, notwithstanding the supreme authority of
+the husband, the wife had an honored position and an active
+influence. The children were, in law, the property of the
+father. Their lives were at his disposal. The mother had charge of
+their early training. The father took the principal charge of the
+young boy, taught him athletic exercises, and took him to the forum
+with him. Schools began to exist in the early period. Boys and girls
+studied together. The _pedagogue_ was the servant who accompanied
+the child to school, and conducted him home. Greek was studied. The
+law of the Twelve Tables was committed to memory. Virgil and Horace
+became school-books, along with Cicero and earlier writers. In the
+later republican period, Greeks took the business of teaching largely
+into their hands. There were flourishing schools of rhetoric managed
+both by Greek and by Latin teachers. Young Romans who could afford to
+do so went to Athens and other cities in the East for their university
+training.
+
+SLAVES.--Town-slaves were found in the richer families in great
+numbers (p. 152). They were not only employed in menial occupations:
+they were clerks, copyists, sculptors, architects, etc., as well as
+actors and singers. The work of the farm-slaves was harder. They were
+shut up in the night in large barracks, made partly under ground, into
+which was admitted but little light or air. They often worked in
+chains. In town and country both, the unlimited power of the master
+led to great severity and cruelty in the treatment of slaves. Women as
+well as men were often guilty of brutal harshness. Females as well as
+males were the sufferers. The town-slave, however, might be favored by
+his master: he might be allowed to save money of his own, and might,
+perhaps, buy his freedom, or receive it as a gift. During the holidays
+of the _Saturnalia_, slaves were allowed unusual privileges and
+pleasures.  The _freedmen_ could become citizens, and were then
+eligible to any office.
+
+MAGISTRATES.--A Roman who sought office went round soliciting votes.
+This was called _ambitio_ (from _ambire_, to go round),
+whence is derived the English word _ambition_. He presented
+himself in public places in a toga specially whitened, and was hence
+called a _candidate_ (from _candida_, meaning
+_white_). He sought to get support by providing shows and
+games. The voting was by ballot. Magistrates had their seats of honor,
+which were made in a particular shape. In the different forms used in
+the trial of causes, there was one general practice,--the magistrate
+laid down the law, and referred the judgment as to the facts in the
+case to an umpire, either an individual or a special court.
+
+
+
+THE JULIAN IMPERIAL HOUSE.
+
+C. JULIUS CĈSAR, _m_. Aurelia.
+|
++--C. JULIUS CĈSAR.
+|
++--Julia, _m_. M. Atius Balbus.
+   |
+   +--Atia, _m_. C. Octavius.
+      |
+      +--C. Octavius (adopted as son by the will of Julius)
+         became C. JULIUS CĈSAR OCTAVIANUS AUGUSTUS, _m_.
+         2, Scribonia;
+         |
+         +--Julia
+            _m_. 2, M. Vipsanius Agrippa.
+            |
+            +--Agrippina,
+            |  _m_. Germanicus.
+            |  |
+            |  +--CAIUS (Caligula),
+            |  |  _m_. Cĉsonia,
+            |  |  |
+            |  |  +--Julia Drusilla.
+            |  |
+            |  +--Agrippina,
+            |     _m_. Cn. Domitius.
+            |     |
+            |     +--L. DOMITIUS NERO,
+            |        _m_. Poppĉa Sabina.
+            |        |
+            |        +--Claudia Augusta.
+            |
+            +--Julia,
+               _m_. Ĉmilius Paulus.
+               |
+               +--Ĉmilia Lepida, _m_.
+                  1, CLAUDIUS;
+                  2, Junius Silanus.
+                  |
+                  +--Junia Calvina,
+                     _m_. VITELLIUS.
+
+         3, Livia.
+         |
+         +--TIBERIUS (adopted as son by Augustus).
+
+
+
+
+THE CLAUDIAN IMPERIAL HOUSE.
+
+
+TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS NERO.
+_m_. Livia Drusilla (afterwards wife of AUGUSTUS).
+|
++--TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS NERO.
+|
++--Drusus Claudius Nero,
+   _m_. Antonia, daughter of the Triumvir and niece of Augustus.
+   |
+   +--Germanicus,
+   |  _m_. Agrippina.
+   |
+   +--TI. CLAUDIUS DRUSUS,
+      _m_. 5, Valeria Messalina.
+      |
+      +--Octavia,
+      |  _m_. NERO.
+      |
+      +--Britannicus.
+      |
+      +--By adoption, NERO.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  THE EMPERORS OF THE AUGUSTAN HOUSE.
+
+
+TIBERIUS.--During the long reign of the prudent _Augustus_, there
+was peace within the borders of the empire. He said of himself, that
+he "found Rome of brick, and left it of marble." This change may be
+taken as a symbol of the growth of material prosperity in the Roman
+dominions. But in his private relations, the emperor was less
+fortunate. His daughter _Julia_, a woman of brilliant talents,
+disgraced him by her immorality, and he was obliged to banish her. Her
+two elder sons died when they were young. The empire devolved on his
+adopted step-son _Tiberius_ (14-37), who endeavored to continue
+the same conservative policy. Tiberius was at first alarmed by
+mutinies among the troops in Pannonia and on the Rhine. The army of
+the Rhine urged _Germanicus_, the emperor's adopted son and
+probable successor, to lead it to Rome, promising to place him on the
+throne, but _Germanicus_ succeeded in quieting the
+disturbance. As there were during this reign no great wars,
+_Tiberius_ was able to devote himself more exclusively to the
+civil administration. He transferred from the popular assembly to the
+Senate the right of choosing the magistrates, emphasizing in this way
+the dual system that Augustus had created. The rights of the Senate he
+appeared scrupulously to respect. For the more effective government of
+the city of Rome he established there a permanent prefecture and
+brought together in a camp before the Viminal gate the nine prĉtorian
+cohorts. Unhappily this Prĉtorian Guard, which might serve to overawe
+the city mobs, might also interfere in the affairs of
+government. Indeed, a little later it had to be counted with in the
+choice of emperors. The notorious _Sejanus_ was prefect during a
+large part of this reign, and acquired so completely the confidence of
+Tiberius that he began to plot his overthrow. He had already caused
+_Drusus_, the son of Tiberius, to be poisoned in order to remove
+one obstacle. Finally the emperor discovered his plots and caused him
+to be arrested and put to death (31). For several years Tiberius had
+been living in retirement on the island of _Capreĉ_. There his
+enemies represented him as given over to debauchery, while the lives
+of Roman citizens were never safe from his suspicions or from the
+accusations of the _delators_, men who presented formal charges
+of crime, there being no public prosecutors. Earlier in his reign
+_Tiberius_ had shown a serious purpose to improve the
+administration of justice, but with the lapse of years he became
+distrustful and cruel. He had, moreover, changed the law of treason so
+that to write or speak slightingly of the emperor was interpreted as
+conspiracy to bring the commonwealth into contempt and was punished
+with death. Although he was justly hated by the Roman nobles, in the
+provinces he was respected because he sought to protect them against
+extortion and to foster their general interests. He died in the year
+37 at the age of seventy-eight.
+
+CALIGULA.--There was no law for the regulation of the succession. But
+the Senate, the prĉtorians, and the people united in calling to the
+throne _Caius_, the son of Germanicus (37-41). This ruler, called
+_Caligula_, at first mild and generous in his doings, soon rushed
+into such excesses of savage cruelty and monstrous vice that he was
+thought to be half-deranged. He was fond of seeing with his own eyes
+the infliction of tortures. His wild extravagance in the matter of
+public games and in building drained the resources of the
+empire. After four years, this madman was cut down by two of his
+guards whom he had grievously insulted.
+
+CLAUDIUS.--_Claudius_, the uncle and successor of
+_Caligula_, and the son of Drusus and Antonia, was not bad, but
+weak. He was a student and a recluse in his habits. His favorites and
+nearest connections were unprincipled. The depravity of his wife,
+_Messalina_, was such that he did right in sanctioning her
+death. The immoral and ambitious _Agrippina_, whom he next
+married, had an influence less malign. But she was unfaithful to her
+husband; and this fact, together with the fear she felt that
+_Nero_, her son by her first marriage, would be excluded from the
+throne, impelled her to the crime of taking the life of
+_Claudius_ by poison.
+
+NERO.--_Nero_ reigned from 54 to 68. He was the grandson of
+Germanicus, and had been the pupil of the philosopher _Seneca_,
+and of _Burrus_, an excellent man, the captain of the Prĉtorian
+Guard. The first five years of Nero's reign were honorably
+distinguished from the portion of it that followed. When a warrant for
+the execution of a criminal was brought to him, he regretted that he
+had ever learned to write. His first great crime was the poisoning of
+_Britannicus_, the son of _Claudius_. Nero became enamored
+of a fierce and ambitious woman, _Poppĉa Sabina_. On the basis of
+false charges, he took the life of his wife, _Octavia_, the
+daughter of Claudius (A.D. 62). His criminal mother, Agrippina, after
+various previous attempts made by him to destroy her, was dispatched
+by his command (A.D. 59). His unbridled cruelty and jealousy moved him
+to order _Seneca_, one of the men to whom he owed most, to commit
+suicide. He came forward as a musician, and nothing delighted him so
+much as the applause rendered to his musical performances. He recited
+his own poems, and was stung with jealousy when he found himself
+outdone by _Lucan_. His eagerness to figure as a charioteer
+prompted him, early in his reign, to construct a circus in his own
+grounds on the _Vatican_, where he could exhibit his skill as a
+coachman to a throng of delighted spectators. At length he appeared,
+lyre in hand, on the stage before the populace. Senators of high
+descent, and matrons of noble family, were induced by his example and
+commands to come forward in public as dancers and play-actors. The
+public treasure he squandered in expensive shows, and in the lavish
+distribution of presents in connection with them.
+
+THE CHRISTIANS.--_Nero_ has the undesirable distinction of being
+the first of the emperors to persecute the Christians. In A.D. 64 a
+great fire broke out at Rome, which laid a third of the city in
+ashes. He was suspected of having kindled it; and, in order to divert
+suspicion from himself, he charged the crime upon the Christians, who
+were obnoxious, _Tacitus_ tells us, on account of their "hatred
+of the human race." Their withdrawal from customary amusements and
+festivals, which involved immorality or heathen rites, naturally gave
+rise to this accusation of cynical misanthropy. A great number were
+put to death, "and in their deaths they were made subjects of sport;
+for they were covered with the hides of wild beasts, and worried to
+death by dogs, or nailed to crosses, or set fire to, and, when day
+declined, were burned to serve for nocturnal lights." At length a
+feeling of compassion arose among the people for the victims of this
+wanton ferocity. Prior to this time, while the Christians were
+confounded with the Jews as one of their sects, they had been more
+protected than persecuted by the Roman authorities. Now that they were
+recognized as a distinct body,--the adherents of a new religion not
+identified with any particular nation, but seeking to spread itself
+everywhere,--they fell under the condemnation of Roman law, and were
+exposed to the hostility of magistrates, as well as to the wrath of
+the fanatical populace.
+
+Nero was a great builder. The ground which had been burnt over in the
+fire he laid out in regular streets, leaving open spaces, and limiting
+the height of the houses. But a large area he reserved for his "Golden
+House," which, with its lakes and shady groves, stretched over the
+ground on which the Coliseum afterwards stood, and as far as the
+Esquiline.
+
+THE CITY OF ROME.--Ancient Rome was mostly built on the left bank of
+the Tiber. It spread from the Palatine, the seat of the original
+settlement, over six other hills; so that it became the "city of seven
+hills." All of them appeared higher than they do now. Of these hills
+the Capitoline was the citadel and the seat of the gods. In earlier
+days, from a part of the summit, the Tarpeian Rock, criminals were
+hurled. In time the hill became covered with public edifices, of which
+the grandest was the Temple of "Capitoline Jupiter." On the Palatine
+were eventually constructed the vast palaces of the emperors, the
+ruins of which have been uncovered in recent times. The walls of
+_Servius Tullius_ encompassed the seven hills. The walls
+constructed by _Aurelian_ (270-275 A.D.), _Probus_, and
+_Honorius_ (402 A.D.), inclosed an area twelve miles in
+circumference. The streets were most of them narrow; and, to economize
+space, the houses were built very high. One of the finest, as well as
+most ancient, thoroughfares was the _Via Sacra_, which ran past
+the Coliseum, or the Flavian amphitheater, and under the Triumphal
+Arch of _Titus_, erected after the capture of Jerusalem, along
+the east of the Forum to the Capitol. There was a particular street in
+Rome where shoemakers and booksellers were congregated. The central
+part of the city was thronged, and noisy with cries of teamsters and
+of venders of all sorts of wares. The _fora_--one of which, the
+"Roman Forum," between the Capitoline and the Palatine, was the great
+center of Roman life--were open places paved, and surrounded with
+noble buildings,--temples, and _basilicas_, or halls of
+justice. The _fora_ were either places for the transaction of
+public business, or they served the purpose of modern
+market-places. Among the public buildings of note were the vast
+colonnades, places of resort both for business and for recreation. The
+sewers, and especially the aqueducts, were structures of a stupendous
+character. Among the most imposing edifices in ancient Rome were the
+baths. Those built by _Diocletian_ had room for three thousand
+bathers at once. In these establishments the beauty of the gardens and
+fountains without was on a level with the elegance of the interior
+furnishings, and with the attraction of the libraries, paintings, and
+sculptures, which added intellectual pleasure to the physical comfort
+for which, mainly, these gigantic buildings were constructed. Besides
+the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, there were many other temples, some
+of which were but little inferior to that majestic edifice.
+
+The triumphal arches--as that of _Titus_, already mentioned,
+which was built of Pentelic marble--and the commemorative columns--as
+the Column of _Trajan_, which stood in the forum that bears his
+name--were among the architectural wonders of the ancient capital of
+the world. The plain, named of old the _Campus Martius_, on the
+north-west side of the city, and bordering on the Tiber, contained,
+among the buildings and pleasure-grounds by which it was covered, the
+Pantheon, and the magnificent mausoleum of Augustus. On the south-west
+of the Coelian Hill, the Appian Way turns to the south-east, and
+passes out of the Appian Gate. It is skirted for miles with sepulchral
+monuments of ancient Romans, of which the circular tomb of _Metella
+Cĉcilia_ is one of the most interesting. There are varying
+estimates of the population of ancient Rome. Probably the number of
+free inhabitants, in the early centuries of the empire, was not far
+from a million; and the slaves were probably almost as many.
+
+DEATH OF NERO: GALBA.--Growing jealous of the legates who commanded
+armies on the frontiers, _Nero_ determined to destroy them. They
+consequently revolted; and war between the troops of two of them
+issued in the death of _Vindex_, the general in Gaul.  But
+_Galba_ was deputed to carry on the contest; and Nero, being
+forsaken even by his creature, _Tigellinus_, and the prĉtorians,
+at last gained courage to call on a slave to dispatch him, and died
+(A.D.  68) at the age of thirty. The principal events out of Italy,
+during his reign, were the revolt of the Britons under the brave queen
+_Boadicea_ (A.D. 61), and the suppression of it by _Suetonius
+Paulinus_; the war with the Parthians and Armenians, extending
+slightly the frontier of the empire; and the beginning of the Jewish
+war. Despite the corruption at Rome, her disciplined soldiers still
+maintained their superiority on the borders.
+
+OTHO: VITELLIUS.--With the death of Nero, the Augustan family came to
+an end. _Galba_ began the series of military emperors. A Roman of
+the old type, simple, severe, and parsimonious, he pleased nobody. The
+prĉtorians killed him, and elevated _Otho_, a profligate noble,
+to the throne; but he was obliged to contend with a rival aspirant,
+_Vitellius_, commander of the German legions, who defeated him,
+and became emperor A.D. 69. Vitellius was not only vicious, like his
+predecessor, but was cowardly and inefficient. The Syrian and Egyptian
+legions refused to obey so worthless a ruler, and proclaimed their
+commander, _Flavius Vespasian_, as emperor. As Vespasian's
+general, _Antonius_, approached Rome, _Vitellius_ renounced
+the throne, and declared his readiness to retire to private life. His
+adherents withstood him; and, in the struggle that followed between
+the two parties in the city, the Capitoline Temple was burned. The
+Flavian army took Rome, and _Vitellius_ was put to an ignominious
+death (A.D. 69).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.  THE FLAVIANS AND THE ANTONINES.
+
+
+VESPASIAN: THE JEWISH WAR.--_Vespasian_, the first in the list of
+good emperors, restored discipline in the army and among the
+prĉtorians, instituted a reform in the finances, and erected the
+immense amphitheater now called the _Coliseum_, for the
+gladiatorial games. By his general, _Cerealis_, he put down the
+revolt in Germany and Eastern Gaul, and thus saved several provinces
+to the empire. _Civilis_, the leader of the rebellion, had aimed
+to establish an independent German principality on the west of the
+Rhine.  Vespasian had begun the war with the Jews while _Nero_
+reigned (A.D. 66). The Romans had to face a most energetic
+resistance. Among the captives taken by them in Galilee was the Jewish
+historian, _Josephus_. At the end of A.D. 67, all Galilee was
+subdued. The fanatical, or popular, party, the _Zealots_, got the
+upper hand at _Jerusalem_. The city was torn with the strife of
+violent factions. In A.D. 70 commenced the memorable siege by
+_Titus_, the son of Vespasian, the details of which are given by
+_Josephus_.  The fall of the city was attended with the
+conflagration of the temple. Although the estimate given by
+_Josephus_ of the number that perished during the siege, which he
+places at eleven hundred thousand, is exaggerated, it is true that the
+destruction of life was immense. The inhabitants of the city who were
+not killed were sold as slaves. In _Britain_ a most competent
+officer--_Agricola_, the father-in-law of Tacitus--was made
+governor in A.D. 78. He conquered the country as far north as the
+_Tyne_ and the _Solway_, and built a line of forts across
+the isthmus between England and Scotland.
+
+TITUS (A.D. 79-81).--Vespasian's firm and beneficent reign was
+followed by the accession of _Titus_, who had been previously
+associated by his father with himself in the imperial office. Titus
+was mild in temper, but voluptuous in his tastes, and prodigal in
+expenditures. One of the marked events of his short reign was the
+destruction of the cities of _Pompeii_ and _Herculaneum_ by
+a great eruption of Vesuvius (A.D. 79). The uncovering of the streets
+and buildings of _Pompeii_ in recent times has added much to our
+knowledge of ancient arts and customs. A terrible fire and destructive
+pestilence at Rome were regarded as sent by the gods, not on account
+of the sins of the emperor, but of the nation.
+
+DOMITIAN (A.D. 81-96).--_Domitian_, the younger brother of
+_Titus_, succeeded him. By nature autocratic, he refused to share
+the government with the senate, as Augustus had planned. In order the
+more completely to control this body he assumed the censorship for
+life. In the latter part of his reign _Domitian_, like
+_Tiberius_, was gloomy and suspicious, and committed many acts of
+tyranny. He was killed by the freedmen of his own palace
+(A.D. 96). His war with the _Dacians_ on the Danube had been
+concluded by the dubious stipulation to pay them an annual tribute as
+a reward for abstaining from predatory incursions into _Moesia_
+(A.D. 90). For the first time, Rome purchased peace of her
+enemies. _Domitian_ was guilty of persecuting the Christians,
+among whom, it is now known, was included at least one member of his
+own family, his niece, _Flavia Domatilla_, who was also allied to
+him by marriage. The epistle of _Clement_ of Rome, the oldest
+extant Christian writing after the Apostles, refers to the barbarities
+inflicted upon Christian disciples by this tyrant.
+
+NERVA (A.D. 96-98).--The Senate now took the initiative, and placed on
+the throne one of their own number, _Nerva_, an old man of mild
+and virtuous character. The administration was in every point in
+contrast with the preceding. But the best thing Nerva did was to
+provide for the curbing of the prĉtorians by appointing, with the
+concurrence of the Senate, a most competent man to be his colleague
+and successor.
+
+TRAJAN (A.D. 98-117).--_Trajan_ was a native of Spain, and had
+been brought up in the camp. He belongs among the very best of the
+Roman emperors. He upheld the ancient laws and institutions of the
+state. He provided for the impartial administration of justice. He
+restored freedom of speech in the Senate. He founded schools, and
+establishments for the care of orphans, facilitated commerce by
+building new roads, bridges, and havens, and adorned Rome with a
+public library, and with a new and magnificent forum, or market-place,
+where "Trajan's Column" was placed by Senate and people as a monument
+of his victories and services.
+
+He relished the society of literary men like the historian
+_Tacitus_. He was an intimate friend of _Pliny_ (the
+younger), whose correspondence while he was governor of
+_Bithynia_ throws much light upon the emperor's character and
+policy. Trajan's own manner of life was simple, and free from
+luxury. To the people he furnished lavishly the diversions which they
+coveted. He made an aggressive war against the _Dacians_ on the
+Danube, and constituted a new province of _Dacia_. He carried his
+arms into the _Parthian_ territory; and three new
+provinces--_Armenia, Mesopotamia_, and _Assyria_--were the
+fruit of his campaign in the East. In a letter to _Pliny_, he
+defined the policy to be pursued towards Christians, who had become
+very numerous in the region where _Pliny_ governed.  The effect
+of the emperor's rescript was to place Christianity among the
+religions under the ban of the law. This decision was long in force,
+and guided the policy of future emperors towards the new
+faith. HADRIAN (A.D. 117-138).--Trajan was succeeded by
+_Hadrian_, a lover of peace,--a cultivated man, with
+extraordinary taste in the fine arts, and their generous patron. He
+was diligent and full of vigor in the transaction of public
+business. Although genial and affable, his temper was not so even as
+that of Trajan; and he was guilty of occasional acts of cruelty. He
+spent the larger portion of his reign in traveling through his
+dominions, personally attending to the wants and condition of his
+subjects. He constructed great works in different portions of the
+empire: in Rome, his Mausoleum (now the _Castle of St. Angelo_),
+and his grand temple of Rome and Venus. He began the wall connecting
+the Scottish friths. A fresh revolt broke out among the _Jews_
+(A.D. 131), under a fanatic named _Bar-Cocaba_, which was
+suppressed in 135. _Jerusalem_ was razed to the ground; and the
+Jewish rites were forbidden within the new city of _Ĉlia
+Capitolina_, which the emperor founded on its site. This gave a
+finishing blow to the Jewish and Judaizing types of Christianity
+within the limits of the Church.
+
+ANTONINUS PIUS (A.D. 138-161).--_Antoninus Pius_ was the adopted
+son and successor of Hadrian. He was one of the noblest of princes, a
+man of almost blameless life. His reign was an era of peace, the
+golden age in the imperial history. He fostered learning, was generous
+without being prodigal, was firm yet patient and indulgent, and
+watched over the interests of his subjects with the care of a
+father. It is a sign of the happiness of his reign that it does not
+afford startling occurrences to the narrator.
+
+MARCUS AURELIUS (A.D. 161-180).--Hardly less eminent for his virtues
+was the next in the succession of sovereigns, _Marcus Aurelius_
+(161-180). "A sage upon the throne," he combined a love of learning
+with the moral vigor and energy of the old Roman character, and with
+the self-government and serenity of the Stoic school, of the tenets of
+which he was a noble exemplar as well as a deeply interesting
+expounder. A philosopher was now on the throne; and his reign gives
+some countenance to the doctrine of Plato, that the world could be
+well governed only when philosophers should be kings, or kings
+philosophers. He endured with patience the grievous faults of his wife
+_Faustina_, and of his brother by adoption, and co-regent,
+_Lucius Verus_. He protected the eastern frontier against
+_Parthia_. In the war with the _Marcomanni_, he drove the
+German tribes back over the Danube, and gained a signal victory over
+the _Quadi_ in their own land. His great object was to strike
+terror into the barbarian enemies of the empire on the north, and
+prevent future incursions. Although victorious in many of his battles,
+he failed to accomplish this result. The danger from barbarian
+invasion increased with the lapse of time. Before his work was
+finished, _Marcus Aurelius_ died at _Vindobona_ (Vienna), in
+March, 180. During his reign, there was persecution of
+Christians. Especially the churches of _Lyons_ and _Vienne_
+have left a record of their sufferings. The virtuous emperors, who
+were strenuous in their exertions to maintain the old laws and
+customs, were apt to be more severe in their treatment of Christians,
+whom they ignorantly regarded as a mischievous sect, than were those
+emperors who were men of looser principles.
+
+STATE OF MORALS.--The Roman Empire, in the declining days of
+heathenism, presented the spectacle of a flourishing civilization in
+contrast with extreme moral degeneracy. Rich and populous cities;
+stately palaces; beautiful works of art--as vases, statues, carved
+altars--on every hand; bridges and aqueducts, and noble highways,
+binding land to land; institutions of education in the provincial
+cities as well as in Rome; a thriving trade and commerce; a rapid
+spread of the Roman language, of the Roman legal system, and Roman
+culture and manners over the subject countries,--these are among the
+signs and fruits of civilization. But with all this outward prosperity
+and elegance, there was a growing sensuality, a decay of manly
+feeling, a disregard of the sanctity of the marriage tie, an
+insatiable hunger for wealth and for the pleasures of sense. One of
+the most corrupting features in the social condition was
+_slavery_. Every Roman of moderate means aspired to own at least
+a few slaves. Some owned from ten to twenty thousand, mostly
+field-hands. Many householders possessed as many as five
+hundred. _Horace_ gives it as a sign of the simplicity of his
+life as a bachelor, that he is waited on at table by only three
+slaves. Slave-holding among the Romans brought in temptations to all
+sorts of brutality and vice. It brought a poisonous atmosphere into
+every household. Nothing more clearly illustrates the moral
+degradation of this period than the character of the sports in which
+people of all ranks delighted. The most attractive theatrical
+performances came to be comedies, from the Greek and Latin plays of
+the same order, where scenes were introduced from the licentious
+stories of the Greek mythology. But the _Pantomime_, which was
+often of an unchaste and even obscene character, gradually usurped the
+place of every other exhibition on the stage. The chief amusements of
+the people of all classes were the _Circus_ and the
+_Arena_. In the _Circus_, before hundreds of thousands of
+spectators, nobles of ancient lineage competed in the chariot
+race. _Gladiatorial games_, which had first taken place at
+funerals, and in honor of deceased friends, acquired an almost
+incredible popularity. At the games instituted by _Augustus_, ten
+thousand men joined in these bloody combats. In the festivals under
+the auspices of _Trajan_, in A.D. 106, eleven thousand tame and
+wild animals were slain. Not satisfied with seeing pairs of men engage
+in mortal conflict, the Romans were eager to witness bloodshed on a
+larger scale. The emperors provided actual battles between hundreds
+and, in some cases, thousands of men, which were beheld by countless
+spectators. On an artificial lake in Cĉsar's garden, _Augustus_
+gave a sea-fight in which three thousand soldiers were engaged. The
+effect of these brutal spectacles of agony and death was inevitably to
+harden the heart.
+
+LITERATURE.--If the sanguinary fights in the arena excited little or
+no condemnation, the prevalence of various other sorts of immorality,
+at variance with the practice of better days, could not fail to call
+out different forms of censure.
+
+One of these forms of protest was through the _satirical
+poets_. Of these caustic writers, _Persius_ (34-62) is obscure
+and of a moderate degree of merit. _Juvenal_ (about 55-135), on
+the contrary, is spirited and full of force. _Martial_ (43-101),
+a Spaniard by birth, was the author of numerous short poems of a pithy
+and pointed character, called _epigrammata_. All these poets, if
+we make proper discount for the exaggeration of satire, are very
+instructive as to the manners and morals of their time. _Lucian_
+(120-200), who wrote in Greek, the best known of whose works are his
+"Dialogues," touched with his broad humor a great many of the
+superstitions and follies of the day.
+
+The popular teachers in the imperial time were the
+_rhetoricians_, analogous to the Greek _Sophists_,--teachers
+of rhetoric and eloquence,--one of whom, _Quintilian_ (who was
+born about 40, and died about 118), was the first to receive from the
+public treasury a regular salary, and had among his pupils the younger
+_Pliny_ and the two grand-nephews of _Domitian_. The
+influence of the mania for rhetoric was more and more to impart an
+artificial character to literature and art. The epic poems of such
+writers as _Lucan_ and _Statitis_ are to a large extent
+imitations; although Lucan's principal poem, "Pharsalia," gives
+evidence of poetic talent. Where there was so little productive
+genius, it was natural that grammarians and commentators should
+abound. There was one great writer, the historian _Tacitus_
+(about 54-117), who towers above his contemporaries, and in vigor and
+conciseness has seldom been equaled. The elder _Pliny_ (23-79),
+whose curiosity to witness the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 cost him his
+life, was a famous observer and author in natural history. His nephew,
+the younger _Pliny_, the friend of Trajan, has left to us ten
+books of "Epistles," which present an agreeable picture of the life
+and thoughts of a cultivated Roman gentleman. The philosopher
+_Seneca_, with the exception of _Marcus Aurelius_, the most
+eminent expositor of the Roman Stoic school, was a voluminous
+author. No ancient heathen writer has uttered so many thoughts and
+precepts which bear a resemblance to teachings of the New Testament.
+
+The study that nourished most in this period is
+_Jurisprudence_. It is the classic era of the jurists. Persons
+versed in the law were preferred by the emperors for high offices. Men
+who would have been statesmen under the Republic, found a solace and
+delight in legal studies. Among the most learned jurists of this era,
+were _Caius Papinian_, and _Ulpian_. Of the Greek writers,
+one of the most important is _Plutarch_ (about 50-120), whose
+"Lives," and "Essays" (or _Moralia_), are among the most
+delightful and instructive of all the works of antiquity. One of the
+noblest philosophical writers of that or of any other period is the
+Stoic _Epictetus_ (50-c.120).
+
+The two most popular systems of philosophy in the closing days of the
+Republic and the early period of the Empire, were the Stoic and the
+Epicurean. The severity of the Stoic doctrine was somewhat softened by
+its Roman teachers; but the rigorous self-control, the superiority to
+misfortune, and the contempt of death, which it recommended, found
+favor with noble Romans in dark days. _Cato_ and other champions
+of the falling Republic were disciples of this school. Later, New
+Platonism, of a mystical and contemplative type, secured many
+adherents.
+
+SKEPTICISM.--Long before the fall of the Republic, faith in the old
+mythology had begun to decline. This change followed upon an intimate
+contact of the Romans with the Greek religion. It was hastened by the
+familiarity acquired by the Romans with so great a variety of heathen
+systems. The decay of morality was attended with a spread of
+skepticism as regards the supernatural world altogether. In the course
+of the debate in the Roman Senate on the punishment of the
+confederates of _Catiline_, _Julius Caesar_ opposed their
+execution, on the ground that death puts an end to consciousness, and
+thus to all suffering. It does not appear that in that body, where
+_Cicero_ and _Cato_ were present, any one disputed this
+tenet. _Cicero_ in his philosophical essays advocates the
+doctrine of immortality by arguments, mostly gathered from Greek
+sources,--arguments some of which are of more and some of less
+weight. His correspondence, on the contrary, even in times of
+bereavement, affords no proof that this consoling truth had any
+practical hold upon his convictions.
+
+SUPERSTITION.--The spread of skepticism was attended, as time went on,
+with a re-action to the other extreme of superstition. Magic and
+sorcery came into vogue. There was an eagerness to become acquainted
+with Oriental religious rites, and to pay homage to deities worshiped
+in the East with mysterious ceremonies. Another tendency strongly
+manifest was towards what is called _syncretism_, or a mingling
+of different religious systems. It was hoped that the truth might be
+found by combining beliefs drawn from many different quarters. This
+eclectic drift was signally manifest in religion as well as in
+philosophy.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.  THE EMPERORS MADE BY THE SOLDIERS: THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY.
+
+
+COMMODUS.--Rome had enjoyed good government for eighty-four
+years. This was owing to the fact that her sovereigns had been
+nominated to their office, instead of inheriting it. None of the
+emperors during this interval had male children. _Marcus
+Aurelius_ made the mistake of associating with him in power his son
+_Commodus_, who was eighteen years old when his father died, and
+reigned alone from 180 to 192. He began his despicable career as sole
+ruler by buying peace of the _Marcomanni_ and the
+_Quadi_. He turned out to be a detestable tyrant, who was
+likewise guilty of the worst personal vices. He was strangled in his
+bedroom by one of his concubines, _Marcia_, with the assistance
+of others, all of whom he was intending to kill. At this time the
+army, where there had been more energy and virtue than in any other
+class, began to decline in discipline. Society was growing more and
+more corrupt. It proves the inherent strength of the organization of
+the Roman Empire, that, amid all the causes of disintegration and
+decay, it lasted for two centuries longer.
+
+
+I. EMPERORS MADE BY THE SOLDIERS.
+
+We now enter upon a period of military license. The emperors are
+appointed by the soldiers. The rulers, when the soldiers fall out with
+them, are slain. In the course of ninety-two years, from 192 to 284,
+twenty-five emperors, with an average reign of less than four years
+for each, sat on the throne. Only two reigns exceeded ten years. Ten
+emperors perished by violence at the hands of the soldiers. A real
+advantage in this way of making emperors, was, that supreme power
+might thus devolve on able generals; but another, and a fatal result,
+was the demoralizing of the armies, by whose favor the rulers of the
+state were set up and pulled down.
+
+TO ALEXANDER SEVERUS (A.D. 222).--The assassins of Commodus, with the
+assent of the praetorians, made a worthy senator, _Pertinax_,
+emperor; but his honesty and frugality, and his disposition to
+maintain discipline among the soldiers, caused them to murder him
+three months after his accession (193). It is said that they then sold
+the imperial office at auction to a rich senator, but the leaders of
+the armies in different regions refused their consent. Of these,
+_Septimius Severus_ (193-211) made his way to the throne, and put
+down his rivals. The empire became a military despotism. A garrison of
+forty thousand troops, the prefect of whom was in power second only to
+the sovereign, took the place of the old prĉtorians. _Severus_
+was a good general. In a war against the Parthians, he captured
+Ctesiphon, their capital. _Caracalla_, his son (211-217), was a
+base tyrant. He was murdered by the prĉtorian prefect,
+_Macrinus_, who reigned for a short time (217-218), but perished
+in consequence of his attempts to reform the discipline of the
+army. _Heliogabalus_ (218-222) was not more cruel than others had
+been, but his gross and shameless debauchery was without a precedent.
+
+POWER OF THE PROVINCES: DISCORD.--In the reign of _Caracalla_ is
+placed the Edict which gave the rights of citizenship to all the free
+inhabitants of the Roman Empire. The provinces had been steadily
+rising in power and influence. At Rome, among officials of the highest
+grade, as well as in the higher professions, there was a throng of
+provincials. The provinces were disposed to nominate emperors of their
+own. It was hard for the central authority to keep under control the
+frontier armies. To add to these sources of division, there was a
+growing jealousy between the East and West, owing to a difference in
+language, ideas, and interests. _Persia_ was soon to threaten the
+empire on the East, and Gothic barbarians to invade its territories.
+
+ALEXANDER SEVERUS: PERSIA.--_Alexander Severus_ (222-235) was a
+man of pure morals, and sincerely disposed to remedy abuses and to
+govern well. But the evils were too great for the moderate degree of
+vigor with which he was endowed. The overthrow of the _Parthian_
+kingdom, in 226, created, in the _New Persian Monarchy_, a
+formidable enemy to Rome. Alexander did little more than check the
+advance of Persia. In a war against the Germans, he was slain by his
+own soldiers.
+
+TO DECIUS (A.D. 249).--The fierce and brutal _Maximin_, who had
+excited the soldiers of _Alexander Severus_ to mutiny, reigned
+from 235 to 238. The Senate roused itself to resist his advance into
+Italy; and he, and his son with him, were killed in his tent by his
+soldiers. _Gordian_ (238-244) at least held the frontier against
+the attacks of the Persians. _Philip_, an Arabian, probably a
+Roman colonist, after reigning from 244 to 249, was supplanted by
+_Decius_, whom his rebellious Moesian and Pannonian soldiers
+raised to power.
+
+DECIUS TO CLAUDIUS (A.D. 250-268).--The short reign of _Decius_
+was marked by the first general persecution of the Christian
+Church. During his reign, the _Goths_ (A.D. 250) invaded the
+empire. They traversed _Dacia_, and crossed the Danube. They
+ravaged _Moesia_, and even made their way into
+Thrace. _Decius_ was defeated by them in _Moesia_, and
+slain. The peril of the empire continually increased. The German
+tribes on the north, the Goths on the Lower Danube and the Euxine, and
+Persia in the east, arrayed themselves in hostility.
+
+The reigns of _Valerian_ (253-260) and of his associate and
+successor, _Gallienus_ (260-268), were marked by continuous
+disaster. Numerous independent rulers--"the thirty
+tyrants"--established themselves, generally for a very short time, in
+different regions. In the East, one kingdom, the capital of which was
+_Palmyra_, and which had for a ruler _Zenobia_, the widow of
+its founder, lasted for ten years (264-273). The _Goths_ occupied
+_Dacia_, and from the Cimmerian Bosphorus sent out their
+predatory expeditions in all directions, plundering cities, including
+_Athens_ and _Corinth_, and carrying off immense booty to
+their homes south of the Danube. The _Persians_ conquered
+_Armenia_, took _Valerian_ prisoner, advanced into Syria,
+and burned Antioch.
+
+TO DIOCLETIAN (A.D. 284).--It would seem as if the Roman empire was on
+the verge of dissolution. But a series of vigorous emperors--among
+them _Claudius_ (268-270) and _Aurelian_ (270-275)--quelled
+rebellion within its borders, and re-established its boundaries;
+although _Aurelian_ gave up to the Goths _Dacia_, which had
+been of no benefit to the empire. _Probus_ (276-282) was a
+prudent as well as valiant ruler. _Carus_ (282-283) invaded
+Persia, captured _Seleucia_ and _Ctesiphon_, and might,
+perhaps, have completed the conquest of the country, but for his
+death. _Numerianus_ (283-284) was the last in the succession of
+rulers during this period of military control, of which the corruption
+of the army was the worst result.
+
+
+
+II. THE ABSOLUTE MONARCHY (TO A.D. 375).
+
+DIOCLETIAN.--Once more the gigantic and weakened frame of the Roman
+Empire was invigorated by a change in the character of the chief
+rulers and in the method of government. _Diocletian_ (284-305),
+one of a number of energetic emperors who were of Illyrian birth,
+first stripped the imperial office of its limitations, and converted
+it into an absolute monarchy. This new system was carried to its
+completion by _Constantine_. _Diocletian_ took from the
+Senate what political jurisdiction was left to it. He abolished the
+difference between the treasury of the state and the private coffers
+of the prince. The precedence of Rome was taken away by making other
+great cities to be seats of government. There were to be two emperors
+under the title of _Augustus_, with two _Caesars_ under
+them; and thus the empire was divided, for administrative purposes,
+into four parts. _Maximian_, the second Augustus, was to rule
+over Italy, Africa, and the islands, with _Milan_ for his
+residence. _Constantius Chlorus_ had the western provinces,
+--Spain, Gaul, and Britain. At _Nicomedia_, _Diocletian_, a
+man of imposing presence and of great talents as a statesman,
+exercised rule for twenty years with efficiency and success. The new
+system, if it involved the peril of strife among the regents, led to a
+more vigilant and efficient government in the different provinces, and
+provided for a peaceful succession to the throne. But the government
+came to resemble, in the omnipotence of the emperor, in the obsequious
+homage paid to him, and in the cringing manners of the court, an
+Oriental despotism. The old heathen religion was considered by
+conservative Romans to be an essential part of the imperial system,
+and indispensable to the unity of the empire. It was this view, in
+connection with other influences, which moved _Diocletian_, near
+the close of his reign, in 303, to set on foot a systematic
+persecution of the Christian Church, by a series of extremely severe
+and well-contrived measures, through which it was designed to
+extirpate the new religion. The last great persecution, in the reign
+of _Decius_, cruel though it had been, did not approach in
+severity this final effort to exterminate the disciples of the
+Christian faith, who had now become very numerous. Terrible sufferings
+were inflicted, but without avail. In 305 Diocletian, partly on
+account of a serious illness, formally abdicated, and obliged
+_Maximian_ to do the same. Civil wars followed, until
+_Constantine_, the son of _Constantius_, gained the
+supremacy, first as joint ruler with _Licinius_, who governed in
+the East, and then, after a bloody struggle which began in A.D. 314,
+as sole master of the empire (A.D. 323).
+
+CONSTANTINE (A.D. 306-337).--The career of _Constantine_ was
+stained by acts of cruelty towards members of his own family. In the
+closing period of his life, he was less just and humane than in
+earlier days. The change which had taken place in the imperial system
+was signally manifest in his removal of the seat of government to
+CONSTANTINOPLE, which was built up by him, and named in his
+honor. Placed between Europe and Asia, on a tongue of land where it
+was protected from assault, it was admirably suited for a
+metropolis. But the change of capital involved dangers for the western
+portions of the empire, exposed as they were to the assaults of the
+barbarians. The changes in the government begun by Diocletian were
+completed by Constantine. The empire was divided, for purposes of
+government, into four _prefectures_, each of which was subdivided
+into _dioceses_. _Constantine_ established, likewise,
+different classes of nobles, the type of modern systems of
+nobility. He organized the army afresh, under the _Master of the
+Horse_ and _Master of the Foot_, each, however, commanding, in
+action, both infantry and cavalry, and each having under him
+_dukes_ and _counts_. In short, the system of central and
+despotic administration, with subordinate rulers, which
+_Diocletian_ began, was perfected by
+_Constantine_. Diocletian, in order to fortify the imperial power
+against the army, had shared his power with "a cabinet of emperors,"
+which his genius enabled him to control. To prevent the breaking up of
+the empire through the system of viceroys thus created to preserve it,
+Constantine separated the civil authority from the military as regards
+the subordinate rulers, while both functions were united in
+himself. He still further exalted his throne by giving it even more of
+an Oriental character, by creating a multitude of officials, who were
+satellites of the sovereign, and by becoming the secular head and
+guardian of the Christian Church. The arrangements of his court, with
+its grades of officials, from the chamberlain downwards, were after
+the Oriental pattern.
+
+
+THE DOWNFALL OF HEATHENISM.
+
+PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY.--The failure of the grand attempt of
+_Diocletian_ to exterminate Christianity was an indication of its
+coming triumph. Its progress had been gradual yet rapid, and, in its
+earlier stages especially, obscure. Of the labors of most of the
+apostles we know little. On the approach of the Jewish war (p. 180),
+the Apostle _John_, and other Christians with him, had repaired
+to Asia Minor. There, at _Ephesus_, this apostle lived until the
+reign of _Trajan_, and from that center exerted a wide influence,
+the traces of which are marked and various. The cities were the
+principal scenes of early missionary work. They were the "strategic
+points." In them it was easier for Christian preachers to gain a
+hearing, and in them they were exempt from the hindrance created by
+strange dialects. Wherever Christians went, even for purposes of trade
+or mechanical industry, they carried the seeds of the new
+doctrine. Even with regard to the churches of _Alexandria_ and
+_Carthage_, which became so flourishing, and in the case of the
+church at _Rome_ itself, we can not say how they were first
+planted. The exultant terms in which the ecclesiastical writers at the
+end, and even as early as the middle, of the second century speak of
+the increasing number of the converts, proves that the Christian cause
+was fast gaining ground. Its adherents were sometimes of the higher
+class, but mostly from the ranks of the poor.
+
+PERSECUTIONS.--Persecution from the side of the heathen began among
+the populace. Always when fire, tempest, or plague occurred, they were
+ascribed to the wrath of the heathen gods at the desertion of their
+altars, and the cry was for Christian blood. But Christianity, from
+the time of _Trajan_, was an illegal religion. Magistrates might
+at any time require Christians to do homage to the emperor's bust, or
+to burn incense to the old divinities. To make a proselyte of a Roman
+citizen, or to meet in private companies for worship, was
+unlawful. The persecutions by public authority have been said to be
+ten; but this number is too small if all of them are reckoned, and too
+large if only those of wide extent are included. The constancy with
+which even young women and children sometimes endured the torture,
+excited wonder in the beholders. Among the more noted martyrs are
+_Ignatius_, bishop of Antioch (116); _Polycarp_, bishop of
+Smyrna, who had been a pupil of the Apostle John, and was put to death
+in 155; and _Cyprian_, the aged bishop of Carthage, one of the
+leading ecclesiastics of the time, who suffered under _Valerian_
+in 258.
+
+THE CHURCH UNDER CONSTANTINE.--The accession of Constantine made
+Christianity the predominant religion in the Roman Empire. His
+conversion was gradual. More and more he came to rely for support in
+his conflicts with his rivals upon the God of the Christians. The sign
+of the cross, which he said that he beheld in the sky, and which led
+him to make the cross his standard, may have been an optical illusion
+occasioned partly by his own mental state at the moment, when, after
+prayer, he was standing at noon-day in the door of his tent. He
+remained, like many others in that day, not without relics of the old
+beliefs, as is seen from inscriptions on his coins, and other
+evidences. His own baptism he deferred until he was near his end, on
+account of the prevalent idea that all previous guilt is effaced in
+the baptismal water. The edict of unrestricted toleration was issued
+from _Milan_ in 312. _Constantine_ did not proscribe
+heathenism. He forbade immoral rites, and rites connected with magic
+and sorcery. But, with this exception, heathen worshipers were not
+molested. But the emperor gave his zealous personal countenance to the
+Christian cause, and marks of his favor to its adherents. By the
+privileges and immunities which he granted to the Church and its
+ministers, he did more than he would have been likely to effect by the
+use of severity against its adversaries. ORGANIZATION OF THE
+CHURCH.--The early Christian societies were little republics, at first
+under the supervision of the apostles. Their organization shaped
+itself partly after the model of the synagogue, and partly from the
+pattern of the civil communities and the voluntary associations about
+them. In the apostolic age a body of _elders_ or _bishops_
+and a body of _deacons_ in each church guided its affairs, while
+the members took an active part in the choice of their officers, and
+in the general direction of ecclesiastical proceedings. In the second
+century, when we get a distinct view of the churches after the obscure
+interval that follows the age of the apostles, we find that over the
+elders is a _bishop_, whose office grows in importance as the
+churches become larger, as the need of more compact organization is
+felt, and as the clergy become more and more distinct from the
+laity. The bishop of the city church acquires jurisdiction over the
+adjacent country churches. The bishop in the capital of each province
+comes to exercise a certain superintendence within the province. This
+is the _metropolitan_ system. More and more the bishops of the
+great cities, especially _Rome_, _Alexandria_, and
+_Antioch_, exercise a parallel supervision in larger divisions of
+the empire. This is the _patriarchal_ system. As early as the
+closing part of the second century, the catholic or universal church
+presents itself before us, conceived of as a unity which is made such
+by the hierarchy of bishops, and by connection with the apostolic
+sees,--the churches founded by the apostles in person. As the apostles
+were thought of as having a head in _Peter_, the bishops of Rome,
+who were looked on as his successors, had accorded to them a
+precedence over other bishops. The grandeur of Rome, the strength of
+the church there, its services to other churches in the empire,
+especially in the West, together with many other considerations
+additional to its alleged historic relation to Peter and to Paul, gave
+to the Roman See, as time went on, a growing and acknowledged
+pre-eminence. The custom of holding synods helped to build up the
+unity of the Church, and to give power and dignity to its officials.
+
+SECTS: THEOLOGY.--The Church from the beginning had to contend with
+opposing sects. There was a desire to amalgamate the Christian
+doctrine with other systems. On the _Jewish_ side, the
+_Ebionites_ clung to the Old Testament ritual observances, a part
+of them being bitterly hostile to the Apostle Paul, and another part,
+the _Nazareans_, not sharing this fanatical feeling, but still
+adhering to the Jewish ceremonies. On the other hand, the
+_Gnostics_ introduced a dualism, and ascribed to the
+_Demiurge_--a second deity, either subordinate to the supreme
+God, or antagonistic to him--the origination of this world and of the
+Old Testament religion. They made a compound of Christianity, Judaism,
+and heathen religion and speculation, each Gnostic sect giving to one
+or the other of these ingredients the preponderance in the strange and
+often fantastic medley. The controversy with heathenism was prosecuted
+with the pen. Of the numerous defenses of Christianity, now addressed
+to heathen rulers and now to its opponents in private stations, the
+most remarkable work in the first three centuries was the writing of
+_Origen_--who was the most eminent of the teachers of theology at
+_Alexandria_--in reply to _Celsus_. Origen, after scholarly
+labors so vast as to earn for him the title of the _Adamantine_,
+died in 254, in consequence of his sufferings in the Diocletian
+persecution. Two defenses of the Christian faith, composed about the
+middle of the second century by _Justin Martyr_, are specially
+instructive as to the state of Christian opinion and the customs of
+the Church. The first great center of theological activity was
+_Alexandria_, where philosophy was studied in a liberal
+spirit. In the East, the questions relative to the divinity of Jesus
+and the relation of the divine to the human nature, engrossed
+attention. In the West, it was the practical aspects of theology, the
+doctrine of sin and of the deliverance of the will by grace, which
+were chiefly discussed. The _Arian_ controversy grew out of the
+assertion by _Arius_, a presbyter of Alexandria, that Jesus was
+the first-made of all beings, the instrument of the creation of all
+other beings, but himself a creature. The leader of the orthodox
+opposition to this opinion was the famous Alexandrian archdeacon,
+afterwards bishop, _Athanasius_. This debate it was which led to
+the assembling, under the auspices of _Constantine_, of the
+_Council of Nicaea_ (A.D. 325), the first of a series of General
+Councils, for the adjudication of doctrinal disputes, that were held
+in this and the following centuries. The Arian doctrine was condemned
+at Nicaea, and, after a long contest in the period subsequent, was
+finally determined to be heretical. In the West, the main controversy
+was that raised by _Pelagius_, respecting the power of the will,
+the native character of men, and the agency of God in their
+conversion. In this debate, _Augustine_ (354-430), the most
+eminent theologian of the West, bishop of _Hippo_ in North
+Africa, was the renowned champion of the doctrine of _grace_
+against what he considered an exaggerated assertion of
+_free-will_. Pelagianism was condemned in the West, and nominally
+in the East where views intermediate between the Pelagians and
+Augustinians commonly prevailed. The most eminent scholar contemporary
+with Augustine was _Jerome_, who died in 420, the author of the
+Latin version of the Scriptures, called the _Vulgate_. Preceding
+Augustine in North Africa, early in the third century, was
+_Tertullian_, a vigorous and fervid writer, who first made Latin
+the vehicle of theological discussion; and, a little later,
+_Cyprian_, whose works relate chiefly to church unity and
+hierarchical government, of which he was a devoted champion. Late in
+the second century, _Irenaeus_, bishop of Lyons in Gaul, one of
+the most eminent ecclesiastics of that day, composed an elaborate work
+against the Gnostic heresies. _Irenaeus_ had known
+_Polycarp_, a disciple of John the apostle.
+
+CHRISTIAN LIFE.--Passing within the sphere of Christian life, there
+can be no doubt that Christianity exerted a power, of which there had
+been no experience before, in reforming the character and conduct of
+those even who had been addicted to crime and vice. The fraternal
+feeling of Christians for one another impressed the heathen about them
+as something new and singularly attractive. It expressed itself in
+unstinted charity for those in poverty, and in helpfulness for all
+sorts of distress. The church was a home for the weary and
+friendless. In the strong reaction against the sensuality of a
+dissolute society, ascetic tendencies appeared, which, in process of
+time, issued in monasticism. _Anthony_ of Thebes, born about 250,
+was one of the earliest and most celebrated of the _Anchorites_,
+who chose a hermit life, and abjured all the luxuries of life and most
+of the comforts which belong to social existence. To the
+_Anchorites_ succeeded the _Caenobites_, societies of monks
+who dwelt in a common habitation under fixed rules; and these were
+naturally followed by _confederacies_ of such communities under
+one organization. The monastic vows were _poverty_, or the
+renunciation of property; _celibacy_, or abstinence from
+marriage; and _obedience_ to the conventual superior. Sometimes
+in the early centuries great evils and abuses sprang up in connection
+with monastic life. For example, monks might become fanatical and
+violent. But they furnished numerous examples of sincere piety, and of
+unselfish and intrepid self-sacrifice for the welfare of others.
+
+CHANGES IN WORSHIP.--As the Church grew in numbers and wealth, costly
+edifices were constructed for worship. The services within them became
+more elaborate. At length art was called in to adorn the Christian
+sanctuaries. Sculpture and painting were enlisted in the work of
+providing aids to devotion. Relics of saints and martyrs were
+cherished as sacred possessions. Religious observances were
+multiplied; and the Church, under the Christian emperors, with its
+array of clergy and of imposing ceremonies, assumed much of the
+stateliness and visible splendor that had belonged to the heathen
+system which it had supplanted.
+
+LAST DAYS OF HEATHENISM.--When Christianity had become powerful, its
+disciples forgot the precepts of their Master, and sometimes
+persecuted the heathen. Christian mobs demolished the old temples. The
+great temple of _Serapis_ in _Alexandria_ was destroyed, and
+the statue of the god was broken in pieces. _Theodosius I._
+(379-395) made the celebration of heathen rites a capital offense, and
+confiscated the property by which heathen worship had been
+supported. Arians, too, he persecuted, but with less harshness. The
+Eastern emperor, _Justinian_, suppressed the school of New
+Platonic philosophers at Athens, and banished the teachers
+(529). Heathenism lingered in remote districts, and was hence called
+_paganism_, or the religion of rustics. The last adherents of the
+ancient religion inhabited in the seventh century remote valleys of
+the Italian islands. The oracles were for ever dumb. The old
+divinities were never more to be invoked. But it was not by force that
+heathenism was extirpated. If it had not lost its vitality, it would
+have survived the penal laws against it. It perished by the expulsive
+energy of a better faith.
+
+CAUSES OF THE TRIUMPH OF CHRISTIANITY.--The causes of the spread and
+triumph of Christianity lie ultimately in the need which men feel of
+religion, especially in times of dread and distress, and in the
+intrinsic excellence which was felt to belong to Christianity. In the
+first and second centuries the dreary feeling engendered by the hollow
+skepticism that prevailed was favorable to the Christian cause. There
+was a void to be filled, and the gospel came to fill it. In the third
+century, when the progress of Christianity was specially rapid, there
+was a perceptible revival of religious feeling among the heathen; and
+this, too, operated to the advantage of the gospel. At least it must
+have done so in numerous instances. In that century the terrible
+plagues which desolated the empire, with the sufferings that sprung
+from wild anarchy and misgovernment, made the church a welcome asylum
+for the afflicted. In the _first_ place, Christianity was a
+religion. It was neither a merely speculative nor a merely moral
+system. It took hold of the supernatural. _Secondly_, it
+presented to a corrupt society a moral ideal of spotless
+perfection. _Thirdly_, it offered, in the doctrine of the cross,
+a welcome solace,--consolation in life, with a sense of
+reconciliation, and the hope of everlasting good. Other causes, such
+as _Gibbon_ enumerates, were operative. But these are themselves
+mostly _effects_ or _aspects_ of the gospel; or they were
+_auxiliary_, not _principal_, causes.
+
+CHRISTIANITY AND LIBERTY.--The founders of Christianity had no thought
+of becoming the authors of a political revolution. They had a very
+different purpose in view. To overthrow the existing order of society
+would have been equally unwise and impracticable. What was needed was
+a new spirit of justice and of love. The virtues that were called for
+then were the _passive_ virtues,--gentleness, forbearance, the
+calm endurance of ills of which there was no present remedy. The
+Christian spirit, therefore, did not evoke in the disciples of the new
+faith sentiments of liberty akin to those which had belonged to Greek
+and Roman heroes. Indirectly, however, Christianity brought into human
+society the germs of liberty. In the _first_ place, while it
+enjoined absolute submission to rulers, it made an exception whenever
+their commands should require disobedience to God's law. This position
+involved the denial to the state of that absolute supremacy accorded
+to it by the ancients. The allegiance to the state became a
+_qualified_ allegiance. _Secondly_, there arose within the
+state another community, which took into its hands, to a large extent,
+the regulation of social life. The boundaries of the two authorities
+might be indistinct, but there was a real division of control between
+them. It is true that tyranny might arise within the Christian
+organization itself: still, its very existence planted on the earth a
+principle of liberty, which was destined ultimately to work out the
+destruction of all tyranny, whether civil or religious. For the first
+time the rulers of the Roman world were faced by an opposition, meek
+yet too inflexible for all their power to overcome. This is the first
+stage in the history of modern liberty. The "heroic and invincible
+_Athanasius_" as _Milton_ styles him, boldly confronted
+_Constantine_ and his successors, and chose to spend twenty years
+of his life in voluntary or enforced exile rather than bow to their
+tyrannical decrees. _Ambrose_, the great archbishop of
+_Milan_, compelled the Emperor _Theodosius_--who, in a fit
+of anger had ordered a massacre at _Thessalonica_--to do penance
+before he could be admitted to the communion. Such occurrences
+indicate that the days of imperial omnipotence, even over unarmed
+subjects, were past.
+
+SUCCESSORS OF CONSTANTINE.--Constantine left his empire to his three
+unworthy sons. _Constantine_, the eldest, had the Western
+provinces for his share. He endeavored to wrest Italy from his brother
+_Constans_, but was slain at _Aquileia_ (340). This event
+left Constans the master of the entire West. He took up his abode in
+Gaul, where he was slain by _Magnentius_, the leader of a
+mutinous body of soldiers (350). _Constantius_ was at
+_Edessa_, engaged in war against the Persians. He marched
+westward, and routed Magnentius at _Mursia_, in Pannonia. This
+rival fled to Gaul, and was there attacked and
+destroyed. _Gallus_, the cousin of Constantius, was put to death
+for the murder of one of the emperor's officers (354). _Julian_,
+the brother of Gallus, was the sole remaining survivor of the family
+from which the emperor sprung. _Constantius_, under whom the
+whole empire was now for a few years (357-361) united, made a
+triumphal visit to Rome. He was the defender of the Arians, but he
+found it impossible to coerce the Roman Christians into the adoption
+of his opinion. The orthodox bishop whom he had banished, was
+restored.  _Constantius_ was succeeded by his cousin
+_Julian_ (361-363), commonly called the
+_Apostate_. Fascinated by the heathen philosophy, and a secret
+convert to the old religion, he
+
+
+
+THE IMPERIAL HOUSE OF CONSTANTINE.
+
+
+CONSTANTIUS CHLORUS, _m_.
+1, Helena;
+|
++--CONSTANTINE I (the Great) _m_.
+   1, Minervina;
+   2, Fausta
+   |
+   +--CONSTANTINE II.
+   |
+   +--CONSTANTIUS II.
+   |  |
+   |  +--Constantia,
+   |     _m_. GRATIAN.
+   |
+   +--CONSTANS.
+   |
+   +--CONSTANTIA, _m_.
+   |  1, Hannibalianus;
+   |  2, GALLUS.
+   |
+   +--HELENA,
+      _m_. JULIAN.
+
+2, Theodora.
+|
++--Constantius, _m_.
+|  1, Galla;
+|  2, Basilina.
+|  |
+|  +--GALLUS
+|  |  _m_. Constantia, widow of Hannibalianus.
+|  |
+|  +--JULIAN
+|     _m_. Helena, daughter of Constantine I.
+|
++--Constantia,
+   _m_. LICINIUS.
+
+
+proved that its vitality was gone, by his ineffectual exertions to
+rescue it, and restore its predominance. He was not without merits as
+a ruler. He looked out for the impartial administration of justice: he
+revived discipline and a military spirit in the army, and sought to
+infuse a better spirit into the civil administration. While he avoided
+cruel persecution, he directed all his personal efforts to the
+weakening of the Christian cause. Julian led an expedition against the
+Persians. He sailed down the Euphrates to _Circesium_, and thence
+proceeded into the interior of Persia. He repulsed the enemy, but was
+slain while engaged in the pursuit. The soldiers on the field of
+battle chose one of his officers, _Jovian_ (363-364), who was a
+Christian, to be his successor. He conducted the retreat of the
+army. His reign lasted for only seven months. He showed no intolerance
+either towards Pagans or Arians, but he gave back to Christianity its
+former position.  The army next chose _Valentinian I_. (364-375),
+the son of a Pannonian warrior, who associated with him, as emperor in
+the East, his brother _Valens_ (364-378). _Valens_ ruled
+from Constantinople. _Valentinian_ fixed his court at Milan, and
+sometimes at Treves. He was an unlettered soldier, but strict and
+energetic in the government of the state, as well as of the army. His
+time was mostly spent in conflict with the barbarians on the northern
+frontiers. He carried forward this contest with vigor on the Rhine and
+on the Danube. He trained up his son _Gratian_ to be his
+successor. The great event of the reign of Valens was the irruption of
+the _Huns_ into Europe, and the consequent invasion of the
+_Goths_, by whom _Valens_ was defeated and slain in 378.
+Several emperors followed, until, on the death of _Theodosius
+I._, (the Great) (395), the Roman Empire was divided. In 476, after
+successive invasions of barbarians had disorganized the western part
+of the Empire, the line of phantom emperors at Rome came to an
+end. The fourth century, in which these invasions--which overthrew the
+Western Empire, and transferred power to new races--occurred, forms
+the era of transition from ancient to mediaeval history.
+
+  LITERATURE.--The general works on Ancient History (p. 16). _On
+  Roman History as a whole_: MERIVALE'S _General History of
+  Rome_ (from 753 B.C. to A.D. 476: 1 vol.); DURUY, _History of
+  Rome,_ etc. (8 vols., 410); Wägner, _Rom_, etc. (3 vols.);
+  Allen, _A Short Story of the Roman People_; FREEMAN,
+  _Outlines of Roman History_.
+
+  _On the Roman Republic_: MOMMSEN, _The History of Rome_ (4
+  vols.); LIDDELL, _A History of Rome,_ etc. (1 vol.); IHNE,
+  _The History of Rome_ (Eng. trans., 3 vols.); Michelet,
+  _History of the Roman Republic_ (1 vol., 12mo); Schwegler,
+  _Römishce Geschichte_ (4 vols); How and Leigh, _A History of
+  Rome_; Shuckburgh, _A History of Rome_.
+
+  _On the Roman Empire:_ MERIVALE, _History of the Romans under
+  the Empire_ (7 vols ); Seeley, _Roman Imperialism_ [three
+  Lectures]; MOMMSEN, _The Provinces_ (5th volume of his History,
+  1885); Bury, _Students' Roman Empire_; Bury, _Later Roman
+  Empire_ (2 vols.).
+
+  _On special periods:_ IHNE, _Early Rome_ (1 vol.);
+  T. Arnold, _History of Rome_ (3 vols; reaches into the second
+  Punic war); Long, _The Decline of the Roman Republic_ (5
+  vols.); R. B. Smith, _Rome and Carthage_; MERIVALE, _The
+  Roman Triumvirates_; T Arnold, _History of the Later Roman
+  Commonwealth_ (2 vols.); GIBBON, _History of the Decline and
+  Fall of the Roman Empire_ (Smith's edition); FINLAY, _A History
+  of Greece from the Conquest of the Romans to the Present Time_ (7
+  vols.); Dill, _Roman Society_ (5th century).
+
+  Trollope, _Life of Cicero_ (2 vols.); FORSYTH, _Life of
+  Cicero_ (2 vols.); Middleton's _Life of Cicero_; Froude,
+  _Life of Caesar_ (1 vol.); Boissier, _Ciceron et ses Amis_
+  (1 vol., 12mo).
+
+  _Treatises:_ Taylor, _Const, and Polit. History of Rome;_
+  KUHN, _Verfassung d. Römischen Städte_; GUHL AND KÖNER, _Life
+  of the Greeks and Romans;_ Marquardt, _Handbuch d. Römischen
+  Alterthümer_ (7 vols.); BECKER, _Gallus_ (an archaeological
+  novel); Abbott, _Roman Political Institutions;_ Greenidge,
+  _Roman Public Life;_ Preston and Dodge, _Private Life of the
+  Romans;_ Madvig, _Verfassung und Verwaltung des Röm Staates_
+  (2 vols.); Lanciani (_Ancient Rome_, and others); Burn, _Rome
+  and the Campagna;_ ZIEGLER, _Das alte Rom;_ Smith and Wace's
+  _Dictionary of Christian Biography;_ Smith and Cheatham's
+  _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities;_ FRIEDLÄNDER,
+  _Sittengeschichte Roms_ (2 vols.); Histories of Roman
+  Literature by Simcox. Cruttwell, SCHMITZ, Teuffel. Mac-Kail, Fowler.
+
+  _On Early Christianity:_ The Lives of Jesus, by NEANDER, WEISS,
+  Farrar, Edersheim, Andrews. Neander's _Planting and Training of
+  the Church_. Works on the Life of St. Paul, by CONYBEARE AND
+  HOWSON, by Lewins, by Farrar. Fisher's _The Beginnings of
+  Christianity;_ Pressensé, _Early Days of
+  Christianity_. Church Histories of NEANDER, GIESELER, SCHAFF,
+  Robertson, HASE, Kurtz, ALZOG. UHLHORN, _Christian Charity in the
+  Ancient Church;_ Ramsay, _The Church and the Roman Empire,
+  before 170 A.D._
+
+  Reber, _History of Ancient Art;_ Wickoff, _Roman Art;_ see
+  Dictionaries, p. 122.
+
+
+
+
+PART II.  MEDIĈVAL HISTORY.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+CHARACTER OF THE MIDDLE AGES.--The middle ages include the long
+interval between the first general irruption of the Teutonic nations
+towards the close of the fourth century, to the middle of the
+fifteenth century, when the modern era, with a distinctive character
+of its own, began. Two striking features are observed in the mediĉval
+era. First, there was a mingling of the conquering Germanic nations
+with the peoples previously making up the Roman Empire, and a
+consequent effect produced upon both. The Teutonic tribes modified
+essentially the old society. On the other hand, there was a reaction
+of Roman civilization upon them. The conquered became the teachers and
+civilizers of the conquerors. Secondly, the Christian Church, which
+outlived the wreck of the empire, and was almost the sole remaining
+bond of social unity, not only educated the new nations, but regulated
+and guided them, to a large extent, in secular as well as religious
+affairs. Thus out of chaos, Christendom arose, a single homogeneous
+society of peoples. It was in the middle ages that the pontifical
+authority reached its full stature.  The Holy See exercised the lofty
+function of arbiter among contending nations, and of leadership in
+great public movements, like the Crusades. Civil authority and
+ecclesiastical authority, emperors and popes, were engaged in a long
+conflict for predominance. Thus there are three elements which form
+the essential factors in Mediĉval History,-the _Barbarian_
+element, the _Roman_ element, with its law and civil polity, and
+with what was left of ancient arts and culture, and the
+_Christian_, or _Ecclesiastical_, element. As we approach
+the close of the mediĉval era, a signal change occurs. The nations
+begin to acquire a more defined individuality; the superintendence of
+the church in civil affairs is more and more renounced or
+relinquished; there dawns a new era of invention and discovery, of
+culture and reform.
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD I.  FROM THE MIGRATIONS OF THE TEUTONIC TRIBES TO THE
+CARLOVINGIAN LINE OF FRANK RULERS. (A.D. 375-751.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I. CAUSES OF THE FALL OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE: THE TEUTONIC
+CONFEDERACIES.
+
+
+GRADUAL OVERTHROW OF THE EMPIRE.--When we speak of the destruction of
+the Roman Empire by the barbarians, we must not imagine that it was
+sudden, as by an earthquake. It was gradual. Had the empire not been
+undermined from within, it would not have been overthrown from
+without. The Roman armies were recruited by bringing numerous
+barbarians into the ranks. At length whole tribes were suffered to
+form permanent settlements within the boundaries of the empire. A
+"king" with his entire tribe would engage to do military service in
+exchange for lands.  More and more both the wealth and the weakness of
+Rome were exposed to the gaze of the Germanic nations. Their cupidity
+was aroused as their power increased. Meantime the barbarians were
+learning from their employers the art of war, and were gaining
+soldierly discipline. Their brave warriors rose to places of
+command. They made and unmade the rulers, and finally became rulers
+themselves. Another important circumstance is, that most of the
+Germanic tribes were converts to Christianity before they made their
+attacks and subverted the throne of the Cĉsars. In fine, there was a
+long preparation for the great onset of the barbarian peoples in the
+fifth century.
+
+CAUSES OF THE FALL OF THE EMPIRE.--But the success of the barbarian
+invasions presupposes an internal decay in the empire. It was one
+symptom of a conscious decline, that the conquering spirit was
+chilled, and the policy was adopted of fixing the limits of the Roman
+dominion at the Rhine and the Danube. Rome now stood on the
+defensive. The great service of the imperial government, for which it
+was most valued, was to protect the frontiers. This partly accounts
+for the consternation of _Augustus_, when, in the forests of
+Germany, the legions of _Varus_ were destroyed (p. 172). The
+essential fact is, that Rome became unable to keep up the strength of
+its armies. _First_, there were lacking the men to fill up the
+legions. The civil wars had reduced the population in Italy and in
+other countries. The efforts of _Augustus_ to encourage marriage
+by bounties proved of little avail. _Secondly_, the class of
+independent Italian yeomen, which had made up the bone and sinew of
+the Roman armies, passed away. Slavery supplanted free
+labor. _Thirdly_, in the third century terrible plagues swept
+over the empire. In 166 a frightful pestilence broke out, from which,
+according to _Niebuhr_, the ancient world never recovered. It was
+only the first in a series of like appalling
+visitations. _Fourthly_, the death of liberty carried after it a
+loss of the virtue, the virile energy, by which Rome had won her
+supremacy. _Fifthly_, the new imperial system, after
+_Diocletian_, effective as it was for maintaining an orderly
+administration, drained the resources of the people. The municipal
+government in each town was put into the hands of _curiales_, or
+the owners of a certain number of acres. They were made responsible
+for the taxes, which were levied in a gross amount upon the town. The
+_fiscus_, or financial administration of the empire, was so
+managed that the civil offices became an intolerable burden to those
+who held them. Yet it was a burden from which there was no escape. One
+result was, that, while slaves were often made _coloni_,--that
+is, tillers or tenants, sharing with the owner the profits of
+tillage,--and thus had their condition improved, many freeholders sank
+to the same grade, which was a kind of serfdom. When to the exhausting
+taxation by government, there were added the disposition of large
+proprietors to despoil the poorer class of landholders, and from time
+to time the predatory incursions of barbarians, the small supply of
+Roman legionaries is easily accounted for.
+
+THREE RACES OF BARBARIANS.--While the empire, as regards the power of
+self-defense, was sinking, the barbarians were not only profiting by
+the military skill and experience of the Romans, but were forming
+military _unions_ among their several tribes. In the East, there
+was one civilized kingdom, _Persia_, the successor of the
+Parthian kingdom, but not powerful enough to be a rival,--certainly
+not in an aggressive contest. But northward and northeast of the Roman
+boundaries, there stretched "a vague and unexplored waste of
+barbarism," "a vast, dimly-known chaos of numberless barbarous tongues
+and savage races." A commotion among these numerous tribes, the
+uncounted multitudes spreading far into the plain of Central Asia, had
+begun as early as the days of Julius Caesar. They were made up of
+three races,--the _Teutons_, or _Germanic_ peoples; eastward
+of them, the _Slavonians_; and, farther beyond, the Asiatic
+_Scythians_. The Slavonians, an Aryan branch, like the Teutons,
+had their abodes in the space between Germany and the Volga. They were
+a pastoral and an agricultural race, of whose religion little is
+known. Their incursions and settlements belong to the sixth and
+seventh centuries, and to the history of the Eastern Empire.
+
+TEUTONIC CONFEDERACIES.--Of the confederacies of German tribes, the
+_Goths_ are first to be mentioned. In the third century they had
+spread over the immense territory between the Baltic and the Black
+seas. They were divided into the West Goths (_Visigoths_) and
+East Goths (_Ostrogoths_). Their force was augmented by the
+junction of kindred tribes. To the east of them, towards the Don, was
+a tribe of mixed race, the _Alani_. In the third century the
+Goths had made their terrible inroads into _Mĉsia_ and
+_Thrace_, and the brave emperor _Decius_ had perished in the
+combat with them. They had pushed their marauding excursions as far as
+the coasts of Greece and Ionia. In the middle of the fourth century
+they were united, with their allied tribes, under the sovereignty of
+the East Gothic chieftain, _Hermanric_. A second league of
+Germanic peoples was the _Alemanni_, which included the
+formidable tribes called by Cĉsar the _Suevi_, and who, after
+various incursions, had established themselves on the Upper Rhine, in
+what is now Baden, Würtemberg, and north-east in Switzerland, and in
+the region southward to the summits of the Alps. Their invasion of
+Italy in 255, when they poured through the passes of the Rhetian Alps,
+and penetrated as far as _Ravenna_, was repelled by
+_Aurelian_, afterwards emperor. A third confederacy was that of
+the _Franks_ (or Freemen) on the Lower Rhine and the Weser. In
+North Germany, between the Elbe and the Rhine, were the
+_Saxons_. The _Burgundians_, between the Saxons and the
+Alemanni, made their way to the same river near _Worms_. East of
+the Franks and Saxons, were the valiant _Lombards_, who made
+their way southwards to the center of Europe, and finally to the
+Danube. The _Frisians_ were situated on the shore of the North
+Sea and in the adjacent islands. North of the Saxons were the
+_Danes_ and other peoples of _Scandinavia_,--Teutons all,
+but a separate branch of the Teutonic household. To bold and warlike
+tribes, now banded together, such as were the Franks and the Alemanni,
+the Rhine, with its line of Roman cities and fortresses, could form no
+permanent barrier. When they crossed it, they might be driven back;
+but this was only to renew their expeditions at the first favorable
+moment. The prey which they saw near by, and of which they dreamed in
+the distance, was too enticing. No more could the Danube fence off the
+thronging nations; all of whom had heard, and some of whom had beheld,
+the wealth and luxury of the civilized lands.
+
+Beginning at the _Euxine_, and moving westward along the line of
+the _Danube_ and the _Rhine_, we find, at the end of the
+fourth century, that the six most prominent names of _Teutonic_
+tribes are the _Goths_, _Vandals_, _Burgundians_,
+_Franks_, _Saxons_, and _Lombards_. Over the vast
+plains to the south and west of the Caspian are spread the
+_Huns_, who belong to one branch of the Scythian or Turanian
+group of nations.
+
+HABITS OF THE GERMANS.--We have notices of the Germans from _Julius
+Caesar_, the most full description of them in the _Germania_
+of _Tacitus_. They were tall and robust, and seemed to the
+Romans, who were of smaller stature, as giants. Tacitus speaks of
+their "fiercely blue eyes."  They lived in huts made of wood, and
+containing the cattle as well as the family. They tilled the soil, but
+their favorite employments were war and the chase. Capable of cruelty,
+they were still of a kindly temper, and fond of feasts and social
+gatherings, where they were apt to indulge in excessive drinking and
+in gambling. They were brave, and not without a delicate sense of
+honor. Family ties were sacred. The women were chaste, and were
+companions of their husbands, although subject to them. Most of the
+people were _freemen_, who were land-owners, and carried
+arms. The nobles were those of higher birth, but with no special
+privileges. The freemen owned _slaves_, who were either criminals
+or persons who had lost their freedom in gaming or prisoners of
+war. There were also _freedmen_ or _leti_, who held land of
+a superior. Many freedmen lived apart, but many were gathered in
+villages. The land about a village was originally held in common. Each
+village had a chief, and each collection of villages, or
+_hundred_, possessed a chief of high rank; and there was a
+"king," or head of the tribe. All these chieftains were elected by the
+freemen at assemblies periodically held. When the duke or general was
+chosen, he was raised on a shield on the shoulders of the men. The
+judges in the trial of causes sat, with assessors or jurymen around
+them, in the open air. But private injuries were avenged by the
+individual or by his family. One marked characteristic of the Germans
+was the habit of devoting themselves to the service of a military
+leader. They paid to him personal allegiance, and followed him in
+war. The Germans were, above all, distinguished by a strong sense of
+personal independence. If their mode of living resembled outwardly
+that of other savage races, yet in their free political life, and in
+the noble promise of their language even in its rudiments, the
+comparison does not hold. In their faithfulness, courage, and personal
+purity, they are emphatically contrasted with the generality of
+barbarous peoples.
+
+RELIGION OF THE GERMANS.--We know more of the Scandinavian religion
+through the _Eddas_, the Iliad of the Northmen, than of the
+religion of the Germans; but the two religions were closely
+allied. Among the chief gods worshiped by the Germans were
+_Woden_, called "Odin" in the North, the highest divinity, the
+god of the air and of the sky, the giver of fruits and delighting in
+battle; _Donar_ (Thor), the god of thunder and of the weather,
+armed with a hammer or thunderbolt; _Thiu_ (Tyr), a god of war,
+answering to Mars; _Fro_ (Freyr), god of love; and _Frauwa_
+(Freya), his sister. Particular days were set apart for their
+worship. Their names appear in the names of the days of the
+week,--Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday. Sunday is the day of
+the sun, and Monday the day of the moon. Saturday alone is a name of
+Latin origin. Among the minor beings in the German mythology were
+fairies, elves, giants, and dwarfs. There were festivals to the
+gods. Their images were preserved in groves. Lofty trees were held
+sacred to divinities. The oak and the red ash were consecrated to
+_Donar_. Sacrifices, and among them human sacrifices, were
+offered to the gods. Their will was ascertained by means of the lot,
+the neighing of wild horses, and the flight of birds. Priests were not
+without influence, but were not a professional class, and were never
+dominant. Valiant warriors at death were admitted into Walhalla (the
+_hall of the slain_), where they sat at banquet with the gods.
+
+
+
+THE THEODOSIAN IMPERIAL HOUSE
+
+
+THEODOSIUS
+|
++--THEODOSIUS I (the Great), _m._,
+|  1, Flaccilla;
+|  2, Galla sister of Valentinian II
+|  |
+|  +--Grantianus
+|  |
+|  +--Pulcheria
+|  |
+|  +--ARCADIUS
+|  |  _m._ Eudoxia
+|  |  |
+|  |  +--THEODOSIUS II
+|  |  |  _m._ Eudocia
+|  |  |  |
+|  |  |  +--Eudoxia
+|  |  |  |  _m._ VALENTINIAN III
+|  |  |  |
+|  |  |  +--Flaccilla
+|  |  |
+|  |  +--Pulcheria
+|  |  |  _m._ MARCIAN
+|  |  |
+|  |  +--Three other daughters
+|  |
+|  +--HONORIUS
+|  |  _m._ Maria, daughter of Stilicho
+|  |
+|  +--Placidia _m._
+|     1, Adolphus;
+|     2, CONSTANTIUS
+|     |
+|     +--VALENTINIAN III,
+|     |  _m._ Eudoxia.
+|     |  |
+|     |  +--Eudoxia, _m._
+|     |  |  1, Palladius, son of MAXIMUS;
+|     |  |  2, Huneric, son of GENSERIC.
+|     |  |  |
+|     |  |  +--Ideric
+|     |  |
+|     |  +--Placidia
+|     |     _m._ OLYBRIUS
+|     |
+|     +--Honoria
+|
++--Honorius
+   |
+   +--Serena,
+   |  _m._ Stilicho
+   |  |
+   |  +--Maria
+   |
+   +--Thermantia
+
+[From Rawlinson's _Manual of Ancient History._]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  THE TEUTONIC MIGRATIONS AND KINGDOMS.
+
+
+THE GOTHS: THEODOSIUS I.--Towards the close of the fourth century,
+when _Valens_ (364-378) was reigning in the East, the _Huns_
+moved from their settlements north of the Caspian, defeated the
+_Alans_, a powerful nation, and, compelling them to enter their
+service, invaded the empire of the _Ostrogoths_, then ruled by
+_Hermanric_. The Huns belonged to one branch of the Scythian
+race. They had migrated in vast numbers from Central Asia. Repulsive
+in form and visage, with short, thick bodies, and small, fierce eyes,
+living mostly on horseback or in their wagons, these terrible
+warriors, with their slings and bone-pointed arrows, struck terror
+into the nations whom they approached. The Gothic Empire fell. The
+Ostrogoths submitted, and Hermanric died, it is thought by his own
+hand. The _Visigoths_ crowded down to the Danube, and implored
+Valens to give them an asylum upon Roman territory. They had
+previously been converted to Christianity, mainly by the labors of
+_Ulphilas_, who had framed for them an alphabet, and translated
+nearly the whole Bible into their tongue. Fragments of this
+_Moeso-Gothic_ version are the oldest written monument in the
+Teutonic languages. Christianity was taught to them by Ulphilas in the
+Arian type; and this circumstance was very important, since it was the
+occasion of the spread of _Arianism_ among many other Teutonic
+peoples. Valens granted their request to cross the Danube, and, under
+_Fritigern_ and _Alavivus_, to settle in Moesia (376). By
+the connivance of the officers of Valens, they were allowed to retain
+their arms. The avarice of corrupt imperial governors provoked them to
+revolt; and, in the battle of _Adrianople_, Valens was
+defeated. The house into which the wounded emperor was carried was set
+on fire, and he perished. _Gratian_, who, since the death of
+Valentinian I. (375), had been the ruler of the West, summoned the
+valiant _Theodosius_ from his estate in Spain, to which he had
+been banished, to sustain the tottering empire. Gratian made him
+regent in the East. His father had cleared Britain of the Picts and
+Scots, and restored it to the empire. Under him the son had learned to
+be a soldier. He had been driven into retirement by court
+intrigues. He now accomplished, as well as it could be done, the
+mighty task laid upon him. He checked the progress of the Goths,
+divided them, incorporated some of them in the army, and dispersed the
+rest in Thrace, Moesia, and Asia Minor (382). Four years later
+forty-thousand Ostrogoths were received into the imperial
+service. Once Rome had conquered the barbarians, and planted its
+colonies among them; now, after they had proved their power, and
+gained boldness by victory, it received them within its own
+borders. The indolence and vice of _Gratian_ produced a
+revolution in the West. _Maximus_ was proclaimed imperator by the
+legions of Britain, and Gratian was put to death by his cavalry
+(383). After sanguinary conflicts, _Theodosius_ obtained, also,
+supreme power in the West. He gave to orthodoxy, in the strife with
+Arianism, the supremacy in the East; and, under his auspices, the
+_General Council of Constantinople_ re-affirmed the Nicene
+doctrine of the Trinity (381). In the ancient church he had a glory
+second only to that of Constantine. With the exception of his harsh
+and inquisitorial laws for the forcible suppression of Arianism and
+paganism, his legislation was generally wise and beneficent.
+
+ARCADIUS: HONORIUS.--Theodosius left the government of the East to his
+son _Arcadius_, then eighteen years of age, and that of the West
+to a younger son, _Honorius_. The empire of the East continued
+ten hundred and fifty-eight years after this division; that of the
+West, only eighty-one years. The Eastern Empire was defended by the
+barriers of the Danube and the Balkan mountains, by the strength of
+Constantinople, together with the care taken to protect it, and by the
+general tendency of the barbarian invasions westward. Rome, in the
+course of a half-century, was the object of four terrible
+attacks,--that of _Alaric_ and the Visigoths; of
+_Radagaisus_ with the Suevi, Vandals, and Alans; of
+_Genseric_ with the Vandals; of _Attila_ with the Huns.
+
+ALARIC IN ITALY.--The Visigoths made _Alaric_--the head of their
+most illustrious family, the Balti--their leader. _Honorius_ was
+controlled by the influence of _Stilicho_, a brave soldier, by
+birth a Vandal; _Arcadius_ was ruled by a Goth, _Rufinus_, a
+cunning and faithless diplomatist. Alaric and his followers were
+enraged at the withholding of the pay which was due to them yearly
+from _Arcadius_. _Rufinus_, in order to keep up his sway,
+and out of hostility to _Stilicho_, arranged that they should
+invade _Eastern Illyricum_, a province on which each of the
+emperors had claims, and which he feared that Stilicho would
+seize. They ravaged Thrace and Macedonia, passed through the
+undefended strait of Thermopylae, spared Athens, but devastated the
+rest of Greece. The only protector of the empire now was
+_Stilicho_, to whom Theodosius had committed the care of his two
+sons, and whose power was exercised in the West. He caused the
+perfidious _Rufinus_ to be put to death by _Gainas_, one of
+the Gothic allies of Arcadius. The place of the minister was taken by
+_Eutropius_, an Armenian who had been a slave. _Stilicho_
+fought the Goths in two campaigns, but, perhaps from policy, suffered
+them to escape by the Strait of _Naupactus_ (_Lepanto_). To
+prevent further ravages, Arcadius had no alternative but to appoint
+_Alaric_ master-general or duke of Illyricum. This obliged
+_Stilicho_ to retire. Raised upon the shield, and thus made king
+by his followers, Alaric led them to the conquest of
+Italy. _Honorius_ fled for refuge from Milan to the impregnable
+fortress of _Ravenna_. Stilicho came to his relief, and defeated
+the Visigoths at _Pollentia_ (402). But Honorius copied the
+example of Arcadius, made Alaric a general, and gave him the
+commission to conquer Illyricum for the Western Empire. After his
+defeat, he was moving against Rome with his cavalry, when his retreat
+was purchased by a pension. It was when Honorius was celebrating his
+triumph at Rome that a monk named _Telemachus_ leaped into the
+arena to separate the gladiators. He was stoned to death by the
+spectators, but the result of his self-devotion was an edict putting a
+final stop to the gladiatorial shows. The emperor now fixed his
+residence, which had been at Milan, at _Ravenna_, a city that was
+covered on the land side by a wide and impassable morass, over which
+was an artificial causeway, easily destroyed in case it could not be
+defended. It had served him as an asylum during the invasion of
+Alaric.
+
+RADAGAISUS.--The empire was not long left in peace. _Alaric_ was
+a Christian, and partially civilized. _Radagaisus_ was a Goth,
+but a heathen and a barbarian. The _Suevi_ under his command,
+took their course southward from the neighborhood of the Baltic, and,
+drawing after them the _Burgundians, Vandals_, and
+_Alans_,--tribes which began to be alarmed by the hordes of
+_Huns_ that were gathering behind them,--advanced to the pillage
+of the empire. Leaving the bulk of their companions on the borders of
+the Rhine, two hundred thousand of them crossed the Alps, and made
+their way as far as _Florence_. _Stilicho_ once more saved
+Rome and the empire by forcing them back into the Apennines, where
+most of them perished from famine. _Radagaisus_ surrendered, and
+was beheaded. The news of this disaster moved the host which had been
+left behind, joined by the remainder of the army of Radagaisus, to
+make an attack upon _Gaul_. Despite the resistance of the
+Ripuarian Franks, to whom Rome had committed the defense of the Rhine,
+they crossed that river on the last day of the year 406. For two years
+Gaul was a prey to their ravages, until the Suevi, the Alans, and the
+Vandals, sought for fresh booty on the south of the Pyrenees (409). In
+Gaul they "destroyed the cities, ravaged the fields, and drove before
+them in a promiscuous crowd, the bishop, the senator, and the virgin,
+laden with the spoils of their houses and altars." Brief as was this
+period of devastation, it marks the severance of _Gaul_ from the
+empire.
+
+ALARIC AGAIN IN ITALY.--_Stilicho_ had kept up friendly relations
+with _Alaric_, and had retained in Italy thirty thousand
+barbarians in the pay of the empire. The brave general became an
+object of suspicion to _Honorius_, who caused him to be
+assassinated, and the wives and children of the barbarian troops to be
+massacred. The men fled to _Alaric_. He came back with them to
+avenge them. He appeared under the walls of Rome. "It was more than
+six hundred years since a foreign enemy had been there, and Hannibal
+had advanced so far, only to retreat." When the envoys of the Senate
+represented to Alaric how numerous was the population, he answered,
+"The thicker the hay, the easier it is mowed." But he consented to
+accept an enormous ransom, and retired to winter quarters in
+Tuscany. The court at Ravenna refused to assign lands to the Visigoths
+for a permanent settlement in Northern Italy. Alaric demanded the post
+of master-general of the Western armies. Once more he advanced to
+Rome, seized the "Port" of _Ostia_, and compelled the Senate to
+appoint _Attalus_, the prefect of the city, emperor. He besieged
+_Ravenna_ without effect, quarreled with Attalus, and deposed
+him, and for the third time marched upon Rome. Slaves within the city
+opened the Salarian gate to their countrymen, and on the 24th of
+August, 410, the sack of the city began. To add to the horrors of the
+scene, a terrific thunderstorm was raging. For three days Rome was
+given up to pillage. Only the Christian temples were respected, which
+were crowded by those who sought within them an asylum. Rome had been
+the center of Paganism. The scattering and destruction of its
+patrician families was the ruin of the old religion. Alaric did not
+long survive his victory. He died at _Consentia_ in
+_Bruttium_. He was buried under the little river
+_Basentius_, which was turned out of its course while the
+sepulcher was constructing, and then restored to its former
+channel. The slaves employed in the work were put to death, that the
+place of his burial might remain a secret (410).
+
+ATHAULF: WALLIA.--_Athaulf_ (called Adolphus), the brother and
+successor of Alaric, was an admirer of the empire. He enlisted in the
+service of _Honorius_, and married his sister, _Placidia_,
+who was in the hands of the Goths, either as a captive or as a
+hostage. He put down usurpers in the south of Gaul who had set
+themselves up as emperors, and entered _Spain_, in order to drive
+out the barbarians from that country. But he was assassinated
+(415). His successor, _Wallia_, carried forward his plans, in the
+name of Honorius, against the Alans, the Suevi, and the Vandals. He
+partly exterminated the Alans, chased the Suevi into the mountains on
+the north-west, and the Vandals into the district called after them,
+_Andalusia_.
+
+THREE BARBARIAN KINGDOMS.--The kingdom of the Suevi thus established
+(419), under the kings reigning from 438 to 455 conquered
+_Lusitania_, and would have subdued all Spain had they not been
+checked by the _Visigoths_. As a reward for their services, the
+latter received from Honorius, _Aquitaine_ in Gaul, as far as the
+Loire and the Rhone, with _Toulouse_ for their capital. They
+conquered the _Suevi_ in 456, and in 585 subjugated them; in 507
+the Franks had driven them out of Gaul. Early in the fifth century the
+_Burgundian kingdom_ grew up in South-eastern Gaul. At the end of
+that century the Rhone was a Burgundian river. _Lyons_ and
+_Vienne_ were Burgundian cities. Thus in the first twenty years
+of the fifth century there arose _three_ barbarian kingdoms. Of
+these, that of the _Suevi_ soon vanished (585), being absorbed by
+the Visigoths; that of the _Burgundians_ continued until 534;
+while that of the _Visigoths_ in Spain lasted until the conquest
+by the Arabs in 711.
+
+CONQUEST OF AFRICA BY THE VANDALS.--_Honorius_ died in 423. He
+had shown himself a zealous defender of the Church against heresy, and
+was the author of edicts for the suppression of heathenism, and for
+the destruction of heathen temples and idols. But he had proved
+himself inefficient in the defense of the empire. His nephew
+_Valentinian III.,_ the son of _Placidia_ and of the general
+_Constantius_, whom she had married in 417, succeeded him; but he
+was only six years old, and for twenty-five years the government was
+carried on in his name by his unworthy mother. She had two able
+generals, _Aëtius_ and _Boniface_, whose discord was fatal
+in its effects. At the same time in the East, the government was
+managed by _Pulcheria_ for her brother, _Theodosius II.,_
+who had succeeded _Arcadias_ in 408. _Aëtius_, who was a
+Hun, by insidious arts persuaded Placidia to recall _Boniface_,
+who was governor of Africa, at the same time that he advised Boniface
+to disobey the order which he represented as a sentence of
+death. Boniface sent to _Gonderic_, king of the Vandals in
+Spain,--who, after the retreat of the Visigoths, were strong in that
+country,--an offer of an alliance. _Genseric_, the Vandal leader,
+the brother and successor of _Gonderic_, landed in Africa in 429
+with fifty thousand men. Too late the treachery of Aëtius was
+explained to Boniface. Genseric, with his allies, tribes of nomad
+Moors, defeated him in a bloody battle, and besieged _Hippo_ for
+fourteen months. _Augustine_, the bishop of Hippo, animated the
+courage of its defenders until his death in 430, in the seventy-sixth
+year of his age. Boniface was again defeated, and Hippo was taken. The
+Vandals pushed on their conquest, but eight years passed before
+_Carthage_ was reduced (439). _Valentinian_ had recognized
+by treaty the kingdom of the Vandals. _Genseric_ was
+characterized by genius and energy as well as by cruelty and
+avarice. He built up a navy, and made himself master of Sicily,
+Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles. He was able to defy
+Constantinople, on account of his control of the Mediterranean. At the
+same time he entered into relations with the barbarians in the north,
+in order that Aëtius, who endeavored to bring in some degree of order
+and obedience in the empire, might be checked and restrained on all
+sides. The Vandals were Arians, and made full use of the difference in
+faith as a motive for plundering and maltreating the orthodox
+Christians in Africa, whom their arms had subdued.
+
+ATTILA: CHALONS.--The enemy whom _Genseric_ invoked to make a
+diversion in his favor against the combined rulers of the East and of
+the West, was _Attila_. For a half-century the _Huns_ had
+halted, in their migration, in the center of Europe, and held under
+their sway the Ostrogoths, the Gepids, the Marcomanni, and other
+tribes.  The empire of Attila extended from the Baltic to the north of
+the Danube, and as far east as the Volga. His name inspired terror
+wherever it was heard. He was styled "the scourge of God."  The "sword
+of Mars"--the point of an ancient sword which, it was said, was
+discovered by supernatural means, and was presented to him--was deemed
+the symbol of his right to the dominion of the world. Yet,
+notwithstanding his fierce visage and haughty mien, he was an
+indulgent ruler of his own people, and not without pity and other
+generous traits. Such was the dread of him that it was said that no
+blade of grass grew on the path which his armies had traversed. First,
+he attacked _Theodosius II._ in the East, to force him to recall
+the troops which he had sent against _Genseric_. He crossed the
+Danube, destroyed seventy cities, and forced the Eastern emperor not
+only to pay a tribute heavier than he had paid before, but also to
+cede to the Huns the right bank of the river. Theodosius failed in a
+treacherous attempt to assassinate him through Attila's ambassador,
+_Edecon_, whom he had bribed. Attila discovered the plot, but
+pardoned with disdain the ambassadors of the emperor who went to him
+in his wooden palace in Pannonia. He contented himself with
+reproaching Theodosius with "conspiring, like a perfidious slave,
+against the life of his master."  Regarding Constantinople as
+impregnable, he turned to the West. He demanded of the Western emperor
+the half of his states; and, moving to the Rhine with six hundred
+thousand barbarians, he crossed that river and the Moselle, advanced
+on his devastating path into the heart of _Gaul_, crossed the
+Seine, and laid siege to _Orleans_. Everywhere the inhabitants
+fled before him. The courage of the people in Orleans was sustained by
+their bishop, who at length, as the city was just falling into the
+hands of the assailants, saw a cloud of dust, and cried, "It is the
+help of God." It was _Aëtius_, who, on the death of Boniface, had
+thought it prudent to fly to the _Huns_, had come back to Italy
+at the head of sixty thousand men, obtained forgiveness of
+_Placidia_, and been made master-general of her forces. He had
+united to the Roman troops the barbarians who had occupied Gaul, the
+Visigoths under Theodoric, the Saxons, the Burgundians, the Ripuarian
+and the Salian Franks. On the Catalaunian fields, a vast plain near
+_Chalons_, whither _Attila_ now retreated to find room for
+the effective use of his cavalry, the two multitudinous armies, each
+composed of a motley collection of nations, met. It was, like the
+conflict at Marathon, one of the decisive battles of history. It was
+to determine whether the Aryan or the Scythian was to be supreme in
+Europe. The battle-field was strewn, it was said, with the bodies of a
+hundred and sixty thousand men,--an exaggeration indicating that the
+carnage was too great to be estimated. Attila was worsted. He
+encircled his camp with a rampart of wagons; and in the morning the
+victors saw him standing on the top of a mound composed of the
+trappings of horsemen, which was to serve as his funeral-pile, with
+torch-bearers at hand ready to light it in case of defeat. Aëtius was
+weakened by the withdrawal of the _Visigoths_: the allies did not
+venture to attack the lion standing thus at bay, but suffered him to
+return to Germany (451).
+
+ATTILA IN ITALY.--The next year _Attila_ invaded Upper Italy. He
+destroyed _Aquileia_, the inhabitants of which fled to the
+lagoons of the Adriatic, where their descendants founded
+_Venice_. Padua, Verona, and other cities were reduced to
+ashes. At Milan he saw a painting which represented the emperor on his
+throne, and the chiefs of the Huns prostrate before him. He ordered a
+picture to be painted in which the king of the Huns sat on the throne,
+and the emperor was at his feet. The Italians were without the means
+of defense. _Leo I._ (Leo the Great), bishop of Rome, at the risk
+of his life accompanied the emperor's ambassadors to Attila's
+camp. Their persuasions, with rich gifts and the promise of a tribute,
+availed. The army of Attila was weakened by sickness, and
+_Aëtius_ was approaching. The king of the Huns decided to retire
+to his forests. The apparition of the two apostles, _Peter_ and
+_Paul_, threatening the barbarian with instant death if he did
+not comply with the prayer of their successor, is the subject of one
+of the paintings of _Raphael_. Some months after he left Italy
+_Attila_ died at the royal village near the Danube, probably from
+the bursting of an artery during the night (453). The nations which he
+had subjugated regained their freedom. The chiefs of the Huns
+contended for the crown in conflicts which dissipated their
+strength. The expeditions of Attila were like a violent tempest,--
+destructive for the moment, the traces of which soon disappear.
+
+About the name of _Attila_, there gathered cycles of traditions,
+Gallo-Roman or Italian, East German or Gothic, West German and
+Scandinavian, and Hungarian. Such traditions in Germany formed, later,
+the germ of the national epic, the _Nibelungen-lied_. They
+testify to the powerful impression which the hero of the Huns made on
+the memory and imagination of the different nations.
+
+GENSERIC.--_Attila_ did not see Rome; but _Genseric_, his
+ally, visited it with fire and sword (455). The emperor was
+_Petronius Maximus_, a senator, who had slain _Valentinian
+III._ as the penalty for a mortal offense. The weakness of Maximus
+as a ruler caused him to be destroyed by the populace. _Eudoxia_,
+the widow of Valentinian, whom Maximus had compelled to marry the
+author of her husband's death, had secretly implored the aid of the
+king of the Vandals. Once more _Leo_ showed his fearless spirit
+by going into the camp of the Vandal king, and interceding for
+Rome. He only succeeded, however, in mitigating to a limited extent
+the horrors that attended the pillage of the city by the fierce and
+greedy soldiers, the Vandals and Moors, who followed _Genseric_,
+For fourteen days (June 15-29, 455) Rome was given up to carnage and
+robbery. The conqueror carried off every thing of value that was
+capable of being transported. _Eudoxia_ was rudely stripped of
+her jewels, and with her two daughters, descendants of the great
+Theodosius, was conveyed away with the conqueror to Carthage. For
+twenty years longer _Genseric_ ruled over the Mediterranean in
+spite of the hostility of both empires. An expedition sent against him
+at the instigation of _Ricimer_, the Sueve, by the Eastern
+emperor _Leo_, was ill commanded by _Basiliscus_, and
+failed. But after the Vandal king died (477), his kingdom was torn by
+civil and religious disorders, and by the revolts of the Moors, and,
+fifty-seven years after the death of its founder, was conquered by the
+general of the Eastern Empire.
+
+FALL OF ROME: ODOACER.--After the death of _Maximus, Avitus_ was
+appointed emperor by the king of the Visigoths in Gaul. The barbarians
+hesitated to assume the purple themselves, but they determined on whom
+it should be bestowed. Of the emperors that succeeded, _Majorian_
+(457-461)--who was raised to the throne by _Ricimer_, military
+leader of the German mercenaries in the Roman army--presents an
+instance of a worthy character in a corrupt time. At last another
+leader of mercenaries (_Orestes_, a Pannonian) made his son
+emperor,--a boy six years old, called _Romulus Augustulus_
+(475). _Odoacer_, who commanded the Heruli, Rugii, and other
+federated tribes,--mercenaries to whom Orestes refused to grant a
+third part of the lands of Italy,--made himself ruler of that
+country. The Senate of Rome, in pursuance of his wishes, in an address
+to the Eastern emperor _Zeno_, declared that an emperor in the
+West was no longer necessary, and asked him to make Odoacer
+_patrician_, and prefect of the diocese of Italy. It was in this
+character--not as king, but in nominal subordination to _Zeno_,
+the head of the united Roman Empire--that Odoacer governed (476). For
+more than a half-century people had been accustomed to see the
+barbarians exercise supreme control, so that the extinguishment of the
+Western Empire was an event less marked in their eyes than it seemed
+to the view of subsequent ages.
+
+OSTROGOTHIC KINGDOM OF THEODORIC.--When _Odoacer_ had reigned
+twelve years, _Theodoric_, king of the Ostrogoths in
+_Moesia_,--who in his youth had lived at the court of
+Constantinople, had defended the Eastern emperor, but had been
+provoked to hostility to him,--was authorized by _Zeno_ to move
+upon Italy. A host consisting of two hundred thousand fighting-men,
+together with their families and goods, followed the Gothic
+leader. Defeated at _Verona_ (489), Odoacer was forced to make a
+treaty for a division of power, and to surrender _Ravenna_, where
+he had taken refuge; but very soon, in the tumult of a banquet, he was
+slain by Theodoric's own hand, either from fear of a rival, or because
+he suspected that Odoacer was plotting against him. From this time the
+long reign of Theodoric was one of justice and of peace. More by
+negotiation than by war, he extended his dominion so that it embraced
+Illyricum, Pannonia, Noricum, and Rhoetia, and, in the West,
+Southeastern Gaul (Provence). The Bavarians paid him tribute; the
+Alemanni invoked his assistance against the Franks, against whom he
+afforded succor to the Goths of Aquitaine. In his administration he
+showed reverence for the old imperial system, and for its laws and
+institutions. He fostered agriculture, manufactures, and
+trade. Although he could not write, he encouraged learning; and a
+learned Roman, _Cassiodorus_, he appointed to high offices. He
+permitted the Goths alone to bear arms. He caused to be compiled from
+the Roman law a collection of statutes for the Goths and for his new
+subjects, and established mixed tribunals for causes in which both
+were parties. Cassiodorus ascribes to Theodoric the words, "Let other
+kings seek to procure booty, or the downfall of conquered cities: our
+purpose is, with God's help, so to conquer that our subjects shall
+lament that they have too late come under our rule."  He did what he
+could to promote peace among other barbarian nations. The prosperity
+of Italy, and the increase of its population, were a proof of the good
+government which it enjoyed. An Arian, he respected the Catholics,
+confirmed the immunities enjoyed by the churches, and generally
+allowed the Romans to elect their own bishop. He also protected the
+Jews. The persecution of the Arians in the East (524) by _Justin
+I._, awakened in his mind the belief that a conspiracy was forming
+against him. He accused _Boethius_ of being a partner in it, and
+adjudged him to death (524). While in prison at Pavia, this cultivated
+man, whom Theodoric had highly esteemed, composed a work on the
+"Consolations of Philosophy," which has made his name immortal in
+literature. The course of Theodoric at this time drew upon him the
+severe displeasure of his orthodox subjects. Soon after his death
+(526) his ashes were taken out of the tomb, and scattered to the
+winds. Hence nothing remains of his sepulcher at Ravenna but his empty
+mausoleum.
+
+Before the close of the century, as we shall see, another German
+tribe, the _Lombards_, founded a powerful state in Italy, which
+continued for more than two hundred years (568-774).
+
+THE FRANKS: CLOVIS.--When _Clovis_ (481-511), a warlike and
+ambitious chief of the Merovingian family of princes, became king of
+the Franks, they numbered but a few thousand warriors. The remnant of
+the Roman dominion on the Seine and the Loire he annexed, after having
+put to death _Syagrius_, the Roman governor, who was delivered up
+to him by the _Visigoths_. He made _Soissons_, and then
+_Paris_, the seat of his authority. A Salian Frank himself, he
+joined to himself the Ripuarian Franks on the Lower Rhine, and made
+war on the _Alemanni_, who were planted on both sides of the
+river. Before a battle (formerly thought to have been at
+_Tolbiac_), he vowed, that, if the victory were given him, he
+would worship the God of the Christians, of whom his wife
+_Clotilde_ was one. Clotilde was the niece of the Burgundian
+king, who was an Arian; but she was orthodox. The victory was
+won. Clovis, with three thousand of his nobles, was baptized by
+Remigius (_St. Remi_), Archbishop of Rheims. Hearing a sermon on
+the crucifixion, Clovis exclaimed, that, if he and his faithful Franks
+had been there, vengeance would have been taken on the Jews. He was a
+barbarian still, and the new faith imposed little restraint on his
+ambition and cruelty. But his conversion was an event of the highest
+importance. The Gallic church and clergy lent him their devoted
+support. The Franks were destined to become the dominant barbarian
+people. It was now settled that power was to be in the hands of
+Catholic--as distinguished from heretical Arian--Christianity. Clovis
+forced _Gundobald_, the Burgundian king, to become tributary, and
+to embrace the Catholic faith. He extended his kingdom to the Rhone on
+the east, and on the south (507-511), confined the Visigoths in Gaul
+to the strip of territory called _Septimania_, which they held
+for three centuries longer. _Brittany_ alone remained independent
+under its king. Clovis was hailed as the "most Christian king" and the
+second Constantine, and was made patrician and consul by the Eastern
+emperor _Anastasius_, in which titles, with their insignia, he
+rejoiced. In the closing part of his life he took care to destroy
+other Frank chieftains who might possibly undertake to dispute or
+divide with him his sovereignty.
+
+DISTRIBUTION OF TRIBES.--If we look at the map at the close of the
+fifth century, we find that all the western dominions of Rome are
+subject to Teutonic kings. The _Franks_, still retaining Western
+and Central Germany, rule in Northern Gaul, and are soon to extend
+their sway to the Pyrenees, and to conquer Burgundy. The _West
+Goths_ are the masters in Spain, and still hold Aquitaine, the most
+of which, however, is soon to be lost to the Franks. Italy and the
+lands north of the Alps and the Adriatic form the _East Gothic_
+kingdom of _Theodoric_. Africa is governed by the Arian
+Vandals. To the north of the Franks, the tribes of Germany, which were
+never subject to Rome, have already begun their conquests in
+Britain. With the exception of Britain, which is falling under the
+power of the _Saxons_, and Africa, these countries are still
+nominally parts of the Roman Empire, of which Constantinople is the
+capital. In the east, the boundaries of the empire, notwithstanding
+the aggressions and insults which it has suffered, are but little
+altered.
+
+THE MEROVINGIANS.--The dominion of _Clovis_ was partitioned among
+his four sons (511). _Theodoric_, the eldest, in Rheims, ruled
+the Eastern Franks, in what soon after this time began to be called
+_Austrasia_, on both banks of the Rhine. _Neustria_, or the
+rest of the kingdom north of the Loire, was governed in parts by the
+other three. Theodoric gained by conquest the land of the Thuringians,
+whose king, _Hermanfrid_, he treacherously destroyed. A part of
+this land was given to the Saxons. The history of the Franks for half
+a century lacks unity. The several rulers rarely acted in
+concert. They made expeditions against the Burgundians, the Visigoths,
+and the Ostrogoths. Twice they attacked the _Burgundians_. The
+last time, in 534, they conquered them, deprived them of their
+national kings, and forced them to become Catholic. In 531 they made
+war on the Visigoths to avenge the wrongs inflicted on
+_Clotilde_, a princess of their family who suffered indignities
+at the hands of the Arian king _Amalaric_. They crossed the
+Pyrenees, and brought away Clotilde. A second division of the kingdom
+was made in 561 among the grandsons of Clovis, and consummated in
+567. _Austrasia_, having Rheims for its capital, had a population
+chiefly German. _Neustria_, where the Gallo-Roman manners were
+adopted, had Soissons for its capital; and _Burgundy_ had its
+capital at Orleans. The population in both these last dominions was
+more predominantly Romano-Celtic, or "Romance."  Family contests, and
+wars full of horrors,--in which the tragic feud of two women,
+_Brunhilde_ of Austrasia, a daughter of Athanagild, king of the
+Visigoths, and _Fredegunde_ of Neustria, played a prominent
+part,--ensued. In 613 _Clotaire II_. of Neustria united the
+entire kingdom. Brunhilde was captured, and put to death in a
+barbarous manner. The son of Clotaire, _Dagobert_, was a
+worthless king. The Frank sovereigns of the royal line are
+inefficient, and the virtual sovereignty is in the hands of the
+"Mayors of the Palace," the officers whose function it was to
+superintend the royal household, and who afterwards were leaders of
+the feudal retainers. The family of the _Pipins_, who were of
+pure German extraction, acquired the hereditary right to this office,
+first in Austrasia and later in Neustria. The descendants of _Pipin
+of Heristal_, as dukes of the Franks, had regal power, while the
+title of king was left to the Merovingian princes. The race of Pipin
+was afterwards called _Carolingians_, or _Karlings_. The
+preponderance of power at first had been with Neustria, but it shifted
+to the ruder and more energetic Austrasians. The battle of
+_Testry_, in which _Pipin_ of Heristal at their head
+overcame the Neustrians, determined the supremacy of Germany over
+France (687). His son and successor, _Charles Martel_ (715-741),
+made himself sole "Duke of the Franks;" and _Pipin the Short_
+(741-768), the son of Charles Martel, became king, supplanting the
+Merovingian line (752).
+
+SAXON CONQUEST OF ENGLAND.--In the fourth century, when the power of
+Rome was declining, the Picts and Scots from the North began to make
+incursions into the Roman province of Britain. At the same time
+Teutonic tribes from the mouths of the Weser and the Elbe, began to
+land as marauders upon the coast. _Honorius_ withdrew the Roman
+troops from the island in 411; and it was conquered by these invading
+tribes, especially the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. They became one
+people, called _Anglo-Saxons_, Angles or _English_. They
+were fierce barbarians, who drove the Celts whom they did not kill or
+enslave--and whom they called _Welsh_, or strangers--into Wales
+and Cornwall. They formed kingdoms, the first of which, Kent, was the
+result of the coming of _Hengist_ and _Horsa_, whom
+_Vortigern_, the native prince, had invited to help him against
+the Picts (449). There were seven of these Saxon kingdoms (the
+_Heptarchy_), not all of which were at any one time regular
+communities. They were almost constantly at war with one another and
+with the natives. They had a king elected from the royal
+family. Freemen were either _Earls_ or _Churls_, the
+"gentle" or the "simple." The churl was attached to some one lord whom
+he followed in war. The _thanes_ were those who devoted
+themselves to the service of the king or some other great man. The
+thanes of the king became gentlemen and nobles. There were
+_thralls_, or slaves, either prisoners in war, or made slaves for
+debt or for crime. Connected with the king was a sort of Parliament,
+called the _Witenagemôt_, or Meeting of the Wise, composed
+originally of all freemen, and then of the great men, the
+_Ealdormen_, the king's thanes. After the Saxons were converted,
+the bishops and abbots belonged to it. In minor affairs, the "mark,"
+or township, governed itself.
+
+CONVERSION OF THE SAXONS--The seven kingdoms, in the ninth century
+(828), were united under _Egbert_, who became king of Wessex in
+802. He was called the king of England. Towards the Celtic Christians
+the heathen Saxons were hostile. The conversion of the Saxons was due
+to the labors of _Augustine_ and forty monks, whom _Gregory the
+Great_ (Gregory I.) sent to the island as missionaries in
+597. Their first conversions were in Kent, whose king,
+_Ethelbert_, had married _Bertha_, the daughter of a
+Frankish king. Augustine, who had great success, became the first
+archbishop of _Canterbury_, and he consecrated a bishop of
+London. During the seventh century the other Saxon kingdoms were
+gradually converted. _York_ became a seat of a second
+archbishopric. While Britain had been cut off from close relations
+with the continent, the Celtic Church there had failed to keep pace
+with the changes of rite and polity which had taken place among
+Christians beyond the channel. The consequence was a strife on these
+points between the converted Saxons, who were devoted to the holy see,
+and the "Culdees" or Old British Christians.
+
+CONVERSION OF THE IRISH.--About the middle of the fifth century the
+gospel had been planted in Ireland, mainly by the labors of
+_Patrick_, who had been carried to that country from Scotland by
+pirates when he was a boy, and had returned to it as a missionary. The
+cloisters, and the schools connected with them, which he founded,
+flourished, became nurseries of study as well as of piety, and sent
+out missionaries to other countries of Western Europe.
+
+CHARACTER OF THE TEUTONIC KINGDOMS.--The Teutonic tribe was made up of
+freemen and of their dependents. The rights of freemen, such as the
+right to vote, continued; but these were modified as differences of
+rank and wealth arose. Their leaders in peace and war were the duke
+(_dux_), the count (_comes_, or _graf_), and the
+_herzog_ (duke of higher grade) over larger provinces. The
+companions of the king and the local chiefs grew into a nobility. Once
+or twice in the year there was a gathering of the freemen in
+assemblies, to decree war or to sanction laws. Land was partly held in
+common, partly by individuals either as tenants of the community, or
+as individual owners. The soil was shared in proportions by the
+conquerors and the conquered.
+
+THE CHURCH.--The Germanic tribes were generally more or less
+acquainted with the Romans, and were Christians by profession. They
+were subject to the influences of religion, of law, and of language,
+in the countries where they settled. Power passed from the Empire to
+the Church. The Church was strong in its moral force. Its bishops
+commanded the respect of the barbarians. They were moral and social
+leaders. In the period of darkness and of tempest, the voices of the
+Christian clergy were heard in accents of fearless rebuke and of
+tender consolation. In the cities of Italy and Gaul, the bishops, at
+the call of the people, informally took the first place in civil
+affairs. Remarkable men arose in the Church, who were conspicuous as
+ambassadors and peace-makers, as intercessors for the suffering, and
+courageous protectors of the injured. Such a man was _Leo the
+Great._ The barbarians were awed by the kingdom of righteousness,
+which, without exerting force, opposed to force and passion an
+undaunted front. There was often a conflict between their love of
+power and passionate impatience of control, and their reverence for
+the priest and for the gospel. They could not avoid feeling in some
+measure the softening and restraining influence of Christian teaching,
+and learning the lessons of the cross. Socially, the Church, as such,
+"was always on the side of peace, on the side of industry, on the side
+of purity, on the side of liberty for the slave, and protection for
+the oppressed. The monasteries were the only keepers of literary
+tradition: they were, still more, great agricultural colonies,
+clearing the wastes, and setting the example of improvement. They were
+the only seats of human labor which could hope to be spared in those
+lands of perpetual war."  Nevertheless, the religious condition of the
+West, the condition of the Church and of the clergy, could not fail to
+be powerfully affected for the worse by the influx of barbarism, and
+the corrupting influence of the barbarian rulers. A great
+deterioration in the Church and in its ministry ensued after the first
+generation following the Germanic conquests passed away. This
+demoralization was more among the secular clergy than the monastic.
+
+The "History of the Franks," by _Gregory of Tours_ (540-594), is
+an instructive memorial of the times. He was himself an intrepid
+prelate, who did not quail before _Chilperic I_. and
+_Fredegunde_, but braved their wrath. Chilperic proposed to
+establish by his authority a new view of the Trinity of his own
+devising, but was resisted by Gregory, who told him that no one but a
+lunatic would embrace such an opinion. A still more crude reform of
+the alphabet, which the Frankish king contrived, and proposed to put
+in force by having existing books rewritten, Gregory effectually
+resisted.
+
+ROMAN LAW.--The barbarians were profoundly impressed by the system of
+Roman law. This they recognized as the rule for the Roman population
+in the different countries. More and more they incorporated its exact
+provisions into their own codes. Among the _West Goths_ in
+_Spain_ the two elements were ultimately fused into one body of
+laws (642-701). Under the _Franks_, the Roman municipal system
+was not extinguished; the Teutonic count or bishop standing in the
+room of the Roman president or consular, and a more popular body
+taking the place of the restricted municipality. The Roman civil
+polity, with its definite enactments for every relation in life and
+every exigency, was always at hand, and exercised an increasing
+control.
+
+STATE OF LEARNING.--The Latin language--the rustic Latin of the lower
+classes--was spoken by the conquered peoples. Latin was the language
+of the Church and of the Law. The consequence was, that the two
+languages, the tongue of the conquerors and of the Roman subjects,
+existed side by side in an unconscious struggle with one another. In
+the west and south of Europe, the victory was on the side of the
+Latin. The languages of these countries, the "Latin nations," grew out
+of the rustic dialects spoken in Roman times. In these nations the
+result of the mixture of the races was the final predominance of the
+Latin element in the civilization. In Gaul, the Franks yielded to
+Latin influences: _France_ was the product. With the fall of the
+empire, classical culture died out. The cathedral and cloister schools
+preserved the records of literature. The study of language, and the
+mental discrimination and refinement which spring from it and from
+literary discipline, passed away. Centuries of comparative
+illiteracy--dark centuries--followed. Yet the monks were often active
+in their own rude style of composition; and among them were not only
+good men, but men of eminent natural abilities, who were unconsciously
+paving the way for a better time.
+
+SAXON ENGLAND.--In England, by the Saxon conquest, a purely Teutonic
+kingdom was built up. The _Saxons_ were heathen, who had never
+felt the civilizing influence of Rome. The traces of the earlier state
+of things in the province which had long been sundered from the
+empire, they swept away in the progress of their conquest.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.  THE EASTERN EMPIRE.
+
+
+RELIGIOUS DISPUTES.--While the West was beginning to recover from the
+shock of the barbarian invasions, society in the Eastern Empire was
+growing more enervated and corrupt. For a considerable period the
+Byzantine government was managed by the influence of women. Thus
+_Theodosius II_., the successor of Arcadius (408-450), was
+governed during his whole reign by his sister _Pulcheria_. In the
+East, there was an intense interest felt in the abstruse questions of
+metaphysical theology. The Greek mind was speculative; and eager and
+often acrimonious debate on such questions as were raised by
+_Nestorius_ respecting the two natures of the Saviour, was heard
+even in the shops and markets. The court meddled actively in these
+heated controversies, and was swayed to one party or the other by the
+theologians whom, for the time, it took into its favor. The emperors
+assumed the high prerogative of personally deciding in doctrinal
+disputes, and of dictating opinions to the clergy, who gradually lost
+their independence, and became abjectly subservient to the imperial
+will.
+
+THE HIPPODROME.--The rage for doctrinal dispute in the sixth century
+was only exceeded by the passions kindled in connection with the
+circus, or hippodrome, at Constantinople. In old Rome the competitors
+in the chariot-races were organized, the drivers wore their respective
+badges,--red, white, blue, or green,--and emperors of the baser sort,
+like _Caligula_ and _Caracalla_, visited the stables, and
+were enrolled on the lists of the rival factions. But in
+Constantinople the factions of the _blue_ and the _green_,
+not content with the contest of the race-course, were violent
+political parties in which courtiers and the emperor himself took
+sides. The animosity of the _blues_ and the _greens_ broke
+out in frequent bloody conflicts in the streets. Their respective
+adherents spread into the provinces. On one occasion, under
+_Justinian_, they raised a sedition called _Nika_ (from the
+watchword used by the combatants), which well-nigh subverted the
+throne. In this period the _body-guard_ of the emperor played a
+part resembling that of the old praetorians at Rome.
+
+JUSTINIAN.--A new dynasty began with _Justin I_., who succeeded
+_Anastasius_ in 518. A peasant from _Dardania_ (Bulgaria),
+who to the end of life was obliged to sign his name by means of an
+engraved tablet, but, from being prefect of the Guard, became emperor,
+Justin was still not without merit as a ruler. He educated his nephew,
+_Justinian I_. (527-565), and made him his successor. Justinian
+married _Theodora_, who had been a comedian and a courtesan, and
+was famous for her beauty. She was the daughter of _Acacius_, who
+had had the care of the wild beasts maintained by one of the factions
+of the circus. She joined the _blues_, and it was her brave
+spirit that prevented _Justinian_ from taking flight when he was
+in imminent danger from the revolt of the _Nika_. The most
+important proceedings and decisions in affairs of state were
+determined by her will. Outwardly correct in her life, and zealous for
+orthodoxy, her vigor of mind and cleverness were not without service
+to the government; but her vindictive passions had full
+indulgence. Justinian's reign was the most brilliant period in the
+Byzantine history after the time of Constantine. Under his despotic
+rule the last vestiges of republican administration were
+obliterated. His love of pomp and of extravagant expenditure, in
+connection with his costly wars, subjected the people to a crushing
+weight of taxation.
+
+WAR WITH PERSIA.--The brilliant achievements in war during Justinian's
+reign were owing to the skill and valor of his generals, especially of
+the hero _Belisarius_. After a hundred years of amity with
+Persia, war with that kingdom broke out once more under
+_Anastasius_ and _Justin_. _Belisarius_ saved the
+Asiatic provinces, and defended the empire on the east against
+_Cobad_, and against his successor, _Chosroes I_. (531-579),
+who was, perhaps, the greatest of the Persian kings of the
+_Sassanid_ dynasty. The "endless peace" made with him in 533
+lasted but seven years. _Chosroes_ captured _Antioch_ in
+540. The worst consequences of this success were again averted by
+_Belisarius_, who was recalled from Italy in all haste. In the
+treaty of 562, _Justinian_ ingloriously agreed to pay for the
+honor of being the protector of the Christians in Persia the annual
+tribute of thirty thousand pieces of gold.
+
+CONQUEST OF AFRICA--From a military point of view the conquests of
+_Justinian_ in Africa, in Italy, and in Spain, were the signal
+events of his reign. Victory proved fatal to the barbarian conquerors
+in those countries. They were weakened by the southern climate, by
+sensual indulgence, and by strife among themselves. Justinian was
+ready to profit by this diminished capacity of
+resistance. _Gelimer_, king of the _Vandals_, had put to
+death _Hilderic_, a kinsman of _Theodosius I_. The emperor
+made this an occasion of attacking the Vandal kingdom, which was
+distracted by religious differences and contention. _Belisarius_
+sailed to Africa with a fleet of six hundred vessels, manned with
+twenty thousand sailors and fifteen thousand troops. Three months
+after landing he gained a decisive victory, and took possession of
+_Africa, Sardinia_, and the _Balearic Isles_ (534). He
+carried _Gelimer_ as a captive to Constantinople, and presented
+him to _Justinian_ and _Theodora_, seated side by side in
+the hippodrome to receive the triumphal procession in honor of the
+victor. The captive ruler could only exclaim, "Vanity, vanity! All is
+vanity!"
+
+CONQUEST OF ITALY.--Professedly to avenge the wrongs of
+_Amalasontha_, the ambitious and intriguing daughter of
+_Theodoric_, who had been killed as a consequence of the
+disaffection of the Goths, _Belisarius_ was sent to
+Italy. _Sicily_ was conquered (535), and _Naples_ and
+_Rome_ were taken (536). _Vitiges_, the new king of the
+Goths, united the forces of the nation; but he was driven to shut
+himself up in _Ravenna_, and Ravenna surrendered (540). The Goths
+had offered the sovereignty of the country to _Belisarius_. The
+jealousy of Justinian, and war with Persia, led to the recall of
+Belisarius before he could complete the work of conquest. The Goths
+under _Totila_, a nephew of the late king, regained the greater
+part of Italy. Belisarius (544-549) was sent for the second time to
+conquer that country. He gained important successes, and recaptured
+Rome; but he was feebly supported by the suspicious and envious ruler
+at Constantinople, and was at length called home. _Narses_, a
+eunuch, insignificant in person, but as crafty as he was brave, was
+commissioned to accomplish what Belisarius had not been allowed to
+effect. He entered Italy at the head of an army, made up mostly of
+Huns, Heruli, and other barbarians, and defeated _Totila_, who
+died of his wounds (552). The Ostrogothic kingdom fell. The Gothic
+warriors who survived had leave to quit the country with their
+property, they having taken an oath never to return. The Ostrogoths,
+as a nation, vanish from history. The EXARCHATE, or vice-royalty of
+the Eastern Empire, was established, with its seat at
+_Ravenna_. In _Spain_, Justinian obtained _Corduba,
+Assidona, Segontia_ (554), in reward of the assistance which he had
+rendered to _Athanagild_ against a competitor for the
+throne. Constantinople was saved by _Belisarius_ from a
+threatened attack of the _Bulgarians_, who had crossed the Danube
+on the ice (559). This great general, whose form and stature and
+benign manners attracted the admiration of the people, as his noble
+but poorly requited services gave him a right to the gratitude of the
+sovereign, was accused, in 563, of conspiracy against the life of
+Justinian. His property was confiscated, but his innocence was finally
+declared. The story that he was deprived of his eyes, and compelled to
+beg his bread, is not credited. He died in 565. A few months later
+_Justinian_ himself died at the age of eighty-three. He has been
+aptly compared, as to his personal character and the character of his
+reign, to Louis XIV. of France. Among the many structures which he
+reared was the temple of St. Sophia at Constantinople, and countless
+fortresses for the defense of the capital, of the Danube, and of other
+parts of the exposed frontier.
+
+THE CIVIL LAW.--Justinian's principal distinction in history grows out
+of his relation to legislation, and to the study of the law. He caused
+a famous lawyer, _Tribonian_, with the aid of a body of jurists,
+to make those collections of ancient law which are still in force in
+many countries. The _Code_ included the imperial constitutions
+and edicts in twelve books (527, 528). This was followed (533) by the
+_Institutes_, embracing the principles of Roman jurisprudence,
+which was to be studied in the schools of _Constantinople_,
+_Berytus_, and _Rome_; and the _Digest_, or
+_Pandects_, comprising the most valuable passages from the
+writings of the old jurists, that were deemed of authority. In this
+last work three million lines were reduced to a hundred and fifty
+thousand. Finally a fourth work, _The Novels_, embraced the laws
+of Justinian after the publication of the code (534-565). These works,
+taken together, form the Civil Law,--the _Corpus Juris
+Civilis_. They are the legacy of Rome to later times. Humane
+principles are incorporated into the civil law, but, likewise, the
+despotic system of imperialism.
+
+THE LOMBARDS IN ITALY.--In the great "Wandering of the Nations," the
+German tribe of _Lombards_, or Langobards, had made their way
+into _Pannonia_. To the east of them, in _Dacia_, there had
+arisen the kingdom of the _Gepidae_, a people akin to the
+_Goths_. In that region, also, were the Turanian _Avars_,
+with whom the Lombards allied themselves, and overthrew the kingdom of
+the Gepidĉ. After the conquest of Italy, _Narses_ had established
+there the Byzantine system of rule and of grinding
+taxation. Discontent was the natural result. The enemies of
+_Narses_ at Constantinople persuaded _Justin II._ and his
+queen _Sophia_, who had great influence over him, that prudence
+demanded the recall of the able, but avaricious and obnoxious,
+governor. The queen was reported to have said, that "he should leave
+to men the exercise of arms, and return to his proper station among
+the women of the palace, where a distaff should be placed in the
+eunuch's hand." "I will spin her such a thread," Narses is said to
+have replied, "as she shall not unravel her life long."  He forthwith
+invited the _Lombards_ into Italy, an invitation which they were
+not both to accept. _Alboin_ was their leader, who had married
+the beautiful _Rosamond_, daughter of the _Gepid_ king whom
+he had slain. Narses repented of his rash proceeding, but he died
+before he could organize a resistance to the invaders. These founded
+the great Lombard kingdom in the north of Italy, and the smaller
+Lombard states of _Spoleto_ and _Beneventum_. Ravenna,--the
+residence of the _Exarchs_,--Rome, Naples, and the island city of
+Venice, were centers of districts still remaining subject to the Greek
+emperor, as were also the southern points of the two peninsulas of
+Southern Italy, and, for the time, the three main
+islands. _Alboin_ was killed in 574 at the instigation of
+_Rosamond_, to whom, it was said, at a revel he had sent wine to
+drink in the skull of _Cunimund_, her father. The Lombards were
+not like the Goths. They formed no treaties, but seized on whatever
+lands they wanted, reserving to themselves all political rights. The
+new-comers were _Arian_ in religion, and partly heathen. There
+was little intermixture by marriage between the two classes of
+inhabitants. _Lombard_ and _Roman_ was each governed by his
+own system of law. Later, especially under the kings _Liutprand_,
+_Rachis_, and _Aistulf_ (749-756), this antagonism was much
+lessened, and the Roman law gained a preponderating influence in the
+Lombard codes. Gradually the power of the independent Lombard duchies
+increased. The strength of the Lombard kingdom was thus reduced. The
+Lombards more and more learned the arts of civilized life from the
+Romans, and shared in the trading and industrial pursuits of the
+cities. Their gradual conversion to Catholic Christianity brought the
+two peoples still nearer together. It was within half a century of the
+Lombard conquest that _Gregory I._ (Gregory the Great) held the
+papal office (590-604).
+
+AFTER JUSTINIAN.--During the century and a half that followed the
+death of Justinian, the history of the Byzantine court and empire is
+an almost unbroken tale of crime and degeneracy. The cruelty of such
+emperors as _Phocas_ (602-610) and _Justinian II_. surpasses
+the brutality of Nero and Domitian. The reign of _Heraclius_ is
+the only refreshing passage in this dreary and repulsive record. He
+led his armies in person in a series of campaigns against _Chosroes
+II_., the Persian king. At the very time when Constantinople was
+besieged in vain by a host of Persians and Avars, he conducted his
+forces into the heart of the Persian Empire; and in a great battle
+near _Nineveh_ in 627, he won a decisive victory. With the reign
+of _Heraclius_, the transient prosperity of the Greek Empire
+comes to an end. It was exhausted, even by its victories. Overwhelmed
+with taxation, it was ruined in its trade and industry. Despotism in
+the rulers, sensuality and baseness in rulers and subjects, undermined
+public and private virtue. In addition to other enemies on every side,
+it was attacked by the _Arabians_; and _Heraclius_ lived to
+see the loss of _Syria_ and of _Egypt_, and the capture of
+_Alexandria_, by these new assailants.
+
+CONTROVERSY ON IMAGE WORSHIP.--The period of theological debate, when
+at its height in the fourth and fifth centuries, whatever
+extravagances of doctrinal zeal attended it, dealt with themes of
+grave importance; and controversy was often waged by men of high
+ability and moral worth. After that time, there succeeded to the
+tempest an intellectual stagnation, under the blighting breath of
+despotism, coupled with the effect of a lassitude, the natural sequel
+of the long-continued disputation. But, in the eighth and ninth
+centuries, a new controversy took place, which convulsed the Eastern
+Empire, and extended to the West. The matter in dispute was the use of
+images in worship. Pictorial representations had been gradually
+introduced in the earlier centuries, but had been opposed, especially
+in Egypt and in the African Church. After the time of
+_Constantine_, they came by degrees into universal use. This
+formed a ground of reproach on the part of the _Mohammedans_. The
+warfare upon images was begun by _Leo III_., the Isaurian
+(717-741), a rough soldier with no appreciation of art, who issued an
+edict against them. The party of "image-breakers," or
+_iconoclasts_, had numerous adherents; and the opposite party of
+"image-worshipers," who had a powerful support from the monks in the
+convents, were ardent and inflexible in withstanding the imperial
+measures. Neither the remonstrances of _John of Damascus_, the
+last of the Greek Fathers, nor of the Roman bishop, made an impression
+on _Leo_. The agitation spread far and wide. Subsequent emperors
+followed in his path. At length, however, the Empress _Irene_
+(780-802) restored image-worship; and, in 842, the Empress
+_Theodora_ finally confirmed this act. In the controversy,
+religious motives were active, but they were mingled on both sides
+with political considerations. The alienation of feeling on the part
+of the Roman bishops was one cause of the separation of Italy from the
+Greek Empire.
+
+LITERATURE AND CULTURE.--While there was a prevalence of illiteracy in
+the West, there continued in the Eastern Empire an interest in
+letters, and a respect for classical literature. Devoted Greek monks
+taught the Gospel to the _Bulgarians_ and to the Slavonian tribes
+on its borders. _Cyril_ and _Methodius_, faithful
+missionaries, gave the Bible to the _Moravians_ in their own
+tongue. In the seventh century, _John of Damascus_ compiled from
+the Greek Fathers a celebrated treatise on theology. But the period of
+original thought in theology, as elsewhere, had passed by. This work
+of the Damascene was made up chiefly of excerpts from the Fathers
+before him. In earlier days the church in the East had been served by
+erudite theologians of great talents and of great excellence, such as
+_Basil the Great_ (328-379), _Gregory of Nyssa, Gregory of
+Nazianzum_ (326-390); all of whom were liberal-minded men,
+strenuous defenders of orthodox doctrine, and yet not unfriendly to
+philosophical study. Of even wider fame was _John Chrysostom_
+(347-407), a preacher of captivating eloquence and of an earnest
+Christian spirit, whose censure of the vices of the Byzantine court
+provoked the wrath of the Empress _Eudoxia_, and twice drove him
+into banishment. In the declining days of the empire, literary effort
+was mainly confined to compilations and comments. _Eusebius_, in
+the fourth century, had written a _History of the Church_, and a
+_Chronicle_, or General History; and, a century later (about
+432), _Zosimus_ composed a _History_ in a spirit of
+antipathy to Christianity and of sympathy with the old religion. To
+_Procopius_ (who died about 565) we owe an interesting history of
+the times of _Justinian_. After the seventh century, all traces
+of life and spirit vanish from the pages of the Byzantine
+historians. In mathematics and astronomy, in architecture and
+mechanics, the Byzantine Greeks were the teachers of the Arabians and
+of the new peoples of the West. The Byzantine style of architecture
+was of a distinct type, and was widely diffused.
+
+THE SLAVONIC TRIBES.--In the sixth century the _Slavonian_ tribes
+come into view. The _Avars_ stirred up such a commotion among
+those tribes as the Huns had created among the Germans. The
+_Slaves_ were driven to the _northwest_, where later they
+came into relations with Germany; and to the _southwest_, where,
+as conquerors and as learners, they stood, in some degree, in relation
+to the Eastern Empire, in the same position as that of the Germans in
+reference to the Western. North and East of the Adriatic arose
+Slavonian States, as _Servia, Croatia, Carinthia. Istria_ and
+_Dalmatia_, except the cities on the coast, became Slavonic. The
+Slaves displaced the old _Illyrian_ race. In the seventh and
+eighth centuries, _Macedonia_ and _Greece_ were largely
+occupied by Slavonians. The _Bulgarians_ were a Turanian people,
+who mixed with the Slavonians, and adopted their language. In 895 the
+_Magyars_, a Turanian people, crowded into _Dacia_ and
+_Pannonia_; and thus the _Bulgarians_ were confined to the
+lands south of the Danube. The _Magyars_ formed the kingdom of
+_Hungary_. The Slavonian _Russians_ were cut off from the
+Southern tribes of the same race.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.  MOHAMMEDANISM AND THE ARABIC CONQUESTS.
+
+
+CONDITION OF ARABIA.--In the sixth century the influence of the Greek
+and of the Persian Empires, especially of the Persian, was prevalent
+in Arabia. It was then inhabited mostly by tribes either distinct or
+loosely bound together, and contained no independent state of any
+considerable importance. The Arabs of that day had "all the virtues
+and vices of the half-savage state, its revenge and its rapacity, its
+hospitality and its bounty." In the _Hejaz_ district--situated
+between fertile and more civilized _Yemen_, or Arabia Felix, in
+the south-west of the peninsula and the Sinaitic region,--and in
+_Nejd_ to the east of Hejaz, which were the two districts in
+which Islam and the Arabian Empire took their rise, dwelt tribes whose
+common sanctuary was the _Kaaba_ at _Mecca_, in the wall of
+which was the quadrangular black stone kissed by all devotees, and
+supposed to have been received from the angel Gabriel. The religion of
+the Arabs was polytheism in many different forms, in which
+idol-worship was prominent; but all agreed in acknowledging one
+supreme God, _Allah_, in whose name solemn oaths were taken. Once
+in the year the tribes gathered in Mecca for their devotions; and a
+great fair in the vicinity, attended by a poetical contest, made the
+city prosperous. The town was made up of separate _Septs_, or
+patriarchal families, each under its own head, of which septs the
+_Omayyads_ were of principal importance, and had charge of the
+_Kaaba_. _Mohammed_ belonged to the _Hashimites_,
+another and poorer branch of the leading tribe of _Koreish_. The
+_Koreishites_, by their trading-journeys to Syria, had acquired
+more culture then others, whether Bedouins, or residents of
+_Medina_. At the time when _Mohammed_ was born, which was
+probably in 572, the religion of the Arabs had sunk into idolatry or
+indifference. There were three hundred and sixty images in the
+Kaaba. But there were some who were called _hanifs_, who were
+serious and earnest, and turned away from idolatrous worship. Besides
+the _Sabian_ religion of the Persian sun-worshipers, the leading
+tenets and rites of Christianity and of Judaism, both in the
+degenerate types which they assumed on the Syrian borders, were not
+unfamiliar to Arabs dwelling in the caravan routes on the borders of
+the Red Sea.
+
+CAREER OF MOHAMMED.--_Mohammed_ was early left an orphan under
+the care of his uncle _Abu Talib_. In his youth he tended sheep,
+and gathered wild berries in the desert. In his twenty-fifth year he
+became the commercial agent of a wealthy widow, _Khadija_, made
+journeys for her into Palestine and Syria,--where he may have received
+religious knowledge and impressions from Christian monks and Jewish
+rabbis,--and, after a time, married her. He is described as having a
+commanding presence, with piercing eyes, fluent in speech, and with
+pleasing ways. Eventually he came into close contact with the
+_hanifs_. He followed the custom of retiring for meditation and
+prayer to the lonely and desolate _Mount Hira._ A vivid sense of
+the being of one Almighty God and of his own responsibility to God,
+entered into his soul. A tendency to hysteria in the East a disease of
+men as well as of women--and to epilepsy helps to account for
+extraordinary states of body and mind of which he was the subject. At
+first he ascribed his strange ecstasies, or hallucinations, to evil
+spirits, especially on the occasion when an angel directed him to
+begin the work of prophesying. But he was persuaded by _Khadija_
+that their source was from above. He became convinced that he was a
+prophet inspired with a holy truth and charged with a sacred
+commission. His wife was his first convert. His faith he called
+_Islam_, which signifies "resignation to the divine will." His
+cousin _Ali_, his friend _Abubekr_, and a few others,
+believed in him. There is no doubt that the materials of Mohammed's
+creed were drawn from Jewish and Christian sources: _Abraham_ was
+the _hanif_, whose pure monotheism he claimed to re-assert; but
+the animating spirit was from within. The sum of his doctrine was,
+that there is only one God, and that Mohammed is the apostle of God.
+
+AFTER THE HEGIRA.--The _Koreishites_, the rulers and the elders,
+persecuted him. They flung out the reproach, that his adherents were
+from the poor or from the rank of slaves. This provoked him to
+denounce them, and to threaten them with the Divine judgment and with
+perdition. He lost his uncle in 619: his wife had died before. He had
+found sympathy with his claims from pious men from _Medina_. They
+offered him an asylum. Thither he went in 622, the date of his
+_Hijira_, or flight from Mecca, from which the Mohammedan
+calendar is reckoned. At Medina he won influence: he was frequently
+resorted to as an adviser, and as a judge to settle disputes. His
+activity in this direction was beneficent. His injunctions respecting
+the rights of property, and the protection due to women, were, in the
+main, discreet and wholesome. Naturally and speedily he became a
+political leader as well as a religious reformer. This new course on
+which he entered made a breach between him and the _Jews_, whom
+he had hoped to conciliate. He drew off from fellowship with them,
+made _Friday_ the principal day of public worship, and Mecca its
+principal seat. For the Jewish fast he substituted the month of
+_Ramadan_. His plan was to cement together the Arab tribes,
+superseding the old tie of blood by the new bond of fellowship in
+adherence to him. The project of a holy war to conquer and to crush
+the idolaters, and to establish his own authority, was the means to
+this end. _Mecca_ was the first object of assault. He attacked
+and plundered a Meccan caravan in 623. The next year he defeated the
+_Koreishites_ in the battle of _Bedr_. In the battle of
+_Ohod_ (625) his followers were worsted. Other conflicts ensued,
+with attacks on the _Jews_ in the intervals, until, in 630, he
+entered _Mecca_ at the head of ten thousand men, and destroyed
+all the idols. This event secured the adhesion of the Arabian tribes,
+together with the chiefs of _Yemen_ and of the other more
+civilized districts. Hearing that the Emperor _Heraclius_ was
+proposing to attack him, he went forth to meet him, but found that the
+rumor was false. He was preparing a new expedition against the
+_Greeks_ when he died, in 632.
+
+CHARACTER OF MOHAMMED.--From the time of the flight of Mohammed to
+Medina, the prophet turned more and more into the politician. Under
+the circumstances, this was, perhaps, an almost inevitable change. But
+one consequence was the bringing out of his natural vindictiveness,
+and the transformation of the enthusiast into the fanatic. Beginning
+as the prophet of Arabia, he came to think that he was the prophet of
+the whole world. There was a call to a wider warfare against
+idolatry. A crusade, partly political and partly religious, involved a
+mixture of craft and cruelty which exhibit his character in a new
+light. Yet it is probable that he always sincerely felt that his work
+in general was one to which he was called of God. Even the prosaic
+regulations and "orders of the day," which are placed in the
+_Koran_, if not the reproduction, in cataleptic visions, of his
+previous thoughts, may have been regarded by him as having a divine
+sanction. The extent of possible self-deception in so extraordinary a
+combination of qualities, it is not easy to define. His conduct was,
+for the most part, on a level with his precepts. There was one
+exception; he allowed not more than four wives to a disciple: he
+himself, at one time, had eleven. While _Khadija_ lived he was
+wedded to her alone.
+
+THE KORAN.--The Koran is regarded as the word of God by a hundred
+millions of disciples. It is very unequal in style. In parts it is
+vigorous, and here and there imaginative, but generally its tone is
+prosaic. Its narrative portions are chiefly about scriptural persons,
+especially those of the Old Testament. Mohammed's acquaintance with
+these must have been indirect, from rabbinical and apocryphal
+sources. _Adam_, _Noah_, _Abraham_, _Moses_, and
+_Christ_ are acknowledged as prophets. The deity of Christ and
+the doctrine of the Trinity are repudiated. The miracles of Jesus are
+acknowledged. Mohammed does not claim for himself miraculous
+power. Predestination is taught, but this became a conspicuous tenet
+of Moslems after the death of the founder. The immortality of the soul
+is admitted, the pains of hell are threatened to the wicked and to
+"infidels;" and a sensual paradise is promised to the faithful,
+although it is declared that higher spiritual joys are the lot of the
+most favored. The faith of Mohammed was, in substance, Judaism, the
+religion of the Old Testament; power being set before holiness,
+however, in the conception of God, and the supernatural mission of
+_Mohammed_ substituted for the future Messianic reign of
+righteousness and peace, and coupled with the emphatic proclamation of
+the last judgment. The law in the Koran is a civil as well as a moral
+code. Notwithstanding his countenance of sensuality by his own
+practice, as well as by his legalizing of polygamy, and his notion of
+paradise, Mohammed elevated the condition of woman among the
+Arabs. Before there was unbridled profligacy: now there was a
+regulated polygamy. Severe prohibitions are uttered against thieving,
+usury, fraud, false witness; and alms-giving is emphatically
+enjoined. Strong drink and gambling were prohibited.
+
+The gem of the Koran is "The Lord's Prayer of the Moslems:" "In the
+name of God, the compassionate Compassioner, the Sovereign of the day
+of judgment. Thee do we worship, and of Thee do we beg
+assistance. Direct us in the right way; in the way of those to whom
+Thou hast been gracious, in whom there is no wrath, and who go not
+astray."
+
+THE ARABIC CONQUESTS: SYRIA, PERSIA, EGYPT.--Mohammed made no
+provision for the succession. The _Caliphs_, or "successors,"
+combined in themselves civil, military and religious authority. They
+united the functions of emperor and pope. _Ali_, the husband of
+_Fatima_, Mohammed's favorite daughter, had hoped to succeed
+him. But, by the older companions of the prophet, _Abubekr,_
+Mohammed's father-in-law was appointed. The _Shiites_ were
+supporters of Ali, while the _Sunnites_, who adhered to "the
+traditions of the elders," were against him. These two parties have
+continued until the present day; the _Persians_ being
+_Shiites_, and the _Turks, Sunnites_. Mohammed, before he
+died, was inflamed with the spirit of conquest. Full of the fire of
+fanaticism, mingled with a thirst for dominion and plunder, the
+Arabians rapidly extended their sway. These warriors, to their credit
+be it said, if terrible in attack, were mild in victory. Their two
+principal adversaries were the _Eastern Empire_ and
+_Persia_. Mohammedanism snatched from the empire those provinces
+in which the Greek civilization had not taken deep root, and it made
+its way into Europe. It conquered _Persia_, and became the
+principal religion of those Asiatic nations with which history mainly
+has to do. Mohammed had made a difference in his injunctions between
+heathen, apostates, and schismatics, all of whom were to embrace Islam
+or to perish, and Jews and Christians, to both of whom was given the
+choice of the Koran, tribute, or death. They must buy the right to
+exercise their religion, if they refused to say that "Allah is God,
+and Mohammed is His prophet." _Omar_ (634-644), the next caliph
+after _Abubekr_, and a leader distinguished alike for his
+military energy and his simplicity of manners and life, first brought
+all Arabia, which was impelled as much by a craving for booty as by
+religious zeal, into a cordial union under his banner. Then he carried
+the war beyond the Arabian borders. _Palestine_ and _Syria_
+were wrested from the Greek Empire; the old cities of _Jerusalem,
+Antioch_, and _Damascus_ fell into the hands of the impetuous
+Saracens. A mosque was erected on the site of Solomon's Temple. The
+_Persian Empire_ was invaded, and, after a series of sanguinary
+battles, especially the battle of _Cadesia_ (636), followed by
+the battle of _Nehavend_ (641), was destroyed. _Ctesiphon_,
+with all its riches, was captured, and _Persepolis_ was
+sacked. The last king of the line of _Sassanids_, _Yezdegerd
+III_., having lived for many years as a fugitive, perished by the
+hand of an assassin (652). Meantime _Egypt_ had submitted to the
+irresistible invaders under _Amr_, who was aided by the Christian
+sect of the _Copts_, out of hostility to the Greek Orthodox
+Church. After a siege of fourteen months, _Alexandria_ was taken;
+but it is probably not true that the library was burned by
+_Omar's_ order. In the disorders of the times, the great
+collections of books had probably, for the most part, been dispersed
+and destroyed. Six friends of Mohammed, selected by _Omar_, chose
+_Othman_ (644-656) for his successor, who stirred up enmity by
+his pride and avarice. Under him the Christian _Berbers_ in
+Africa were won over to the faith of Islam, and paved the way for its
+further advance.
+
+THE OMAYYADS: CONQUEST OF AFRICA AND SPAIN.--_Othman_ was
+assassinated by three fanatics, and _Ali_ was then raised to the
+caliphate; but _Muawiyah_, representing the family of the
+_Omayyads_, made himself the head of an opposing party, and,
+after the assassination of _Ali_, became sole caliph (661). He
+removed the seat of the caliphate to _Damascus_. He carried the
+Arabian conquests as far as the _Indus_ and _Bokhara_. He
+created a fleet on the Mediterranean, under an "Admiral," that is, a
+commander on the sea. In seven successive years he menaced
+Constantinople with his navy. At a later time, in 717, under the
+caliph _Soliman_, another great attempt was made on the capital
+of the Greek Empire. With an army of a hundred and twenty thousand
+men, he traversed Asia Minor and the Hellespont, and was supported in
+his attack by a fleet of eighteen hundred sail. But the energetic
+defense, which was aided by the use of "the Greek fire,"--an
+artificial compound which exploded and burned with an unquenchable
+flame,--caused the grand expedition to fail; and the Eastern Empire
+had another long lease of life. The successors of _Muawiyah_
+accomplished the subjugation of Africa. They were invited by the
+native inhabitants, who groaned under the burdens of taxation laid on
+them by the Greek emperors. About A.D. 700 the Arab governor,
+_Musa_, completed the conquest of the African dominion of the
+Greeks as far as the Atlantic. The amalgamation of the _Berbers_
+with the other inhabitants of that region, and with the _Arabs_,
+resulted in the race called _Moors_. At this time the Spanish
+Visigothic kingdom, which had become Catholic (586-601), was much
+enfeebled, and a prey to discord. Under _Tarik_--from whom
+_Gibraltar_, or the mountain of _Tarik_ near which he
+landed, is named--the Arabs crossed into Spain, and for the first time
+found themselves face to face with the barbarians of the North. In the
+great battle of _Xeres de la Frontera_, near the
+_Guadalquivir_, in 711, which lasted for three days, the fate of
+the Visigothic kingdom was decided. Eight years were occupied in
+conquering Spain. In 720 the Saracens occupied _Septimania_ north
+of the Pyrenees, a dependency of the Gothic kingdom. Gaul now lay open
+before them. The Mohammedan power threatened to encircle Christendom,
+and to destroy the Church and Christianity itself. In the plains
+between _Tours_ and _Poitiers_, the Saracens were met by the
+Austrasian Franks under _Charles Martel_ (732). The impetuous
+charges of the Saracen cavalry were met and beaten back by the
+infantry of the _Franks_, which confronted them like an iron
+wall. The Mohammedan defeat saved Christian Europe from being trampled
+under foot by the Mussulman; it saved the Christian people of the
+_Aryan_ nations from being subjugated by the _Semitic_
+disciples of the Koran. At the same time that Spain was overrun, the
+Turkish lands on the east of the Caspian were subdued. The old
+antipathy between the Iranians and Turanians, the Schiite Persians and
+the Sunnite Turks, was afterwards carried into Europe by the Ottoman
+Moslems.
+
+THE ABBASSIDES: BAGDAD.--Misgovernment embittered the faithful against
+the rule of the _Omayyads_ in _Damascus_, although Syria had
+become a source of higher culture for the Arabians: there they became
+acquainted with Greek learning. The adherents of _Ali_ found
+vigorous champions in the _Abbassides_, who, as
+_Hashimites_, laid claim to the caliphate. One of them, _Abul
+Abbas_, was made caliph by the soldiers in 750. The fierce cruelty
+of his party against the _Omayyads_ led to the murder of all of
+them except _Abderrahman_, who fled to Africa, and, in 755,
+founded an independent caliphate at _Cordova_. The
+_Abbassides_ attached themselves to the _Sunnite_
+creed. Under _Almansor_, the brother and successor of _Abbas,
+Bagdad_, a city founded by _Almansor_ (754-775) on the banks
+of the Tigris, was made the seat of the caliphate, and so continued
+until the great Mongolian invasion in 1258. Bagdad was built on the
+west bank of the Tigris, but, by means of bridges, stretched over to
+the other shore. It was protected by strong, double walls. It was not
+only the proud capital of the caliphate: it was, besides, the great
+market for the trade of the East, the meeting-place of many nations,
+where caravans from China and Thibet, from India, and from Ferghana in
+the modern Turkestan, met throngs of merchants from Armenia and
+Constantinople, from Egypt and Arabia. There trading-fleets gathered
+which carried the products of the North and West down the great rivers
+to the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. _Bagdad_ was to the
+caliphs what _Byzantium_ was to Constantine, or _Alexandria_
+to the Ptolemies. It became the grandest city in the world. Canals to
+the number of six hundred ran through it, and a hundred and five
+bridges bound its two parts together. It was furnished with many
+thousand mosques and as many baths.  The palace of the caliphs
+comprised in itself all the splendor which Asiatic taste and
+extravagance could collect and combine in one edifice.
+
+THE EASTERN CALIPHATE.--Deprived of the western extremity of their
+empire, the _Abbassides_ still ruled over _Asia_ and
+_Africa_. In their luxurious and splendid court, the caliphs,
+served by a vast retinue of officers with the _Vizier_ at their
+head, copied the magnificence of the ancient Persians. The most famous
+of the caliphs of Bagdad is _Harun-al-Rashid_, or "Aaron the
+Just" (786-809). His name is familiar even to children as the
+wonderful hero of the "Arabian Nights." His reign, like that of
+_Solomon_ in ancient Judĉa, was considered in after times the
+golden age of the caliph dominion. As in the case of
+_Charlemagne_, poetry and romance invested his character and
+reign with all that can give glory and honor to a king and a
+sage. Brilliant pictures were drawn of the boundless wealth and luxury
+of his court, and of his admirable piety and wisdom. About him there
+was assembled a host of jurists, linguists, and poets. Three hundred
+scholars traveled at his expense through different lands. Righteous
+judgments were ascribed to him, and oracular sayings.  He was made the
+ideal ruler of Oriental fancy. His real character fell much below the
+later popular conception. He behaved like an Eastern despot towards
+all his kindred who stood in his way. The Persian family of
+_Barmecides_ he exterminated, when his passionate attachment to
+one of them turned to hatred on account of an obscure affair connected
+with the harem. Stories told by Western chroniclers of his relations
+with _Charlemagne_ require to be sifted. The Greek emperor
+_Nicephorus_, who had rashly defied him, he addressed as the
+"Roman dog." Nine times _Harun_ invaded the Greek Empire, left
+its provinces wasted as by a hurricane, and extorted from it a tribute
+which he obliged the emperors, who repented of their daring, to pay in
+coin stamped with his image. His best distinction is in the liberal
+patronage which he, no doubt, extended to learning. In this he was
+imitated by his son _Al Mamun_ (813-833), who founded numerous
+schools, and expended vast sums in behalf of science and letters. The
+caliphate was weakened by the introduction of the _Turks_,
+somewhat as the Roman Empire fared from its relations with the
+Germans. _Motasem_ (833-842), the eighth of the Abbassides,
+brought in a Turkish guard of forty thousand slaves, purchased in
+_Tartary_. These soldiers, instead of remaining servants, became
+lawless masters, and disposed of the throne as the prĉtorians at Rome
+had done. The palace of the caliphs was filled with
+violence. Revolution and anarchy, kept up during two centuries, broke
+the caliphate into fragments. Conspiracies and insurrections were the
+order of the day. _Africa_ had detached itself in the time of
+_Harun-al-Rashid_. In _Asia_ various independent dynasties
+arose, formed mostly by Turkish governors of provinces.
+
+THE TURKISH EMIRS.--In the eleventh century, the _Seljukian
+Turks_ despoiled the Arabs of their sovereignty in the East. The
+caliph at _Bagdad_ gave up all his temporal power to _Togrul
+Bey_ (1058), and retained simply the spiritual headship over
+orthodox Mussulmans. To the Turk who bore the title _Emir al
+Omra_, was given the military command. He was what the Mayor of the
+Palace had been among the Franks. In 1072 his son, _Malek Shah_,
+made _Ispahan_ his capital, and governed Asia from China to the
+vicinity of Constantinople.
+
+THE FATIMITE CALIPHATE.--In the ninth and tenth centuries the
+_Aglabites_ (800-909), whose capital was _Cairoan_ (in
+Tunis), were dominant in the Western Mediterranean, established
+themselves, in their marauding expeditions, in _Corsica,
+Sardinia_, and _Sicily_, and several times attacked Italy. In
+909 they, with the _Edrisites_, adherents of _Ali_, in
+_Fez_, formed, under a Fatimite chief, _Moez_, with Egypt,
+the African Caliphate, the seat of which was at _Cairo_
+(968). The Fatimite caliphs extended their power over Syria. The most
+famous of the caliphs of _Cairo_ was _Hakem_ (996-1020), a
+monster of cruelty, who claimed to be the incarnation of Deity. These
+caliphs claimed to be the descendants of _Ali_ and of
+_Fatima_. Their dynasty was extinguished by _Saladin_ in
+1171.
+
+THE CALIPHS OF CORDOVA.--In Spain the caliphs of _Cordova_
+allowed to the Christians freedom of worship and their own laws and
+judges. The mingling of the conquerors with the conquered gave rise to
+a mixed _Mozarabic_ population. The _Franks_ conquered the
+country as far as the _Ebro_ (812). Under _Mohammed
+I_. (852), the Saracen governors of the provinces sought to make
+themselves independent; but the most brilliant period of the caliphate
+of Cordova followed, under _Abderrahman III_. (912-961). In the
+eleventh century there was anarchy, produced by the African guard of
+the caliphs, which played a part like that of the Turkish guard at
+_Bagdad_, and by reason of the rebellion of the governors. In
+1031 the last descendant of the _Omayyads_ was deposed, and in
+1060 the very title of caliph vanished. The caliphate gave place to
+numerous petty Moslem kingdoms. The African Mussulmans came to their
+help, and thus gave the name of _Moors_ to the Spanish
+Mohammedans. Their language and culture, however, remained Arabic. The
+Arabian conquests had moved like a deluge to the _Indus_, to the
+borders of _Asia Minor_, and to the _Pyrenees_. In Syria
+they were not generally resisted by the people. Egypt, for the same
+reason, was an easy conquest. It took the Moslems sixty years to
+conquer _Africa_. In three years nearly all Spain was theirs; and
+it was not until seven hundred years after this time that they were
+utterly driven out of that country.
+
+THE MOSLEM GOVERNMENT--The Moslem civilization rested on the
+Koran. Grammar, lexicography, theology, and law stood connected at
+first with the study and understanding of the Sacred Book. The
+_Caliph_ was the fountain of authority. There was a fixed system
+of taxation, the poll-tax and land-tax being imposed only on
+non-Moslem subjects. All Moslems received a yearly pension, a definite
+sum determined by their rank. The empire was divided into provinces,
+each governed by a _Prefect_, who was a petty sovereign, subject
+only to the _Caliph_. The _Generals_ were appointed by the
+caliph, by the prefects, or by the _Vizier_, who was the prime
+minister. The _Judges (cadis)_ were appointed by the same
+officers. There was a court of appeal over which the caliph
+presided. There were inspectors of the markets, who were also censors
+of morals. The _Imam_ had for his function to recite the public
+prayers in the mosque. The leader of the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca
+was an officer of the highest dignity.
+
+THEOLOGY: LAW: LITERATURE.--The Mohammedans entered into discussions
+of theology, which gave rise to differences, and to schools and
+sects. The nature of the Deity, predestination, the future life, were
+subjects of profound and subtle inquiry. More than once, pantheistic
+doctrine was broached by speculative minds, such as _Avicenna_
+and _Averrhoes_. In Persia, _Súfism_, a form of mysticism,
+made great progress. It extolled the unselfish love of God, and a
+contemplative and ascetic life. _Law_ was studied; and on the
+basis of the _Koran_, and of reasonings upon it, systems of
+jurisprudence were created. _Science_ and _Literature_ kept
+pace with legal studies. _Poetry_ flourished through the whole
+period of the Eastern caliphate. There were, also, Persian poets who
+hold an important place in the history of literature, of whom
+_Firdousi_ (about 940 to 1020) and _Saadi_ (who died in
+1291) are the most eminent.  Under the _Abbassides_ in Syria,
+through Christian scholars and by translations, the Arabians became
+acquainted with the Greek authors. They cultivated geography. The
+Moslems were students of astronomy, and carried the study of
+mathematics, which they learned from the Greeks and Hindus, very
+far. But they apparently felt no interest in the poets, orators, and
+historians of antiquity. In the study of _Aristotle_, and in
+metaphysical philosophy, they were proficients. Medicine, also, they
+cultivated with success. They delved in _Alchemy_ in the search
+for the transmutation of metals.
+
+COMMERCE AND THE ARTS.--The Moslems engaged actively in commerce. They
+acquired much skill in various branches of mechanical art. The weapons
+of _Damascus_ and of _Toledo_, the silks of _Granada_,
+the saddles of _Cordova_, the muslins, silks, and carpets of the
+Moslem dominions in the East, were highly prized in Christian
+countries. They manufactured paper. Forbidden to represent the human
+form in painting and sculpture, their distinction in the fine arts is
+confined to architecture. Peculiar to them is the _Arabesque_
+ornamentation found in their edifices: the idea of the arch was
+borrowed from the Byzantine style. One of their most famous monuments
+is the mosque at _Cordova_. The ruins of the _Alhambra_, in
+Spain, a palace and a fortress, illustrate the richness and elegance
+of the Saracenic style of building.
+
+THE ARABIAN MIND.--Neither in architecture, nor in any other
+department, were the Arabs in a marked degree original. They invented
+nothing. They were quick to learn, and to assimilate what they
+learned. They were apt interpreters and critics, but they produced no
+works marked by creative genius. Many of the scholars at the court of
+the caliphs were Christians and Jews. Yet _Bagdad, Samarcand, Cairo,
+Grenada, Cordova_, were centers of intellectual activity and of
+learning when the nations of Western Europe had not escaped from the
+barbarism resulting from the Teutonic invasions.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Lives of Mohammed by MUIR, SPRENGER (German), Irving:
+  _Encycl. Brit._, Art. _Mohammedanism_; Kuenen, _National
+  Religions and Universal Religions;_ Nöldeke,
+  _Gesch. d. Quorans_ (1860); Muir, _The Corân_ (1878);
+  R. B. Smith, _Mohammed and Mohammedanism_ (1875); Stobart,
+  _Islam and its Founder_; Ockley, _History of the Saracens_
+  (sixth edition, 1857); FREEMAN, _History and Conquests of the
+  Saracens_ (1870).
+
+
+
+THE CARLOVINGIAN HOUSE
+
+
+PIPIN of Heristal, _d._ 714.
+|
++--Charles Martel, _d._ 741.
+   |
+   +--PIPIN the Short, king 752-768.
+      |
+      +--CHARLEMANGE, 768-814 (emperor 800).
+      |  |
+      |  +--Pipin, King of Italy, _d._ 810.
+      |  |  |
+      |  |  +--BERNARD, _d._ 818.
+      |  |
+      |  +--Charles, King of Franconia.
+      |  |
+      |  +--LOUIS the Pious, 814-840.
+      |     |
+      |     | LOTHARINGIA
+      |     |
+      |     +--LOTHAR I, 843-855.
+      |     |  |
+      |     |  +--LOUIS II, 855-875
+      |     |  |  |
+      |     |  |  +--Hermingarde, _m._
+      |     |  |     BOSO I, King of Provence, 879-887
+      |     |  |     |
+      |     |  |     +--LOUIS, 887-905 (emperor 901) _m._ Eadgifu,
+      |     |  |        daughter of Edward the Elder
+      |     |  |
+      |     |  +--Lothar II, _d._ 869.
+      |     |  |
+      |     |  +--Charles, _d._ 863
+      |     |
+      |     | GERMANY
+      |     |
+      |     +--LOUIS the German, 843-876.
+      |     |  |
+      |     |  +--CARLOMAN, _d._ 880.
+      |     |  |  |
+      |     |  |  +--ARNULF, King of Germany, 887-899 (emperor 896).
+      |     |  |     |
+      |     |  |     +--LOUIS the Child, 900-911.
+      |     |  |
+      |     |  +--LOUIS the Younger. d 880.
+      |     |  |
+      |     |  +--CHARLES the Fat (emperor 881-887), _d._ 888.
+      |     |
+      |     | FRANCE
+      |     |
+      |     +--CHARLES the Bald, 843-877 (emperor 875).
+      |        |
+      |        +--LOUIS II, 877-879.
+      |           |
+      |           +--LOUIS III, 879-882
+      |           |
+      |           +--Carloman, 879-884
+      |           |
+      |           +--CHARLES the Simple, _m._ Eadgifu,
+      |              daughter of Edward the Elder
+      |              |
+      |              +--LOUIS IV (D'Outremer), 936-954.
+      |                 |
+      |                 +--Matilda, _m._ CONRAD the Peaceful.
+      |                 |  |
+      |                 |  +--RUDOLPH III, 993-1032
+      |                 |
+      |                 +--LOTHAR, 954-986.
+      |                 |  |
+      |                 |  +--LOUIS V, 986-987.
+      |                 |
+      |                 +--Charles, Duke of Lower Lorraine, _d._ 994.
+      |
+      +--Carloman, 768-771.
+
+
+
+RIVAL KINGS OF FRANCE NOT OF THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE.
+
+
+Robert the Strong, _d._ 866.
+|
++--EUDES, king 887-893.
+|
++--ROBERT, king 922-923.
+   |
+   +--Emma, _m._ RUDOLPH of Burgundy; king 923-926.
+   |
+   +--Hugh the Great (father of Hugh Capet).
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD II.  FROM THE CARLOVINGIAN LINE OF FRANK KINGS TO THE
+ROMANO-GERMANIC EMPIRE.  (_A.D. 751-962._)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  THE CARLOVINGIAN EMPIRE TO THE DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE
+(A.D. 814).
+
+
+PIPIN THE SHORT.--The great event of the eighth century was the
+organization and spread of the dominion of the _Franks_, and the
+transfer to them of the Roman Empire of the West. Three Frank
+princes--_Charles Martel_, _Pipin the Short_, and
+_Charlemagne_, or _Karl the Great_--were the main
+instruments in bringing in this new epoch in European history. They
+followed a similar course, as regards the wars which they undertook,
+and their general policy. _Charles Martel_, the conqueror of the
+Saracens at _Poitiers_, rendered great services to the Church;
+but he provoked the lasting displeasure of the ecclesiastics by his
+seizures of church property. He rewarded his soldiers with
+archbishoprics. _Pipin_, however, was earnestly supported by the
+clergy. He had the confidence and favor of the Franks, and in 751,
+with the concurrence of Pope _Zacharias_, deposed _Childeric
+III._, and assumed the title of king. The long hair of
+_Childeric_, the badge of the Frank kings, was shorn, and he was
+placed in a monastery. In 752 _Pipin_ was anointed and crowned at
+_Soissons_ by _Boniface_, the bishop of _Mentz_, who
+exerted himself to restore order and discipline in the Frank Church,
+which had fallen into disorder in the times of Charles Martel.
+
+PIPIN IN ITALY.--The controversy with the Greeks about the use of
+images had alienated the popes from the Eastern Empire. The
+encroachments of the Lombards threatened Rome itself, and were a
+constant menace to the independence of its bishops. Pope _Stephen
+III_. resorted to _Pipin_ for help against these aggressive
+neighbors; and, in 754, _Stephen_ solemnly repeated, in the
+cathedral of St. Denis, the ceremony of his coronation. The
+Carlovingian usurpation was thus hallowed in the eyes of the people by
+the sanction of the Church. The alliance between the Papacy and the
+Franks, so essential to both, was cemented. Pipin crossed the Alps in
+754, and humbled _Aistulf_, the Lombard king; but, as Aistulf
+still kept up his hostility to the Pope, Pipin once more led his
+forces into Italy, and compelled him to become tributary to the Frank
+kingdom, and to cede to him the territory which he had won from the
+Greek Empire,--the exarchate of _Ravenna_ and the
+_Pentapolis_, or the lands and cities between the Apennines and
+the Adriatic, from _Ferrara_ to _Ancona_. This territory the
+Frank king formally presented to St. Peter. Thus there was founded the
+temporal kingdom of the popes in Italy. _Pipin_ was called
+_Patricius_ of Rome, which made him its virtual sovereign,
+although the office and title implied the continued supremacy of the
+Eastern Empire. He united under him all the conquests which had been
+made by _Clovis_ and his successors. His sway extended over
+_Aquitaine_ and as far as the Pyrenees. It was the rule of the
+_Teutonic_ North over the more _Latin_ South, which had no
+liking for the Frank sovereignty.
+
+CHARLEMAGNE: THE SAXONS AND SARACENS.--_Pipin_ died in 768. By
+the death of his younger son, Carloman, his older son, _Charles_,
+in 771 became the sole king of the Franks. Charlemagne is more
+properly designated _Karl the Great_, for he was a German in
+blood and speech, and in all his ways. He stands in the foremost rank
+of conquerors and rulers. His prodigious energy and activity as a
+warrior may be judged by the number of his campaigns, in which he was
+uniformly successful. The eastern frontier of his dominions was
+threatened by the _Saxons_, the _Danes_, the _Slaves_,
+the _Bavarians_, the _Avars_. He made eighteen expeditions
+against the Saxons, three against the Danes, one against the
+Bavarians, four against the Slaves, four against the Avars. Adding to
+these his campaigns against the Saracens, Lombards, and other peoples,
+the number of his military expeditions is not less than
+fifty-three. In all but two of his marches against the Saxons,
+however, he accomplished his purpose without a battle. That he was
+ambitious of conquest and of fame, is evident. That he had the rough
+ways of his German ancestors, and was unsparing in war, is equally
+certain. Yet he was not less eminent in wisdom than in vigor; and his
+reign, on the whole, was righteous as well as glorious. The two most
+formidable enemies of Charlemagne were the _Saxons_ and the
+_Saracens_. The Saxon war "was checkered by grave disasters, and
+pursued with undismayed and unrelenting determination, in which he
+spared neither himself nor others. It lasted continuously--with its
+stubborn and ever-recurring resistance, its cruel devastations, its
+winter campaigns, its merciless acts of vengeance--as the effort which
+called forth all Charles's energy for thirty-two years" (772-804). The
+Saxons were heathen. The conquest of them was the more difficult
+because it involved the forced introduction of Christianity in the
+room of their old religion. More than once, when they seemed to be
+subdued, they broke out in passionate and united revolt. Their
+fiercest leader in insurrection was _Witikind_. A last and
+terrible uprising, in consequence of the slaughter of forty-five
+hundred Saxons on the _Aller_ as a punishment for breach of
+treaty, was put down in 785, when _Witikind_ submitted, and
+consented to receive Christian baptism. During the progress of the
+Saxon war, at the call of the Arab governor of _Saragossa_ for
+aid against the caliph _Abderrahman_, Charles marched into Spain,
+and conquered Saragossa and the whole land as far as the
+_Ebro_. On his return, in the valley of _Ronceveaux_, the
+Frank rear guard was surprised and destroyed by the
+_Basques_. There fell the Frank hero _Roland_, whose gallant
+deeds were a favorite subject of mediĉval romances. The duchy of
+_Bavaria_ was abolished after a second revolt of its duke,
+_Tassilo_ (788). One of the most brilliant of Charlemagne's wars
+was that against the Hunnic _Avars_ (791). Their land between the
+_Ems_ and _Raab_ he annexed to his empire. Bavarian
+colonists were planted in it. Enormous treasures which they had
+gathered, in their incursions, from all Europe, were captured, with
+their "Ring," or palace-camp. The Slavonic tribes were kept in
+awe. _Brittany_ was subjugated in 811. In the closing years of
+Charles's reign, the _Danes_ became more and more aggressive and
+formidable. He visited the northern coasts, made _Boulogne_ and
+_Ghent_ his harbors and arsenals, and built fleets for defense
+against the audacious invaders.
+
+CHARLEMAGNE IN ITALY.--Some of the most memorable incidents in
+Charlemagne's career are connected with Italy. While he was busy in
+the Saxon war, he had been summoned to protect Pope _Hadrian
+I_. (772-795) from the attack of the Lombards. To please his
+mother, _Charles_ had married, but he had afterwards divorced,
+the daughter of the Lombard king _Desiderius_. She was the first
+in the series of Charlemagne's wives, who, it is said, were nine in
+number. By the divorce he incurred the resentment of Desiderius, who
+required the Pope to anoint the sons of _Carloman_ as kings of
+the Franks. In 772 Charlemagne crossed the Alps by the Mont Cenis and
+the St. Bernard, captured _Pavia_, and shut up Desiderius in a
+Frank monastery. The king of the Franks became king of the
+_Lombards_, and lord of all Italy, except the _Venetian
+Islands_ and the southern extremity of _Calabria_, which
+remained subject to the Greeks. The German king and the Pope were now,
+in point of fact, dominant in the West. A woman, _Irene_, who had
+put out the eyes of her son that she herself might reign, sat on the
+throne at Constantinople. This was a fair pretext for throwing off the
+Byzantine rule, which afforded no protection to Italians. Once more
+_Charles_ visited Italy, to restore to the papal chair _Leo
+III._, who had been expelled by an adverse party, and, at Charles's
+camp at _Paderborn_, had implored his assistance. On Christmas
+Day in the year 800, during the celebration of mass in the old
+Basilica of St. Peter, _Leo III._ advanced to _Charlemagne_,
+and placed a crown on his head, saluting him, amid the acclamations of
+the people, as Roman emperor.
+
+MEANING OF CHARLES'S CORONATION.--The coronation of Charlemagne made
+him the successor of Augustus and of Constantine. It was not imagined
+that the empire had ever ceased to be. The Byzantine emperors had been
+acknowledged in form as the rulers of the West: not even now was it
+conceived that the empire was divided. In the imagination and feeling
+of men, the creation of the Caesars remained an indivisible unity. The
+new emperor in the West could therefore only be regarded as a rival
+and usurper by the Byzantine rulers; but Charlemagne professed a
+friendly feeling, and addressed them as his brothers,--as if they and
+he were exercising a joint sovereignty. In point of fact, there had
+come to be a new center of wide-spread dominion in Western Europe. The
+diversity in beliefs and rites between Roman Christianity and that of
+the Greeks had been growing. The popes and Charlemagne were united by
+mutual sympathy and common interests. The assumption by him of the
+imperial title at their instance, and by the call of the Roman people,
+was the natural issue of all the circumstances.
+
+CHARLES'S SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT.--Charlemagne showed himself a
+statesman bent on organization and social improvement. There was a
+system of local officers. The border districts of the kingdom were
+made into _Marks_, under _Margraves_ or _Marquesses_,
+for defense against the outlying tribes. One of them, to the east of
+Bavaria, was afterwards called _Austria_. _Dukes_ governed
+provinces, some of which afterwards became kingdoms. Their power the
+emperor tried to reduce. The empire was divided into districts, in
+each of which a _Count_ (_Graf_) ruled, with inferior
+officers, either territorial or in cities. _Bishops_ had large
+domains, and great privileges and immunities. The officers held their
+places at the king's pleasure: they became possessed of landed
+estates, and the tendency was, for the offices to become hereditary.
+
+The old German word _Graf_ is of uncertain derivation, but means
+the same as _count_ (from the Latin _comes_). _Mark_ is
+a word found in all the Teutonic languages. From the signification of
+_boundary_, it came to be applied, like its synonym _march_,
+to a frontier district. A _margrave_ (_Mark-Graf_) was a
+_mark-count_, or an officer ruling for the king in such a
+district. A _viscount_ (_vicecomes_) was an officer
+subordinate to a _count_. _Pfalz_, meaning originally
+_palace_ (from the Latin _palatium_), was the term for any
+one of the king's estates. The _palsgrave_ (_Pfalz-Graf_)
+was first his representative in charge of one of these domains. The
+_stallgrave_ (_Stall-Graf_) corresponded to the
+_constable_ (_comes stabuli_) in English and French. It
+signifies the officer in charge of the king's _stables_, the
+groom. He had a military command. A later designation of the same
+office is _marshal_ (from two old German words, one of which
+means a _horse_, as seen in our word _mare_, having the same
+etymology, and the other means a _servant_).
+
+Imperial deputies, or _missi_, lay and ecclesiastical together,
+visited all parts of the kingdom to examine and report as to their
+condition, to hold courts, and to redress wrongs. There were appeals
+from them to the imperial tribunal, over which the _Palsgrave_
+presided. Twice in the year great _Assemblies_ were held of the
+chiefs and people, to give advice as to the framing of laws. The
+enactments of these assemblies are collected in the
+_Capitularies_ of the Frank kings. In the Church, Charlemagne
+tried to secure order, which had sadly fallen away, and had given
+place to confusion and worldliness. He himself exercised high
+ecclesiastical prerogatives, especially after he became emperor.
+
+LEARNING AND CULTURE.--One of the chief distinctions of Charlemagne is
+the encouragement which he gave to learning. In his own palace at
+_Aachen_ (_Aix_), he collected scholars from different
+quarters. Of these the most eminent is _Alcuin_, from the school
+of York in England. He was familiar with many of the Latin writers,
+and while at the head of the school in the palace, and later, when
+abbot of St. Martin in _Tours_, exerted a strong influence in
+promoting study. _Charlemagne_ himself spoke Latin with facility,
+but not until late in life did he try to learn to write. It was his
+custom to be read to while he sat at meals. Augustine's _City of
+God_ was one of the books of which he was fond. In the great sees
+and monasteries, schools were founded, the benefits of which were very
+soon felt.
+
+CHARLES'S PERSONAL TRAITS.--Charlemagne was seven feet in height, and
+of noble presence. His eyes were large and animated, and his voice
+clear, but not so strong as his frame would have led one to
+expect. His bearing was manly and dignified. He was exceedingly fond
+of riding, hunting, and of swimming. _Eginhard_, his friend and
+biographer, says of him, "In all his undertakings and enterprises,
+there was nothing he shrank from because of the toil, and nothing that
+he feared because of the danger." He died, at the age of seventy, on
+Jan. 28, 814. He had built at _Aix la Chapelle_ a stately church,
+the columns and marbles of which were brought from Ravenna and
+Rome. Beneath its floor, under the dome, was his tomb. There he was
+placed in a sitting posture, in his royal robes, with the crown on his
+head, and his horn, sword, and book of the Gospels on his knee. In
+this posture his majestic figure was found when his tomb was opened by
+_Otto III_., near the end of the tenth century. The marble chair
+in which the dead monarch sat is still in the cathedral at _Aix_:
+the other relics are at _Vienna_. The splendor of Charlemagne's
+reign made it a favorite theme of romance among the poets of Italy: a
+mass of poetic legends gathered about it.
+
+EXTENT OF THE EMPIRE.--Charlemagne's empire comprised all Gaul, and
+Spain to the Ebro, all that was then Germany, and the greater part of
+Italy. Slavonic nations along the Elbe were his allies. Pannonia,
+Dacia, Istria, Liburnia, Dalmatia,--except the sea-coast towns, which
+were held by the Greeks,--were subject to him. He had numerous other
+allies and friends. Even _Harunal-Rashid_, the famous Caliph of
+Bagdad, held him in high honor. Among the most valued presents which
+were said to have come from the Caliph were an elephant, and a curious
+water-clock, which was so made, that, at the end of the hours, twelve
+horsemen came out of twelve windows, and closed up twelve other
+windows. This gift filled the inmates of the palace at _Aix_ with
+wonder.
+
+CONDITION OF THE PEOPLE.--The number of free Franks diminished under
+Charlemagne. They were thinned out in the wars, or sunk into
+vassalage. The warnings and rebukes in the Capitularies, or body of
+laws, show that the upper clergy were often sensual and greedy of
+gain. The bishops would often lead in person their contingent of
+troops, until they were forbidden to do so by law. Nine-tenths of the
+population of Gaul were slaves. Charlemagne made _Alcuin_ the
+present of an estate on which there were twenty thousand
+slaves. Especially in times of scarcity, as in 805 and 806, their lot
+was a miserable one. At such times, they fled in crowds to the
+monasteries. The social state was that of feudalism "in all but the
+development of that independence in the greater lords, which was
+delayed by the strength of Karl, but fostered, at the same time, by
+his wars and his policy towards the higher clergy."
+
+CONVERSION OF GERMANY: BONIFACE.--The most active missionaries in the
+seventh and eighth centuries were, from the British islands. At first
+they were from Ireland and Scotland. _Columban_, who died in 615,
+and his pupil Gallus, labored, not without success, among the
+_Alemanni_. Gallus established himself as a hermit near Lake
+Constance. He founded the Abbey of _St. Gall_. The Saxon
+missionaries from England were still more effective. The most eminent
+of these was _Winfrid_, who received from Rome the name of
+_Bonifacius_ (680-755). He converted the _Hessians_, and
+founded monasteries, among them the great monastery of
+_Fulda_. There his disciple, _Sturm_, "through a long series
+of years, directed the energies of four thousand monks, by whose
+unsparing labors the wilderness was gradually reclaimed, and brought
+into a state of cultivation." _Boniface_ had proved the impotence
+of the heathen gods by felling with the axe an aged oak at
+_Geismar_, which was held sacred by their worshipers. Among the
+_Thuringians_, _Bavarians_, and other tribes, he extirpated
+paganism by peaceful means. He organized the German Church under the
+guidance of the popes, and, in 743, was made archbishop of
+_Meniz_, and primate. But his Christian ardor moved him to carry
+the gospel in person to the savage _Frisians_, by whom he was
+slain. He thus crowned his long career with martyrdom.
+
+CONVERSION OF THE SCANDINAVIANS.--The apostle of the Scandinavians was
+_Ansgar_ (801-865). The archbishopric of _Hamburg_ was
+founded for him by _Louis the Pious_, with the papal consent;
+but, as Hamburg was soon plundered by pirates, he became bishop of
+_Bremen_ (849). In that region he preached with success. Two
+visits he made to _Sweden_, the first with little permanent
+result; but, at the second visit (855), the new faith was tolerated,
+and took root. The triumph of the religion of the cross, which
+_Ansgar_ had planted in _Denmark_, was secured there when
+_Canute_ became king of England. The first Christian king in
+Sweden was _Olaf Schooskonig_ (1008). In _Norway_,
+Christianity was much resisted; but when _Olaf the Thick_, who
+was a devoted adherent of the Christian faith, had perished in battle
+(1033), his people, who held him in honor, fell in with the church
+arrangements which he had ordained; and he became _St. Olaf_, the
+patron saint of Norway.
+
+THE BENEDICTINES.--_Benedict_, born at _Nursia_, in
+_Umbria_, in 480, the founder of the monastery of _Monte
+Cassino_, north-west of Naples, was the most influential agent in
+organizing monasticism in Western Europe. He was too wise to adopt the
+extreme asceticism that had often prevailed in the East, and his
+judicious regulations combined manual labor with study and devotion.
+They not only came to be the law for the multitude of monasteries of
+his own order, but also served as the general pattern, on the basis of
+which numerous other orders in later times were constituted. His
+societies of monks were at first made up of laics, but afterwards of
+priests. The three vows of the monk were _chastity_, including
+abstinence from marriage; _poverty_, or the renunciation of
+personal possessions; and _obedience_ to superiors. The
+Benedictine cloisters long continued to be asylums for the distressed,
+schools of education for the clergy, and teachers of agriculture and
+the useful arts to the people in the regions where they were
+planted. Their abbots rose to great dignity and influence, and stood
+on a level with the highest ecclesiastics.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  DISSOLUTION OP CHARLEMAGNE'S EMPIRE: RISE OF THE KINGDOMS
+OF FRANCE, GERMANY, AND ITALY.
+
+
+DIVISIONS IN THE EMPIRE.--The influence of _Charlemagne_ was
+permanent; not so his empire. It had one religion and one government,
+but it was discordant in language and in laws. The Gallo-Romans and
+the Italians spoke the Romance language, with variations of
+dialect. The Germans used the Teutonic tongue. Charlemagne left to the
+Lombards, to the Saxons, and to other peoples, their own special
+laws. The great bond of unity had been the force of his own character
+and the vigor of his administration. His death was, therefore, the
+signal for confusion and division. The tendency to dismemberment was
+aided by the ambition of the princes of the imperial family. The
+_Austrasian_ Franks, to whom Charlemagne belonged, craved
+unity. The _Gallo-Romans_ in the West, the _Teutons_ in the
+East, aspired after independence.
+
+_Louis the Pious_ (814-840), Charlemagne's youngest son,--who, in
+consequence of the death of his elder brothers, was the sole successor
+of his father,--lacked the energy requisite for so difficult a
+place. He was better adapted to a cloister than to a throne. He had
+been crowned at _Aix_ before his father's death; but he consented
+to be crowned anew by Pope _Stephen IV_. at _Rheims_, in
+816. His troubles began with a premature division of his states
+between his sons, _Lothar_, _Pipin_, and _Louis_. His
+nephew, _Bernhard_, who was to reign in Italy in subordination to
+his uncle, rebelled, but was captured and killed (818). In order to
+provide for his son _Charles the Bald_, whose mother
+_Judith_ he had married for his second wife, he made a new
+division in 829. The elder sons at once revolted against their father,
+and _Judith_ and her son were shut up in a cloister
+(830). _Louis_ the son repented, the Saxons and East Franks
+supported the emperor, and he was restored. In 833 he took away
+_Aquitaine_ from Pipin, and gave it to _Charles_. The
+rebellious sons again rose up against him. In company with Pope
+_Gregory IV_., who joined them, they took their father prisoner
+on the plains of Alsace, his troops having deserted him. The place was
+long known as the "Field of Lies." He was compelled by the bishops to
+confess his sins in the cathedral at _Soissons_, reading the list
+aloud. Once more _Louis_ was released, and forgave his sons; but
+partition after partition of territory, with continued discord,
+followed until his death. The quarrels of his surviving sons,
+_Lothar_, _Louis the German_, and _Charles the Bald_,
+brought on, in 841, the great battle of _Fontenailles_. The
+contest was occasioned by the ambition of _Lothar_, the eldest,
+who claimed for himself the whole imperial inheritance. There was
+great carnage, and _Lothar_ was defeated. The bishops present saw
+in the result a verdict of God in favor of his two adversaries. The
+result was the _Treaty of Verdun_ for the division of the empire.
+
+TERMS OF THE TREATY OF VERDUN.--_Louis the German_ took the
+Eastern and German Franks, and _Charles the Bald_ the Western and
+Latinized Franks. _Lothar_, who retained the imperial title,
+received the middle portion of the Frank territory, including Italy
+and a long, narrow strip of territory between the dominions of his
+brothers, and extending to the North Sea. This land took later the
+name of _Lotharingia_, or _Lorraine_. It always had the
+character of a border-land. While _Louis's_ share comprised only
+German-speaking peoples, _Charles's_ kingdom was made up almost
+exclusively of Gallo-Roman inhabitants; while under _Lothar_ the
+two races were mingled. This division marks the birth of the
+_German_ and _French_ nations as such. The German-speaking
+peoples in the East, who were affiliated in language, customs, and
+spirit, more and more grew together into a nation. In like manner, the
+subjects of the Western kingdom more and more were resolved into a
+Franco-Roman nationality. _Lothar_ ruled at Aix-la-Chapelle, and
+was styled emperor; but each of the other kingdoms was independent,
+and the empire of Charlemagne was dissolved. Only for a short time,
+under _Charles the Fat_ (881-887), nearly the whole monarchy of
+Charlemagne was united under one scepter. When he was deposed it was
+again broken in pieces; and four distinct kingdoms emerged,--those of
+the Eastern and Western Franks, "the forerunners of Germany and
+France," and the kingdoms of Italy and of Burgundy, in South-eastern
+Gaul, which were sometimes united and sometimes
+separate. _Lotharingia_ was attached now to the Eastern and now
+to the Western Frank kingdom. In theory there was not a severance, but
+a sharing, of the common possession which had been the object of
+contention.
+
+EASTERN CARLOVINGIANS.--_Charles the Fat_ was a weak and sluggish
+prince. He offered no effectual resistance to the destructive ravages
+of the Normans, or Scandinavian Northmen. He was deposed in 887, and
+died in the following year on an island in the Lake of Constance. His
+successor, the grandson of _Louis the German_, _Arnulf_,
+duke of Carinthia, became king of the Germans, (887-899) and emperor;
+and, after his short reign, the line of Louis died out in _Louis the
+Child_, the weak son of _Arnulf_ (900-911). The house of
+Charlemagne survived only among the Western Franks.
+
+During the reign of Louis the Child, _Hatto_ (I.), archbishop of
+_Mentz_ and primate of Germany, was regent and guardian of the
+king. He was a bold defender of the unity of the empire. He was
+charged, truly or falsely, with taking the life of _Adalbert_, a
+Frank nobleman whom he had enticed into his castle. There was a
+popular tradition that the devil seized Hatto's corpse, and threw it
+into the crater of Mount Ĉtna. The mistake is often made of connecting
+the popular legend of the "Mouse-tower" at _Bingen_ on the Rhine,
+with him. It was told of a later Hatto (_Hatto II._), who was
+likewise archbishop of _Mentz_ (968). He was charged with
+shutting up the poor in a barn, in a time of famine, and of burning
+them there. As the story runs, he called them "rats who ate the corn."
+Numberless mice swam to the tower which he had built in the midst of
+the stream, and devoured him. _Southey_ has put the tale into a
+ballad,--"God's Judgment on a Wicked Bishop."
+
+KINGDOM OF FRANCE.--In 841 _Rouen_ fell into the hands of the
+Normans, and _Paris_ lay open to their attacks. In 861 _Charles
+the Bald_ invested a brave soldier, _Robert the Strong_, whose
+descent is not known, with the county of Paris, that he might resist
+the invaders. He held the country between the Seine and the Loire,
+under the name of the _Duchy of France_. The other
+_Francia_, east of the Rhine, continued to be an important part
+of Germany, the district called _Franconia_. Robert was the
+greatgrandfather of _Hugh Capet_, the founder of the kingdom of
+_France_. Under the imbecile _Charles the Fat_, the
+audacious Northmen (885-886) laid siege to _Paris_. It was
+_Odo_, or _Eudes_, count of Paris, who led the citizens in
+their heroic and successful resistance. Him the nobles of France chose
+to be their king. His family were called "Dukes of the French." Their
+duchy--_Western_ or _Latin Francia_--was the strongest state
+north of the Loire. The feudal lords were growing mightier, and the
+imperial or royal power was becoming weaker. After _Odo_ of Paris
+was elected to the Western kingdom, there followed a period of about a
+hundred years during which there was a king sometimes from his house
+and sometimes from the family of the Carlovingians. The latter still
+spoke German, and, when they had the power, reigned at _Laon_ in
+the northeastern corner of the kingdom. _Odo_ ruled from 888
+until 898. He had to leave the southern part of France
+independent. During the last five years of his life he was obliged to
+contend with _Charles the Simple_ (893-929), who was elected king
+by the Carlovingian party of the north. The most noted of the
+Carlovingian kings at _Laon_ was _Louis_ "from beyond seas"
+(936-954), Charles's son, who had been carried to England for
+safety. His reign was a constant struggle with _Hugh the Great_,
+duke of the French, the nephew of King Odo. _Hugh_ would not
+accept the crown himself. On the death of _Louis V_. (986-987),
+the direct line of Charlemagne became extinct. The only Carlovingian
+heir was his uncle, _Charles_, _duke of Lorraine_. His claim
+the barons would not recognize, but elected _Hugh Capet_, duke of
+France, to be king, who, on the 1st (or the 3d) of July, 987, was
+solemnly crowned in the cathedral of Noyon, by the archbishop of
+Rheims. Just at this juncture, when the contest was between the dukes
+of the French and _Charles of Lorraine_, the Carlovingian
+claimant to the sovereignty, the adhesion and support of Duke
+_Richard_ of Normandy (943-996) was of decisive effect. The
+Normans had been on the side of _Laon_; now they turned the scale
+in favor of the elevation of the Duke of France. The German party at
+_Laon_ could not withstand the combined power of _Rouen_ and
+_Paris_. Thus with _Hugh Capet_, the founder of the Capetian
+line, the kingdom of _France_ began, having _Paris_ for its
+capital; and the name of _France_ came gradually to be applied to
+the greater part of Gaul. But when _Hugh Capet_ became king, the
+great feudal states were almost independent of the royal
+control. Eight were above the rest in power and extent. "The counts of
+_Flanders_, _Champagne_, and _Vermandois_, and the
+dukes of _Normandy_, _Brittany_, _Burgundy_, and
+_Aquitaine_, regarded themselves as the new king's peers or
+equals." _Lorraine_, _Arles_, and _Franche
+Comté_--parts of modern France--"held of the emperor, and were, in
+fact, German."  _Hugh Capet's_ dukedom was divided by the
+Seine. He was lay abbot of St. Denis, the most important church in
+France.
+
+THE GERMAN KINGDOM.--With the death of _Louis the Child_ (911)
+the German branch of the Carlovingian line was extinguished.  The
+Germans had to choose a king from another family. Germany, like
+France, was now composed of great fiefs. But there were two parties,
+differing from one another in their character and manners. The one
+consisted of the older Alemannic and Austrasian unions, where the
+traces of Roman influence continued, where the large cities were
+situated, and the principal sees. Here were formed the duchies of
+_Swabia_ and _Bavaria_, and _Franconia_ (Austrasian
+France). To the other, consisting chiefly of the duchy of
+_Saxony_, were attached _Thuringia_ and a part of
+_Frisia_. In France the royal power, at the start, was so weak,
+that, not being dreaded, it was suffered to grow. In Germany the royal
+power was so strong that there was a constant effort to reduce
+it. Hence in France the result was centralization; in Germany the
+tendency was to division. In France the long continuance of the family
+of _Hugh Capet_ made the monarchy _hereditary_. In Germany
+the frequent changes of dynasty helped to make it _elective_.
+
+CONRAD I.--When Louis died, _Conrad_ of Franconia (911-918) was
+chosen king by the clerical and secular nobles of the five duchies, in
+which the counts elevated themselves to the rank of dukes,--Franconia,
+Saxony, Lorraine, Swabia, and Bavaria. Germany thus became an elective
+kingdom; but since, as a rule, the sovereignty was continued in one
+family, the electoral principle was qualified by an hereditary
+element. _Conrad_ began the struggle against the great
+feudatories, which went on through the Middle Ages. The dukes always
+chafed under the rule of a king; yet, for the glory of the nation and
+for their own safety against attacks from abroad, they were anxious to
+preserve it from extinction. The _Hungarians_, to whom _Louis
+the Child_ had consented to pay tribute, renewed their
+incursions. They marched in force as far as
+_Bremen_. _Conrad_ had wished to reduce the power of Saxony,
+and to detach from it Thuringia. He was constantly at war with his own
+subjects. Yet on his death-bed he showed his disinterested regard to
+the interests of the kingdom. He called to him his brother
+_Eberhard_, and charged him to carry his crown and crown jewels
+to his enemy _Henry_, duke of the Saxons, who was most capable of
+defending the country against the Hungarian invaders.
+
+ITALY.--After the empire of _Charles the Fat_ was broken up, a
+strong anti-German feeling was manifest in Italy. The people wanted
+the king of Italy, and, if possible, the emperor of the Romans, to be
+of their own nation. But they could not agree: there was a violent
+contest between the supporters of _Berengar_ of Friuli and the
+supporters of _Guido_ of Spoleto. _Arnulf_ came twice into
+Italy to quell the disturbance, and on his second visit, in 896, was
+crowned emperor. Civil war soon broke out again. Within twenty years
+the crown had been given to five different aspirants. They were
+Germans, or were Italians only in name. _Berengar I_. (888-924)
+was crowned emperor by the Pope, but had to fight against a
+competitor, _Rudolph_, king of Burgundy, whom the turbulent
+nobles set up in his place. _Berengar_ was finally defeated and
+assassinated. His grandson, _Berengar II_. (of Ivrea) (950-961),
+had to fly to Germany (943) to escape a competitor for the throne,
+_Hugh_, count of Provence, brother of _Ermengarde_,
+Berengar's step-mother, to whom she had given the crown. His relations
+with _Otto I_. (the Great) led to very important consequences, to
+be narrated hereafter.
+
+STATE OF LEARNING IN THE TENTH CENTURY.--Under Charles the Bald, there
+were not wanting signs of intellectual activity. _John Scotus
+Erigena_,--or John Scot, Erinborn,--who was at the head of his
+palace-school, was an acute philosopher, who, in his speculations in
+the vein of New Platonism, tended to pantheistic doctrine. His
+opinions were condemned at the instance of _Hincmar_, the eminent
+archbishop of Rheims. But after the deposition of _Charles the
+Fat_ (887), there followed a period of darkness throughout the
+West. The universal political disorder was enough to account for this
+prevalent ignorance. But, in addition, the Latin language ceased to be
+spoken by the people, while the new vernacular tongues were not
+reduced to writing. Latin could only be learned in the schools; and
+these fell more and more into decay, in the confusion of the
+times. The mental stimulus which the study of the Latin had
+communicated, there was nothing, as yet, in the new languages to
+replace.
+
+THE PAPACY IN THE NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES.--While Italy was under
+the rule of _Justinian_ and his successors, the popes were
+subject to the tyranny of the Eastern emperors. After the Lombard
+conquest, their position, difficult as it was on account of the small
+protection afforded them from Constantinople, was favorable to the
+growth of their influence and authority. By their connection with
+_Pipin_ and _Charlemagne_, they were recognized as having a
+spiritual headship, the counterpart of the secular supremacy of the
+emperor. The election of the Pope was to be sanctioned by the emperor,
+and that of the emperor by the Pope. But _Charlemagne_ was
+supreme ruler over all classes and persons in Italy, as in his own
+immediate dominions. In the disorder that ensued upon his death, the
+imperial authority in all directions was reduced. The Frank bishops
+were frequently appealed to as umpires among the contending
+Carolingian princes. The growth of the power of the great bishops
+carried in it the exaltation of the highest bishop of all, the Roman
+pontiff. A _pallium_, or mantle, was sent by the Pope to all
+archbishops on their accession, and was considered to be a badge of
+the papal authority. In the earlier part of the ninth century, there
+appeared what are called the _pseudo-Isidorian decretals_,
+consisting of forged ecclesiastical documents purporting to belong to
+the early Christian centuries, which afforded a sanction to the
+highest claims of the chief rulers of the Church. These are
+universally known to be an invention; but, in that uncritical day,
+this was not suspected. They contained not much in behalf of
+hierarchical claims which had not, at one time or another, been
+actually asserted and maintained. In the spirit of the decretals Pope
+_Nicholas I._ (858-867) acted, when this energetic pontiff
+overruled the iniquitous decision of two German synods, and obliged
+_Lothar_, king of Lotharingia, to take back his lawful wife,
+_Theutberga_, whom he had divorced out of regard to a mistress,
+_Waldrada_. In the tenth century (904-962), when Italy, in the
+absence of imperial restraint, was torn by violent factions, the
+Papacy was for half a century disposed of by the _Tuscan_ party,
+and especially by two depraved women belonging to it, _Theodora_,
+and her daughter _Maria_ (or _Marozia_). The scandals
+belonging to this dismal period in the history of the papal
+institution are to be ascribed to the anarchy prevailing in Italy, and
+to the vileness of the individuals who usurped power at Rome.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.  INVASIONS OF THE NORTHMEN AND OTHERS: THE FEUDAL SYSTEM.
+
+
+INCURSIONS OF THE NORTHMEN.--The _Scandinavians_, or
+_Northmen_, were a Teutonic people, by whom were gradually formed
+the kingdoms of _Denmark_, _Norway_, and
+_Sweden_. Their incursions, prior to _Charlemagne_, were
+towards the Rhine, but at length assumed more the character of
+piracy. They coasted along the shores in their little fleets, and lay
+in wait for their enemies in creeks and bays; whence they were called
+_vikings_, or children of the bays. By degrees they ventured out
+farther on the sea, and became bolder in their depredations. They sent
+their light vessels along the rivers of France, and established
+themselves in bands of five or six hundred at convenient stations,
+whence they sallied out to plunder the neighboring cities and country
+places. They did not _cause_, but they _hastened_, the fall
+of the Frank Empire. In 841 they burned _Rouen_; in 843 they
+plundered _Nantes_, _Saintes_, and
+_Bordeaux_. _Hastings_, a famous leader of these hardy
+sea-robbers, sailed along the coast of the Spanish peninsula, took
+_Lisbon_ and pillaged it, and burned _Seville_. Making a
+descent upon _Tuscany_, he captured, by stratagem, and plundered
+the city of _Luna_, which he at first mistook for Rome. In 853
+the daring rovers captured _Tours_, and burned the Abbey of
+St. Martin; and, three years later, they appeared at
+_Orleans_. In 857 they burned the churches of _Paris_, and
+carried away as captive the abbot of St. Denis. As pagans they had no
+scruple about attacking churches and abbeys, to which fugitives
+resorted for safety and for the hiding of their treasures. _Robert
+the Strong_ fell in fighting these marauders (866). Their
+devastations continued down to the year 911, in the reign of
+_Charles the Simple_; then the same arrangement was made which
+the Romans had adopted in relation to the Germanic invaders. By the
+advice of his nobles, _Charles_ decided to abandon to the
+Northmen, territory where they could settle, and which they could
+cultivate as their own. Rolf, or _Rollo_, one of their most
+formidable chiefs, accepted the offer; and the Northmen established
+themselves (911) in the district known afterwards as
+_Normandy_. _Rollo_ received baptism, wore the title of
+duke, and thus became the liege of King _Charles_, who reigned at
+_Laon_, and whom he loyally served. Later the Normans joined
+hands with _ducal_ France, and helped _Paris_ to throw off
+its dependence on _royal_ France and the house of Charlemagne
+which had ruled at _Laon_. It was by Norman help that the duchy
+of France was raised to the rank of a kingdom, and _Hugh Capet_,
+in the room of being a vassal of kings of German lineage, became the
+founder of French sovereigns. Under the Normans, tillage flourished;
+and the feudal system was established with greater regularity than
+elsewhere.
+
+THE DANES IN ENGLAND.--When, in 827, _Egbert_, the king of
+_Wessex_, united all the Saxons in England under his rule, the
+Danish attacks had already begun. In his later years these ravages
+increased. _Alfred_ (871-901) was reduced to such straits in 878,
+that, with a few followers, he hid himself among the swamps and woods
+of Somersetshire. It was then, according to the legend, that he was
+scolded by the woman, who, not knowing him, had set him to watch her
+cakes, but found that he, absorbed in other thoughts, had allowed them
+to burn. Later, _Alfred_ gained advantages over the Danes; but,
+in the treaty that was made with them, they received, as vassals of
+the West Saxon king, _East Anglia_, and part of _Essex_ and
+_Mercia_. Already they had a lodgment in _Northumberland_,
+so that the larger part of England had fallen into Danish hands. The
+names of towns ending in _by_, as _Whitby_, are of Danish
+origin. _Alfred_ compiled a body of laws called _dooms_,
+founded monasteries, and fostered learning. He himself translated many
+books from the Latin. His bravery in conflict with the Danes enabled
+him to spend his last years in quiet. _Athelstan_, the grandson
+of _Alfred_ (925-940), was victorious over the Danes, and over
+the Scotch and Welsh of the North. Under _Edgar_ (959-975), the
+power of England was at its height. He kept up a strong fleet; but, in
+the time of _Aethelred II_. (the Unready), the Danish invasions
+were renewed. He and his bad advisers adopted the practice of buying
+off the invaders at a large price. In 994 _Swegen_ invaded the
+country. He had been baptized, but had gone back to heathenism. In
+1013 England was completely conquered by him. _Aethelred_ fled to
+_Duke Richard the Good_ of Normandy.
+
+CANUTE.--The son of Aethelred, _Edmund_, surnamed
+_Ironside_, after the death of _Swegen_, kept up the war
+with his son Cnut, or _Canute_. After fighting six pitched
+battles with him, _Edmund_ consented to divide the kingdom with
+him; but in the same year (1016) the English king died. _Canute_
+(1017-1035) now became king of all England. He had professed
+Christianity, and unexpectedly proved himself, after his accession, to
+be a good ruler. One of the legends about him is, that he once had a
+seat placed for himself by the seashore, and ordered the rising tide
+not to dare to wet his feet. Not being obeyed by the dashing waves, he
+said, "Let all men know how empty and worthless is the power of kings,
+for there is none worthy of the name but He whom heaven, earth, and
+sea obey by eternal laws." After that he never wore his crown, but
+left it on the image of Jesus on the cross. _Canute_ inherited
+the crown of _Denmark_, and won _Norway_ and part of
+_Sweden_; so that he was the most powerful prince of his
+time. His sons, however, did not rule well; and in 1042 the English
+chose for king one of their own people, _Edward_, called _the
+Confessor_, the son of _Aethelred_. In the time of Canute, the
+power of the Danes, and of the Northmen generally, was at its
+height. Denmark, Norway, Sweden, and England were ruled by them; and
+Scandinavian princes by descent governed in Normandy and in
+Russia. Although a most vigorous race, the Northmen showed a wonderful
+facility in adopting the language and manners of the people among whom
+they settled. The effect of their migrations was to diminish the
+strength and importance of their native countries which they had left.
+
+OTHER SETTLEMENTS OF NORTHMEN.--The Northmen made many other voyages
+which have not yet been mentioned. As early as 852 there was a
+Scandinavian king in _Dublin_. They early conquered the
+_Shetland Isles_, the _Orkneys_, and the _Hebrides_. On
+the northern coast of Scotland, they founded the kingdom of
+_Caithness_, which they held to the end of the twelfth
+century. _Iceland_ was discovered by the Northmen, and was
+settled by them in 874. About the same time _Greenland_ was
+discovered, and towards the end of the tenth century a colony was
+planted there. This led to the discovery of the mainland of America,
+and to the occupation, for a time, of _Vinland_, which is
+supposed to have been the coast of New England. In _Russia_,
+where the Northmen were called _Varangians_, _Rurik_, one of
+their leaders, occupied _Novgorod_ in 862, and founded a line of
+sovereigns, which continued until 1598.
+
+INCURSIONS OF SARACENS.--The _Saracens_ were marauders in Italy,
+as the Northmen were in France. From _Cairoan_ (in Tunis), as we
+have seen, they sent out their piratical fleets, which ravaged Malta,
+Sicily, and other islands of the Mediterranean. These corsairs,
+checked for the moment by the fleets of Charlemagne, afterwards began
+anew their conquests. From Sicily, of which they made themselves
+masters in 831, they passed over to the Italian mainland. Among their
+deeds are included the burning of _Ostia_, _Civita Vecchia_,
+and the wealthy abbey of _Monte Cassino_, They landed on the
+shores of Provence, established a military colony there, pillaged
+_Arles_ and _Marseilles_, and continued their depredations
+in Southern France and Switzerland.
+
+INCURSIONS OF HUNGARIANS.--The _Magyars_, called by the Greeks
+_Hungarians_, a warlike people of the Turanian group of nations,
+crossed the Carpathian Mountains about 889. They overran the whole of
+Hungary and Transylvania. In 900, in the course of their predatory
+invasions, they penetrated into Bavaria, and the king of Germany paid
+them tribute. They carried their incursions into Lombardy and into
+Southern Italy. They even crossed the Rhine, and devastated Alsace,
+Lorraine, and Burgundy. Such terror did they excite that their name
+remained in France a synonym of detestable ferocity.
+
+CHARACTER OF THE LATER INVASIONS.--The incursions in the ninth century
+differed from the great Germanic invasions which had subverted the
+Roman Empire. The Northmen and the Saracens moved in small bands,
+whose main object was plunder, and not either permanent conquest, or,
+as was the aim of the Arabians, the spread of a religion by the
+sword. The _Hungarians_ alone established themselves in the
+valley of the Theiss and the Danube, after the manner of the Franks,
+the Burgundians, and the Goths; and there they remained. The great
+effect of the last invasion was to accelerate the breaking up of
+political unity, and the introduction of feudal organization, or the
+preponderance of local rule as opposed to centralized power.
+
+
+
+THE NORTHMEN IN ENGLAND AND ITALY.
+
+Later than the events narrated above, there were two great
+achievements of the Northmen, which it is most convenient to describe
+here, although they occurred in the eleventh century. They are the
+conquest of England, and the founding of the kingdom of Naples and
+Sicily.
+
+
+
+I. THE NORMAN CONQUEST OF ENGLAND.
+
+The NORMAN INVASION.--The duchy of Normandy had become very strong and
+prosperous, and, under the French-speaking Northmen, or Normans, had
+grown to be one of the principal states in Western
+Europe. _Edward_, king of England, surnamed the _Confessor_,
+or Saint (1042-1066) had been brought up in Normandy, and favored his
+own Norman friends by lavish gifts of honors and offices. The party
+opposed to the foreigners was led by _Godwin_, earl of the West
+Saxons. After being once banished, he returned in arms; and Norman
+knights and priests were glad to escape from the country. Edward's
+wife was _Edith_, daughter of Godwin. They had no children; and
+on his death-bed he recommended that Earl _Harold_, the son of
+Godwin, should be his successor. The Normans claimed that he had
+promised that their duke, _William_, should reign after him. It
+was said that _Harold_ himself, on a visit to William, had,
+either willingly or unwillingly, sworn to give him his
+support. _Edward_, who was devout in his ways, though a negligent
+ruler, was buried in the monastery called Westminster, which he had
+built, and which was the precursor of the magnificent church bearing
+the same name that was built afterwards by King _Henry
+III_. _Harold_ was now crowned. Duke _William_, full of
+wrath, appealed to the sword; and, under the influence of the
+archdeacon _Hildebrand_, Pope _Alexander II_. took his side,
+and sanctioned his enterprise of conquest. At the same time the north
+of England was invaded by the king of the Norwegians, a man of
+gigantic stature, named _Hardrada_. The Norman invaders landed
+without resistance on the shore of _Sussex_, on the 28th of
+September, 1066, and occupied _Hastings_. _Harold_ encamped
+on the heights of _Senlac_. On the 14th of October the great
+battle took place in which the Normans were completely victorious. The
+English stood on a hill in a compact mass, with their shields in front
+and a palisade before them. They repulsed the Norman charges. But the
+Normans pretended to retreat. This moved the Saxons to break their
+array in order to pursue. The Normans then turned back, and rushed
+through the palisade in a fierce onset. An arrow pierced the eye of
+_Harold_, and he was cut to pieces by four French knights. The
+Norman duke, _William the Conqueror_, was crowned king on
+Christmas Day; but it was four years before he overcame all
+resistance, and got full control over the country. The largest estates
+and principal offices in England he allotted to Normans and other
+foreigners. The crown of _William_ was handed down to his
+descendants, and gradually the conquerors and the conquered became
+mingled together as one people.
+
+
+
+EFFECT OF THE NORMAN CONQUEST.
+
+CHARACTER OF THE SAXONS.--The Saxons at the time of the Conquest were
+a strong and hardy race, hospitable, and fond of good cheer, which was
+apt to run into gluttony and revels. Their dwellings were poor,
+compared with those of the better class of Normans. They were
+enthusiastic in out-door sports, such as wrestling and hunting. They
+fought on foot, armed with the shield and axe. The common soldier,
+however, often had no better weapon than a fork or a sharpened
+stick. The ordeals in vogue, as a test of guilt and innocence when one
+was accused of a crime, were, plunging the arm into boiling water, or
+holding a hot iron in the hand for three paces. _London_ was fast
+growing to be the chief town, and eclipsing _Winchester_, the old
+Saxon capital. A king like _Alfred_, and scholars like
+_Bede_ and _Alcuin_, not to speak of old chronicles and
+ballads, show that literature was valued; but the Danish invasions in
+_Northumberland_, where schools and letters had flourished, did
+much to blight the beginnings of literary progress.
+
+THE NORMAN SPIRIT AND INFLUENCE.--The tapestry at _Bayeux_
+represents in a series of pictures the course of the Norman conquest.
+There we see the costume of the combatants. The Norman gentlemen were
+mounted, and fought with lance and sword. Of their bravery and
+military skill, their success affords abundant proof. Although the
+Normans were victors and masters in England, not only was the conquest
+gradual, but the result of it was the amalgamation of the one people
+with the other. The very title of _conqueror_, attached to
+William, was a legal term (_conquaestor_), and meant
+_purchaser_ or _acquirer_. There was an observance of legal
+forms in the establishment and administration of his government. The
+_folkland_, or the public land, was appropriated by him, and
+became crown-land. So all the land of the English was considered to be
+forfeited, and estates were given out liberally to Norman
+gentlemen. The nobility became mainly Norman, and the same was true of
+the ecclesiastics and other great officers. All the land was held as a
+grant from the king. In 1085 the making of _Domesday_ was
+decreed, which was a complete statistical survey of all the estates
+and property in England. The object was to furnish a basis for
+taxation. The _Domesday Book_ is one of the most curious and
+valuable monuments of English history. Among the changes in law made
+by William was the introduction of the Norman wager of battle, or the
+duel, by the side of the Saxon methods of ordeal described above. In
+most of the changes, there was not so much an uprooting as a great
+transformation of former rules and customs.
+
+ENGLAND AND THE CONTINENT.--One of the most important results of the
+Norman Conquest was the bringing of England into much more intimate
+relations with the continent. The horizon of English thought and life
+was widened. One incidental consequence was the closer connection of
+the English Church with the Papacy. Foreign ecclesiastics, some of
+them men of eminence and of learning, were brought in. It was this
+connection with the continent that led England to take so important a
+part in the Crusades.
+
+THEN NORMAN GOVERNMENT.--As regards feudalism, one vital feature of
+it--the holding of land by a military tenure, or on condition of
+military service--was reduced to a system by the conquest. But
+_William_ took care not to be overshadowed or endangered by his
+great vassals. He levied taxes on all, and maintained the place of
+lord of all his subjects. He was king of the English, and sovereign
+lord of the Norman nobles. He summoned to the _Witan_, or Great
+Assembly, those whom he chose to call. This summons, and the right to
+receive it, became the foundation of the _Peerage_. Out of the
+old Saxon _Witan_, there grew in this way the _House of
+Lords_. The lower orders, when summoned at all, were summoned in a
+mass; afterwards we shall find that they were called by
+representatives; and, in--the end, when the privilege of appearing in
+this way was converted into a right, the _House of Commons_ came
+into being. In like manner, the _King's Court_ gradually came to
+be, in the room of the Assembly itself, a judicial and governing
+Committee of the Assembly. From this body of the king's immediate
+counselors emerged in time the _Privy Council_ and the _Courts
+of Law_. Out of the Privy Council grew, in modern times, the
+_Cabinet_, composed of what are really "those privy councilors
+who are specially summoned." Committees of the National Assembly, in
+the course of English history, acquired "separate being and separate
+powers, as the legislative, judicial, and executive branches of the
+government." Thus the English Constitution is the product of a steady
+growth.
+
+MINGLING OF BLOOD AND LANGUAGES.--A multitude of Normans emigrated
+into England, especially to _London_. The Normans became
+Englishmen, as a natural consequence. But they affected the spirit and
+manners of the people by whom they were absorbed. By opening avenues
+for French influence, _chivalry_, with its peculiar ideas and
+ways, was brought into England. But it must never be forgotten that
+the _Normans_ were kinsfolk of the Saxons. Both conquerors and
+conquered were Teutons. The conquest was very different, in this
+particular, from what the conquest of Germany by France, or of France
+by Germany, would be. The French language which the Normans spoke had
+been acquired by them in their adopted home across the channel. To
+this source the _Latin_ element, or words of Latin etymology, in
+our English tongue is mainly due. The loss of the old Saxon
+inflections is another marked change; but this is not due, to so large
+an extent, solely to the influence of Norman speech. But the English
+language continued to be essentially Teutonic in its structure. For a
+long time the two tongues lived side by side. At the end of the
+twelfth century, if French was the language of polite intercourse,
+English was the language of common conversation and of popular
+writings. Learned men spoke, or could speak, and they wrote, in Latin.
+
+NORMAN BUILDINGS.--The Normans built the cathedrals and castles. Down
+to the eleventh century, the _Romanesque_, or "round-arched"
+architecture, derived from Italy, had been the one prevalent style in
+Western Europe. In the modification of it, called the _Norman_
+style, we find the round arch associated with massive piers and narrow
+windows. _Durham_ cathedral is an example of the Norman
+Romanesque type of building. The Norman conquerors covered England
+with _castles_, of which the White Tower of London, built by
+William, is a noted specimen. Sometimes they were square, and
+sometimes polygonal; but, except in the palaces of the kings, they
+afforded little room for artistic beauty of form or decoration. They
+were erected as fortresses, and were regarded by the people with
+execration as strongholds of oppression.
+
+
+
+II. THE NORMANS IN ITALY AND SICILY.
+
+THE NORMAN KINGDOM OF NAPLES AND SICILY.--Early in the eleventh
+century, knights from Normandy wandered into Southern Italy, and gave
+their aid to different states in battle against the Greeks and
+Saracens. In 1027 the ruler of Naples gave them a fertile district,
+where they built the city of _Aversa_. By the reports of their
+victories and good fortune, troops of pilgrims and warriors were
+attracted to join them. The valiant sons of the old count,
+_Tancred_ of _Hauteville_, were among the number. They
+supported the Greek viceroy in an attack on the Arabs in Sicily; but,
+on his failing duly to reward them, they turned against him, and
+conquered _Apulia_ for themselves. Under _Robert Guiscard_
+(1057-1085), they made themselves masters of all Southern Italy. They
+had already defeated Pope Leo IX. at _Civitella_, and received
+from him as fiefs their present and anticipated conquests in Apulia,
+Calabria, and Sicily. Twelve years after, _Robert_, with the help
+of his brother _Roger_, wrested Sicily, with its capital,
+_Palermo_, from the Saracens, who were divided among themselves
+(1072). The seaports of _Otranto_ and _Bari_ were also taken
+by _Robert_. He even entered on the grand scheme of conquering
+the Byzantine Empire, but his death frustrated this endeavor. His
+nephew _Roger II_. (1130-1154) took the remaining possessions of
+the Greeks in Southern Italy and Sicily, united them in the kingdom of
+Naples and Sicily, and received from the Pope the title of king. In
+this kingdom the feudal system was established, and trade and industry
+flourished. In culture and prosperity it surpassed all the other
+Italian communities. At _Salerno_ was a famous school of medicine
+and natural science; at _Amalfi_ and _Naples_ were schools
+of law. But the Norman nobility was corrupted and enervated by the
+luxury of the South, and by the influence of Mohammedan customs, and
+modes of thought. During fifty-six years _Roger_ and his two
+successors, _William the Bad_ (1154-1166) and _William the
+Good_ (1166-1189), ruled this flourishing kingdom, which then fell
+by inheritance to the _Hohenstaufen_ German princes. On the
+mainland and in Sicily, numerous stately buildings and ruined castles
+and towers point back to the romantic period of Norman rule.
+
+NORMAN TRAITS.--It is a remarkable fact, that the Normans, although so
+distinguished as rovers and conquerors, have vanished from the face of
+the earth. They were lost in the kingdoms which they founded. They
+adopted the languages of the nations which they subdued. But while in
+England they were merged in the English, and modified the national
+character, this effect was not produced in Italy and Sicily. In Sicily
+they found Greek-speaking Christians and Arabic-speaking Mussulmans;
+and Italians came into the island in the track of the conquerors. The
+Normans did not find there a nation as in England; and they created
+not a nation, but a kingdom of a composite sort, beneficent while it
+lasted, but leaving no permanent traces behind. "The Normans in
+Sicily," says Mr. Freeman, "so far as they did not die out, were
+merged, not in a Sicilian nation, for that did not exist, but in the
+common mass of settlers of Latin speech and rite, as distinguished
+from the older inhabitants, Greek and Saracen." Independent,
+enterprising, impatient of restraint, gifted with a rare imitative
+power which imparted a peculiar tinge and a peculiar grace to whatever
+they adopted from others, they lacked originality, and the power to
+maintain their own distinctive type of character and of speech.
+
+Mr. Freeman has eloquently described the spread of the Normans, "the
+Saracens of Christendom," in all corners of the world. They fought in
+the East against the Turks. "North, south, east, the Norman lances
+were lifted." The Norman "ransacked Europe for scholars, poets,
+theologians, and artists. At Rouen, at Palermo, and at Winchester he
+welcomed merit in men of every race and every language." "And yet that
+race, as a race, has vanished." "The Scottish Brace or the Irish
+Geraldine passed from Scandinavia to Gaul, from Gaul to England, from
+England to his own portion of our islands; but at each migration, he
+ceased to be Scandinavian, French, or English: his patriotism was in
+each case transferred to his new country, and his historic being
+belongs to his last acquired home." Norman blood was in the veins of
+the Crusaders who first stood on the battlements of Jerusalem, and of
+the great German emperor, _Frederic II_.
+
+
+
+THE NORMANS.
+
+
+TANCRED OF HAUTEVILLE.
+|
++--Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia, _d._ 1085.
+|
+|  SICILY
+|
++--ROGER, the Great Count, _d._ 1101
+   |
+   +--Roger (of Apulia, 1127; king, 1130), 1101-1154.
+      |
+      +--WILLIAM I the Bad, 1154-1166,
+      |  _m._ Margaret, daughter of Garcia IV of Navarre.
+      |  |
+      |  +--WILLIAM II the Good, 1166-1189,
+      |     _m._ Joanna, daughter of Henry II of England.
+      |
+      +--CONSTANCE (_d._ 1198),
+         _m._ Emperor Henry VI.
+
+
+
+THE FEUDAL SYSTEM.
+
+ORIGIN OF FEUDALISM.--When the Franks conquered Gaul, they divided the
+land among themselves. This estate each free German held as
+_allodial_ property, or as a _free-hold_. The king took the
+largest share. His palaces were dwellings connected with large farms
+or hunting-grounds, and he went with his courtiers from one to
+another. To his personal followers and officers he allotted
+lands. These _benefices_, it seems, were granted at first with
+the understanding that he might resume them at will. As holders of
+them, the recipients owed to him personal support. Other chiefs, and
+land-owners of a minor grade, took the same course. This was the germ
+of _feudalism_. More and more it grew to be the characteristic
+method of living and of government in Western Europe after the fall of
+Charlemagne's empire. The inheritors of his dominion were not the
+kings of France, of Germany, or of Italy, but the numerous feudal
+lords. Against the invasions of the Norman, Saracen, and Hungarian
+plunderers, the kings and the counts proved themselves incapable of
+defending territory or people. Meantime, the principle of
+heredity--the principle that benefices should go down from father to
+son, or to the next heir--had gained a firm footing. Another fact was
+that the royal offices became hereditary, and were transmitted to the
+heirs of allodial property. Thus the exercise of government and the
+possession of land were linked together. In times of danger, small
+proprietors more and more put themselves under the protection of the
+richer and stronger: that is, _allodial_ property became
+_feudal_. This custom had begun long before, in the decadence of
+the Roman empire, when not only poor freemen, but also men of moderate
+means, ruined by taxation, put themselves under the protection of the
+great, and settled on their lands. They became thus _colons_
+(_coloni_). In the later times of disorder of which we are now
+speaking, farmhouses in the country gave place to fortified
+_castles_ on hill-tops or other defensible sites, about which
+clustered in villages the dependents of the lord, who tilled his land,
+fought for him, and, in turn, were protected by him.
+
+THE SUBSTANCE OF FEUDALISM.--"Feudality recognizes two principles, the
+land and the sword, riches and force,--two principles on which every
+thing depends, to which every thing is related, and which are united
+and identified with one another; since it is necessary to possess land
+in order to have the right to use the sword in one's own name (that is
+to say, to have the right of private war), and since the possession of
+land imposes the duty of drawing the sword for the suzerain, and in
+the name of the suzerain of whom the land is held." Feudalism is a
+social system in which there is a kind of _hierarchy_ of lands in
+the hands of warriors, who hold of one another in a gradation. There
+is a chain reaching up from the tower of the simple gentleman to the
+royal _chateau_, or castle. In this social organization, there
+are the two grand classes of the _seigneurs_ and the
+_serfs;_ but the _seigneur_, even if he be a king, may also
+hold fiefs as a _vassal_.
+
+SUZERAIN AND VASSAL.--The _suzerain_ and the _vassal_, or
+_liege_, were bound together by reciprocal obligations. The
+vassal owed (1) military service on the demand of the lord; (2) such
+aid as the suzerain called for in the administration of justice within
+his jurisdiction; (3) other aids, such as, when he was a prisoner, to
+pay the ransom for his release; and pecuniary contributions when he
+armed his eldest son, and when he married his eldest daughter. These
+were legal or required aids. They took the place of _taxation_ in
+modern states. There were other things that the vassal was expected to
+do which were _gracious_ or _voluntary_. If the liege died
+without heirs, or forfeited the fief by a violation of the conditions
+on which it was held, it reverted to the lord. The liege was
+_invested_ with the fief. He knelt before the suzerain, put his
+hands within the hands of the suzerain, and took an oath to be his
+_man_. This was _homage_,--from _homo_ in the Latin,
+and _homme_ in French, signifying _man_. The suzerain might
+at any time require its renewal. Under the feudal system, every thing
+was turned into a fief. The right to hunt in a forest, or to fish in a
+river, or to have an escort on the roads, might be granted as a fief,
+on the condition of loyalty, and of the _homage_ just described.
+
+PRIVATE WAR.--The vassal had the right to be tried by his peers; that
+is, by vassals on the same level as himself. He might, if treated with
+injustice, go to the superior: he might appeal to the suzerain of his
+immediate lord. But suzerains preferred to take justice into their own
+hands. Hence the custom of _private war_ prevailed, and of
+judicial combats, or _duels_, so common in the middle ages.
+
+ENTANGLEMENTS OF FEUDALISM.--Many suzerains were mutually vassals,
+each holding certain lands of the other. The same baron often held
+lands of different suzerains, who might be at war with each other, so
+that each required his service. The sovereign prince might be bound to
+do homage to a petty feudal lord on account of lands which the prince
+had inherited or otherwise acquired. The power of the suzerain
+depended on a variety of circumstances. The king might be weak, since
+feudalism grew out of the overthrow of royal power. The king of
+_France_, with the exception of titular prerogatives and some
+rights with regard to churches, which were often disputed, had no
+means of attack or defense beyond what the _duchy_ of France
+furnished him. Yet logically and by a natural tendency, the king was
+the supreme suzerain. "Feudalism carried hid in its bosom the arms by
+which it was one day to be struck down."
+
+ECCLESIASTICAL FEUDALISM.--The clergy were included in the feudal
+system. The bishop was often made the _count_, and, as such, was
+the suzerain of all the nobles in his diocese. Cities were often under
+the suzerainty of bishops. Besides their tithes, the clergy had
+immense landed possessions. The abbots and bishops often availed
+themselves of the protection of powerful vassals, of whom they were
+the suzerains. On the other hand, bishops, who were also themselves
+_dukes_ or _counts_, sometimes did homage for their
+temporalities to lay suzerains, especially to the king. In
+_France_ and in _England_, in the middle ages, the feudal
+clergy possessed a fifth of all the land; in _Germany_, a
+third. The church, through bequests of the dying and donations from
+the living, constantly increased its possessions. It might be
+despoiled, but it could defend itself by the terrible weapon of
+excommunication.
+
+SERFS AND VILLAINS.--In the eleventh century Europe was thus covered
+with a multitude of petty sovereigns. Below the body of rulers, or the
+holders of fiefs, was the mass of the people. These were the
+_serfs_,--the tillers of the ground, who enjoyed some of the
+privileges of freemen, and who, since they were attached to the
+_seigneurie_, could not be sold as slaves. The _villains_
+were a grade above the serfs. The term (from _villĉ_) originally
+meant _villagers_. They paid rent for the land which the
+proprietor allowed them to till; but they were subject, like the
+serfs, to the will of the suzerain; and the constant tendency was for
+them to sink into the inferior condition. _Slavery_, as
+distinguished from serfdom, gradually passed away under the
+emancipating spirit fostered by Christianity and the Church.
+
+THE INHERITANCE OF FIEFS.--At first the _Salic_ principle, which
+excluded females from inheriting fiefs, prevailed. But that gave way,
+and daughters were preferred in law to collateral male relatives. When
+a female inherited, the fief was occupied by the suzerain up to the
+time of her marriage. It never ceased to be under the protection of
+the sword. In _France_, the right of primogeniture was
+established, but with important qualifications, which varied in
+different portions of the country. The eldest, however, always had the
+largest portion. In _Germany_, the tendency to the division of
+fiefs was more prevalent. Among the _Normans _ in _England_,
+and under their influence in _Palestine_, the law of inheritance
+by the eldest was established in its full rigor.
+
+SPIRIT OF FEUDALISM.--Feudalism had more vitality than the system of
+absorbing all the land by a few great proprietors, which existed in
+the period of the decline of the Roman Empire. Individuality, courage,
+the proud sense of belonging to an aristocratic order, were widely
+diffused among the numerous feudal landowners. The feeling of loyalty
+among them was a great advance upon the blind subjection of the slave
+to his master. But the weight of feudalism was heavy on the lower
+strata of society. The lord was an autocrat, whose will there was
+neither the power nor the right to resist, and who could lay hold of
+as much of the labor and the earnings of the subject as he might
+choose to exact. The petty suzerain, because his needs were greater,
+was often more oppressive than the prince. The serf could not change
+his abode, he could not marry, he could not bequeath his goods,
+without the permission of his lord.
+
+
+
+THE SAXON, FRANCONIAN, AND HOHENSTAUFEN IMPERIAL HOUSES.
+
+
+HENRY I [1] 918-936.
+|
++--OTTO I, 936-973, Emperor, 962, _m._
+|  1, Eadgyth, _d._ of Edward the Elder;
+|  |
+|  +--Liutgarde.
+|
+|  2, Adelheid, [2] _d._ of Rudolph II, King of Burgundy.
+|  |
+|  +--OTTO II, 973-983, _m._
+|     Theophania, daughter of Romanus II, Eastern Emperor.
+|     |
+|     +--OTTO III, 983-1002.
+|
++--Henry the Wrangler, Duke of Bavaria.
+   |
+   +--Henry the Wrangler.
+      |
+      +--(St.) HENRY II, 1002-1024, _m._ Cunigunda of Luxemburg.
+
+
+CONRAD I, [1] 911-918.
+|
++--C. Werner (?) _m._ daughter.
+   |
+   +--Conrad the Red, (killed at the Lechfeld, 955) _m._
+      Liutgarde, daughter of Eadgyth and Otto I.
+      |
+      +--Otto.
+         |
+         +--Henry.
+            |
+            +--CONRAD II, the Salic, 1024-1039, _m._
+               Gisela, d. of Hermann II, Duke of Swabia.
+               |
+               +--HENRY III, 1039-1056, _m._
+                  1, Gunhilda, daughter of Cnut;
+                  2, Agnes, daughter of William, Count of Poitiers.
+                  |
+                  +--HENRY IV, 1056-1106, _m._
+                     1, Bertha, daughter of Otto, Marquis of Susa;
+                     |
+                     +--HENRY V, 1106-1125, _m._
+                     |  Matilda, d. of Henry I of England.
+                     |
+                     +--Agnes, _m._
+                        1, Frederick of Hohenstaufen,
+                        Duke of Swabia, 1080-1105;
+                        |
+                        +--Frederick the One-eyed,
+                           Duke of Swabia, d. 1147, _m._
+                           1, Judith, daughter of Henry the Black.
+                           |
+                           +--FREDERICK I, Barbarossa, 1152-1190.
+                           |  |
+                           |  +--HENRY VI, 1190-1197, _m._
+                           |  |  Constance of Sicily, _d._ 1198.
+                           |  |  |
+                           |  |  +--FREDERICK II, 1214-1250, _m._
+                           |  |     1, Constance, d. of
+                           |  |     Alfonso II of Aragon;
+                           |  |     |
+                           |  |     +--CONRAD IV, 1250-1254, _m._
+                           |  |     |  Elizabeth, daughter of
+                           |  |     |  Otto II of Bavaria.
+                           |  |     |  |
+                           |  |     |  +--Conradin, _d._ 1268.
+                           |  |     |
+                           |  |     +--Manfred,[5] _d._ 1266.
+                           |  |
+                           |  |     2, Iolande de Brienne;
+                           |  |
+                           |  |     3, Isabella, d. of
+                           |  |     John of England.
+                           |  |
+                           |  +--PHILIP, 1198-1208, _m._
+                           |     Irene, d. of Isaac II,
+                           |     Angelus, Eastern Emperor.
+                           |     |
+                           |     +--Beatrix, _m._
+                           |        OTTO IV,[4] 1208-1214,
+                           |        _d._ 1218.
+                           |
+                           +--CONRAD III,[3] 1137-1152.
+
+                        2, Leopold III, Marquis of Austria,
+                        _d._ 1136.
+
+                     2, Adelaide, a Russian princess.
+
+
+1  Conrad I and Henry I seem to have been related. By one account their
+mothers were the daughters of Emperor Arnulf.
+
+2  Widow of Lothar, King of Italy.
+
+3  Elected 1127 in opposition to Lotharl accepted as his successor.
+
+4  Elected in opposition to Philip; accepted as his successor, 1208;
+ruined by battle of Bouvines.
+
+5  King of Naples and Sicily after Conrad IV; killed in battle at
+Benevento against Charles of Anjou. Manfred's mother was Bianca Langia,
+daughter of a Lombard noble.
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD III.  FROM THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ROMANO-GERMANIC EMPIRE TO
+THE END OF THE CRUSADES. (A.D. 962-1270.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE: PREDOMINANCE OF THE EMPIRE:
+TO THE CRUSADES, A.D. 1096.
+
+
+I. KINGS AND EMPERORS OF THE SAXON HOUSE (918-1024).
+
+HENRY THE FOWLER (918-936).--The envoys who carried to Duke _Henry of
+Saxony_ the announcement of his election as king of Germany are said
+to have found him in the Hartz Mountains with a falcon on his wrist:
+hence he was called _Henry the Fowler_. He is a great figure in
+mediĉval history, and did much to make Germany a nation. He won back
+_Lorraine_, which had broken off from the kingdom. With it the
+_Netherlands_--Holland, Flanders, etc.--came to Germany. He united
+all the five great dukedoms, and governed with wisdom and moderation. At
+the end of five years, the _Hungarians_ poured in with irresistible
+force. There was no alternative but to conclude with them a truce for
+nine years, during which he was to pay tribute. He set to work at once,
+however, to strengthen the defenses of his kingdom. He built walled
+towns and fortresses in the eastern districts of _Saxony_ and
+_Thuringia_, and drafted one out of nine of the men from the
+population in the marches for military service. The fortresses were to
+be kept stored with provisions. The oldest towns of Saxony and of
+Thuringia are of this date. Then he disciplined his soldiers, and
+trained them to fight, like the Hungarians, on horseback. He conquered
+the Slavonian _Wends_ who dwelt east of the _Elbe_ and the
+_Saale_, and established the margraviate of _Meissen_ to repel
+their attacks. His victory over the Slaves at _Lenzen_ (929) made
+the north-eastern frontiers of Germany secure. _Eadgyth_, the
+daughter of _Edward_, king of England, was given in marriage to his
+eldest son, _Otto_. Henry now felt himself strong enough to throw
+off the Hungarian yoke, and answered with defiance their demand for the
+annual tribute. The struggle with them was hard; but they were
+completely vanquished at _Merseburg_ in 933, and their camp taken.
+Henry founded the mark of _Schleswig_ as a defense against the
+_Danes_. This wise and vigorous monarch laid the foundations of the
+German Empire. He was not only a mighty warrior: he built up industry
+and trade. He was buried at _Quedlinburg_ in the abbey which he had
+founded.
+
+OTTO I.: THE PALSGRAVES.--Otto I. (936-973) carried forward with equal
+energy the work which his father had begun. Having been chosen king by
+the German princes and chiefs at _Aix_, he was presented to the
+people in the church by the archbishop of Mentz; and they gave their
+assent to the election by raising the hand. Otto had a contest before
+him to maintain the unity of the kingdom. He aimed to make the office of
+duke an office to be allotted by the king, and thus to sap the power of
+his turbulent lieges. The dukes of Bavaria and Franconia, with Lorraine,
+and with the support of _Louis IV._, king of France, rose in arms
+against him. He subdued them; and the great duchies which had revolted
+against him becoming vacant, he placed in them members of his own
+family. He confirmed his authority by extending the power of the
+_palsgraves_, or _counts palatine_,--royal officers who
+superintended the domains of the king in the several duchies, and
+dispensed justice in his name. He favored the great ecclesiastics as a
+check to the aspiring lay lords. He invested the bishops and abbots with
+ring and staff, and they took the oath of fealty to him.
+
+WARS OF OTTO I--Against the _Hungarians_, Otto achieved a
+triumph. He gained a victory over them at _Augsburg_ in 955, in
+which they were said to have lost a hundred thousand men. This put an
+end to their incursions into Germany. He was likewise the victor in
+conflict with _Slavonians_. He subdued _Boleslav I._ of
+Bohemia, who had thrown off the German suzerainty, and obliged him to
+pay a tribute. Under the pious _Boleslav II._, Christianity was
+established there, and a bishopric founded at Prague (967). The _Duke
+of Poland_ was forced to do homage to him, and to permit the founding
+of the bishopric of _Posen_. Against the Danish king, _Harold_
+the Blue-toothed, he carried his arms to the sea, the northern boundary
+of _Jutland_. He erected three new bishoprics among the Danes, and
+founded the archbishopric of _Magdeburg_, with subordinate sees in
+the valleys of the Elbe and the Oder. These achievements gave Otto great
+renown in Western Europe. The kings sent ambassadors to him, and
+presents came from the sovereigns at Constantinople and Cordova.
+
+OTTO I. IN ITALY.--Otto now turned his eyes to Italy. After
+_Arnulf_, the Carlovingian emperor, left Italy (in 896), that
+country had been left to sixty years of anarchy. The demoralization and
+disorder of Italy, the profligacy of the Romans and of the pontiffs,--
+every thing being then subject to the riotous aristocratic factions,
+--rendered unity impossible. For a time (926-945) _Hugh of
+Provence_ was called king: then followed his son _Lothar_
+(945-950). The next Italian king, _Berengar II._ of Ivrea (950),
+who, like his two predecessors, was an offshoot of the Carlovingian
+house, tried to force _Adelheid_, the beautiful young widow of
+Lothar, into a marriage with his son Adalbert. She (being then nineteen
+years of age) escaped with great difficulty from the prison where she
+was confined, took refuge in the castle of Canossa, and appealed to the
+great _Otto_, king of the Germans, for help,--to Otto, "that model
+of knightly virtue which was beginning to show itself after the fierce
+brutality of the last age." He descended into Italy, married the injured
+queen, and obliged _Berengar_ to own him as suzerain
+(951). _Berengar_ proved faithless and rebellious. Once more
+_Otto_ entered Italy with an overpowering force, and was proclaimed
+king of the Lombards at _Pavia_. Pope _John XII_. had proposed
+to him to assume the imperial office. He was crowned, with his queen, in
+St. Peter's, in 962. He had engaged to confirm the gifts of previous
+emperors to the popes. When _John XII._ reversed his steps, allied
+himself with _Berengar_, and tried to stir up the Greeks, and even
+the Hungarians, against the emperor, _Otto_ came down from
+Lombardy, and captured Rome. He caused John to be deposed by a synod for
+his crimes, and _Leo VIII._ to be appointed in his place
+(963). But, while Otto was again absent, Leo was driven out by the
+Romans, and John returned; but, soon after, he died. The Romans then
+elected _Benedict_ pope. Otto captured Rome once more, deposed him,
+and restored _Leo_. Benedict was held in custody, and died in
+Hamburg. On a third journey to Italy, in 966, Otto crushed the factions
+which had so long degraded Rome and the Church. On this occasion, he
+negotiated a marriage between _Theophano_, a Greek princess, and
+his son, also named _Otto_. Thus he acquired the southern extremity
+of Italy.
+
+THE HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE.--_Otto_ had taken Charlemagne for his
+model. The "Holy Roman Empire of the German nation," the great political
+institution of the middle ages, was now established. In theory it was
+the union of the world-state and the world-church,--an undivided
+community under Emperor and Pope, its heaven-appointed secular and
+spiritual heads. As an actual political fact, it was the political union
+of _Germany_ and _Italy_, in one sovereignty, which was in the
+hands of the German king. The junction of the two peoples was not
+without its advantages to both. It was, however, fruitful of evils. The
+strength of Germany was spent in endless struggles abroad, which stood
+in the way of the building up of a compact kingdom at home. For Italy it
+was the rule of foreigners, of which she might feel the need, but to
+which she was never reconciled.
+
+OTTO II.: OTTO III.: HENRY II.--_Otto II._ (973-983) was highly
+gifted intellectually, but lacked his father's energy and decision.
+_Henry_ the Quarrelsome, duke of Bavaria, revolted, but was put
+down, and deprived of his duchy. Otto obliged _Lothar_, the West
+Frankish king, to give up his claim to Lotharingia, which he attempted
+to seize. Otto, in 980, went to Italy, and, in the effort to conquer
+Southern Italy from the Greeks and Saracens, barely escaped with his
+life. This was in 982. He never returned to Germany. While _Otto
+III._ (983-1002) was a child, his mother, _Theophano_, was
+regent for a time in Germany, and his grandmother, _Adelheid_, in
+Italy. One of Otto's tutors was _Gerbert_, an eminent scholar and
+theologian. The proficiency of the young prince caused him to be styled
+the "Wonder of the World." He was crowned emperor in Rome in 996, when
+he was only sixteen years old. He dreamed of making Rome once more the
+center of the world, for his interest was chiefly in Italy. But his
+schemes were ended by his early death. At this time and afterward, there
+was deep agitation manifested in Europe, owing to the general
+expectation that before long the world would come to an end. On this
+account pilgrims flocked to Rome. _Henry II._ (1002-1024), as
+nearest of kin to the Saxon house, was the next emperor. Besides waging
+war with his own insurgent lieges, he had to carry on a contest for
+fourteen years with _Bokslav_, king of Poland, who had to give up
+_Bohemia_ and _Meissen_. He founded the bishopric of
+_Bamberg_ (1007). From this time the German kings, before their
+coronation as emperors, took the title of _King of the Romans_.
+The highest nobles were styled "Princes."  The nobles lived in the
+castles, which were built for strongholds, as the power of the lords
+grew, and private wars became more common.
+
+
+II. THE FRANCONIAN OR SALIAN EMPERORS (1024-1125).
+
+CONRAD II.: BURGUNDY: the POLES.--At a great assembly of dukes, counts,
+and prelates at _Oppenheim_ on the Rhine, _Conrad_, a
+Franconian nobleman (_Conrad II._), was elected emperor
+(1024-1039). He was in the prime of life, and went to work vigorously to
+repress disorder in his kingdom. He had the support of the cities, which
+were now increasing in importance. At his coronation in Rome, in 1027,
+there were two kings present, _Canute_ of England and Denmark, and
+_Rudolph III._ of Burgundy (or _Arles_, as the kingdom was
+called which had been formed by _Rudolph II._, by uniting
+_Burgundy_ with a great part of _Provence_). After the death
+of _Rudolph_, who had appointed _Conrad_ his successor, the
+emperor was crowned king of _Arles_, which remained thus attached
+to Germany. But at a later time the _Romance_, or non-German
+portions, were absorbed by _France_. The _Duchy_ of Burgundy,
+a fief of the French king, was not included in the kingdom. The
+_Poles_ invaded Germany in great force. _Miesko_, their
+leader, was repelled, and obliged to do homage for his crown, and to
+give up _Lusatia_, which had been received by _Boleslav_ from
+_Henry II_. In Italy, _Conrad_ issued an edict making the
+smaller fiefs there hereditary. He seems to have designed to do away
+with dukes, and to make the allegiance of all vassals to the king
+immediate.
+
+HENRY III.: THE TRUCE OF GOD.--With _Henry III_. (1039-1056) the
+imperial power reached its height. He was for a time duke of
+_Bavaria_, _Swabia_, and _Franconia_, as well as
+emperor.  In _Hungary_ he conquered the enemies of _Peter_
+the king, and restored him to the throne, receiving his homage as
+vassal of the empire. He had great success in putting down private
+war. In 1043 he proclaimed a general peace in his kingdom. He favored
+the attempt to bring in the _Truce of God_. This originated in
+_Aquitaine_, where the bishops, in 1041, ordered that no private
+feuds should be prosecuted between the sunset of Wednesday and the
+sunrise of Monday, the period covered by the most sacred events in the
+life of Jesus. This "truce," which was afterwards extended to embrace
+certain other holy seasons and festivals, spread from land to land. It
+shows the influence of Christianity in those dark and troublous
+times. Although it was imperfectly carried out, it was most beneficent
+in its influence, and specially welcome to the classes not capable of
+defending themselves against violence.
+
+SYNOD OF SUTRI.--In 1046 _Henry_ was called into Italy by the
+well-disposed of all parties, to put an end to the reign of vice and
+disorder at Rome. He caused the three rival popes to be deposed by a
+synod at _Sutri_, and a German prelate, _Suidger_, bishop of
+_Bamberg_, to be appointed under the name of _Clement II_.,
+by whom he was crowned emperor. After Clement died, Henry raised to
+the Papacy three German popes in succession. While in the full
+exercise of his great authority, and when he was not quite forty years
+of age, he died.
+
+HENRY IV.: HIS CONTESTS IN GERMANY.--_Henry IV_. (1056-1106), at
+his father's death, was but six years old. He had been crowned king at
+the age of four. _Agnes_ of Poitou, his mother, the regent, had
+no ability to curb the princes, who were now released from restraint,
+and eager for independence. By a bold stratagem, an ambitious prelate,
+_Hanno_, archbishop of Cologne, carried off the young king, and
+assumed the guardianship over him. He had a rival in the person of
+_Adalbert_, archbishop of Bremen, whom Henry liked best, as being
+more indulgent and complaisant, and who at length became his chosen
+guide. But in 1066 the princes caused _Adalbert_ to be banished
+from court. They obliged _Henry_ to marry _Bertha_, the
+daughter of the margrave of Turin, to whom he had been betrothed by
+his father. The union was repugnant to him, and he sought a divorce;
+although her patience eventually won the victory, and she became a
+cherished wife. _Henry_, arrived at man's estate, was involved in
+a contest with three of the great dukes. It was evident that he meant
+to tread in the footsteps of his father, and to reduce the princes to
+submission. Hostility arose, especially between the young king and the
+_Saxons_, who did not relish the transfer of the imperial office
+to the _Franconian_ line. The passionate and wilful disposition
+of _Henry_, and his sensual propensities, were his worst
+enemies. The strongholds which he erected among the _Saxons_, in
+themselves a menace, were made haunts of his boon companions and
+comrades in the chase. The extortion and depredations to which the
+Saxons were a prey provoked a great insurrection, which at first
+prevailed; but the excesses of the elated insurgents--as seen, for
+example, in the plundering and burning of churches--caused a
+reaction. Henry suppressed the revolt, and dealt with the Saxons with
+the utmost harshness, treating their dukedom as conquered
+territory. The Saxon chiefs were now in durance: his enemies on every
+side had willingly yielded, or were prostrate. The hour seemed to have
+come for Henry to exercise that sovereignty as Roman emperor over
+Church and State which his father had wielded; but he found himself
+confronted by a new and powerful antagonist in the celebrated Pope
+Hilde-brand, or _Gregory VII_. (1073-1085).
+
+HILDEBRAND: INVESTITURES.--The state of affairs in the Roman Church
+had called into existence a party of reform, the life and soul of
+which was _Hildebrand_. He was the son of a carpenter of
+_Soano_, a small town in Tuscany, and was born in 1018. He was
+educated in a monastery in Rome, and spent some time in France, in the
+great monastery of _Cluny_. He became the influential adviser of
+the popes who immediately preceded him. The great aim of Hildebrand
+and of his supporters--one of the most prominent of whom was the
+zealous _Peter Damiani_, bishop of Ostia--was to abolish
+_simony_ and the _marriage of priests_. By _simony_ was
+meant the purchase and sale of benefices, which had come to prevail in
+the different countries. The old church laws requiring _celibacy_
+had been disregarded, and great numbers of the inferior clergy were
+living with their wives. In Hildebrand's view, there could be no
+purity and no just discipline in the Church without a strict
+enforcement of the neglected rule. The priests must put away their
+wives. Connected with these reforms was the broader design of wholly
+emancipating the Church from the control of the secular power, and of
+subordinating the State to the Church. For this end there must be an
+abolition of _investiture_ by lay hands. This demand it was that
+kindled a prolonged and terrible controversy between the emperors and
+the popes. The great ecclesiastics had temporal estates and a temporal
+jurisdiction, which placed them in a feudal relation, and made them
+powerful subjects. It was the custom of the kings to invest them with
+these temporalities by giving to them the ring and the staff. This
+enabled the kings to keep out of the benefices persons not acceptable
+to them, who might be elected by the clergy. On the other hand, it was
+complained that this custom put the bishops and other high
+ecclesiastics into a relation of dependence on the lay authority; and,
+moreover, that, the _ring_ and _staff_ being badges of a
+spiritual function, it was sacrilegious for a layman to bestow them.
+
+CONTEST OF HILDEBRAND AND HENRY IV.--In the period of lawlessness at
+Rome, Hildebrand had welcomed the intervention of _Henry III._,
+and even of _Henry IV._, at the beginning of his reign. But this
+he regarded as only a provisional remedy made necessary by a desperate
+disorder. On acceding to the Papacy, he began to put in force his
+leading ideas. The attempt to abolish the marriage of priests was
+resisted, and stirred up great commotion in all the countries. The
+legates of the Pope set themselves to stem the tide of opposition by
+inveighing, in addresses to the common people, against the married
+clergy, as unfit to minister at the altar. By this means, a popular
+party in favor of the reform was created. In 1075, in a synod at
+_Rome_, Hildebrand pronounced the ban against five councilors of
+_Henry IV._ for simony. At the same time he threatened
+_Philip_ of France with a similar penalty. He forbade princes to
+invest with any spiritual office. To oaths of allegiance he did not
+object, but to any investiture of a spiritual kind. Gregory selected
+_Henry IV._ as the antagonist with whom to fight out the
+battle. Henry's ecclesiastical appointments were not simoniacal in
+fact, although they violated the papal decrees against simony. His
+real offense was his determination to make the appointments himself.
+Moreover, in 1075, he ventured to name Germans to the sees of Ferno
+and Spoleto. Unfortunately he was weakened by the disaffection of the
+German princes, and, most of all, of the _Saxons_. The fire of
+rebellion in Saxony had not been quenched: it was still
+smouldering. _Gregory_ summoned _Henry_ to Rome to answer to
+the charges made against him. In three German synods held in 1076, the
+incensed emperor caused empty accusations to be brought against the
+Pope, and a declaration to be passed deposing him. He sent to the
+pontiff a letter filled with denunciation, and addressed "to the false
+monk, Hildebrand." Gregory issued decrees excommunicating
+_Henry_, deposing him, and declaring his subjects free from their
+obligation of allegiance. It was the received doctrine, that a heretic
+or a heathen could not reign over Christian people. The discontented
+German princes took sides with Gregory. In an assembly at
+_Tribur_ in 1076, they invited the Pope to come to
+_Augsburg_, and to judge in the case of _Henry_: he was to
+live as a private man; and, if he remained excommunicate for a year,
+he was to cease to be king altogether.
+
+HUMILIATION OF HENRY IV.--_Henry_ was now as anxious for
+reconciliation with the Pope as before he had been bold in his
+defiance.  In the midst of winter, with his wife and child and a few
+attendants, he crossed the Mt. Cenis pass, undergoing extreme
+difficulty and hardship, and presented himself as a penitent before
+Gregory, who had arrived, on his way to _Augsburg_, at the
+strongly fortified castle of _Canossa_. The Pope kept him waiting
+long, it is said, barefoot and bareheaded in the court-yard of the
+castle. Finally he was admitted and absolved, but only on the
+condition that _Gregory_ was to adjust the matters in dispute
+between the emperor and his subjects.
+
+CONTINUED CONFLICT.--When Henry found that his imperial rights were
+still withheld, his fiery spirit rebounded from this depth of
+humiliation. The _Lombards_, with whom Gregory was unpopular,
+joined him. A majority of the German princes, adhering to the Pope, in
+1077 elected _Rudolph_, duke of Swabia, emperor. The Pope took up
+his cause, and in 1080 once more excommunicated and deposed
+_Henry_. The emperor proclaimed anew, through synods, the Pope's
+deposition, and things were back in the former state. The emperor's
+party appointed a counter-pope, _Guibert_, archbishop of Ravenna,
+under the name of _Clement III_. _Rudolph_ was killed in
+battle (1080). _Henry's_ power now vastly increased. He invaded
+Italy (1081), and laid waste the territory of _Matilda_, countess
+of _Tuscany_, a fast friend of Gregory. In 1084 he captured
+Rome. The Pope had found a defender in _Robert Guiscard_, the
+Norman duke of Lower Italy, whom he had excommunicated, but whom (in
+1080) he forgave, and took into his service. _Robert_ released
+Gregory, who had been besieged in the Castle of
+St. Angelo. _Hildebrand_ died at Salerno, May 25, 1085. When near
+his end he uttered the words which are inscribed on his tomb: "I have
+loved righteousness, and hated iniquity; therefore do I die in exile."
+Of the rectitude of his intentions, there is no room for doubt,
+whatever view is taken of the expediency of his measures. He united
+with an unbending will the power of accommodating himself to
+circumstances, as is witnessed in his treatment of _Robert
+Guiscard_, and in his forbearance towards _William the
+Conqueror_, king of England, with whom he did not wish to break.
+
+Of this great pontiff, Sir James Stephen says: "He found the Papacy
+dependent on the empire: he sustained it by alliances almost
+commensurate with the Italian peninsula. He found the Papacy electoral
+by the Roman people and clergy: he left it electoral by a college of
+papal nomination. He found the emperor the virtual patron of the holy
+see: he wrested that power from his hands. He found the secular clergy
+the allies and dependants of the secular power: he converted them into
+the inalienable auxiliaries of his own. He found the higher
+ecclesiastics in servitude to the temporal sovereigns: he delivered
+them from that yoke to subjugate them to the Roman tiara. He found the
+patronage of the Church the mere desecrated spoil and merchandise of
+princes: he reduced it within the dominion of the supreme pontiff. He
+is celebrated as the reformer of the impure and profane abuses of his
+age: he is more justly entitled to the praise of having left the
+impress of his own gigantic character on the history of all the ages
+which have succeeded him."
+
+LAST DAYS OF HENRY IV.--In 1085 Henry IV. returned to Germany, having
+been crowned emperor by his Pope, _Clement III_. The _Saxons_
+were tired of strife; and, on the assurance that their ancient
+privileges should be restored, they were pacified. _Hermann_ of
+Luxemburg, whom they had recognized as their king, had resigned the
+crown (1088). The last days of _Henry_ were clouded by the
+rebellion of his sons, first of _Conrad_ (1093), and then of
+_Henry_ (1104), who was supported by the Pope, _Paschal
+II_. The emperor was taken prisoner, and obliged to sign his own
+abdication at _Ingelheim_ in 1105. The duke of Lotharingia and
+others came to his support, and a civil war was threatened; but
+_Henry_ died at _Lüttich_ in 1106. His body was placed in a
+stone coffin, where it lay in an unconsecrated chapel, at _Spires_,
+until the removal of the excommunication (1111).
+
+CONCORDAT OF WORMS.--_Henry V_. (1106-1125) was not in the least
+disposed to yield up the right of investiture. Hence he was soon
+engaged in a controversy with _Paschal II_. Henry went to Rome
+with an army in 1110, and obliged the Pope to crown him emperor, and
+to concede to him the right in question. When he went back to Germany,
+the Pope revoked the concession, and excommunicated him. The German
+princes, as might be expected, sided with the pontiff. The conflict in
+Germany went on. The emperor's authority, which was established in the
+South by means of his powerful supporters, was not secured in the
+North; but, during the last three years of his life, he was at peace
+with the Church. By the _Concordat of Worms_ in 1122, it was
+agreed that investiture should take place in the presence of the
+emperor or of his deputies; that the emperor should _first_
+invest with the scepter, and then consecration should take place by
+the Church, with the bestowal of the _ring_ and the
+_staff_. All holders of secular benefices were to perform feudal
+obligations.
+
+LOTHAR OF SAXONY.--The princes over whom Henry V. had exercised a
+severe control opposed the elevation of _Frederick_ of
+Hohenstaufen, the son of his sister _Agnes_. At a brilliant
+assembly at _Mentz_, _Lothar_ of Saxony was chosen emperor
+(1125-1137). He allowed all the Pope's claims, and was crowned at Rome
+by Innocent II., accepting the allodial possessions of _Matilda_
+of Tuscany, as a fief from the pontiff. He carried on a war with the
+Hohenstaufen princes, _Frederick_ of Swabia, and his brother
+_Conrad_, who finally yielded. _Lothar_ was helped in the
+conflict by _Henry the Proud_, the duke of Bavaria, who also
+became duke of Saxony. Germany under _Lothar_ extended its
+influence in the north and east.
+
+CULTURE IN THE ELEVENTH CENTURY.--The tenth century, owing to causes
+which have been explained, was a dark age. In the eleventh century
+circumstances were more favorable for culture. Under the Saxon
+emperors, intercourse was renewed with the Greek Empire. There was
+some intercourse with the Arabs in Spain, among whom several of the
+sciences were cultivated, especially mathematics, astronomy, and
+medicine (p. 232). The study of the Roman law was revived in the
+Lombard cities, and this had a disciplinary value. The restoration of
+order in the Church, after the synod of _Sutri_ (1046), had
+likewise a wholesome influence in respect to culture. There were
+several schools of high repute in France, especially those at
+_Rheims, Chartres, Tours,_ and in the monastery of _Bec_, in
+Normandy, where _Lanfranc_, an Italian by birth, a man of wisdom
+and piety, was the abbot.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II. THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE: PREDOMINANCE OF THE CHURCH: TO
+THE END OF THE CRUSADES, A.D. 1270.
+
+
+THE TWO RELIGIONS.--The Crusades were a new chapter in the long
+warfare of Christendom with Mohammedanism. "In the Middle Ages, there
+were two worlds utterly distinct,--that of the Gospel and that of the
+Koran." In Europe, with the exception of Spain, the Gospel had sway;
+from the Pyrenees to the mouths of the Ganges, the Koran. The border
+contests between the two hostile parties on the eastern and western
+frontiers of Christendom were now to give place to conflict on a
+larger scale during centuries of invasion and war.
+
+STATE OF THE GREEK EMPIRE.--The Greek Christian Empire lay between the
+Christian peoples of the West and the dominion of the Arabs. That
+empire lived on, a spiritless body. After _Justinian_, there is
+an endless recurrence of wars with the Arabs, and with the barbarians
+on the North, and of theological disputes, either within the empire
+itself, or with the Church of the West. The Greeks complained that a
+phrase teaching the procession of the Spirit from the Son had been
+added in the West to the Nicene Creed. The Latins complained of the
+use of leavened bread in the sacrament, of the marriage of priests,
+and of some other Greek peculiarities. The separation of the two
+churches was consummated when, in 1054, the legate of the Pope laid on
+the altar of _St. Sophia_, at Constantinople, an anathema against
+"the seven mortal heresies" of the Greeks.
+
+ATTACKS OF RUSSIANS AND BULGARIANS.--Left to itself, the empire showed
+some energy in repelling the attacks of the Russians and Bulgarians. A
+number of capable rulers arose. The Russians, of the same race of
+Northmen who had ravaged Western Europe, kept up their assaults until
+their chief, _Vladimir_, made peace, accepted Christianity, and
+married the sister of the emperor, Basil II. (988). The empire between
+988 and 1014 was invaded twenty-six times by King _Samuel_ of
+Bulgaria. But the Bulgarian kingdom was overthrown, in 1019, by
+_Basil II_. In the twelfth century it regained its independence.
+
+THE GREEK EMPERORS.--In the ninth century the Greeks made head against
+the Arabs, especially by means of their navy. In the tenth century
+_John I_. (_Zimisces_) crossed the Euphrates, and created
+alarm in Bagdad. The tenacity of life in the Greek Empire was
+surprising in view of the languishing sort of existence that it
+led. After _Heraclius_, there were three dynasties, the last of
+which, the _Macedonian_ (867-1056), produced three remarkable
+men, _Nicephorus Phocas_, _Zimisces_, and _Basil
+II_. But the dynasty of _Comneni_, which, in the person of
+_Isaac I_., ascended the throne in 1057, had to combat a new and
+vigorous enemy, the _Turks_, who had now made themselves masters
+of Asia. One of this line of emperors, _Alexius I_., appealed to
+the Germans for help. This had some influence in giving rise to the
+first of the Crusades. In these conflicts the Latins bore the
+brunt. The exhausted Greek Empire played a minor part.
+
+CONQUESTS OF THE TURKS.--The Mussulman dominion of the _Arabs_
+had become enfeebled. The _Ommiad_ dynasty at _Cordova_ had
+disappeared under the assaults of Christians, and of the _Moors_
+of Africa. The _Fatimite_ caliphs were confined to Egypt. The
+rule of the _Abassids_ of Bagdad had been well-nigh demolished by
+the Seljukian Turks in 1058. They founded in the eleventh century an
+extensive empire. The sultan, _Alp Arslan_, took the emperor,
+_Romanus IV. Diogenes_, prisoner (1071), and conquered
+_Armenia_. _Malek Shah_ invaded Syria, Palestine, Jerusalem,
+and carried his arms as far as Egypt, while a member of the Turkish
+family of _Seljuk_ wrested Asia Minor from the Greeks, and
+established the kingdom of _Iconium_, which was called
+_Roum_, extending from Mount Taurus to the Bosphorus. After the
+death of _Malek Shah_, there were three distinct sultanates,
+_Persia_, _Syria_, and _Kerman_,--the last being on the
+shores of the Indian Ocean.
+
+THE PILGRIMS TO JERUSALEM.--The immediate occasion of the Crusades was
+the hard treatment of the Christian pilgrims who visited the sepulcher
+of Christ in Jerusalem. There the Empress _Helena_, the mother of
+Constantine, had erected a stately church. Pilgrimages--which had
+become more and more a custom since the fourth century--naturally
+tended to the sacred places in Palestine. Especially was this the case
+in the eleventh century, when piety had been quickened by the
+_Cluny_ movement. In 1064 a great pilgrimage, in which seven
+thousand persons, priests and laity, of all nations, were included,
+under _Siegfried_, archbishop of _Mentz_, made its way
+through Hungary to Syria. Not more than a third of them lived to
+return. The reports of returning pilgrims were listened to with
+absorbing interest, as they told of the spots to which the imagination
+of the people was constantly directed. What indignation then was
+kindled by the pathetic narrative of the insults and blows which they
+had endured from the infidels who profaned the holy places with their
+hateful domination! In the ninth century, under caliphs of the temper
+of _Haroun Al-Raschid_, Christians had been well treated. About
+the middle of the tenth century the Fatimite caliphs of Egypt were the
+rulers at Jerusalem. _Hakem_ was fierce in his persecution, but
+his successors were more tolerant. When the Seljukian Turks got
+control there, the harassed pilgrims had constant occasion to complain
+of insult and inhumanity.
+
+THE CALL OF THE GREEKS.--The Greek emperor, _Alexius Comnenus_,
+threatened by the Mussulmans on the opposite bank of the Bosphorus,
+sent his call for succor to all Christian courts. Two popes,
+_Sylvester II._ and _Gregory VII._, had in vain exhorted the
+princes to rise in their might, to do away with the wrong and the
+shame which the disciples of Jesus were suffering at the hands of his
+enemies.
+
+MOTIVES TO THE CRUSADES.--After this, only a spark was needed to
+kindle in the Western nations a flame of enthusiasm. The summons to a
+crusade appealed to the two most powerful sentiments then
+prevalent,--the sentiment of _religion_ and that of
+_chivalry_. The response made by faith and reverence was
+reinforced by that thirst for a martial career and for knightly
+exploits which burned as a passion in the hearts of men. The peoples
+in the countries formed by the Germanic conquests were full of vigor
+and life. Outside of the Church, there was no employment to attract
+aspiring youth but the employment of a soldier. Western Europe was
+covered with a net-work of petty sovereignties. Feudal conflicts,
+while they were a discipline of strength and valor, were a narrow
+field for all this pent-up energy. There was a latent yearning for a
+wider horizon, a broader theater of action. Thus the Crusades
+profoundly interested all classes. The Church and the clergy, the
+lower orders, the women and the children, shared to the full in the
+religious enthusiasm, which, in the case of princes and nobles, took
+the form of an intense desire to engage personally in the holy war, in
+order to crush the infidels, and at the same time to signalize
+themselves by gallant feats of arms. There was no surer road to
+salvation. There was, moreover, a hope, of which all in distressed
+circumstances partook, of improving their temporal lot.
+
+THE COUNCIL OF CLERMONT.--The prime author of the first Crusade was
+Pope _Urban II_. He authorized an enthusiast, _Peter the
+Hermit_, of Amiens, to travel on an ass through Italy and Southern
+France, and to stir up the people to the great undertaking of
+delivering the Holy Sepulcher. With an emaciated countenance and
+flashing eye, his head bare, and feet naked, and wearing a coarse
+garment bound with a girdle of cords, he told his burning tale of the
+inflictions endured by the pilgrims. At the great council of
+_Clermont_, in 1095, where a throng of bishops and nobles, and a
+multitude of common people who spoke the Romanic tongue, were
+assembled, _Urban_ himself addressed the assembly in a strain of
+impassioned fervor. He called upon everyone to deny himself, and take
+up his cross, that he might win Christ. Whoever would enlist in the
+war was to have a complete remission of penances,--a "plenary
+indulgence." The answer was thundered forth, "God wills it."
+Thousands knelt, and begged to be enrolled in the sacred bands. The
+red cross of cloth or silk, fastened to the right shoulder, was the
+badge of all who took up arms. Hence they were called _crusaders_
+(from an old French word derived from _crucem_, Lat. acc. of
+_crux_, a cross).
+
+THE UNDISCIPLINED BANDS.--The farmer left his plow, and the shepherd
+his flock. Both sexes and all ages were inspired with a common
+passion. Before a military organization could be made, a disorderly
+host, poorly armed and ill-provided, led by _Peter the Hermit_
+and _Walter the Penniless_, a French knight, started for
+Constantinople by way of Germany and Hungary. They were obliged to
+separate; and, of two hundred thousand, it is said that only seven
+thousand reached that capital. These perished in Asia Minor. They left
+their bones on the plain of _Nicoea_, where they were found by
+the next crusading expedition.
+
+FIRST CRUSADE (1096-1099).--"The Crusades were primarily a Gaulish
+movement:" in French-speaking lands, the fire of chivalric devotion
+was most intense. The first regular army of soldiers of the cross
+departed by different routes under separate chiefs. First of these was
+_Godfrey of Bouillon_, duke of Lower Lorraine, the bravest and
+noblest of them all. With him were his brothers, _Baldwin_, and
+_Eustace_, count of Boulogne. Prominent among the other chiefs
+were _Hugh_, count of Vermandois; _Robert_, duke of
+Normandy, who had pawned his duchy to his brother, _William II_.,
+the king of England; _Robert_, count of Flanders; _Raymond_,
+count of Toulouse; _Bohemond_ of Tarentum, son of Robert
+Guiscard; and _Tancred_, Robert Guiscard's nephew. The Spaniards
+were taken up with their own crusade against the Moors. In consequence
+of the late absorbing struggles between emperors and popes, the
+Germans and Italians did not now embark in the enterprise. The
+relation of the Norman dynasty in England to the conquered Saxons
+prevented the first crusading host from receiving substantial aid from
+that country. The leaders of the army finally consented to become the
+feudal dependents of the emperor _Alexius_ while they should be
+within his borders, and to restore to him such of their conquests as
+had been lately wrested by the Turks from the Eastern
+Empire. _Alexius_ was more alarmed than gratified on seeing the
+swarm of warriors which he had brought into his land. After a siege of
+seven weeks, _Nicea_ was surrendered, not, however, into the
+hands of the European soldiers who had conducted the siege, but to the
+shrewd _Alexius_. At _Doryleum_, in a desperate battle the
+Turks were defeated; but, on their march eastward, they wasted the
+lands which they left behind them. The crusaders suffered severely
+from disease consequent on the heat. A private quarrel broke out
+between _Tancred_ and _Baldwin_. _Baldwin_, invited to
+_Edessa_ by the Greek or Armenian ruler, founded there a Latin
+principality. After besieging _Antioch_ for several months, by
+the treachery of a renegade Christian, _Bohemond_, with a few
+followers, was admitted into the city. The Christians slew ten
+thousand of its defenders; but, three days after, _Antioch_ was
+shut in by a great army of Turks under the sultan _Kerboga_. The
+crusaders were stimulated by the supposed discovery of the "holy
+lance," or the steel head of the spear which had pierced the side of
+Jesus. The Turks were vanquished, and the citadel of Antioch was
+possessed by _Bohemond_. The wrangling chieftains were now
+compelled by the army to set out for Jerusalem. When they reached the
+heights where they first caught a glimpse of the holy city, the
+crusaders fell on their knees, and with tears of joy broke out in
+hymns of praise to God. But, not accustomed to siege operations, and
+destitute of the machines and ladders requisite for the purpose, they
+found themselves balked in the first attempts to capture the city. Yet
+after thirty days, their needs having been meantime in a measure
+supplied, _Jerusalem_ was taken by storm (July 15, 1099). The
+infuriated conquerors gave the rein to their vindictive passions. Ten
+thousand Saracens were slaughtered. The Jews were burned in the
+synagogues, to which they had fled. When the thirst for blood and for
+plunder was sated, feelings of penitence and humility took possession
+of the victors. The leaders, casting aside their arms, with bared
+heads and barefoot, entered into the church of the Holy Sepulcher, and
+on their bended knees thanked God for their success. After debate, the
+princes united in choosing _Godfrey of Bouillon_ as ruler of the
+city. He would not wear a royal crown in the place where the Saviour
+of the world had worn on his bleeding forehead a crown of thorns. He
+designated himself Protector of the Holy Sepulcher. Shortly after, at
+_Ascalon_, he won a great victory against the vastly superior
+forces of the Egyptian sultan. Godfrey died the next year (1100), and
+was succeeded by his brother _Baldwin_, who first took the title
+of King of Jerusalem. The force of the Moslems, and the almost
+incessant strife and division among the crusaders themselves, made the
+kingdom hard to defend.
+
+THE NEW KINGDOM.--Venice, Genoa, and Pisa had the most to do with the
+defense and enlargement of the new kingdom. It was organized according
+to the method of feudalism. It continued until the capture of
+Jerusalem by _Saladin_ in 1187.
+
+THE MILITARY ORDERS.--The principal supporters of the new kingdom at
+Jerusalem were the orders of knights, in which were united the spirit
+of chivalry and the spirit of monasticism. To the monastic vows of
+chastity, poverty, and obedience, they added a fourth vow, which bound
+them to fight the infidels, and to protect the pilgrims. These
+military orders acquired great privileges and great wealth. Each of
+them had its own peculiar apparel, stamped with a cross. The two
+principal orders were the Knights of St. John, or the
+_Hospitallers_, and the _Knights Templar_. The Hospitallers
+grew out of a hospital established in the eleventh century near the
+Holy Sepulcher, for the care of sick or wounded pilgrims. The order,
+when fully constituted, contained three classes of members,--knights,
+who were all of noble birth, priests and chaplains, and serving
+brothers. After the loss of the Holy Land, the island of _Rhodes_
+was given up to them. This they held until 1522, when they were driven
+out by the Turks, and received from the emperor, _Charles V._,
+the island of _Malta_. The Templars gained high renown for their
+valor, and, by presents and legacies, acquired immense wealth. After
+the loss of their possessions in Palestine, most of their members took
+up their abode in _Cyprus_: from there many of them went to
+France. Not a few of them became addicted to violent and profligate
+ways. They were charged, whether truly or falsely, with unbelief, and
+Oriental superstitions caught up in the East from their enemies. These
+accusations, coupled with a desire to get their property, led to their
+suppression by _Philip V._ in the beginning of the fourteenth
+century. A third order was that of _Teutonic Knights_, founded at
+Jerusalem about 1128. In the next century they subjugated the heathen
+_Wends_ in Prussia (1226-1283).
+
+WELFS AND WAIBLINGS.--The emperor _Lothar_ died on a journey back
+from Italy in 1137. _Henry the Proud_, of the house of
+_Welf_, to whom he had given the imperial insignia, hoped to be
+his successor, and hesitated to recognize _Conrad
+III_. (1137-1152) of the house of _Hohenstaufen_, who was
+chosen. Conrad required him to give up _Saxony_, for the reason
+that one prince could not govern two duchies. When he refused,
+_Bavaria_, also, was taken from him, and given to _Leopold_,
+margrave of Austria. This led to war, in which the king, as usual, was
+strongly supported by the cities. Henry the Proud left a young son,
+known later as _Henry the Lion_. Count _Welf_, the brother
+of Henry the Proud, kept up the war in Bavaria. He was besieged in
+_Weinsberg_. During the siege, it is said that his followers
+shouted "_Welf_" as a war-cry, while the besiegers shouted
+"_Waiblings_,"--_Waiblingen_ being the birthplace of
+_Frederick_, duke of Swabia, brother of Conrad. These names,
+corrupted into _Guelphs_ and _Ghibellines_ by the Italians,
+were afterwards attached to the two great parties,--the supporters,
+respectively, of the popes and the emperors. _Henry the Lion_
+afterwards received _Saxony_; and the mark of _Brandenburg_
+was given in lieu of it to _Albert the Bear_.
+
+_Welf I._ was a powerful nobleman, who received from _Henry
+IV_. the fief of _Bavaria_. When _Henry V_ died, the
+natural heirs of the extinct Franconian line were his nephews,
+_Frederick_ of _Hohenstaufen_, duke of Swabia, and
+_Conrad_. But the Saxons supported the wealthy _Lothar_, who
+was chosen emperor, and won over to his side _Henry the Proud_,
+grandson of _Welf I._, to whom _Lothar_ gave his daughter in
+marriage, and gave, also, the dukedom of _Saxony_, in addition to
+his dukedom of _Bavaria_. In these events lay the roots of the
+long rivalship between the _Welfs_ and the
+_Hohenstaufens_. _Henry the Lion_, as stated above, was the
+son of _Henry the Proud_.
+
+
+
+GENEALOGY OF THE WELFS.
+
+
+WELF, Duke of Bavaria, 1070-1101.
+|
++--HENRY the Black, Duke of Bavaria, 1120-1126.
+   |
+   +--Judith, _m._ to Frederic, Duke of Swabia (d. 1147),
+   |  the son of Agnes, who was the daughter of HENRY IV. FREDERIC I
+   |  (Barbarossa) was the son of Judith, and this Frederic of Swabia.
+   |  The Swabian dukes were called _Hohenstaufens_, from a
+   |  castle on _Mount Staufen_ in Wurtemberg.
+   |
+   +--HENRY the Proud,
+      Duke of Bavaria 1126, of Saxony 1137; deprived, 1138.
+      |
+      +--HENRY the Lion, _m_.
+         Matilda, daughter of Henry II of England.
+         |
+         +--HENRY the Young, _d_. 1227.
+         |
+         +--OTTO IV, _d_. 1218.
+
+
+
+SECOND CRUSADE (1147-1149).--The preacher of the second Crusade was
+_St. Bernard_, whose saintly life and moving eloquence produced a
+great effect. _Louis VII._ of France and _Conrad III._ were
+the leaders. The expedition was attended by a series of calamities. The
+design of recapturing _Edessa_ from _Noureddin_, the sultan of
+Aleppo, was given up. The siege of _Damascus_ failed
+(1148). _Conrad_ returned home with broken health. Soon after,
+Damascus fell into the hands of _Noureddin_, who was a brave and
+upright leader. Through one of his lieutenants, he conquered
+Egypt. After his death, _Saladin_, who sprung from one of the
+tribes of _Kurds_, and was in his service, rose to power there, and
+set aside the Fatimite caliphate (1171). He was not less renowned for
+his culture and magnanimity than for his valor. _Saladin_ united
+under his scepter all the lands from Cairo to Aleppo. In the battle at
+_Ramla_, not far from Ascalon (1178), the crusaders gained their
+last notable victory over this antagonist, which served to prolong for
+some years the existence of the kingdom of Jerusalem. Afterwards victory
+was on his side: the crusaders were overthrown in the fatal battle of
+_Tiberias_, and _Jerusalem_ was taken by him (1187). Thus the
+Latin kingdom fell. The Saracen conqueror was much more humane after
+success than the Christian warriors had been in like circumstances.
+
+FREDERICK BARBAROSSA.--_Frederick I.--Barbarossa_, or Redbeard, he
+was called in Italy--(1152-1190) was one of the grand figures of the
+Middle Ages. He was thirty-one years of age at his election as emperor,
+and had already been with the crusaders to the Holy Land. In him great
+strength of understanding and a capacity for large undertakings were
+combined with a taste for letters and art. His aim was to bring back to
+the empire the strength and dignity which had belonged to it under the
+Saxon and Franconian emperors. The rulers of _Bohemia_ and
+_Poland_ he obliged to swear fealty as vassals. He put down private
+war, and restored order in Germany. The palatinate on the Rhine,
+formerly a part of Franconia, he gave to his half-brother _Conrad_,
+who founded _Heidelberg_ (1155).
+
+STRUGGLE WITH THE LOMABARD CITIES.--The principal conflict of Frederick
+I. was in Italy, where he endeavored to restore the imperial supremacy
+over the Lombard cities, which had grown prosperous and freedom-loving,
+and were bent on managing their own municipal affairs. They had thrown
+off the rule of bishops and counts. The burghers of _Milan_, the
+principal town, had obliged the neighboring nobles and cities to form a
+league with them. The smaller cities, as _Como_ and _Lodi_,
+preferred the emperor's control to being subject to Milan. _Pavia_
+clung to the empire. But most of the cities prized their independence
+and republican administration. The Pope and the emperor were soon at
+variance, and the cities naturally looked to the pontiff for sympathy
+and leadership. In 1158 _Frederick_ again crossed the Alps, bent on
+establishing the imperial jurisdiction as it had stood in the days of
+Charlemagne. The study of the Roman law was now pursued with enthusiasm
+at _Bologna_ and _Padua_. At a great assembly in the
+_Roncalian Fields_, Frederick caused the prerogatives of the empire
+to be defined according to the terms of the civil law. The emperor was
+proclaimed as "lord of the world,"--_dominus mundi_. In the room of
+the consuls, a _Podesta_ was appointed as the chief officer in each
+city, to represent his authority. _Milan_, which had submitted,
+revolted, but, after a siege of two years, was forced to surrender, and
+was destroyed, at the emperor's command, by the inhabitants of the
+neighboring cities (1162). In 1159 _Alexander III_. was elected
+Pope by a majority of the cardinals. _Victor IV_. was chosen by the
+imperial party, and was recognized at a council convened by
+_Frederick_ at _Pavia_. On the death of Victor, another
+anti-pope, _Paschal III_., was elected in his place; and, on the
+fourth visit of Frederick to Italy (1166-1168), he conducted Paschal to
+Rome. In 1167 the cities of Northern Italy, which maintained their cause
+with invincible spirit, united in the _Lombard League_. They built
+the strongly fortified place, _Alessandria_,--named after the
+Pope,--and took possession of the passes of the Alps. The emperor, whose
+army was nearly destroyed by a pestilence at Rome, escaped, with no
+little difficulty and danger, to Germany.
+
+FREDERICK I. AND POPE ALEXANDER III.--For nearly seven years Frederick
+remained in Germany. He put an end to a violent feud which had been
+raging between _Henry the Lion_ and his enemies (1168). In 1174 he
+was ready to resume his great Italian enterprise. But he did not succeed
+in taking _Alessandria_. All his efforts to induce _Henry the
+Lion_ to come to his support failed. He was consequently defeated in
+the battle of _Legnano_ (1176). The extraordinary abilities and
+indefatigable energy of the great emperor had been exerted in the vain
+effort, as he himself now perceived it to be, to break down the
+resistance of a free people to a system which they felt to be an
+obsolete despotism. A reconciliation took place at Venice in 1177
+between Pope _Alexander III_. and Frederick, in which the latter
+virtually gave up the plan which he had so long struggled to realize. It
+was a day of triumph for the Papacy. At _Constance_, in 1183, a
+treaty was made with the Lombard cities, in which their self-government
+was substantially conceded, with the right to fortify themselves, and to
+levy armies, and to extend the bounds of their confederacy. The
+overlordship of the emperor was recognized. There was to be an imperial
+judge in each town, to whom appeals in the most important causes might
+be made. The "regalian rights" to _forage, food_, and
+_lodging_ for the emperor's army, when within their territory, were
+reduced to a definite form. The cities grew stronger from their newly
+gained freedom; yet the loss of imperial restraint was, on some
+occasions, an evil.
+
+FREDERICK IN GERMANY.--After his return to Germany, Frederick deprived
+_Henry the Lion_ of his lands; and when Henry craved his
+forgiveness at the Diet of Erfurt in 1181, he was allowed to retain
+_Brunswick_ and _Lüneburg_. He was to live for three years,
+with his wife and child, at the court of his father-in-law, _Henry
+II_., king of England. His son _William_, born there, is the
+ancestor of the present royal family in England. In 1184 the emperor,
+in honor of his sons, King _Henry_, and _Frederick_, duke of
+Swabia, who were of age to become knights, celebrated at _Mentz_
+a magnificent festival, where a great throng of attendants was
+gathered from far and near. In a last and peaceful visit to Italy, his
+son _Henry_ was married to _Constance_, the daughter of
+_Roger II_., and the heiress of the Norman kingdom of Lower Italy
+and Sicily.
+
+THIRD CRUSADE (1189-1192).--The old emperor now undertook another
+Crusade (1189), in which he was supported by _Philip
+II_. (_Philip Augustus_), king of France, and _Richard_
+the Lion-Hearted (_Cĉur-de-Lion_), king of England, but of French
+descent. Having spent the winter at _Adrianople_, Frederick
+crossed into Asia Minor, and conquered _Iconium_. In his advance
+he showed a military skill and a valor which made the expedition a
+memorable one; but at the river Calycadnus in _Cilicia_, either
+while bathing or attempting to cross on horseback, the old warrior was
+swept away by the stream, and drowned (1190). His son _Frederick_
+died during the siege of _Acre_. _Richard_ and _Philip_
+quarreled, before and after reaching _Acre_, which surrendered in
+1191. _Philip_ returned to France. _Richard_, with all his
+valor, was twice compelled to turn back from Jerusalem. Nothing was
+accomplished except the establishment of a truce with _Saladin_,
+by which a strip of land on the coast, from _Joppa_ to
+_Acre_, was given to the Christians, and pilgrimages to the holy
+places were allowed. _Richard_ was distinguished both for his
+deeds of arms and for his cruelty. On his return, he was kept as a
+prisoner by _Leopold_, duke of Austria, by the direction of the
+emperor, _Henry VI_., for thirteen months, and released on the
+payment of a ransom, and rendering homage. He was charged with
+treading the German banner in the filth at Acre. His alliance with the
+_Welfs_ in Germany is enough to explain the hostility felt
+towards him by the imperial party.
+
+HENRY VI.: POPE INNOCENT III.--Henry VI. (1190-1197) had the prudence
+and vigor of his father, but lacked his magnanimity. He was hard and
+stern in his temper. Twice he visited Italy to conquer the kingdom of
+the Two Sicilies, the inheritance of his wife. He waged a new war with
+_Henry the Lion_ (1192-1194), which ended in a marriage of
+_Agnes_, the emperor's cousin, with _Henry_, the son of
+Henry. It was a project of the emperor to convert Germany and Italy,
+with Sicily, into a hereditary monarchy; but the princes would not
+consent. He aspired to incorporate the Eastern Empire in the same
+dominion. While engaged in strife with the aged Pope, _Coelestin
+II_., respecting the Tuscan lands of _Matilda_, which she had
+bequeathed to the Church, the emperor suddenly died. His son
+_Frederick_ was a boy only three years old. On the death of
+_Coelestin II_., early in 1198, _Innocent III_., the ablest
+and most powerful of all the popes, acceded to the pontifical
+chair. Innocent was a statesman of unsurpassed sagacity and energy. He
+was imbued with the highest idea of the pontifical dignity. He made
+his authority felt and feared in all parts of Christendom. He exacted
+submission from all rulers, civil and ecclesiastical. The Empress
+_Constance_, in order to secure Italy for _Frederick_,
+accepted the papal investment on conditions dictated by the
+Pope. After her death _Innocent_ ruled Italy in the character of
+guardian of her son. He dislodged the imperial vassals from the Tuscan
+territory of _Matilda_, and thus became a second founder of the
+papal state.
+
+FOURTH CRUSADE (1202-1204).--Under the auspices of _Innocent
+III_., a Crusade was undertaken by French barons, with whom were
+associated _Baldwin_, count of Flanders, and _Boniface_,
+marquis of Montferrat. Arrived at _Venice_, the crusaders were
+not able to furnish to the Venetians the sum agreed to be paid for
+their transportation. The Venetians, whose devotion was strongly
+tempered with the mercantile spirit, under the old doge, _Henry
+Dandolo_, greatly to the displeasure of the Pope, persuaded them to
+assist in the capture of _Zara_, which the king of Hungary had
+wrested from Venice. Then, at the call of _Alexius_, son of the
+Eastern emperor, _Isaac Angelus_, they went with the Venetian
+fleet to Constantinople, and restored these princes to the throne. The
+result of the contentions that followed with the Greeks was the
+pillage of Constantinople, and the establishment of the _Latin
+Empire_ under _Baldwin_.  Principalities were carved out for
+different chiefs; the Venetians taking several Greek coast towns, and
+afterwards _Candia_ (Crete).  The patriarch of Constantinople had
+to take his pallium from Rome. The Latin service was established in
+the churches. There was no real union between the Greeks and the
+invaders, but constant strife, until, in 1261, _Michael
+Paloeologus_, the head of a Greek empire which had been established
+at _Nicoea_, put an end to the Latin kingdom.
+
+CHILDREN'S CRUSADE.--The failure of the stupendous undertakings for
+the conquest of the infidels was attributed to the wicked wrangles,
+and still more to the vicious lives, of the crusaders, whose defeat
+was regarded as indicative of the frown of Heaven on their evil
+courses. This feeling gave occasion to the Children's Crusade, in
+1212. Many thousands of French and German boys made their way, in two
+distinct expeditions, to _Marseilles_ and the seaports of Italy,
+in order to be conveyed thence to the Holy Land. But few returned:
+nearly all perished by the way, or were seized, and carried off to
+slave-markets. The enterprise grew out of a wild construction of the
+injunction of Jesus to let little children come to him.
+
+OTTO IV.: CIVIL WAR IN GERMANY.--Frederick had been elected king; but,
+on the death of his father, his claims were disregarded. The
+_Hohenstaufens_ chose _Philip_, brother of Henry VI.: the
+_Welfs_ appointed _Otto_, the second son of _Henry the
+Lion_. Innocent claimed the right, not to appoint the emperor, but
+to decide between the rival claimants. He decided, in 1201, in favor
+of _Otto IV_. (1198-1214). _Philip's_ party, however, seemed
+likely to succeed; but, in 1208, he was murdered. _Otto_, having
+made large promises of submission to the Pope's requirements, was
+crowned emperor, and universally acknowledged. When he failed to
+fulfill his pledges, and began to assert the old imperial prerogatives
+in Italy, he was excommunicated and deposed by Innocent (1210).
+
+FREDERICK (II.) MADE KING.--Innocent was now led to take up the cause
+of young _Frederick_ (1212). The latter won Germany over to his
+side, and received the German crown at Aix-la-Chapelle in
+1215. _Otto_ was restricted to his ancestral territory in
+Brunswick.
+
+CHARACTER OF FREDERICK II. (1214-1250).--_Frederick II._, on
+account of his extraordinary natural gifts and his accomplishments,
+was called _the wonder of the world_. He knew several languages,
+and, in intercourse with the Saracens_ in Sicily, had acquired a
+familiarity with the sciences. In many of his ideas of government he
+was in advance of his time. But his reign was largely spent in a
+contest with the Lombard cities and with the popes. He is styled by an
+eminent modern historian, "the gay, the brave, the wise, the
+relentless, and the godless Frederick." He was often charged with
+skepticism in relation to the doctrines of the Church. The main ground
+of this imputation seems to have been a temper of mind at variance
+with the habit of the age,--a very moderate degree of reverence for
+ecclesiastical authority, and the absence of the usual antipathy to
+heresy and religious dissent.
+
+FIFTH CRUSADE (1228-1229).--Having caused his son _Henry_ to be
+elected king of Rome, _Frederick_, in 1220, left Germany for
+fifteen years. It was the policy of the popes to keep the Sicilian
+crown from being united with the empire, and the emperor from gaining
+the supremacy in _Lombardy_. Frederick, at his coronation at
+_Aix_, and afterwards, had engaged to undertake a crusade. But he
+had postponed it from time to time. Pope _Honorius III_. had
+patiently borne with this delay. But when Frederick, in 1227, was
+about to start, and was prevented, as he professed, by the contagious
+disease in his army, from which he himself was suffering, _Gregory
+IX_., the next pope, placed him under the ban of the
+Church. Nevertheless, the emperor, in the following year, embarked on
+his crusade. His vigor as a soldier, and, still more, his tact in
+conciliating the Saracens, enabled him to get possession of
+_Jerusalem_. No bishop would crown an excommunicate, and he had
+to put the crown on his own head. That he left a mosque unmolested was
+a fresh ground of reproach. He negotiated an armistice with the
+sultan, _Kameel_ (El Kámil), who ceded _Nazareth_ and a
+strip of territory reaching to the coast, together with
+_Sidon_. Fifteen years later (in 1244) _Jerusalem_ was
+finally lost by the Christians.
+
+CONTEST OF FREDERICK WITH THE POPES.--On his return to Italy,
+Frederick drove the papal troops out of _Apulia_. In a personal
+interview with _Gregory IX_. at _San Germane_, a treaty was
+made between them, the ban was removed, and the treaty of Frederick
+with the Sultan was sanctioned by the Pope. Frederick now displayed
+his talent for organization in all parts of his empire. His
+constitution for the Sicilian kingdom, based on the ruins of the old
+feudalism, is tinged with the modern political spirit. His court,
+wherever he sojourned, mingled an almost Oriental luxury and splendor
+with the attractions of poetry and song. A sore trial was the revolt
+of his son _Henry_ (1234), whom he conquered, and confined in a
+prison, where he died in 1242. The efforts of Frederick to enforce the
+imperial supremacy over the Lombard cities were met with the same
+stubborn resistance from the _Guelfs_ which his grandfather had
+encountered. In 1237 he gained a brilliant victory over them at
+_Cortenuova_. But the hard terms on which Frederick insisted, in
+connection with other transactions offensive to the Pope, called out
+another excommunication from _Gregory IX_. (1239). The Genoese
+fleet, which was conveying ecclesiastics to a council called by the
+Pope at Rome, was captured by direction of _Frederick_; and the
+prelates were thrown into prison. Pope _Innocent IV_. (1243-1254)
+fled to _Lyons_, and there published anew the ban against the
+emperor, declared him deposed, and summoned the Germans to elect
+another emperor in his place. The ecclesiastical princes in Germany
+chose _Henry Raspe_ (1246-1247), landgrave of Thuringia, who was
+defeated by _Conrad_, Henry's son. The next emperor thus chosen,
+_William of Holland_ (1247), made no headway in Germany. During
+this period of civil war, many German cities gained their freedom from
+episcopal rule, attained to great privileges, and came into an
+immediate relation to the emperor. A fearful war raged in Italy
+between the _Guelfs_ and _Ghibellines_, in the midst of
+which _Frederick_ died, in the fifty-sixth year of his age. Had
+he been as conscientious and as capable of curbing his passions and
+appetites as he was highly endowed in other respects, he might have
+been a model ruler. As it was; although his career was splendid, his
+private life, as well as his public conduct, was stained with flagrant
+faults.
+
+THE SICILIAN KINGDOM.--The kingdom of the Two Sicilies was bravely
+defended by _Manfred_, son of Frederick II, in behalf of young
+_Conradin_, the son of the new emperor, _Conrad IV_. The
+Pope gave the crown to _Charles of Anjou_, brother of _Louis
+IX_. of France. _Charles_, after the fall of _Manfred_ at
+_Beneventum_ (1266), gained the kingdom. _Conradin_ went to
+Italy, but was defeated and captured in 1268, and was executed at
+Naples. Such was the tragic end of the last of the
+_Hohenstaufens_. The unbearable tyranny of the French led to a
+conspiracy called the _Sicilian Vespers_ (1282); and, at Easter
+Monday, at vesper time, the rising took place. All the French in
+Sicily were massacred. _Peter of Aragon_, who had married the
+daughter of _Manfred_, became king of Sicily. The dominion of
+Charles of Anjou was restricted to Naples.
+
+SPAIN.--The Spaniards had a crusade to carry forward in their own
+land, which lasted for eight hundred years. In the tenth and eleventh
+centuries, especially under _Abderrahman III_. (912-961), the
+Moorish civilization was most brilliant. In _Cordova_, there were
+six hundred mosques. There were said to be seventeen universities and
+seventy large libraries in Spain. The caliph's fleets were dominant in
+the Mediterranean. He was mild in his policy towards Jews and
+Christians. In the eleventh century the caliphs gave themselves up to
+luxury, and the control of their forces was in the hands of the
+viziers. Of these, Almanzor, the general of _Hakem II_
+(976-1013), was the most famous. He took the city of _Leon_, and
+plundered the church of St. James of Compostella, the patron saint of
+Spain. After this time the caliphate of _Cordova_ broke up into
+numerous kingdoms. The Christian _Visigoths_ in the north-west
+had built up the little kingdom of _Oviedo_, which later took the
+name of _Leon_. The rest of Christian Spain was united under
+_Sancho the Great_ (970-1035). To one of his sons, _Ferdinand
+I_, he left _Castile_, to which _Leon_ and the
+_Asturias_ were united; to another, _Aragon_; and, to a
+third, _Navarre_ and _Biscay_. It was under _Ferdinand_
+that the exploits of the Spanish hero, the _Cid_ (_Rodrigo
+Diaz_ of Bivar), in conflict with the infidels, began. The complete
+conquest of the Moors was prevented by the strife of the Christian
+kingdoms with one another. Under _Alfonso VI_ (1072-1109), they
+were all once more united.
+
+GREAT DEFEAT OF THE MOORS.--The invasion of the _Almoravids_,
+invited over from Africa by the Mussulman princes (1086), checked the
+progress of the Christian conquest. These allies of the Arabs built up
+a kingdom for themselves, reconquered _Valencia_, and taxed to
+the utmost the power of the Christians to resist their progress. New
+sects of fanatical Moslems, the _Almohads_, having conquered
+Morocco, passed over into Spain. The Mohammedans were thus at war
+among themselves, and were divided into three parties. Military orders
+were established in Spain; and the kings of _Castile_,
+_Leon_, and _Navarre_, aided by sixty thousand crusaders
+from Germany, France, and Italy, defeated _Mohammed_, the chief
+of the Almohads, with great slaughter, in a decisive battle near
+Tolosa (1212). The Spanish crusade built up the little kingdom of
+_Portugal_, and the states of _Castile_ and of
+_Aragon_. They were destined to play an important part in the
+history of commerce and discovery. The Spanish character owed some of
+its marked traits to this prolonged struggle with the Moslems.
+
+THE MONGOLIAN INVASIONS.--At the beginning of the thirteenth century,
+_Genghis Khan_, the leader of Mongolian hordes which roamed over
+the Asiatic plateau between China and Siberia, conquered China, and
+overthrew the ruling dynasty. He subdued _Hindustan_ and the
+empire of the _Chowares_, which had been founded by a
+_Seljukian_ slave, and spread his power from the Caspian Sea
+through Persia to India (1218). _Bokhara_ and _Samarcand_
+were among the populous cities which were burned with all their
+treasures by these ruthless invaders. Libraries were converted into
+stalls for the horses of the brutal conquerors. The sons and
+successors of _Genghis Khan_ swept over the countries north of
+the Black Sea, captured _Moscow_ and _Kiev_, burned
+_Cracow_, and pursued their murderous and devastating path over
+_Poland_ and _Hungary_, At the battle of _Wahlstatt_
+(1241), the Germans under _Henry the Pious_, duke of Liegnitz,
+were defeated. The victories of the Tartars were frightful
+massacres. It was a custom of the Mongols to cut off an ear of the
+slaughtered enemy. It was said that at Liegnitz these trophies filled
+nine sacks. The Mongol hosts retired from Europe. They attacked the
+caliphate of _Bagdad_, a city which they took by storm, and
+plundered for forty days. They destroyed the dynasty of the
+_Abassids_. They marched into Syria, stormed and sacked
+_Aleppo_, and captured _Damascus_. For a time the central
+point of the Tartar conquests was the city or camping-ground of
+_Karakorum_ in Central Asia. After a few generations their empire
+was broken in pieces. The "Golden Horde," which they had planted in
+_Russia_, on the east of the Volga, remained there for two
+centuries. _Bagdad_ was held by the Mongols until 1400, when it
+was conquered, and kept for a short time, by _Tamerlane_.
+
+The religion of the Tartars was either _Lamaism_--a corrupted
+form of Buddhistic belief and worship,--or _Mohammedanism_. In
+China and Mongolia they were _Lamaists_: elsewhere they generally
+adopted the faith of _Islam_. Their original religion was
+_Shamaism_, a worship of spirits, akin to fetichism. The later
+Mongol sovereigns, especially _Kublai Khan_, were ready to
+promote peaceful intercourse with Europe. It was at this time that
+_Marco Polo_ resided at their court.
+
+SIXTH CRUSADE (1248-1254): SEVENTH CRUSADE (1270).-Two additional
+Crusades were undertaken under the leadership of that upright and
+devout king, _Louis IX_. of France. The first (1248-1254)
+resulted in the taking of _Damietta_ in Egypt (1249); but the
+next year _Louis_, with his whole army, was captured, and
+obtained his release after much delay, by the surrender of his
+conquests, and in return for a large ransom. Not disheartened by this
+failure, the pious monarch, in 1270, sailed to _Tunis_, where he
+and most of his army perished from sickness. In 1291 _Acre_, the
+last town held by the Christians, was taken by the Egyptian
+_Mamelukes_; and the Crusades came to an end.
+
+EFFECTS OF THE CRUSADES.--The Crusades were a spontaneous movement of
+Christian Europe. It was a great tide, which bore away all classes of
+people. It lends to the Middle Ages an ideal and heroic character. An
+overpowering sentiment, submerging calculation and self-interest,
+swept over society. There was infinite suffering: countless lives were
+the forfeit. The results, however, were beneficent, 1. It is true that
+the conquests made in the East were all surrendered. The holy places
+were given up. Yet the _Turks_ had received a check which was a
+protection to Europe during the period when its monarchies were
+forming, and were gaining the force to encounter them anew, and repel
+their dangerous aggressions. 2. The Feudal System in Europe was
+smitten with a mortal blow. Smaller fiefs, either by sale or by the
+death of the holders, were swallowed up in the larger. The anarchical
+spirit was counteracted. _Political unity_ was promoted. 3. There
+was a lessening of the social distance between _suzerain_ and
+_serf_. They fought side by side, and aided one another in common
+perils. The consequence was an increase of sympathy. 4. There was
+_an expansion of knowledge_. There was a widening of geographical
+knowledge. An acquaintance was gained with other peoples and
+countries. To the more civilized Saracens, the crusaders seemed brutal
+and barbarous. The crusaders in turn were impressed with the superior
+advancement and elegance of the Saracens. It was not the lord only who
+beheld distant lands: the serf was taken from the soil to which he had
+been tied. He drew stimulus and information from sojourning under
+other skies. 5. A great impulse was given to trade and commerce. An
+acquaintance was gained with new products, natural and artificial. New
+wants were created. 6. The cities advanced in strength and wealth.
+Important social consequences resulted from their growth.
+
+WHY THE CRUSADES TERMINATED.--After the thirteenth century it was
+impossible to rekindle the crusading enthusiasm. The fire had burned
+out. It seemed as if the idea had exhausted itself in action. This
+effect was due, (1) to the absence of novelty in such undertakings; (2)
+to the long experience of the hardships belonging to them, which tended
+to dampen the romantic zeal that had formed a part of the motive; (3) to
+the disappointments following upon the practical failure of so
+prodigious and costly exertions; (4) to an altered condition of public
+feeling of a more general character. Antipathy to the infidel, the more
+exclusive sway of religious sentiment, were giving way to a mingling of
+secular aims and interests. There were new and wider fields of activity
+at home. The mood of men's minds was no longer the same.
+
+LUXURIES INTRODUCED BY THE CRUSADES.--The effect of the Crusades in
+bringing in new comforts and luxuries, and in thus altering the style
+of living, was remarkable. At the very outset, a great deal of money,
+obtained by the sale or pawning of estates, was spent in the outfit of
+the hundred thousand nobles, who, at the beginning, took the
+cross. Costly furs, embroidered cushions, curtains of purple dye,
+pavilions worked with gold, banners of purple or of cloth-of-gold,
+showy costumes, and shining armor,--such was the splendor that met the
+eyes of thousands who had never before beheld such a spectacle. The
+journey to the East brought under the observation of the crusaders,
+arts and fashions to which they had been strangers, They saw the
+gilded domes and marble palaces of _Constantinople_, and the
+treasures of ancient art which had been gathered within the walls of
+that ancient capital. _Antioch_, with all its wealth, fell into
+their hands. Later, the merchants of both religions followed in the
+wake of the armies, and met one another. The superb fabrics of the
+East were carried to the West by routes which now became safe and
+familiar. The precious ores and tissues of _Damascus_, and the
+beautiful glassware of _Tyre_, were conveyed to _Venice_,
+and thence to places more distant. Silk stuffs of exquisite beauty
+were brought from _Mosul_ and _Alexandria_. The elegance of
+the East, with its rich fabrics, its jewels and pearls, was so
+enchanting that an enthusiastic crusader termed it "the vestibule of
+Paradise." It was not the nobles alone in the West who acquired these
+attractive products of skill and industry.  The cities shared in
+them. Even the lower classes partook of the change in the way of
+living.
+
+LIFE IN THE CASTLE.--Even in the earlier days of feudalism, the
+seclusion of the castle was not without an influence in promoting
+domestic intercourse and affection. A new sentiment respecting woman
+sprang up in the Middle Ages, and was fostered by the honor which the
+New Testament and the teaching of the Church rendered to saintly
+women. A spirit of gallantry and devotion to woman, partly natural to
+the Germanic race, and partly arising from causes like that just
+named, sprang up in the midst of prevailing ignorance and perpetual
+strife. In the course of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries life in
+the castle is found to be very much improved. In the eleventh century
+it lacked comfort, to say nothing of luxury. The lights were torches
+of dry wood: even candles were not in general use. Houses in France,
+England, and Germany commonly had thatched roofs. They were made of
+logs covered with a sort of clay or mud. They were built with low and
+narrow doors, and with small windows which admitted but little
+light. In the middle of the smoky hall was a large, round
+fireplace. There was no chimney, but only a funnel, which pierced the
+ceiling. The seats were benches and stools. The feet of the family and
+guests were kept warm by hay spread beneath them. In the later period
+the substitution of dry rushes and straw was thought to be a marvelous
+gain. Beds of straw were introduced into all the apartments of nobles,
+and even of kings. To sleep on a straw couch was deemed a regal
+luxury. One consequence of the Crusades was to introduce carpets and
+hangings into the dwellings of the great.  Improved timepieces took
+the place of the water-clocks, which were a wonder in the days of
+Charlemagne. In the twelfth century the castle begins to look less
+like a dungeon. Within and without, it ceases to wear so exclusively
+the aspect of a fortress. The furniture has more beauty. In the great
+hall are the large tables attached to the floor, the sideboards, the
+cupboards, the stately chair of the lord, the couch with its canopy,
+the chests for the wearing-apparel, the armor on the walls. In the
+thirteenth century France was covered with chateaux, which, in the
+case of princes and nobles of highest rank, had their spacious courts,
+their stables, their lodgings for the servants. All these were within
+the precincts of the palace. In the great hall were held the
+assemblies of vassals, banquets, judicial trials. In the wealthiest
+mansions, there was a main saloon on the floor above, reached by a
+spiral stairway, and serving also for the principal bed-chamber. There
+the stone floor gave place to marble of varied colors. Mosaics and
+other ornaments were introduced. Sculptures, carvings, and mural
+paintings decorated the apartments. Glass mirrors, imported by way of
+Venice, began to supersede the mirrors of polished metal. Larger
+windows, of painted glass, became common among the rich, in the room
+of the small pieces of glass, or of alabaster, which had before served
+to let in a few rays of light. Tallow candles came into vogue. Lamps
+were not unknown. On great occasions, lanterns and wax candles were
+used for a festive illumination. Chimneys were in use, and about the
+vast fire-place the family group could gather. The hospitality of the
+castle was often bountiful. The chase, the favorite amusement, gave
+life and animation to the scene, and prepared the inmates for the
+feast that followed. Minstrels enlivened the social gathering. Troops
+of mountebanks and buffoons furnished amusement, and were sometimes
+lavishly rewarded. There were singers and buffoons who were attached
+permanently to the household. There were others who traveled from
+place to place, and were even organized into corporations or
+guilds. The _fool_, or _jester_, to whom a large license was
+allowed, was long deemed a necessary adjunct of the
+castle-hall. Carriages were little used; rank was indicated by the
+accouterments of the war-horse or of the palfrey. From the twelfth
+century onward, the improvement in the comforts of living was not
+confined to the nobles and to rich burghers in cities. It was shared
+by the rural classes, notwithstanding the miseries--such as
+insecurity, and dangers of famine--that belonged to their condition.
+
+  POVERTY AND DISEASE.--A French writer on the history of luxury,
+  speaking of France in this period, says, "In the cities, we meet at
+  once luxury, certain beginnings of prosperity, and frightful
+  misery. _Beggary_ exists in a form the most hideous: there is
+  an organization of it with grades, and a sort of hierarchy. In the
+  face of sumptuous costumes, of chateaux better adorned, of the
+  nascent wealth of industry, France included more than two thousand
+  _lepers_, and knew not how to treat maladies born of the most
+  imperfect hygiene and the most sordid filth. Such were the
+  extremes. The course of general progress went forward between them."
+  The condition of the poorest class in England was no better. "The
+  absence of vegetable food for the greater part of the year, the
+  personal dirt of the people, the sleeping at night in the clothes
+  worn in the day, and other causes, made skin-diseases frightfully
+  common. At the outskirts of every town in England, there were
+  crawling about emaciated creatures covered with loathsome sores,
+  living Heaven knows how. They were called by the common name of
+  lepers; and probably the leprosy, strictly so called, was awfully
+  common." Such being the life of the poor in villages, and in the
+  absence of drainage and other modern safeguards of health, in large
+  towns, it is no wonder that in the Middle Ages there were terrible
+  pestilences, and that the average length of life was much less than
+  at present.
+
+ORIGIN AND NATURE OF CHIVALRY.--It was in the period of the crusades
+that the mediaeval institution of chivalry was ennobled by receiving a
+religious consecration. Chivalry is a comprehensive term, denoting a
+system of ideas and customs that prevailed in the middle ages. In the
+western kingdoms of Europe there was gradually formed a distinct class
+of warriors of superior rank, who fought on horseback, and were
+recognized as _knights_ by a ceremony of equipment with
+arms. Among the customs of the ancient Germans, which are noticed by
+Tacitus, and in which may be discovered the germs of chivalry, are the
+remarkable deference paid to women, attendance of the aspiring youth
+on a military superior,--out of which vassalship arose,--and the
+formal receiving of arms on reaching manhood. At the outset,
+knighthood was linked to feudal service: the knights were
+landholders. In the age of Charlemagne, the warriors on horseback--the
+_caballarii_--were the precursors, both in name and function, of
+the _chevaliers_ of later times. The word _knight_, meaning
+a youth or servant, and then a military attendant, came to be a term
+of equivalent meaning. The necessary connection of knighthood with the
+possession of fiefs was broken in the thirteenth century, through
+changes in the circumstances of warfare. Knighthood became independent
+of feudalism. It was a personal distinction, frequently bestowed as a
+reward for brave deeds, and often conferred with elaborate ceremonies,
+partly of a religious character. When the boy of gentle birth passed
+from under the care of females, he first served as a _page_ or
+valet at the court of a prince or the castle of a rich noble. Having
+been thus trained in habits of courtesy and obedience, he was
+advanced, not earlier than the age of fourteen, to the rank of
+_squire_, and instructed in horsemanship and in the use of
+weapons. He followed his master to the tournament and in battle, until
+finally he was himself dubbed a _knight_, was clothed in armor of
+steel, and took on him all the obligations and privileges of his
+order. The introduction of hereditary surnames and of armorial
+bearings served to distinguish the members of this order. He who was a
+knight in one place was a knight everywhere.
+
+There were different classes of knights. The "bachelor," who bore a
+forked pennon, was below the "knight-banneret," who alone had the right
+to carry the square banner. The banneret was required to have a certain
+estate, and to be able to bring into the field a certain number of
+lances, _i.e._, inferior knights with their men-at-arms and
+foot-soldiers. Each knight was accompanied by his squire and personal
+attendants. Not seldom two knights joined together in a brotherhood in
+arms, pledging themselves to sustain each other in every peril.
+
+THE VIRTUES OF KNIGHTHOOD.--There were characteristic obligations of
+knighthood. One was _loyalty_, which included a strict fidelity
+to all pledges, embracing promises made to an enemy. Another knightly
+virtue was _courtesy_, which was exercised even towards a
+foe. The spirit of _gallantry_, inspiring devotion to woman,
+especially the chosen object of love, and protection to womanly
+weakness, was always a cardinal trait of the chivalric
+temper. _Courage_, which delighted in daring exploits, and sought
+fields for the exercise of personal prowess, was an indispensable
+quality of the knights. The ideal of chivalry was _honor_ rather
+than benevolence. The influence of chivalry in refining manners was
+very great; but, especially in its period of decline, it allowed or
+brought in much cruelty and profligacy.  Its distinctive spirit could
+find room for exercise only amid conflict and bloodshed, which it
+naturally tended to promote.
+
+CEREMONIES OF INVESTITURE.--When the knight was created according to
+the complete form, he entered into a bath on the evening previous, was
+instructed by old knights in "the order and feats" of chivalry, was
+then clad in white and russet, like a hermit, passed the night in the
+chapel in "orisons and prayers," and at daybreak confessed to the
+priest, and received the sacrament. He then returned to his
+chamber. At the appointed hour he was conducted to the hall, where he
+received the spurs and was girded with the sword by the prince or
+other lord who was to confer the distinction, by whom he was smitten
+on the shoulder and charged to be "a good knight."  Thence he was
+escorted to the chapel, where he swore on the altar to defend the
+church, and his sword was consecrated.
+
+JUDICIAL COMBATS.--The disposition to resort to single combats as a
+judicial test of guilt or innocence was stimulated by the development
+of chivalry. There were other ordeals long in vogue, by which it was
+thought that Heaven would interpose miraculously to shield, and thus
+to vindicate, the innocent, and to expose the criminal. Such were the
+plunging of the hand into boiling water, the contact of the flesh with
+red-hot iron or with fire, the lot, the oath taken on holy relics, the
+reception of the Eucharist, which would choke the perjurer, and send
+his soul to perdition. The ordeals were regulated and managed by the
+clergy. Among the German, and also the Celtic tribes, there are traces
+of the duel between combatants, for purposes of divination, or of
+determining on which side in a controversy the right lay. The judicial
+combat in mediaeval Europe became general. Champions, in cases where
+the rights of women were in debate, and in other instances where the
+wager of battle between the direct antagonists in a dispute was
+impracticable, were selected, or volunteered, to try the issue in an
+armed conflict. Sometimes professional champions, hired for the
+occasion, were employed. The custom of judicial combats by degrees
+declined. The municipalities and the spirit of commerce were averse to
+it. It was opposed by the Emperor Frederic II. and by Louis IX. of
+France. The influence of the Roman law helped to undermine it; but the
+opposition of the Church was the most effectual agency in doing away
+with it. The modern duel, which survived the judicial combat, is a
+relic of the ancient custom of avenging private injuries, and of
+proving the courage of the combatants between whom a quarrel had
+arisen. In the opening of Shakespeare's play of Richard II., in the
+quarrel of Mowbray and Bolingbroke, the idea of the judicial combat
+mingles with the motives and feelings characteristic of the duel when
+stripped of its religious aspect.
+
+
+FRANCE.--DESCENDANTS OF HUGH CAPET
+
+HUGH THE GREAT (_d_. 956), _m_.
+3, Hedwiga, daughter of Henry I of Germany.
+|
++--HUGH CAPET, 987-996.
+   |
+   +--ROBERT, 996-1031.
+      |
+      +--HENRY I,1031-1060.
+         |
+         +--PHILIP I, 1060-1108, _m_.
+            Bertha, daughter of Florence I, Count of Holland.
+            |
+            +--LOUIS VI, 1108-1137.
+               |
+               +--LOUIS VII, 1137-1180,
+                  _m_. 3, Alice, daughter of Theobold II,
+                  Count of Champagne.
+                  |
+                  +--PHILIP II (Augustus), 1180-1223,
+                     _m_. 1, Isabella, daughter of Baldwin V,
+                     Count of Hainault.
+                     |
+                     +--LOUIS VIII, 1223-1226,
+                        _m_. Blanche, daughter
+                        of Alfonso IX of Castile.
+                        |
+                        +--(St.) Louis IX, 1226-1270,
+                           _m_. Margaret, daughter of
+                           Raimond Berengar IV, Count of Provence.
+                           |
+                           +--2, PHILIP III, 1270-1285,
+                           |  _m_. 1, Isabella, daughter
+                           |  of James I of Aragon.
+                           |  |
+                           |  +--PHILIP IV, 1285-1314,
+                           |  |  _m_. Jeanne,
+                           |  |  heiress of Champagne and Navarre.
+                           |  |  |
+                           |  |  +--LOUIS X, 1314-1316.
+                           |  |  |
+                           |  |  +--PHILIP V, 1316-1322.
+                           |  |  |
+                           |  |  +--CHARLES IV, 1322-1328.
+                           |  |
+                           |  +--Charles, Count of Valois  (_d_.
+                           |     1325), founder of the house of
+                           |     Valois, _m_. Margaret, daughter
+                           |     of Charles II of Naples.
+                           |     |
+                           |     +--PHILIP VI, succeeded 1328.
+                           |
+                           +--Robert, Count of Clermont,
+                              founder of the house of Bourbon.
+
+
+
+ENGLAND.--FROM THE CONQUEST TO EDWARD I.
+
+
+WILLIAM I, 1066-1087, _m._
+Matilda, daughter of Baldwin V of Flanders
+|
++--WILLIAM II (Rufus), 1087-1100.
+|
+|  (Malcolm Canmore _m._ St. Margaret)
+|  |
+|  +--Mary _m._ Eustace, Count of Boulogne
+|  |
+|  +--Maud
+|  |
+|  +--Matilda.
+|       _m._
++--HENRY I, 1100-1135
+|  |
+|  +--MATILDA (_d._ 1167) _m._
+|     1, Emperor Henry V;
+|     2, Geoffrey Plantagenet,
+|     Count of Anjou
+|     |
+|     +--HENRY II, 1154-1189 _m._
+|        Eleanor of Aquitaine, etc.,
+|        wife of Louis VII of France.
+|        |
+|        +--3, RICHARD I, 1189-1199.
+|        |
+|        +--5, JOHN, 1199-1216, _m._
+|           Isabella of Angouleme
+|           |
+|           +--HENRY III, 1216-1272,
+|              _m._ Eleanor, daughter of
+|              Raymond Berengar IV of
+|              Provence.
+|              |
+|              +--EDWARD I, succeeded 1272.
+|
++--Adela, _m._ Stephen, Count of Blois.
+   |
+   +--STEPHEN, 1135-1154. _m._
+      Maud, daughter of Malcolm Canmore and St. Margaret.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III. ENGLAND AND FRANCE: THE FIRST PERIOD OF THEIR RIVALSHIP
+(1066-1217).
+
+
+The emperors, the heads of the Holy Roman Empire, were the chief secular
+rulers in the Middle Ages, and were in theory the sovereigns of
+Christendom. But in the era of the Crusades, the kingdoms of England and
+France began to be prominent. In them, moreover, we see beginnings of an
+order of things not embraced in the mediaeval system. In France, steps
+are taken towards a compact monarchy. In England, there are laid the
+foundations of free representative government.
+
+CONNECTION OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE.--For a long time the fortunes of
+England and of France are linked together. The kings of the French, with
+their capital at _Paris_, had been often obliged to contend with
+their powerful liegemen, the dukes of Normandy, at _Rouen_. When
+the Norman duke became king of England, he had an independent dominion
+added to the great fief on the other side of the channel. It sometimes
+looked as if England and France would be united under one sovereignty,
+so close did their relations become.
+
+DEATH OF WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR.--It was while _William the
+Conqueror_, angry with the king of the French, was burning
+_Mantes_, in the border-land between Normandy and France, that, by
+the stumbling of his horse in the ashes, he was thrown forward upon the
+iron pommel of his saddle, and received the hurt which ended, in the
+next month, in his death (Sept., 1087). On his death-bed he was smitten
+with remorse for his unjust conquest of England, and for his bloody
+deeds there. He would not dare to appoint a successor: it belonged, he
+said, to the Almighty to do that; but he hoped that his son
+_William_ might succeed him. The burial service at _Caen_, in
+the church which he had built, was interrupted by _Ascelin_, a
+knight, who raised his voice to protest against the interment, for the
+reason that the duke had wrongfully seized from his father the ground on
+which the church stood. The family of William made a settlement with
+Ascelin on the spot by paying a sum of money, and the service
+proceeded. The whole ground was afterwards paid for. William had left
+money for the rebuilding of the churches which he had burned at
+_Mantes_. He gave his treasures to the poor and to the churches in
+his dominions. These circumstances illustrate in a striking way how, in
+the Middle Ages, ruthless violence was mingled with power of conscience
+and a sense of righteous obligation.
+
+WILLIAM RUFUS.--William the Conqueror was succeeded by his son,
+_William Rufus_ (1087-1100), who was as able a man as his
+father. He promised to be liberal, and to lay no unjust taxes; but he
+proved to be--especially after the death of the good _Lanfranc_,
+the archbishop of Canterbury--a vicious and irreligious king. The Norman
+nobles would have preferred to have his brother _Robert_, who was
+duke of Normandy, for their king; but the English stood by William. He
+left bishoprics and abbacies vacant that he might seize the
+revenues. One of his good deeds was the appointment of the holy and
+learned _Anselm_ to succeed _Lanfranc_; but he quarreled with
+_Anselm_, who withdrew from the kingdom. Normandy, which he had
+tried to wrest from his elder brother _Robert_, was mortgaged to
+him by the latter, in order that he might set out upon the first
+Crusade. That duchy came thus into the king's possession. William, while
+hunting in the New Forest, was killed, if not accidentally, then either,
+as it was charged, by _Walter Tyrrel_, one of the party, or by some
+one who had been robbed of his home when the New Forest was made. He was
+found in the agonies of death, pierced by an arrow shot from a
+cross-bow.
+
+HENRY I. OF ENGLAND (1100-1135): LOUIS VI. (the FAT) OF FRANCE
+(1108-1137): LOUIS VII. (1137-1180).--_Henry_ was the youngest son
+of the Conqueror. His wife was English, and was a great-granddaughter of
+Edmund Ironside. Her name was Edith, but she assumed the Norman name of
+_Matilda_. Her mother Margaret, wife of Malcolm of Scotland, was of
+the stock of the West Saxon kings. Thus the blood of Alfred, as well as
+of William the Conqueror, flowed in the veins of the later English
+kings. In the absence of his older brother _Robert_, who was in
+Jerusalem, he took the crown, and put forth a _Charter of
+Liberties_, promising the Church to respect its rights, and giving
+privileges to his vassals which they in turn were to extend to their own
+vassals. Robert came back from the Holy Land, and tried to wrest England
+from his brother. He failed in the attempt. After this, _Henry_ got
+possession of Normandy by the victory of _Tinchebrai_ in 1106, and
+kept Robert a prisoner in Cardiff Castle until his death (1135).
+_Louis the Fat_, king of France, espoused the cause of _William
+of Clito_, son of Robert, but was beaten in 1119 at
+_Brenneville_. Peace was made between the two kings; but in 1124
+_Henry_ of England combined with his son-in-law, _Henry V._ of
+Germany, for the invasion of France. _Louis_ called upon his
+vassals, who gathered in such force that the emperor abandoned the
+scheme. _Louis_ then undertook to chastise those great vassals who
+had not responded to his summons. _William_, the duke of Aquitane,
+seeing the power of the suzerain, came into his camp, and offered him
+his homage. Louis inflicted a brutal punishment in Flanders, where the
+count, _Charles the Good_, had been assassinated in 1127, and which
+had failed to furnish its contingent in 1124. He obliged the Flemish
+lords to elect as their count, _William Clito_, whose rule,
+however, they presently cast off. _Louis the Fat_ united his son
+_Louis_ in marriage with _Eleanor_, the only daughter of
+_William (X.)_, the duke of Aquitaine, and thus paved the way for a
+direct control over the South. The duchy of _Aquitaine_ included
+_Gascony_ and other districts, and the suzerainty over _Auvergne,
+Périgord,_ etc. _Louis the VII._ (1137-1180) was not able to
+preserve the dominion, extending from the north to the south of France,
+which he inherited. He plunged into a dispute with Pope _Innocent
+II._ in relation to the church of _Bourges_, where he claimed
+the right to name the archbishop. _St. Bernard_ took the side of
+the Pope. _Suger_, abbot of St. Denis, an able minister, the
+counselor of the last king, supported _Louis_. The king attacked
+the lands of _Theobald_ of Champagne, who sided with the Pope, and
+in his wrath burned the parish church of _Vitry_, with hundreds of
+poor people who had taken refuge in it. His own remorse and the
+excommunication of the Pope moved him to do penance by departing on a
+Crusade. _Suger_, not liking the risk which the monarchy incurred
+through the absence of the king, opposed the project. _St.
+Bernard_ encouraged it. The Crusade failed of any important result;
+but it helped to infuse a national spirit into the French soldiers, who
+fought side by side with the army of the emperor, _Conrad III_. On
+his return, on the alleged ground that _Eleanor_ was too near of
+kin, he divorced her, and rendered back her dowry (1152).
+
+LOUIS VII. OF FRANCE (1137-1180): STEPHEN (1135-1154) AND HENRY II. of
+ENGLAND (1154-1189).--The king of England, _Henry I._, after the
+death of his son by shipwreck, declared his daughter _Matilda_
+his heir. She was the widow of _Henry V._, the emperor of
+Germany. In 1127 she married _Geoffrey_, count of Anjou, surnamed
+_Plantagenet_ on account of his habit of wearing a sprig of broom
+(_genet_) in his bonnet. Henry left Matilda, whom he called the
+"Empress," under the charge of his nephew, _Stephen of Blois_,
+who got himself elected king by the barons or great landowners,--as
+there was no law regulating the succession of the crown,--and was
+crowned at Westminster. They had sworn, however, to support
+Matilda. Her uncle _David_, king of Scots, took up her cause; but
+the Scots were defeated at the _Battle of the Standard_ in
+1138. England was thrown into utter disorder by these circumstances:
+some of the barons fought on one side, and some on the other. There
+were thieves along the highways, and the barons in their castles were
+no better than the thieves. The empress landed in England in 1139, to
+recover her rights.  In the civil war that ensued, _Stephen_ was
+taken prisoner (1141); but _Matilda_, whose imperious temper made
+her unpopular in London, was driven out of the city. _Stephen_
+was released in exchange for the _Earl of
+Gloucester_. _Matilda_ was at one time in great peril, but
+contrived to escape in a winter night from Oxford Castle (1142). In
+1153 peace was made, by which Stephen was to retain the kingdom, but
+was to be succeeded by Matilda's eldest son.
+
+CRUELTY OF THE NOBLES.--In the time of Stephen and Matilda, the barons,
+released from the strong hand of his predecessor, were guilty of
+atrocities which made the people mourn the loss of Henry.
+
+"They built strong castles, and filled them with armed men. From these
+they rode out as robbers, as a wild beast goes forth from its den. 'They
+fought among themselves with deadly hatred, they spoiled the fairest
+lands with fire and rapine; in what had been the most fertile of
+counties they destroyed almost all the provision of bread.'  Whatever
+money or valuable goods they found, they carried off. They burnt houses
+and sacked towns, If they suspected any one of concealing his wealth,
+they carried him off to their castle; and there they tortured him, to
+make him confess where his money was. 'They hanged up men by their feet,
+and smoked them with foul smoke. Some were hanged up by their thumbs,
+others by the head, and burning things were hung on to their feet. They
+put knotted strings about men's heads, and twisted them till they went
+to the brain. They put men into prisons where adders and snakes and
+toads were crawling, and so they tormented them. Some they put into a
+chest short and narrow, and not deep, and that had sharp stones within,
+and forced men therein so that they broke all their limbs. In many of
+the castles were hateful and grim things called _rachenteges_,
+which two or three men had enough to do to carry. It was thus made: it
+was fastened to a beam, and had a sharp iron to go about a man's neck
+and throat, so that he might noways sit or lie or sleep; but he bore all
+the iron. Many thousands they starved with hunger.' The unhappy
+sufferers had no one to help them. Stephen and Matilda were too busy
+with their own quarrel to do justice to their subjects. Poor men cried
+to Heaven, but they got no answer. 'Men said openly that Christ and his
+saints were asleep.'"
+
+DOMINIONS OF HENRY II.--_Henry_, the son of the empress and of
+Count _Geoffrey_ of Anjou, was the first of the _Angevin_
+kings of England. They had Saxon blood in their veins, but were
+neither Norman nor Saxon, except in the female line. It was
+eighty-eight years since the Conquest; and, although the higher
+classes talked French, almost every one of their number was of mixed
+descent. The line between Saxon and Norman was becoming effaced. A
+vassal of the king of France, Henry held so many fiefs that he was
+stronger than the king himself, and all the other crown vassals taken
+together. From his father he had _Anjou_; from his mother,
+_Normandy_ and _Maine_; the county of _Poitou_ and the
+duchy of _Aquitaine_ he received by _Eleanor_, the divorced
+wife of Louis VII., whom he married. Later, by marrying one of his
+sons to the heiress of _Brittany_, that district, the nominal
+fief of Normandy, came practically under his dominion. He was a
+strong-willed man, who reduced the barons to subjection, and pulled
+down the castles which had been built without the king's leave. It
+might seem probable that the possessor of so great power would absorb
+the little monarchy of France. But this was prevented by
+long-continued discord in England,--discord in the royal family,
+between the king and the clergy, and, later, between the king and the
+barons. On the Continent, the king of England required a great and
+united force to break the feudal bonds which grew stronger between the
+king of France and the French provinces of England. We shall soon see
+how France enlarged her territory, and how the English dominion on the
+Continent was greatly reduced.
+
+REFORMS OF HENRY.--In order to control the barons, he arranged with them
+to pay money in lieu of military service. In this way they were
+weakened. At the same time, he encouraged the small landowners to
+exercise themselves in arms, which would prepare them for self-defense
+and to assist the king. Moreover, he sent judges through the land to
+hear causes. They were to ask a certain number of men in the county as
+to the merits of the cases coming before them. These men took an oath to
+tell the truth. They gradually adopted the custom of hearing the
+evidence of others before giving to the judges their
+_verdict_,--that is, their declaration of the truth (from _vere
+dictum_). Out of this custom grew the jury system.
+
+BECKET: CONSTITUTIONS OF CLARENDON.--The Conqueror had granted to
+ecclesiastical courts the privilege of trying cases in which the
+clergy were concerned. On this privilege the clergy had been disposed
+to insist ever since the fall of the Roman Empire. Under Stephen the
+energetic restraint exercised upon them was removed. In the early
+years of the reign of Henry II., there were great disorders among the
+Norman clergy, and crimes were of frequent occurrence. These were
+often punished more lightly than the same offenses when committed by a
+layman, as church courts could not inflict capital punishment. Henry
+undertook to bring the clergy under the jurisdiction of the ordinary
+courts. In this attempt he was resisted by _Thomas à Becket_, who
+had been his chancelor, and whom he raised to the archbishopric of
+Canterbury (1162), in the full expectation of having his support. He
+had been gay and extravagant in his ways, and zealous in behalf of
+whatever the king wished. But the brilliant chancelor became a strict
+and austere prelate, the champion of the clergy, with a will as
+inflexible as that of Henry. The only bishop that voted against him at
+his election, remarked that "the king had worked a miracle in having
+that day turned a layman into an archbishop, and a soldier into a
+saint." In this controversy, the clergy had reason to fear that Henry,
+if he got the power, would use it to punish and plunder the
+innocent. At a great council of prelates and barons, the
+_Constitutions of Clarendon_ were adopted (1164), which went far
+towards the subjecting of the ecclesiastics, as to their appointment
+and conduct, to the royal will.
+
+_Becket_, with the other prelates, swore to observe these
+statutes; but he repented of the act, was absolved by the Pope from
+his oath, and fled to France. Later a reconciliation took place
+between him and the king. Becket returned to England, but with a
+temper unaltered. A hasty expression of Henry, uttered in wrath, and
+indicating a desire to be rid of him, was taken up by four knights,
+who attacked the archbishop, and slew him, near the great altar in the
+cathedral at Canterbury (Dec. 29, 1170). The higher nobles welcomed
+the occasion to revolt. _Henry_ was regarded as the instigator of
+the bloody deed, and was moved to make important concessions to the
+Pope, _Alexander III_. His life was darkened by quarrels with his
+sons. In 1173 the kings of France and Scotland, and many nobles of
+Normandy and England, joined hands with them. Henry, afflicted with
+remorse, did penance, allowing himself to be scourged by the monks at
+the tomb of Becket, or "St. Thomas,"--for he was canonized. The people
+rallied to him, and the nobles were defeated. The rebellion came to an
+end. The king of Scotland became more completely the vassal of
+England. In another rebellion the king's sons rebelled against him: in
+1189 _John_, the youngest of them, joined with his brother
+Richard. Then Henry's heart was broken, and he died.
+
+CONQUEST OF IRELAND.--In the first year of Henry's reign, he was
+authorized by _Pope Hadrian IV._ to invade Ireland. In 1169
+_Dermot of Leinster_, a fugitive Irish king, undertook to enlist
+adventurers for this service. He was aided by _Richard of Clare_,
+earl of Pembroke, called _Strongbow_, and others. They were
+successful; and in 1171 _Henry_ crossed over to Ireland, and was
+acknowledged as sovereign by all the chiefs of the South. A synod
+brought the Irish Church into subjection to the see of Canterbury. But
+there was constant warfare, and the North and East of the island were
+not subdued. The whole country was not conquered until
+_Elizabeth's_ time, four centuries later.
+
+WEAKENING OF GREAT VASSALS IN FRANCE.--The weakening of _Henry's_
+power was the salvation of _Louis VII._, who had more the spirit
+of a monk than of an active and resolute monarch. At his death a new
+epoch is seen to begin. The dominion of the great vassals declines,
+and the truly monarchical period commences. It was the change which
+ended in making the king the sole judge, legislator, and executive of
+the country. _Louis the Fat, Philip Augustus,_ and _St. Louis
+(Louis IX.)_ are the early forerunners of _Louis XIV._, under
+whom the absolute monarchy was made complete.
+
+PHILIP AUGUSTUS OF FRANCE (1180-1223): RICHARD THE LIONHEARTED OF
+ENGLAND (1189-1199).--_Philip Augustus_ was the last king of
+France to be crowned before his accession. The custom had helped to
+give stability to the regal system. Now it was no longer
+needful. Philip was only fifteen years old when he began to reign
+alone. For forty-three years he labored with shrewdness and
+perseverance, and with few scruples as to the means employed, to build
+up the kingly authority. His first act was a violent attack on the
+_Jews_, whom he despoiled and banished. This was counted an act
+of piety. He acquired _Vermandois, Valois_, and _Amiens_;
+refusing to render homage to the Bishop of Amiens, who claimed to be
+its suzerain. During the life of _Henry II._, Philip had allied
+himself closely with his son _Richard_ (the Lion-hearted), who
+succeeded his father. _Richard_ was passionate and quarrelsome,
+yet generous. He was troubadour as well as king. After his coronation
+(1189), the two kings made ready for a Crusade together. To raise
+money, _Richard_ sold earldoms and crown lands, and exclaimed
+that he would sell London if he could find a buyer. The two kings set
+out together in 1190. They soon quarreled. _Philip_ came home
+first, and, while _Richard_ was a prisoner in Austria, did his
+best to profit by his misfortunes, and to weaken the English reigning
+house. In the absence of _Richard, John_, his ambitious and
+unfaithful brother, was made regent by the lords and the London
+citizens. As nothing was heard of the king, John claimed the
+crown. Hearing of the release of _Richard, Philip_ wrote to
+_John_ (1194), "Take care of yourself, for the devil is let
+loose." _Richard_ made war on _Philip_ in Normandy, but Pope
+_Innocent III._ obliged the two kings to make a truce for five
+years (1199). Two months after, Richard was mortally wounded while
+besieging a castle near _Limoges_, where it was said that a
+treasure had been found, which he as the suzerain claimed. He had
+never visited England but twice; and, although he always had the fame
+of a hero, the country had no real cause to regret his death.
+
+JOHN OF ENGLAND (1199-1216).--John (surnamed _Sansterre_, or
+_Lackland_, a name given to the younger sons, whose fathers had
+died before they were old enough to hold fiefs) was chosen
+king. Anjou, Poitou, and Touraine desired to have for their duke young
+_Arthur_, duke of Brittany, the son of _Geoffrey_, John's
+elder brother. _Philip Augustus_ took up the cause of Arthur, but
+deserted him when he had gained for himself what he wished. When
+Philip wished to reopen the war he took advantage of a complaint from
+one of John's vassals, Hugh of Lusignan, whose affianced bride John
+had stolen away. As suzerain Philip summoned John to answer at Paris,
+and when he did not appear the court declared his fiefs forfeited. It
+was in this war that Arthur was captured by his uncle and was
+murdered. This crime served only to strengthen Philip's cause. He
+seized on _Normandy_, which thenceforward was French, and
+_Brittany_, which became an immediate fief of the king (1204). He
+took the other possessions of England in Northern Gaul. There were
+left to the English the duchy of _Aquitaine_, with _Gascony_
+and the _Channel Islands_.  The lands south of the Loire John had
+inherited from his mother.
+
+TYRANNY OF JOHN.--John robbed his subjects, high and low, under the
+name of taxation. Not content with forcing money out of the Jews, one
+of whom he was said to have coerced by pulling out a tooth every day,
+he treated rich land-owners with hardly less cruelty. He had not, like
+_Henry II._, the support of the people, and added to his
+unpopularity by hiring soldiers from abroad to help him in his
+oppression.
+
+JOHN'S QUARREL WITH THE POPE: MAGNA CHARTA.--As rash as he was
+tyrannical, John engaged in a quarrel with Pope _Innocent III_.
+The monks of Canterbury appointed as archbishop, not the king's
+treasurer, whom he bade them choose, but another. The Pope neither
+heeded the king nor confirmed their choice, but made them elect a
+religious and learned Englishman, _Stephen Langton_. _John_,
+in a rage, drove the monks out of Canterbury, and refused to recognize
+the election. The Pope excommunicated him, and laid England under an
+_interdict_; that is, he forbade services in the churches, and
+sacraments except for infants and the dying; marriages were to take
+place in the church porch, and the dead were to be buried without
+prayer and in unconsecrated ground. As _John_ paid no regard to
+this measure of coercion, _Innocent_ declared him deposed, and
+charged the king of France to carry the sentence into effect
+(1213). Resisted at home, and threatened from abroad, _John_ now
+made an abject submission, laying his crown at the feet of
+_Pandulph_, the Pope's legate. He made himself the vassal of the
+Pope, receiving back from him the kingdoms of England and Ireland,
+which he had delivered to _Innocent_, and engaging that a yearly
+rent should be paid to Rome by the king of England and his
+heirs. _Philip_ had to give up his plan of invading
+England. _John's_ tyranny and licentiousness had become
+intolerable. _Langton_, a man of large views, and the English
+Church, united with the barons in extorting from him, in the meadow of
+_Runnymede_,--an island in the Thames, near Windsor,--the
+_Magna Charta_, the foundation of English constitutional
+liberty. It secured two great principles: _first_, that the king
+could take the money of his subjects only when it was voted to him for
+public objects; and _secondly_, that he could not punish or
+imprison them at his will, but could only punish them after
+conviction, according to law, by their countrymen.
+
+  The Great Charter is based on the charter of Henry I. It precisely
+  defines and secures old customs, 1. It recognizes the rights of the
+  Church. 2. _It secures person and property from seizure and
+  spoliation without the judgment of peers or the law of the land._
+  3. There are regulations for courts of law. 4. Exactions by the lord
+  are limited to the three customary feudal aids. The benefits granted
+  to the vassal are to be extended to the lower tenants. 5, How the
+  Great Council is to be composed, and how convened, is
+  defined. 6. The "liberties and free customs" of London and of other
+  towns are secured. 7. Protection is given against certain oppressive
+  exactions of the Crown. 8. The safety of merchants against exactions
+  in coming into England, and in going out, and in traveling through
+  it, is guaranteed. 9. There is some provision in favor of the
+  villain.
+
+WAR WITH FRANCE.--_John_ joined in a great coalition against
+_Philip Augustus_. He was to attack France in the south-west;
+while the emperor, _Otto IV._, and the counts of Flanders and
+Boulogne, with all the princes of the Low Countries, were to make
+their attack on the north. It was a war of the feudal aristocracy
+against the king of the French. At the great battle of _Bouvines_
+(1214) the French were victorious. The success, in the glory of which
+the communes shared, added no territory to France; but it awakened a
+national spirit. _John_ was beaten in _Poitou_, and went
+home.
+
+DEPOSITION OF JOHN.--In England, _John_ found that all his
+exertions against the _Charter_, even with the aid of Rome, were
+unavailing. In a spirit of vengeance, he brought in mercenary
+freebooters, and marched into Scotland, robbing and burning as he
+went. Every morning he burned the house in which he had lodged for the
+night. At length the English barons offered the crown to _Louis_,
+the eldest son of _Philip Augustus_; but _John_ died in 1216,
+and _Louis_ found himself deserted. He had shown a disposition to
+give lands to the French.
+
+THE ALBIGENSIAN WAR.--The war against the _Albigenses_ began in
+the reign of _Philip_; but he pleaded that his hands were full,
+and left it to be waged by the nobles. That sect had its seat in the
+south of France, and derived its name from the city of _Albi_. It
+held certain heterodox tenets, and rejected the authority of the
+priesthood. In 1208, under _Innocent III._, a crusade was preached
+against _Raymond VI._, count of Toulouse, in whose territory most
+of them were found. This was first conducted by _Simon de
+Montfort_, and then by Philip's son, _Louis VIII._, the county
+of _Toulouse_ being a fief of France. The result of the desolating
+conflict was, that part of the count's fiefs were in 1229 transferred
+to the crown, and the country itself in 1270. In that year, at the
+council of Toulouse, the _Inquisition_, a special ecclesiastical
+tribunal, was organized to complete the extermination of the
+_Albigensians_ who had escaped the sword. The advantages resulting
+from the crushing of the sovereignties of the south were sure to come
+to the French monarchy. But _Philip_ left it to the nobles and to
+his successors to win the enticing prize.
+
+The first period of rivalry between England and France ends with
+_John_ and _Philip Augustus_. For one hundred and twenty
+years, each country pursues its course separately. Monarchy grows
+stronger in France: constitutional government advances in England.
+
+LOUIS IX. OF FRANCE (1226-1270).--In _Louis IX._ (St. Louis)
+France had a king so noble and just that the monarchy was sanctified in
+the eyes of the people. At his accession he was but eleven years old,
+and with his mother, _Blanche_ of Castile, had to encounter for
+sixteen years a combination of great barons determined to uphold
+feudalism. Most of them staid away from his coronation. When the young
+king and his mother approached _Paris_, they found the way barred;
+but it was opened by the devoted burghers, who came forth with arms in
+their hands to bring them in. The magistrates of the communes swore to
+defend the king and his friends (1228). They were supported by the
+Papacy. In 1231 the war ended in a way favorable to royalty. The treaty
+of 1229 with _Raymond VII._, count of _Toulouse_, led to the
+gradual absorption of the South. _Theobald_ of _Champagne_
+became king of _Navarre_, and sold to the crown _Chartres_
+and other valuable fiefs. In the earlier period of his reign Louis was
+guided by his wise, even if imperious, mother, who held the regency.
+
+ENGLAND AND FRANCE.--In 1243 _Louis_ defeated _Henry III._ of
+England, who had come over to help the count of _La Marche_ and
+other rebellious nobles. In 1245 _Charles of Anjou_, the king's
+brother, married _Beatrice_, through whom _Provence_ passed
+to the house of Anjou. The king's long absence (1248-1254), during the
+sixth Crusade, had no other result but to show to all that he combined
+in himself the qualities of a hero and of a saint. After his return,
+his government was wise and just, and marked by sympathy with his
+people. In 1259 he made a treaty with _Henry III._, yielding to
+him the _Limousin, Périgord_, and parts of _Saintonge_, for
+which Henry relinquished all claims on the rest of France. _Louis_
+fostered learning. The University of Paris flourished under his
+care. In his reign _Robert of Sorbon_ (1252) founded _the
+Sorbonne_, the famous college for ecclesiastics which bears his
+name.
+
+CIVIL POLICY OF LOUIS.--In his civil policy _Louis_ availed
+himself of the Roman law to undermine feudal privileges. The legists
+enlarged the number of cases reserved for the king himself to
+adjudicate. He established new courts of justice, higher than the
+feudal courts, and the right of final appeal to himself. He made the
+king's "Parliament" a great judicial body. He abolished in his domains
+the judicial combat, or _duel_,--the old German method of
+deciding between the accused and the accuser. He liberated many
+serfs. But, mild as he was, he had no mercy for Jews and heretics. In
+his intercourse with other nations, he blended firmness and courage
+with a fair and unselfish spirit. He refused to comply with the
+request of the Pope to take up arms against the emperor, _Frederic
+II._; but he threatened to make war upon him if he did not release
+the prelates whom he had captured on their way to Rome. The "Pragmatic
+Sanction" of St. Louis is of doubtful genuineness. It is an assertion
+of the liberties of the Gallican Church. With loyalty to the Holy See,
+and an exalted piety, Louis defended the rights of all, and did not
+allow the clergy to attain to an unjust control. _Voltaire_ said
+of him, "It is not given to man to carry virtue to a higher point." He
+stands in the scale of merit on a level with _Alfred_ of England.
+
+PARLIAMENTS IN FRANCE.--The word _parliament_ in French history
+has a very different meaning from that which it bears when applied to
+the English institution of the same name. There were thirteen
+parliaments in France, each having a jurisdiction of its own. They
+were established at different times. Of these the Parliament of Paris
+was the oldest and by far the most important. The king and other
+suzerains administered justice, each in his own domain. The Parliament
+of Paris was originally a portion of the king's council that was set
+apart to hear causes among the fiefs. It considered all appeals and
+judicial questions. But in the reign of _Louis IX._,
+commissioners, or _baillis_, of the king, held provincial courts
+of appeal in his name. The great suzerains established, each in his
+own fief, like tribunals, but of more restricted authority. Louis
+IX. made it optional with the vassal to be tried by his immediate
+suzerain, or in the king's courts, which were subordinate to his
+council. As time went on, the authority of the royal tribunals
+increased, as that of the feudal courts grew weaker. In the Parliament
+of Paris, a corps of legists who understood the Roman law were
+admitted with the lords, knights, and prelates. More and more these
+"counsellors" were left to themselves. Later there was a division into
+_Chambers_, of which the _Grand Chamber_ for the final
+hearing and decision of appeals was of principal importance. _Philip
+the Fair_ (1303) gave a more complete organization to
+Parliament. He provided that it should hold two annual sittings at
+Paris. Thus there grew up a judicial aristocracy. After 1368 the
+members were appointed for life. At length, under _Henry IV._,
+the seats in Parliament became hereditary. The great magistrates thus
+constituted wore robes of ermine, or of scarlet adorned with
+velvet. _The Palace of Justice_ (_Palais de Justice_), on an
+island in the Seine, was given to Parliament for its sessions by
+_Charles V_. In its hall scenes of tragic interest, including, in
+modern times, the condemnation of _Marie Antoinette_ and of
+_Robespierre_, have taken place. The crown was represented by a
+great officer, a public prosecutor or attorney-general (_procureur
+général_). He and his assistants were termed the "king's people"
+(_gens du roi_). They had the privilege of speaking with their
+hats on. It was an ancient custom to enroll the royal ordinances in
+the parliamentary records. Gradually it came to be considered that no
+statute or decree had the force of law unless it was entered on the
+registers of Parliament. Great conflicts occurred with the kings when
+Parliament refused "to register" their edicts or treaties. Then the
+king would hold "a bed of justice,"--so called from the cushions of
+the seat where he sat in the hall of Parliament, whither he came in
+person to command them to register the obnoxious enactment. This royal
+intervention could not be resisted: commonly the enrollment would be
+made, but sometimes under a protest. Each of the local parliaments
+claimed to be supreme in its own province: they were held to
+constitute together one institution, and all the judges were on a
+level. Attempts at political interference by Parliaments, the kings
+resisted. At the French Revolution in 1790, the Parliaments were
+finally abolished.
+
+HENRY III. (1216-1272).--John's eldest son, _Henry_, when he was
+crowned by the royalists, was only nine years old. For a short time he
+had a wise guardian in _William, Earl of Pembroke_. In two
+battles, one on the land and one on the sea, _Louis VIII._
+(1223-1226), son of _Philip Augustus_ of France, was defeated. He
+made peace, and returned to France. Henry married _Eleanor_, the
+daughter of _Raymond_, count of _Provence_,--a beautiful and
+accomplished woman, but she was unpopular in England. The king, as
+well as his wife, lavished offices, honors, and lands upon
+foreigners. He was a weak prince, and unwisely accepted for his second
+son, _Edmund_, the crown of the _Two Sicilies_, which could
+be won only at the expense of England. This measure induced the barons
+to compel Henry to a measure equivalent to the placing of authority in
+the hands of a council. This brought on a war between the king and the
+barons. The latter were led by _Simon de Montfort_ (the second of
+the name), who had inherited the earldom of Leicester through his
+mother. Through him PARLIAMENT assumed the form which it has since
+retained. The greater barons, the lords or peers, with the bishops and
+principal abbots, came together in person, and grew into the House of
+Lords. The freeholders of each county had sent some of the knights to
+represent them. The attendance of these knights now began to be
+regular; but besides the two knights from each county, who were like
+the county members of our own time, _Simon_ caused each
+_city_ and _borough_ to send two of their citizens, or
+_burgesses_. Thus the _House of Commons_ arose. _Simon_
+defeated _Henry_ at _Lewes_ (1264): but the barons flocked
+to the standard of Prince _Edward_, who escaped from custody; and
+Simon was defeated and slain at the battle of _Evesham_ in
+1265. _Henry_ was restored to power. He died in 1272, and was
+buried in _Westminster Abbey_, which he had begun to
+rebuild. Under Henry, the _Great Charter_, with some alterations,
+was three times confirmed. A _Charter of the Forest_ was added,
+providing that no man should lose life or limb for taking the king's
+game. Cruel laws for the protection of game in the forests or
+uncultivated lands had been a standing grievance from the days of the
+Norman Conquest. The confirming of the _Great Charter_ in 1225
+was made the condition of a grant of money from the National Council
+to the king. When the bishops, in 1236, desired to have the laws of
+inheritance conformed to the rules of the Church, the barons made the
+laconic answer, "We will not change the laws of England" (_Nolumus
+leges Anglice mutare_).
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. RISE OF THE BURGHER CLASS: SOCIETY IN THE ERA OF THE
+CRUSADES.
+
+
+RISE OF THE CITIES.--Under feudalism, only two classes present
+themselves to view,--the nobility and the clergy on the one hand, and
+the serfs on the other. This was the character of society in the ninth
+century. In the tenth century we see the beginnings of an intermediate
+class, the germ of "the third estate." This change appears in the
+cities, where the _burghers_ begin to increase in intelligence,
+and to manifest a spirit of independence. From this time, for several
+centuries, their power and privileges continued to grow.
+
+GROWTH OF THE CITIES.--The same need of defense that led to the
+building of towers and castles in the country drove men within the
+walls of towns. Industry and trade developed intelligence, and
+produced wealth. But _burghers_ under the feudal rule were
+obliged to pay heavy tolls and taxes. For example, for protection on a
+journey through any patch of territory, they were required to make a
+payment. Besides the regular exactions, they were exposed to most
+vexatious depredations of a lawless kind. As they advanced in thrift
+and wealth, communities that were made up largely of artisans and
+tradesmen armed themselves for their own defense. From self-defense
+they proceeded farther, and extorted exemptions and privileges from
+the _suzerain_, the effect of which was to give them a high
+though limited degree of self-government.
+
+ORIGIN OF MUNICIPAL FREEDOM.--It has been supposed that municipal
+government in the Middle Ages was a revival of old Roman rights and
+customs, and thus an heirloom from antiquity. The cities--those on the
+Rhine and in Gaul, for example--were of Roman origin. But the view of
+scholars at present is, that municipal liberty, such as existed in the
+Middle Ages, was a native product of the Germanic peoples. The cities
+were incorporated into the feudal system. They were subject to a lay
+lord or to a bishop. In _Italy_, however, they struggled after a
+more complete republican system.
+
+CITIES AND SUZERAINS.--In the conflicts which were waged by the cities,
+they were sometimes helped by the suzerain against the king, and
+sometimes by the king against the nearer suzerain. In _England_
+the cities were apt to ally themselves with the nobility against the
+king: in _Germany_ and _France_ the reverse was the fact. But
+in _Germany_ the cities which came into an immediate relation to
+the sovereign were less closely dependent on him than were the cities
+in France on the French king.
+
+TWO CLASSES OF CITIES.--Not only did the cities wrest from the lords a
+large measure of freedom: it was often freely conceded to them. Nobles,
+in order to bring together artisans, and to build up a community in
+their own neighborhood, granted extraordinary
+privileges. _Charters_ were given to cities by the king.
+Communities thus formed differed from the other class of cities in not
+having the same privilege of administering justice within their limits.
+
+GERMAN CITIES.--The cities in Germany increased in number on the fall
+of the Hohenstaufen family. They made the inclosure of their walls a
+place of refuge, as the nobles did the vicinity of their castles. They
+eventually gained admittance to the _Diets_ of the empire. They
+formed _leagues_ among themselves, which, however, did not become
+political bodies, any more than the Italian leagues.
+
+THE ROMAN LAW.--The revised study of the Roman law brought in a code at
+variance with feudal principles. The middle class, that was growing up
+in the great commercial cities, availed themselves, as far as they
+could, of its principles in regard to the inheritance of property. The
+_legists_ helped in a thousand ways to emancipate them from the
+yoke of feudal traditions.
+
+MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT.--The cities themselves often had vassals, and
+became suzerains. Government rested in the hands of the
+magistrates. They were chosen by the general assembly of the
+inhabitants, who were called together by the tolling of the bell. The
+magistrates governed without much restraint until another election,
+unless there were popular outbreaks, "which were at this time," as
+Guizot remarks, "the great guarantee for good government." Where the
+courage and spirit of burghers were displayed was in the maintenance of
+their own privileges, or purely in self-defense. In all other relations
+they showed the utmost humility; and in the twelfth century, when their
+emancipation is commonly dated, they did not pretend to interfere in
+the government of the country.
+
+TRAVELERS AND TRADE.--The _East_, especially _India_, was
+conceived of as a region of boundless riches; but commerce with the
+East was hindered by a thousand difficulties and dangers. Curiosity led
+travelers to penetrate into the countries of Asia. Among them the
+_Polo_ family of Venice, of whom _Marco_ was the most famous,
+were specially distinguished. Marco Polo lived in _China_, with
+his father and his uncle, twenty-six years. After his return, and
+during his captivity at _Genoa_, he wrote the celebrated accounts
+of his travels. He died about 1324. _Sir John Mandeville_ also
+wrote of his travels, but most of his descriptions were taken from the
+work of _Friar Odoric_, of Pordenone, who had visited the Far
+East. Merchants did not venture so far as did bold explorers of a
+scientific turn. Commerce in the Middle Ages was mainly in two
+districts,--the borders of the North Sea and of the Baltic, and the
+countries upon the Mediterranean. Trade in the cities on the African
+coast, in the tenth and eleventh centuries, was flourishing; and the
+Arabs of Spain were industrious and rich. _Arles, Marseilles, Nice,
+Genoa, Florence, Amalfi, Venice_, vied with one another in traffic
+with the East. Intermediate between Venice and Genoa, and the north of
+Europe, were flourishing marts, among which _Strasburg_ and other
+cities on the Rhine--_Augsburg, Ulm, Ratisbon, Vienna_, and
+_Nuremberg_--were among the most prominent. Through these cities
+flowed the currents of trade from the North to the South, and from the
+South to the North.
+
+THE HANSEATIC LEAGUE.--To protect themselves against the feudal lords
+and against pirates, the cities of Northern Germany formed (about
+1241) the _Hanseatic League_, which, at the height of its power,
+included eighty-five cities, besides many other cities more or less
+closely affiliated with it. This league was dominant, as regards trade
+and commerce, in the north of Europe, and united under it the cities
+on the Baltic and the Rhine, as well as the large cities of
+Flanders. Its merchants had control of the fisheries, the mines, the
+agriculture, and manufactures of Germany. _Lübeck, Cologne,
+Brunswick_, and _Dantzic_ were its principal
+places. _Lübeck_ was its chief center. In all the principal towns
+on the highways of commerce, the flag of the _Hansa_ floated over
+its counting-houses. Wherever the influence of the league reached, its
+regulations were in force. It almost succeeded in monopolizing the
+trade of Europe north of Italy.
+
+FLANDERS: ENGLAND: FRANCE.--The numerous cities of Flanders--of which
+_Ghent, Ypres_, and _Bruges_ were best known--became hives
+of industry and of thrift. _Ghent_, at the end of the thirteenth
+century, surpassed _Paris_ in riches and power. In the latter
+part of the fourteenth century, the number of its fighting men was
+estimated at eighty thousand. The development of _Holland_ was
+more slow. _Amsterdam_ was constituted a town in the middle of
+the thirteenth century. _England_ began to exchange products with
+_Spain_. It sent its sheep, and brought back the horses of the
+Arabians. The cities of France--_Rouen, Orleans, Rheims, Lyons,
+Marseilles_, etc.--were alive with manufactures and trade. In the
+twelfth century the yearly fairs at _Troyes, St. Denis_, and
+_Beaucaire_ were famous all over Europe.
+
+NEW INDUSTRIES.--It has been already stated that the crusaders brought
+back to Europe the knowledge as well as the products of various
+branches of industry. Such were the cloths of Damascus, the glass of
+Tyre, the use of windmills, of linen, and of silk, the plum-trees of
+Damascus, the sugar-cane, the mulberry-tree. Cotton stuffs came into
+use at this time. Paper made from cotton was used by the Saracens in
+Spain in the eighth century. Paper was made from linen at a somewhat
+later date. In France and Germany it was first manufactured early in
+the fourteenth century.
+
+THE JEWS.--The Jews in the Middle Ages were often treated with extreme
+harshness. An outburst of the crusading spirit was frequently attended
+with cruel assaults upon them. As Christians would not take interest,
+money-lending was a business mainly left to the Hebrews. By them, bills
+of exchange were first employed.
+
+OBSTACLES TO TRADE.--The great obstacle to commerce was the insecurity
+of travel. Whenever a shipwreck took place, whatever was cast upon the
+shore was seized by the neighboring lord. A noble at _Leon_, in
+Brittany, pointing out a rock on which many vessels had been wrecked,
+said, "I have a rock there more precious than the diamonds on the crown
+of a king." It was long before property on the sea was respected, even
+in the same degree as property on the land. Not even at the present day
+has this point been reached. The infinite diversity of coins was
+another embarrassment to trade. In every fief, one had to exchange his
+money, always at a loss. _Louis IX._ ordained that the money of
+eighty lords, who had the right to coin, should be current only in
+their own territories, while the coinage of the king should be received
+everywhere.
+
+GUILDS.--A very important feature of mediĉval society was the
+_guilds_. Societies more or less resembling these existed among
+the _Romans_, and were called _collegia_,--some being for
+good fellowship or for religious rites, and others being
+trade-corporations.  There were, also, similar fraternities among the
+_Greeks_ in the second and third centuries B.C. In the Middle
+Ages, there were two general classes of guilds: _First_, there
+were the _peace-guilds_, for mutual protection against thieves,
+etc., and for mutual aid in sickness, old age, or impoverishment from
+other causes. They were numerous in England, and spread over the
+Continent.  _Secondly_, there were the _trade-guilds_, which
+embraced the _guilds-merchant_, and the _craft-guilds_. The
+latter were associations of workmen, for maintaining the customs of
+their craft, each with a _master_, or _alderman_, and other
+officers. They had their provisions for mutual help for themselves and
+for their widows and orphans, and they had their religious
+observances. Each had its patron saint, its festivals, its
+treasury. They kept in their hands the monopoly of the branch of
+industry which belonged to them. They had their rules in respect to
+apprenticeship, etc. Almost all professions and occupations were fenced
+in by guilds.
+
+MONASTICISM.--Society in the Middle Ages presented striking and
+picturesque contrasts. This was nowhere more apparent than in the
+sphere of religion. Along with the passion for war and the consequent
+reign of violence, there was a parallel self-consecration to a life of
+peace and devotion. With the strongest relish for pageantry and for a
+brilliant ceremonial in social life and in worship, there was
+associated a yearning for an ascetic course under the monastic vows. As
+existing orders grew rich, and gave up the rigid discipline of earlier
+days, new orders were formed by men of deeper religious earnestness. In
+the eleventh century, there arose, among other orders, the
+_Carthusian_ and _Cistercian;_ in the twelfth century, the
+_Premonstrants_ and the _Carmelites_, and the order of
+_Trinitarians_ for the liberation of Christian captives taken by
+the Moslems. The older orders, especially that of the
+_Benedictines_ in its different branches, became very wealthy and
+powerful. The _Cistercian_ Order, under its second founder,
+_St. Bernard_ (who died in 1153), spread with wonderful rapidity.
+
+THE MENDICANT ORDERS.--In the thirteenth century, when the papal
+authority was at its height, the mendicant orders arose. The order of
+_St. Francis_ was fully established in 1223, and the order of
+_St. Dominic_ in 1216. They combined with monastic vows the
+utmost activity in preaching and in other clerical work. These orders
+attracted young men of talents and of a devout spirit in large
+numbers. The mendicant friars were frequently in conflict with the
+secular clergy,--the ordinary priesthood,--and with the other
+orders. But they gained a vast influence, and were devotedly loyal to
+the popes. It must not be supposed that the monastic orders generally
+were made up of the weak or the disappointed who sought in cloisters a
+quiet asylum. Disgust with the world, from whatever cause, led many to
+become members of them; but they were largely composed of vigorous
+minds, which, of their own free choice, took on them the monastic
+vows.
+
+THE RISE OF THE UNIVERSITIES.--The Crusades were accompanied by a
+signal revival of intellectual activity. One of the most important
+events of the thirteenth century was the rise of the universities. The
+schools connected with the abbeys and the cathedrals in France began to
+improve in the eleventh century, partly from an impulse caught by
+individuals from the Arabic schools in Spain. After the scholastic
+theology was introduced, teachers in this branch began to give
+instruction near those schools in Paris. Numerous pupils gathered
+around noted lecturers. An organization followed which was called a
+_university_,--a sort of _guild_,--made up of four
+faculties,--theology, canon law, medicine, and the arts. The arts
+included the three studies (_trivium_) of grammar, rhetoric, and
+philosophy, with four additional branches (the
+_quadrivium_),--arithmetic, geometry, music,
+astronomy. _Paris_ became the mother of many other
+universities. Next to Paris, _Oxford_ was famous as a seat of
+education. Of all the universities, _Bologna_ in Italy was most
+renowned as a school for the study of the civil law.
+
+SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY.--The scholastic theology dates from the middle of
+the eleventh century. It was the work of numerous teachers, many of
+them of unsurpassed acuteness, who, at a time when learning and
+scholarship were at a low ebb, made it their aim to systemize,
+elucidate, and prove on philosophical grounds, the doctrines of the
+Church. _Aristotle_ was the author whose philosophical writings
+were most authoritative with the schoolmen. In theology,
+_Augustine_ was the most revered master.
+
+The main question in philosophy which the schoolmen debated was that of
+_Nominalism_ and _Realism_. The question was, whether a
+general term, as _man_, stands for a real being designated by it
+(as _man_, in the example given, for _humanity_), or is
+simply the _name_ of divers distinct individuals.
+
+THE LEADING SCHOOLMEN.--In the eleventh century _Anselm_ of
+Canterbury was a noble example of the scholastic spirit. In the
+thirteenth century _Abelard_ was a bold and brilliant teacher, but
+with less depth and discretion. He, like other eminent schoolmen,
+attracted multitudes of pupils. The thirteenth century was the golden
+age of scholasticism. Then flourished _Albert_ the Great,
+_Thomas Aquinas, St. Bonaventura_, and others very influential in
+their day. There were two schools of opinion,--that of the
+_Thomists_, the adherents of _Aquinas_, the great theologian
+of the _Dominican_ order; and that of the _Scotists_, the
+adherents of _Duns Scotus_, a great light of the
+_Franciscans_. They differed on various theological points not
+involved in the common faith.
+
+The discussions of the schoolmen were often carried into distinctions
+bewildering from their subtlety. There were individuals who were more
+disposed to the _inductive_ method of investigation, and who gave
+attention to _natural_ as well as metaphysical science. Perhaps
+the most eminent of these is _Roger Bacon_. He was an Englishman,
+was born in 1219, and died about 1294. He was imprisoned for a time on
+account of the jealousy with which studies in natural science and new
+discoveries in that branch were regarded by reason of their imagined
+conflict with religion. _Astrology_ was cultivated by the Moors
+in Spain in connection with astronomy. It spread among the Christian
+nations. _Alchemy_, the search for the transmutation of metals,
+had its curious votaries. But such pursuits were popularly identified
+with diabolic agency.
+
+THE VERNACULAR LITERATURES: THE TROUBADOURS.--Intellectual activity
+was for a long time exclusively confined to theology. The earliest
+literature of a secular cast in France belongs to the tenth and
+eleventh centuries, and to the dialect of _Provence_. The study
+of this language, and the poetry composed in it, became the recreation
+of knights and noble ladies. Thousands of poets, who were called
+_Troubadours_ (from _trobar_, to find or invent), appeared
+almost simultaneously, and became well known in _Spain_ and in
+_Italy_ as well as in _France_. At the same time the period
+of chivalry began. The theme of their tender and passionate poems was
+love. They indulged in a license which was not offensive, owing to the
+laxity of manners and morals in Southern France at that day, but would
+be intolerable in a different state of society. Kings, as well as
+barons and knights, adopted the Provençal language, and figured as
+troubadours. In connection with jousts and tournaments, there would be
+a contest for poetical honors. The "Court of Love," made up of gentle
+ladies, with the lady of the castle at their head, gave the
+verdict. Besides the songs of love, another class of Provençal poems
+treated of war or politics, or were of a satirical cast. From the
+_Moors_ of Spain, _rhyme_, which belonged to Arabian poetry,
+was introduced, and spread thence over Europe. After the thirteenth
+century the troubadours were heard of no more, and the Provençal
+tongue became a mere dialect.
+
+THE NORMAN WRITERS.--The first writers and poets in the French
+language proper appeared in Normandy. They called themselves
+_Trouvères_.  They were the troubadours of the North. They
+composed romances of chivalry, and _Fabliaux_, or amusing
+tales. They sang in a more warlike and virile strain than the poets of
+the South. Their first romances were written late in the twelfth
+century. About that time _Villehardouin_ wrote in French a
+history of the conquest of Constantinople. From the poem entitled
+"Alexander," the name of Alexandrine verse came to be applied to the
+measure in which it was written. A favorite theme of the romances of
+chivalry was the mythical exploits of _Arthur_, the last Celtic
+king of Britain, and of the knights of the _Round Table_. Another
+class of romances of chivalry related to the court of
+_Charlemagne_. The _Fabliaux_ in the twelfth and thirteenth
+centuries were largely composed of tales of ludicrous adventures.
+
+GERMAN, ENGLISH, AND SPANISH WRITERS.--In _Germany_, in the age
+of the Hohenstaufens, the poets called _Minnesingers_
+abounded. They were conspicuous at the splendid tournaments and
+festivals. In the thirteenth century numerous lays of love, satirical
+fables, and metrical romances were composed or translated. Of the
+_Round Table_ legends, that of the _San Graal_ (the holy
+vessel) was the most popular. It treated of the search for the
+precious blood of Christ, which was said to have been brought in a cup
+or charger into Northern Europe by _Joseph of Arimathea_. During
+this period the old ballads were thrown into an epic form; among them,
+the _Nibelungenlied_, the Iliad of Germany. The religious faith
+and loyalty of the _Spanish_ character, the fruit of their long
+contest with the Moors, are reflected in _the poem of the Cid_,
+which was composed about the year 1200. It is one of the oldest epics
+in the Romance languages. In _England_ during this period, we
+have the chronicles kept in the monasteries. Among their authors are
+_William of Malmesbury, Geoffrey of Monmouth_, and _Matthew
+Paris_, a Benedictine monk of St. Albans.
+
+DANTE.--Dante, the chief poet of Italy, and the father of its
+vernacular literature, was born in _Florence_ in 1265. _The
+Divine Comedy_ is universally regarded as one of the greatest
+products of poetical genius.
+
+  The family of _Alighieri_, to which _Dante_ belonged, was
+  noble, but not of the highest rank. He was placed under the best
+  masters, and became not only an accomplished student of Virgil and
+  other Latin poets, but also an adept in theology and in various
+  other branches of knowledge. His training was the best that the time
+  afforded. His family belonged to the anti-imperial party of
+  _Guelfs_. The spirit of faction raged at
+  _Florence_. _Dante_ was attached to the party of "Whites"
+  (_Bianchi_), and, having held the high office of _prior_
+  in Florence, was banished, with many others, when the "Blacks"
+  (_Neri_) got the upper hand (1302). Until his death, nineteen
+  years later, he wandered from place to place in Italy as an
+  exile. Circumstances, especially the distracted condition of the
+  country, led him to ally himself with the _Ghibellines_, and to
+  favor the imperial cause. All that he saw and suffered until he
+  breathed his last, away from his native city, at _Ravenna_,
+  combined to stir within him the thoughts and passions which find
+  expression in his verse.
+
+  No poet before _Dante_ ever equaled him in depth of thought and
+  feeling. His principal work is divided into _three_ parts. It
+  is an allegorical vision of hell, purgatory, and heaven. Through the
+  first two of these regions, the poet is conducted by
+  _Virgil_. In the third, _Beatrice_ is his guide. When he
+  was a boy of nine years of age, he had met, at a May-day festival,
+  _Beatrice_, who was of the same age; and thenceforward he
+  cherished towards her a pure and romantic affection. Before his
+  twenty-fifth year she died; but, after her death, his thoughts dwelt
+  upon her with a refined but not less passionate regard. She is his
+  imaginary guide through the abodes of the blest. His _Young
+  Life_ (_Vita Nuova_) gives the history of his love. The
+  "_Divine Comedy_"--so called because the author would modestly
+  place it below the rank of tragedy,--besides the lofty genius which
+  it exhibits, besides the matchless force and beauty of its diction,
+  sums up, so to speak, what is best and most characteristic in the
+  whole intellectual and religious life of the Middle Ages. _Thomas
+  Aquinas_ was _Dante's_ authority in theology· The scholastic
+  system taught by the Church is brought to view in his pictures of
+  the supernatural world, and in the comments connected with them.
+
+PAINTING.--After the Lombard conquest of Italy, art branched off into
+two schools. The one was the Byzantine, and the other the Late Roman.
+In the Byzantine paintings, the human figures are stiff, and
+conventional forms prevail. The Byzantine school conceived of
+_Jesus_ as without beauty of person,--literally "without form or
+comeliness." The Romans had a directly opposite conception. Byzantine
+taste had a strong influence in Italy, especially at
+_Venice_. This is seen in the mosaics of St. Mark's
+Cathedral. The first painter to break loose from Byzantine influence,
+and to introduce a more free style which flourished under the
+patronage of the Church, was _Cimabue_ (1240-1302), who is
+generally considered the founder of modern Italian painting. The first
+steps were now taken towards a direct observation and imitation of
+nature. The artist is no longer a slavish copyist of
+others. "_Cimabue_" says _M. Taine_, "already belongs to the
+new order of things; for he invents and expresses." But _Cimabue_
+was far outdone by _Giotto_ (1276-1337), who cast off wholly the
+Byzantine fetters, studied nature earnestly, and abjured that which is
+false and artificial. Notwithstanding his technical defects, his
+force, and "his feeling for grace of action and harmony of color,"
+were such as to make him, even more than _Cimabue_, "the founder
+of the true ideal style of Christian art, and the restorer of
+portraiture." "His, above all, was a varied, fertile, facile, and
+richly creative nature."  The contemporary of _Dante_, his
+portrait of the poet has been discovered in recent times on a wall in
+the Podesta at Florence. "He stands at the head of the school of
+allegorical painting, as the latter of that of poetry." The most
+famous pupil of _Giotto_ was _Taddeo Gaddi_ (about
+1300-1367).
+
+SCULPTURE.--In the thirteenth century, the era of the revival of art
+in Italy, a new school of sculpture arose under the auspices
+especially of two artists, _Niccolo of Pisa_ and his son
+_Giovanni_. They brought to their art the same spirit which
+belonged to _Giotto_ in painting and to _Dante_ in
+poetry. The same courage that moved the great poet to write in his own
+vernacular tongue, instead of in Latin, emboldened the artists to look
+away from the received standards, and to follow nature. In the same
+period a new and improved style of sculpture appears in other
+countries, especially in the Gothic cathedrals of Germany and France.
+
+ARCHITECTURE.--The earliest Christian churches were copies of the Roman
+basilica,--a civil building oblong in shape, sometimes with and
+sometimes without rows of columns dividing the nave from the aisles: at
+one end, there was usually a semicircular _apse_. Most of the
+churches of the eleventh and twelfth centuries were built after this
+style. Then changes were introduced, which in some measure paved the
+way for the _Gothic_, the peculiar type of mediĉval
+architecture. The essential characteristic of this style is the pointed
+arch. This may have been introduced by the returning crusaders from
+buildings which they had observed in the East. Its use and development
+in the churches and other edifices of Europe in the twelfth and
+thirteenth centuries were without previous example. The Gothic style
+was carried to its perfection in France, and spread over England and
+Germany. The cathedrals erected in this form are still the noblest and
+most attractive buildings to be seen in the old European towns.
+
+The cathedral in _Rheimes_ was commenced in 1211: the choir was
+dedicated in 1241, and the edifice was completed in 1430. The cathedral
+of _Amiens_ was begun in 1220; that of _Chartres_ was begun
+about 1020, and was dedicated in 1260; that of _Salisbury_ was
+begun in 1220; that of _Cologne_, in 1248; the cathedral of
+_Strasburg_ was only half finished in 1318, when the architect,
+_Erwin of Steinbach_, died; that of Notre Dame in _Paris_ was
+begun in 1163; that of _Toledo_, in 1258. These noble buildings
+were built gradually: centuries passed before the completion of
+them. Several of them to this day remain unfinished.
+
+
+
+FRANCE.--THE HOUSE OF VALOIS.
+
+
+PHILIP VI, 1328-1350, _m_.
+Jeanne, daughter of Robert II, Duke of Burgundy.
+|
++--JOHN, 1350-1364, _m_.
+   Bona, daughter of John, King of Bohemia.
+   |
+   +--CHARLES V, 1364-1380, _m_.
+      Jeanne, daughter of Peter I, Duke of Bourbon.
+      |
+      +--CHARLES VI, 1380-1422, _m_.
+      |  Isabella, daughter of Stephen, Duke of Bavaria.
+      |  |
+      |  +--CHARLES VII, 1422-1461,
+      |	     _m_. Mary, daughter
+      |	     of Louis II of Anjou.
+      |      |
+      |      +--LOUIS XI, 1461-1483,
+      |         _m_. (2), Charlotte,
+      |         daughter of Louis,
+      |         Duke of Savoy.
+      |         |
+      |         +--3, CHARLES VIII, 1483-1498,
+      |		   _m_. Anne of Bretagne.
+      |
+      +--Louis, Duke of Orleans (_d_. 1407) _m_.
+         Valentina, daughter of Gian Galeazzi, Duke of Milan.
+         |
+         +--Charles, Duke of Orleans (_d_. 1467),
+         |  _m_. Mary of Cleves.
+         |  |
+         |  +--2, Anne of Bretagne,
+	 |     _m_. LOUIS XII, 1498-1515.
+         |     |
+         |     +--Claude, _m_. FRANCIS I, 1515-1547.
+         |
+         +--John, Count of Angoulême (_d_. 1467).
+            |
+            +--Charles, count (_d_. 1496),
+	       _m_. Louisa, daughter
+	       of Philip II, Duke of Savoy.
+               |
+               +--FRANCIS I, 1515-1547.
+               |  |
+               |  +--HENRY II. 1547-1559, _m._.
+	       |     Catherine de' Medici, _d._. 1589.
+               |     |
+               |     +--FRANCIS II, 1559-1560, _m_.
+               |     |  Mary, Queen of Scots.
+               |     |
+               |     +--CHARLES IX, 1560-1574,
+               |     |  _m_. Elizabeth, daughter of
+               |     |	Emperor Maximilian II.
+               |     |
+               |     +--HENRY III. 1574-1589, _m_.
+               |     |	Louis, daughter of Nicholas,
+               |     |	Duke of Mercoeur.
+               |     |
+               |     +--Margaret,
+               |          _m_.
+               |     +--HENRY IV, succeeded 1589.
+               |     |
+               |  +--Jeanne, _m_. Anthony of Bourbon.
+               |  |
+               +--MARGARET, _m._ (2), HENRY II OF NAVARRE.
+
+
+
+ENGLAND.--DESCENDANTS OF EDWARD I
+
+
+EDWARD I, 1272-1307, _m._.
+1, Eleanor, daughter of Ferdinand III of Castile;
+|
+|
++--4, EDWARD II, 1307-1327, _m._.
+   Isabel, daughter of Philip IV of France.
+   |
+   +--EDWARD III, 1327-1377, _m._
+      Philippa, daughter of William III of Hainault.
+      |
+      +--Edward, the Black Prince,
+      |	 _m._ Joan of Kent.
+      |  |
+      |  +--RICHARD II, 1377-1399, _m._
+      |     Anne, daughter of Emperor Charles IV.
+      |
+      +--Lionel, Duke of Clarence.
+      |  |
+      |  +--Philippa, _m._ Edmund Mortimer.
+      |     |
+      |     +--Roger Mortimer.
+      |        |
+      |        +--Edmund Mortimer.
+      |        |
+      |        +--Anne Mortimer, _m._
+      |           Richard, Earl of Cambridge.
+      |           |
+      |           +--Richard, Duke of York.
+      |              |
+      |              +--EDWARD IV, 1461-1483.
+      |              |  |
+      |              |  +--EDWARD V (_d._ 1483).
+      |              |
+      |              +--RICHARD III, 1483-1485.
+      |
+      +--John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster.
+      |  |
+      |  +--HENRY IV, 1399-1413.
+      |     |
+      |     +--HENRY V, 1413-1422.
+      |        |
+      |        +--HENRY VI, 1422-1461.
+      |
+      +--Edmund, Duke of York.
+         |
+         +--Richard, Earl of Cambridge _m._
+            Anne Mortimer (wh. see).
+
+2, Margaret, daughter of Philip III of France.
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD IV. FROM THE END OF THE CRUSADES TO THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE.
+(_A.D. 1270-1453_.)
+
+
+THE DECLINE OP ECCLESIASTICAL AUTHORITY: THE GROWTH OF THE NATIONAL
+SPIRIT AND OF MONARCHY.
+
+CHARACTER OF THE NEW ERA.--The Church was supreme in the era of the
+Crusades. These had been great movements of a society of which the Pope
+was the head,--movements in which the pontiffs were the natural
+leaders. We come now to an era when the predominance of the Church
+declines, and the Papacy loses ground. Mingled with religion, there is
+diffused a more secular spirit. The nations grow to be more distinct
+from one another. Political relations come to be paramount. The
+national spirit grows strong,--too strong for outside ecclesiastical
+control. Within each nation the laity is inclined to put limits to the
+power and privileges of the clergy. In several of the countries,
+monarchy in the modern European form gets a firm foothold. The
+enfranchisement of the towns, the rise of commerce, the influence
+gained by the legists and by the Roman law, of which they were the
+expounders, had betokened the dawn of a new era. The development of the
+national languages and literatures signified its coming. Germany and
+the Holy Roman Empire no longer absorb attention. What is taking place
+in France and England is, to say the least, of equal moment.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I. ENGLAND AND FRANCE: SECOND PERIOD OP RIVALSHIP: THE HUNDRED
+YEARS' WAR (A.D. 1339-1453).
+
+
+PHILIP III. OF FRANCE (1270-1285).--In France royalty made a steady
+progress down to the long War of a Hundred Years. _Philip
+III_. (1270-1285) married his son to the heiress of
+_Navarre_. His sway extended to the Pyrenees. He failed in an
+expedition against _Peter_, king of _Aragon_, who had
+supported the Sicilians against _Charles of Anjou_; but the time
+for foreign conquests had not come.
+
+PHILIP IV. OF FRANCE (1285-1314): WAR WITH EDWARD I. OF ENGLAND.--
+_Philip IV._ (the Fair) has been styled the "King of the Legists."
+He surrounded himself with lawyers, who furnished him, from their
+storehouse of Roman legislation, weapons with which to face baron and
+pope. In 1292 conflicts broke out between English and French
+sailors. _Philip_, in his character as suzerain, undertook to take
+peaceful possession of _Guienne_, but was prevented by the English
+garrisons. Thereupon he summoned _Edward I._ of England, as the
+holder of the fiefs, before his court. _Edward_ sent his brother
+as a deputy, but the French king declared that the fiefs were forfeited
+in consequence of his not appearing in person.
+
+In the war that resulted (1294-1297), each party had his natural
+allies. _Philip_ had for his allies the Welsh and the Scots,
+while _Edward_ was supported by the Count of Flanders and by
+_Adolphus_ of Nassau, king of the Romans. In Scotland, _William
+Wallace_ withstood Edward. _Philip_ was successful in
+_Flanders_ and in _Guienne_. _Edward_, who was kept in
+England by his war with the Scots, secured a truce through the
+mediation of Pope _Boniface VIII_. Philip then took possession of
+Flanders, with the exception of _Ghent_. Flanders was at that
+time the richest country in Europe. Its cities were numerous, and the
+whole land was populous and industrious. From England it received the
+wool used in its thriving manufactures. To England its people were
+attached. Philip loaded the Flemish people with imposts. They rose in
+revolt, and _Robert d'Artois_, Philip's brother, met with a
+disastrous defeat in a battle with the Flemish troops at
+_Courtrai_, in 1302. The Flemish burghers proved themselves too
+strong for the royal troops. Flanders was restored to its count, four
+towns being retained by France.
+
+CONFLICT OF PHILIP IV. AND BONIFACE VIII.--The expenses of
+_Philip_, in the support of his army and for other purposes, were
+enormous. The old feudal revenues were wholly insufficient for the new
+methods of government. To supply himself with money, he not only
+levied onerous taxes on his subjects, and practiced ingenious
+extortion upon the Jews, but he resorted again and again to the device
+of debasing the coin. His resolution to tax the property of the Church
+brought him into a controversy, momentous in its results, with Pope
+_Boniface VIII_.
+
+_Boniface's_ idea of papal prerogative was fully as exalted as
+that formerly held by _Hildebrand_ and _Innocent III_. But
+he had less prudence and self-restraint, and the temper of the times
+was now altered. If Philip was sustained by the Roman law and its
+interpreters, whose counsels he gladly followed, _Boniface_, on
+the other hand, could lean upon the system of ecclesiastical or canon
+law, which had long been growing up in Europe, and of which the
+_Canonists_ were the professional expounders. The vast wealth of
+the clergy had led to enactments for keeping it within bounds, like
+the statute of _mortmain_ in England (1279) forbidding the giving
+of land to religious bodies without license from the king. The word
+_mortmain_ meant _dead hand_, and was applied to possessors
+of land, especially ecclesiastical corporations, that could not
+alienate it. The jurisdiction of ecclesiastical courts, which kings,
+because they happened to have a less liking for feudal law, had often
+favored, had now come to be another great matter of contention. In
+1296 _Boniface VIII_., in the bull _clericis laicos_,--so
+named, like other papal edicts, from the opening words,--forbade the
+imposition of extraordinary taxes upon the clergy without the consent
+of the Holy See. _Philip_ responded by forbidding foreigners to
+sojourn in France, which was equivalent to driving out of the country
+the Roman priests and those who brought in the obnoxious bull. At the
+same time he forbade money to be carried out of France. This last
+prohibition cut off contributions to Rome. The king asserted the
+importance of the laity in the Church, as well as of the clergy, and
+the right of the king of France to take charge of his own realm. There
+was a seeming reconciliation for a time, through concessions on the
+side of the Pope; but the strife broke out afresh in
+1301. _Philip_ arrested _Bernard Saisset_, a bold legate of
+the Pope. _Boniface_ poured forth a stream of complaints against
+_Philip_ (1301), and went so far as to summon the French clergy
+to a council at _Rome_ for the settlement of all disorders in
+France. The king then appealed to the French nation. On the 10th of
+April, 1302, he assembled in the Church of _Notre Dame_, at
+Paris, a body which, for the first time, contained the deputies of the
+universities and of the towns, and for this reason is considered to
+have been the first meeting of the _States General_, The clergy,
+the barons, the burghers, sided cordially with the king. The Pope then
+published the famous bull, _Unam Sanctam_, in which the
+subjection of the temporal power to the spiritual is proclaimed with
+the strongest emphasis. Boniface then excommunicated Philip, and was
+preparing to depose him, and to hand over his kingdom to the emperor,
+_Albert I_.
+
+DEATH OF BONIFACE VIII.--Meantime _Philip_ had assembled anew the
+States General (1303). The legists lent their counsel and active
+support. It was proposed to the king to convoke a general council of
+the Church, and to summon the Pope before it. _William of
+Nogaret_, a great lawyer in the service of Philip, was directed to
+lodge with Boniface this appeal to a council, and to publish it at
+_Rome_. With _Sciarra Colonna_, between whose family and the
+Pope there was a mortal feud, _Nogaret_, attended also by several
+hundred hired soldiers, entered _Anagni_, where _Boniface_
+was then staying. The two messengers heaped upon him the severest
+reproaches, and _Colonna_ is said to have struck the old pontiff
+in the face with his mailed hand. The French were driven out of the
+town by the people; but from the indignities which he had suffered,
+and the anger and shame consequent upon them, _Boniface_ shortly
+afterwards died.
+
+THE "BABYLONIAN CAPTIVITY" (1309-1379).--From the date of the events
+just narrated, the pontifical authority sank, and the secular
+authority of sovereigns and nations was in the ascendant. After the
+short pontificate of _Benedict XL_, who did what he could to
+reconcile the ancient but estranged allies, France and the Papacy, a
+French prelate, the Archbishop of Bordeaux, was made pope under the
+name of _Clement V_., he having previously engaged to comply with
+the wishes of Philip. While the Papacy continued subordinate to the
+French king, its moral influence in other parts of Christendom was of
+necessity reduced. _Clement V_, was crowned at _Lyons_ in
+1305, and in 1309 established himself at _Avignon_, a possession
+of the Holy See on the borders of France. After him there followed at
+_Avignon_ seven popes who were subject to French influence
+(1309-1376). It is the period in the annals of the Papacy which is
+called the "Babylonian captivity." _Philip_ remained
+implacable. He was determined to secure the condemnation of
+_Boniface VIII_., even after his death. _Clement V_. had no
+alternative but to summon a council, which was held at _Vienne_
+in 1311, when Boniface was declared to have been orthodox, at the same
+time that Philip was shielded from ecclesiastical censure or reproach.
+
+SUPPRESSION OF THE KNIGHTS TEMPLARS.--One of the demands which
+_Philip_ had made of _Clement V_., and a demand which the
+council had to grant, was the condemnation of the order of Knights
+Templars, whose vast wealth Philip coveted. On the 13th of October,
+1307, the Templars were arrested overall France,--an act which evinces
+both the power of Philip, and his injustice. They were charged with
+secret immoralities, and with practices involving impiety. Provincial
+councils were called together to decree the judgment preordained by the
+king. The Templars were examined under torture, and many of them were
+burned at the stake. A large number of those who were put to death
+revoked the confessions which had been extorted from them by bodily
+suffering. Individuals may have been guilty of some of the charges, but
+there is no warrant for such a verdict against the entire order. The
+order was abolished by _Clement V_.
+
+LAW STUDIES: MERCENARY TROOPS.--During the reign of Philip the Fair, it
+was ordained that Parliament should sit twice every year at Paris
+(1303). A university for the study of law was founded at
+_Orleans_. The king needed soldiers as well as lawyers. Mercenary
+troops were beginning to take the place of feudal bands. Philip brought
+the Genoese galleys against the ships of Flanders.
+
+THE THREE SONS OF PHILIP: THE "SALIC LAW."--Three sons of Philip
+reigned after him. _Louis X._ (1314-1316) was induced to take
+part in an aristocratic reaction, in behalf of "the good old customs,"
+against the legists; but he continued to emancipate the serfs. He was
+not succeeded by his daughter, but by his brother. This precedent was
+soon transformed into the "Salic law" that only heirs in the male line
+could succeed to the throne. The rule was really the result of the
+"genealogical accident" that for three hundred and forty-one years, or
+since the election of Hugh Capet, every French king had been succeeded
+by his son. In several cases the son had been crowned in the lifetime
+of the father. Thus the principle of heredity, and of heredity in the
+male line, had taken root.
+
+Under _Philip V._ and his successor, _Charles IV._
+(1322-1328), there was cruel persecution of the Jews, and many people
+suffered death on the charge of sorcery.
+
+EDWARD I. OF ENGLAND (1272-1307): CONQUEST OF WALES: WILLIAM
+WALLACE.--_Edward_, who was in the Holy Land when his father
+died, was a gallant knight and an able ruler,--"the most brilliant
+monarch of the fourteenth century." _Llywelyn_, prince of Wales,
+having refused to render the oath due from a vassal, was forced to
+yield. When a rebellion broke out several years later, Wales was
+conquered, and the leader of the rebellion was executed (1283). Thus
+Wales was joined to England; and the king gave to his son the title of
+"Prince of Wales," which the eldest son of the sovereign of England
+has since worn. _Edward_ was for many years at war with Scotland,
+which now included the Gaelic-speaking people of the Highlands, and
+the English-speaking people of the Lowlands. The king of England had
+some claim to be their suzerain, a claim which the Scots were slow to
+acknowledge. The old line of Scottish princes of the Celtic race died
+out. Alexander III. fell with his horse over a cliff on the coast of
+Fife. Two competitors for the throne arose, both of them of Norman
+descent,--_John Baliol_ and _Robert Bruce_. The Scots made
+_Edward_ an umpire, to decide which of them should reign. He
+decided for _Baliol_ (1292), stipulating that the suzerainty
+should rest with himself. When he called upon _Baliol_ to aid him
+against France, the latter renounced his allegiance, and declared
+war. He was conquered at _Dunbar_ (1296), and made prisoner. The
+strongholds in Scotland fell into the hands of the English. The
+country appeared to be subjugated, but the Scots were ill-treated by
+the English. _William Wallace_ put himself at the head of a band
+of followers, defeated them near _Stirling_ in 1292, and kept up
+the contest for several years with heroic energy. At length
+_Edward_, through the skill acquired by the English in the use of
+the bow, was the victor at _Falkirk_ in 1298. _Wallace_,
+having been betrayed into his hands, was brutally executed in London
+(1305).
+
+  Edward carried off from Scone the stone on which the Scottish kings
+  had always been crowned. It is now in Westminster Abbey, under the
+  coronation chair of the sovereign of Great Britain. There was a
+  legend, that on this same stone the patriarch Jacob laid his head
+  when he beheld angels ascending and descending at Bethel. Where that
+  stone was, it was believed that Scottish kings would reign. This was
+  held to be verified when English kings of Scottish descent inherited
+  the crown.
+
+ROBERT BRUCE.--The struggle for Scottish independence was taken up by
+_Robert Bruce_, grandson of the Bruce who had claimed the
+crown. His plan to gain the throne was disclosed by _John Comyn_,
+nephew of _Baliol_: this _Comyn_ young Bruce stabbed in a
+church at Dumfries. He was then crowned king at Scone, and summoned
+the Scots to his standard. The English king sent his son _Edward_
+to conquer him; but the king himself, before he could reach Scotland,
+died.
+
+PARLIAMENT: THE JEWS.--Under Edward, the form of government by king,
+lords, and commons was firmly established. Parliament met in two
+distinct houses. Against his inclination he swore to the "Confirmation
+of the Charters," by which he engaged not to impose taxes without the
+consent of Parliament. The statute of _mortmain_ has been
+referred to already. The clergy paid their taxes to the king when they
+found, that, unless they did so, the judges would not protect
+them. _Edward_ had protected the _Jews_, who, in England as
+elsewhere, were often falsely accused of horrible crimes, and against
+whom there existed, on account of their religion, a violent
+prejudice. At length he yielded to the popular hatred, and banished
+them from the kingdom, permitting them, however, to take with them
+their property.
+
+Edward II. (1307-1327).--_Edward II_., a weak and despicable
+sovereign, cared for nothing but pleasure.
+
+He was under the influence of the son of a Gascon gentleman, _Peter
+of Gaveston_, whom, contrary to the injunction of his father, he
+recalled from banishment. _Gaveston_ was made regent while the
+king was in France, whither he went, in 1308, to marry _Isabel_,
+daughter of _Philip the Fair_. After his return, the disgust of
+the barons at the conduct of _Gaveston_, and at the courses into
+which _Edward_ was led by him, was such, that in 1310 they forced
+the king to give the government for a year to a committee of peers, by
+whom Gaveston was once more banished. When he came back, he was
+captured by the barons, and beheaded in 1312.
+
+BRUCE: BANNOCKBURN: DEPOSITION OF EDWARD II.--After various successes,
+_Robert Bruce_ laid siege to _Stirling_ in 1314. This led to
+a temporary reconciliation between the king and the
+barons. _Edward_ set out for Scotland with an army of a hundred
+thousand men. A great battle took place at _Bannockburn_, where
+_Bruce_, with a greatly inferior force of foot-soldiers, totally
+defeated the English. He had dug pits in front of his army, which he
+had covered with turf resting on sticks. The effect was to throw the
+English cavalry into confusion. Against the _Despencers_, father
+and son, the next favorites of Edward, the barons were not at first
+successful; but in 1326 Edward's queen, _Isabel_, who had joined
+his enemies, returned from France with young _Edward_, Prince of
+Wales, and at the head of foreign soldiers and exiles. The barons
+joined her: the _Despencers_ were taken and executed. The king
+was driven to resign the crown. He was carried from one castle to
+another, and finally was secretly murdered at Berkeley Castle, by
+_Roger Mortimer_, in whose custody he had been placed.
+
+  On the suppression of the _Knights Templars_ by _Pope Clement
+  V._, their property in England was confiscated. The _Temple_,
+  which was their abode in London, became afterwards the possession of
+  two societies of lawyers, the _Inner_ and _Middle Temple_.
+
+
+
+
+THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR:
+
+
+PERIOD I.  (TO THE PEACE OF BRÉTIGNY. 1360).
+
+
+ORIGIN OF THE WAR: EDWARD III. OF ENGLAND (1327-1377).--England and
+France entered on one of the longest wars of which there is any record
+in history. It lasted, with only a few short periods of intermission,
+for a hundred years. At the outset, there were two main causes of
+strife. _First_, the king of France naturally coveted the English
+territory around Bordeaux,--_Guienne_, whose people were
+French. _Secondly_, the English would not allow _Flanders_
+--whose manufacturing towns, as Ghent and Bruges, were the best
+customers for their wool--to pass under French control. Independently
+of these grounds of dispute, _Edward III_. laid claim to the
+French crown, for the reason that his mother was the sister of the last
+king, while _Philip VI_. (1328-1350), then reigning, was only his
+cousin. The French stood by the "Salic law," but a much stronger
+feeling was their determination not to be ruled by an Englishman.
+
+_Edward III._ claimed the throne of France in right of his mother,
+_Isabel_, the daughter of _Philip IV_. The peers and barons
+of France, on the whole, for political reasons, decided that the crown
+should be given to _Philip (VI.)_. his nephew, of the house of
+_Valois_, a younger line of the _Capets_. Edward rendered to
+him, in 1328, feudal homage for the duchy of _Guienne_, but took
+the first favorable occasion to re-assert his claim to the
+throne. _Robert II._, Count of Artois, was obliged to fly from
+France on a charge of having poisoned his aunt and her daughters, as a
+part of his unsuccessful attempt to get possession of the fiefs left to
+them by his grandsire. He went over to England from _Brussels_,
+and stirred up the young English king to attack _Philip_
+(1334). _David Bruce_, whom _Edward_ sought to drive out of
+Scotland, received aid from France. Philip ordered _Louis_, Count
+of Flanders, between whom and the burghers there was no affection, to
+expel the English from his states. _James Van Arteveld_, a brewer
+of _Ghent_, convinced the people that it was better to get rid of
+the count, and ally themselves with the English. _Edward_ even
+then hesitated about entering into the conflict, but the demands and
+measures of _Philip_ showed that he was bent on war. The princes
+in the neighborhood of Flanders, and the emperor _Louis V_., to
+whom the Pope at _Avignon_ was hostile, declared on the side of
+_Edward_.
+
+The following tables (in part repeated, in a modified form, from
+previous tables, and here connected) will illustrate the narrative:--
+
+
+
+THE HOUSE OF VALOIS.
+
+CHARLES, Count of Valois (_d_. 1325),
+younger son of PHILIP III, KING OF FRANCE. (See below.)
+|
++--PHILIP VI, 1328-1350.
+   |
+   +--JOHN the Good, 1350-1364.
+      |
+      +--CHARLES V the Wise, 1364-1380.
+      |  |
+      |  +--CHARLES VI, 1380-1422.
+      |  |  |
+      |  |  +--CHARLES VII, 1422-1461.
+      |  |     |
+      |  |     +--LOUIS XI, 1461-1483.
+      |  |        |
+      |  |        +--CHARLES VIII, 1483-1498.
+      |  |        |
+      |  |        +--Jeanne,
+      |  |           _m_
+      |  |     +--Duke of Orleans, afterwards LOUIS XII, 1498-1515.
+      |  |     |
+      |  |  +--Charles, Duke of Orleans, (d. 1467)
+      |  |  |
+      |  +--Louis, Duke of Orleans (assassinated 1407),
+      |	    founder of the House of _Valois-Orleans_.
+      |
+      +--Louis, Duke of Anjou, founder
+      |	 of the second Royal House of Naples.
+      |
+      +--John, Duke of Berry.
+      |
+      +--Philip, Duke of Burgundy
+	 (_d_. 1404).
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+PHILIP III, 1270-1285.
+|
++--PHILIP IV, 1285-1314.
+|  |
+|  +--Isabel, _m_. Edward II of England
+|  |  |
+|  |  +--Edward II of England.
+|  |     |
+|  |     +--Edward III of England.
+|  |
+|  +--PHILIP V, 1316-1322.
+|  |
+|  +--CHARLES IV, 1322-1328.
+|
++--Charles, Count of Valois (_d_. 1325), _m_.
+   (1), Margaret of Naples.
+   |
+   +--PHILIP VI, 1328-1350.
+
+
+
+EARLY EVENTS OF THE WAR.--Hostilities began in 1337. _Edward_
+entered France, and then for the first time publicly set up his claim
+to be king of France, quartering the lilies on his shield; and he was
+accepted by the Flemish as their suzerain. The first battle was on the
+sea near Fort _Sluys_ (1340), where _Edward_ won a victory,
+and thirty thousand Frenchmen were slain or drowned. This established
+the supremacy of the English on the water. The fleet of the French was
+made up of hired Castilian and Genoese vessels. In 1341 the conflict
+was renewed on account of a disputed succession in Brittany, in which
+the "Salic law" was this time on the English side.
+
+_Jane of Penthievre_ was supported by _Philip_; while _Jane
+of Montfort_, an intrepid woman who was protected by _Edward_,
+contended for the rights of her husband. This war, consisting of the
+sieges of fortresses and towns, was kept up for twenty-four years.
+
+BATTLE OF CRÉCY: CALAIS: BRITTANY.--In 1346 the _Earl of Derby_
+made an attack in the south of France, while _Edward_, with his
+young son _Edward_, the Prince of Wales, landed in Normandy,
+which he devastated. _King Edward_ advanced to the neighborhood
+of Paris; but the want of provisions caused him to change his course,
+and to march in the direction of Flanders. His situation now became
+perilous. He was followed by _Philip_ at the head of a powerful
+army; and, had there been more energy and promptitude on the side of
+the French, the English forces might have been
+destroyed. _Edward_ was barely able, by taking advantage of a
+ford at low tide, to cross the Somme, and to take up an advantageous
+position at _Crécy_. There he was attacked with imprudent haste
+by the army of the French. The chivalry of France went down before the
+solid array of English archers, and _Edward_ gained an
+overwhelming victory. Philip's brother _Charles_, count of
+Alençon, fell, with numerous other princes and nobles, and thirty
+thousand soldiers (1346). In the battle, the English king's eldest son
+--_Edward_, the Black Prince as he was called from the color of
+his armor--was hard pressed; but the father would send no aid, saying,
+"Let the boy win his spurs." It was the custom to give the spurs to
+the full-fledged knight. After a siege, _Calais_, the port so
+important to the English, was captured by them. The deputies of the
+citizens, almost starved, came out with cords in their hands, to
+signify their willingness to be hanged. The French were driven out,
+and Calais was an English town for more than two centuries. France was
+defeated on all sides. The Scots, too, were vanquished; and _David
+Bruce_ was made prisoner (1346). In _Brittany_ the French
+party was prostrate. A truce between the kings was concluded for ten
+months.
+
+THE "BLACK DEATH."--In the midst of these calamities, the fearful
+pestilence swept over France, called the "Black Death."  It came from
+Egypt, possibly from farther east. In Florence three-fifths of the
+inhabitants perished by it. From Italy it passed over to Provence, and
+thence moved northward to Paris, spreading destruction in its path. It
+reached England, and there it is thought by some that one-half of the
+population perished (1348-1349).
+
+ENGLISH AND FRENCH ARMIES.--At this time, when the power of France was
+so reduced, the king acquired _Montpellier_ from _James of
+Aragon_, and the Dauphiné of _Vienne_ by purchase from the
+last _Dauphin, Humbert II._, who entered a
+monastery. _Dauphin_ became the title of the heir of the French
+crown. It was constantly evident how deep a root the royal power had
+struck into the soil of France. At times, when the kingdom was almost
+gone, the kingship survived. But, unhappily, there was no union of
+orders and classes. Chivalry looked with disdain upon the common
+people. The poor Genoese archers who had fought with the French at
+_Crécy_, and whose bow-strings were wet by a shower, were
+despised by the gentlemen on horseback. In the French armies, there
+was no effective force but the cavalry, and there was a fatal lack of
+subordination and discipline. In England, on the contrary, under kings
+with more control over the feudal aristocracy, and from the
+combination of lords and common people in resistance to kings, the
+English armies had acquired union and discipline. The bow in the hands
+of the English yeoman was a most effective weapon. The English
+infantry were more than a match for the brave and impetuous cavaliers
+of France. At _Crécy_ the entire English force fought on
+foot. Cannon were just beginning to come into use. This brought a new
+advantage to the foot-soldier. But it seems probable that cannon were
+employed at _Crécy_.
+
+BATTLE OF POITIERS: INSURRECTION IN PARIS.--_Philip_ left his
+crown to his son, _John_ (II.) of Normandy, called "the Good"
+(1350-1364); but the epithet (_le Bon_) signifies not the morally
+worthy, but rather, the prodigal, gay and extravagant. He was a
+passionate, rash, and cruel king. His relations with _Charles_
+"the Bad," king of _Navarre_,--who, however, was the better man
+of the two,--brought disasters upon France. This _Charles II._ of
+Navarre (1349-1387) was the grandson, on his mother's side, of
+_Louis X._ of France. _John_ had withheld from him promised
+fiefs. Later he had thrown him into prison. _Philip of Navarre_,
+the brother of _Charles_, helped the English against _John_
+in Normandy.  Meanwhile the Prince of Wales (the Black Prince) ravaged
+the provinces near Guienne. The national spirit in France was roused
+by the peril. The _States General_ granted large supplies of men
+and money, but only on the condition that the treasure should be
+dispensed under their superintendence, and that they should be
+assembled every year. The army of the Black Prince was small, and he
+advanced so far that he was in imminent danger; but the attack on him
+at _Poitiers_ (1356), by the vastly superior force of King
+_John_, was made with so much impetuosity and so little prudence
+that the French, as at _Crecy_, were completely defeated. Their
+cavalry charged up a lane, not knowing that the English archers were
+behind the hedges on either side. Their dead to the number of eleven
+thousand lay on the field. The king, and with him a large part of the
+nobility, were taken prisoners. _John_ was taken to England
+(1357). From the moment of his capture he was treated with the utmost
+courtesy. The French peasantry, however, suffered greatly; and in
+France the name of Englishman for centuries afterwards was held in
+abhorrence.
+
+INSURRECTION IN PARIS.--The incapacity of the nobles to save the
+kingdom called out the energies of the class counted as plebeian,--the
+middle class between the nobles and serfs. It was not without
+competent leaders, chief of whom were _Robert le Coq_, bishop of
+_Laon_, and councilor of Parliament; and _Etienne Marcel_,
+an able man, provost of the traders, or head of the municipality of
+Paris. The _States General_ at Paris, at the instigation of such
+as these, required of the _Dauphin_ the punishment of the
+principal officers of the king, the release of the King of Navarre,
+and the establishment of a council made up from the three orders, for
+the direction of all the important affairs of government. The States
+General, representing _the South_, at Toulouse voted a levy of
+men and means without conditions; but the Dauphin _Charles_ was
+obliged, at the next meeting of the States General of Paris (1357), to
+yield to these and other additional demands. The king, however, a
+prisoner in England, at the Dauphin's request refused to ratify the
+compact. The agitators at Paris set the King of Navarre free, and
+urged him to assert his right to the throne. _Marcel_ and the
+Parisian multitude wore the party-colored hood of red and blue, the
+civic colors of Paris. They killed two of the Dauphin's confidential
+advisers, the marshals of Champagne and Normandy.  A reaction set in
+against _Marcel_, and in favor of the royal cause. A civil war
+was the result.
+
+REVOLT OF THE JACQUERIE.--At this time, there burst forth an
+insurrection, called the _Jacquerie_, of the peasants of the
+provinces,--_Jacques Bonhomme_ being a familiar nickname of the
+peasantry. It was attended with frightful cruelties: many of the
+feudal chateaux were destroyed, and all of their inmates killed. The
+land was given over to anarchy and bloodshed. _Marcel_ made
+different attempts to effect a combination with _Charles of
+Navarre_; but the revolutionary leader was assassinated, and the
+Dauphin _Charles_, having destroyed opposition in _Paris_,
+made peace with the King of Navarre, who had kept up in the provinces
+the warfare against him. The movement of _Marcel_, with whatever
+crimes and errors belonged to it, was "a brave and loyal effort to
+stem anarchy, and to restore good government." By its failure, the
+hope of a free parliamentary government in France was dashed in
+pieces.
+
+TREATY OF BRÉTIGNY (1360).--The captive king, _John_, made a
+treaty with _Edward_, by which he ceded to the English at least
+one-half of his dominions. The _Dauphin_ assembled the States
+General, and repudiated the compact. _Edward III._, in 1359,
+again invaded France with an immense force. But _Charles_
+prudently avoided a general engagement, and _Edward_ found it
+difficult to get food for his troops. He concluded with France, in
+1360, the treaty of _Brétigny_, by which the whole province of
+_Aquitaine_, with several other lordships, was ceded to
+_Edward_, clear of all feudal obligations. _Edward_, in
+turn, renounced his claim to the French crown, as well as to
+_Normandy_, and to all other former possessions of the
+Plantagenets north of the Loire. The King was to be set at liberty on
+the payment of the first installment of his ransom.
+
+
+
+
+THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR:
+
+
+PERIOD II. (TO THE PEACE OF TROYES, 1420).
+
+DUCHY OF BURGUNDY.--There was an opportunity to repair a part of these
+losses. In 1361 the ducal house of _Burgundy_ became extinct, and
+the fief reverted to the crown. But _John_ gave it to his son,
+_Philip the Bold_, who became the founder of the Burgundian branch
+of the house of _Valois_. _Philip_ married the heiress of
+_Flanders_, and thus founded the power of the house of Burgundy in
+the Netherlands.
+
+DU GUESCLIN: CONTEST IN SPAIN.--The provinces of France were overrun
+and plundered by soldiers of both parties, under the names of
+_routiers_ (men of the road) and _great companies_. King
+_John_ returned to England, because one of his sons, left as a
+hostage, had fled. There his captivity was made pleasant to him, but he
+died soon after.
+
+_Charles V._, or _Charles the Wise_ (1364-1380), undertook to
+restore prosperity to the French kingdom. He reformed the coin, the
+debasement of which was a dire grievance to the burghers. Against the
+free lances in the service of _Charles of Navarre_, the king sent
+bands of mercenary soldiers under _Du Guesclin_, a valiant
+gentleman of Brittany, who became one of the principal heroes of the
+time. The war lasted for a year, and the King of Navarre made peace. In
+Brittany, _Du Guesclin_ was taken prisoner by the English party
+and the adventurers who fought with them. The king secured his release
+by paying his ransom; and he led the companies into Spain to help the
+cause of _Henry of Transtamare_, who had a dispute for the throne
+of _Castile_ with _Peter the Cruel_. The Black Prince
+supported _Peter_, and, for a time, with success. In 1369
+_Henry_ was established on the throne, and with him the French
+party. The principal benefit of this Spanish contest was the
+deliverance of France from the companies of freebooters.
+
+ADVANTAGES GAINED BY THE FRENCH.--King _Charles_ reformed the
+internal administration of his kingdom, and at length felt himself
+ready to begin again the conflict with England. _Edward III._ was
+old. The Black Prince was ill and gloomy, and his Aquitanian subjects
+disliked the supercilious ways of the English. _Charles_ declared
+war (1369). The English landed at _Calais_. But the cities were
+defended by their strong walls; and the French army, under the _Duke
+of Burgundy_, in pursuance of the settled policy of the king,
+refused to meet the enemy in a pitched battle. The next year (1370)
+they appeared again, and once more, in 1373, both times with the same
+result. The _Duke of Anjou_ reconquered the larger part of
+_Aquitaine_. _Du Guesclin_ was made constable of the French
+army, and thus placed above the nobles by birth. The English fleet was
+destroyed by the Castilian vessels before _Rochelle_ (1372). _Du
+Guesclin_ drove the _Duke of Montfort_, who was protected by
+the English, out of Brittany. In 1375 a truce was made, which continued
+until the death of Edward III. (1377). Then _Charles_ renewed the
+war, and was successful on every side. Most of the English possessions
+in France were won back. The last exploit of the Black Prince had been
+the sacking of _Limoges_ (1370). After this cruel proceeding,
+broken in health, he returned to England.
+
+STATE OF ENGLAND.--The Black Prince, after his return, when his father
+was old and feeble, did much to save the country from misrule, so that
+his death was deplored. The Parliament at this time was called "the
+Good." It turned out of office friends of _John of Gaunt_,--or of
+Ghent (the place where he was born),--the third son of Edward. They
+were unworthy men, whom John had caused to be appointed. At this time
+occurred the first instance of impeachment of the king's ministers by
+the Commons. When the Black Prince died, his brother regained the chief
+power, and his influence was mischievous. During Edward's reign,
+Flemish weavers were brought over to England, and the manufacture of
+fine woolen cloths was thus introduced.
+
+JOHN WICKLIFFE.--In this reign the English showed a strong disposition
+to curtail the power of the popes in England. When _Pope Urban
+V._, in 1366, called for the payment of the arrears of King
+_John's_ tribute, Parliament refused to grant it, on the ground
+that no one had the right to subject the kingdom to a foreigner. It was
+in the reign of _Edward III._ that _John Wickliffe_ became
+prominent. He took the side of the secular or the parish clergy in
+their conflict with the mendicant orders,--"the Begging Friars," as
+they were styled. He also advocated the cause of the king against the
+demands of the Pope. He contended that the clergy had too much wealth
+and power. He adopted doctrines, at that time new, which were not
+behind the later Protestant, or even Puritan, opinions. He translated
+the Bible into English. He was protected by _Edward III._ and by
+powerful nobles, and he died in peace in his parish at
+_Lutterworth_, in 1384; but, after his death, his bones were taken
+up, and burned. His followers bore the nickname of _Lollards_,
+which is probably derived from a word that means _to sing_, and
+thus was equivalent to _psalm-singers_.
+
+RICHARD II. (1377-1399): THE PEASANT INSURRECTION: DEPOSITION OF
+RICHARD.--_Richard_, the young son of the Black Prince, had an
+unhappy reign. At first he was ruled by his uncles, especially by
+_John of Gaunt_, Duke of Lancaster. Four years after his
+accession, a great insurrection of the peasants broke out, from
+discontent under the yoke of villanage, and the pressure of taxes. The
+first leader in Essex was a priest, who took the name of _Jack
+Straw_. In the previous reign, the poor had found reason to complain
+bitterly of the landlords; but their lot was now even harder. When the
+insurgents reached _Blackheath_, they numbered a hundred thousand
+men. There a priest named _John Ball_ harangued them on the
+equality of rights, from the text,--
+
+  When Adam delved, and Eve span,
+  Who was then a gentleman?
+
+Young Richard managed them with so much tact, and gave them such fair
+promises, that they dispersed. One of their most fierce leaders,
+_Wat Tyler_, whose daughter had been insulted by a tax-gatherer,
+was stabbed during a parley which he was holding with the king.
+
+There was a _Gloucester_ party--a party led by his youngest uncle,
+the _Duke of Gloucester_--which gave Richard much trouble; but he
+became strong enough to send the duke to _Calais_, where, it was
+thought, he was put to death. In 1398 he banished two noblemen who had
+given him, at a former day, dire offense. One of them was _Thomas
+Mowbray_, Duke of _Norfolk_; the other was _Henry of
+Bolingbroke_, Duke of _Hereford_, afterwards called Duke of
+_Lancaster_, son of John of Gaunt. When John of Gaunt died,
+Richard seized his lands. In 1399, when _Richard_ was in Ireland,
+_Bolingbroke_ landed, with a few men-at-arms and with Archbishop
+_Arundel_; and, being joined by the great family of _Percy_
+in the North, he obliged _Richard_ to resign the crown. He was
+deposed by Parliament for misgovernment. Not long after, he was
+murdered.  _Lancaster_ was made king under the name of _Henry
+IV._ It was under _Richard_ that the statute of
+_prĉmunire_ (of 1353) was renewed, and severe penalties were
+imposed on all who should procure excommunications or sentences against
+the king or the realm.
+
+THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.--In the course of the reign of
+_Edward III._, the French language, which had come in with the
+Normans, ceased to be the speech of fashion; and the English, as
+altered by the loss of inflections and by the introduction of foreign
+words, came into general use. The English ceased to speak the language
+of those who were now held to be national enemies. In 1362 the use of
+English was established in the courts of law. The _Old English_
+ceased to be written or spoken correctly. The _Latin_ still
+continued to be familiar to the clergy and to the learned. _William
+Langland_ wrote a poem entitled the _Vision of Piers Plowman_
+(1362). _Pierce the Plowman's Crede_ is a poem by another
+author. The two principal poets are _Chaucer_ and _Gower_,
+both of whom wrote the new English in use at the court. Chaucer's great
+poem, the _Canterbury Tales_, is the latest and most remarkable of
+his works.
+
+HENRY IV. (1399-1413): TWO REBELLIONS: THE LOLLARDS.-By right of birth,
+the crown would have fallen to _Roger Mortimer_, Earl of March,
+the grandson of _Lionel_, Duke of Clarence, Lionel having been a
+son of Edward III., older than John of Gaunt. But there was no law
+compelling Parliament to give the throne to the nearest of kin. So it
+fell to the house of Lancaster.
+
+Henry had to confront two rebellions. One was that of the _Welsh_,
+under _Owen Glendower_, which he long tried to put down, and which
+was gradually overcome by _Henry_, Prince of Wales, the story of
+whose wild courses in his youth was perhaps exaggerated. The other
+rebellion was that of the powerful Northumberland family of the
+_Percys_, undertaken in behalf of _Richard_ if he was
+alive,--for it was disputed whether or not he had really died,--and if
+not alive, in behalf of the _Earl of March_. The _Percys_
+joined Glendower. They were beaten in a bloody battle near
+_Shrewsbury_, in 1403, where Northumberland's son "Hotspur"
+(_Harry Percy_) was slain. While praying at the shrine of
+St. Edward in Westminster, the king was seized with a fit, and died in
+the "Jerusalem Chamber" of the Abbot. Under _Henry_ the
+proceedings against heretics were sharpened; but the Commons at length,
+from their jealousy of the clergy, sought, although in vain, a
+mitigation of the statute. In the next reign, the Lollards, who were
+numerous, had a leader in _Sir John Oldcastle_, called _Lord
+Cobham_, who once escaped from the Tower, but was captured, after
+some years, and put to death as a traitor and heretic. Whether he aimed
+at a Lollard revolution or not, is uncertain. The Lollards were
+persecuted, not only as heretics, but also as desiring to free the
+serfs from their bondage to the landlords.
+
+THE BURGUNDIANS AND ARMAGNACS.--In the last days of _Charles V._
+of France, he tried in vain to absorb _Brittany_. _Flanders_
+and _Languedoc_ revolted against him. The aspect of public affairs
+was clouded when _Charles VI_. (1380-1422), who was not twelve
+years old, became the successor to the throne. His uncles, the Dukes of
+_Anjou_, _Berri_, and _Burgundy_, contended for the
+regency. Their quarrels distracted the kingdom. A contest arose with
+the Flemish cities under the leadership of _Philip Van Artevelde_;
+but they were defeated by the French nobles at _Roosebeke_, and
+_Arterielde_ was slain. This victory of the nobles over the cities
+was followed by the repression of the municipal leaders and lawyers in
+France. Two factions sprang up,--the _Burgundians_ and the
+_Armagnacs_.
+
+_Margaret_, the wife of the Duke of Burgundy, received Flanders by
+inheritance, on the death of her father the Count (1384). The king was
+beginning to free himself from the control of the factions when he
+suddenly went mad. Thenceforth there was a struggle in France for
+supremacy between the adherents of the dukes of _Burgundy_ and the
+adherents of the house of _Orleans_. The latter came to be called
+_Armagnacs_ (1410), after the _Count d'Armagnac_, the
+father-in-law of _Charles, Duke of Orleans_. The strength of the
+_Burgundians_ was in the _North_ and in the cities. They
+adhered to _Urban VI._, the pope at Rome, in opposition to the
+Avignon pope, _Clement VII._; for these were the days of the papal
+schism. They were also friends of the house of _Lancaster_ in
+England,--of _Henry IV._ and _Henry V._ The strength of the
+_Armagnacs_ was in the _South_. At the outset, it was a party
+of the court and of the nobles: later it became a national
+party. _Louis, Duke of Orleans_, was treacherously assassinated by
+a partisan of the Burgundians (1407). This act fomented the strife.
+
+BATTLE OF AGINCOURT: TREATY OF TROYES (1420).--It was in 1392 that the
+king partially lost his reason. For the rest of his life, except at
+rare intervals, he was either imbecile or frenzied. By the division of
+counsels and a series of fatalities, gigantic preparations for the
+invasion of England had come to naught (1386-1388). _Henry V. of
+England_ (1413-1422) concluded that the best way to divert his
+nobles from schemes of rebellion was to make war across the
+Channel. Accordingly he demanded his "inheritance" according to the
+treaty of _Brétigny_, together with _Normandy_. On the
+refusal of this demand, he renewed the claim of his greatgrandfather to
+the crown of France, although he was not the eldest descendant of
+_Edward III_. _Henry_ invaded France at the head of fifty
+thousand men. By his artillery and mines he took _Harfleur_, but
+not until after a terrible siege in which thousands of his troops
+perished by sickness. On his way towards _Calais_, with not more
+than nine thousand men, he found his way barred at _Agincourt_ by
+the Armagnac forces, more than fifty thousand in number, comprising the
+chivalry of France (1415). In the great battle that ensued, the horses
+of the French floundered in the mud, and horse and rider were destroyed
+by the English bowmen. The French suffered another defeat like the
+defeats of _Crécy_ and _Poitiers_. They lost eleven thousand
+men, and among them some of the noblest men in France. France was
+falling to pieces. _Rouen_ was besieged by Henry, and compelled by
+starvation to surrender (1419). The fury of factions continued to
+rage. There were dreadful massacres by the mob in Paris. The _Duke of
+Burgundy, John the Fearless_ (_Jean sans Peur_), was murdered
+in 1419 by the opposite faction. The young Duke _Philip_, and even
+the Queen of France, _Isabella_, were now found on the
+Anglo-Burgundian side. By the _Treaty of Troyes_, in 1420,
+_Catherine_, the daughter of _Charles VI._, was given in
+marriage to _Henry V._, and he was made the heir of the crown of
+France when the insane king, _Charles VI._, should
+die. _Henry_ was made regent of France. The whole country north of
+the _Loire_ was in his hands. The Dauphin _Charles_ retired
+to the provinces beyond that river.
+
+
+
+
+THE HUNDRED YEARS' WAR:
+
+
+PERIOD III. (TO THE END, 1463).
+
+FRANCE IN 1422.--Both _Henry_ and _Charles VI._ died in 1422.
+The Duke of Bedford was made regent in France, ruling in the name of
+his infant nephew (_Henry VI._). _Charles VII._ (1422-1461)
+was proclaimed king by the _Armagnacs_ south of the Loire. His
+situation was desperate, but he represented the national cause.
+_Bedford_ laid siege to _Orleans_, the last bulwark of the
+royal party. The English were weakened, however, by the withdrawal of
+the _Duke of Burgundy_ and his forces.
+
+JOAN OF ARC.--When the national cause was at this low point, Providence
+raised up a deliverer in the person of a pure, simple-hearted, and
+pious maiden of _Domrémy_ in _Lorraine_, seventeen years of
+age, _Jeanne Dare_ by name (the name _Joan of Arc_ being
+merely a mistake in orthography). The tales of suffering that she had
+heard deeply moved her. She felt herself called of Heaven to liberate
+France. She fancied that angels' voices bade her undertake this holy
+mission. Her own undoubting faith aroused faith in others. Commissioned
+by the king, she mounted a horse, and, with a banner in her hand,
+joined the French soldiers, whom she inspired with fresh courage. They
+forced the English to give up the siege of Orleans, and to march
+away. Other defeats of the English followed. The Maid of Orleans took
+_Charles_ to _Rheims_, and stood by him at his
+coronation. The English and Burgundians rallied their strength. _Joan
+of Arc_ was ill supported, and was made prisoner at Compèigne by the
+Burgundians. They delivered her to the English. She was subjected to
+grievous indignities, was condemned as a witch, and finally burned as a
+relapsed heretic at _Rouen_ (1431). The last word she uttered was
+"Jesus." Her character was without a taint. In her soul, the spirit of
+religion and of patriotism burned with a pure flame. A heroine and a
+saint combined, she died "a victim to the ingratitude of her friends,
+and the brutality of her foes."
+
+THE ENGLISH DRIVEN OUT--In 1435 the _Duke of Burgundy_ was
+reconciled to _Charles VII._, and joined the cause of France. The
+generals of Charles gained possession of one after another of the
+provinces. During a truce of two years, _Henry VI._ of England
+(1422-1461) married _Margaret of Anjou_, the daughter of King
+_René_. _Henry_ was of a gentle temper, but lacked prudence
+and vigor. The king of France and the dauphin began the organization of
+a standing army, which greatly increased the military strength of the
+country (1439). In 1449 the war with England was renewed. With the
+defeat of the English, and the death of their commander, _Talbot_,
+in 1453, the contest of a century came to an end. All that England
+retained across the Channel was _Calais_ with _Havre_ and
+_Guines Castle_. France was desolated by all this fruitless
+strife.  Some of the most fertile portions of its territory were
+reduced to a desert, "given up to wolves, and traversed only by the
+robber and the free-lance."
+
+REBELLION of "JACK CADE."--The peasants in England were now free from
+serfdom. Under _Henry VI._ occurred a formidable insurrection of
+the men of Kent, who marched to London led by _John Cade_, who
+called himself _John Mortimer_. They complained of bad government
+and extortionate taxes. One main cause of the rising was the successes
+of the French. The condition of the laboring class had much
+improved. The insurgents were defeated by the citizens, and their
+leader was slain. In this reign began the long "Wars of the Roses," or
+the contest of the houses of _York_ and _Lancaster_ for the
+throne.
+
+
+
+MILAN.--THE VISCONTI AND SFORZA.
+
+Matteo I, VISCONTI (nephew of Archbishop Otto),
+Lord of Milan, 1295-1332.
+|
++--Stefano (_d._ 1327).
+   |
+   +--Matteo II,[1] 1354-1355.
+   |
+   +--Bernabo,[1] 1354-1385.
+   |  |
+   |  +--Catharine,
+   |        _m._ (2),
+   |  +--GIAN GALEAZZO, 1378-1402 (first duke, 1396).
+   |  |  |
+   |  |  +--GIOVANNI MARIA, 1402-1412.
+   |  |  |
+   |  |  +--FILIPPO MARIA, 1412-1447.
+   |  |  |  |
+   |  |  |  +--Bianca Maria.
+   |  |  |          _m._
+   |  |  |  +--FRANCESCO SFORZA, 1450-1466
+   |  |  |  |  |
+   |  |  |  |  +--GALEAZZO MARIA, 1466-1476, _m._
+   |  |  |  |  |  Bona, daughter of Louis, Duke of Savoy.
+   |  |  |  |  |  |
+   |  |  |  |  |  +--GIAN GALEAZZO, 1476-1494.
+   |  |  |  |  |
+   |  |  |  |  +--LUDOVICO Il Moro, 1494-1500, 3, (_d._ 1510)
+   |  |  |  |      _m._ Beatrice d'Este.
+   |  |  |  |     |
+   |  |  |  |     +--MASSAMILLANO,[4] 1512-1515 (_d._ 1530)
+   |  |  |  |     |
+   |  |  |  |     +--FRANCESCO MARIA, [4], 1521-1535. _m._
+   |  |  |  |        Christina, daughter of Christian II of Denmark (1)
+   |  |  |  |
+   |  |  |  Jacopo (Muzio) Attendolo di Cotignola, called Sforza.
+   |  |  |
+   |  |  +--Valentina, [2] _m._
+   |  |     Louis, Duke of Orleans.
+   |  |     |
+   |  |     +--Charles, Duke of Orleans.
+   |  |        |
+   |  |        +--LOUIS XII of France,
+   |  |           Duke of Milan 1500-1512.
+   |  |
+   +--Galeazzo II,[1] 1354-1378.
+
+
+
+1  The Milanese territory was divided between the three brothers, and
+united on the death of Bernabo.
+
+2  Hence the French claim to Milan.
+
+3  Louis XII of France took Ludovico prisoner, and held Milan
+1500-1512.
+
+4  Puppet dukes. Milan being, in fact, the subject of contention
+between France and the Hapsburgs.
+
+[Abridged from George's Genealogical Tables.]
+
+
+
+
+THE THREE NORTHERN KINGDOMS BEFORE THE UNION OF CALMAR.
+
+[D. means King of Denmark; N., King of Norway; S., King of Sweden.]
+
+
+HACO IV, N. (_d._ 1263).
+|
++--MAGNUS VI, N., 1263-1281.
+   |
+   +--ERIC II, N., 1281-1299.
+   |
+   +--HACO V, N., 1299-1320.
+      |
+      |  MAGNUS I, S., 1279-1290.
+      |  |
+      |  +--BERGER, S., 1290-1320 (deposed; _d._ 1326)
+      |  |       _m._
+      |  |  +--Martha.
+      |  |  |
+      |  |  +--CHRISTOPHER II, D., 1320-1340.
+      |  |  |  |
+      |  |  |  +--WALDEMAR III, D., 1346-1375.
+      |  |  |     |
+      |  |  |     +--Margaret,[2] D. N., 1387, S., 1388 (_d._ 1412).
+      |  |  |        _m._ HACO VI, N. (_d._ 1380)
+      |  |  |        |
+      |  |  |        +--OLAF VI, D. 1376, N. 1380 (_d._ 1387).
+      |  |  |
+      |  |  +--ERIC VI, D., 1286-1320.
+      |  |  |
+      |  |  ERIC V, D., 1250-1286.
+      |  |
+      |  +--Eric.
+      |      _m._
+      +--Ingeburga
+         |
+         +--Magnus VII (II), N. S., 1320-1365 (deposed).
+            |
+            +--Euphemia. _m._ Albert, Duke of Mecklenburg,
+            |  |
+            |  +--Albert,[1] S., 1365-1388 (deposed).
+            |  |
+            |  +--Henry, m. Ingeburga, daughter of Waldemar III, D.
+            |     |
+            |     +--Mary, _m._ Wratislas of Pomerania.
+            |        |
+            |        +--ERIC, D. N. S., 1412-1439
+            |        |  (deposed; _d._ 1459).
+            |        |
+            |        +--Catharine, _m._ John, son of Emperor Robert.
+            |           |
+            |           +--CHRISTOPHER, D. N. S. (_d._ 1448).
+            |                      _m._ (1)
+            |           Dorothea, daughter of John Alchymista,
+            |           Margrave of Brandenburg
+            |                    _m._ (2)
+            |           CHRISTIAN I,[3] D. N. S.
+            |
+            +--HACO VI, N. (_d._ 1380)
+
+
+1  Elected to Sweden in opposition to Haco VI; deposed by Margaret.
+
+2  Having united all three kingdoms in her own person, framed formal
+Union of Calmar, 1397.
+
+3  Elected king on death of Christopher, whose widow he married; said
+to be descended from Eric V of Denmark.
+
+[Abridged from George's Genealogical Tables.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II. GERMANY: ITALY: SPAIN: THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES: POLAND
+AND RUSSIA: HUNGARY: OTTOMAN TURKS: THE GREEK EMPIRE.
+
+
+I. GERMANY.
+
+THE GREAT INTERREGNUM.--After the death of _Frederick
+II_. (1250), Germany and Italy, the two countries over which the
+imperial authority extended, were left free from its
+control. _Italy_ was abandoned to itself, and thus to internal
+division. The case of _Germany_ was analogous. During the "great
+interregnum," lasting for twenty-three years, the German cities, by
+their industry and trade, grew strong, as did the burghers in France,
+and in the towns in England, in this period. But in Germany the feudal
+control was less relaxed. This interval was a period of anarchy and
+trouble. _William of Holland_ wore the title of emperor until
+1256. Then the _electors_ were bribed, and _Alfonso X. of
+Castile_, great-grandson of Frederick Barbarossa, and _Richard,
+Earl of Cornwall_, younger son of King John of England, were chosen
+by the several factions; but their power was nominal. The four
+electors on the Rhine, and the dukes and counts, divided among
+themselves the imperial domains. The dismemberment of the duchies of
+_Swabia_ and _Franconia_ (1268), and at an earlier day
+(1180) of _Saxony_, created a multitude of petty sovereignties.
+The great vassals of the empire, the kings of _Denmark_, of
+_Poland_, of _Hungary_, etc., broke away from its
+suzerainty.  There was a reign of violence. The barons sallied out of
+their strongholds to rob merchants and travelers. The princes, and the
+nobles in immediate relation to the empire, governed, each in his own
+territory, as they pleased. New means of protection were created, as
+the _League of the Rhine_, comprising sixty cities and the three
+Rhenish archbishops, and having its own assemblies; and the
+_Hanseatic League_, which has been described (p. 303). Moreover,
+corporations of merchants and artisans were established in the
+cities. In the North, where the Crusades, and war with the
+_Slaves_, had thinned the population, colonies of Flemings,
+Hollanders, and Frisians came in to cultivate the soil. During the
+long-continued disturbances after the death of _Frederick II_.,
+the desire of local independence undermined monarchy. The empire never
+regained the vigor of which it was robbed by the _interregnum_.
+
+HOUSE OF HAPSBURG.--_Rudolph_, Count of Hapsburg (1273-1291), was
+elected emperor for the reason, that, while he was a brave man, he was
+not powerful enough to be feared by the aristocracy. He wisely made no
+attempt to govern in Italy. He was supported by the Church, to which
+he was submissive. He devoted himself to the task of putting down
+disorders in Germany. Against _Ottocar II_., king of Bohemia, who
+now held also Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, and who
+refused to acknowledge Rudolph, the emperor twice made war
+successfully. In a fierce battle at the _Marchfield_, in 1278,
+_Ottocar_ was slain. _Austria_, _Styria_, and
+_Carniola_ fell into the hands of the emperor. They were given as
+fiefs to Rudolph's son _Albert_; and _Carinthia_ to Albert's
+son-in-law, the _Count of Tyrol_. This was the foundation of the
+power of the house of Hapsburg. _Rudolph_ strove with partial
+success to recover the crown lands, and did what he could to put a
+stop to private war and to robbery. Numerous strongholds of robbers he
+razed to the ground. His practical abandonment of Italy, his partial
+restoration of order in Germany, and his service to the house of
+Hapsburg, are the principal features of Rudolph's reign.
+
+HENRY VII. (1308-1313): ITALY.--Adolphus of Nassau (1292-1298) was
+hired by _Edward I_. to declare war against France. His doings in
+Thuringia. which he tried to buy from the Landgrave _Albert_, led
+the electors to dethrone him, and to choose _Albert
+I_. (1298-1308), _Duke of Austria_, son of Rudolph. His nephew
+_John_, whom he tried to keep out of his inheritance, murdered
+him. _Henry VII_. (1308-1313), who was Count of _Luxemburg_,
+the next emperor, did little more than build up his family by marrying
+his son _John_ to the granddaughter of King _Ottocar_.
+_John_ was thus made king of Bohemia. In these times, when the
+emperors were weak, they were anxious to strengthen and enrich their
+own houses. _Henry_ went to Italy to try his fortunes beyond the
+Alps. He was crowned in Pavia king of Italy, and in Rome emperor
+(1312). But the rival parties quickly rose up against him: he was
+excommunicated by _Clement V_., an ally of France, and died--it
+was charged, by poison mixed in the sacramental cup--in 1313. He was a
+man of pure and noble character, but the time had passed for Italy to
+be governed by a German sovereign.
+
+CIVIL WAR: ELECTORS AT RENSE.--One party of the electors chose
+_Frederick of Austria_ (1314-1330), and the other _Louis of
+Bavaria_ (1314-1347). A terrible civil war, lasting for ten years,
+was the consequence. In a great battle near _Mühldorf_, the
+Austrians were defeated, and _Frederick_ was
+captured. _Louis_ had now to encounter the hostility of Pope
+_John XXII_. (at Avignon), who wished to give the imperial crown
+to _Philip the Fair_ of France. _Louis_ maintained that he
+received the throne, not from the popes, but from the electors. He was
+excommunicated by _John_, who refused to sanction the agreement of
+Louis and of Frederick, now set at liberty, to exercise a joint
+sovereignty. _Louis_ was in Italy from 1327 to 1330, where he was
+crowned emperor by a pope of his own creation. All efforts of Louis to
+make peace with _Pope_ _John_ and his successor, _Benedict
+XII_., were foiled by the opposition of France. The strife which had
+been occasioned in Germany by this interference from abroad created
+such disaffection among the Germans, that the electors met at
+_Rense_, in 1338, and declared that the elected king of the
+Germans received his authority from the choice of the electoral princes
+exclusively, and was Roman emperor even without being crowned by a
+pope.
+
+DEPOSITION OF LOUIS OF BAVARIA.--The imprudence of _Louis_ in
+aggrandizing his family, and his assumption of an acknowledged papal
+right in dissolving the marriage of the heiress of Tyrol with a son of
+_King John of Bohemia_, turned the electors against him. In 1346
+Pope _Clement VI_. declared him deposed. The electors chose in his
+place _Charles_, the Margrave of _Moravia_, the son of King
+_John of Bohemia_. _Louis_ did not give up his title, but he
+died soon after.
+
+CHARLES IV. (1347-1378).--_Charles IV_. visited Italy, and was
+crowned emperor (1355); but, according to a promise made to the Pope,
+he tarried in Rome only a part of one day. He was crowned king of
+Burgundy at _Arles_ (1365). In Italy "he sold what was left of the
+rights of the empire, sometimes to cities, sometimes to tyrants."  His
+principal care was for building up his own hereditary dominion, which
+he so enlarged that it extended, at his death, from the Baltic almost
+to the Danube. He fortified and adorned _Prague_, and established
+there, in 1348, the first German university.
+
+THE GOLDEN BULL.--The great service of _Charles IV_. to Germany
+was in the grant of the charter called the _Golden Bull_
+(1356). This expressly conferred the right of electing the emperor on
+the SEVEN ELECTORS, who had, in fact, long exercised it. These were the
+archbishops of Mentz, of Trier, and of Cologne, and the four secular
+princes, the King of Bohemia, the Count Palatine of the Rhine, the Duke
+of Saxony, and the Margrave of Brandenburg. The electoral states were
+made indivisible and inalienable, and hereditary in the male line. The
+electors were to be sovereign within their respective territories, and
+their persons were declared sacred.
+
+THE BLACK DEATH.--Germany, like the other countries, was terribly
+afflicted during the reign of Charles by the destructive pestilence
+that swept over the most of Europe (p. 319). One effect was an
+outbreaking of religious fervor. At this time the movement of the
+"Flagellants," which started in the thirteenth century, reached its
+height in Germany and elsewhere. They scourged and lacerated themselves
+for their sins, marching in processions, and inflicting their blows to
+the sound of music. Another result of the plague was a savage
+persecution of the Jews, who were falsely suspected of poisoning
+wells. Many thousands of them were tortured and killed.
+
+ANARCHY IN GERMANY.--The son of Charles IV. (1378-1400),
+_Wenceslaus_, or _Wenzel_, was a coarse and cruel king. Under
+him the old disorders of the _Interregnum_ sprang up anew. The
+towns had to defend themselves against the robber barons, and formed
+confederacies for this purpose. Private war raged all over Germany.
+
+ACCESSION OF SIGISMUND.--_Wenceslaus_ was deposed by the electors
+in 1400. But _Rupert_, the Count Palatine, his successor
+(1400-1410), was able to accomplish little, in consequence of the
+strife of parties. _Sigismund_ (1410-1437), brother of
+_Wenceslaus_, margrave of Brandenburg, and, in right of his wife,
+king of Hungary, was chosen emperor, first by a part, and then by all,
+of the electors. The most important events of this period were the
+_Council of Constance_ (1414-1418) and the war with the
+_Hussites_.
+
+JOHN HUSS.--The principal end for which the Council of Constance was
+called was the healing of the schism in the Church,--in consequence of
+which there were three rival popes,--and the securing of
+ecclesiastical reforms. But at this council _John Huss_, an
+eminent Bohemian preacher, was tried for heresy. The doctrines of
+_Wickliffe_ had penetrated into _Bohemia;_ and a strong
+party, of which Huss was the principal leader, had sprung up in favor
+of innovations, doctrinal and practical, one of which was the giving
+of the cup in the sacrament to the laity. _Huss_ made a great
+stir by his attack upon abuses in the Church. Under a safe-conduct
+from _Sigismund_, he journeyed to _Constance_. There he was
+tried, condemned as a heretic, and burnt at the stake
+(1415). _Jerome of Prague_, another reformer, was dealt with in
+the same way by the council (1416).
+
+HUSSITE WAR.--The indignation of the followers of _Huss_ was such
+that a great revolt broke out in Bohemia. The leader was a brave man,
+_Ziska_. The imperial troops, after the coronation of
+_Sigismund_ as king of Bohemia, were defeated, and driven out. The
+Hussite soldiers ravaged the neighboring countries. The council of
+_Basel_ (1431-1449) concluded a treaty with the more moderate
+portion of the Hussites, in which concessions were made to them. The
+_Taborites_, the more fanatical portion, were at length defeated
+and crushed.
+
+SWITZERLAND.--Switzerland, originally a part of the kingdom of
+_Arles_, had been ceded, with this kingdom, to the German Empire
+in 1033. Within it, was established a lay and ecclesiastical
+feudalism. In the twelfth century the cities--_Zürich_,
+_Basel_, _Berne_, and _Freiburg_--began to be centers of
+trade, and gained municipal privileges. The three mountain
+cantons--_Uri_, _Schweitz,_ and _Unterwalden_--cherished
+the spirit of freedom. The counts of _Hapsburg_, after the
+beginning of the thirteenth century, exercised a certain indefinite
+jurisdiction in the land. They endeavored to transform this into an
+actual sovereignty. Two of the cantons received charters placing them
+in an immediate relation to the empire. After the death of _Rudolph
+I_., the three cantons above named united in a league. Out of this
+the _Swiss Confederacy_ gradually grew up. There were struggles to
+cast off foreign control; but the story of _William Tell_, and
+other legends of the sort, are certainly fabulous. _Albert of
+Austria_ left to his successor in the duchy the task of subduing the
+rebellion. The Austrians were completely defeated at _Morgarten_,
+"the Marathon of Switzerland" (1315). The Swiss Confederacy was
+enlarged by the addition of _Lucerne_ (1332), _Zürich_ and
+_Glarus_ (1351), _Zug_ (1352), and of the city of
+_Berne_ in 1353. The battle of _Sempach_ (1386) brought
+another great defeat upon the Austrians. There, if we may believe an
+ancient song, a Swiss hero, _Arnold of Winkelried_, grasped as
+many of the spear-points as he could reach, as a sheaf in his arms, and
+devoted himself to death, opening thus a path in which his followers
+rushed to victory. Once more the Swiss triumphed at _Näfels_
+(1388). From that time they were left to the enjoyment of their
+freedom.
+
+
+II. ITALY.
+
+GUELFS AND GHIBELLINES: FREEDOM IN THE CITIES.--The inveterate foes of
+Italy were foreign interference and domestic faction. After the death
+of _Frederick II_., the war of the popes against his successors
+lasted for seventeen years. After the defeat of _Manfred_ (1266),
+_Conradin_, the last of the Hohenstaufens, died on the scaffold
+at Naples. _Charles of Anjou_ lost Sicily through the rebellion
+of the Sicilian Vespers (1282); and dominion in that island, separated
+from Naples, passed to the house of Aragon. The papal states, after
+the election of _Rudolph_ of _Hapsburg_, became a distinct
+sovereignty of the pontiffs. The bitter strife of the _Guelfs_
+and _Ghibellines_ went on in the Italian cities. The Genoese, who
+were Guelfic, defeated the Pisans in 1284; and "_Pisa_, which had
+ruined Amalfi, was now ruined by _Genoa_." _Florence_, which
+was Guelfic, grew in strength. _Genoa_ and _Venice_ became
+rivals in the contest for the control of the Mediterranean. In
+_Florence_, new factions, the _Neri_ and _Bianchi_
+(Blacks and Whites), appeared; the _Neri_ being violent Guelfs,
+and the _Bianchi_ being at first moderate Guelfs and then
+Ghibellines. Pope _Boniface VIII_. invited into Italy _Charles
+of Valois_. He was admitted to Florence (1301), and gave the
+supremacy there to the Guelfic side. The coming of the Emperor
+_Henry VII_. into Italy (1310) was marked by a temporary, but the
+last, revival of imperial feeling. The connection of the popes with
+the French houses of _Anjou_ and _Valois_ led to the
+"Babylonian Exile" at _Avignon_, during which Italy was
+comparatively free, both from imperial and papal control. During the
+period of the civil wars, while there was nominally a conflict between
+the party of the pope and the party of the emperor, the _Guelfs_
+were devoted to the destruction of feudalism, and to the building-up
+of commerce and republican institutions; while the _Ghibellines_,
+dreading anarchy, resisted the incoming of the new order of things. It
+was in this period that _Dante_ produced his immortal poem, which
+sprang out of the midst of the contest of Guelf and Ghibelline
+(p. 307). Dante was himself a Ghibelline and an imperialist. In the
+course of these conflicts, the plebeian class, before without power,
+is advanced. Older families of nobility die out, or are reduced in
+influence. New families rise to prominence and power. The burghers
+band together in arts or guilds; and out of these, in their corporate
+character, the governments of the cities are formed.  "Ancients," and
+"priors," the heads of the "arts," supersede the consuls. The
+"podesta" is more and more limited to a judicial function. In some of
+the _Guelf_ cities, there is "a gonfalonier of justice," to curb
+the nobility. In _Florence_, there were also twenty subordinate
+_gonfaloniers_.
+
+The final triumph of Guelfs and of republicanism in Florence was in
+1253. The body of the citizens established their sovereignty. When, in
+1266, citizenship was confined to those who were enrolled in the
+guilds, the nobles, or _Grandi_, were wholly excluded from the
+government. This led them to drop their titles and dignities in order
+to enroll themselves in these industrial societies. The feuds of
+factions, especially of the "Whites" and "Blacks," sprang up next. In
+the latter part of the fourteenth century, strife arose between the
+"Lesser Arts," or craftsmen whose trades were subordinate to the
+"Greater Arts," and these last. The mob in Florence drove the
+"Signory," or chief magistrates, out of the public palace. This was the
+"Tumult of the Ciompi,"--_Ciompi_ signifying wool-carders, who
+gave their name to the whole faction. Afterwards, of their own accord,
+they gave back the government to the priors of the Greater Arts. The
+effect of these disturbances was to reduce all classes to a level. The
+way was open for families, like the _Albizzi_ and _Medici_,
+to build up a virtual control by wealth and personal qualities.
+
+THE GENERALS IN THE CITIES.--In the cities, there were "captains of the
+people," who carried on war,--leaders of the Guelfs or Ghibellines, as
+either might be uppermost. They were persons who were skilled in arms:
+these were often nobles who had been merged in the body of citizens. In
+this way, there arose in the cities of Northern Italy ruling houses or
+dynasties; as the _Della Scala_ in Verona, the _Polenta_ at
+Ravenna, etc. In _Tuscany_, where the commercial power of
+_Florence_ was so great, the communes as yet kept themselves free
+from hereditary rulers; yet, from time to time, their liberties were
+exposed to attack from successful generals.
+
+THE TYRANTS.--At the beginning of the fourteenth century, as the fury
+of the civil wars declined, the cities were left more and more under
+the rule of masters called "tyrants." Tyranny, as of old, was a term
+for absolute authority, however it might be wielded. The visits of the
+emperors _Henry VII_., and _Louis IV_. of Bavaria, and of
+_John_ of Bohemia, son of Henry VII., had no important political
+effect, except to bring increased power to the Ghibelline
+despots. Thus, after the interference of Louis IV. (1327), the
+_Visconti_ established their power in Milan. But the changes in
+Italy after this epoch gave to the Ghibellines no permanent advantage
+over their adversaries. The leader of the Guelfs for a long time was
+_Robert_, king of Naples (1309-1343).
+
+  THE CLASSES OF DESPOTS.--The methods by which the Emperor _Frederic
+  II_. governed in Italy, and which he had partly learned from the
+  Saracens in Sicily, furnished an example which the Italian despots
+  followed later. He was imitated in his system of taxation, in his
+  creation of monopolies, in the luxury and magnificence of his court,
+  and in his patronage of polite culture. His vicar in the North of
+  Italy, _Ezzelino da Romano_ (1194-1259), who was captain, in the
+  Ghibelline interest, in _Verona_, _Padua_, and other
+  cities, was guilty of massacres and all sorts of cruelties, the story
+  of which exercised a horrible fascination over others who came
+  after. At last he was 'hunted down' by Venice and a league of cities,
+  and captured; but he refused to take food, tore his bandages from his
+  wounds, and died under the ban of the Church. The despots of the
+  fourteenth and fifteenth centuries have been divided by
+  _Mr. Symonds_ into six classes. The _first_ class had a
+  certain hereditary right from the previous exercise of lordship, as
+  the house of _Este_ in Ferrara. The _second_ class, as the
+  _Visconti_ family in Milan, had been vicars of the empire. The
+  _third_ class were captains, or podestas, chosen by the burghers
+  to their office, but abusing it to enslave the cities. Most of the
+  tyrants of Lombardy got their power in this way. The _fourth_
+  class is made up of the _Condottieri_, like _Francesco
+  Sforza_ at Milan. The _fifth_ class includes the nephews or
+  sons of popes, and is of later origin, like the _Borgia_ of
+  Romagna. Their governments had less stability. The _sixth_ class
+  is that of eminent citizens, like the _Medici_ at Florence and
+  the _Bentivogli_ of Bologna. These acquired undue authority by
+  wealth, sometimes by personal qualities and noble descent. Among
+  those who are called "despots" were individuals of worth, moderation,
+  and culture. The records of many of them are filled with tragic
+  scenes of violence and crime. To maintain their hated rule, they were
+  impelled to the practice of barbarities hardly ever surpassed. (J.
+  A. Symonds, _Renaissance in Italy_, vol. i. chap, ii.)
+
+CONDOTTIERI.--With the end of the civil wars, there appear "the
+companies of adventure," or mercenary troops. The burghers, having put
+down the nobility and achieved their independence, lay aside their
+arms. They are busy in manufactures and trade. The despots and the
+republics prefer to hire foreign adventurers, the "free companies," who
+were a curse to Italy. Their occupation, which was a profitable one,
+was taken up by natives. These were the _condottieri_. Their
+leaders introduced cavalry and more skillful methods of fighting. But
+the battles were bloodless games of strategy, and military energy
+declined. At the same time intrigue and state-craft were the
+instruments of political aggrandizement. One of these new leaders was
+_Sforza Attendolo_, whose son became Duke of Milan.
+
+FIVE STATES IN ITALY.--In the middle of the fifteenth century, we find,
+as the political result of the changes of the preceding century and a
+half, five principal communities in Italy. These powers are the kingdom
+of _Naples_, the duchy of _Milan_, the republic of
+_Florence_, the republic of _Venice_, and the _principality
+of the Pope_. A brief sketch will be given of each of these states
+down to 1447, when _Nicholas V_. reëstablished the papacy in its
+strength at Rome, after the exile at _Avignon_ (1305), and the
+ecclesiastical convulsions that followed it.
+
+LOWER ITALY.--_Robert the Wise_ (of Anjou) (1309-1343), the
+successor of _Charles II_. of Naples and the champion of the
+Guelfs, could not extend his power over Sicily, where _Frederick_
+II. (1296-1337), the son of _Peter_ of _Aragon_,
+reigned. Robert's granddaughter, _Joan I._, after a career of
+crime and misfortune, was strangled in prison by _Charles
+Durazzo_, the last male descendant of the house of Anjou in Lower
+Italy (1382), who seized on the government. _Joan II_., the last
+heir of _Durazzo_ (1414-1435), first adopted _Alfonso V_. of
+_Aragon_, and then _Louis III_. of _Anjou_ and his
+brother _Rene_. _Alfonso_, who inherited the crown of
+_Sicily_, united both kingdoms (1435), after a war with Rene and
+the _Visconti_ of Milan. By this contest, Italy was divided into
+two parties, composed of the respective adherents of the houses of
+_Anjou_ and _Aragon_, The rights of _Rene_ were to
+revert later to the crown of France, and to serve as a ground for new
+wars. For twenty-three years _Alfonso_ reigned wisely and
+prosperously in Southern Italy. He was a patron of letters, and
+promoted peace among the Italian states.
+
+THE MILANESE: SFORZA.--Another great power was growing up in the
+North. The greatness of the _Visconti_ family dates from
+_John_, Archbishop of _Milan_, who reigned there, and died
+in 1354. _Gian Galeazzo Visconti_ became sole master of Milan in
+1385, and extended his dominion over Lombardy. He bought of the
+Emperor _Wenceslaus_ the ducal title. Twenty-six cities, with
+their territories, were subject to him. But at _Galeazzo's_
+death, his state fell to pieces. The _condottieri_, whom he had
+kept under, broke loose from control; and in 1450, one of them,
+_Francesco Sforza_, with the help of the Venetians, seized on the
+supreme power, which his family continued to hold for fifty years.
+
+VENICE.--_Venice_, in the fourteenth century, was as strong as
+any Italian state. Its constitution was of gradual growth. The
+_doge_, elected by the people, divided power in 1032 with a
+_senate_; and in 1172 the _Grand Council_ was
+organized. This council by degrees absorbed the powers of government,
+which thus became an aristocracy. In 1297 the Senate became hereditary
+in a few families. In 1311 the powerful _Council of Ten_ was
+constituted. For a long period Venice was not ambitious of power in
+Italy, but was satisfied with her commerce with the East. Her contest
+with _Genoa_ began in 1352, and lasted for thirty years. In the
+war of _Chioggia_,--so called from a town twenty-five miles south
+of Venice,--the Venetians were defeated by _Luciano Doria_ in a
+sea-fight on the Adriatic. He blockaded Venice; but _Doria_, in
+turn, was blockaded in _Chioggia_ by the Venetians, and forced to
+surrender. After reducing the naval power of Genoa, they added
+_Verona_, _Vicenza_, and _Padua_ to their territories
+(1410). Under _Francesco Foscari_, who was doge from 1423 to
+1457, Venice took an active part in Italian affairs.
+
+FLORENCE: THE MEDICI.--In Florence, the _Medici_ family gained an
+influence which gave them a practical control of the government. In
+1378 _Salvestro de Medici_ signalized himself by a successful
+resistance to an oligarchical faction composed partly of the old
+nobility. The brilliant period in the history of Florence begins with
+this triumph of the democracy. _Pisa_ was bought from the Duke of
+Milan, and forced to submit to Florentine rule (1406). _John de
+Medici_, a very successful merchant, was twice chosen gonfalonier
+(1421). His son _Cosmo I_., who was born in 1389, was also a
+merchant, possessed of great wealth. He attained to the leading
+offices in the state, having overcome the _Albizzi_ family, at
+whose instigation he was for a while banished. _Cosmo_ ruled
+under the republican forms, but with not less authority on that
+account. He was distinguished for his patronage of art and letters. By
+his varied services to Florence, he earned the title of "Father of his
+Country," which was given him by a public decree.
+
+THE ROMAN PRINCIPALITY: RIENZI.--After the popes took up their abode in
+_Avignon_, in the first half of the fourteenth century, Rome was
+distracted by the feuds of leading families who built for themselves
+strongholds in the city. In 1347 the Romans, fired by the enthusiast
+_Rienzi_, who sought to restore the old Roman liberty, undertook
+to set up a government after the ancient model. _Rienzi_ was
+chosen _tribune_. He found much favor in other cities of
+Italy. But his head was turned by the seeming realization of his
+dreams. He was driven out of Italy by the cardinals and the nobles. He
+returned afterwards, sent by Pope _Innocent VI_., to aid in
+winning back Rome to subjection to the Holy See. But his power was
+gone. He disgusted the people with his pomps and shows, and, while
+trying to escape in disguise, was put to death (1354). Cardinal
+_Albornoz_ succeeded in reuniting the dissevered parts of the
+papal kingdom. But in the period of the _Schism_ (1378-1417), in
+the cities old dynasties were revived, and new ones arose; towns and
+territories were ceded to nobles as fiefs; and a degree of freedom
+almost amounting to independence was conceded to old republics, as
+_Rome_, _Perugia_, and _Bologna_. It was the work of
+Pope _Nicholas V_. and his successors (from 1477) to regain and
+cement anew the fragments of the papal principality.
+
+LITERATURE AND ART.--In this period, in the midst of political
+agitation in Italy, there was a brilliant development in the
+departments of literature and art. The major part of _Dante's_
+life (1265-1321) falls within the thirteenth century. _Petrarch_
+(1304-1374), _Boccaccio_ (1313-1375), a master in Italian prose,
+and _Dante_, are the founders of Italian literature. They are
+followed by an era of study and culture, rather than of original
+production. In the arts, _Venice_ and _Pisa_ first became
+eminent. The church of _St. Mark_ was built at Venice, in the
+Byzantine style, in 1071.  At about the same time the famous cathedral
+at _Pisa_ was begun; which was followed, in the twelfth century,
+by the _Baptistery_ and the _Leaning Tower_. The _Campo
+Santo_, or cemetery, was built in 1278. In the thirteenth century,
+when architectural industry was so active, numerous high brick towers
+were built in Florence for purposes of defense. Some of them remain "to
+recall the bloody feuds of the irreconcilable factions of the
+nobility. In these conflicts, the strife was carried on from tower to
+tower, from house to house: streets were barricaded with heavy chains,
+and homes made desolate with fire and sword." Churches and great public
+buildings were constructed in this period. At the end of the thirteenth
+century the church of _Santa Croce_ was built at Florence; and in
+the century following, _Brunelleschi_, the reviver of classical
+art in Italy, placed the great cupola on the Cathedral. The Gothic
+cathedral of _Milan_, with its wilderness of statues, was begun in
+1346. _Cimabue_, who died about 1302, and _Giotto_, who died
+about 1337, laid the foundations of the modern Italian schools of
+painting.
+
+TRADE AND COMMERCE.--The seaports, Venice and Genoa, were centers of a
+flourishing commerce, extending to the far East and to the coasts of
+Spain and France. The interior cities--_Milan_ with its two
+hundred thousand inhabitants, _Verona, Florence_--were centers of
+manufactures and of trade. The Italians were the first _bankers_
+in Europe. The bank of _Venice_ was established in 1171, and the
+bank of _Genoa_, although it was projected earlier, was founded in
+1407. The financial dealings of Italian merchants spread over all
+Europe.
+
+MORALITY.--The one thing lacking in Italy was a broader spirit of
+patriotism and a higher tone of morality. Advance in civilization was
+attended with corruption of morals.
+
+
+III. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.
+
+HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY.--Resistance to the Arabs in Spain began in the
+northern mountainous region of _Cantabria_ and _Asturia_,
+which even the West Goths had not wholly subdued, although
+_Asturia_ was called _Gothia_. _Asturia_, a Christian
+principality (732), expanded into the kingdom called _Leon_ (916),
+of which Castile was an eastern county. East of _Leon_, there grew
+up the kingdom of _Navarre_, mostly on the southern, but partly on
+the northern side of the Pyrenees. On the death of _Sancho the
+Great_, it was broken up (1035). At about the same time the Ommiad
+caliphate was broken up into small kingdoms (1031). After the death of
+_Sancho_, or early in the eleventh century, we find in Northern
+Spain, beginning on the west and moving eastward, the kingdom of
+_Leon_, the beginnings of the kingdom of _Castile_, the
+reduced kingdom of _Navarre_, the beginnings of the kingdom of
+_Aragon_, and, between Aragon and the Mediterranean, Christian
+states which had been comprised in the _Spanish March_ over which
+the Franks had ruled. The two states which were destined to attain to
+the chief importance were _Castile_ and _Aragon_. Of these,
+_Castile_ was eventually to be to Spain what France was to all
+Gaul. Ultimately the union of _Castile_ and _Aragon_ gave
+rise to the great Spanish monarchy of the fifteenth and sixteenth
+centuries. The four kingdoms of _Leon, Castile, Aragon,_ and
+_Navarre_, after the death of _Sancho_, as time went on, were
+joined and disjoined among themselves in many different
+ways. _Castile_ and _Leon_ were finally united in
+1230. _Portugal_, lying on the ocean, was partly recovered from
+the Arabs towards the close of the eleventh century, and was a county
+of _Leon_ and _Castile_ until, in 1139, it became a
+kingdom. From this time _Castile, Aragon,_ and _Portugal_
+were the three antagonists of Moslem rule. Each of these kingdoms
+advanced. _Portugal_ spread especially along the Atlantic coast;
+_Aragon_, along the coast of the Mediterranean; _Castile_,
+the principal power, spread in the interior, and included by far the
+greater part of what is now Spain. In the latter part of the thirteenth
+century the Moslems were confined to the kingdom of _Granada_ in
+the South, which was conquered by _Castile_ and _Aragon_
+(1492), whose _sovereigns, Ferdinand_ and _Isabella_, were
+united in marriage. Their _kingdoms_ were united in 1516. In the
+latter part of the Middle Ages, _Aragon_, from its situation on
+the eastern coast, played an important part in the politics of
+Europe. _Castile_ and _Portugal_ led the way in maritime
+exploration.
+
+THE MOORS.--It has been already related (p. 282), that, after the fall
+of the Ommiad caliphate, African Mohammedans came over to the help of
+their Spanish brethren. These _Moors_ did not supplant the Arabic
+speech or culture. The two principal invasions of the Moors were the
+invasion by the _Almoravides_ (1086-110), and that by the
+_Almohades_ (1146).
+
+ARAGON: NAVARRE.--The kingdoms of _Aragon_ and _Castile_
+existed for centuries side by side. _Aragon_ sought to extend its
+conquests along the eastern coast; _Castile_, to enlarge itself
+toward the south. _James I._, or James the Conqueror (1213-1276),
+joined the Moslem state of _Valencia_, by conquest, to his
+kingdom of _Aragon_, to which _Catalonia_ had already been
+added. The union of these peoples developed a national character of a
+definite type. In its pride of birth and of blood, its tenacious
+clinging to traditional rights, and in its esteem of military prowess
+before intellectual culture, it resembled the old Spartan
+temper. _Peter III._,(1276-1285), the son of _James I._,
+united with the three states _Sicily_, which, though it became a
+separate kingdom, gave to the house of Aragon its influence in
+_Southern Italy_. Nearly the whole of the fourteenth century was
+taken up by Aragon in the acquisition of _Sardinia_, which the
+Pope had ceded, and in the endless wars, connected with this matter,
+which it waged with the _Genoese_. In 1410 the ruling house of
+_Barcelona_ became extinct. In the revolutions that followed,
+_Navarre_ and _Aragon_ were united under _John II._,
+second son of _Ferdinand I._, king of Aragon. _John_, by his
+marriage with _Blanche_ of Navarre, shared her father's throne
+with her after his death. He was guilty of the crime of poisoning his
+own son _Don Carlos_, Prince of Vianne. John was the father of
+_Ferdinand_ "the Catholic," under whose scepter the kingdoms of
+_Aragon, Castile_, and _Navarre_ were brought together.
+
+CASTILE.--_Ferdinand III_. (St. Ferdinand) (1214-1252), in
+warfare with the Moors extended the kingdom of _Castile_ and
+_Leon_ over _Cordova, Seville_, and _Cadiz_. His son
+_Alfonso X._, or Alfonso the Wise (1252-1284), cultivated
+astronomy and astrology, was fond of music and poetry, enlarged the
+University of Salamanca, gave a code of laws to his kingdom, and
+caused historical books to be written; but he wasted his treasures in
+pomp and luxury, and in ambitious designs upon the German imperial
+crown. He allowed the _Merinides_, new swarms of African
+Saracens, to spread in the South of Spain. _Alfonso XI._
+(1312-1350), after a stormy contest with the nobles during his
+minority, distinguished himself by the victory of _Tarifa_ over
+the Moors (1340), and the taking of the city of _Algeciras_
+(1344). His enemies respected him; and when he died of the plague, in
+his camp before Gibraltar, the king of _Granada_ went into
+mourning (1350). The reign of _Peter the Cruel_ (1350-1369) was
+filled up with perfidies and crimes. The league of the nobles against
+him only incited him to fresh barbarities. He committed the most
+atrocious murders, sometimes with his own hand. Protected by the
+_Black Prince_, he was at first victorious against _Henry of
+Transtamare_ his rival; and Du Guesclin was defeated in the battle
+of _Najara_ in 1367. Afterwards _Peter_ was obliged to
+surrender, and was killed by the dagger of _Henry_ in a personal
+encounter. The power of the nobility in _Castile_ had so
+increased during the civil troubles that _Henry III_. (1390-1406)
+had to sell his cloak to procure for himself a dinner. Roused by this
+humiliation to assert his authority, he succeeded with the help of the
+_Cortes_ in humbling the nobility; but _John
+II_. (1406-1454) was compelled by the most powerful lords, after a
+protracted contest, to strike off the head of an unworthy favorite,
+_Alvaro de Luna_, under whose despotic control he had placed the
+government (1454). There was a worse state of anarchy under _Henry
+IV._, John's successor (1454-1474).
+
+CONSTITUTIONS OF ARAGON AND CASTILE.--The political institutions of
+_Aragon_ and _Castile_ are specially worthy of note. The
+kings of _Aragon_ were very much restricted in their authority by
+the _Cortes_, or general assembly, composed of the higher and
+lower classes of nobles, the clergy, and the cities, which by their
+trade and manufactures had risen to wealth and power. With the
+_Cortes_ was lodged the right to make laws and to lay taxes. At
+_Saragassa_ in 1287, it was likewise ordained that they should
+enjoy certain important _privileges._ The concurrence of the
+estates was to be required in the choice of the king's
+_counselors;_ and in case the king without the warrant of a
+judgment of the highest judicial officer, _the justiciary,_ and
+of the estates, should adjudge to punishment any member of the body,
+they should have the right to elect another king. These "privileges"
+were lost under _Peter IV._ (1336-1387), but the old rights were
+confirmed. To the _justiciary_ was given the power to determine
+all conflicts of the estates with the king or with one another. His
+influence increased as time went on. He was the first magistrate in
+the kingdom.
+
+In _Castile,_ as early as 1169 the deputies of the cities were
+admitted into the Cortes. We find the cities, at the end of the
+thirteenth century, forming a confederation, called a "fraternity,"
+against the nobles. Their deputies at that time had more power in the
+assemblies than the nobles and clergy. But the power of the nobles
+increased, especially from the accession of _Henry of
+Transtamare._ In the overthrow of _Alvaro de Luna,_ their
+triumph was complete: they proved themselves to be stronger than the
+king.
+
+  THE CASTILIANS.--The Spanish Mohammedans were superior in refinement
+  to their Christian adversaries. The latter learned much from their
+  enemies, without losing the patriotic and religious ardor which was
+  fostered by the popular minstrelsy, and by the romantic exploits and
+  encounters with the "infidels." The result was the peculiar spirit of
+  Castilian chivalry. The early development of popular government in
+  _Castile_ increased the feeling of personal
+  independence. Outside of Italy, no cities of Europe in the Middle
+  Ages were so rich and flourishing as the cities of _Castile,_
+  Materials of commerce were afforded by the famous breed of sheep, and
+  by the products of the soil and of manufactures. The nobles gained
+  great wealth, and had vast estates in the country. They held court as
+  petty sovereigns: _Alvaro de Luna_ had twenty thousand
+  vassals. They were inured to war, they were haughty and overbearing,
+  and complaints of their oppressions were frequent on the part of the
+  lower orders. The Castilian ecclesiastics were often lax in their
+  morals. The higher prelates were possessed of great riches and
+  authority. In the beginning of the fifteenth century the people in
+  _Castile_ had more power, compared with the power of the
+  sovereign, than in any other European country. But the representation
+  of the commons was exclusively from the cities, and not, as in
+  England, largely from the landed proprietors.
+
+  THE ARAGONESE.--The extraordinary authority exercised by the
+  _justiciary,_ or justice, of Aragon was perhaps the most
+  remarkable feature of its constitution. Dwelling on the ocean, the
+  Aragonese built up a naval power. _Barcelona,_ after its union
+  with Aragon, was the seat of a flourishing commerce, and framed the
+  first written code of maritime law now extant. Its municipal officers
+  were merchants and mechanics. Membership in the guilds was sought by
+  nobles, as rendering them eligible to the magistracy. The burghers
+  became proud and independent. The Catalans did not hesitate to assert
+  their rights against encroachments of the kings. In 1430 the
+  University of Barcelona was founded. "After the genuine race of
+  troubadours had passed away," says Mr. Prescott, "the Provencal or
+  Limousin verse was carried to its highest excellence by the poets of
+  Valencia" (Prescott's _History of the Reign of Ferdinand and
+  Isabella,_ Introduction).
+
+PORTUGAL: COMMERCE AND NAVIGATION.--About 1095 _Alfonso VI.,_ king
+of _Castile_ and _Leon,_ gave the territory between the
+_Minho_ and the _Douro_ to his son-in-law, _Henry of
+Burgundy,_ who assumed the title of Count of Portugal. His son and
+successor, _Alfonso I.,_ who defeated the Moors at _Ourique_
+in 1139, was hailed as king by his army, and later was confirmed in the
+title by the Pope (1185). He was acknowledged as independent by the
+king of Castile. In a diet at _Laimego_, he gave an excellent
+constitution and body of laws to his people (1143). Soon after, he
+conquered _Lisbon_, and made it his capital. His son, _Sancho
+I._ (1185-1211), was distinguished both for his victories over the
+Moors and for his encouragement of tillage and of farm-laborers. Until
+we reach the fifteenth century, Portuguese history is occupied with
+wars with the Moors and the Castilians, contests of the kings with the
+nobles, and struggles between rival aspirants for the throne, and
+between the sovereigns on the one hand and the clergy and the popes on
+the other. Under _Dionysius III_. (1279-1325) there began a new
+era, in which the Portuguese became eminent for industry and learning,
+and in commerce and navigation. He founded the University of
+Lisbon. _Alfonso IV_. (1325-1357) continued on the same path. But
+he caused _Ines de Castro_, who had been secretly married to his
+son, to be murdered (1354); a crime which the son, _Peter
+I_. (1357-1367), after his accession, avenged by causing the hearts
+of the murderers to be torn out. _John I_. (1385-1433) repelled a
+great invasion of the Castilians, in a battle near Lisbon, and became
+at first regent and then king. He was the founder of a new family. By
+him _Ceuta_ in Africa was captured from the Moors. _Madeira_
+was discovered (1419), and by the burning of the forests was prepared
+for the cultivation of sugar-cane and the vine. In 1432 the Portuguese
+occupied the _Azores_. A most active interest in voyages of
+discovery was taken by _Prince Henry the Navigator_ (1394-1460),
+fourth son of King _John I_. and of _Philippa_, daughter of
+_John of Gaunt_.
+
+
+IV. THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES.
+
+THE BALTIC LANDS.--There are three divisions of Europe which neither
+Charlemagne's Empire nor the Eastern Empire included. The first is
+_Spain_, which had been comprised in the old Roman Empire. The
+second is _Great Britain_ and the adjacent islands. Only a
+portion of Britain was held as a province by old Rome. The third is
+the two _Scandinavian_ peninsulas,--Denmark, and Norway and
+Sweden, with the _Slavonic_ lands to the east and south, which
+may be said to have had a common relation to the _Baltic_. The
+_Scandinavians_ had their period of foreign conquest and
+settlement, but their settlements abroad remained in no connection
+with the countries whence they came. _Sweden_ was cut off from
+the ocean. "The history of Sweden"--as Mr. Freeman, to whom we owe a
+lucid exposition of this subject, has pointed out--"mainly consists in
+the growth and the loss of her dominion in the Baltic lands out of her
+own peninsula. It is only in quite modern times that the union of the
+crowns, though not of the kingdoms, of Sweden and Norway, has created
+a power wholly peninsular and equally Baltic and oceanic." The Germans
+and Scandinavians spread their dominion over the Aryan and non-Aryan
+tribes on the south and east of the Baltic. _Finland_, inhabited
+by a Turanian or Scythic people whose language is akin to that of the
+Hungarians, was long under Swedish dominion. Now Finland and the east
+of the Baltic are in Russia, while the southern and south-eastern
+shore of the Baltic is German. _Russia_, in modern days, having
+no oceanic character like Great Britain and Spain, has expanded her
+dominion westward to the Baltic, but mainly to the east over Central
+Asia. She has built up a _continental_, instead of a maritime and
+colonial, empire.
+
+CONVERSION OF SCANDINAVIA.--In the earlier part of the Middle Ages,
+the two Scandinavian peninsulas are known only through the piratical
+expeditions which they send forth upon the two adjacent seas. By the
+way of the North Sea, the Northmen reached France, England, Greenland,
+and America; by the way of the Baltic, Russia. The conversion of
+_Denmark_ to Christianity was completed in the eleventh century,
+under _Canute_; that of Norway in the tenth, and of Sweden in the
+eleventh. After the foreign settlements were made, and with the
+introduction of the gospel, piracy ceased, and civilization began
+(p. 239).
+
+DENMARK.--After _Canute VI._ (1182), _Waldemar II._, the
+Victorious, was the prominent personage in Danish history. He
+conquered _Holstein_ and _Pomerania_,--in fact, every thing
+north of the Elbe and the Elde. In 1219 he overran _Esthonia_, in
+a crusade for the forcible conversion of the pagans, when the Danish
+standard, the _Dannebrog_,--a white cross on a blood-red
+field,--began to be used. On his return, he was treacherously
+captured, and with his son was kept in prison in Mecklenburg for three
+years, by _Henry_, Count of _Schwerin_. _Waldemar_ was
+defeated in 1227, in the war undertaken to recover the conquests which
+he had given up as the price of his release. He was the author of a
+code of laws.
+
+UNION OF CROWNS.--_Waldemar III._ (1340-1375) regained the
+conquests of Waldemar II. This brought on a general war, in which the
+_Hanseatic League_, as well as Sweden, were among his antagonists
+(1363). Denmark, having control of the entrance to the Baltic, and
+exacting tolls of vessels, was a second time involved in war with that
+great mercantile confederacy and its allies, and was worsted in the
+conflict (1372). Waldemar's second daughter, _Margaret_, married
+_Hakon VI._, King of Norway. Hakon's son _Olaf_ was a child
+at his father's death, and the regency was held by his
+mother. _Olaf_ (1376-1387) was elected by the Estates king of
+_Denmark_. His mother, now regent in both countries, became queen
+in both after _Olaf's_ death. In 1388 Margaret accepted the crown
+of Sweden; the Swedes having revolted against the king, _Albert_,
+who was defeated and captured at _Falkoeping_ (1389).
+
+SWEDEN.--War existed for centuries between the _Swedes_ and the
+_Goths_, the inhabitants of the southern part of the peninsula.
+Each race contended for supremacy. Political union began with
+_Waldemar_ (1250-1275), son of _Birger Jarl_ (Earl Birger).
+Stockholm was founded in 1255. Private wars and judicial combats were
+suppressed, commerce was encouraged, and the condition of women
+improved. Large duchies were established, afterwards a source of
+discord. _Magnus I_. (1279-1290) was surnamed _Ladulas_, or
+_Barnlock_, for protecting the granaries of the peasants from the
+rapacious nobles. His reign was succeeded by war between his sons. As
+the result of a popular revolt in 1319, _Magnus Smek_, an infant,
+became king, and during the regency succeeded, by right of his mother,
+to the crown of _Norway_, where he (1350) placed on the throne his
+son _Hakon_. But when _Magnus_ attempted to rule without the
+senate, he was deposed, and _Albert_ of _Mecklenburg_ was
+elected king (1365). But the nobles were supreme: in 1388 they deposed
+_Albert_, and gave the crown to _Margaret_ of Norway and
+Denmark. _Albert_ was held a prisoner for six years, and then
+renounced his claim to the throne.
+
+NORWAY.--_Magnus III_. (1095-1103), called from his Scottish dress
+_Barefoot_, united the _Hebrides_ and _Orcades_ into a
+kingdom for his son _Sigurd_, and invaded Iceland, where he
+died. _Sigurd_ inherited the spirit of _Harold Fairhair_
+(860-about 933), through whom Norway had been made a united kingdom. He
+made a voyage to Jerusalem through the Mediterranean, and was a
+renowned crusader. After his death (1130), there were fierce contests
+for the throne, the more fierce as illegitimate sons had the same right
+in law as those born in wedlock. In 1152 a papal legate established a
+hierarchy in Norway, which interfered in the struggle. Conflicts arose
+between the clerical party and the national party, in which the latter
+at length gained the day. Under _Hakon VI_., _Iceland_ was
+conquered (1260). _Magnus VI_. (1263-1280) brought in an era of
+quiet, without stifling popular freedom. The cities engaged actively in
+manufactures and commerce. _Magnus_ strengthened and organized the
+military and naval force. By him the _Hebrides_ were ceded to
+Scotland. Under _Eric_ (1280-1299), called _Priest-hater_,
+there was a struggle to curb the power of the clergy and nobles, in
+which the king was aided by the peasants. He was worsted in the
+conflict with the Hanse towns, and compelled to join their League. The
+accession of _Magnus Smek_, the son of his daughter, to the throne
+of Norway (1319), led eventually to the _Union_ of _Calmar_
+(1397), in which Sweden, Norway, and Denmark were brought together.
+
+"The situation of Norway, during the Middle Ages, might be shortly
+described as an absolute monarchy resting almost directly on one of the
+most democratic states of society in Europe." The greater families, by
+the partition of their estates, became a part of the class of small
+land-owners. Between them and the king there was no intermediate class.
+
+AFTER THE UNION OF CALMAR.--After the death of _Margaret_, who
+governed the united kingdoms after the union, _Eric XIII_. of
+Pomerania succeeded. The union was shaken by the revolt of
+_Schleswig_ and of _Holstein_, and was dissolved on the death
+of _Christopher_ of Bavaria (1448), who had been chosen king. The
+Swedes broke off, and made _Charles Canutson_ king, under the name
+of _Charles VIII_. _Denmark_ and _Norway_ remained
+united; and under _Christian I_. of the house of _Oldenburg_,
+whom they made king, _Schleswig_ and _Holstein_ were again
+attached to Denmark (1459).
+
+
+V. POLAND AND RUSSIA.
+
+THE SLAVONIC TRIBES.--The settlement of the _Hungarians_ (Magyars)
+in Europe had the effect to divide the Slavonic tribes into three
+general groups. The _northern_ Slaves were separated from the
+Slaves south of the Danube,--the inhabitants of Servia, Croatia,
+Dalmatia, etc. The _north-western_ Slaves bordered on the Western
+Empire. The states of _Bohemia_ and _Poland_ grew up among
+them. On the east of this group of Slaves were the Russians. Both
+_Poland_ and _Russia_ became independent kingdoms. In the
+course of history, a part of the _north Slavonic lands_, those
+which are represented by Mecklenburg, Pomerania, Brandenburg, and
+Saxony, were Germanized. Lands in the _south-west_, as Bohemia and
+Moravia, remained predominantly Slavonic in speech. A _central_
+region formed the kingdom of Poland. On the east were the Slavonic
+tribes which were the nucleus of modern _Russia_.
+
+LITHUANIANS AND PRUSSIANS.--Both _Poland_ and _Russia_ were
+originally cut off from the Baltic by other races. Such were the
+non-Aryan _Fins_ in Esthonia (Esthland) and Livonia
+(Livland). Such, also, were the Aryans of the _Lettic_ branch, of
+whom the _Lithuanians_ and the _Prussians_ were the principal
+divisions. The _Lithuanians_ formed at one time a strong state.
+The _Prussians_ finally gave their name to the Teutonic kingdom in
+which they were absorbed.
+
+THE POLES.--The _Poles_ derive their name from a word meaning
+_plains_. They were inhabitants of the plains. They were the
+strongest of a group of tribes dwelling between the Oder and the
+Vistula, and holding the coast between their mouths. Between them and
+the sea, on the east of the Vistula, were the _Prussians_.
+
+POLAND: ITS CONSTITUTION.--In the tenth century the _Lechs_, or
+_Poles_, on the Vistula, had acquired considerable power, and had
+a center at _Gnesen_, which remained the metropolis of
+Poland. There are legends of a first duke, _Piast_ by name. A
+dynasty which bore his name continued in Poland until 1370; in Silesia,
+until 1675. _Miecislas I_. was converted to Christianity by his
+wife, a Bohemian princess. He did homage to the Emperor _Otto I_.
+(978). _Boleslav I_. (992) aspired to the regal dignity, and had
+himself crowned as king by his bishops. _Gregory
+VII_. excommunicated him, deprived him of the title of king, and
+laid Poland under an interdict. _Boleslav III_., the Victorious
+(1102-1138), subdued the _Pomeranians_, and compelled them to
+receive Christianity. He divided his kingdom among his four
+sons. _Silesia_ became an independent duchy. A long crusade was
+carried on against the _Prussians_, a heathen people, who attacked
+the Poles, by the "Brethren of the soldiers of Christ," and the
+"Teutonic knights," two orders which were united (about 1226). The
+Teutonic knights at length became the enemies of the Poles. The savage
+_Lithuanians_ assailed them on the north. From the anarchy that
+reigned, Poland was rescued by _Casimir III_., the Great
+(1333-1370), who defeated the Russians, and carried his eastern
+boundary as far as the _Dnieper_. Prior to this time, Poland was
+an important kingdom. Casimir framed a code of written laws for his
+people, and gave an impulse to commerce. But in order to secure the
+election of his nephew, _Louis_ king of Hungary (1370-1382), he
+had to increase the powers and privileges of the nobles. The accession
+of _Louis_ terminated the long rivalry of Poland and Hungary. He,
+like _Casimir_, died without children. The nobles made
+_Jagellon_, the Grand Duke of _Lithuania_, his successor
+(1386), who took the name of _Vladislav II_. Under a series of
+conquering princes, _Lithuania_ had extended its dominion over the
+neighboring Russian lands, and become a strong state. _Vladislav_
+was chosen on the condition that he should espouse the daughter of the
+last king, and, with his nation, embrace Christianity. This event
+doubled the territory of Poland. The _Teutonic Knights_, who ruled
+from the Oder to the Gulf of Finland, were now overcome. The treaty of
+_Thorn_ (1466) confined their dominion to _Eastern
+Prussia_. The misfortune of _Poland_ was its political
+constitution. Although the monarchy was not yet completely elective,
+but hereditary in the house of _Jagellon_, the election of every
+king had to be sanctioned by the nobles. They alone took part in the
+diet, and held the offices and honors. There was no burgher class, no
+"third estate." Every man who owned and was able to equip a horse was
+counted as a noble. The burden of taxation fell on the peasants.
+
+NATURAL FEATURES OF RUSSIA.--Russia in Europe comprises at present more
+than half the territory of that entire continent. Yet it has but a
+small share of seaboard, and of this a large part is frozen in
+winter. The surface of Russia is of a piece with the boundless plateaus
+of Northern and Central Asia. It has been defined as the "Europe of
+plains, in opposition to the Europe of mountains." The mountains of
+Russia are chiefly on its boundaries. It is a country subject to
+extremes of heat and cold. From the scarcity of stone, all buildings
+were formerly of wood, and hence its towns were all combustible. The
+rivers of Russia have been of immense importance in its history. "The
+whole history of this country is the history of its three great rivers,
+and is divided into three periods,--that of the _Dnieper_ with
+_Kiev_, that of the _Volga_ with _Moscow_, and that of
+the _Neva_ with _Novgorod_ in the eighth century, and
+_St. Petersburg_ in the eighteenth."
+
+RUSSIANS AND POLES.--The Russian Slaves in the ninth century occupied
+but a small part of what is now Russia. There was probably little
+difference then between them and the Poles; but the one people were
+molded by the Greek Church and Greek civilization, the other by the
+Latin Church and by the collective influences of Western Europe.
+
+RUSSIAN HISTORY.--The Northmen under _Rurik_ had founded their
+dominion in Russia. _Novgorod_ was their center. Thence they
+pushed their conquests to the south. Their descendants made
+_Kiev_, on the Dnieper, their capital. In Russia, as elsewhere,
+the Scandinavians quickly blended with their native subjects. Under
+_Vladimir I._ (980-1015), who was converted to Greek
+Christianity, with his people, and _Iaroslaf I._ (1019-1051),
+they attained to considerable power; but the custom of the sovereigns
+to divide their dominions among their sons, broke up their territory
+into a multitude of petty principalities. The result was a monotonous
+series of fierce contests, without any substantial result. In the
+midst of the bloody and profitless civil wars occurred the great
+invasion of the _Mongols_, who destroyed the principality of
+_Kiev_, and made that of _Vladimir_ tributary. For two
+centuries the Russians continued under the yoke of the "Golden Horde,"
+which the Mongols established on the Volga. They were obliged to pay
+tribute, and the Russian princes at their accession had to swear
+fealty to the _khan_ on the banks of the river _Amoor_. At
+the time of the Mongol conquest, _Novgorod_ was the center of
+Russian dominion. Towards the end of the thirteenth century,
+_Moscow_ became a new center of Russian power. From _Moscow_
+comes the name _Muscovy_. "Muscovy was to Russia what France in
+the older sense was to the whole land which came to bear that name."
+In the fourteenth century, while _Lithuania_ and _Poland_
+were absorbing by conquest the territories of earlier or
+_Western_ Russia, the Duchy of _Moscow_ was building up a
+new Russia in the East, out of which grew the Russia of
+to-day. _Ivan I._, regarded as the founder of the Russian
+monarchy, made Moscow his capital in 1328. Most of the other princes
+were subject to him. _Demetrius_ (or _Dimtri) I_. gained two
+great victories over the Mongol horde (1378 and 1380); but in 1382
+they burned _Moscow_, and slew twenty-four thousand of its
+inhabitants. It was not until the reign of _Ivan III_., Ivan the
+Great (1462-1505), that _Novgorod_ submitted to _Moscow_,
+and Russia was wholly delivered from the control and influence of the
+Mongols.
+
+
+VI. HUNGARY.
+
+THE ARPAD DYNASTY.--The chiefs of the Turanian _Magyars_, about
+889, elected _Arpad_ as successor of the leader under whom they
+had crossed the Carpathian Mountains. They overran Hungary and
+Transylvania, and terrified Europe by their invasions (p. 249). After
+their defeats by the emperors _Henry I_. and _Otto the
+Great_ (p. 261), they confined themselves to their own country. The
+first king, _Stephen_,--St. Stephen,--was crowned, with the
+consent of Pope _Sylvester II_., in the year 1000. He divided the
+land into counties, organized the Church, and founded convents and
+schools. He conferred on the bishops high offices. He established a
+national council, composed of the lords temporal and spiritual, and of
+the knights, out of which sprung the _diets_. _Ladislaus
+I_. conquered _Croatia_ (1089), and a part of the "Red
+Russian" land of _Galicia_ (1093). Coloman, "the Learned," a
+brave and able man, annexed _Dalmatia_, which he wrested from the
+Venetians (1102). In the reign of _Andrew II_. (1205-1235), the
+"Golden Bull" was extorted by the nobles, which conferred on them
+extraordinary rights and privileges, including exemption from arrest
+prior to trial and conviction, and the control of the diet over
+appointments to office. It even authorized armed resistance on their
+part to tyrannical measures of the king,--a right that was not
+abrogated until 1687. Hungary was devastated by the great Tartar
+invasion (1241-42) (p. 283). The kings of Hungary supported the cause
+of _Rudolph_ of Austria against _Ottocar_ of Bohemia
+(p. 332).
+
+INVASIONS OF THE TURKS.--The last king of the _Arpad_ dynasty
+died in 1301. There was a division of parties in the choice of a
+successor. Pope _Boniface VIII_. and the clergy supported the
+claims of Count _Charles Robert of Anjou_, who was related to the
+former reigning family. Under the son of _Charles Robert, Louis,_
+who also succeeded _Casimir III_. as king of Poland (1370),
+Hungary became a very powerful state. _Galicia_ was regained,
+_Moldavia_ and _Bulgaria_ were conquered. After the death of
+_Louis_, his daughter _Maria_ reigned from 1386 conjointly
+with _Sigismund_, afterwards emperor, and king of Bohemia. He
+established his supremacy over _Bosnia_. From this time the
+invasions of the _Turks_ begin. There had been a party in favor
+of raising to the throne _Vladislaus_, king of Poland; and after
+the death of Sigismund's successor, _Albert II_. of Austria
+(1437), and the death of the queen, he gained the crown (1442). He was
+slain at _Varna_, in the great battle in which the Hungarians
+were vanquished by the Turks (1444). _John Hunyady_, who had
+several times defeated the Turks, and who escaped on the field of
+Varna, was made for the time "governor;" but on the release of the son
+of Albert, _Ladislaus Posthumus_, who had been kept from the
+throne by the Emperor _Frederick III_., he was recognized as king
+(1452). _Hun-yady_ was made general-in-chief. _Frederick_
+had also retained in his hands the crown, which had been intrusted to
+his care, and which Hungarians have always regarded with extreme
+veneration.  A little later, great advantages were gained over the
+Turks, to be lost again in the sixteenth century.
+
+
+VII. THE OTTOMAN TURKS.
+
+OSMAN: MURAD I.--Towards the end of the thirteenth century, the
+_Osman_ (or _Ottoman_) _Turks_, warlike nomad hordes,
+in order to escape from the _Mongols_, moved from the region east
+of the Caspian Sea, and conquered in Asia Minor the remnant of the
+kingdom of the Seljukians (p. 270). Impelled by fanaticism and the
+desire of booty, _Ottoman_ (or _Osman_), their leader,
+advanced into _Bithynia_, and took _Pruse_, or
+_Broussa_, one of the most important cities of Asia Minor. The
+Greeks, with their Catalonian auxiliaries, were not able to dislodge
+him from his new possession. The Byzantine court was disabled from
+making an energetic effort for this end, by the partisan rancor, and
+mingled lethargy and cruelty, which characterized the old age of the
+Greek Empire. _Nicomedia_, _Nicoea_, and _Ilium_ were
+conquered by the Sultan (or _Padishah_). _Murad
+I_. (1361-1389) founded the corps of _janizaries_, composed of
+select Christian youth chosen from the captives for their beauty and
+vigor. These became the most effective soldiers,--sometimes dangerous,
+however, to the sultans themselves. _Adrianople_ was taken by
+_Murad_, and made the seat of his authority. The Christian
+principalities of _Thrace_, and the ancient but depopulated
+cities founded by the Greeks and Romans, were overrun. The Servians
+and Bulgarians made a stand against the fierce Ottoman warriors, but
+were beaten in the battle of _Kosovo_, where _Murad_was
+slain.
+
+BAJAZET.--_Bajazet_, the son and successor of _Murad_, outdid
+his predecessor in his martial prowess. He conquered _Macedonia_
+and _Thessaly_, and _Greece_ to the southern end of
+Peloponnesus. The Emperor _Sigismund_ and _John of Burgundy_,
+with one hundred thousand men, were utterly defeated in the sanguinary
+battle of _Nicopolis_ (1396). _Sigismund_ escaped by sea; the
+French counts and knights had to be redeemed from captivity with a
+large ransom; and ten thousand prisoners of lower rank were slaughtered
+by _Bajazet_. _Bosnia_ was now in the hands of the
+victor. _Constantinople_ had to pay tribute, and seemed likely to
+become his prey, when a temporary respite was obtained for it by the
+coming of a host even more powerful than that of _Bajazet_.
+
+MONGOLIAN INVASION.--_Timur_, or _Tamerlane_, a descendant of
+_Genghis Khan _(p. 283), revived the fallen Tartar kingdom. At the
+head of his wandering _Tartars_, which grew into an army, he left
+_Samarcand_, where he had caused himself to be proclaimed
+sovereign, and, in a rapid career of conquest, made himself master of
+the countries from the Wall of China to the Mediterranean, and from the
+boundaries of Egypt to Moscow. Everywhere his path was marked with
+blood and with the ruins of the places which he destroyed. At
+_Ispahan_, in Persia, seventy thousand persons were killed. At
+_Delhi_, one hundred thousand captives were slain, that his
+relative, the "Great Mogul," might reign in security. It was his
+delight to pile up at the gates of cities pyramids of twenty or thirty
+thousand heads. Later (1401), at _Bagdad_, he erected such a
+pyramid of ninety thousand heads. He gained a great victory over the
+"Golden Horde" in _Russia_ (p. 283), conquered the unsubdued parts
+of _Persia_, entered _Bagdad_, _Bassorah_, and
+_Mosul_, vanquished the khan of _Kaptchak_, and penetrated
+_Russia_ in his devastating progress, as far as _Moscow_
+(1396). Then followed the conquest of _Hindustan_.
+
+TAMERLANE AND BAJAZET.--The two powerful monarchs, _Tamerlane_
+and _Bajazet_, now measured their strength in combat with one
+another. Trembling ambassadors of the Greek emperor, and of certain
+Seljukian princes, had waited on _Tamerlane_ in _Gengia_ at
+the foot of the Caucasus. On the 16th of June, 1402, the two
+armies--four hundred thousand Turks, and eight hundred thousand
+Mongols, if one may credit the reports--met at _Ancyra_. The
+Ottomans were defeated, and _Bajazet_ was taken prisoner. Led
+into the presence of _Tamerlane_, he found the Mongol quietly
+playing chess with his son. Asia Minor submitted to the conqueror, who
+penetrated as far as _Smyrna_. An old man, he was looking towards
+_China_ as another field for invasion, when he died
+(1405). _Bajazet_ died soon after his defeat.
+
+TURKISH CONQUESTS: THE GREEKS AND LATINS.--The grandson of
+_Bajazet_, _Murad II._ (1421-1451), took up anew his
+projects of conquest. The empire of _Tamerlane_ quickly fell to
+pieces. His course had been like that of a hurricane, terrible in its
+work of destruction, but soon at an end. The Byzantine dominion was
+soon confined to _Constantinople_ and small districts
+adjacent. On all sides the Ottoman power was supreme. The Greek
+emperor, _John VII._ (_Palaeologus_), now endeavored, in
+imitation of previous attempts, to bring about a union of the Greek
+and Latin churches, and thus remove a principal obstacle to the
+obtaining of military help from the West. He went to Italy, attended
+by the patriarch and many bishops. After long debates and conferences
+on the abstruse points of doctrinal difference, a verbal agreement was
+reached between the two parties (1439). But the result was received
+with so much disfavor and indignation in Constantinople, that the
+effort to bring the sundered churches together came to naught. The
+Pope, however, stirred up the Christian princes to engage in war
+against the Turk. The defeat of _Vladislav_, king of Hungary, and
+of _Hunyady_, at _Varna_ (1444), caused by the rash onset of
+the king upon the janizaries, was succeeded by another Turkish victory
+at _Kosovo_, four years later.
+
+FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE.--_Murad II._ was succeeded by his
+ambitious and unmerciful son, _Mohammed II._ (1451-1481), who
+determined that _Constantinople_ should be his capital. The city
+had seven thousand defenders, comprising two thousand Genoese and
+Venetians, who were commanded by an able man, the Genoese
+_Justiniani_. The Emperor _Constantine XII._ worshiped
+according to the Roman rites; while his court observed the Greek forms,
+and spurned a union with the hated Latin Christians, whose help the
+emperor was to the end anxious to obtain. The city was stoutly defended
+for fifty-three days; and when it could be held no longer against the
+furious assault of the Turks, the gallant _Constantine_, casting
+aside his golden armor, fell, bravely fighting with the defenders on
+the ramparts (May 29, 1453). Constantinople became the capital of the
+Turks. The crescent supplanted the cross, and the Church of
+_St. Sophia_ was turned into a mosque.
+
+TURKISH GOVERNMENT.--The _Sultan_, or _padischah_, among the
+Turks is absolute master, and proprietor of the soil. There is no order
+of nobles, and there are no higher classes except the priests
+(_imams_) and the religious orders (_dervishes_). In the
+seraglio of the Sultan, with its palaces and gardens, the harem is
+separated from the other apartments. The _grand vizier_ presides
+over the council of ministers (_divan_). The provinces are
+governed by _pashas_ with large powers. Beneath them is a
+gradation of inferior rulers in the subdivisions of the provinces. The
+_mufti_ with his subordinate associates is a high authority on
+questions of religion and law.
+
+TURKISH LITERATURE.--The literature of the Ottoman Turks is in merit
+below the literature of other Mohammedan peoples. It lacks
+originality, being based on _Persian_ and partly on _Arabic_
+models.
+
+CHANGES IN THE MIDDLE AGES.--We have seen great changes gradually
+taking place in the Middle Ages. One is the _centralizing of
+political authority_ by the subjection of the local rulers, or
+lords, to the will of the king. Another is the _enfranchisement of
+the serfs_, and the growing power and self-respect of a middle
+class. The invention of gunpowder took away the superiority of the
+mail-clad and mounted warrior. The peasant on the battle-field was a
+match for the knight.
+
+CLERGYY AND LAITY.--There was a change from the time when the
+_clergy_ were the sole possessors of knowledge, and the exclusive
+guides of opinion. In the _lay_ part of society, there was an
+awaking of intellectual activity and a spirit of self-assertion.
+
+A brief sketch of important ecclesiastical changes, some of which have
+been adverted to, will be here in place.
+
+POPES IN THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY.--From _Gregory VII_. to
+_Boniface VIII_., or from near the end of the eleventh to the
+beginning of the fourteenth century, the highest authority was claimed
+and exercised by the popes. _Frederick Barbarossa_, the greatest
+of the German emperors, held the stirrup of _Hadrian IV_., and
+humbled himself before _Alexander III_. _Innocent
+III_. compared the authority of _popes_, in contrast with that
+of _kings_, to the sun in relation to the moon. He excommunicated
+_Philip Augustus_ of France, _John_ of England, and other
+monarchs. He claimed the right to refuse to crown the emperor if he
+should judge him not worthy of the imperial office. The papacy
+continued to exert these lofty prerogatives until _Boniface
+VIII_. He asserted that "the two swords," the symbols of both
+secular and spiritual rule, were given to St. Peter and to his
+successors: the temporal authority must therefore be subject to the
+spiritual. The body of _canon law_ was framed in accordance with
+these views. It embraced the right of the Pope to depose kings and
+princes. To the sovereign pontiff was accorded the right to dispense
+from Church laws. With the growth of ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the
+different countries, the Pope, as the supreme tribunal in all matters
+affecting the clergy and covered by the canon law, gained a vast
+increase of judicial prerogatives.
+
+THE BABYLONIAN EXILE: THE GREAT SCHISM.--During the residence of the
+popes at _Avignon_, there was great complaint on account of the
+dependence of the papacy on France, as well as on account of the heavy
+taxes levied for the support of the pontifical court, and of the
+immorality which at times prevailed in it. _Gregory XI_., to the
+joy of all good men, returned to Rome (1376). But at his death, two
+years later, a majority of the cardinals elected an Italian, _Urban
+VI_., in his place. The adherents of the French party made a
+protest, and chose the Cardinal of Geneva, under the name of
+_Clement VII_. England, Germany, Hungary, Bohemia, Holland, and
+almost all Italy, acknowledged _Urban_. France, Spain, Scotland,
+Savoy, and Lorraine obeyed _Clement_. This great schism of the
+West created sorrow and alarm among well-disposed Christian people. It
+tended strongly to diminish the reverence felt for the papal office,
+and to weaken its influence.
+
+THE REFORMING COUNCILS.--The first important effort to terminate the
+division was made by the _University of Paris_. Its rector,
+_Nicolas de Clemangis_, was prominent in the
+movement. _Gerson_ and other eminent scholars and ecclesiastics
+took part in it. Three great councils were held; the first at
+_Pisa_ (1409), the second at _Constance_ (1414), and the
+third at _Basle_ (1431). At these assemblies, the French
+theologians proceeded upon the "Gallican theory" of the constitution of
+the Church, according to which supreme authority was held to reside in
+a general council,--not in the Pope, but in the collective
+episcopate. At the Council of _Constance_, where it is a
+significant fact that the votes were taken by nations, there were
+gathered not only a throng of prelates and inferior clergy, but also
+the Emperor _Sigismund_, and a multitude of princes, nobles, and
+spectators of every rank. "The whole world," it was said, "was there."
+Three popes, each of whom claimed to be legitimate, were deposed; and
+under the auspices of the council, which affirmed its own sovereign
+authority, another pope, _Martin V._, was elected in the room of
+them. The results of the two councils of Pisa and Constance, as regards
+the reformation of the Church "in head and members," disappointed the
+hopes of those who were disaffected with the existing state of
+things. The Council of _Basle_ exhibited the same spirit as that
+of _Constance_, and passed various measures in the interest of
+national churches, for the restriction of papal prerogatives, and for
+practical reforms. The council, however, broke into two parts; and the
+hopes connected with it were likewise, to a great extent,
+frustrated. In 1438 the French synod of _Bourges_ issued "the
+Pragmatic Sanction," containing a strong assertion of the rights and
+immunities of national churches,--a document which gave occasion to
+much controversy down to its repeal under King _Francis I_.
+
+Had it been practicable for good men in the _fifteenth_ century to
+unite in wholesome measures for promoting the purity and unity of the
+Church, the religious revolutions of the _sixteenth_ might have
+been postponed, if not avoided.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III. THE COUNTRIES OF EASTERN ASIA.
+
+
+I. CHINA.
+
+THE TANG DYNASTY (618-907).--The confusion in China, after the
+establishment of the three kingdoms, was brought to an end by the
+_Sui_ dynasty, which, however, was of short duration. Between the
+_Hans_ and the new epoch beginning with the _T'angs_,
+diplomatic intercourse was begun with _Japan_; Christianity was
+introduced by the Nestorians; a new impulse was given to the spread of
+_Buddhism_; the first traces of the art of printing are found;
+and the Yang-tse and the Yellow Rivers were connected by a canal.
+
+EVENTS IN THIS PERIOD.--Under the _T'angs,_ the empire was united,
+peaceful, and prosperous. One of the most remarkable occurrences was
+the usurpation (649) and successful reign of a woman, the Empress
+_Wu_. Her policy was wise, and her generals were victorious. The
+Emperor _Hiuen Tsung_ had a long reign (713-756), and was an
+ardent patron of literature, but in his later years fell into immoral
+ways, as was seen in the character of the poems written under his
+patronage. Under this dynasty, there were productions in poetry of an
+excellence never surpassed in China. Buddhism, although resisted by the
+Confucianists and Taouists, gained ground. A bone of _Buddha_ was
+brought into China with great pomp and ceremony. Early in the reign of
+the T'angs, _Mohammedanism_ first appeared in China. In the
+transition period before the accession of the next dynasty (900-960),
+the art of printing came more into use. The practice of cramping
+women's feet is said by some to have originated at this time.
+
+THE SUNG DYNASTY (960-1280).--In the early part of this era, China was
+prosperous. But the _Tartars_ began their invasions; and it was
+finally agreed that one of their tribes, which had helped to drive out
+another, should retain its conquests in the North. These Tartar
+conquerors, the _Kins_, were invaded by the Mongol Tartars under
+_Genghis Khan_ (1213). After a long struggle, both the _Kins_
+and the _Sungs_ were conquered by the _Mongols_, and the
+empire of _Kublai Khan_ (1259-1294), the ruler of nearly all Asia
+except Hindustan and Arabia, was established. Under the _Sungs_, a
+system of military drill for all the citizens was ordained. Literature
+flourished; Buddhism and Taouism concluded to live in peace with one
+another; and the system of competitive examinations and literary
+degrees was more fully developed. After the complete conquest of China,
+the dominion of _Kublai Khan_ lasted for about a century. The
+celebrated Venetian traveler, _Marco Polo_, visited his court. In
+this period, mathematics was more studied, and romances were first
+written. Three out of the "Four Wonderful Books," which are leading
+novels, were then composed. The Grand Canal was finished by _Kublai
+Khan_, and thus _Peking_ was connected with Southern China. His
+great naval expedition against Japan failed.
+
+THE MING DYNASTY (1368-1650).--_Hung-wu_, the son of a Chinese
+laborer, shook off the Mongol yoke, and founded a new dynasty with its
+capital at _Nanking;_ whence it was afterwards transferred by the
+third emperor, _Yung-lo_ (1403-1425), to _Peking_. He
+conquered and annexed _Cochin China_ and _Tonquin_, and even
+portions of Tartary. The Tartars continued their attack; and in 1450
+_Ching-tung_, the emperor, was taken prisoner, and held until he
+was released in consequence of a Chinese victory.
+
+
+II. JAPAN.
+
+CHANGES IN GOVERNMENT.--In the seventh century A.D., there began
+changes in Japan which resulted in a dual government, and eventually in
+a feudal system which continued until recent times. The _Mikados_
+retired from personal contact with their subjects; and the power by
+degrees fell into the hands of the families related to the Mikado, and
+combined into clans. Military control was exercised by the generals
+(_Shoguns_), and towards the end of the eighth century devolved on
+the two rival clans of _Gen_ and _Hei_, or _Taira_ and
+_Minamoto_. About the same time (770-780) the _agricultural_
+class became distinct from the _military_, and were compelled to
+labor hard for their support. One family, the _Fujiwara_, by
+degrees absorbed the civil offices. They gradually sank into
+luxury. From the middle to the end of the twelfth century, there was
+terrible civil war between the _Taira_ clan and the
+_Minamoto_ clan, in which the former were destroyed. The military
+power passed from one family to another; but a main fact is that the
+_Shoguns_ acquired such a control as the "mayors of the palace"
+had possessed among the Franks. The _Mikados_ lost all real power,
+and the _Shoguns_ or _Tycoons_ had the actual government in
+their hands. In recent times (1868) a revolution occurred which
+restored to the Mikado the power which had belonged to him in the
+ancient times, before the changes just related took place.
+
+CIVIL WAR: FEUDALISM.--The final struggle of the two clans, the
+_Hei_ or _Taira_, and the _Gen_ or _Minamoto_, was
+in the naval battle of _Dannoura_, in 1185, which was followed by
+the extermination of the _Taira_. _Yoritomo_, the victor, was
+known as the Shogun after 1192. The supremacy of his clan gave way in
+1219 to that of their adherents, the _Hôjô_ family, who ruled the
+Shogun and the emperor both. The invasion of the Mongol Tartars failed,
+their great fleet being destroyed by a typhoon (1281). The _Hôjô_
+rule terminated, after a period of anarchy and civil war, in 1333. The
+"war of the chrysanthemums"--so called from the imperial emblem, the
+chrysanthemum--was between two rival Mikados, one in the North, and the
+other in the South (1336-1392). There ensued a period of confusion and
+internal war, lasting for nearly two centuries. Gradually there was
+developed a system of feudalism, in which the _daimios_, or lords
+of larger or smaller principalities, owned a dependence, either close
+or more loose, on the _Shogun_. But feudalism was not fully
+established until the days of the _Tokugama_ dynasty, early in the
+seventeenth century.
+
+
+III. INDIA.
+
+MOHAMMEDAN STATES.--During the Middle Ages, India was invaded by a
+succession of Mohammedan conquerors. The first invasions were in the
+seventh and the early part of the eighth centuries. A temporary
+lodgment was effected in the province of _Sind_, on the
+north-west, in 711; but the Moslems were driven out by the Hindus in
+750. The next invader was the _Afghan_ sultan, _Mahmud_ of
+Ghazim, a Turk, who is said to have led his armies seventeen times
+into India. From his time the _Punjab_, except for a brief
+interval, has been a Mohammedan province. The last of his line of
+rulers, _Bahram_, was conquered by the Afghan _Allah-ud-din_
+of Ghor (1152). Bahram's son fled to _Lahore_, but the
+_Ghoride_ dynasty soon absorbed his dominion. One of the Ghoride
+rulers, _Mohammed Ghori_, the _Shahab-ud-din_ of the
+Mohammedan writers, spread his dominion so that it reached from the
+Indus to the Brahmaputra. After his death, _Kutab-ud-din_, who
+had been a Turkish slave, became the founder of the "slave" dynasty
+(1206-1290), whose capital was _Delhi_. _Allah-ud-din_, by
+whom he was assassinated (1294), had a brilliant reign of twenty
+years, and conquered _Deccan_ and _Guzerat_. Of the
+_Togluk_ dynasty, which gained the throne in 1321, _Mohammed
+Togluk_ (1325-1351) is said to have had the "reputation of one of
+the most accomplished princes and most furious tyrants that ever
+adorned or disgraced human nature." Desiring to remove the seat of
+empire to the _Deccan_, he compelled the inhabitants of
+_Delhi_ to leave their old home, and to make the journey of seven
+hundred miles.
+
+TAMERLANE.--Revolts in India made the triumph of _Timour_
+(Tamerlane) easy (1398). The Mongol leader sacked _Delhi_, and
+made a full display of his unrivaled ferocity. A half century of
+anarchy followed this invasion.
+
+  LITERATURE.--On Mediaeval History: The General Subject. (See list of
+  works on Universal History, p. 16.) GIBBON'S _Decline and Fall_,
+  etc.; "THE STUDENTS' GIBBON" (Smith, 1 vol.); FREEMAN, _General
+  Sketch of European History_, and _Historical Geography of
+  Europe_; DURUY, _Histoire du Moyen Age_, etc. (11th edition,
+  1882); Hallam. _View of the State of Europe during the Middle
+  Ages_; Lavisse et Rambaud, _Histoire Generale_
+  (vols. i.-iii.); Cunningham, _Western Civilization_ (vol. ii);
+  Lavisse, _Political History of Europe_; Dunham, _History of
+  Europe during the Middle Ages_ (4 vols.); BRYCE, _The Holy Roman
+  Empire_; Putz and Arnold, _Mediaeval History_; E. A. FREEMAN,
+  _Historical Essays_ (series 1 and 3).
+
+  Works on Church History. The Church Histories of GIESELER, NEANDER;
+  MILMAN, _History of Latin Christianity_; ALZOG [a Roman
+  Catholic], _Manual_, etc. (3 vols. 1874-78); Hardwick (vol. i.,
+  _Middle Ages_); _Students' History of the Church_;
+  STANLEY'S _Eastern Church_; Fisher, _History of the Christian
+  Church_.
+
+  On Portions of the Mediaeval Period. Froissart, _Chronicles_,
+  etc.; CURTEIS, _History of the Roman Empire_ [395-800];
+  R. W. CHURCH, _The Beginning of the Middle Ages_; A. Thierry,
+  _Histoire d'Attila_, etc., _St. Jerome_, etc., _St. Jean
+  Chrysostome_, etc.; Church, _Life of Anselm_; MORISON,
+  _Life and Times of St. Bernard_; Gfrörer, _Pabst Gregorius
+  VII. u. sein Zeitalter_ (1859); Bury, _The Later Roman
+  Empire_ (2 vols.); Oman, _The Dark Ages_ (476-918); TOUT,
+  _The Empire and the Papacy_ (918-1272); Emerton, _Mediaeval
+  Europe_ (800-1300); Pears, _The Fall of Constantinople_;
+  Sergeant, _The Franks_; MULLINGER, _The Schools of Charles the
+  Great, and the Restoration of Education in the 9th Century_
+  (1877); MONTALEMBERT, _The Monks of the West_ (7 vols.);
+  Sartorius, _Gesch. des hanseatischen Bundes_ (3 vols.); Mombert,
+  _Charlemagne_; Sabatier, _Life of Francis of Assisi_;
+  Hasse, _Leben Anselm_; West, _Alcuin_; Hodgkin,
+  _Theodoric the Goth_.
+
+  General Character of the Period. ROBERTSON, _A View of the Progress
+  of Society in Europe from the Subversion of the Roman Empire_,
+  etc. (Introduction to the History of Charles V.); Kingsley, C.,
+  _The Roman and the Teuton: a Series of Lectures_, etc.;
+  SULLIVAN, _Historical Causes and Effects; from the Fall of the
+  Roman Empire_ A.D. 476 to 1517; Ozanam, A. F., _History of
+  Civilization in the Fifth Century_; LAURENT, _Études_,
+  etc. (vol vii.); Sir James Stephen, _Ecclesiastical Essays_;
+  Adams, _Civilization during the Middle Ages_. Scott's
+  novels,--_Ivanhoe, The Talisman, Anne of Geierstein_: they are
+  historically much less correct pictures than his romances which
+  relate to Scotland.
+
+  Particular Aspects of the Period. SAVIGNY, _Gesch. d. römischen
+  Rechts im Mittelalter_ (7 vols.); Sismondi, _Literature in the
+  South of Europe_; Hallam, _Introduction to the Study of
+  Literature_, etc.; Geffchen, _Church and State_ (2 vols.);
+  GUIZOT, _History of the Origin of Representative Government in
+  Europe_; Hecker, _Epidemics of the Middle Ages_;
+  J. E. THOROLD ROGERS, _A History of Agriculture and Prices in
+  England_ [1259-1793] (4 vols., 1866); Amos, _Roman Civil
+  Law_; Jenks, _Law and Politics in the Middle Ages_; Gross,
+  _The Guild Merchant_; Oman, _Art of War_; VIOLLET-LE-DUC,
+  _Annals of a Fortress_; H. C. Lea, _History of Sacerdotal
+  Celibacy, History of the Inquisition_ (3 vols.), and
+  _Superstition and Force_; LACROIX, _Works on the Middle
+  Ages_, richly illustrated (5 vols., London, 1880); Gautier,
+  _Chivalry_; Cornish, _Chivalry_; BULFINCH, _Age of
+  Chivalry, or Legends of King Arthur; Legends of Charlemagne, or
+  Romance of the Middle Ages_ (2 vols.); COX AND JONES, _Popular
+  Romances of the Middle Ages_; NASSE, _On the Agricultural
+  Community of the Middle Ages_ (1871); Roth,
+  _Gesch. d. Beneficialwesens_, etc.; Secretan, _Essai sur la
+  Feodalité_; Smith, T., _English Guilds_ (1870); WILDA, _Das
+  Gildenwesen im Mittelalter_ (1831); Seignobos, _The Feudal
+  Regime_.
+
+  Works on the Crusades. G. W. COX, _The Crusades_ (1878); also,
+  art. _Crusades_ in the _Encycl. Brit_.; Michaud, _History
+  of the Crusades_ (3 vols.); VON SYBEL, _The History and
+  Literature of the Crusades_; Mills, _A History of the
+  Crusades_, etc. (2 vols.); Heeren, in _Vermischte historische
+  Schriften_ (3 vols.); Procter's _History of the Crusades_;
+  Gray's _Children's Crusade_; Archer and Kingsford, _The
+  Crusades_.
+
+  For works on Mohammedanism and the Arabic kingdom, see p. 232.
+
+  The works here mentioned respecting the several countries either
+  relate to their entire history, or to their history prior to the
+  close of the Middle Ages.
+
+  I. ENGLAND AND SCOTLAND.--GREEN'S _History of the English
+  People_ (4 vols.), and _Short History of England_ (1 vol.);
+  the "STUDENTS' HUME"; the histories of BRIGHT, Knight, LINGARD,
+  Hume, GUIZOT, Traill, _Social England_ (6 vols., two editions);
+  GAIRDNER, _Outline_, etc.; Turner's _History of the
+  Anglo-Saxons_; Palgrave's _Rise and Progress of the English
+  Commonwealth_; Palgrave's _History of Normandy and of
+  England_; FREEMAN'S _History of the Norman Conquest_ (6
+  vols.), and _History of William Rufus_; Green, _The Making of
+  England_, and _The Conquest of England_; Ramsay,
+  _Foundations of England, Angevin Empire, Lancaster and York_;
+  STUBBS, _The Early Plantagenets_; LONGMAN'S _History of
+  Edward III_.; Cunningham, _Growth of English Industry and
+  Commerce_; Cheyney, _Industrial and Social History of
+  England_; Seebohm, _English Village Community_; _Life of
+  Wickliffe_, by LECHLER, by LOSERTH, by WILSON, by Trevelyan.
+
+  Kemble's _The Saxons in England_; STUBBS'S _Constitutional
+  History of England in its Origin and Development_ (3 vols.);
+  STUBBS'S _Select Charters_; CREASY'S _Rise and Progress of
+  the English Constitution_; THOMPSON'S _Essay on Magna
+  Charta_; Bisset, _History of the Struggle for Parliamentary
+  Government in England_ (1877); TASWELL-LANGMEAD'S _English
+  Constitutional History_, etc.; FREEMAN'S _Growth of the English
+  Constitution_, etc.; Bagehot, _The English Constitution_;
+  Macy, _The English Constitution_.
+
+  SCOTLAND.--P. H. Brown, _History of Scotland_ (2 vols.); Miss
+  Macarthur, _History of Scotland_ (1 vol.); E. M. Robertson,
+  _Scotland under her Early Kings_ (2 vols.).
+
+  IRELAND.--C. G. Walpole, _The Kingdom of Ireland_; Morris,
+  _Ireland_.
+
+  II. FRANCE.--General histories by Crowe (5 vols.); DURUY (2 vols.);
+  GUIZOT (to 1789, 5 vols.; 1789-1848, 3 vols.); and _Outlines of
+  the History of France_ (1 vol.); Bonnechose (to 1848); JERVIS
+  (Hassall edition); MARTIN (17 vols.); KITCHIN, LACOMBE, MICHELET (17
+  vols.); Lavisse, _Histoire de France_; Adams, _Growth of the
+  French Nation_; Grant, _The French Monarchy_; Wallon's
+  _St. Louis et son Temps_ (2 vols.); Sismondi, _The French
+  under the Carlovingians_ (1 vol.), _France under the Feudal
+  System_ (1 vol.); BARANTE'S _Histoire des Ducs de Bourgogne de
+  la Maison de Valois_, 1364-1477; WALLON'S _Jeanne d'Arc_ (2
+  vols.); Lowell's _Joan of Arc_; Jameson's _Life and Times of
+  Du Guesclin_.
+
+  COULANGES' _Histoire des Institutions politiques de l'Ancienne
+  France_ (1877); Viollet, _Institutions politiques de la
+  France_ (3 vols.); Luchaire, _Manuel des Institutions
+  Françaises_; Esmein, _Histoire du Droit Français_; GUIZOT'S
+  _History of Civilization in France_ (3 vols.), and _Essai sur
+  l'Histoire de France_; THIERRY'S _The Formation and Progress of
+  the Third Estate in France_; Sir James Stephens's _Lectures on
+  the History of France_.
+
+  III. GERMANY.--Henderson, _A Short History of Germany_ (2
+  vols.); Histories by C. T. LEWIS (founded on D. Müller), Kohlrausch;
+  Kaufman, _Deutsche Geschichte_; Lamprecht, _Deutsche
+  Geschichte_ (6 vols.); Schröder, _Lehrbuch der
+  d. Rechtsgeschichte_; Richter, _Annalen_.
+
+  GEISEBRECHT'S _Geschichte d. deutschen Kaiserzeit_ (4 vols.);
+  VON RAUMER'S _Geschichte der Hohenstaufen und ihrer Zeit_ (6
+  vols.).
+
+  Coxe's _History of the House of Austria_; KRONES'S _Handbuch
+  d. Geschichte Osterreichs_ (3 vols.); Marlath's _Geschichte
+  Osterreichs_.
+
+  ARNOLD, _Ansiedelungun und Wanderungen deutscher Stämme_
+  (1875); also, _Deutsche Urzeit_ (1879); Ozanam, _Les Germains
+  avant le Christianisme_ (1872); SOHM, _Die altdeutsche Reichs
+  und Gerichtsverfassung_; MAURER'S histories of German local
+  institutions (the Marks, the Villages, the Cities); WAITZ,
+  _Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte_ (8 vols.), Wirth, _Die
+  Geschichte der Deutschen_ (1853); SUGENHEIM, _Geschichte
+  d. deutschen Volkes und seiner Kultur_, etc.
+
+  IV. ITALY.--Cantu, _Histoire des Italiens_ (12 vols., 1859);
+  HUNT'S _History of Italy_ (in Freeman's Series); Butt's
+  _History of Italy_ (2 vols.); LEO'S _Geschichte von
+  Italien_ (5 vols.); SISMONDI'S _Histoire des Republiques
+  Italiennes du Moyen Age_ (10 vols.); SPALDING'S _Italy and the
+  Italians_; Boscoe and Morell, _Compendium of Italian
+  History_.
+
+  Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (2 vols.); TESTA, _History
+  of the War of Frederic I. against the Communes of Lombardy_;
+  HEYD, _Geschichte des Levantehandels im Mittelalter_ (2 vols.);
+  C. HEGEL, _Gesckichte der Städteverfassung von Italien_, etc.
+
+  Daru, _Histoire de la Republique de Venise_ (9 vols.); BROWN,
+  _Venice: an Historical Sketch_; Ranke, _Zur Venitianer
+  Geschichte_; Machiavelli's _History of Florence_; Napier's
+  _Florentine History_ (6 vols.); PERRENS, _Histoire de
+  Florence_ (4 vols.); REUMONT'S _Lorenzo the Magnificent_ (2
+  vols.); Roscoe's _Life of Lorenzo de' Medici_; TROLLOPE'S
+  _History of Florence_; Campbell's _Life of Petrarch_;
+  GREGOROVIUS' _History of the City of Rome in the Middle Ages_
+  (8 v., from fifth to sixteenth century); Gallenga, _History of
+  Piedmont_ (3 vols.); Amari, _History of the War of the Sicilian
+  Vespers_ (3 vols.); Malleson, _Studies from Genoese History_
+  (1 vol.); Oliphant, _Makers of Florence_, etc.; SYMONDS,
+  _Sketches and Studies in Southern Europe_; TAINE, _Florence
+  and Venice_, and _Rome and Naples_; Freeman, _Historical
+  and Architectural Studies_ (chiefly Italian, 1 vol.).
+
+  V. RUSSIA.--Bell's _History of Russia_ (3 vols.); Howorth's
+  _History of the Mongols_; KARAMSIN, _Histoire de l'Empire de
+  Russie_ (11 vols.); Histories of Russia, by Kelly, Lamartine,
+  Levesque; RAMBAUD, _History of Russia_ (2 vols., 1879);
+  RALSTON, _Early Russian History_.
+
+  VI. POLAND.--Histories of Poland, by DUNHAM (12mo), Fletcher,
+  JOACHIM (2 vols.), RÖPELL AND CARO.
+
+  VII. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.--Lembke und Schäfer, _Geschichte von
+  Spanien_ (3 vols.); MARIANA, _The General History of Spain_;
+  DUNHAM, _History of Spain and Portugal_; CRAWFORD, _Portugal,
+  Old and New_; Burke, _History of Spain_ (2 vols.); Stevens's
+  _Portugal_; TICKNOR'S _History of Spanish Literature_ (3
+  vols.); Prescott's _History of the Reign of Ferdinand and
+  Isabella_ (introductory chapter).
+
+  VIII. SWITZERLAND.--History of Switzerland, in LARDNER'S CYCLOPEDIA
+  (1832); Histories of Switzerland, by MORIN (5 vols.); J. Müller;
+  Zschokke; Rochholz, _Tell und Gessler in Sage und Geschichte_
+  (1877).
+
+  IX. SCANDINAVIA.--DUNHAM'S _History of Denmark, Sweden, and
+  Norway_ (3 vols.); Dahlmann's _Geschichte von Danemark bis zur
+  Reformation_ (with Norway and Iceland, 3 vols.); Histories of
+  Sweden, by Fryxell, GEIJER AND CARLSON (5 vols.); Laing's _History
+  of Norway_; MALLET'S _Northern Antiquities_; MAURER'S
+  _History of Iceland_; RINK'S _Danish Greenland_; Sinding's
+  _Scandinavia_; WHEATON'S _History of the Northmen_;
+  Worsaac's _Danes and Northmen in Great Britain_.
+
+  X. OTTOMAN TURKS.--HAMMER-PURGSTALL'S _Geschichte des osmanischen
+  Reiches_ (10 vols.); CREASY'S _History of the Ottoman Turks_;
+  FREEMAN, _The Ottoman Power in Europe_ (1877); ZINKEISEN,
+  _Geschichte d. osmanisch. Reiches in Europa_ (7 vols.).
+
+  XI. CHINA, JAPAN, AND INDIA.--(See lists on pp. 25, 32.) Dickson,
+  _Japan_, etc. (vol. i., 1869); Griffis, _The Micado's
+  Empire_ (1876).
+
+  XII. BIBLIOGRAPHIES.--In addition to Adams, _Manual_;
+  Sonnenschein, _The Best Books_ and _A Reader's Guide_;
+  Gross, _Sources and Literature of English History_ (to 1485);
+  Gardiner and Mullinger, _English History for Students_; Monod,
+  _Bibliographie de l'Histoire de France_; Dahlmann-Waitz,
+  _Quellenkunde, der Deutschen Geschichte_; lists in Lavisse et
+  Rambaud, _Histoire Générale_.
+
+
+
+
+PART III. MODERN HISTORY.
+
+_FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE (1453) TO THE PRESENT TIME._
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+Modern history as a whole, in contrast with mediĉval, is marked by
+several plainly defined characteristics. They are such as appear,
+however, in a less developed form, in the latter part of the Middle
+Ages.
+
+1. In the recent centuries, there has been an increased tendency to
+consolidate smaller states into larger kingdoms.
+
+2. There has been a _gradual secularizing of politics._
+Governments have more and more cast off ecclesiastical control.
+
+3. As another side of this last movement, _political unity_ in
+Europe has superseded _ecclesiastical unity_. The bond of union
+among nations, in the room of being membership in one great
+ecclesiastical commonwealth, became political: it came to be membership
+in a loosely defined confederacy of nations, held together
+by treaties or by a tacit agreement in certain accepted rules of
+public law and outlines of policy.
+
+4. In this system, one main principle is the _balance of power_.
+This means that any one state may be prevented from enlarging its
+bounds to such an extent as to endanger its neighbors. We have seen the
+action of such a principle among the ancient states of Greece. Even in
+the Middle Ages, as regards Italy, the popes endeavored to keep up an
+equilibrium. They supported the _Norman kingdom_ in Southern
+Italy, or the _Lombard leagues_ in the North, as a counterpoise to
+the German emperors. In the sixteenth century, there were formed
+combinations to check the power of _Charles V._, king of Spain and
+emperor of Germany, and afterwards to restrain his successor on the
+Spanish throne, _Philip II._ In the seventeenth century, there
+were like combinations against _Louis XIV._ of France, and, over a
+century later, against the first _Napoleon_.
+
+5. The vast influence and control of _Europe_, by discovery,
+colonization, and commerce, in other quarters of the globe, is a
+striking feature of modern times.
+
+6. With the increase of _commerce_ and the growing power of the
+_middle classes,_ there has arisen the "industrial age."
+Interests connected with production and trade, and with the material
+side of civilization, have come into great prominence.
+
+7. Both the pursuits of men, and culture, have become far more
+_diversified_ than was the case in the Middle Ages.
+
+8. The influence of Christianity in its _ethical_ relations--as an
+instrument of political and social reform, and a motive to
+_philanthropy_--has become more active and conspicuous.
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD I. FROM THE FALL OF CONSTANTINOPLE TO THE REFORMATION
+_(1453-1517):_
+
+
+THE CONSOLIDATION OF MONARCHY: INVENTION AND DISCOVERY: THE
+RENAISSANCE.
+
+CHARACTER OF THIS PERIOD.--In this period monarchy, especially in
+France, England, and Spain, acquires new strength and extension. The
+period includes the reigns of three kings who did much to help forward
+this change: _Louis XI._ of France, _Henry VII._ of England,
+and _Ferdinand_ the Catholic of Spain. The Italian wars begin
+with the French invasion of Italy: the rivalship of the kingdoms, and
+the struggles pertaining to the balance of power, are thus
+initiated. In this period fall new _inventions_ which have
+altered the character of civilization, and great geographical
+_discoveries,_ of which the discovery of the New World is the
+chief. It is the epoch, moreover, of the _Renaissance,_ or the
+re-awakening of learning and art. There is a new era in culture. All
+these movements and changes foretoken greater revolutions in the age
+that was to follow.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I. FRANCE: ENGLAND: SPAIN: GERMANY: ITALY: THE OTTOMAN TURKS:
+RUSSIA: THE INVASIONS OF ITALY.
+
+
+I. FRANCE.
+
+CHARLES VII. AND THE NOBLES.--The result of the hundred-years' war was
+the acquisition of _Aquitaine_ by the French crown. Aquitaine was
+incorporated in France. Southern Gaul and Northern Gaul were now
+one. During the last years of _Charles VII._, his kingdom was
+comparatively peaceful. Its prosperity revived. A new sort of feudalism
+had sprung up in the room of the old noblesse, whose power had been
+crushed. The new nobility was made up of relatives of the royal family,
+as the Dukes of _Burgundy, Berry, Bourbon_, and the house of
+_Anjou_. On the east of France was _Burgundy_, which had
+expanded into a great European power. "The _duchy_ of Burgundy,
+with the county of Charolois, and the counties of Flanders and Artois,
+were joined under a common ruler with endless imperial fiefs in the Low
+Countries, and with the imperial _county_ of Burgundy." The
+Burgundian boundary was on the south of the Somme, and little more than
+fifty miles north of _Paris_. The Burgundian dukes were constantly
+striving to bring it still nearer. On the east and south, the house of
+_Anjou_ held the duchy of _Bar_ and _Provence_, besides
+other possessions. On the south, too, was the province of
+_Dauphiny_; and on the west the strong, half-independent duchy of
+_Brétagne_, or _Brittany_. _Charles_ had a standing
+quarrel with his son _Louis_, who early showed his power to
+inspire dread, but gave no signs of the policy which he triumphantly
+pursued, after he became king, of putting down feudal
+insubordination. His young wife _Margaret_, daughter of _James
+I._ of Scotland, was twelve years old when he, a boy of thirteen,
+was married to her. He aroused such terror and aversion in her mind
+that she died at twenty-one of a broken heart. _Louis_--to whom,
+much to his disgust, _Dauphiny_ instead of Normandy was given to
+rule--abetted the great lords in their resistance to his father's
+authority; and, when threatened with coercion, fled to _Brussels_,
+to the court of his father's cousin, _Philip of Burgundy_, where
+he was kindly entertained. _Charles VII._, who knew the traits of
+his son, said, "As for my cousin of Burgundy, he harbors a fox that
+will one day eat up his chickens." Even then the relations of
+_Louis_ and _Charles_, Count of Charolois, the heir of
+Burgundy, were cool and unsympathetic. The king occupied
+_Dauphiny_, and in 1457 it was fully incorporated in France. The
+rulers of France and Burgundy, taken up with their own schemes of
+territorial gain, turned a deaf ear to the calls of Pope _Pius
+II_. for a crusade against the Turks. It has been said that most of
+the kings of the house of _Valois_ were either bad or mad. The
+indolent and heartless Charles _VII._ would seem to have been
+both. In his last days he suspected that the Dauphin's plots were aided
+by persons about himself, and that his food was poisoned. He refused to
+eat, and died in 1461.
+
+CHARACTER OF LOUIS XI.--_Louis XI._ (1461-1483) showed himself a
+master of "statecraft," or the cunning, diplomatic management which
+pursued its ends stealthily, held no engagements sacred, and was
+deterred by no scruples of conscience from whatever perfidy was
+thought requisite to attain the objects in view. _Louis_ was one
+of the earliest examples of the _kingcraft_ which in the
+succeeding age was deemed a gift to be coveted by princes. It was an
+art in which the Italians were masters; and its secrets were set
+forth, somewhat later than the time of _Louis_, in "The Prince"
+of _Machiavelli_, a work in which that eminent statesman and
+historian describes the means by which despots may entrap and crush
+their enemies. Whether he meant to afford aid to tyrants, or aid to
+their subjects through an exposure of the tricks of their rulers, the
+"Machiavellian" spirit designates the policy of intrigue that
+prevailed all through the sixteenth century, and infected even some of
+the best of the public men of that age. _Louis_ was mean-looking,
+shabby in his dress, with a cunning aspect; in his whole deportment
+and character, in sharp contrast with the chivalrous princes,
+_Philip_ and _Charles_ of Burgundy. If he was vindictive, he
+was perhaps not more cruel than others; but he was ungenial, regarding
+men as his tools. He took pleasure in the society of his provosts or
+hangmen,--_Tristan l'Hermite_ and _Olivier le Daim._ He
+often ordered men to execution without so much as the form of a
+trial. There was in him a vein of superstition. He was punctilious in
+his devotions. He would not swear a false oath over the cross of
+St. Loup of Angers, because he thought that death would be the
+penalty. He did not quail before an enemy in battle; yet such was his
+alarm at the prospect of death, that he collected about him relics and
+charms, magicians and hermits, to help him prolong his days.
+
+STRIFE WITH THE NOBLES.--The first years of _Louis's_ reign
+(1461-1467) were passed in a struggle with the great lords whom he was
+determined to subdue. At the beginning his measures for this end were
+imprudent. They combined against him in the _League of the Public
+Weal_ in 1464. Their force was so great that he stood in imminent
+peril. He counted on the support of _Paris_, and was trying to
+reach that city when the hostile armies encountered one another at
+Montlhéry (1465). It was an absurd battle, where at night both parties
+thought themselves beaten. The king secured his place of refuge. He
+deemed it prudent to make peace on the terms demanded by the _Count
+of Charolois,_ and the other nobles. This treaty of _Conflans_
+(1465) he caused the Parliament of Paris to refuse to ratify or
+register. He had trusted to his ability to regain what he might
+surrender. The strife between the _Duke of Brittany_ and the
+king's brother _Charles,_ now made _Duke of Normandy,_
+enabled Louis soon to recover Normandy.
+
+CHARLES THE BOLD, AND LOUIS.--The death of _Philip_ made his son,
+_Charles the Bold,_ Duke of Burgundy. Charles was in the prime of
+life, of a chivalrous temper, courteous and polished, fond of reading
+and music, as well as of knightly sports, and with his head full of
+dreams of ambition. With certain noble qualities, his pride was
+excessive, his temper not only hot but obstinate, and, as he grew
+older, he became more overbearing and cruel. He was the most powerful
+prince in Europe. The most of his lands were German. In the early part
+of his reign he pursued the same scheme as that which was at the root
+of the _League of the Public Weal_. He aimed to hem in
+_Louis_, and to build up his own power in the direction of
+France. He allied himself, in 1466, with the _House of York_,
+then uppermost in _England_. An English force was sent to
+_Calais_ in 1467. Threatened by this coalition of adversaries,
+_Louis_ hastened to attack _Brittany_, and forced its duke
+to conclude a separate peace. Trusting too much to his powers of
+negotiation, and yielding to the treacherous advice of Cardinal
+_Balue_, one of his chief counselors, the king determined to go
+in person to confer with _Charles of Burgundy_. He soon learned
+that his safe-conduct was of little value. At _Peronne_, he found
+himself in the midst of enemies, and in reality a prisoner. While
+there, _Liège_ was in revolt, as _Charles_ ascertained, at
+the king's instigation. The wrathful duke could be appeased only by
+agreeing to every thing that he required. _Louis_ had to undergo
+the humiliation of attending _Charles_ and his army, and of
+basely taking part in the vengeance inflicted on the city which he had
+himself stirred up to revolt. He was glad to escape with his
+life. After his return, he ordered _Balue_ to be put in an iron
+cage, where he was kept for ten years,--a mode of punishment of
+Balue's own invention. Louis repudiated the treaty of _Peronne_,
+under the advice of a body of _Notables_, all of whom he had
+nominated and summoned. A new league was organized against him; but
+the king by his wariness, and by his promptitude in attacking
+_Brittany_, gained advantages, so that a truce was concluded with
+the _Burgundian_ duke in 1472. _Philip de Commines_, at that
+time a companion and counselor of _Charles_, left his service for
+that of _Louis_. To his _Memoirs_ we owe most instructive
+and interesting details respecting these princes, and the manners and
+occurrences of the time.
+
+CHARLES THE BOLD, AND THE SWISS.--From this time _Charles_ turned
+his attention _eastward_, and devoted himself to building up a
+great principality on the _Rhine_, which might open the way for
+his succession to the empire. It seemed to be his plan to bring
+together the old kingdom of _Lotharingia_ and that of the
+_Burgundies_. He found no sympathy in his schemes from the
+emperor _Frederick III_. The great barrier in Charles's way was
+the freedom-loving spirit of the inhabitants of the Swiss
+mountains. Availing himself of a plausible pretext, he endeavored to
+get possession of _Cologne_ by first laying siege to
+_Neuss_, which lies below it. Wasting his strength in the
+unsuccessful attempt to capture this place, he failed to make a
+junction of his forces with the English troops who landed in
+_France_ under his ally, King _Edward IV_. The English king
+was persuaded to make a truce with France by the wily _Louis_,
+who was constantly on the watch for any mistakes or mishaps of his
+impetuous Burgundian adversary. The cruelty of _Charles_ to the
+Swiss inhabitants of _Granson_, who had surrendered, brought upon
+him an attack of their exasperated countrymen near that place
+(1476). The _Burgundians_ were routed; and the duke's camp, with
+all its treasures, including his sword, the plate of his chapel, and
+precious stones of inestimable value, fell into the hands of the hardy
+mountaineers, who knew nothing of the worth of these things. The next
+year the Duke once more flung his reckless valor against the strength
+of the Swiss infantry, and barely escaped from an utter defeat at
+_Morat_. Made desperate by misfortune, he risked another battle
+near _Nanci_, in 1477, at the head of an inferior force, composed
+partly of treacherous mercenaries, and was vanquished and slain. He
+had intended to make _Nanci_ his capital; but his body was found
+near by in a swamp, stripped of its clothing, frozen, and covered with
+wounds.
+
+EXTENSION OF FRANCE.--_Louis XI_ could hardly stifle expressions
+of joy at the news of the death of his hated and formidable
+rival. While _Charles_ had been busy in Germany, _Louis_ had
+taken the opportunity to put down, one by one, the great nobles who had
+shown themselves ill-affected. He secured to France _Roussillon_
+and the northern slopes of the Pyrenees. It was now his purpose to lay
+hold of as many as possible of the possessions of the late
+duke. _Mary_, the daughter of _Charles the Bold_, the heiress
+of _Burgundy_, gave her hand in marriage to _Maximilian_ of
+_Austria_, an event which carried after it the most important
+consequences. The result of the conflicts of _Louis_ and
+_Maximilian_ was the Peace of _Arras_ (1482), which left in
+the hands of France the towns on the _Somme_, and the great
+_Burgundian duchy_. For a time _Maximilian_, as holder of the
+French fiefs of Flanders and Artois, was a vassal of the French
+king. On the death of King _René_, in 1480, and the extinction of
+the house of _Anjou_, Louis annexed the three great districts of
+_Anjou, Maine_, and _Provence_, the last of which was a fief
+of the empire.
+
+LAST DAYS OF LOUIS XI.--In his last days, old King _Louis_, in
+wretched health, tortured with the fear of death, and in constant dread
+of plots to destroy him, shut himself up in the castle of
+_Plessis-les-Tours_, which he strongly fortified, and manned with
+guards who were instructed to shoot all who approached without
+leave. He kept up his activity in management, and in truth devised
+schemes for the advantage of his realm. His selfish and malignant
+temper brought to him one unexpected joy from the sudden death of
+_Mary of Burgundy_ (1482), from which, however, France did not
+reap the advantages which he expected. He died in 1483, at the age of
+sixty-one. He, more than any other, was the founder of the French
+monarchy in the later form. He centralized the administration of the
+government. He fought against feudalism, old and new. He strengthened,
+however, local authority where it did not interfere with the power of
+the king. In matters of internal government he was often just and wise.
+
+CHARLES VIII. (1483-1496): ANNE OF BEAUJEU.--_Charles VIII._ at
+the death of his father was only fourteen years old. But in his older
+sister, _Anne of Beaujeu_, the wife of _Peter of Bourbon_, he
+had an energetic guide who for ten years virtually managed public
+affairs. She proved too strong for the opposition of the royal princes,
+of the nobility, and of the States General. The nobles turned for
+support to _Richard III. of England_. _Anne_ strengthened
+with men and money _Henry of Richmond_, the rival and conqueror of
+Richard. The Duke of Brittany, with his allies, the Duke of Orleans,
+the Prince of Orange, and others, was defeated in a hardly contested
+battle in 1488, which was followed by a treaty advantageous to
+France. The crowning achievement of _Anne of Beaujeu_ was the
+marriage of _Anne of Brittany_ to _Charles VIII_. This was
+accomplished although she had already been married by proxy to
+_Maximilian_, while _Charles_ was pledged to marry
+_Margaret_, the emperor's daughter. If _Anne of Brittany_
+should outlive _Charles_, she engaged to marry his successor. This
+second marriage actually took place: she became the wife of _Louis
+XII_. Brittany was thus incorporated in France. The Italian
+expeditions, the great events in the reign of _Charles VIII._,
+will be related hereafter.
+
+
+II. ENGLAND.
+
+WAR OF THE ROSES: THE HOUSE OF YORK.--The crown in England had come to
+be considered as the property of a family, to which the legitimate
+heir had a sacred claim. The Wars of the Roses (1455-1485) grew out of
+family rivalries. It was a fight among nobles. But other reasons were
+not without influence. The party of _York_ (whose badge was the
+white rose) was the popular party, which had its strength in Kent and
+in the trading cities. It went for reform of government. The party of
+_Lancaster_ (whose badge was the red rose) was the more
+conservative party, having its strength among the barons of the
+North. _Richard_, Duke of York, thought that he had a better
+claim to the English crown than _Henry VI._, because his
+ancestor, _Lionel_, was an older son of _Edward III._ than
+_John of Gaunt_, the ancestor of _Henry_. The king was
+insane at times, and _Richard_ was made Protector or Regent of
+Parliament. But _Henry_, becoming better, drove him from his
+presence. He organized an insurrection, but was defeated in a battle
+at _Wakefield_ by the troops of the strong-hearted queen. He was
+crowned with a wreath of grass, and then beheaded. His brave son,
+_Rutland_, was killed as he fled. But Richard's eldest son,
+_Edward--Edward IV._ (1461-1483)--supported by the powerful Earl
+of _Warwick_, "the king-maker," defeated the queen at
+_Towton_, took possession of the throne, and imprisoned _Henry
+VI._, who had fallen into imbecility. Edward was popular because he
+kept order. But the favors which he lavished on the _Woodvilles_,
+relatives of his Lancastrian wife _Elizabeth_, enabled the
+opposing party, to which _Warwick_ deserted, to get the upper
+hand (1470); and _Edward_ fled to Holland. But he soon returned,
+and won the battles of _Barnet_ and _Tewkesbury_
+(1471). _Henry VI._ was secretly murdered in the Tower. The house
+of _York_ was now in the ascendant. A quarrel between the king
+and his ambitious brother _Clarence_, who had married
+_Warwick's_ daughter, led to the trial and condemnation of
+_Clarence_, who was put to death in the Tower. It was during the
+reign of _Edward IV._ that _Caxton_ set up the first
+printing-press in England. After Edward his brother reigned,
+_Richard III._ (1483-1485), a brave but merciless man, who made
+his way to the throne by the death of the two young princes
+_Edward_ and _Richard_, whose murder in the Tower he is with
+good reason supposed to have procured. He had pretended that _Edward
+IV._ had never been lawfully married to their mother. Henry
+_Tudor_, Earl of Richmond, descended by his mother from _John
+of Gaunt_, aided by France, landed in Wales, and won a victory at
+_Bosworth_ over the adherents of the white rose,--a victory which
+gave him a kingdom and a crown. Thus the house of _Lancaster_ in
+the person of _Henry VII._ (1485-1509), gained the throne. He
+married _Elizabeth_, the eldest daughter of _Edward IV._,
+and so the two hostile houses were united. He was the first of the
+TUDOR kings.
+
+CHARACTER OF THE CIVIL WARS.--The Wars of the Roses are, in certain
+respects, peculiar. They extended over a long period, but did not
+include more than three years of actual fighting. The battles were
+fierce, and the combatants unsparing in the treatment of their
+foes. Yet the population of the country did not diminish. Business and
+the administration of justice went on as usual. Trade began to be held
+in high esteem, and traders to amass wealth. The number of journeymen
+and day-laborers increased, and there was a disposition to break
+through the guild laws.
+
+EFFECTS OF THE CIVIL WARS.--The most striking result of the civil wars
+was the strengthening of the power of the king. Not more than thirty
+of the old nobles survived. Laws were made forbidding the nobles to
+keep armed "_retainers_;" and against "_maintenance_," or
+the custom of nobles to promise to support, in their quarrels or
+law-cases, men who adhered to them. The court of the _Star
+Chamber_ was set up to prevent these abuses. It was turned into an
+instrument of tyranny in the hands of the kings. _Henry VII._
+extorted from the rich, "_benevolences_," or gifts solicited by
+the king, which the law authorized him to collect as a tax. He
+contrived to get money in such ways, and thus to carry forward the
+government without Parliament, which met only once during the last
+thirteen years of his reign. Royal power, in relation to the nobles,
+was further exalted by the introduction of cannon into warfare, which
+only the king possessed. Two pretenders to the throne, _Lambert
+Simnel_ (1487), and _Perkin Warbeck_ (1492), were raised up;
+but the efforts made to dethrone _Henry_ proved abortive. He kept
+watch over his enemies at home and abroad, and punished all resistance
+to his authority. Circumstances enabled the founder of the
+_Tudor_ line to exalt the power of the king over the heads of
+both the nobles and the commons.
+
+
+III. SPAIN.
+
+FERDINAND OF ARAGON (1479-15l6).--The union of _Aragon_ and
+_Castile_, by the marriage of _Ferdinand_ and
+_Isabella_ (1474-1504), was nominal, as each sovereign reigned
+independently in his own dominion. But both sovereigns were bent on
+the same end,--that of subjecting the powerful grandees and feudal
+lords to their authority. In this policy they found efficient helpers
+in the shrewd and loyal counselor _Mendoza_, Cardinal and
+Archbishop of Toledo, and in _Ximenes_, who combined the
+qualities of a prelate of strict orthodoxy with those of a profound
+and energetic statesman. To bring both nobles and clergy into
+subservience to the crown, was their great aim; and for this end the
+sagacious _Ferdinand_ procured from the Pope the privilege of
+filling the bishoprics and the grand masterships of the military
+orders. He deprived the nobles of their _judicial_ functions,
+which he committed to impartial and severe tribunals of his own
+creation. He re-organized and strengthened the _Holy Hermanadad_,
+or militia of the cities, and thus had at his service against the
+grandees a standing military force. He used the nobles and the cities
+to keep one another in check. Over both stood the
+_Inquisition_,--a tribunal established against the _Moors_
+and the _Jews_ who had made an outward profession of
+Christianity, but which under _Torquemada_, who had been
+confessor of the queen, became a terror to all Spain. The king had the
+power to name the _Grand Inquisitor_ and all the judges; and he
+thus acquired in this institution not only a fearful weapon against
+heretics of every description, but also a political instrument for the
+subjugation of the nobles and the clergy. By this alliance of the
+throne and the altar, the despotic power of _Ferdinand_ had the
+firmest prop.
+
+CONQUEST OF GRANADA.--After a ten-years' bloody war, the Moorish
+kingdom of _Granada_ was conquered. The capital, with the famous
+castle of _Alhambra_, was captured (1492). The dethroned Moorish
+king, _Boabdil_, robbed of his possessions, sailed to Africa,
+where he fell in battle. By the terms of their surrender, the Moors
+were to have the free exercise of their religion. But the promise was
+not kept. Choice was given to the Moslems to become Christians, or to
+emigrate. Many left to wage war elsewhere against their Spanish
+persecutors, either as corsairs in Africa, or as bands of robbers in
+_Sierra Nevada_. The professed converts were goaded by cruel
+treatment into repeated insurrections. It was a fierce war of races and
+religions. The frightful sufferings of the Moors, under the pressure of
+this double fanaticism, form a long and gloomy chapter of Spanish
+history. The dismal tale continues until the cruel expulsion from the
+kingdom of nearly a million of this unhappy people by _Philip
+III._, in 1609.
+
+FERDINAND, REGENT OF CASTILE.--Most of the children of
+_Ferdinand_ and _Isabella_ died young. Their daughter
+_Joanna_ married _Philip of Burgundy_, son of
+_Maximilian_ and _Mary_; but he died in 1506, at the age of
+twenty-eight. They had been recognized as the rulers of
+_Castile_. But the mind of _Joanna_, who had always been
+eccentric, became disordered, so that the government devolved on
+_Ferdinand_, her father. He placed her in the castle at
+_Tordesillas_, where the remainder of her life, which continued
+forty-seven years longer, was spent. _Ferdinand_ was, in form,
+constituted by the _Cortes_ (1510), regent of the kingdom in the
+name of his daughter, and as guardian of her son _(Charles)_.
+_Ferdinand_ administered the government with wisdom and
+moderation.  As there were no children by his second marriage with
+_Germaine de Foix_, niece of _Louis XII._ of France, the
+succession of _Joanna's_ son remained secure. Ferdinand availed
+himself of the disturbances in France to annex to _Castile_ the
+portion of _Navarre_ lying on the south of the Pyrenees.
+
+
+IV. GERMANY AND THE EMPIRE.
+
+FREDERICK III. (1440-1493).--While _England, France_, and
+_Spain_ were organizing monarchy, _Italy_ and _Germany_
+kept up the anarchical condition of the Middle Ages. Hence these
+countries, first _Italy_ and then _Germany_, became enticing
+fields of conquest for other nations. _Frederick III._ was the
+last emperor crowned at Rome (1452), and only one other emperor after
+him was crowned by the Pope. Frederick reigned longer than any other
+German king before or after him. He lacked energy, neglected the
+empire, and busied himself in enlarging his Austrian domains, which he
+erected into an _archduchy_ (1453). When he sought to interfere
+with the German princes, they set him at defiance. He did little more
+than remain an indolent spectator of the conflict in which the Swiss
+overthrew _Charles the Bold_. The great danger to Europe was now
+from the _Turks_. Christendom was defended by the Poles and the
+Hungarians. _Frederick_ left the Hungarians, under the gallant
+_John Hunyady_, without his help, to drive them, in 1456, from
+_Belgrade_. He tried to obtain the Bohemian and Hungarian crowns;
+but _Podiebrad_, a Utraquist nobleman, was made king of Bohemia,
+and _Matthias Corvinus_ succeeded _Hunyady_, his father, on
+the throne of Hungary. By the death of _Albert_, the brother of
+_Frederick_, to whom the emperor had been compelled to give up
+_Vienna_, he became master of all the Austrian lands except
+Tyrol. He was bent on getting the Hungarian crown; but _Vienna_
+was taken by _Matthias_, in 1485, and the emperor had to fly for
+his life. A great confederation, composed of princes, nobles, and
+cities, was made in Swabia, for repressing private war, and did much
+good in South Germany. The western part of _Prussia_ was taken
+from the Teutonic Knights by the Peace of _Thorn_, in 1466, and
+annexed to _Poland_ by _Casimir IV_.
+
+Maximilian I. (1493-15l9).--_Maximilian I._ was a restless
+prince, eager for adventure. Although not crowned, he was authorized
+by Pope _Julius II._ to style himself "Emperor Elect." In his
+reign, efforts, only in part successful, were made to secure peace and
+order in Germany. At the Diet of _Worms_ in 1495, a perpetual
+_public peace_, or prohibition of private feuds, was proclaimed;
+and a court called the _Imperial Chamber_, the judges of which,
+except the president, were appointed by the states, was constituted to
+adjust controversies among them. The benefits of this arrangement were
+partly defeated by the _Aulic Council_, an Austrian tribunal
+established by _Maximilian_ for his own domains, but which
+interfered in matters properly belonging to the
+_Chamber_. Germany was also divided into _circles_, or
+districts, for governmental purposes.  In 1499 _Maximilian_
+endeavored, without success, to coerce the _Swiss League_ into
+submission to the Imperial Chamber, and to punish it for helping the
+French in their Italian invasion. Although he was brave, cultured, and
+eloquent, he lacked perseverance, and not a few of his numerous
+projects failed. The most fortunate event in his life, as regards the
+aggrandizement of his house, was his marriage to _Mary of
+Burgundy_ (1477). His grandson _Ferdinand_ married the sister
+of _Louis II._, the last king of _Bohemia_ of the Polish
+line, who was also king of _Hungary_; and by the election of
+_Ferdinand_ to be his successor (1526), both these countries were
+added to the vast possessions of the Austrian family. To Maximilian's
+doings in _Italy_, we shall soon refer.
+
+GERMAN CITIES.--From the middle of the thirteenth century there was a
+rapid growth of German cities, and an advance of the
+trading-classes. The cities gained a large measure of self-government,
+and were prosperous little republics. They were centers of commerce
+and wealth, and often exercised power much beyond their own precincts,
+which were well defended by ditches, walls, and towers. The old Gothic
+town-halls in _Aix, Nuremburg, Cologne,_ etc., are monuments of
+municipal thrift and dignity. Their churches and convents grew rich,
+and schools with numerous pupils were connected with them. Dwellings
+became more comfortable and attractive. All branches of art and
+manufacture flourished. The city nobles and the guilds had their
+banquets. In the church festivals all the people took part. The German
+cities, such as _Mayence, Worms, Strasburg, Lübeck, Augsburg,_
+excited the admiration even of Italian visitors.
+
+
+
+THE MEDICI.
+
+Giovanni d' Medici, _d._ 1429.
+|
++--COSMO ("Father of his Country"), _d._ 1464.
+|  |
+|  +--PIERO, _d._ 1469.
+|     |
+|     +--LORENZO (the Magnificent), _d._ 1492.
+|     |  |
+|     |  +--Maddelena.
+|     |  |
+|     |  +--PIERO _d._ 1503
+|     |  |  |
+|     |  |  +--LORENZO II, Duke of Urbino, _d._ 1510.
+|     |  |     |
+|     |  |     +--Catharine, _m._ Henry II of France.
+|     |  |     |
+|     |  |     +--ALESSANDRO, First Duke of Florence, 1531-1537.
+|     |  |
+|     |  +--GIOVANNI (Pope Leo X), _d._ 1521.
+|     |  |
+|     |  +--GIULIANO, Duke of Nemours, _d._ 1516.
+|     |     |
+|     |     +--Ippolito (Cardinal), _d._ 1535.
+|     |
+|     +--GIULIANO, killed by Pozzi 1478.
+|        |
+|        +--Giulio (Pope Clement VII), _d._ 1534.
+|
++--LORENZO, _d._ 1440.
+   |
+   +--Piero Francesco, _d._ 1474.
+      |
+      +--Giuliano, _d._ 1498.
+         |
+         +--Giovanni (the Invincible), _d._ 1526.
+            |
+            +--COSIMO I, First Grand Duke of Tuscany, 1537-1574.
+               |
+               +--FRANCESCO, 1574-1587, _m._ Joanna,
+               |  daughter of Emperor Ferdinand I.
+               |  |
+               |  +--Mary _m._ Henry IV of France.
+               |
+               +--FERDINAND I, 1587-1600, _m._ Christina,
+                  daughter of Charles II of Lorraine.
+                  |
+                  +--COSIMO II,	1609-1621, _m._ Mary Magdalen,
+                     sister of Emperor Ferdinand II.
+                     |
+                     +--FERDINAND II, 1621-1670.
+                        |
+                        +--COSIMO III, 1670-1723.
+                           |
+                           +--JOHN GASTON, 1723-1737.
+
+
+V. ITALY.
+
+CONDITION OF ITALY.--Italy, at the epoch of the French invasions, was
+the most prosperous as well as the most enlightened and civilized
+country in Europe. Its opulent and splendid cities were the admiration
+of all visitors from the less favored countries of the North. But
+national unity was wanting. The country was made up of discordant
+states. _Venice_ was ambitious of conquest; and the pontiffs in
+this period, to the grief of all true friends of religion, were
+absorbed in Italian politics, being eager to carve out principalities
+for their relatives. Italy was exposed to _two_ perils. On the
+one hand, it was menaced by the Ottoman Turks; not to speak of the
+kings of France and Spain, who were rival aspirants for control in the
+Italian peninsula. On the other hand, voyages of discovery were
+threatening to open new highways of commerce to supersede the old
+routes of traffic through its maritime cities.
+
+MILAN.--The fall of Constantinople produced a momentary union in
+Italy. At _Lodi_, in 1454, the principal states took an oath of
+perpetual concord,--_Francesco Sforza_, Duke of Milan; _Cosmo de
+Medici_, to whom Florence had given the name of "Father of his
+Country;" _Alfonso V._ the Magnanimous, king of Naples and Sicily;
+the Popes _Calixtus III._ and _Pius II_. (1458-1464). But
+conflicts soon arose among them. An abortive attempt was made by
+_John_ of Calabria to deprive _Ferdinand_ of Naples of his
+inheritance (1462). In 1478 there was a coalition against Florence; in
+1482, a coalition against Venice. The Turks made the best use of these
+quarrels, and captured _Otranto_ (1480), killing or enslaving
+twelve thousand Christians. The idea of the ancients that
+_tyrannicide_ is a virtue, whether the master be good or bad, was
+caught up, and gave rise to conspiracies. At Milan, in 1476, the cruel
+Duke _Galeazzo Maria_ was assassinated by three young men, near
+the Church of St. Stephen. _Giovanni Galeazzo_, his son, a minor,
+married a daughter of the king of Naples. But his uncle, _Ludovico il
+Moro_, had seized on power, and ruled in the name of _Giovanni_
+(1480). He imprisoned _Giovanni_ and his young wife; and being
+threatened by the king of Naples, who had for an ally _Peter de
+Medici_, he formed an alliance with the Pope and the Venetians; and,
+not confiding in them, he invited _Charles VIII_. of France to
+invade the kingdom of Naples. _Genoa_ fell under the yoke of
+_Ludovico_, who was invested with it by _Charles VIII._ as a
+fief of France.
+
+VENICE.--_Venice_, which up to the fall of Constantinople had
+been the strongest of the Italian states, forgot its duties and its
+dangers in relation to the Turks, in order to aggrandize itself in
+Italy. It could not avoid war with them, which broke out in 1464. The
+Turks took _Negropont_ and _Scutari_, passed the
+_Piave_, and the fires kindled by their troops could be seen from
+Venice. The city made a shameful treaty with them, paying them a large
+sum (1479). But four years after, it conquered _Cyprus_, which it
+did not scruple to demand the privilege of holding as a fief of the
+Sultan of Egypt. The great power of Venice at this time was a cause of
+alarm to all the other states; but their first combination against it
+in 1482, in defense of the Duke of Ferrara, was of no effect. In 1454
+the government of Venice was placed practically in the hands of three
+_"inquisitors"_, who exercised despotic power under the old
+forms, and, by such means as secret trials and executions, maintained
+internal order and quiet at the cost of liberty. Its soldiers were
+_condottieri_, under foreign leaders, whom it watched with the
+utmost jealousy.
+
+FLORENCE.--_Cosmo de Medici_ had continued to be a man of the
+people. But the members of his family who followed him, while they
+copied his munificence and public spirit, behaved more as
+princes. Against _Peter I._ plots were formed by the nobles, but
+were baffled (1465). _Jerome Riario_, a nephew of _Pope Sixtus
+IV._, strove with papal help to conquer for himself a principality
+in the _Romagna_. The Florentines protested against it as a breach
+of the treaty of _Lodi_. Hence _Riario_ took part in the
+conspiracy of the _Pazzi_ against the lives of _Lorenzo_ and
+_Julian_, sons of Cosmo. They were attacked in the cathedral of
+Florence by the assassins, during the celebration of mass;
+_Julian_ was killed, but _Lorenzo_ escaped. The Archbishop of
+Pisa, one of the accomplices, was hung from his palace window in his
+pontifical robes. The Pope excommunicated the Medici, and all the
+Italian states plunged into war. The capture of _Otranto_ at this
+time by the Turks frightened the princes. _Lorenzo de Medici_
+repaired in person to _Naples_ to negotiate with _Ferdinand_,
+the Pope's ally, and peace was concluded. _Lorenzo_ earned the
+name of "The Magnificent" by his lavish patronage of literature and
+art.
+
+SAVONAROLA.--Against the rule of _Lorenzo_, one voice was raised,
+that of the Dominican monk _Jerome Savonarola_, a preacher of
+fervid eloquence, who aimed in his harangues, not only to move
+individuals to repentance, but to bring about a thorough amendment of
+public morals, and a political reform in the direction of liberty. In
+his discourses, however, he lashed the ecclesiastical corruptions of
+the time, not sparing those highest in power. There were two parties,
+that of the young nobles,--the _arribiati_, or "enraged;" and that
+of the people,--the _frateschi_, or friends of the
+monks. _Savonarola_ proclaimed that a great punishment was
+impending over Italy. He predicted the invasion from north of the Alps.
+
+FLORENCE IN THE AGE OF LORENZO.--_Florence_ in the time of
+_Lorenzo_ presented striking points of resemblance to
+_Athens_ in its most flourishing days. In some respects, the two
+communities were quite unlike. _Florence_ was not a conquering
+power, and had no extensive dominion. Civil and military life were
+distinct from one another: the Italian had come to rely more upon
+diplomacy than upon arms, and his wealth and mercantile connections
+made him anxious to avoid war. In Florence, moreover, trade and the
+mechanic arts were in high repute; industry was widely diffused, and
+was held in honor. But in equality and pride of citizenship, in
+versatility of talent and intellectual activity, in artistic genius and
+in appreciation of the products of art, in refinement of manners,
+cheerfulness of temper, and a joyous social life, the
+_Florentines_ in the fifteenth century compare well with the
+_Athenians_ in the age of _Pericles_. In _Florence_, the
+burgess or citizen had attained to the standing to which in other
+countries he only aspired. Nobility of blood was counted as of some
+worth; but where there was not wealth or intellect with it, it was held
+in comparatively low esteem. Prosperous merchants, men of genius and
+education, and skillful artisans were on a level with the best. Men of
+noble extraction engaged in business. The commonwealth conferred
+knighthood on the deserving, according to the practice of sovereign
+princes. Persons of the highest social standing did not disdain to
+labor in their shops and counting-houses. Frugal in their domestic
+life, the Florentines strove to maintain habits of frugality by strict
+sumptuary laws. Limits were set to indulgence in finery, food, etc. The
+population of Florence somewhat exceeded one hundred thousand. In the
+neighborhood of the city, there was a multitude of attractive, richly
+furnished villas and country-houses. Among the industries in which the
+busy population was engaged in 1472, a chronicler enumerates
+eighty-three rich and splendid warehouses of the silk-merchants' guild,
+thirty-three great banks, and forty-four goldsmiths' and jewellers'
+shops. The houses of the rich were furnished with elegance, and
+decorated with beautiful works of art. There was a great contrast
+between the simplicity of ordinary domestic life, especially as regards
+provisions for the table, and the splendor displayed on public
+occasions, or when guests were to be hospitably entertained. The effect
+of literary culture was seen in the tone of conversation. It is
+remarkable that the great sculptors were all goldsmiths, and came out
+of the workshop. A new generation of painters had a like practical
+training. In those days, there was a union of manual skill with
+imagination. The art of the goldsmith preceded and outstripped all the
+others. In such a society, there was naturally a great relish for
+public festivals, both sacred and secular. Everywhere in Italy the
+_Mysteries_, or religious plays, exhibiting events of scriptural
+history, were in vogue; brilliant pantomimes were enjoyed, and the
+festivities of the yearly carnival were keenly relished. In the
+government of Florence, the liberty of the citizens was mainly confined
+to the choosing of their magistrates. Once in office, they ruled with
+arbitrary power. There was no liberty of the press, nor was there
+freedom of discussion in the public councils. It was a community where,
+with all its cultivation and elegance, morality was at a low ebb.
+_Lorenzo_ himself, although "he had all the qualities of poet and
+statesman, connoisseur and patron of learning, citizen and prince,"
+nevertheless "could not keep himself from the epicureanism of the
+time," and was infected with its weaknesses and vices. "These joyous
+and refined civilizations," writes M. _Taine_, "based on a worship
+of pleasure and intellectuality,--Greece of the fourth century,
+Provence of the twelfth, and Italy of the sixteenth,--were not
+enduring. Man in these lacks some checks. After sudden outbursts of
+genius and creativeness, he wanders away in the direction of license
+and egotism; the degenerate artist and thinker makes room for the
+sophist and the dilettant."
+
+THE POPES.--The Popes, _Nicholas V._ (1447-1455), a protector of
+scholars and a cultivated man, and _Pius II._ (1458-1464),
+
+
+
+THE OTTOMAN SULTANS.
+
+
+OTHMAN, 1307-1325.
+|
++--ORCHAN, 1325-1359.
+|  |
+|  +--AMURATH I, 1359-1389.
+|     |
+|     +--BAJEZET I, 1389-1402.
+|        |
+|        +--Soliman, 1402-1410.
+|        |
+|        +--Musa, 1410-1413.
+|        |
+|        +--Issa.
+|        |
+|        +--MOHAMMED I, 1413-1421.
+|           |
+|           +--AMURATH II, 1421-1451.
+|              |
+|              +--MOHAMMED II, 1451-1481.
+|                 |
+|                 +--BAJEZET II, 1481-1512.
+|                 |  |
+|                 |  +--SELIM I, 1512-1520.
+|                 |     |
+|                 |     +--SOLIMAN I, 1520-1566.
+|                 |        |
+|                 |        +--SELIM II, 1566-1574.
+|                 |           |
+|                 |           +--AMURATH III, 1574-1595.
+|                 |              |
+|                 |              +--MOHAMMED III, 1595-1603.
+|                 |                 |
+|                 |                 +--ACHMET I, 1603-1617.
+|                 |                 |  |
+|                 |                 |  +--OTHMAN II, 1618-1622.
+|                 |                 |  |
+|                 |                 |  +--AMURATH IV, 1623-1640.
+|                 |                 |  |
+|                 |                 |  +--IBRAHIM, 1640-1649, deposed.
+|                 |                 |     |
+|                 |                 |     +--MOHAMMED IV,
+|                 |                 |     |  1649-1687, deposed.
+|                 |                 |     |  |
+|                 |                 |     |  +--MUSTAPHA II,
+|                 |                 |     |  |  1695-1703, deposed.
+|                 |                 |     |  |  |
+|                 |                 |     |  |  +--MAHMOUD I,
+|                 |                 |     |  |	|  1730-1754.
+|                 |                 |     |  |  |
+|                 |                 |     |  |  +--OTHMAN III,
+|                 |                 |     |  |	   1754-1757.
+|                 |                 |     |  |
+|                 |                 |     |  +--ACHMET III,
+|                 |                 |     |     1703-1730, deposed.
+|                 |                 |     |     |
+|                 |                 |     |     +--MUSTAPHA III,
+|                 |                 |     |   	|  1757-1774.
+|                 |                 |     |     |  |
+|                 |                 |     |     |  +--SELIM III,
+|                 |                 |     |     |     1789-1807,
+|                 |                 |     |     |      deposed.
+|                 |                 |     |     |
+|                 |                 |     |     +--ABUL HAMID I,
+|                 |                 |     |   	   1774-1789.
+|                 |                 |     |        |
+|                 |                 |     |        +--MUSTAPHA IV,
+|                 |                 |     |   	   |  1807-1808,
+|                 |                 |     |	   |  deposed.
+|                 |                 |     |        |
+|                 |                 |     |        +--MAHMOUD II,
+|                 |                 |     |           1808-1839.
+|                 |                 |     |           |
+|                 |                 |     |           +--ABDUL MEDJID,
+|                 |                 |     |           |  1839-1861.
+|                 |                 |     |           |  |
+|                 |                 |     |           |  +--MURAD V
+|                 |                 |     |           |  | (June 4,
+|                 |                 |     |           |  | 1876-
+|                 |                 |     |           |  | Aug. 31,
+|                 |                 |     |           |  | 1876).
+|                 |                 |     |           |  |
+|                 |                 |     |           |  +--ABDUL
+|                 |                 |     |           |     HAMID II
+|                 |                 |     |           |     (Aug. 31,
+|                 |                 |     |           |      1876--).
+|                 |                 |     |           |
+|                 |                 |     |           +--ABDUL AZIZ,
+|                 |                 |     |              1861-1876.
+|                 |                 |     |
+|                 |                 |     +--SOLIMAN II,
+|                 |                 |     |  1687-1691.
+|                 |                 |     |
+|                 |                 |     +--ACHMET II,
+|                 |                 |        1691-1695.
+|                 |                 |
+|                 |                 +--MUSTAPHA I,
+|                 |                    1617-1618, 1622-1623.
+|                 +--Djem.
+|
++--Alaeddin.
+
+[Mainly from George's _Genealogical Tables_.]
+
+
+
+zealously but in vain exhorted to crusades against the Turk. _Paul
+II_. (1464-1471) pursued the same course; but after him, for a
+half-century, there ensued the deplorable era when the pontiffs were
+more busied with other interests than with those pertaining to the weal
+of Christianity. The pontificates of _Sixtus IV_. (1471-1484),
+_Innocent VIII_. (1484-1492), and especially of _Alexander
+VI_. (1492-1503), the second pope of the _Borgia_ family,
+present a lamentable picture of worldly schemes and of "nepotism," as
+the projects for the temporal advancement of their relatives were
+termed. The Roman principality was the prey of petty tyrants, and the
+theater of wars, and of assassinations perpetrated by the knife or with
+poison. _Alexander VI_. succeeded in subduing or destroying all
+these petty lords. He was seconded in these endeavors by his son
+_Cĉsar Borgia_, brave, accomplished, and fascinating, but a
+monster of treachery and cruelty. No deed was savage or base enough to
+cost him any remorse. Hardly had he acquired the _Romagna_, when
+Pope _Alexander_ died. Although his death was due to Roman fever,
+legend speedily ascribed it to poison. His son was betrayed, was
+imprisoned for a time by _Ferdinand_ the Catholic, and, while he
+was in the service of the King of Navarre, was slain before the castle
+of _Viana_.
+
+NAPLES.--In Naples, _Ferdinand I_., who was established on his
+throne by the defeat of his competitors in 1462, provoked a revolt of
+his barons by his tyranny, invited them to a festival to celebrate a
+reconciliation with them, and caused them to be seized at the table,
+and then to be put to death. He treated the people with equal injustice
+and cruelty. He allowed the Turks to take _Otranto_ (1480), and
+the Venetians to take _Gallipoli_ and _Policastro_ (1484).
+
+WEAKNESS OF ITALY.--Italy, at the close of the fifteenth century, with
+all its proficiency in art and letters, and its superiority in the
+comforts and elegances of life, was a prey to anarchy. This was
+especially true after the death of _Lorenzo de Medici_. Diplomacy
+had become a school of fraud. Battles had come to be, in general,
+bloodless; but either perfidy, or prison and the dagger, were the
+familiar instruments of warfare. The country from its beauty, its
+wealth, and its factious state, was an alluring prize to foreign
+invaders.
+
+
+VI. THE OTTOMAN TURKS.
+
+THEIR CONQUESTS.--The empire of _Mohammed II_. (1451-1481)
+extended from the walls of _Belgrade_, on the Danube, to the
+middle of Asia Minor. To the east was the Seljukian principality of
+_Caramania_ in the center of Asia Minor, and, when that was
+finally overthrown (1486), _Persia_, whose hostility was inflamed
+by differences of sect. The conquest of the Greek Empire was achieved
+by _Mohammed_. _Matthias Corvinus_ (1458-1493), the successor
+of _Hunyady_, was the greatest of the kings of Hungary, and
+defended the line of the Danube against the Turkish assaults. For
+twenty-three years _Scanderbeg_, the intrepid Prince of
+_Albania_, repulsed all the attacks of the Moslems. It was not
+until ten years after his death (1467) that his principal stronghold
+was surrendered to the invaders. The attacks on the Venetians have
+already been mentioned, as well as the capture of
+_Otranto_. _Bajazet II_. was more inclined to study than to
+war: his brother _Djem_, who tried to supplant him, passed as a
+prisoner into the hands of Pope _Alexander VI_. An annual tribute
+was paid by the Sultan for keeping him from coming back to Turkey; and
+when, at last, he was released, rumor declared that he had been
+poisoned. _Selim I_. (1512-1520) entered anew on the path of
+conquest. He defeated the _Persians_, and made the Tigris his
+eastern boundary. He annexed to his empire _Mesopotamia_,
+_Syria_, and _Egypt_. The Sultan now became the commander of
+the faithful, the inheritor of the prophetic as well as military
+leadership. The conquest of _Alexandria_ by _Selim_ (1517)
+inflicted a mortal blow on the commerce of _Venice_, by
+intercepting its communication with the Orient. The despotic domination
+of _Selim_ stretched from the Danube to the Euphrates, and from
+the Adriatic to the cataracts of the Nile. Such was the empire which
+the Ottoman conqueror handed down to his son, _Soliman I_. the
+Magnificent (1520-1566). _Mohammed II_. and _Selim_ were the
+two conquerors by whom the Ottoman Empire was built up. Each of them
+combined with an iron will and revolting cruelty a taste for science
+and poetry, and the genius of a ruler. They take rank among the most
+eminent tyrants in Asiatic history. While they were spreading their
+dominion far and wide, the popes and the sovereigns of the West did
+nothing more effectual than to debate upon the means of confronting so
+great a danger.
+
+
+
+RUSSIA.
+
+
+IVAN III, Vassilievitch, 1462-1505, _m._
+Sophia, daughter of Thomas Palaeologus,
+brother of Emperor Constantine XIII.
+|
++--BASIL IV, 1505-1533.
+   |
+   +--IVAN IV,[1] 1533-1584,
+      |       _m._
+      |  +--Anastasia
+      |  |
+      |  |  HOUSE OF ROMANOFF
+      |	 |
+      |	 +--Nicetas.
+      |     |
+      |     +--Mary [4] (Marta the Nun), _m._
+      |        Theodore (Philaret the Metropolitan).
+      |        |
+      |        +--MICHAEL, 1613-1645.
+      |           |
+      |           +--ALEXIS, 1645-1676.
+      |              |
+      |              +--THEODORE, 1676-1682.
+      |              |
+      |              +--IVAN V, 1682-1689, resigned; d. 1696.
+      |              |  |
+      |              |  +--ANNA, 1730-1740.
+      |              |  |
+      |              |  +--Catharine _m._ Charles Leopold,
+      |              |     Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
+      |              |     |
+      |              |     +--Anna, _m._ Antony Ulric, son of
+      |              |        Ferdinand Albert II,
+      |              |        of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel.
+      |              |        |
+      |              |        +--IVAN VI, 1740-1741, deposed.
+      |              |
+      |              +--PETER I (the Great) 1689-1725, _m._
+      |                 (1), Eudocia;
+      |                 |
+      |                 +--Alexis, executed 1718. _m._
+      |                    Charlotte, d. of Lewis Rudolph,
+      |                    Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel
+      |                    |
+      |                    +--PETER II, 1727-1730.
+      |
+      |                 (2), CATHARINE I, 1725-1727.
+      |                 |
+      |                 +--Anna, d. 1738, _m._
+      |                 |  Charles Frederick of Holstein-Gottorp.
+      |                 |  |
+      |                 |  +--PETER III, January-July, 1762
+      |                 |     (deposed, and died soon after) _m._
+      |                 |     CATHERINE II of Anhalt, 1762-1796.
+      |                 |     |
+      |                 |     +--PAUL, 1796-1801.
+      |                 |        |
+      |                 |        +--ALEXANDER I, 1801-1825.
+      |                 |        |
+      |                 |        +--NICHOLAS, 1825-1855, _m._
+      |                 |           Charlotte, daughter of Frederick
+      |                 |           William III of Prussia.
+      |                 |           |
+      |                 |           +--ALEXANDER II, 1855-1881, m.
+      |                 |              Mary of Hesse Darmstadt.
+      |                 |              |
+      |                 |              +--ALEXANDER III, 1881- m.
+      |                 |                 Mary (Dagmar), daughter
+      |                 |                 of Christian IX of Denmark
+      |                 |
+      |                 +--ELIZABETH, 1741-1762.
+      |
+      +--THEODORE, 1584-1598.
+            _m._
+      +--Irene,[2]
+      |
+      +--BORIS, Godounof, [3] 1598-1605.
+
+
+1  First Czar.
+2  Declined the crown on Theodore's death, which was seized by her
+   brother.
+3  Succeeded by an imposter pretending to be Demetrius, son of Ivan
+   IV, who reigned for one year; then Basil V, 1606-1610; then chaos
+   until 1613.
+4  Said to be a descendent of the old royal house.
+
+
+[Mainly from George's _Genealogical Tables._]
+
+
+
+VII. RUSSIA.
+
+RUSSIA: IVAN III.--For two centuries Russia paid tribute to the Tartar
+conquerors in the South, the "Golden Horde" (p. 283). The liberator of
+his people from this yoke was _Ivan III_.,--Ivan the
+Great,--(1462-1505). In the period when the nations of the West were
+becoming organized, _Russia_ escaped from its servitude, and made
+some beginnings of intellectual progress. _Ivan_ was a cold and
+calculating man, who preferred to negotiate rather than to fight; but
+he inflicted savage punishments, and even "his glance caused women to
+faint." He was able to subdue the rich trading-city of _Novgorod_
+(1478), which had been connected with the Hanseatic League, and where a
+party endeavored to bring to pass a union with _Poland_. He
+conquered unknown frozen districts in the North, and smaller
+princedoms, including _Tver_, in the interior. The empire of the
+_Horde_ was so broken up that _Ivan_ achieved an almost
+bloodless triumph, which made Russia free. In wars with
+_Lithuania_, Western Russia was reconquered up to the
+_Soja_. _Ivan_ married _Sophia Palĉologus_, a niece of
+the last Christian emperor of the East. She taught him "to penetrate
+the secret of autocracy." Numerous Greek emigrants of different arts
+and professions came to _Moscow_. Ivan took for the new arms of
+Russia the two-headed eagle of the Byzantine Cĉsars, and thenceforward
+Russia looked on herself as the heir of the Eastern Empire. The Russian
+metropolitan, called afterwards _Patriarch_, was now elected by
+Russian bishops. _Moscow_ became "the metropolis of orthodoxy,"
+and as such the protector of Greek Christians in the East. _Ivan_
+laid out in the city the fortified inclosure styled the
+_Kremlin_. He brought into the country German and Italian
+mechanics. It was he who founded the greatness of Russia. _Vassali
+Ivanovitch_ (1505-1533), his son, continued the struggle with
+_Lithuania_, and acquired _Smolensk_ (1514). He exchanged
+embassies with most of the sovereigns of the West.
+
+IVAN IV. (1533-1584).--_Ivan IV_., Ivan the Terrible, first took
+the title of _Czar_, since attached to "the Autocrat of all the
+Russias."  It was the name that was given, in the Slavonian books which
+he read, to the ancient kings and emperors of the East and of
+Rome. _Moscow_ was now to be a third Rome, the successor of
+_Constantinople_. _Ivan_ conquered the Tartar principalities
+of _Kazan_ and _Astrakhan_ in the South, and extended his
+dominion to the Caucasus. The _Volga_, through its entire course,
+was now a Russian river. He brought German mechanics into Russia,
+established printing-presses, and made a commercial treaty with Queen
+_Elizabeth_, whom he invited to an alliance against _Poland_
+and _Sweden_. It was in this reign (1581-1582) that a brigand
+chief, _Irmak_ by name (a Cossack, in the service of the Czar),
+crossed the _Urals_ with a few hundred followers, and made the
+conquest of the vast region of _Siberia_, then under the dominion
+of the Tartars. _Ivan_ sent thither bishops and priests. He had to
+cede _Livonia_ to the _Swedes_, who, with their allies were
+too strong to be overcome. In _Russia_, he put down the
+aristocracy, and crushed all resistance to his personal rule. Whatever
+tyranny and cruelty this result cost, it prevented _Russia_ from
+becoming an anarchic kingdom like _Poland_. Ivan, by forming the
+national guard of _streltsi_ or _strelitz_, laid the
+foundation of a standing army. In his personal conduct, brutal and
+sensual practices alternated with exercises of piety. In a fit of
+wrath, he struck his son _Ivan_ a fatal blow, and in consequence
+was overwhelmed with sorrow. After a short reign of his second son,
+_Feodor_ (1584-1598), who was weak in mind and body, the throne
+was usurped by one of the aristocracy, the able and ambitious regent,
+_Boris Godounof_ (1598-1605).
+
+THE COSSACKS.--These were brought into subjection by _Ivan IV_.
+and his successors. They were robber hordes of mixed origin, partly
+Tartar and partly Russian. Their abodes were near the rapids of the
+_Dnieper_, and on the _Don_, and at the foot of the
+_Caucasus_. They were fierce warriors, and did a great service to
+Russia in subduing the wild nomad tribes on the north and east of the
+regions where the Cossacks dwelt.
+
+TIMES OF TROUBLE.--After the death of _Boris Godounof_, two
+pretenders, one after the other, each assuming to be _Demetrius_,
+the younger son of _Ivan_,--a son who had been put to death,--
+seized on power. This was rendered possible by the mutual strife of
+Russian factions, and by the help afforded to the impostors by the
+_Poles_. _Sigismund III_., king of Poland, openly espoused
+the cause of the second _Demetrius_. _Moscow_ was forced to
+surrender (1610); and the czar whom the nobles had enthroned, _Basil
+V_., died in a Polish prison. These events gave rise to a lasting
+enmity between the two Slavonic nations. In 1611 the _Poles_ were
+driven out by a national rising, which led to the elevation to the
+throne of _Michael Romanoff_ (1613-1645), the founder of the
+present dynasty of czars. Peace was concluded with _Gustavus
+Adolphus_ of Sweden, and with the Poles. Commercial treaties were
+made with foreign nations. In Russia there was a great increase of
+internal prosperity.
+
+SERFDOM IN RUSSIA.--The lower classes in Russia consisted of three
+divisions: 1. Slaves, captives taken in war, who were bought and
+sold. 2. The _inscribed peasants_, who were attached to the soil
+and became _serfs_. They belonged to the _commune_, or
+village, which held the land, and as a unit paid to the lord his
+dues. They made up the bulk of the rural population. The peasant was
+an arbitrary master, a little czar in his own family. 3. The free
+laborers, who could change their masters, but who soon fell into the
+rank of serfs. While the higher classes in Russia advanced, the
+condition of the rustics for several centuries continued to grow
+worse.
+
+RUSSIAN SOCIETY.--The great nobles kept in their castles a host of
+servants. These were slaves, subject to the caprices of their
+master. Russian women were kept in seclusion. There was an Asiatic
+stamp imprinted on civil and social life. "Thanks to the general
+ignorance, there was no intellectual life in Russia: thanks to the
+seclusion of women, there was no society." By degrees intercourse with
+Western Europe was destined to soften, in some particulars, the harsh
+outlines of this picture.
+
+
+VIII. FRENCH INVASIONS OF ITALY.
+
+EFFECT OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHY.--The establishment of absolute monarchy in
+Western Europe placed the resources of the nations at the service of
+their respective kings. The desire of national aggrandizement led to
+great European wars, which took the place of the feudal conflicts of a
+former day. These wars began with the invasion of _Italy_ by
+_Charles VIII_., king of France.
+
+MOTIVES OF THE INVASION.--To this unwise enterprise _Charles
+VIII_. was impelled by a romantic dream of conquest, which was not
+to be limited to the Italian peninsula. He intended to attack the
+_Turks_ afterward, and to establish once more, under his
+protection, a Latin kingdom at Jerusalem. His counselors could not
+dissuade him from the hazardous undertaking. In order to set his hands
+free, he made treaties that were disadvantageous to France with
+_Henry VII_., _Maximilian_, and _Ferdinand_ the
+Catholic. He was invited to cross the Alps by _Ludovico il Moro_
+(p. 374), by the Neapolitan barons, by all the enemies of _Pope
+Alexander VI_. The special ground of the invasion was the claim of
+the French king, through the house of _Anjou_, to the throne of
+_Naples_. In 1494 Charles crossed the Alps with a large army, and,
+with the support of _Ludovico_, advanced from _Milan_,
+through _Florence_ and _Rome_ to _Naples_. When he was
+crowned he wore the imperial insignia as if pretending to the Empire of
+the East also. The rapid progress of the French power alarmed the Pope
+and the other princes, including _Ludovico_ himself, who was
+afraid that the king might cast a covetous eye on his own
+principality. A formidable league was formed against _Charles_,
+including, besides the Italian princes, _Ferdinand_,
+_Maximilian_, and _Henry VII_. of England. It was the first
+European combination against France.  _Charles_ left eleven
+thousand men under _Gilbert de Montpensier_, at _Naples_; and
+after being exposed to much peril, although he won a victory at
+_Fornovo_ (1495), he made his way back to France. _Ferdinand
+II_., aided by Spanish troops, expelled the French from Naples; and
+the remnant of their garrisons, after the death of Montpensier, was led
+back to France. The conquests of Charles were lost as speedily as they
+were gained. His great expedition proved a failure.
+
+DEATH OF SAVONAROLA.--Civil strife continued in the Italian
+states. Savonarola had been excommunicated by _Alexander VI_. The
+combination of parties against him was too strong to be overcome by
+his supporters, and he was put to death in 1498.
+
+LOUIS XII. (1498-1515): HIS FIRST ITALIAN WAR.--On the death of
+_Charles VIII_., who left no male children, the crown reverted to
+his nearest relative, _Louis_ of Orleans. He entered once more on
+the aggressive enterprise begun by his predecessor. He laid claim not
+only to the rights of _Charles VIII_. at Naples, but also claimed
+_Milan_ through his grandmother _Valentine Visconti_. In
+alliance with _Venice_, and with _Florence_ to which he
+promised _Pisa_, then in revolt against the detested Florentine
+supremacy, and with the support of _Cĉsar Borgia_, he entered
+Italy, and defeated _Ludovico il Moro_ at _Novara_
+(1500). _Ludovico_ had before been driven out of Milan by the
+French, but had regained the city. He was imprisoned in France; and on
+his release twelve years afterward, he died from joy. _Louis_
+bargained with _Ferdinand the Catholic_ to divide with him the
+Neapolitan kingdom. _Ferdinand_, the king of Naples, was thus
+dethroned. But _Ferdinand_ of _Spain_ was as treacherous in
+his dealing with _Louis_ as he had been in relation to his
+Neapolitan namesake; and the kingdom fell into the hands of _Gonsalvo
+de Cordova_, the Spanish general.
+
+THE SECOND ITALIAN WAR OF LOUIS.--Anxious for revenge, _Louis_
+sent two armies over the Pyrenees, which failed of success, and a third
+army into _Italy_ under _La Trémoille_, which was defeated by
+_Gonsalvo_, notwithstanding the gallantry of _Bayard_, the
+pattern of chivalry, the French knight "without fear and without
+reproach."
+
+THE THIRD ITALIAN WAR OF LOUIS.--The third Italian war of _Louis_
+began in 1507, and lasted eight years. It includes the history of the
+League of _Cambray_, and also of the anti-French League
+subsequently formed. France was barely saved from great calamities in
+consequence of foolish treaties, three in number, made at _Blois_
+in 1504. The party of the queen, _Anne of Brittany_, secured the
+betrothal of _Claude_, the child of _Louis XII_., to
+_Charles of Austria_, afterwards _Charles V_., the son of
+_Philip_, with the promise of Burgundy and Brittany as her
+dowry. The arrangement was repudiated by the estates of France
+(1506). _Claude_ was betrothed to _Francis of Angoulême_, the
+king's nearest male relative, and the heir of the French crown. On the
+marriage of _Ferdinand_ to _Germaine of Foix_, _Louis_
+agreed to give up his claims on _Naples_. The sufferings of Italy
+had redounded to the advantage of _Venice_. Among her other gains,
+she had annexed certain towns in the _Romagna_ which fell into
+anarchy at the expulsion of _Cĉsar Borgia_. The energetic Pope,
+_Julius II_., organized a combination, the celebrated _League of
+Cambray_ (1508), between himself, the Emperor _Maximilian_, the
+kings of France and of Aragon: its object was the humbling of
+_Venice_, and the division of her mainland possessions among the
+partners in the League.
+
+
+
+ENGLAND.--THE TUDORS AND STUARTS.
+
+
+HENRY VII, 1485-1509, _m._ Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV.
+|
++--Margaret, _m._ James IV of Scotland.
+|  |
+|  +--James V.
+|     |
+|     +--Mary, Queen of Scots.
+|        |
+|        +--JAMES I, 1603-1625, _m._
+|           Anne, daughter of Frederick II of Denmark.
+|           |
+|           +--3, CHARLES I, 1625-1649, _m._
+|           |  Henrietta Maria, daughter of Henry IV of France.
+|           |  |
+|           |  +--CHARLES II, 1660-1685, _m._
+|           |  |  Catharine, daughter of John IV of Portugal.
+|           |  |
+|           |  +--Mary, _m._ William II, Prince of Orange.
+|           |  |  |
+|           |  |  +--WILLIAM III, 1688-1702.
+|           |  |        _m._
+|           |  |  +--MARY, d. 1694
+|           |  |  |
+|           |  +--JAMES II, 1685-1688 (deposed, _d._ 1701),
+|           |     _m._ Anne Hyde, daughter of Earl of Clarendon.
+|           |     |
+|           |     +--ANNE, 1702-1714, _m._
+|           |        George, son of Frederick III of Denmark.
+|           |
+|           +--2, Elizabeth, _m._ Frederick V, Elector Palatine.
+|              |
+|              +--Sophia, _m._ Ernest Augustus,
+|                 Elector of Hanover.
+|                 |
+|                 +--GEORGE I, succeeded 1714.
+|
++--HENRY VIII, 1509-1547, _m._,
+|  1. Catharine, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella;
+|  2, Anne Boleyn;
+|  3. Jane Seymour;
+|  4. Anne, sister of William, Duke of Cleves;
+|  5. Catharine Howard;
+|  6. Catharine Parr.
+|  |
+|  +--3, EDWARD VI, 1547-1553.
+|  |
+|  +--1, MARY, 1553-1558, _m._ Philip II of Spain.
+|  |
+|  +--2, ELIZABETH, 1558-1603.
+|
++--Mary, _m._
+   1, Louis XII of France;
+   2, Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk.
+   |
+   +--Frances, _m._ Henry Grey, Duke of Suffolk.
+      |
+      +--Jane (_m._ Guilford Dudley), executed 1554.
+
+
+
+A fine army of _Louis_, composed of French, Lombards, and Swiss,
+crossed the _Adda_, and routed the Venetians, who abandoned all
+their towns outside of Venice. Each of the other confederate powers now
+seized the places which it desired. France, mistress of _Milan_,
+was at the height of her power. The Venetians, however, retook
+_Padua_ from the emperor. The Pope made peace with them, and,
+fired with the spirit of Italian patriotism, organized a new league for
+the expulsion of the French--"the barbarians," as he called them--from
+the country. Old man as he was, he took the field himself in the dead
+of winter. He was defeated, and went to Rome. _Louis_ convoked a
+council at _Pisa_, which was to depose _Julius_. A _Holy
+League_ was formed between the Pope, Venice, _Ferdinand_ of
+Aragon, and _Henry VIII_. of England. The arms of the French under
+_Gaston of Foix_, the young duke of Nemours, were for a while
+successful. _Ravenna_ was in their hands. But _Gaston_ fell
+at the moment of victory. The Swiss came down, and established
+_Maximilian Sforza_ at Milan. _Leo X_., of the house of
+_Medici_, and hostile to France, was chosen Pope (1513). The
+French troops were defeated by the Swiss near _Novara_, and driven
+beyond the Alps. France was attacked on the north by the English, with
+_Maximilian_, who had joined the League in 1513: and _Bayard_
+was taken captive. _James IV_. of Scotland, who had made a
+diversion in favor of France, was beaten and slain at _Flodden
+Field_ (1513). The eastern borders of France were attacked by the
+_Swiss Leagues_, who, aided by _Austrians_, penetrated as far
+as _Dijon_. They were bought off by _La Trémoille_ the French
+commander, by a large payment of money, and by still more lavish
+promises. France concluded peace with the Pope, the emperor, and the
+king of Aragon (1514), and in the next year with _Henry VIII_.,
+whose sister, _Mary_, Louis XII. married, a few months after the
+death of Anne of Brittany. He abandoned his pretensions to the
+Milanese, in favor of his younger daughter _Renée_, the wife of
+_Hercules II_., the duke of _Ferrara_. Louis died (1515),
+shortly after his marriage. The policy of the belligerent pontiff,
+_Julius II_., had triumphed. The French were expelled from Italy,
+but the Spaniards were left all the stronger.
+
+The events just narrated bring us into the midst of the struggles and
+ambitions of ruling houses, diplomatic intercourse among states, and
+international wars. These are distinguishing features of modern times.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  INVENTION AND DISCOVERY: THE RENAISSANCE.
+
+
+We have glanced at the new life of Europe in its _political_
+manifestations. We have now to view this new life in other relations:
+we have to inquire how it acted as a stimulus to _intellectual_
+effort in different directions.
+
+The term _Renaissance_ is frequently applied at present not only
+to the "new birth" of art and letters, but to all the characteristics,
+taken together, of the period of transition from the Middle Ages to
+modern life. The transformation in the structure and policy of states,
+the passion for discovery, the dawn of a more scientific method of
+observing man and nature, the movement towards more freedom of
+intellect and of conscience, are part and parcel of one comprehensive
+change,--a change which even now has not reached its goal. It was not
+so much "the arts and the inventions, the knowledge and the books,
+which suddenly became vital at the time of the Renaissance," that
+created the new epoch: it was "the intellectual energy, the spontaneous
+outburst of intelligence, which enabled mankind at that moment to make
+use of them."
+
+INVENTIONS: GUNPOWDER.--In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
+there were brought into practical use several inventions most important
+in their results to civilization. Of these the principal were
+_gunpowder_, the _mariner's compass_, and _printing_ by
+movable types. _Gunpowder_ was not first made by _Schwartz_,
+a monk of _Freiburg_, as has often been asserted. We have notices,
+more or less obscure, of the use of an explosive material resembling
+it, among the _Chinese_, among the _Indians_ in the East as
+early as _Alexander the Great_, and among the _Arabs_. It was
+first brought into use in firearms in the middle of the fourteenth
+century. The effect was to make infantry an effective force, and to
+equalize combatants, since a peasant could handle a gun as well as a
+knight. Another consequence has been to mitigate the brutalizing
+influence of war on the soldiery, by making it less a hand-to-hand
+encounter, an encounter with swords and spears, attended with
+bloodshed, and kindling personal animosity; and by rendering it
+possible to hold in custody large numbers of captives, whose lives,
+therefore, can be spared.
+
+THE COMPASS.--The properties of the magnetic needle were not first
+applied to navigation, as has been thought, by _Flavio Gioja_, but
+long before his time, as early as the twelfth century, the compass came
+into general use. Navigation was no longer confined to the
+Mediterranean and to maritime coasts. The sailor could push out into
+the ocean without losing himself on its boundless waste.
+
+PRINTING.--Printing, which had been done to some extent by wooden
+blocks, was probably first done with movable types (about 1450) by
+_John Gutenberg_, who was born at _Meniz_, but who lived long
+at _Strasburg_. He was furnished with capital by an associate,
+_Faust_, and worked in company with a skillful copyist of
+manuscripts, _Schöffer_. _Gutenberg_ brought the art to such
+perfection, that in 1456 a complete Latin Bible was printed. Within a
+short time, printing-presses were set up in all the principal cities of
+Germany and Italy. As an essential concomitant, _linen_ and
+_cotton paper_ came into vogue in the room of the costly
+parchment.  Books were no longer confined to the rich. Despite the
+censorship of the press, thought traveled from city to city and from
+land to land. It was a sign of a new era, that _Maximilian_ in
+Germany and _Louis XI_. in France founded a postal system.
+
+NEW ROUTE TO INDIA.--The discovery by the _Portuguese_ of the
+islands of _Porto Santo_ and _Madeira_ (1419-1420), of the
+_Canary Islands_ and of the _Azores_, was followed by their
+discovery of the coast of _Upper Guinea_, with its gold-dust,
+ivory, and gums (1445). The Pope, to whom was accorded the right to
+dispose of the heathen and of newly discovered lands, granted to the
+Portuguese the possession of these regions, and of whatever discoveries
+they should make as far as India. From _Lower Guinea (Congo)_,
+_Bartholomew Diaz_ reached the southern point of Africa (1486),
+which King _John II_. named the _Cape of Good Hope_. Then,
+under _Emanuel the Great_ (1495-1521), _Vasco da Gama_ found
+the way to _East India_, round the Cape, by sailing over the
+Indian Ocean to the coast of _Malabar_, and into the harbor of
+_Calicut_ (1498). The Portuguese encountered the resistance of the
+Mohammedans to their settlement; but by their valor and persistency,
+especially by the agency of their leaders _Almeida_ and the brave
+_Albuquerque_, their trading-posts were established on the coast.
+
+DISCOVERY OF AMERICA.--The grand achievement in maritime exploration in
+this age was the discovery of _America_ by _Christopher
+Columbus_, a native of _Genoa_. The conviction that India could
+be reached by sailing in a westerly direction took possession of his
+mind. Having sought in vain for the patronage of _John II_. of
+Portugal, and having sent his brother _Bartholomew_ to apply for
+aid from _Henry VII_. of England, he was at length furnished with
+three ships by Queen _Isabella_ of Castile, to whom Granada had
+just submitted (1492). Columbus was to have the station of grand
+admiral and viceroy over the lands to be discovered, with a tenth part
+of the incomes to be drawn from them, and the rank of a nobleman for
+himself and his posterity. The story of an open mutiny on his vessels
+does not rest on sufficient proof: that there were alarm and discontent
+among the sailors, may well be believed. On the 11th of October,
+_Columbus_ thought that he discovered a light in the distance. At
+two o'clock in the morning of Oct. 12, a sailor on the _Pinta_
+espied the dim outline of the beach, and shouted, "Land, land!" It was
+an island called _Guanahani_, named by Columbus, in honor of
+Jesus, _San Salvador_. Its beauty and productiveness excited
+admiration; but neither here nor on the large islands of _Cuba_
+(or _Juana_) and _Hayti_ (_Hispaniola_), which were
+discovered soon after, were there found the gold and precious stones
+which the navigators and their patrons at home so eagerly
+desired. _Columbus_ built a fort on the island of
+_Hispaniola_, and founded a colony. The name of _West Indies_
+was applied to the new lands. _Columbus_ lived and died in the
+belief that the region which he discovered belonged to India. Of an
+intermediate continent, and of an ocean beyond it, he did not
+dream. The Pope granted to _Ferdinand_ and _Isabella_ all the
+newly discovered regions of America, from a line stretching one hundred
+leagues west of the _Azores_. Afterwards _Ferdinand_ allowed
+to the king of Portugal that the line should run three hundred and
+seventy, instead of one hundred, leagues west of these islands. In two
+subsequent voyages (1493-1496, 1498-1500), _Columbus_ discovered
+_Jamaica_ and the Little _Antilles_, the _Caribbean_
+Islands, and finally the mainland at the mouths of the Orinoco
+(1498). In 1497 _John Cabot_, a Venetian captain living in
+England, while in quest of a north-west passage to India, touched at
+_Cape Breton_, and followed the coast of _North America_
+southward for a distance of nine hundred miles. Shortly after,
+_Amerigo Vespucci_, a Florentine, employed first by _Spain_
+and then by _Portugal_, explored in several voyages the coast of
+_South America_. The circumstance that his full descriptions were
+published (1504) caused the name of _America_, first at the
+suggestion of the printer, to be attached to the new world.
+
+LATER VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS.--On his return from his first voyage,
+_Columbus_ was received with distinguished honors by the Spanish
+sovereigns. But he suffered from plots caused by envy, both on the
+islands and at court. Once he was sent home in fetters by
+_Bobadilla_, a commissioner appointed by _Ferdinand_. He was
+exonerated from blame, but the promises which had been made to him were
+not fulfilled. A fourth voyage was not attended by the success in
+discovery which he had hoped for, and the last two years of his life
+were weary and sad. _Isabella_ had died; and in 1506 the great
+explorer, who with all his other virtues combined a sincere piety,
+followed her to the tomb.
+
+THE PACIFIC.--The spirit of adventure, the hunger for wealth and
+especially for the precious metals, and zeal for the conversion of the
+heathen, were the motives which combined in different proportions to
+set on foot exploring and conquering expeditions to the unknown regions
+of the West. The exploration of the _North-American_ coast, begun
+by _John Cabot_ (perhaps also by his son), and the Portuguese
+_Cortereal_ (1501), continued from _Labrador_ to
+_Florida_. In 1513 _Balboa_, a Spaniard at _Darien_,
+fought his way to a height on the Isthmus of _Panama_, whence he
+descried the _Pacific Ocean_. Descending to the shore, and riding
+into the water up to his thighs, in the name of the king he took
+possession of the sea. In 1520 _Magellan_, a Portuguese captain,
+sailed round the southern cape of _America_, and over the ocean to
+which he gave the name of _Pacific_. He made his way to the
+_East Indies_, but was killed on one of the _Philippine
+Islands_, leaving it to his companions to finish the voyage around
+the globe. A little later the Spaniards added first _Mexico_, and
+then _Peru_, to their dominions.
+
+CONQUEST OF MEXICO.--The Spanish conqueror of Mexico, the land of the
+_Aztecs_, was _Hernando Cortes_ (1485-1547). The principal
+king in that country was _Montezuma_, whose empire was extensive,
+with numerous cities, and with no inconsiderable advancement in arts
+and industry. From _Santiago_, in 1519, Cortes conducted an
+expedition composed of seven hundred Spaniards, founded _Vera
+Cruz_, where he left a small garrison, subdued the tribe of
+_Tlascalans_ who joined him, and was received by _Montezuma_
+into the city of _Mexico_. _Cortes_ made him a prisoner in
+his own palace, and seized his capital. The firearms and the horses of
+the Spaniards struck the natives with dismay. Nevertheless, they made a
+stout resistance. To add to the difficulties of the shrewd and valiant
+leader, a Spanish force was sent from the West Indies, under
+_Narvaez_, to supplant him. This force he defeated, and captured
+their chief. In 1520 _Cortes_ gained over the Mexicans, at
+_Otumba_, a victory which was decisive in its consequences. The
+city of Mexico was _recaptured_ (1521); for _Montezuma_ had
+been slain by his own people, and the Spaniards driven
+out. _Guatimozin_, the new king, was taken prisoner and put to
+death, and the country was subdued. _Cortes_ put an end to the
+horrid religious rites of the Mexicans, which included human
+sacrifices. Becoming an object of jealousy and dread at home, he was
+recalled (1528). Afterwards he visited the peninsula of
+_California_, and ruled for a time in _Mexico_, but with
+diminished authority.
+
+CONQUEST OF PERU.--The conquest of _Peru_ was effected by
+_Francisco Pizarro_, and _Almagro_, both illiterate
+adventurers, equally daring with _Cortes_, but more cruel and
+unscrupulous. The _Peruvians_ were of a mild character,
+prosperous, and not uncivilized, and without the savage religious
+system of the Mexicans. They had their walled cities and their spacious
+temples. The empire of the _Incas_, as the rulers were called, was
+distracted by a civil war between two brothers, who shared the
+kingdom. _Pizarro_ captured one of them, _Atahualpa_, and
+basely put him to death after he had provided the ransom agreed upon,
+amounting to more than $17,500,000 in gold (1533). _Pizarro_
+founded _Lima_, near the sea-coast (1535). _Almagro_ and
+_Pizarro_ fell out with each other, and the former was defeated
+and beheaded. The land and its inhabitants were allotted among the
+conquerors as the spoils of victory. The horrible oppression of the
+people excited insurrections.  At length _Charles V._ sent out
+_Pedro de la Gasca_ as viceroy (1541), at a time when _Gonzalo
+Pizarro_, the last of the family, held sway. _Gonzalo_ perished
+on the gallows. _Gasca_ reduced the government to an orderly
+system.
+
+THE AMAZON.--_Orellena_, an officer of _Pizarro_, in 1541
+first descended the river _Amazon_ to the Atlantic. His fabulous
+descriptions of an imaginary _El Dorado_, whose capital with its
+dazzling treasures he pretended to have seen, inflamed other explorers,
+and prompted to new enterprises. The cupidity of the Spaniards, and
+their eagerness for knightly warfare, made the New World, with its
+floral beauty and mineral riches, a most enticing field for
+adventure. To devout missionaries, to the monastic orders especially,
+the new regions were not less inviting. They followed in the wake of
+the Spanish conquerors and viceroys.
+
+REVIVAL OF LEARNING.--The stirring period of invention and of maritime
+discovery was also the period of "the revival of learning."  Italy was
+the main center and source of this intellectual movement, which
+gradually spread over the other countries of Western Europe. There was
+a thirst for a wider range of study and of culture than the
+predominantly theological writings and training of the Middle Ages
+afforded. The minds of men turned for stimulus and nutriment to the
+ancient classical authors. _Petrarch_, the Italian poet
+(1304-1374), did much to foster this new spirit. In the fifteenth
+century the more active intercourse with the Greek Church, and the
+efforts at union with it, helped to bring into Italy learned Greeks,
+like _Chrysoloras_ and _Bessarion_, and numerous manuscripts
+of Greek authors. The fall of _Constantinople_ increased this
+influx of Greek learning. The new studies were fostered by the Italian
+princes, who vied with one another in their zeal for collecting the
+precious literary treasures of antiquity, and in the liberal patronage
+of the students of classical literature. The manuscripts of the Latin
+writers, preserved in the monasteries of the West, were likewise
+eagerly sought for. The most eminent of the patrons of learning were
+the _Medici_ of Florence. _Cosmo_ founded a library and a
+Platonic academy. All the writings of _Plato_ were translated by
+one of that philosopher's admiring disciples, _Marsilius
+Ficinus_. Dictionaries and grammars, versions and commentaries, for
+instruction in classical learning, were multiplied. These, with the
+ancient poets, philosophers, and orators themselves, were diffused far
+and wide by means of the new art of printing, and from presses, of
+which the _Aldine_--that of _Aldus Minutius_--at
+_Venice_ was the most famous. "By the side of the Church, which
+had hitherto held the countries of the West together (though it was
+unable to do so much longer) there arose a new spiritual influence,
+which, spreading itself abroad from Italy, became the breath of life
+for all the more instructed minds in Europe."
+
+CONTEST OF THE NEW AND THE OLD CULTURE.--In Germany, the new learning
+gained a firm foothold. But there, as elsewhere, the _Humanists_,
+as its devotees were called, had a battle to fight with the votaries
+of the mediĉval type of culture, who, largely on theological grounds,
+objected to the new culture, and were stigmatized as "obscurantists."
+In Italy, the study of the ancient heathen writers had engendered, or
+at least been accompanied by, much religious skepticism and
+indifference. This, however, was not the case in Germany. But the
+champions of the scholastic method and system, in which logic and
+divinity, as handled by the schoolmen, were the principal thing, were
+strenuously averse to the linguistic and literary studies which
+threatened to supplant them. The advocates of the new studies derided
+the lack of learning, the barbarous style, and fine-spun distinctions
+of the schoolmen, who had once been the intellectual masters. The
+disciples of _Aristotle_ and of the schoolmen still had a strong
+hold in _Paris_, _Cologne_, and other universities. But
+certain universities, like _Tübingen_ and _Heidelberg_, let
+in the humanistic studies. In 1502 _Frederick_, the elector of
+Saxony, founded a university at _Wittenberg_, in which from the
+outset they were prominent. In _England_, the cause of learning
+found ardent encouragement, and had able representatives in such men
+as _Colet_, dean of St. Paul's, who founded St. Paul's School at
+his own expense; and in _Thomas More_, the author of
+_Utopia_, afterwards lord chancelor under _Henry VIII_.
+
+REUCHLIN: ULRICH VON HUTTEN.--A leader of humanism in Germany was
+_John Reuchlin_ (1455-1522), an erudite scholar, who studied Greek
+at Paris and Basel, mingled with _Politian_, _Pica de
+Mirandola_, and other famous scholars at _Florence_, and wrote
+a Hebrew as well as a Greek grammar. This distinguished humanist became
+involved in a controversy with the _Dominicans_ of _Cologne_,
+who wished to burn all the Hebrew literature except the Old
+Testament. The Humanists all rallied in support of their chief, to whom
+heresy was imputed, and their success in this wide-spread conflict
+helped forward their cause. _Ulrich von Hutten_, one of the young
+knights who belonged to the literary school, and others of the same
+class, made effective use, against their illiterate antagonists, of the
+weapons of satire and ridicule.
+
+ERASMUS.--The prince of the Humanists was _Desiderius Erasmus_
+(1467-1536). No literary man has ever enjoyed a wider fame during his
+own lifetime. He was not less resplendent for his wit than for his
+learning. Latin was then the vehicle of intercourse among the
+educated. In that tongue the books of _Erasmus_ were written, and
+they were eagerly read in all the civilized countries. He studied
+theology in _Paris_; lived for a number of years in
+_England_, where, in company with _More_ and _Colet_, he
+fostered the new studies; and finally took up his abode at
+_Basel_. In early youth, against his will, he had been for a while
+an inmate of a cloister. The idleness, ignorance, self-indulgence, and
+artificial austerities, which frequently belonged to the degenerate
+monasticism of the day, furnished him with engaging themes of
+satire. But in his _Praise of Folly_, and in his
+_Colloquies_, the two most diverting of his productions, he lashes
+the foibles and sins of many other classes, among whom kings and popes
+are not spared. By such works as his editions of the Church Fathers,
+and his edition of the Greek Testament, as well as by his multifarious
+correspondence, he exerted a powerful influence in behalf of
+culture. If he incurred the hostility of the conservative Churchmen, he
+still adhered to the Roman communion, and won unbounded applause from
+the advocates of liberal studies and of practical religious reforms.
+
+LITERATURE IN ITALY.--The first effect of the revival of letters in
+Italy was to check original production in literature. The charm of the
+ancient authors who were brought out of their tombs, the belles-lettres
+studies, and the criticism awakened by them, naturally had this effect
+for a time. Italy had two great authors in the vernacular, the poet
+_Ariosto_ (1474-1533), and _Machiavelli_: it had, besides,
+one famous historian, _Guicciardini_ (1482-1540).
+
+RENAISSANCE OF ART.--This period was not simply an era of grand
+exploration and discovery, and of the new birth of letters: it was the
+brilliant dawn of a new era in art. Sculpture and painting broke loose
+from their subordination to Church architecture. Painting, especially,
+attained to a far richer development.
+
+ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE.--In architecture and sculpture, the
+influence of the antique styles was potent. Under the auspices of
+_Brunelleschi_ (1377-1446), the _Pitti Palace_ and other
+edifices of a like kind had been erected at _Florence_. At
+_Rome, Bramante_ (who died in 1515), and, in particular,
+_Michael Angelo_ (1475-1564), who was a master in the three arts
+of painting, sculpture, and architecture, and a poet as well, were most
+influential.  The great Florentine artist _Ghiberti_ (1378-1455),
+in the bronze gates of the Baptistery, exhibited the perfection of
+bas-relief. The highest power of _Michael Angelo_, as a sculptor,
+is seen in his statue of Moses at Rome, and in the sepulchers of Julian
+and Lorenzo de Medici at Florence. A student of his works,
+_Cellini_ (1500-1571) is one of the men of genius of that day,
+who, like his master, was eminently successful in different branches of
+art. In the same period, there were sculptors of high talent in
+Germany, especially at _Nuremberg_, where _Adam Kraft_
+(1429-1507), and _Peter Vischer_ (1435-1529), whose skill is seen
+in the bronze tomb of _Sebaldus_, in the church of that saint, are
+the most eminent. After the death of _Michael Angelo_, in Italy
+there was a decline in the style of sculpture, which became less noble
+and more affected.
+
+PAINTING IN ITALY.--The ancients had less influence on the schools of
+painting than on sculpture. In painting, as we have seen, _Giotto_
+(1266-1337), a contemporary of the poet _Dante_, and
+_Cimabue_ (who died about 1302), had led the way. The art of
+perspective was mastered; and real life, more or less idealized, was
+the subject of delineation. In Italy, there arose various distinct
+styles or schools. The _Florentine_ school reached its height of
+attainment in the majestic works of _Michael Angelo_, the frescos
+of the Sistine Chapel at Rome. The _Roman_ school is best seen in
+the _stanzas_ of the Vatican, by _Raphael_ (1483-1520), and
+in the ideal harmony and beauty of his Madonnas. Prior to Michael
+Angelo and Raphael, there was the symbolic religious art of the
+_Umbrian_ painters. Of these, the chief was _Fra Angelico_
+(1387-1455), the devout monk who transferred to the canvas the
+tenderness and fervor of his own gentle spirit. The _Venetian_
+school, with its richness of color, has left splendid examples of its
+power in the portraits of _Titian_ (1477-1576), the works of
+_Paul Veronese_ (who died in 1588), and the more passionate
+products of the pencil of _Tintoretto_ (who died in 1594). The
+_Lombard_ school has for its representatives the older
+contemporary of _Raphael_, _Leonardo da Vinci_ (1452-1519),
+who combines perfection of outward form with deep spirituality, and by
+whom _The Last Supper_ was painted on the wall of the cloister at
+_Milan_; and _Correggio_ (1494-1534), whose play of tender
+sensibility, and skill in the contrasts of light and shade in color,
+are exhibited in _The Night_, or _Worship of the Magi_ (at
+_Dresden_), and in his frescos at _Parma_. The school of
+_Bologna_, founded by the three _Caracci_, numbers in its
+ranks _Guido Rent_ (1575-1642), gifted with imagination and
+sensibility, and _Salvator Rosa_ (1615-1673), who depicted the
+more wild and somber aspects of nature and of life.
+
+MICHAEL ANGELO AND RAPHAEL.--The two foremost names in the history of
+Italian art are _Michael Angelo_ and _Raphael_. "If there is
+one man who is a more striking representative of the Renaissance than
+any of his contemporaries, it is Michael Angelo. In him character is
+on a par with genius. His life of almost a century, and marvelously
+active, is spotless. As an artist, we can not believe that he can be
+surpassed. He unites in his wondrous individuality the two master
+faculties, which are, so to speak, the poles of human nature, whose
+combination in the same individual creates the sovereign greatness of
+the Tuscan school,--invention and judgment,--a vast and fiery
+imagination, directed by a method precise, firm, and safe."  Raphael
+lacks the grandeur and the many-sided capacity of the great master by
+whom he was much influenced. Raphael "had a nature which converted
+every thing to beauty." He produced in a short life an astonishing
+number of works of unequal merit; but to all of them he imparted a
+peculiar charm, derived from "an instinct for beauty, which was his
+true genius."
+
+PAINTING IN THE NETHERLANDS.--In the Netherlands, a school of painting
+arose under the brothers _Van Eyck_ (1366-1426, 1386-1440). One
+of them, _John_, was the first artist to paint in oil. At a later
+day, a class of painters, of whom _Rubens_ (1577-1640) is the
+most distinguished, followed more the track of the ancients and of the
+Italian school. These belonged to _Flanders_ and _Brabant_;
+while in _Holland_ a school sprang up of a more original and
+independent cast, in which genius of the highest order was manifested
+in the person of _Rembrandt_ (1607-1669), its most eminent
+master.
+
+PAINTING IN GERMANY AND FRANCE.--In _Germany_, a school marked by
+peculiarities of its own was represented by _Hans Holbein_ (who
+died in 1543), and by _Albert Dürer_ the Nuremberg artist
+(1471-1528). In Spain, _Murillo_ (1617-1682) combined inspiration
+with technical skill, and stands on a level with the renowned
+Italians. _Velasquez_ (1599-1660), an artist of extraordinary
+power, is most distinguished for his portraits. The French artists
+mostly followed the Italian styles. _Claude Lorraine_ (1600-1682)
+was the painter of landscapes that are luminous in sunlight and
+atmosphere. In England, the humorous _Hogarth_ (1697-1764) was
+much later.
+
+MUSIC.--Music shared in the prosperity of the sister arts. The
+interest awakened in its improvement paved the way in _Italy_ for
+_Palestrina_ (1514-1594), whose genius and labors constitute an
+epoch. In _Germany, Luther_ became one of the most efficient
+promoters of musical culture in connection with public worship. The
+great German composers, _Bach_ (1685-1750) and _Händel_
+(1685-1759), belong to a subsequent period: they are, however, in some
+degree the fruit of seed sown earlier.
+
+  LITERATURE.--For works on general history, see p. 16. For general
+  histories of particular countries, see p. 359.
+
+  On Modern Times. Dyer's _History of Modern Europe_; Duruy's
+  _History of Modern Times_ [1453-1789]; Lavisse et Rambaud,
+  _Histoire Générale_, Vol. IV.; _The Cambridge Modern
+  History_, Vol. I.: _The Renaissance_; Heeren, _Political
+  System of Europe_; _Historical Treatises_ (1 vol.); Heeren
+  u. Ukert, _Geschichte der europäisch. Staaten_ (76 vols. 1829
+  75); T. ARNOLD'S _Lectures on Modern History_; Michelet's
+  _Modern History_ (1 vol.), Yonge's _Three Centuries of Modern
+  History_.
+
+  On the Age of the Renaissance. Symonds's _Renaissance in Italy_
+  (5 vols.); BURCKHARDT'S _The Civilization of the Period of the
+  Renaissance in Italy_ (2 vols.); REUMONT'S _Lorenzo de'
+  Medici_ (2 vols); Roscoe's _Life of Lorenzo de' Medici_;
+  VILLARI'S _Machiavelli and his Times_; Machiavelli, _History
+  of Florence_; Oliphant, _Makers of Florence: Dante', Giotto,
+  Savonarola, and their city_ (1 vol.); Voigt, _Die
+  Wiederbelebung des classischen alterthums_ (1859); Lanzi,
+  _History of Painting_ (3 vols.); Vasari, _Lives of Painters,
+  Sculptors, and Architects_; Crowe and Cavalcasselle, _History
+  of Painting in North Italy_ [1300-1500] (2 vols., 1871); Crowe,
+  _Handbook of Painting: the German, Flemish and Dutch Schools_
+  (2 parts, 1874); Eastlake, _Handbook of Painting, the Italian
+  Schools_ (based on _Kugler_, 2 parts, 1874); Crowe and
+  Cavalcasselle, _Life of Titian_ (2 vols.); _Illustrated
+  Biographies of the Great Artists_ (14 vols.); Mrs. Jameson,
+  _Lives of Italian Painters_; Grimm, _Life of Michael
+  Angelo_ (2 vols.); Crowe and Cavalcasselle, _Life and Works of
+  Raphael_; Fergusson, _History of Modern Styles of
+  Architecture_; RUGE'S _Geschichte d. Zeitalters
+  d. Entdeckungen_ (1 vol. in Oncken's Series); GEIGER'S
+  _Renaissance und Humanismus in Italien und Deutschland_ (1
+  vol. in Oncken's Series); Lives of Erasmus, by Le Clerc, Jortin,
+  Knight, Burigny (2 vols.), Froude, Emerton, Drummond (2 vols.);
+  Lives of Columbus, by Irving, Major (1847), Harrisse (1884), Markham
+  (1892), Winsor; PRESCOTT'S _History of Ferdinand and Isabella,
+  History of the Conquest of Mexico_, and _History of the
+  Conquest of Peru_; Robertson, _History of America_; Beazly,
+  _Dawn of Modern Geography_ (2 vols.); Fiske, _Discovery of
+  America_ (2 vols.); Payne, _America_ (2 vols.); Scebohm's
+  _Oxford Reformers_; Robinson and Rolfe, _Petrarch_;
+  Creighton, _History of the Papacy during the Reformation_
+  (Vols. I.-IV.); Pastor, _History of the Popes from the Close of
+  the Middle Ages_ (3 vols.); Janssen, _History of the German
+  People at the Close of the Middle Ages_ (8 vols.); Whitcomb,
+  _Source Books of the Italian and German Renaissance_; Grant,
+  _The French Monarchy_ (2 vols.); Johnson, _European History
+  in the Sixteenth Century_.
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD II. THE ERA OF THE REFORMATION. (1517-1648)
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+The general stir in men's minds, as indicated in the revival of
+learning and in remarkable inventions and discoveries, was equally
+manifest in great debates and changes in religion. One important
+element and fruit of the _Renaissance_ is here seen. At the
+beginning of the sixteenth century, the nations of Western Europe were
+all united in one Church, of which the Pope was the acknowledged
+head. There were differences as to the extent of his proper authority;
+sects had sprung up at different times; and there had arisen leaders,
+like _Wickliffe_ and _Huss_, at war with the prevailing
+system. Ecclesiastical sedition, however, had been mostly quelled. Yet
+there existed a great amount of outspoken and latent discontent. First,
+complaints were loud against maladministration in Church affairs. There
+were extortions and other abuses that excited disaffection. Secondly,
+the authority exercised by the Pope was charged with being inconsistent
+with the rights of civil rulers and of national churches. Thirdly,
+disputes sprang up, both in regard to various practices deemed
+objectionable, like prayers for the dead, and the invocation of saints,
+and also concerning important doctrines, like the doctrine of the
+_mass_ or the Lord's Supper, and the part that belongs to faith in
+the Christian method of salvation. Out of this ferment arose what is
+called the Protestant Reformation. The _Teutonic_ nations
+generally broke off from the Church of Rome, and renounced their
+allegiance to the Pope. The _Latin_ or _Romanic nations_, for
+the most part, still adhered to him. As the common idea was that there
+should be uniformity of belief and worship in a state, civil wars arose
+on the question which form of belief should dominate. _Germany_
+was desolated for thirty years by a terrible struggle. Yet, in all the
+conflicts between kingdoms and states in this period, it was plain that
+political motives, or the desire of national aggrandizement, were
+commonly strong enough to override religious differences.
+
+When there was some great interest of a political or dynastic sort at
+stake, those that differed in religion most widely would frequently
+assist one another. It is in this period that we see _Spain_,
+under _Charles V._ and _Philip II._, reach the acme of its
+power, and then sink into comparative weakness.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY, TO THE TREATY OF NUREMBERG
+(1517-1532).
+
+
+BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION.--The Reformation began in
+_Germany_, where there was a great deal of discontent with the
+way in which the Church was governed and managed, and on account of
+the large amounts of money carried out of the country on various
+grounds for ecclesiastical uses at Rome. The leader of the movement,
+_Martin Luther_, was the son of a poor miner, and was born at
+_Eisleben_ in 1483. He was an Augustinian monk, and had been made
+professor of theology, and preacher at _Wittenberg_, by the
+Elector of Saxony, _Frederick the Wise_ (1508). Luther was a man
+of extraordinary intellectual powers, and a hard student, of a genial
+and joyous nature, yet not without a deep vein of reflection, tending
+even to melancholy. He had a strong will, and was vigorous and
+vehement in controversy. He had been afflicted with profound religious
+anxieties; but in the study of St. Paul and St. Augustine, and after
+much inward wrestling, he emerged from them into a state of mental
+peace. The immediate occasion of disturbance, the spark that kindled
+the flame, was the sale of indulgences in _Saxony_ by a Dominican
+monk named _Tetzel_. Indulgences were the remission, total or
+partial, of _penances_, and, in theory, always presupposed
+repentance; but, as the business was managed in Germany at that time,
+it amounted in the popular apprehension to a sale of absolution from
+guilt, or to the ransom of deceased friends from purgatory for
+money. These gross abuses were painful to sincere friends of
+religion. In 1517 _Luther_ posted on the door of the church at
+_Wittenberg_ his celebrated ninety-five theses. It was customary
+in those days for public debates to take place in universities, where,
+as in jousts and tournaments among knights, scholars offered to defend
+propositions in theology and philosophy against all comers. Such were
+the "theses" of Luther on indulgences. The public mind was in such a
+state that a great commotion was kindled by them. Conflict spread; and
+the name of _Luther_ became famous as a stanch antagonist of
+ecclesiastical abuses, and a fearless champion of reform. The
+_Elector_, a religious man, calm and cautious in his temper, was
+friendly to _Luther_, often sought to curb him, but stretched
+over him the shield of his protection.
+
+LUTHER AND LEO X.--Pope _Leo X;_ was of the house of
+_Medici_, the son of _Lorenzo_ the Magnificent. He had been
+made nominally a cardinal at the age of thirteen, and had advanced to
+the highest station in the Church. He was much absorbed in matters
+pertaining to learning and art, and in political affairs, and at first
+looked upon this Saxon disturbance as a mere squabble of monks. He
+attempted ineffectually to bring _Luther_ to submission and
+quietness, first through his legate _Cajetan_, a scholarly
+Italian, who met him at _Augsburg_ (1518), and then by a second
+messenger, _Miltitz_ (1519), a Saxon by birth. A turning-point in
+Luther's course was a public _disputation_ at _Leipsic_,
+before Duke _George_; for _ducal_ Saxony was hostile to
+him. With Luther, on that occasion, was _Philip Melanchthon_, the
+young professor of Greek at _Wittenberg_, who was a great scholar,
+and a man of mild and amiable spirit. He became a very effective and
+noted auxiliary of the reformer, and acquired the honorary title of
+"preceptor of Germany." In the Leipsic debate, when Luther was opposed
+by the Catholic champion _Eck_, and by others, his own views in
+opposition to the papacy became more distinct and decided. He soon
+disputed the right of the Pope to make laws, to canonize, etc., denied
+the doctrine of purgatory, and avowed his sympathy with _Huss_. He
+issued a stirring _Address to the Christian Nobles of the German
+Nation_. In 1520 he was excommunicated by the Pope, but the elector
+paid no regard to the papal bull. Luther himself went so far as
+publicly to burn it at the gates of the town, in the presence of an
+assembly of students and others gathered to witness the scene. Both
+parties had now taken the extreme step: there was now open war between
+them. _Jurists_, who were aggrieved by the interference of
+ecclesiastical with civil courts, supported _Luther_. So the
+_Humanists_ who had defended _Reuch-lin_, among whom were the
+youthful literary class of which _Ulrich von Hutten_ was one,
+became his allies. Many among the inferior clergy and the monastic
+orders sympathized with him.
+
+CONDITION OF GERMANY.--It was now for the _Empire_ to decide
+between _Luther_ and the _Pope_. The efforts to create a
+better political system under _Maximilian_ had proved in the main
+abortive. There was strife between the princes and the knights, as well
+as between princes and bishops. The cities complained bitterly of
+oppressive taxation and of lawless depredations. There was widespread
+disaffection, threatening open revolt, among the peasants.
+_Maximilian_ had been thwarted politically by the popes. At first
+he was glad to hear of _Luther's_ rebellion. He said to
+_Frederick the Wise_, "Let the Wittenberg monk be taken good care
+of: we may some day want him." In the latter part of his reign his
+interests drew him nearer to Rome.
+
+ELECTION OF CHARLES V.--On the death of _Maximilian_ (1519), as
+the Elector _Frederick_ would not take the imperial crown, there
+were two rival candidates,--_Francis I._, the king of France, and
+_Charles I._, of Spain, the grandson of _Maximilian_.
+_Francis_ was a gallant and showy personage, but it was feared
+that he would be despotic; and the electors made choice of
+_Charles_. The extent of _Charles's_ hereditary dominions in
+Germany, and the greatness of his power, would make him, it was
+thought, the best defender of the empire against the Turks. The
+electors, at his choice, bound him in a "capitulation" to respect the
+authority of the _Diet_, and not to bring foreign troops into the
+country. _Charles_ was the inheritor of _Austria_ and the
+_Low Countries_, the crowns of _Castile_ and _Aragon_,
+of _Navarre_, of _Naples_ and _Sicily_, together with
+the territories of Spain in the _New World_; and now he was at the
+head of the Holy Roman Empire. The concentration of so much power in a
+single hand could not but provoke alarm in all other potentates. The
+great rival of _Charles_ was _Francis I._, and the main prize
+in the contest was dominion in Italy. Charles was a sagacious prince;
+from his Spanish education, strongly attached to the Roman-Catholic
+system, and, in virtue of the imperial office, the protector of the
+Church. Yet with him political considerations, during most of his life,
+were uppermost. He made the mistake of not appreciating the strength
+that lay in the convictions at the root of the Protestant movement. He
+over-estimated the power of political combinations.
+
+DIET OF WORMS.--_Charles V._ first came into Germany in 1521, and
+met the Diet of the empire at _Worms_. There _Luther_
+appeared under the protection of a safe-conduct. He manifested his
+wonted courage; and in the presence of the emperor, and of the august
+assembly, he refused to retract his opinions, planting himself on the
+authority of the Scriptures, and declining to submit to the verdicts of
+Pope or council. After he had left _Worms_, a sentence of outlawry
+was passed against him. _Charles_ at that moment was bent on the
+re-conquest of _Milan_, which the French had taken; and the Pope
+was friendly to his undertaking, although _Leo X._ had been
+opposed to _Charles's_ election.
+
+FRANCIS I.--_Francis I._ (1515-1547) aimed to complete the work
+begun by his predecessors, and to make the French monarchy absolute. By
+a _concordat_ with the Pope (1516), the choice of bishops and
+abbots was given into the king's hand, while the Pope was to receive
+the _annates_, or the first year's revenue of all such
+benefices. _Francis_ continued the practice of selling judicial
+places begun under _Louis XII._. He was bent on maintaining the
+unity of France, and, as a condition, the Catholic system. But he was
+always ready to help the Protestants in _Germany_ when he could
+thereby weaken _Charles_. For the same end, he was even ready to
+join hands with the Turk.
+
+RIVALRY OF CHARLES AND FRANCIS.--Charles claimed the old imperial
+territories of _Milan_ and _Genoa_. He claimed, also, a
+portion of Southern France,--the _duchy of Burgundy_, which he did
+not allow that _Louis XI._ had the right to
+confiscate. _Francis_ claimed _Naples_ in virtue of the
+rights of the house of _Anjou_; also Spanish _Navarre_, which
+_Ferdinand of Aragon_ had seized, and the suzerainty of
+_Flanders_ and _Artois_. He had gained a brilliant victory
+over the _Swiss_ at the battle of _Marignano_, in 1515, and
+reconquered _Milan_. He concluded a treaty of peace with the
+_Swiss_,--the treaty of _Freiburg_ (1516), which gave to the
+king, in return for a yearly pension, the liberty to levy troops in
+Switzerland. This treaty continued until the French Revolution.
+
+FIRST WAR OF CHARLES AND FRANCIS (1521-1526).--Hostilities between
+_Francis_ and _Charles_ commenced in _Italy_ in
+1521. The French were driven from _Milan_ in 1522, which was again
+placed in the hands of _Francesco Sforza_; and the emperor was
+soon master of all Northern Italy. _England_ and the _Pope_
+sided with _Charles_; and on the death of _Leo X._, a former
+tutor of the emperor was made his successor, under the name _Adrian
+VI._ (1522). The most eminent and the richest man in France, next to
+the king, _Charles of Bourbon_, constable of the kingdom, joined
+the enemies of _Francis_. He complained of grievances consequent
+on the enmity of _Louisa of Savoy_, the mother of the king, and
+attempted, with the aid of the emperor and _Henry VIII._, to
+create a kingdom for himself in South-eastern France. But the national
+spirit in France was too strong for such a scheme of dismemberment and
+foreign conquest to succeed, and all that _Charles_ gained in the
+end was one brave general. In the winter of 1524-25 _Francis_
+crossed the Alps at the head of a brilliant army, and recaptured
+_Milan_; but he was defeated and taken prisoner at _Pavia_,
+and the French army was almost destroyed. _Charles_ was able to
+dictate terms to his captive. It was stipulated in the _Peace of
+Madrid_ (1526), that _Francis_ should renounce all claim to
+_Milan, Genoa_, and _Naples_, and to the suzerainty of
+_Flanders_ and _Artois_, cede the duchy of _Burgundy_,
+and deliver his sons as hostages, terms which could not be fulfilled.
+
+LUTHER AT THE WARTBURG.--We have now to glance at the events in
+_Germany_ during the absence of _Charles V. Luther_, although
+under the ban of the empire, was in no immediate peril while he staid
+in _Saxony_. The elector, however, thought it prudent to place him
+in the castle of the _Wartburg_, where he could have a safe and
+quiet asylum. There he began his translation of the Bible, which, apart
+from its religious influence, from the vigor and racy quality of its
+style made an epoch in the literary history of the German people. It
+was a work of great labor. "The language used by Luther in both the Old
+and New Testaments did not exist before in so pure, powerful, and
+genuine a form." While _Luther_ was engaged in this work, a
+radical movement broke out at _Wittenberg_, of which
+_Carlstadt_, one of his supporters, was the principal leader. He
+was for carrying changes in worship to such an extreme, and for
+introducing them so abruptly, that the greatest disorder was
+threatened. Against the wish of the elector, _Luther_ left his
+retreat, and by his discourses and personal presence quieted the
+disturbance.
+
+PROGRESS AND REACTION.--No attempt was made to carry out the
+_Worms_ decree. The reason was that the influential classes were
+so much in sympathy with _Luther's_ cause. The _Imperial
+Chamber_, which ruled in the emperor's absence, would do nothing
+against him. Its committee refused to carry out the decree; and a list
+of "one hundred grievances" was sent to Pope _Adrian VI._, of
+which the German nation had reason to complain (1523). Events, however,
+soon occurred that were unfavorable in their effect on the Lutheran
+movement. The knights banded together in large numbers, under _Franz
+van Sickingen_, and tried by force of arms to reduce the power of
+the princes. _Luther_ showed no favor to their plans and doings;
+but, as their leaders had applauded him, a reaction against
+innovations, including changes in doctrine, was the natural
+consequence. Pope _Adrian VI._ was earnestly desirous of practical
+reforms; but his successor, _Clement VII._ (1523-1534), was of the
+house of _Medici_, and a man of the world, like _Leo X._ An
+alliance was made by the Catholic princes and bishops of South Germany
+at _Ratisbon_ in 1524, to do away with certain abuses, but to
+prevent the spread of the new doctrine.
+
+THE PEASANTS' WAR.--In 1524 a great revolt of the _peasants_ broke
+out, and the next year it became general. They were groaning under
+intolerable burdens of taxation, and other forms of oppression. They
+demanded liberty in church affairs, and for the preaching of the new
+doctrine, and release from feudal tyranny. _Luther_ felt and said
+that they were wronged grievously; but when they took up arms, he, and
+with him the great middle class which he led, took sides strongly
+against them. The revolt was put down, and its authors inhumanly
+punished. For a time the peasants had wonderful
+success. _Napoleon_ wondered that _Charles V._ did not seize
+the occasion to make Germany a united empire. Then seemed to be a time
+when the princes could have been stripped of their power. One of the
+foremost leaders of the rebellion was _Thomas Münzer_. On the
+defeat of the peasants, he was captured and beheaded.
+
+SECOND WAR BETWEEN CHARLES AND FRANCIS (1527-1529).--In the Peace of
+_Madrid, Charles_ and _Francis_ had agreed to proceed against
+the Turks and against the heretics. But, after the release of
+_Francis_, he repudiated the concessions before mentioned (p.
+400), which were made, he alleged, under coercion; and with _Clement
+VII._ he formed a conspiracy against the emperor. The _Diet of
+Spires_, in 1526, decided to leave each of the component parts of
+the empire, until the meeting of a general council, to decide for
+itself as to the course to be taken in the matter of religion and in
+respect to the edict of _Worms_. In 1527 a German army, largely
+composed of Lutherans, led by Constable _Bourbon_ and _George
+Frundsberg_, stormed and captured _Rome_. The Pope made an
+alliance with _Henry VIII._ A French army under _Lautrec_
+appeared at _Naples_, but it was so weakened by a fearful
+pestilence that it was easily destroyed. The _Pope_ concluded
+peace with _Charles_ in 1529. The emperor promised to exterminate
+heresy. In the Peace of _Cambray_, _Francis_ renounced his
+claims on _Italy_, _Flanders_, and _Artois_: Charles
+engaged for the present not to press his claims upon _Burgundy_,
+and set free the French princes.
+
+TO THE PEACE OF NUREMBERG (1532).--The _Diet of Spires_ in 1529
+reversed the policy of tacit toleration. It passed an edict forbidding
+the progress of the Reformation in the states which had not accepted
+it, and allowing in the reformed states full liberty of worship to the
+adherents of the old confession. The protest by the Lutheran princes
+and cities, against the decree of the Diet, gave the name of
+_Protestants_ to their party. The successful defense of
+_Vienna_ against an immense army of the Turks under _Soliman_
+delivered _Charles_ for the moment from anxiety in that quarter. A
+theological controversy between the _Lutheran_ and the
+_Swiss_ reformers, on the _Lord's Supper_, made a division of
+feeling between them. A conference of the two parties at
+_Marburg_, in which _Luther_ and _Melanchthon_ met
+_Zwingli_ and his associates, brought no agreement. Every thing
+was propitious for an effort at coercion; and this was resolved upon at
+the _Diet of Augsburg_ in 1530, where the emperor was present in
+person, and where _Melanchthon_ presented the celebrated
+Protestant _Confession_ of Faith. The threats against the
+Protestant princes induced them to form the _League of Smalcald_
+for mutual defense. But it was found impracticable to carry out the
+measures of repression against the Lutherans. _Bavaria_ was
+jealous of the house of _Hapsburg_, and opposed to the plan of the
+emperor to make his brother, _Ferdinand_ of Austria, his
+successor. The _Turks_ under _Soliman_ were
+threatening. _France_ and _Denmark_ were ready to help the
+Protestants. Accordingly the Peace of _Nuremberg_ was concluded in
+1532, in which religious affairs were to be left as they were, and both
+parties were to combine against the common enemy of Christendom.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  THE REFORMATION IN TEUTONIC COUNTRIES: SWITZERLAND,
+DENMARK, SWEDEN, ENGLAND.
+
+
+THE SWISS REFORMATION: ZWINGLI.--The founder of Protestantism in
+Switzerland was _Ulrich Zwingli_. He was born in 1484. His father
+was the leading man in a mountain village. The son, at _Vienna_
+and at _Basel_, became a proficient in the humanist studies. He
+read the Greek authors and the Bible in the original. A curate first at
+_Glarus_, and then at _Einsiedeln_, he became pastor at
+_Zurich_. As early as 1518 he preached against the sale of
+indulgences. He was a scholarly man, bluff and kindly in his ways, and
+an impressive orator. The Swiss were corrupted by their employment as
+mercenary soldiers, hired by France, by the Pope, or by the emperor. Of
+the demoralizing influence of this practice, _Zwingli_ became
+deeply convinced; and his exertions as a Church reformer were mingled
+with a patriotic zeal for the moral and political regeneration of
+Switzerland. Mainly by his influence, _Zurich_ separated from the
+jurisdiction of the bishop of Constance, and became Protestant in
+1524. The example of _Zurich_ was followed by _Berne_ (1528)
+and by _Basel_ (1529). _Zwingli_ agreed with _Luther_ on
+the two main points of the sole authority of the Scriptures, and the
+doctrine of salvation by faith alone; but on the _sacrament_ of
+the _Lord's Supper_ he went farther in his dissent from the Church
+of Rome. This made Luther and his followers stand aloof when cordial
+fellowship was proposed between the two parties.
+
+CIVIL STRIFE: DEATH OF ZWINGLI.--The aim of _Zwingli_ was to
+establish a republican constitution in the several cantons, and also in
+the confederation as a body, where the five Forest Cantons had an undue
+share of power. These adhered to the old Church. In _Berne_ the
+oligarchic party was supplanted by the republican, reforming party,--an
+event of decisive importance. As the irritation increased between the
+Forest Cantons and the cities, the former entered into a league with
+_Ferdinand_ of Austria, and the cities leaned for support on the
+German states in sympathy with their opinions. A treaty was made
+(1529), but each side accused the other of breaking it. At length war
+began: _Berne_ failed to come to the help of _Zurich_. Each
+city wished to be the metropolis of the reformed confederation. The
+forces of _Zurich_ were vanquished at _Cappel_, where
+_Zwingli_ himself, who was on the field in the capacity of a
+chaplain, was slain (1531). By the peace of _Cappel_ in 1531,
+Protestantism was not coerced, but a check was put upon its
+progress. Neither party was strong enough to subdue the other.
+
+PROTESTANTISM IN SCANDINAVIA.--In the Scandinavian countries,
+monarchical power was built up by means of the Reformation. The union
+of _Calmar_ (1397) under Queen _Margaret_, between
+_Denmark, Norway,_ and _Sweden,_ had been a dynastic
+union. The several peoples were not united in feeling. The sovereign,
+moreover, had his power limited by a strong feudal nobility, and by a
+rich Church impatient of control. First the Church was overcome by
+means of Protestantism, and then the nobles.
+
+THE REFORMATION IN DENMARK--On the accession of _Christian I._ of
+_Oldenburg_ (1448-1481), the duchies of _Holstein_ and
+_Schleswig_ became connected with Denmark in a personal union. His
+grandson, _Christian II._ (1513-1523), did not rule the duchies,
+which were governed by _Frederic I_., who afterwards succeeded
+_Christian II_. as king of Denmark. _Christian II_. was bent
+on putting down the aristocracy, lay and clerical, but lacked the moral
+qualities necessary to success in so difficult a task. He at first
+favored Protestantism from political motives. He hoped to bring the
+_Swedes_ into subjection by the aid of the _Danes_, and then
+to subdue the Danish nobility. In _Sweden_ the nobles practically
+ruled; and the regency was in the hands of the _Stures_, who
+befriended the common people, and were opposed by the other nobles and
+the clergy. _Christian_ made use of these divisions, and of the
+help of German and French troops, to get possession of _Stockholm_
+(1520). He took the Catholic side. But his perfidy, and the massacre of
+eminent Swedes,--known as the _Massacre of Stockholm,_--excited an
+inextinguishable hatred against _Denmark_. The Danish nobles
+feared the same sort of treatment. The king's attempts at reform
+offended them without pleasing the peasants, and a revolution took
+place which dethroned him. Duke _Frederic_ of _Schleswig_ was
+made king (1523): the duchies and _Denmark_ were again
+together. _Frederic_ swore not to introduce the Reformation, nor
+to attack Catholicism. But he was an ardent Lutheran. The new doctrine
+had come into the land, and was spreading. The nobles, who coveted the
+possessions of the Church, espoused it. At the Diet of _Odensee_,
+in 1527, toleration was granted to Lutheranism. On _Frederic's_
+death, in 1533, an effort of the bishops to restore the exclusive
+domination of the old system of religion was defeated. _Christian
+III._ was made king; and at a Diet at _Copenhagen_ in 1536, the
+Reformation was legalized, and the Lutheran system, with bishops or
+superintendents, was established.
+
+THE REFORMATION IN SWEDEN.--After the massacre of Stockholm,
+_Denmark_ was detested by the Swedes. A great political revolution
+occurred, which involved also a religious revolution. The author of the
+change, and the real founder of the Swedish monarchy, was _Gustavus
+Vasa_, a young Swede of noble family, who had been held as a captive
+in _Copenhagen_, but had escaped and returned to his country. He
+was of imposing presence, prudent yet daring, and with a natural gift
+of eloquence. Amid great dangers and sufferings, such as tradition
+ascribed to King _Alfred_ of England, he succeeded, at the head of
+a force gathered to him in the province of Dâlecarlia, in gaining the
+most important places in the country, and was proclaimed king in
+1523. He was not deeply interested in the religious controversy,
+although he favored Lutheranism; but he made it his steady aim to break
+down the clerical aristocracy, to weaken the nobles, and to organize a
+strong and prosperous monarchy. He proceeded carefully: but the
+peasants, who had been his warmest supporters, were strongly attached
+to the old Church; and the opposition to his measures from all quarters
+was such that at the _Diet of Westeräs_, in 1527, he took the bold
+step of offering to lay down the crown. At this Diet he had assembled
+representatives of the citizens and peasants, as well as the clergy and
+nobles. He proposed to pay an enormous debt which was due to
+_Lübeck_, by using the colossal wealth of the Church for this
+purpose, and to shake off the monopoly of trade which the Hanse towns
+enjoyed. Finding himself withstood, he renounced the throne. The
+distraction and tumults which followed his act of relinquishing the
+crown were such that a great party of the nobles joined him. Three days
+after his abdication, he was recalled to the throne: the clergy
+submitted abjectly, and the Church was no longer a power in the state,
+or possessed of wealth. Trade was released from its bondage to
+_Lübeck_ and the other towns; commerce was opened with foreign
+countries; and a market was provided for _iron_, the main product
+of the country. The nobles were held in subjection. The _Lutheran_
+doctrine made very rapid progress, and became dominant.
+
+ENGLAND: HENRY VIII. AND LUTHER.--In England, as in France, there were
+earnest desires for church reform, partly aroused by such
+serious-minded humanists as _Colet_, _More_, and
+_Erasmus_. Even _Cardinal Wolsey_ sympathized with this
+movement, and intended to endow colleges and bishoprics out of the
+confiscated wealth of the more useless monasteries. What might have
+been a slow development of religious thought was transformed by the
+requirements of the king's own policy. Of all the _Tudor_ princes
+none had a more obstinate and tyrannical will than _Henry
+VIII_. The advantages derived from the effect of the civil wars,
+which had reduced the strength and numbers of the nobility, and the
+natural English jealousy, always shown, of foreign and papal supremacy,
+enabled _Henry_ to break off the connection of England with
+_Rome_; while, at the same time, he resisted Protestantism and
+persecuted its adherents. Proud of his theological acquirements, he
+appeared, in 1522, as an author against _Luther_, in a book in
+defense of the _Seven Sacraments_, for which he received from the
+Pope the title of _Defender of the Faith_. The vituperative
+character of Luther's answer confirmed him in his hatred of the new
+doctrine. "When God," said the blunt Saxon reformer, "wants a fool, he
+turns a king into a theological writer."
+
+THE DIVORCE QUESTION.--What made the breach between _Henry
+VIII_. and the papacy was the question of the king's divorce. He had
+been married in his twelfth year to _Catherine_ of Aragon, the
+aunt of _Charles V_. and the widow of Henry's deceased brother
+_Arthur_ (who had been married to her in 1501, when he was fifteen
+years old, and had died the next year). A dispensation permitting the
+marriage of Henry had been granted by Pope _Julius II_. How far
+_Henry's_ passion for _Anne Boleyn_, whom he desired to wed,
+was at the root of his scruples respecting the validity of his
+marriage, it may not be easy to decide. His application to _Clement
+VII_. for a separation reached the Pope after the Peace of
+_Madrid_, when there was a desire to lessen the power of the
+emperor. Cardinal _Wolsey_, the favorite counselor of
+_Henry_, who himself aspired to the papal office, was obliged to
+help on the cause of his imperious master. But whatever disposition
+there was at _Rome_ to gratify _Henry_, there was no
+inclination to hurry the proceedings. There were long delays in
+England, whither a papal legate, _Campeggio_, had been sent to
+investigate and determine the cause. In 1529 the legates decided that
+the case must be determined at Rome. This the queen had before demanded
+in vain. Aside from other objections to the divorce, _Clement
+VII_. was now at peace with _Charles V_., whom it was
+undesirable to offend. The incensed king took the matter into his own
+hands. _Wolsey_, having been one of the legates, was deprived of
+all his dignities: he was charged with treason, his strength melted
+away on his fall from the heights of power, and he died a
+broken-spirited man.
+
+SEPARATION OF ENGLAND FROM ROME.--_Henry_ now gave free rein to
+the spirit of opposition in Parliament to Rome. He took for his
+principal minister, who became vicegerent in ecclesiastical affairs,
+_Thomas Cromwell_. _Cromwell_, unlike _Wolsey_, was
+hostile to the temporal power of Rome. He made _Thomas Cranmer_
+Archbishop of Canterbury, who was inclined toward Protestant views,
+but, though sincere in his beliefs, was a man of pliant temper,
+indisposed to resist the king's will, preferring to bow to a storm, and
+to wait for it to pass by. By _Cranmer_ the divorce was decreed,
+but this was after the marriage with _Anne Boleyn_ had taken
+place. _Henry_ was excommunicated by the Pope. Acts of Parliament
+abolished the Pope's, and established the king's, supremacy in the
+Church of England. In 1536 the cloisters were abolished. Their property
+was confiscated, and fell to a large extent into the hands of the
+nobles and the gentry. This measure bound them to the policy of the
+sovereign. The mitered abbots were expelled from the House of Lords,
+which left the preponderance of power with the lay nobles. The
+hierarchy bowed to the will of the king.
+
+THE TWO PARTIES.--There were two parties in England among the upholders
+of the king's supremacy. There were the Protestants by conviction, who
+were for spreading the new doctrine. This had already taken root and
+spread in the universities, and in some other places in the
+country. The new literary culture had paved the way for it. In the
+North, there were still left many _Lollards_, disciples of
+_Wickliffe_. _Cromwell, Cranmer_, and one of the bishops,
+_Latimer_, were prominent leaders of this party. Against them were
+the adherents of the Catholic theology, such as _Gardiner_,
+_Tunstal_ of Durham, and other bishops. At first the king inclined
+towards the first of these two parties. One of his most important acts
+was the ordering of a translation of the Bible into English, a copy of
+which was to be placed in every church. But a popular rebellion in 1536
+was followed by a change of ecclesiastical policy. The _Six
+Articles_ were passed, asserting the Roman Catholic doctrines, and
+punishing those who denied transubstantiation with death. The queen,
+_Anne Boleyn_, who was an adherent of the Protestant side, was
+executed on the charge of infidelity to her marriage vows (1536). A few
+years later _Cromwell_ was sent to the scaffold because the king
+no longer approved of his policy and, seeing how unpopular he had
+become, used him as a scapegoat (1540). Lutheran bishops were thrown
+into the Tower: _Cranmer_ alone was shielded by the king's
+personal favor, and by his own prudence. This system of a national
+church, of which the king, and not the Pope, was the head, where the
+doctrine was Roman Catholic, and the great ecclesiastical officers were
+appointed, like civil officers, by the monarch, was the creation of
+_Henry VIII_. His strong will was able to keep down the
+conflicting parties. Despite his sensuality and cruelty, he was a
+popular sovereign. One of his principal crimes was the execution of
+_Sir Thomas More_ for refusing to take the oath of supremacy
+because this contained an affirmation of the invalidity of the king's
+marriage with _Catherine_. _More_ was one of the noblest men
+in England, a man who combined vigor with gentleness. He was willing to
+swear that the children of _Anne_ were lawful heirs to the throne,
+because Parliament, he believed, could regulate the succession; but
+this did not satisfy the tyrannical monarch. In the latter portion of
+his reign he grew more suspicious, willful, and cruel.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.  THE REFORMATION IN GERMANY, FROM THE PEACE OF NUREMBERG
+TO THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG (1532-1555).
+
+
+THE PARTIES IN GERMANY, 1532-1542.--For ten years after the Peace of
+_Nuremberg_, the Protestants in Germany were left unmolested. The
+menacing attitude of the _Turks_, and the occupations of the
+emperor in Italy and in other lands, rendered it impossible to
+interfere with them. _Philip_, the Landgrave of Hesse, a
+chivalrous Protestant prince, led the way in the armed restoration of
+Duke _Ulrich of Würtemberg_, who had been driven out of his
+dominion.  Thus a Protestant prince was established in the heart of
+Southern Germany (1534). In _Westphalia_, a fanatical branch of
+the Anabaptist sect at _Münster_, with whom the Lutherans did not
+sympathize, was broken up by the neighboring Catholic princes. The
+overthrow of the power of _Lübeck_ and of the Hanseatic League
+did not check the advance of Lutheranism. It continued to make great
+progress in different directions. The _Smalcald League_ was
+extended. A _league_ of the Catholic states was formed at
+_Nuremberg_ in 1538. During three years (1538-1541) efforts were
+made by the emperor to secure peace and union. Of these the Conference
+and Diet of _Ratisbon_ in 1541 is the most remarkable. The
+Protestants and Catholics could not agree upon statements of doctrine;
+but the necessity of getting Protestant help against the Turks
+compelled _Charles_ to sanction the Peace of _Nuremberg_,
+and to make to the Lutherans other important concessions. This
+arrangement the emperor regarded as only a temporary truce. Among the
+conquests of Protestantism after the Peace of _Nuremberg_, and
+prior to 1544, were _Brandenburg_ and _Ducal Saxony_, whose
+rulers adopted the new doctrine. It was spreading in _Austria_,
+in _Bavaria_, and in other states. Duke _Henry of Brunswick_
+fell into conflict with the Smalcaldic League, and was conquered, so
+that his principality became Protestant. Even the ecclesiastical
+elector of _Cologne_ was taking steps towards joining the
+Protestant side. This would have given to the Lutherans a majority in
+the electoral college. The bishoprics with temporal power were
+numerous in Germany. If they were secularized, the old religious
+system would be deprived of a principal support.
+
+THE SMALCALDIC WAR.--_Charles V_. was now secretly resolved to
+coerce the Protestants in Germany, and silently made his preparations
+for war. Before hostilities commenced, _Luther_ died (1546). The
+emperor concluded the _Peace of Crespy_, after a fourth war with
+_Francis I_. It was a part of the agreement, that they should act
+jointly against the heretics. But as _Francis_ in the last two
+wars against the emperor (1536-1538, 1542-1544) had taken for allies
+the Turks under _Soliman_, it could not be predicted how long he
+would abide by his engagements. For the present, _Charles_ was
+safe in this quarter. He now took pains to shut the eyes of the
+Protestant princes to their danger. The Smalcaldic League was
+over-confident of its strength. Its members were discordant among
+themselves. Of the two chief leaders, the elector of Saxony, _John
+Frederic_, was a slow and unskillful general; and _Philip_,
+the Landgrave of Hesse, a brave and capable soldier, could not take
+command over an elector. Above all, _Maurice_, the Duke of
+Saxony, was in the midst of a quarrel with his relative, the elector,
+and coveted a part of his territories.  _Maurice_ was an able and
+adroit man, a Protestant, but without the earnest religious
+convictions that belonged to the electors and to that generation of
+princes which was passing away. _Maurice_ was won by the emperor,
+through promises of enrichment and favor, and pledges not to interfere
+with religion in his principality. _Charles_ might have been
+prevented from bringing in foreign troops from the Netherlands and
+from Italy, but the military conduct of the elector was feeble and
+indecisive. He was defeated and captured in 1547 at _Mühlberg_,
+and the surrender of the Landgrave _Philip_ soon followed. The
+Protestant cause was prostrate. The clever _Maurice_ had his
+reward: the electoral office was transferred to him; he obtained a
+goodly portion of the elector's territory.
+
+THE RESULT: THE INTERIM.--_Charles_ was victorious, and
+apparently master of Germany. The country was occupied by his forces
+as far north as the Elbe. He was engaged in the work of pacification
+and of confirming his authority. In 1548 he issued the _Interim of
+Augsburg_, in which concessions were made to both parties, which
+proved satisfactory to neither. Skillful as the emperor was in
+diplomacy, he always showed weakness in dealing with the religious
+question. He proceeded to force the new measure on the refractory
+cities in the South. In the North it had little effect. _Maurice_
+modified it in his own dominion. When _Charles_ seemed to himself
+to be on the eve of a complete triumph, he was deserted by the allies
+on whom he counted,--_Rome_, _France_, and the princes,
+especially _Maurice_.
+
+BREACH OF CHARLES WITH ROME.--The emperor's assuming to regulate the
+affairs of religion was regarded with disfavor at Rome. There had been
+a constant call for a general council to adjust the religious
+controversies. Rome, from fear of imperial influence, and for other
+reasons, had opposed the measure. At length, in 1545, the famous
+_Council of Trent_ assembled. The emperor wanted that body to
+begin with measures for the reformation of abuses. He looked for
+co-operation in his scheme for uniting the parties in Germany. But the
+council took another path: it began with anathemas against the
+heretical doctrines. Charles found himself at variance with the policy
+of Rome, at the moment when he was trying to bring Germany to
+submission.
+
+DISAFFECTION OF MAURICE.--The emperor's course in Germany produced
+general alarm. He separated the _Netherlands_ from the
+jurisdiction of the empire, but settled the succession in the
+government in the house of _Hapsburg_. He drove the Diet into
+other measures which looked towards the acquiring of military
+supremacy for himself in Germany. He violated his pledges respecting
+the two captive princes. _Philip_ of Hesse, the father-in-law of
+_Maurice_, he treated with great severity and indignity. Threats
+were thrown out by the counselors of _Charles_ against the other
+princes, and even against _Maurice_, who complained of the
+treatment of _Philip_, and was sore under the load of
+unpopularity that rested on him on account of his warfare against his
+co-religionists, by whom he was considered another Judas.
+
+THE PEACE OF AUGSBURG.--_Maurice_ laid his plans with secrecy and
+with masterly skill. He secured the coöperation of other German
+princes. He concluded an alliance with _Henry II_. of France. He
+arranged with _Magdeburg_, which he had been besieging, to make
+it a place of refuge if there should be need of an asylum. When all
+was ready, without having excited any suspicion on the part of
+_Charles_, he suddenly took the field, marched southward with an
+army that increased as he advanced, crossed the Alps, and forced the
+emperor, tormented with the gout, to fly hastily from _Innsbruck_
+(1552). The captive princes were released. It was decided that Germany
+was not to be ruled by Spanish soldiery. The dream of imperial
+domination vanished. The Protestants were promised by _Ferdinand_
+of Austria, in the name of his brother, toleration, and equality of
+rights. At the Diet of _Augsburg_ in 1555, the _Religious
+Peace_ was concluded. Every prince was to be allowed to choose
+between the Catholic religion and the Augsburg Confession, and the
+religion of the prince was to be that of the land over which he
+reigned: that is, each government was to choose the creed for its
+subjects. Ferdinand put in the "ecclesiastical reservation," which
+provided that if the head of an ecclesiastical state should become a
+Lutheran, he should resign his benefice. He also declared that the
+Lutheran subjects of ecclesiastical princes were not to be
+disturbed. The "reservation" was to please the Catholics: the
+additional provision was to meet the wishes of the
+Protestants. Neither stood on the same basis as the other part of the
+treaty.
+
+From Maurice the electoral dignity descended in the _Albertine_
+line of Saxon princes. The _Ernestine_ line retained Weimar,
+Gotha, etc.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. CALVINISM IN GENEVA: BEGINNING OF THE CATHOLIC
+COUNTER-REFORMATION.
+
+
+CALVIN.--Second in reputation to Luther only, among the founders of
+Protestantism, is _John Calvin_. He was a Frenchman, born in 1509,
+and was consequently a child when the Saxon Reformation began. He was
+keen and logical in his mental habit, with a great organizing capacity,
+naturally of a retiring temper, yet fearless, and endued with
+extraordinary intensity and firmness of will. A more finished scholar
+than Luther, he lacked his geniality and tenderness, and his
+imaginative power. Calvin first studied for the priesthood at
+_Paris_; but when his father determined to make him a jurist, he
+studied law at _Orleans_ and _Bourges_. Espousing the
+Protestant doctrines, he was obliged to fly from _Paris_, and,
+when still young, published his _Institutes of the Christian
+Religion_, in which he expounded the Protestant creed in a
+systematic although fervid way. In his type of theology, he laid much
+stress on the sovereignty of God, and predestination; and taught a view
+of the Lord's Supper not so far from that of the old Church as the
+doctrine of _Zwingli_, but farther removed from it than was the
+doctrine of Luther.
+
+THE GENEVAN GOVERNMENT.--In 1536, reluctantly yielding to the
+exhortations of _Farel_, a French preacher of the Protestant
+doctrine at _Geneva, Calvin_ established himself in that
+city. _Geneva_ was a fragment of the old kingdom of
+_Burgundy_. The dukes of _Savoy_ claimed a temporal authority
+in the city, which was subject to its bishop. The authority of the
+dukes was overthrown by a revolution, and power passed from the bishop
+into the hands of the people (1533). The change was effected with the
+aid of _Berne_ and _Freiburg_. There had been two parties in
+_Geneva_,--the party of the "Confederates," who were for striking
+hands with the Swiss, and the party of the "Mamelukes," adherents of
+the dukes. The civil was followed by an ecclesiastical
+revolution. Protestantism, with the aid of _Berne_, was legally
+established (1535). _Geneva_ was a prosperous, gay, and dissolute
+city. _Farel_, a popular orator of striking power, unsparing in
+denunciation, found the people impatient of the restraints that the new
+religious system which they had adopted laid upon them. The regulations
+as to doctrine, worship, and discipline, which _Calvin_ and his
+associates proceeded to introduce, were so distasteful, that the
+preachers were expelled by the _Council_ and by the _Assembly of
+Citizens_ from the place. After he had been absent three years,
+Calvin, in consequence of the increase of disorder and vice, and the
+distraction occasioned by contending factions, was recalled, and
+remained in Geneva until his death. He became the virtual lawgiver of
+the city. He framed a system of ecclesiastical and civil government. It
+was an ecclesiastical state, in which orthodoxy of belief, and purity
+of conduct, were not only inculcated by systematic teaching, but
+enforced by stringent enactments. Offenses comparatively trivial were
+punished by strict and severe penalties. To the system of church
+discipline, stretching over the life of every individual, and carried
+out by the civil magistrates in alliance with the pastors, there was
+much opposition, which led to outbreakings of violent resistance. But
+the supporters of Calvin were reinforced by numerous Protestant
+refugees from _France_. The improvement of the city in morals and
+in public order was signal. In the end, _Calvin_, who was as firm
+as a rock, triumphed over all opposition. _Geneva_ became a place
+of resort for exiles and students from various countries. By his
+writings and correspondence, Calvin's influence spread far and wide. In
+the affairs of the French Protestants, in particular, his influence was
+predominant.
+
+SERVETUS.--The Reformers were not, any more than their adversaries,
+advocates of liberty in religious beliefs and professions. A
+melancholy example of the prevailing idea, that it was the duty of the
+civil authority to inflict penalties upon heresy, is the case of
+_Michael Servetus_. A Spaniard by birth, with a remarkable
+aptitude for natural science and medicine, adventurous and fickle, he
+had published books in which doctrines received by both the great
+divisions of the Church, especially the doctrine of the Trinity, were
+assailed. He escaped out of the hands of the Catholics, and came to
+_Geneva_. There he was tried for heresy and blasphemy, and was
+burned at the stake (1553). This was at a time when Calvin was in the
+midst of his contest with the "Libertines," the party actuated by
+hostility to him. They appear to have stood behind _Servetus_ in
+his defiant attitude towards the Genevan authorities.
+
+INFLUENCE OF CALVINISM.--The personal influence of _Calvin_ was
+directly exerted upon the more cultured and educated. His religious
+system has wielded a great power, not only on this class, but also over
+the common people in different countries. Calvinism was never awed by
+monarchical authority. Like the Church of Rome, it always refused to
+subordinate the Church and religion to the civil power. It numbered
+among its votaries many men of dauntless courage and of unbending
+fidelity to their principles.
+
+THE CATHOLIC REACTION.--The first effectual resistance to the spread
+of Protestant opinions was made in _Italy_. In that country,
+there was opposition to the papacy from those who saw in it an
+instrument of political disunion, and also from some who were
+aggrieved by ecclesiastical abuses. The prevailing feeling, however,
+was that of pride in the papacy, which, in other countries, was
+attacked as an Italian institution. The humanist learning had done
+much to undermine belief in the old religious system. In the train of
+the new studies, came much indifference and infidelity. The books of
+the Protestant leaders, however, were widely circulated. There were
+not a few sincere converts to the new doctrine in the cities; but they
+were chiefly confined to the educated class, and to persons in high
+station. It took no root among the common people. After the time of
+the Medici popes, a new spirit of faith and devotion awoke in circles
+earnestly devoted to the papacy and to the Church. There was at Rome
+an "Oratory of Divine Love,"--a group of persons who met together for
+mutual edification. In this class were some, like _Contarini_,
+afterwards a cardinal, who were not wholly without sympathy with the
+Lutheran doctrine as to faith and justification; but out of the same
+class came others who led in the great _Catholic Reaction_,
+which, while it aimed at a rigid reform in morals, was inflexibly
+hostile to all innovations in doctrine, and was bent on regaining for
+the Church the ground that had been lost.
+
+THE COUNCIL OF TRENT: CARAFFA.--The Council of Trent was governed in
+its conclusions by this Catholic reactionary and reforming party. It
+allowed no curtailing of the prerogatives of the Pope. On points of
+doctrine in dispute within the pale of the Church, it adopted formulas
+which the different schools might accept. Practical reforms, for
+example in respect to the education of the clergy, were adopted; but
+dogma and teaching were to remain unaltered. Cardinal _Caraffa_,
+the most energetic mover in the Catholic reform and restoration, became
+Pope, under the name of _Paul IV._ (1555-1559).
+
+THE ORDER OF JESUS.--The Council of Trent, by providing a clear
+definition of doctrine, cemented unity, and was the first great bulwark
+raised against Protestantism. Another means of defense, and of attack
+as well, was provided in new orders, especially the order of
+_Jesuits_. This was founded by _Ignatius Loyola_, a Spanish
+soldier of noble birth, who mingled with the spirit of chivalry a
+strong devotional sentiment. It was the temper of mediĉval knighthood,
+which still lingered in Spain. Wounded at the siege of
+_Pampeluna_, and disabled from war, he had visions of a spiritual
+knighthood; out of which grew the _Society of Jesus_, which was
+sanctioned by Pope _Paul III._ in 1540. Its members took the
+monastic vows. They went through a rigorous spiritual drill. They were
+bound to unquestioning obedience to the Pope. The organization was
+strict, like that of an army; each province having a provincial at its
+head, with a general over all. To him all the members were absolutely
+subject. All other ties were renounced: to serve the Church and the
+order, was the one supreme obligation.
+
+INFLUENCE OF THE JESUITS.--The influence of the Jesuit order was
+manifold. It was active in preaching, and in hearing confessions. It
+made the education of youth a great part of its business. Its members
+found their way into high stations in Church and State: they were in
+the cabinets of princes. From the beginning, they showed an ardent zeal
+in missionary labors among the heathen in distant lands, and for the
+reconquest of countries won by the Protestants.
+
+THE INQUISITION.--Under the auspices of Cardinal Caraffa (_Paul
+IV._), the Inquisition was introduced into Italy (1542), and exerted
+the utmost vigilance and severity in crushing out the new faith. One of
+its instruments was the censorship of the press. So thorough was this
+work, that of the little book on the _Benefits of Christ's Death_,
+which had an immense circulation, it has been possible in recent years
+to find but two or three copies. The "Index" of prohibited books was
+established. The result of these measures was, that Protestantism was
+suppressed in Italy, and the type of Catholicism that was partially
+sympathetic with certain doctrinal features of the Saxon Reform
+likewise vanished.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.  PHILIP II., AND THE BEVOLT OF THE NETHERLANDS.
+
+
+CHARACTER OF PHILIP II.--In 1555 Charles V., enfeebled by his lifelong
+enemy, the gout, resigned his crowns, and devolved on his son,
+_Philip II._, the government of the _Netherlands_, together
+with the rest of his dominions in _Spain_, _Italy_, and
+_America_. The closing part of his life, the emperor passed in the
+secluded convent of _Yuste_, in Spain, where, notwithstanding the
+time spent by him in religious exercises, and in his favorite diversion
+of experimenting with clocks and watches, he remained an attentive
+observer of public affairs. Political and religious absolutism was the
+main article in _Philip's_ creed. He was more thoroughly a
+Spaniard in his tone and temper than his father, who was born in the
+Netherlands, and always loved the people there, as he was loved by
+them.  _Philip_ was cold and forbidding in his manners. He was
+shy, as well as haughty, in his deportment to those who approached
+him. To re-establish everywhere the old religion by the unrelenting
+exercise of force, was his fixed purpose. Only one thing did he value
+more; and that was his own power, which he would not suffer Church or
+clergy to curb or invade. He had few ideas, but was an adept in
+concealment and treachery. A man of untiring industry, he was a plodder
+without insight. He lived to see the vast strength which fell to him as
+a legacy slip out of his hands, and to see Spain sink to a condition of
+comparative weakness. _Charles V_. had consolidated his dominion
+in that country by putting down democratic insurrections. This he had
+done by military force and the arm of the Inquisition. What
+_Charles_ had left undone in this line, Philip completed. He
+quelled the resistance of the _Aragonese_, and reduced them to
+submission. Spain swarmed with civil and ecclesiastical officials. The
+new religious doctrine, which assumed the same type as in Italy, was
+stifled. The monarch displayed his zeal by personal attendance at the
+_autos da fe_, the great public ceremonials for the execution of
+heretics, where the victims of his intolerance perished. A system of
+brutal military administration was adopted in the colonies.
+
+STATE OF THE LOW COUNTRIES.--_Philip_ undertook to treat the
+_Netherlands_ as a Spanish province, and to break down the spirit
+of local independence. The people of the Low Countries were
+industrious, intelligent, prosperous, spirited. Each of the
+_seventeen provinces_ had its own constitution. In the North, it
+was more democratic; in _Flanders_ and _Brabant_, there was a
+landed aristocracy. In all parts of the country, there were local
+privileges and cherished rights. The population numbered three
+millions.  _Antwerp_, with its hundred thousand inhabitants, had
+more trade than any other European city. The Reformation, first in the
+Lutheran but later in the Calvinistic form, had numerous adherents in
+the _Netherlands_, whom severe edicts of _Charles V_., under
+which large numbers were put to death, did not extirpate.
+
+TYRANNY OF PHILIP.--Philip did not select for his regent in the
+_Netherlands_ one of the aristocracy of the country. Of this
+class was Count _Egmont_, a nobleman of brilliant courage and
+attractive manners. _William_, _Prince of Orange_, united
+with far more self-control the sagacity of a statesman. He was
+destined to be the formidable antagonist of Spanish tyranny, and the
+liberator of Holland. _Philip_ passed by the nobles, whom he
+distrusted and disliked, and appointed as regent the illegitimate
+daughter of _Charles V_., _Margaret_ of Parma (1559-1567);
+placing at her side, as her principal adviser, the astute
+_Granvelle_, the Bishop of Arras, one of his devoted servants,
+who was made cardinal in 1561. Three nobles, _William of Orange_,
+and the Counts _Egmont_ and _Horn_, were in the council. The
+power was in _Granvelle's_ hands. There was soon a breach between
+him and the nobles. Two measures of _Philip_ created
+disaffection. He was slow in withdrawing the hated Spanish soldiers;
+he increased the number of bishops, a cherished scheme of _Charles
+V_. Moreover, he renewed and proceeded to enforce edicts, embracing
+minute provisions of a most rigorous character, against the property
+and lives of the Protestants, although the Inquisition had lost public
+favor. The terror and indignation of the people found expression
+through the nobles. They left the council. At length _Granvelle_
+had to be withdrawn from the country (1564). _Egmont_ went to
+Spain to procure a mitigation of the king's policy, but found on his
+return that he had been duped by false promises. The young nobility
+formed an agreement called _the Compromise_, to withstand the
+king's system, at first by legal means (1566). They were
+contemptuously called "beggars" by the regent, and themselves adopted
+the name. The king professed a willingness to make some concessions:
+he was only gaining time for measures of a different sort. In the same
+year a storm of iconoclasm burst out: the Calvinists made reprisals
+for what they had suffered; they vented their zeal against what they
+called "idolatry," by sacking the churches, and by destroying
+paintings and images, and other symbols and implements of
+worship. _Orange_ penetrated the designs of _Philip_, and
+retired to Nassau. _Egmont_, more credulous and confiding,
+remained.
+
+ALVA'S RULE.--_Philip_ now sent into the Netherlands the _Duke
+of Alva_, an officer of considerable military capacity, cold,
+arrogant, and merciless in his temper. His force consisted of ten
+thousand men. A tribunal was erected by him, called the "Council of
+Blood."  _Egmont_ and _Horn_ were executed at _Brussels_
+(1568).  Great numbers of executions of men and women, of all ranks,
+who were accused of some sort of insubordination, or some manifestation
+of heresy, followed. _William of Orange_ was active in devising
+means of deliverance. The first marked success was the capture of
+_Briel_ by the "sea-beggars," inhabitants of the coasts of
+_Holland_ and _Zealand_, under their admiral, _William de
+la Mark_. The barbarities and extortion of Alva by degrees aroused
+universal and intense hatred. _Holland_ and _Zealand_ threw
+off Alva's rule, and made _William_ their stadtholder. The nominal
+connection with Spain was still kept up. The massacre of
+St. Bartholomew (1572) cut off _William_ from the help which he
+expected from the French. It was felt, however, that _Alva_ had
+failed in his attempt to subjugate the people, and he was withdrawn
+from the country by _Philip_ (1573).
+
+THE UTRECHT UNION.--From the capture of _Briel_ may be dated the
+beginning of the long and arduous struggle which resulted in the
+building-up of the Dutch Republic of the _United Provinces_, and
+the ultimate prostration of the power of _Spain_. The hero of the
+struggle was _William of Orange_. The successor of Alva,
+_Requesens_, was really more dangerous than _Alva_, because
+he was more magnanimous, and therefore excited less antagonism. In 1574
+occurred the memorable siege of _Leyden_ by the Spanish
+forces. That city, when reduced to the last extremity, was saved by
+letting in the sea and by inundating the neighboring plains, which
+compelled the Spaniards to flee in dismay. As a memorial of the heroic
+defense of the place, the University of Leyden was founded. A new
+Protestant state was growing up in the North, under the guidance of
+_William_. In the South, where Catholicism prevailed,
+_Requesens_ was more successful. But when he died, in 1576, a
+frightful revolt of his soldiers, who were loosed from restraint, in
+the cities, moved all Netherlands to unite, in the _Pacification of
+Ghent_, against the Spanish dominion. _Don John_ of Austria, a
+brilliant and manly soldier, who had defeated the Turks at
+_Lepanto_, was the next regent (1576-1578). He made large
+concessions: these were welcome in the South, and weakened the
+Union. _Alexander of Parma_ (1578, 1579), his successor, was the
+ablest general of the time. The Catholic South was at variance with the
+Protestant North. In 1579, there was formed between the seven provinces
+in the North the _Utrecht Union_, the germ of the Dutch
+Republic. _Philip_ proclaimed _William_ an outlaw, and set a
+price on his head. After six ineffectual attempts at assassination,
+this heroic leader, the idol of his countrymen, was fatally shot, in
+his own house (1584). His work as a deliverer of his people was mainly
+accomplished. When the Utrecht Union was formed, the greater part of
+the Catholic provinces in the South entered into an arrangement with
+_Parma_. _Brabant_ and _Flanders_ were recovered to
+Spain. The attention of _Philip_ had to be mainly given to the
+affairs of _France_ and _England_ during the remainder of his
+life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. THE CIVIL WARS IN FRANCE, TO THE DEATH OF HENRY IV. (1610).
+
+
+FRANCIS I.: HENRY II.--In France, the old faith had strong support in
+the _Sorbonne_, the influential theological faculty of the
+University of Paris, and in the Parliament. The new culture, the
+influx of Italian scholars and Italian influences, produced a party
+averse to the former style of education, and, to some extent,
+unfriendly to the old opinions. The Lutheran doctrines were first
+introduced; but it was _Calvinism_ which prevailed among the
+French converts to Protestantism, and acquired a strong hold in the
+middle and higher classes, although the preponderance of numbers in
+the country was always on the Catholic side. _Francis I_. was a
+friend of the new learning. His sister _Margaret_, Queen of
+_Navarre_, who was of a mystical turn, was favorably inclined to
+the new doctrines, and befriended preachers who were of the same
+spirit. The king did the same until after the battle of _Pavia_,
+when he helped on the persecution of them; for his conduct was
+governed by the interest of the hour, and by political motives. It was
+doubtful what course he would finally take amid the conflict of
+parties; but his motto was, "One king, one code, one creed." He would
+put down the new doctrine at home, and sustain it by force, if
+expedient, abroad. _Henry II._, who acceded to the throne in
+1547, unlike his father had no personal sympathy with
+Protestantism. The _Huguenots_, as the Calvinists were called,
+were led to the stake, and their books burned. Yet in 1558 they had
+two thousand places of worship in France: they soon held a general
+synod at _Paris_, and organized themselves (1559). That same
+year, when, in the Peace of _Cateau-Cambresis, Henry_ had given
+up all his conquests except the three bishoprics of _Metz, Toul_
+and _Verdun_, and _Calais_, he suddenly died from a wound in
+the eye, accidentally inflicted in a tilt.
+
+CATHERINE DE MEDICI: THE TWO PARTIES.--The widow of Henry II. was
+_Catherine de Medici_, to whom he had been married from political
+considerations. She was a woman of talents, full of ambition which had
+hitherto found no field for its exercise, trained from infancy in an
+atmosphere of deceit, and void of moral principle. Her aim was to rule
+by keeping up an ascendency over her sons, and by holding in check
+whatever party threatened to be dominant. For this end she did not
+scruple to accustom her children to debauchery, and to resort to
+whatever other means, however false and however cruel, to effect her
+purposes. She proved to be the curse of the house of _Valois_,
+and the evil genius of France. _Francis II._ was a boy of
+sixteen, and legally of age; but his mother expected to manage the
+government. She was thwarted by the control over him exercised by the
+family of _Guise_, sons of _Claude_ of Guise, a wealthy and
+prominent nobleman of _Lorraine_, who had distinguished himself
+at _Marignano_, and in later contests against _Charles
+V. Francis_, the _Duke of Guise_, had defended _Metz_,
+and had taken _Calais. Charles_, the Cardinal of Lorraine, was
+the king's confessor. Their sister had married _James V._ of
+Scotland. Her daughter, _Mary Stuart_, a charming young girl, was
+married to _Francis II._, who was infirm in mind and body, and
+easily managed by his wife and her uncles. The great nobles of France,
+especially the _Bourbons_, sprung in a collateral line from
+_Louis IX._, Montmorency, and his three nephews, among them a man
+of extraordinary ability and worth, the Admiral _Coligny_, looked
+on the _Guises_ as upstarts. The _Bourbons_ and the nobles
+allied to them were, some from sincere conviction and some from
+policy, adherents of _Calvinism_. Thus the Protestants in France
+became a political party, as well as a religious body, and a party
+with anti-monarchical tendencies. _Anthony_ of Bourbon, a weak
+and vacillating person, had married _Jeanne d'Albret_, the
+heiress of _Béarn_ and _Navarre_, a heroic woman and an
+earnest Protestant, the mother of _Henry IV_. His brother
+_Louis_, Prince of Condé, a brave, impetuous soldier, whose wife,
+the niece of the Grand Constable _Montmorency_, was a strict
+Protestant, joined that side.
+
+CONSPIRACY OF AMBOISE.--_La Rénaudie_, a Protestant nobleman who
+was determined to avenge the execution of a brother, contrived the
+Conspiracy of Amboise (1560) in order to dispossess the Guises of
+their power by force. The plan was discovered, and a savage revenge
+was taken upon the conspirators. A great number of innocent persons,
+who had no share in the plot, were put to death. The Estates were
+summoned to _Orleans_, and the occasion was to be seized for
+extirpating heresy throughout the kingdom. _Condé_ was under
+arrest, and charged with high treason. Just then, on Dec. 5, 1560, the
+young king died.
+
+CHARLES IX.: EDICT OF ST. GERMAIN.--The coveted opportunity of the
+queen-mother had come. _Charles IX_. (1560-1574) was only ten
+years old. She assumed the practical guardianship over him, and with
+it a virtual regency. The plan of the _Guises_ had failed, and
+they had to give way. There were now two parties in the council. The
+States-general were called together in 1561, and a great religious
+colloquy was held before a brilliant concourse at _Poissy_, where
+_Theodore Beza_, an eloquent and polished scholar and a man of
+high birth, pleaded the cause of the Calvinists. In 1562 the _Edict
+of January_ was issued, which gave up the policy that had been
+pursued for forty years, of extirpating religious dissent. A very
+restricted toleration was given to Protestants: they could hold their
+meetings outside of the walls of cities, unarmed, and in the
+daytime. _Calvin_ and his followers expected the largest results
+from this measure of liberty. _Catherine_ wished for peace,
+without a rupture with the _Pope_ and _Philip II_.
+
+CIVIL WAR.--It was impossible to prevent outbreakings of violence
+against the hated dissenters. The _Guises_ and their associates
+were resolved not to allow toleration. The event that occasioned war
+was the massacre of _Vassy_. On the 1st of March, 1562, the
+soldiers of the _Duke of Guise_, who was passing through the town,
+attacked some Huguenots who were worshiping in a barn at the village of
+_Vassy_. A large number were slain, and some houses plundered, in
+spite of the Duke's efforts to check his troops. The civil wars, so
+begun, closed only with the accession of _Henry IV_. to the
+throne. France was a prey to religious and political fanaticism. Other
+nations mingled in the frightful contest, and the country was well-nigh
+robbed of its independence. At first, there was petty warfare at
+_Paris_, _Sens_, and other places. The Huguenots destroyed
+altars and censers, monuments of art and sepulchers, which, as they
+thought, ministered to idolatry. Rouen was captured by the Catholics
+and sacked. At _Dreux_ (1562) the Protestants were defeated; but
+in 1563 _Guise_, the leader of their adversaries, was assassinated
+by a Huguenot nobleman. The charge that _Coligny_ had a part in
+the deed was false; but he was considered responsible for it, and
+vengeance was kept in store by the family of the slain chief. The
+_Edict of Amboise_ (1563) was favorable to the Protestant nobles,
+but less favorable to the smaller gentry and to the
+towns. _Paris_, from which Calvinist worship was excluded, became
+more and more a stronghold of the Catholic party. Another war ended in
+the _Peace of Longjumeau_ (1568), which was essentially the same
+as the Edict of Amboise. _Philip II._ and the _Duke of Alva_
+spared no effort to induce France to set about the extermination of the
+heretics. In the _third_ war, the Huguenots were beaten at
+_Jarnac_, where _Condé_ fell, leaving his name to his son
+_Henry_, a youth of seventeen (1569). The same year they were
+defeated again at _Moncontour_. _La Rochelle_ was a place of
+safety to the Protestants, who were strong in the wise leadership of
+_Coligny_. There the Queen of Navarre held her court. Thence the
+Huguenot cavalry with the young princes _Condé_, and _Henry of
+Navarre_, her son, sallied forth and traversed France.
+
+ENGLAND OR SPAIN.--The ambition of _Philip_ alarmed the French.
+His complex schemes, if carried out, would involve the reduction of
+their country under Spanish control. He wanted to liberate
+_Mary_, Queen of Scots, then a prisoner of _Elizabeth_, to
+marry her to his half-brother, _Don John_, and to marry his
+sister to _Charles IX_. The court, in 1570, agreed to the
+_Peace of St. Germain_, which, for the security of the Huguenots,
+placed four fortified towns in their possession. Thus France became a
+kingdom divided against itself. _England_, as well as France,
+looked with alarm upon the ambitious projects of _Philip II_.,
+who was now in union with _Venice_ and with the _Pope_, and
+had beaten the _Turks_ at _Lepanto_. It was proposed to
+marry the brother of Charles IX., the _Duke of Anjou_, to Queen
+_Elizabeth_; and when this negotiation was broken off, it was
+proposed that the _Duke of Alençon_, a younger brother, should
+marry her. _Catherine de Medici_ fell in with this anti-Spanish
+policy. It was agreed that her youngest daughter, _Margaret of
+Valois_, should become the wife of _Henry of Navarre._ The
+policy favored by the Huguenots was in the ascendant. Their leaders
+were invited to _Paris_ to be present at the
+nuptials. _Coligny_ came, with _Henry of Navarre_,
+_Condé_, and a large number of their adherents. There was no
+place where the animosity against them was so rancorous.
+
+THE MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW.--The massacre of St. Bartholomew was
+devised by _Catherine de Medici_, who brought to her aid the
+_Duchess of Nemours_, widow of _Francis_ of Guise and mother
+of _Henry_ of Guise, _Anjou_ (afterwards _Henry III_.),
+and Italian counselors who were no strangers to plots of
+assassination. The motive of the queen-mother was her dread of the
+ascendency which she saw that _Coligny_ was gaining over the
+morbid mind of the king, in whom the Huguenot veteran had inspired
+esteem, and had stirred up a desire to enter into the proposed war
+against _Philip II_. in the _Netherlands_. On the 22d of
+August (1572), a shot was fired at _Coligny_, from a window of a
+house, by an adherent of the Guises. He was wounded, but not
+killed. _Charles_ was incensed.  At a visit made to the wounded
+chief, the king was warned by him, as Catherine quickly learned,
+against her pernicious influence in the government. Thereupon she
+arranged with her confederates for a general slaughter of the
+Huguenots, and almost coerced the half-frantic and irresolute king to
+acquiesce in the plan. Perhaps, in gathering them into the city, she
+had foreseen the possible expediency of a change of policy, and that
+such a crime as she now undertook to perpetrate might be found
+desirable. In the night of the 24th of August, at a concerted signal,
+the fanatical enemies of the Huguenots were let loose, and fell upon
+their victims. Several thousands, including _Coligny_, were
+murdered. Couriers were sent through the country, and like bloody
+scenes were enacted in many other cities and towns. _Navarre_ and
+_Condé_, to save their lives, professed conformity to the
+Catholic Church. If these atrocious events excited joy in the mind of
+_Philip II_., and of the numerous intolerant party of which he
+was the head, they were regarded with horror and execration elsewhere,
+among the Catholic as well as the Protestant nations.
+
+THE POLITIQUES: THE LEAGUE: HENRY III.--The queen-mother did not even
+now forsake her general policy. She stood aloof from the combinations
+of _Philip_. A new party, the _Politiques_, or liberal
+Catholics, in favor of toleration, arose. _Henry III_. (1574-1589)
+was incompetent to govern a country torn by factions, with an exhausted
+treasury, and a people groaning under the burdens of taxation. By his
+double dealing he lost the confidence of both the religious parties. In
+May, 1576, he agreed to allow the religious freedom which the
+_Huguenots_ and _Politiques_ demanded. But he had to reckon
+with the _Catholic League_ which was organized under _Henry of
+Guise_. In 1584 _Henry of Navarre_ was left the next heir to
+the throne. The _League_, with _Spain_ and _Rome_,
+resolved that he should not reign. Together with _Condé_, he was
+excommunicated. In the war of he "three Henrys," he was supported by
+England, and by troops from Germany and Switzerland. _Henry III_.,
+finding that _Henry of Guise_ was virtual master, and that the
+States-general at _Blois_ (1588) reduced the royal power to the
+lowest point, caused _Guise_ and his brother, the Cardinal of
+Lorraine, to be assassinated. Excommunicated, and detested by the
+adherents of the League, the king took refuge in the camp of _Henry
+of Navarre_, where he was killed by a fanatical priest (1589).
+
+ABJURATION AND ACCESSION OF HENRY IV.--The _Duke of Mayenne_,
+brother of the slain _Guises_, was at the head of the government
+provisionally established by the League. _Philip II_. was
+intriguing to bring the Catholic nations under his sway. There was
+discord in the League, from the jealousy of _Philip_ on the part
+of _Mayenne. Henry_, a dashing soldier, gained a brilliant
+victory at _Ivry_ in 1590. The grand obstacle in his way to the
+throne was his adhesion to Protestantism. A Calvinist by birth and
+education, but without profound religious convictions, a gallant and
+sagacious man, but loose in his morals, he yielded, for the sake of
+giving peace to France, to the persuasions addressed to him, and, from
+motives of expediency, conformed to the Catholic Church. The nation
+was now easily won to his cause.
+
+REIGN OF HENRY IV.--When _Henry IV_. gained his throne, the
+country was in a most wretched condition. In the desolating wars,
+population had fallen off. Everywhere there were poverty and
+lawlessness. Yet war with _Spain_ was inevitable. In this war,
+_Henry_ was the victor; and the _Peace of Vervins_ restored
+the Spanish conquests, and the conquests made by Savoy, to France
+(1598). The idea of _Henry's_ foreign policy, which was that of
+weakening the power of Spain and of the house of Hapsburg, was
+afterwards taken up by a powerful statesman, _Richelieu_, and
+fully realized. In the _Edict of Nantes_ (1598), the king secured
+to the Huguenots the measure of religious liberty for which they had
+contended. Fortified cities were still left in their hands. Security
+was obtained by the Calvinists, but they became a defensive party with
+no prospect of further progress. Order and prosperity were restored to
+the kingdom. In all his measures, the king was largely guided by a
+most competent minister, _Sully_. But the useful reign of
+_Henry IV_. was cut short by the dagger of an assassin,
+_Ravaillac_ (1610). For fifteen years confusion prevailed in
+France, and a contest of factions, until _Richelieu_ took up the
+threads of policy which had fallen from _Henry's_ hand.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. THE THIRTY-YEARS' WAR, TO THE PEACE OP WESTPHALIA
+(1618-1648).
+
+
+ORIGIN OF THE WAR.--In _Germany_, more than in any other country,
+the Reformation had sprung from the hearts of the people. Its progress
+would have been far greater had it not been retarded by political
+obstacles, and by divisions among Protestants themselves. Germany, to
+be sure, was not disunited by the Reformation: it was disunited
+before. But now strong states existed on its borders,--_France_,
+even _Denmark_ and _Sweden_,--which might profit by its
+internal conflicts. The _Peace of Augsburg_, unsatisfactory as it
+was to both parties, availed to prevent open strife as long as
+_Ferdinand I_. (1556-1564) and _Maximilian II_. (1564-1576)
+held the imperial office. The latter, especially, favored toleration,
+and did not sympathize with the fanaticism of the Spanish branch of his
+family. He condemned the cruelties of _Alva_ and the massacre of
+St. Bartholomew. With the accession of _Rudolph II._, a change
+took place. He had been brought up in Spain. The Catholic
+counter-reformation was now making its advance. The order of the
+_Jesuits _was putting forth great and successful exertions to win
+back lost ground. There were out-breakings of violence between the two
+religious parties. A Catholic procession was insulted in
+_Donauwörth_, a free city of the empire. The city was put under
+the ban by the emperor; the Bavarian Duke marched against it, and
+incorporated it in his own territory (1607). On both sides, complaints
+were made of the infraction of the Peace of Augsburg. The Donauwörth
+affair led to the formation of the _Evangelical Union_, a league
+into which, however, all the Protestant states did not enter. The
+_Catholic League_, under the Leadership of Maximilian of Bavaria,
+was firmly knit together and full of energy.
+
+
+
+FIRST STAGE IN THE WAR (to 1629).
+
+THE BOHEMIAN STRUGGLE.--The _Bohemians_ revolted against
+_Ferdinand II_. in 1618, when their religious liberties were
+violated, and shortly after (1619) refused to acknowledge him as their
+king. He was a narrow and fanatical, though not by nature a cruel,
+ruler. He gave himself up to the control of the Catholic League. The
+two branches of the _Hapsburg_ family--the _Austrian_ and
+_Spanish_--were now in full accord with each other. The Bohemians
+gave their crown to _Frederick V_., the Elector Palatine, the
+son-in-law of _James I_. of England. Bohemia was invaded by
+_Ferdinand_, aided by the League, and abandoned to fire and
+sword. The terrible scenes of the Hussite struggle were re-enacted. In
+the protracted wars that ensued, it was estimated that the Bohemian
+population was reduced from about four millions to between seven and
+eight hundred thousand! The _Palatinate_ was conquered and
+devastated. The electoral dignity was transferred to the _Duke of
+Bavaria_. At last, in 1625, _England_, _Holland_, and
+_Denmark_ intervened in behalf of the fugitive Elector
+Palatine. _Christian IV_. of Denmark was defeated, and the
+intervention failed. The power gained by Maximilian, the Bavarian Duke,
+made his interests separate, in important particulars, from those of
+_Ferdinand_. _Ferdinand_ was able to release himself from the
+virtual control of _Maximilian_ and the League, through
+_Wallenstein_, a general of extraordinary ability. He was a
+Bohemian noble, proud, ambitious, and wealthy. He raised an army, and
+made it support itself by pillage. The unspeakable miseries of Germany,
+in this prolonged struggle, were due largely to the composition of the
+armies, which were made up of hirelings of different nations, whose
+trade was war, and who were let loose on an unprotected
+population. Captured cities were given up to the unbridled passions of
+a fierce and greedy soldiery. Germany, traversed for a whole generation
+by these organized bands of marauders, was in many places reduced
+almost to a desert.
+
+EDICT OF RESTITUTION.--Victory attended the arms of _Wallenstein_,
+and of _Tilly_, a brutal commander, the general of the League. The
+territory of the Dukes of _Mecklenburg_ was given to
+_Wallenstein_ as a reward (1629). He was anxious to conquer the
+German towns on the _Baltic_. _Stralsund_ offered a stubborn
+resistance, which he could not overcome. The League moved
+_Ferdinand_ to the adoption of the _Edict of Restitution_
+(1629), which put far off the hope of peace. This edict enforced the
+parts of the _Peace of Augsburg_ which were odious to the
+Protestants, especially the _Ecclesiastical Reservation_ (p. 410),
+and abrogated the provisions of an opposite tenor. It was evident that
+the real aim was the entire extinction of Protestantism. The League,
+moreover, induced the emperor to remove _Wallenstein_, of whom
+they were jealous. The effect of these measures was to rouse the most
+lukewarm of the Protestant princes, including the electors of
+_Brandenburg_ and _Saxony_, to a sense of the common
+danger. It was plain that _Wallenstein_ was a sacrifice to the
+League, and to the ambition of _Maximilian_ of Bavaria.
+
+
+SECOND STAGE IN THE WAR (1629-1632).
+
+In the second act of this long drama, _Gustavus Adolphus_ of
+Sweden is the hero. His reign is marked by the rise of his country to
+the height of its power.
+
+EVENTS IN SWEDEN: CAREER OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS.--_Gustavus Vasa_
+made the mistake of undertaking to divide power among his four
+sons. There was a vein of eccentricity, amounting sometimes to
+insanity, in the family. _Eric XIV_. was hasty and jealous,
+imprisoned his brother _John_, and committed reckless crimes. In
+1569 he was himself confined, and nine years after was secretly put to
+death. _John_ and another brother, _Charles_ of Südermanland,
+now reigned together. _John_ was favorable to the Roman-Catholic
+Church, and offended his Protestant subjects by efforts at union and
+compromise. Moreover, he unwisely made concessions to the nobles, and
+increased the burdens of the peasants. Finally, he wanted to make his
+son _Sigismund_ king of Poland, a country which, from its
+anarchical constitution, was on the road to ruin. _Poland_ was a
+Catholic land; and, in order to get the crown, _Sigismund_ avowed
+himself a Catholic. _Charles_, a strict Lutheran, drew to his side
+all who were hostile to _John's_ spirit and policy. On the death
+of the latter (1592), Duke _Charles_ came into collision with
+_Sigismund_ and with the nobles, whose power depended on his
+concessions; and he gained the victory over them (1598). In 1604 the
+Diet gave him the crown, which he wore for seven years. He had to
+contend against faction, and to withstand the attacks of _Denmark_
+and of _Russia_. In the midst of these troubles he died, and was
+succeeded by his son _Gustavus Adolphus_, then less than eighteen
+years of age (1611-1632). He was a well-educated prince, early familiar
+with war, a devoted patriot, and, although tolerant in his temper, was
+a sincere Protestant, after the type of the old Saxon electors. For
+eighteen years after his accession, it had been his aim to control the
+_Baltic_. This had brought him into conflict with _Denmark_,
+_Poland_, and _Russia_. His interposition in the German war,
+a step which was full of peril to himself, was regarded by
+_Brandenburg_ and _Saxony_ with jealousy and repugnance. But
+when the savage troops of _Tilly_ (1631) sacked and burned
+_Magdeburg_, the neutral party was driven to side with
+_Sweden_. _Gustavus_ defeated _Tilly_, and the advance
+of his army in the South of Germany prostrated the power of the
+League. The princes regarded the Swedish king with suspicion: the
+cities regarded him with cordiality. Whether along with his sagacious
+and just intentions he connected his own elevation to the rank of King
+of Rome, and emperor, must be left uncertain. _Ferdinand_ was
+obliged to call back _Wallenstein_. The battle of _Lützen_,
+in 1632, was a great defeat of _Wallenstein_, and a grand victory
+for the Swedes; but it cost them the life of their king.
+
+
+
+
+FRANCE.--THE BOURBON KINGS.
+
+
+HENRY IV, 1589-1610, (2), _m._
+Mary, daughter of Francis, Grand Duke of Tuscany
+|
++--LOUIS XIII, 1610-1643, _m._
+|  Anne, daughter of Philip III of Spain.
+|  |
+|  +--LOUIS XIV, 1643-1715, _m._ Maria Theresa,
+|  |  daughter of Philip IV of Spain.
+|  |  |
+|  |  +--Louis, Dauphin, _d._ 1711, _m._ Maria Anna,
+|  |  |  daughter of Ferdinand Maria, Elector of Bavaria.
+|  |  |  |
+|  |  |  +--Louis, Duke of Burgundy, _d._ 1712, _m._
+|  |  |     Mary Adelaide, daughter of Victor Amadeus II of Savoy.
+|  |  |     |
+|  |  |     +--LOUIS XV, 1715-1774, _m._
+|  |  |        Mary, daughter of Stanislas Leczinsky, King of Poland.
+|  |  |        |
+|  |  |        +--Louis, Dauphin, _d._ 1765, _m_
+|  |  |           Maria Josepha, daughter of Frederick Augustus II
+|  |  |           of Poland and Saxony.
+|  |  |           |
+|  |  |           +--LOUIS XVI, 1774-1792 (deposed, executed 1793),
+|  |  |           |  _m._ Marie Antoinette, daughter of
+|  |  |           |  Emperor Francis I.
+|  |  |           |
+|  |  |           +--Louis, Count of Provence (LOUIS XVIII),
+|  |  |           |  1814-1824.
+|  |  |           |
+|  |  |           +--Charles, Count of Artois (CHARLES X), 1824-1830
+|  |  |              (deposed),_m_ Maria Theresa, daughter
+|  |  |              of Victor Amadeus III of Savoy.
+|  |  |
+|  |  +--Francoise (Mademoiselle de Blois),
+|  |               _m._
+|  |  +--Philip, regent, _d._1723.
+|  |  |  |
+|  |  |  +--Louis, _d._ 1752.
+|  |  |     |
+|  |  |     +--Louis Philippe, _d._ 1785.
+|  |  |        |
+|  |  |        +--Louis Philippe (Egalite), executed 1793.
+|  |  |           |
+|  |  |           +--LOUIS PHILIPPE, 1830-1848 (deposed), _m._
+|  |  |              Maria Amelia, daughter of
+|  |  |              Ferdinand I of Two Sicilies.
+|  |  |
+|  |  (2), Elizabeth, daughter of Charles Lewis, Elector Palatine.
+|  |  (1), Henrietta Maria.
+|  +--Philip, _m._
+|
++--Henrietta Maria _m._ Charles I of England.
+
+
+
+
+THIRD STAGE IN THE WAR (1632-1648).
+
+
+FRANCE AFTER HENRY IV.--After the death of _Gustavus_, in the new
+phase of the war, the influence of _Richelieu_, the great
+minister of France, becomes more and more dominant. Germany was in the
+end doomed to eat the bitter fruits of civil war, such as spring from
+foreign interference, even when it comes in the form of help. _Henry
+IV_. had died when he was on the point of directing the power of
+France, as of old, against the house of Hapsburg. The country now fell
+back for a series of years to a state akin to that under the kings who
+preceded him, although it was saved from a long civil war. _Louis
+XIII._ (1610-1643) was a child; and the queen, _Mary de
+Medici_, who was the regent, an Italian woman, with no earnest
+principles, deprived of the counsels of _Sully_, lavished the
+resources of the crown upon nobles, who were greedy of place and
+pelf. At the assembly of the States-general in 1614, nobles, clergy,
+and the third estate were loud in reciprocal accusations. The queen
+fell under the influence of the _Concinis_, an Italian
+waiting-maid and her husband, the latter of whom she made a marquis
+and a marshal of France. She leagued herself in various ways with
+_Spain_. As the king grew older, a party rallied about him, and
+the marshal was assassinated (1617). From that time _Louis_ was
+under the influence of a favorite, the Duke de Luynes, a native
+Frenchman, with whom the nobles were in sympathy. The duke died in
+1621. Then _Richelieu_, Bishop of Lucon (made a cardinal in
+1622), a statesman of extraordinary genius, began his active career in
+politics, and after 1624 guided the policy of France, as a sort of
+Mayor of the Palace. _Louis XIII._ was not personally fond of
+him, but felt the need of him._ Richelieu's_ aim, as regards the
+government of France, was to consolidate the monarchy by bringing the
+aristocracy into subjection to the king. Under him began the process
+of centralization, the system of officers appointed and paid by the
+government, which was fully developed after the great revolution. He
+accomplished the overthrow of the _Huguenots_ as a political
+organization, a state within the state. In 1628 _Rochelle_, the
+last of their towns, fell into his hands. He was determined to make
+the civil authority supreme. He resisted interference with its rights
+on the part of the Church. The nobles were reduced to obedience by the
+infliction of severe punishments. The common people were kept
+under. But the domestic government of _Richelieu_ made it
+possible for the selfish and ruinous policy of _Louis XIV._ to
+arise. The key of his foreign policy was hostility to _Austria_
+and _Spain_, to both branches of the Hapsburgs. Before he took
+active measures against them, he had to procure quiet in France, and
+to provide himself with money and troops.
+
+INTERVENTION OF RICHELIEU.--The pretext of _Richelieu_ for taking
+part in the German war was the alleged ambitious aim of the
+_Hapsburgs_ to destroy the independence of other nations. He
+helped _Gustavus_ with money; but the Swedish king would neither
+allow him to take territory, nor to dictate the method of prosecuting
+the contest. It was agreed that the Catholic religion as such should
+not be attacked. _Oxenstiern_, the Swedish chancelor, in the
+_Heilbronn Treaty_ (1633) adhered to the same policy.
+
+DEATH OF WALLENSTEIN.--_Wallenstein_ had now become dangerous to
+the emperor. He negotiated with the Protestants, the Swedes, and the
+French, possibly to confront the emperor with the accomplished fact of
+peace and to claim as a reward the _Palatinate_ or the _Kingdom
+of Bohemia_. Deprived of his command and declared a traitor, he was
+assassinated by some of his officers (1634).
+
+END OF THE WAR.--The imperial victory of _Nordlingen_ (1634) made
+the active assistance of France necessary. But it was not until the
+death of _Bernard_ of Weimar, the foremost general of the Germans
+(1639), that _Richelieu_ found himself at the goal of his
+efforts. The armies opposed to the emperor were now under the control
+of the French. The character of the war had changed. Protestant states
+were fighting on the imperial side: the old theological issues were
+largely forgotten. Yet the Court of Vienna still clung to the Edict of
+Restitution (p. 424) for eight long years, during which the confused,
+frightful warfare was kept up. At last the military reverses of the
+emperor, _Ferdinand III_. (1637-1657), who, unlike his father,
+was not indisposed to peace, wrung from him a consent to the necessary
+conditions.
+
+EFFECTS OF THE WAR.--The barbarities of this long war are
+indescribable. The unarmed people were treated with brutal
+ferocity. The population of Germany is said to have diminished in
+thirty years from twenty to fifty per cent. The population of one city,
+Augsburg, fell from eighty to eighteen thousand. There were four
+hundred thousand people in _Würtemberg_: in 1641 only forty-eight
+thousand were left. In fertile districts, the destruction of the crops
+had caused great numbers to perish by famine. It is only in recent
+years that the number of horned cattle in Germany has come to equal
+what it was in 1618. Cities, villages, castles, and dwellings
+innumerable, had been burned to the ground.
+
+THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA.--The Peace of Westphalia, concluded in 1648,
+was a great European settlement. It was agreed, that in _Germany_,
+whatever might be the faith of the prince, the religion of each state
+was to be Catholic or Protestant, according to its position in 1624,
+which was fixed upon as the "normal year."  In the imperial
+administration, the two religions were to be substantially
+equal. Religious freedom and civil equality were extended to the
+Calvinists. The _empire_ was reduced to a shadow by giving to the
+_Diet_ the power to decide in all important matters, and by the
+permission given to its members to make alliances with one another and
+with foreign powers, with the futile proviso that no prejudice should
+come thereby to the empire or the emperor. The independence of
+_Holland_ and _Switzerland_ was acknowledged. _Sweden_
+obtained the territory about the Baltic, in addition to other important
+places, and became a member of the German Diet. Among the acquisitions
+of _France_ were the three bishoprics, _Metz_, _Toul_,
+and _Verdun_, and the landgraviate of _Upper_ and _Lower
+Alsace_. Thus _France_ gained access to the
+Rhine. _Sweden_ and _France_, by becoming guarantors of the
+peace, obtained the right to interfere in the internal affairs of
+Germany.
+
+CONSEQUENCES OF THE TREATY.--By this treaty, what was left of central
+authority in Germany was destroyed: the empire existed only in name;
+the mediĉval union of empire and papacy was at an end. Valuable German
+territories were given up to ambitious neighbors. _France_ had
+extended her bounds, and disciplined her troops. _Sweden_ had
+gained what _Gustavus_ had coveted, and, for the time, was a
+power of the first class. _Spain_ and _Austria_ were both
+disabled, and reduced in rank.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. SECOND STAGE OF THE REFORMATION IN ENGLAND: TO THE DEATH
+OF ELIZABETH (1547-1603).
+
+
+REIGN OF EDWARD VI. (1547-1553).--_Henry VIII_., with Parliament,
+had determined the order of succession, giving precedence to
+_Edward_, his son by _Jane Seymour_, over the two princesses,
+_Mary_, the daughter of _Catherine_, and _Elizabeth_,
+the daughter of _Anne Boleyn_. _Edward VI_., who was but ten
+years old at his accession, was weak in body, but was a most remarkable
+instance of intellectual precocity. The government now espoused the
+Protestant side. _Somerset_, the king's uncle, was at the head of
+the regency. The _Six Articles_ (p. 407) were repealed. Protestant
+theologians from the Continent were taken into the counsels of the
+English prelates, _Cranmer_ and _Ridley_. Under the
+leadership of _Cranmer_, the Book of Common Prayer was framed, and
+the _Articles_, or creed, composed. The clergy were allowed to
+marry. The Anglican Protestant Church was fully organized, but the
+progress in the Protestant direction was rather too rapid for the sense
+of the nation. _Somerset_, who was fertile in schemes and a good
+soldier, invaded Scotland in order to enforce the fulfilling of the
+treaty which had promised the young Princess _Mary_ of Scotland to
+_Edward_ in marriage. He defeated the Scots at _Pinkie_, near
+Edinburgh; but the project as to the marriage failed. _Mary_ was
+sent by the Scots to France, there to become the wife of _Francis
+II_. Land belonging to the Church was seized by _Somerset_ to
+make room for _Somerset House_. A Catholic rebellion in Cornwall
+and Devonshire, provoked by the Protector's course, was suppressed with
+difficulty. The opposition to him on various grounds, which was led by
+the _Duke of Northumberland_, finally brought the Protector to the
+scaffold. But _Northumberland_ proved to be less worthy to hold
+the protectorate than he, and labored to aggrandize his relatives. He
+was one of the nobles who made use of Protestantism as a means of
+enriching themselves. He persuaded the young king, when he was near his
+end, to settle the crown, contrary to what Parliament had determined,
+on _Lady Jane Grey_, Northumberland's daughter-in-law, a
+descendant of _Henry's_ sister.
+
+THE REIGN OF MARY.--Notwithstanding the Protector's selfish scheme,
+_Mary_ succeeded to the throne without serious difficulty.
+_Northumberland_ was beheaded as a traitor. An insurrection under
+_Wyat_ was put down, and led to the execution of the unfortunate
+and innocent _Lady Jane Grey_. From her birth and all the
+circumstances of her life, _Mary_ was in cordial sympathy with
+the Church of Rome and with Spain. She proceeded as rapidly as her
+more prudent advisers, including her kinsman _Philip II._, would
+allow, to restore the Catholic system. The married clergy were
+excluded from their places, and the Prayer-Book was abolished. The
+point where Parliament showed most hesitation was in reference to the
+royal supremacy. The nobles were afraid of losing their fields and
+houses, which had belonged to the Church. It was stipulated that the
+abbey lands, which were now held by the nobles and gentry as well as
+by the crown, should not be given up. Personally, _Mary_ was
+inclined to any measure which obligation to the Catholic religion
+might dictate. Contrary to the general wish of her subjects, she
+married _Philip II_. Rigorous measures of repression were adopted
+against the Protestants. A large number of persons, eminent for
+talents and learning, were put to death on the charge of heresy. Among
+them were the three bishops, _Cranmer_, _Ridley_, and
+_Latimer_, who were burned at the stake at Oxford
+(1556). _Gardiner_, _Bonner_, and the rigid advocates of
+persecution, had full sway. These severe measures were not popular;
+and, although the queen was not in her natural temper cruel, they have
+given her the name of the "Bloody Mary." Each party used coercion when
+it had the upper hand. A great number of the Protestant clergy fled to
+the Continent.  _Mary_ sided with Spain against France, and,
+greatly to the disgust of the English, lost _Calais_ (1558). Pope
+_Paul IV._ was disposed to press upon England the extreme demands
+of the Catholic Reaction. He was, moreover, hostile to the
+Spanish-Austrian house. There was great fear respecting the
+confiscated Church property: her own share in it, the queen persuaded
+Parliament to allow her to surrender. Cardinal _Pole_, a moderate
+man, no longer guided her policy. He was deprived of the office of
+papal legate. General discontent prevailed in the kingdom. The queen
+herself was dispirited, and her life ended in anxiety and sorrow.
+
+CHARACTER OF ELIZABETH (1558-1603).--The nation welcomed Elizabeth to
+the throne. Her will was as imperious as that of her father. Her
+character was not without marked faults and foibles. She was vain,
+unwisely parsimonious, petulant, and overbearing, and evinced that want
+of truthfulness which was too common among rulers and statesmen at that
+period. But she had regal virtues,--high courage, devotion to the
+public good, for which she had the strength to sacrifice personal
+inclinations, together with the wisdom to choose astute counselors and
+to adhere to them. Her title to the throne was disputed. She had to
+contend against powerful and subtle adversaries. Her defense lay in the
+mutual jealousy of France and Spain, and in the determination of
+Englishmen not to be ruled by foreigners. Her reign was long and
+glorious.
+
+HER RELIGIOUS POSITION.--In her doctrine, _Elizabeth_ was a
+moderate Lutheran, not bitterly averse to the Church of Rome, but, in
+accordance with the prevalent English feeling which _Henry
+VIII_. represented, clinging to the royal supremacy. The Protestant
+system, with the Prayer-Book, and the hierarchy dependent on the
+sovereign, was now restored.
+
+PROTESTANTISM IN SCOTLAND.--In case _Elizabeth's_ claim to the
+crown were overthrown, the next heir would be _Mary, Queen of
+Scots_. Her grandmother was the eldest sister of Henry VIII. Her
+claim to the English crown was a standing menace to _Elizabeth_.
+When _Mary's_ father, _James V_., died (1542), she was only
+a few days old. Her mother, _Mary of Guise_, became regent. The
+Reformation had then begun to gain adherents in Scotland. On the
+accession of _Elizabeth_, at a time when the religious wars in
+France were about to begin, the Scottish regent undertook repressive
+measures of increased rigor. The principal agent in turning Scotland
+to the Protestant side was _John Knox_, an intrepid preacher,
+honest, and rough in his ways, deeply imbued with the spirit of
+Calvinism, and free from every vestige of superstitious deference for
+human potentates. He returned from the Continent in 1555. Many of the
+turbulent nobles, partly from conviction and partly from covetousness,
+adopted the new opinions. More and more, however, _Knox_ gained a
+hold upon the common people. His preaching was effective: one of its
+natural consequences was an outburst of iconoclasm. Even _Philip
+II_. was willing to have the nobles helped in the contest with the
+regent, Scotland being the ally of _France_. The queen-regent
+died in 1560. The Presbyterians now had full control, and Calvinistic
+Protestantism was legally established as the religion of the country.
+
+THE QUEEN OF SCOTS.--Such was the situation when _Mary_, the
+young widow of _Francis II._, came back to Scotland to assume her
+crown. A zealous Catholic, she undertook to rule a turbulent people
+among whom the most austere type of Protestantism was the legal and
+cherished faith. She had personal charms which _Elizabeth_
+lacked, but as a sovereign she was wanting in the public virtue which
+belonged to her rival. _Mary_ was quick-witted and full of
+energy; but she had been brought up in the court of _Catherine de
+Medici_, in an atmosphere of duplicity and lax morals. She had the
+vices of the _Stuarts_,--an extravagant idea of the sacred
+prerogatives of kings, a disregard of popular rights, a willingness to
+break engagements. Her levity, even if it had been kept within bounds,
+would have been offensive to her Calvinistic subjects. She had at
+heart the restoration of the Catholic system. In _Knox_ she found
+a vigilant and fearless antagonist, with so much support among the
+nobles and the common people that her attempts at coercion, like her
+blandishments, proved powerless. Contrary to the wishes and plans of
+_Elizabeth_, she married _Darnley_, a Scottish nobleman
+(1565), whom, not without reason, she soon learned to despise. Her
+half-brother _Murray_, a very able man, and the other Protestant
+nobles, had been opposed to the match. She allowed herself an
+innocent, but unseemly, intimacy with an Italian musician,
+_Rizzio_. With the connivance of her husband, he was dragged out
+of her supper-room at Holyrood, and brutally murdered by
+_Ruthven_ and other conspirators. In 1567, the house in which
+Darnley was sleeping, close by Edinburgh, was blown up with gunpowder,
+and he was killed. Whether _Mary_ was privy to the murder, or
+not, is a point still in dispute. Certain it is that she gave her hand
+in marriage to _Bothwell_, the prime author of the crime. A
+revolt of her subjects followed. She was compelled to abdicate:
+_Murray_ was made regent, and her infant son, _James VI._,
+was crowned at Stirling (1567). Escaping from confinement at
+_Lochleven_, she was defeated at _Langside_, and obliged to
+fly to England for protection.
+
+EXECUTION OF MARY.--Elizabeth had no liking for the new religious
+system in Scotland. She hated the necessity of aiding rebels against
+their sovereign. But there was no alternative. In 1569 the defeat of
+the Huguenots in France was followed by a Catholic rebellion in the
+North of England. Elizabeth was excommunicated by Pope _Pius
+V_. There was a determination to dethrone her, and to hand over her
+crown to Mary. The drift of events was towards a conflict of England
+with _Spain_. The Duke of _Norfolk_, a leader in conspiracy
+and rebellion, who acted in concert with _Philip_ and with
+_Mary_, was brought to the scaffold (1572). _Elizabeth_
+secretly aided the revolted subjects of _Philip_ in the
+Netherlands, as _Philip_ encouraged the malcontents in England
+and Ireland. The Queen of Scots was the center of the hopes of the
+enemies of England and of _Elizabeth_. When her complicity in the
+conspiracy of _Babington_, which involved a Spanish invasion and
+the dethronement and death of Elizabeth, was proved, _Mary_,
+after having been a captive for nineteen years, was condemned to
+death, and executed (1587) at Fotheringay Castle.
+
+THE SPANISH ARMADA.--In 1585 Elizabeth openly sent troops to the
+Netherlands under the command of her favorite, _Leicester_. The
+contest with Spain was kept up on the sea by bold English mariners,
+who captured the Spanish treasure-ships, and harassed the Spanish
+colonies. It was a period of maritime adventure, when men like
+_Frobisher_, _Hawkins_, and _Raleigh_ made themselves
+famous, and when _Sir Francis Drake_ sailed around the world. In
+the course of this voyage, Drake had seized from the Spanish vessels,
+and from the settlements on the coast of Peru and Chili, a vast amount
+of silver and gold. When it was known that _Philip_ was preparing
+to invade England, Drake sailed into the harbor of _Cadiz_, and
+destroyed the ships and stores there (1587). He burned every Spanish
+vessel that he could find. He boasted on his return that he had
+"singed the king of Spain's beard." _Philip_ made ready a mighty
+naval expedition, the "Invincible Armada," for the conquest of
+England. The fame of it resounded through Europe. A Spanish force in
+the Netherlands, under _Parma_, was to coöperate with it. In
+_England_, there were preparations to meet the attack. Catholics
+and Protestants were united for the defense of the kingdom. At
+_Tilbury_, Queen _Elizabeth_ reviewed her troops on
+horseback, saying to them in a spirited speech, "I know I have the
+body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach
+of a king, and of a king of England too."  The tempest, aiding the
+valor of the English seamen, dispersed the great fleet. No landing was
+effected, and the grand enterprise proved a complete failure. Only
+fifty-four out of the one hundred and fifty vessels succeeded in
+making their way back to Spain.
+
+MONOPOLIES.--The queen knew how to yield to the people when she saw
+that they were determined upon a measure. This she did near the close
+of her reign, when the Commons called upon her to put an end to the
+monopolies which she had been in the habit of granting to individuals
+whom she specially liked.
+
+THE EARL OF ESSEX.--The queen had her personal favorites. Among them,
+_Robert Dudley_, whom she made the Earl of Leicester, was the one
+of whom she was most fond. She esteemed him much above his merits.
+Another of her favorites was the young _Earl of Essex_, who was
+vain and ambitious. He went in 1596 with _Lord Howard_ in an
+expedition which took and plundered _Cadiz_. Then he was sent to
+Ireland in command of an army. He failed, and came back to England
+without leave. He made a foolish attempt at insurrection, was tried
+for treason, and convicted; and Elizabeth reluctantly signed the
+warrant for his execution (1601).
+
+CONQUEST OF IRELAND.--After the return of _Essex_ from Ireland,
+where he had done nothing well, _Lord Mountjoy_ was sent to
+conquer _Tyrone_, the _Desmonds_, and other Irish chiefs. It
+was a long and fierce contest. He succeeded in subduing the country;
+but the effect of his conquest was a terrible famine in the North,
+where the food had been destroyed. At the end of Elizabeth's reign,
+all Ireland was subject to England.
+
+THE PURITANS.--Uniformity in the forms of religious worship was
+ordained by law in England, and the queen was bent on enforcing it. A
+_Court of High Commission_ was established to punish heresy and
+nonconformity. This policy early brought on a conflict, not only with
+the Roman Catholics, but also with the large and growing class of
+Protestants who were called "Puritans."  These wished to carry the
+Reformation farther than it had been carried by the Tudors in England,
+and to make the English Church more like the Calvinistic churches in
+Scotland and on the Continent. They disliked surplices and other
+vestments worn by the clergy, which they pronounced "badges of
+popery," the sign of the cross used in baptism, and like customs
+retained in the Church as established by law. Many of them became
+opposed to the whole prelatical organization. They did not admit the
+supremacy of the sovereign, as _Elizabeth_ claimed it, in things
+having to do with the Church and religion. Many of the Puritans
+conformed to the existing system of Church government and worship, but
+under a protest and with the hope of seeing it changed. Others were
+_nonconformists_; that is, they did not formally break off from
+the English Church, but avoided taking part in the forms of worship of
+which they disapproved. This class was numerous. A third and smaller
+class, the "Independents," separated from the Established Church, and
+disbelieved in national churches, or a national organization of
+religion, altogether. They formed religious societies of their
+own. Thus English Protestants were divided among themselves. Upon both
+Puritans and Roman Catholics--upon the latter, partly on political
+grounds--severe penalties were inflicted. Churchman and Puritan, while
+they agreed substantially in theology, stood at variance in regard to
+Church government and modes of worship.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX. THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION AND THE COMMONWEALTH (1603-1658).
+
+
+JAMES I.--_James VI_. of Scotland, and _I_. of England, was
+the son of _Mary Stuart_ and _Darnley_. Scotland and England
+were now united under one king. He was not wanting in acquirements,
+and plumed himself on his knowledge of theology. A conceited pedant,
+he was impatient of dissent from his opinions. In Scotland, among
+insubordinate nobles and the ministers of the Kirk,--who on one
+occasion went so far as to pull his sleeve when they addressed to him
+their rebukes,--he had hardly tasted the sweets of regal power. The
+deference with which the English clergy treated him deepened his
+attachment to their Church. He had high notions of the divine right of
+kings. "No bishop, no king," was his favorite maxim. Early, in the
+_Hampton Court Conference_ between the bishops and the Puritans,
+over which James presided, he showed his antipathy to the Puritans. It
+may be here stated, that a suggestion there made led to the making of
+the Authorized Version of the Bible, for which previous translations,
+especially the translation of _Tyndale_, furnished the basis. The
+king's severity to the Catholics was the occasion of the "Gunpowder
+Plot," a project that failed, for blowing up the Parliament House by
+means of powder placed under it, to which one _Guy Fawkes_ was to
+apply the match (1605).
+
+IRELAND.--The _Earl of Tyrone_, an Irish chief, fell into a
+dispute with the English authorities, and, with another Irish earl,
+fled to Spain. The best of their lands in _Ulster_ were given to
+English and Scotch colonists. Only what was left of the land was
+granted to the Irish, many of whom were dispossessed of their
+homes. The Ulster colonies were industrious and prosperous; but among
+the natives, seeds of lasting enmity were sown by this injustice.
+
+JAMES'S FOREIGN POLICY.--The nation became imbittered against the
+king. One grievance was the sale not only of patents of nobility, but
+also of monopolies to companies or individuals. This was a continuance
+of an old abuse. The trial and conviction of _Lord Bacon_, the
+Lord Chancelor, who was impeached on the charge of receiving presents
+which were intended to influence his decisions as a judge, was one
+evidence of the corruption of the times, and of the displeasure
+occasioned by it. Instead of aiding his son-in-law, _Frederick
+V_., the Elector Palatine, whose dominions had been seized by a
+Spanish army sent to aid his enemies, _James_ busied himself with
+schemes for marrying his son _Charles_ to the _Infanta_, or
+Princess, _Maria_ of Spain, the sister of _Philip IV_. As a
+part of his truckling to Spain, he caused _Sir Walter Raleigh_ to
+be executed. _Raleigh_, who had no love for Spain, had long been
+kept in the Tower on the charge of treason; but the king, who wanted
+gold, had permitted him to go on a voyage to South America to seek for
+it. There, without his fault, some of his men had a collision with the
+Spaniards, up the _Orinoco_. Not having procured any treasure, he
+was disposed to attack Spanish ships; but the captains with him would
+not consent. On his return to England, he was again thrown into
+prison, and brought to the block. At length the marriage treaty with
+Spain, to the joy of the nation, was broken off. _Charles_, it
+was agreed, should marry _Henrietta Maria_, the sister of
+_Louis XIII._, the king of France. The king came to a better
+understanding with Parliament, which had constantly opposed his policy
+and withstood his arrogant assumption of absolute authority.
+
+CHARLES I. (1625-1649).--_Charles I._ in dignity of person far
+excelled his father. He had more skill and more courage; but he had
+the same theory of arbitrary government, and acted as if insincerity
+and the breaking of promises were excusable in defense of it. His
+strife with Parliament began at once. They would not grant supplies of
+money without a redress of grievances and the removal of
+_Buckingham_, the king's favorite. War had begun with Spain
+before the close of the last reign. An expedition was now sent to
+Cadiz, but it accomplished nothing. Buckingham was impeached; but
+before the trial ended, the king dissolved Parliament. A year later he
+went to war with France. He was then obliged (1628) to grant to his
+third Parliament their _Petition of Right_, which condemned his
+recent illegal doings,--arbitrary taxes and imprisonment, the
+billeting of soldiers on householders, proceedings of martial law. A
+few months later Buckingham was assassinated by one _John Felton_
+at Portsmouth. Certain taxes called _tonnage_ and
+_poundage_, _Charles_ continued to levy by his own
+authority. A patriotic leader and a prominent speaker in the House of
+Commons was _Sir John Eliot_. The king dissolved Parliament
+(1629), and sent _Eliot_ and two other members of the House to
+prison. No other Parliament was summoned for eleven years. The king
+aimed to establish an absolute system of rule such as _Richelieu_
+had built up in France. Two ministers were employed by him in
+furthering this policy. One was a layman, _Wentworth, Earl of
+Strafford_, who exercised almost unlimited power in the northern
+counties. The other was _William Laud_, Bishop of London and then
+Archbishop of Canterbury (1633), who undertook to force the Puritans
+to conform to all the observances of the Church. Two courts--the
+_High Commission_, before which the clergy were brought; and the
+_Star Chamber_, which was made up from the king's council--were
+the instruments for carrying out this tyranny. Grievous and shameful
+punishments were inflicted on the victims of it.
+
+JOHN HAMPDEN.--There was need of a fleet. Charles, without asking any
+grant from Parliament, undertook to levy a tax called "ship-money" in
+every shire. _John Hampden_, a country gentleman, refused to pay
+it. The judges gave a verdict against him, but he won great applause
+from patriotic Englishmen.
+
+BEGINNING OF THE LONG PARLIAMENT.--In 1637 Charles embarked in the
+foolish enterprise of endeavoring to force the English liturgy upon
+Scotland. This called out the _Solemn League and Covenant_ of the
+Scots for the defense of Presbyterianism. For eleven years the king
+had governed without a Parliament, but he needed money. The "Short
+Parliament" was assembled; but, as it refused to obey the king, it was
+quickly dissolved. The invasion of the Scots in 1640 made it necessary
+for Charles to assemble that body known as the _Long Parliament_,
+one of the most memorable of all legislative
+assemblies. _Strafford_ and _Laud_ were
+impeached. _Strafford_, by a bill of attainder passed by both
+Houses, was condemned and executed (1641). It was enacted that the
+present Parliament should not be dissolved or prorogued without its
+own consent,--an act which Charles reluctantly sanctioned. The Star
+Chamber and High Commission Courts were abolished. A great Irish
+insurrection broke out in _Ulster_. It has already been related
+how _Henry VIII._ established in Ireland his ecclesiastical
+system; how, during _Elizabeth's_ reign, there was fierce and
+incessant war with the _Desmonds_, and other Anglo-Irish
+families, who resisted Protestantism; and how _James I._, robbing
+many Irish of their lands, planted in _Ulster_ numerous English
+and Scotch Protestant settlers. These were now massacred in great
+numbers by the Irish, who almost succeeded in seizing
+_Dublin_. Parliament would not trust _Charles_ with an army
+to use in Ireland, fearing that the troops would be used by him to
+defend his arbitrary government at home. The king came to the House of
+Commons with a body of armed men, and made an abortive attempt to
+seize five members on the charge of resisting his authority, among
+whom were _John Hampden_, and _John Pym_, who was one of the
+most influential orators on the popular side. A bill was passed
+excluding the bishops from the House of Lords, where a majority were
+for the king. To this Charles consented, but he refused to allow
+Parliament to control the militia.
+
+The CIVIL WAR: SUCCESS OF CROMWELL.--In July, 1642, Parliament
+appointed a Committee of Public Safety, and called out the
+militia. Soon _Charles_ raised the royal standard at
+_Nottingham_. In the civil war, on one side were the Royalists,
+who were familiarly styled _cavaliers_ (that is, _horsemen_,
+or gentlemen), and on the other were the Parliamentarians, who were
+nicknamed _Roundheads_, for the reason that the Puritans did not
+follow the fashion of allowing their hair to fall in tresses on the
+shoulders.
+
+_The Earl of Essex_, the Parliamentary general, fought an
+indecisive battle with the king at _Edgehill_. _Charles_
+then made _Oxford_ his headquarters. Early in the war, two men of
+spotless character fell,--_Hampden_, on the popular side (1643),
+and _Lord Falkland_ (1643), who, not without hesitation, had
+joined the Royalists. The cavalry of Charles, under a gallant but rash
+leader, Prince _Rupert_, son of the _Electress Palatine_,
+and grandson of _James I_., was specially
+effective. _Charles_ made peace with the Irish insurgents in
+order to get their help in fighting Parliament. Parliament united with
+the Scots in the _Solemn League and Covenant_, by which there was
+to be uniformity in religion in England, Ireland, and Scotland.
+
+PRESBYTERIANS AND INDEPENDENTS.--_Presbyterianism_ was now made
+the legal system; and about two thousand beneficed clergymen in
+England, who refused to subscribe to the Covenant, were deprived of
+their livings. The _Westminster Assembly_ met in 1643, and
+organized a church system without bishops and without the liturgy. But
+Parliament did not give up its own supremacy in ecclesiastical
+affairs. There was no "General Assembly" to rule the Church, as in
+Scotland. Another party, the _Independents_, were gaining
+strength, and by degrees getting control in the army. Of their number
+was _Oliver Cromwell_, a gentleman of Huntingdonshire, who had
+been a member of the House of Commons, where he spoke for the first
+time in 1629.
+
+CROMWELL: NASEBY.--By many of his adversaries, and by numerous writers
+since that day, _Cromwell_ has been considered a hypocrite in
+religion, actuated by personal ambition. The Puritan poet, _John
+Milton_, who became his secretary after he acquired supreme power,
+gives to him the warmest praise for integrity and piety, as well as
+for genius and valor. Of his religious earnestness after the Puritan
+type, and of his sincere patriotism, there is at present much less
+doubt. As to the transcendent ability and sagacity that lay beneath a
+rugged exterior, there has never been any question. He raised and
+trained a regiment of Puritan troops, called the "_Ironsides_,"
+who were well-nigh invincible in battle, but whose camp was a
+"conventicle" for prayer and praise. With their help, the Royalists
+were defeated at _Marston Moor_ (1644). The army was now modeled
+anew by the Independents. The _Self-denying Ordinance_ excluded
+members of Parliament from military command. _Cromwell_ was made
+an exception. He came to the front, with no other general except
+_Fairfax_, who had replaced _Essex_, above him. _Laud_
+was condemned for high treason by an ordinance of Parliament, and
+beheaded (1645). The Royalist army experienced a crushing defeat at
+_Naseby_ in June of the same year.
+
+TRIAL AND EXECUTION OF CHARLES.--Charles surrendered to the army of
+the Scots before _Newark_ (1646); and by them he was delivered
+for a ransom, in the form of an indemnity for war expenses, to their
+English allies. The king hoped much from the growing discord between
+the _Presbyterians_, who favored an accommodation with him if
+they could preserve their ecclesiastical system; and the
+_Independents_, who controlled the army, and were in favor of
+toleration, and of obtaining more guaranties of liberty against regal
+usurpation. In June, 1647, the army took the king out of the hands of
+Parliament, into their own custody. He negotiated with all parties,
+and was trusted by none. In 1648 he agreed, in a secret treaty with
+the Scots, to restore Presbyterianism. There were Royalist risings in
+different parts of England, which _Cromwell_ suppressed. He
+defeated at _Preston Pans_ a Scotch army, led into England by the
+_Duke of Hamilton_ to help Charles. _Cromwell's_ army were
+now determined to baffle the plans of the Parliamentary
+majority. _Col. Pride_, with a regiment of foot, excluded from
+the House of Commons about a hundred members. This measure, dictated
+by a council of officers, was called _Pride's Purge_. The Commons
+closed the House of Lords, and constituted a _High Court of
+Justice_ for the trial of the king. He refused to acknowledge the
+tribunal, and behaved with calmness and dignity to the end. He was
+condemned, and beheaded on a scaffold before his own palace at
+_Whitehall_, Jan. 30, 1649. By one party he was execrated as a
+tyrant, whose life was a constant danger to freedom. By the other
+party he was revered as a martyr. His two eldest sons were
+_Charles_, born in 1630, and _James_, born in 1633.
+
+THE COMMONWEALTH.--The monarchy was now abolished; and England was a
+free commonwealth, governed by the House of Commons. A council of
+state, under the presidency of _Bradshaw_, who had presided at
+the trial of the king, was appointed to carry on the government. In
+Ireland, a rebellion in behalf of young Charles, son of the late king,
+was organized by _Butler, Marquis of Ormond_ (1649). In nine
+months _Cromwell_ subdued it, treating the insurgents with
+unsparing severity. There was a savage massacre of the garrisons at
+_Drogheda_ and _Wexford_. The massacre at _Drogheda_
+was by his orders. Soldiers of Parliament were settled in
+_Munster_, _Leinster_, and _Ulster_. The country was
+reduced to complete subjection. In 1650 _Charles_ landed in
+Scotland, subscribed to the Covenant, and was proclaimed
+king. Cromwell fought the Scots at _Dunbar_, and totally routed
+them. Returning to England, he overtook _Charles_ and his army at
+_Worcester_, and defeated them (1651). Cromwell called this
+victory "a crowning mercy."  _Charles_ escaped in disguise, and,
+after strange perils and adventures, landed in Normandy.
+
+WAR WITH HOLLAND.--England, under its new government, engaged in a
+contest for dominion on the sea. The new order of things, contrary to
+the expectation of _Cromwell_, was regarded with hostility in
+_Holland_, where the _Orange_ family were in power. In 1651
+the English _Navigation Act_, requiring all goods from abroad to
+be brought in, either in English ships, or in ships of the countries
+on the Continent in which the imported wares were produced, struck a
+heavy blow at Dutch commerce. War followed, in which the great Dutch
+admirals, _Van Tromp_, _De Ruyter_, _De Witt_, found
+more than a match in the English commander, _Blake_. The terms of
+peace were dictated by _Cromwell_, and Holland had to attach
+itself to his policy (1654).
+
+THE LORD PROTECTOR.--There was a growing discord between the unworthy
+remnant of the Parliament--now called the "Rump Parliament"--and the
+army. In 1653 _Cromwell_ used his military force to dissolve the
+assembly. By the "Little Parliament" which he called together, he was
+constituted _Lord Protector_, with a _Council of State_
+composed of twenty-five members. Later he declined the title of king,
+out of respect to the feelings and prejudices of his party. But he
+reigned in state, and exercised regal functions. His attempts to
+restore the old forms of parliamentary government, in an orderly form,
+with two houses, were baffled by difficulties beyond control. He
+insisted on a large degree of toleration, so long as "religion was not
+made a pretense for arms and blood."
+
+CROMWELL'S GOVERNMENT.--Under the Protector, England once more took
+the proud and commanding place in Europe which she had not held since
+the death of _Elizabeth_. _Cromwell_ made his power to be
+everywhere respected. _Blake_ chastised the pirates of the
+Barbary States, and punished the Duke of Tuscany for attacks on
+English commerce. In 1655 _Jamaica_ was wrested from
+_Spain_; and, two years after, _Blake_ burned the Spanish
+treasure-ships in the harbor of _Santa Cruz_, in
+Teneriffe. _Cromwell_ efficiently protected the adherents of the
+Protestant faith in _Piedmont_, and wherever they were subjected
+to persecution. In the last year of his life, in conjunction with the
+French, he took _Dunkirk_ from the Spaniards.
+
+POWER OF CROMWELL.--Cromwell's power was not diminished in his closing
+years. _Macaulay_, who pronounces him the greatest prince that
+ever ruled England, says of him, "It is certain that he was to the
+last honored by his soldiers, obeyed by the whole population of the
+British Isles, and dreaded by all foreign powers; that he was laid
+among the ancient sovereigns of England with funeral pomp such as
+England had never before seen; and that he was succeeded by his son,
+Richard as quietly as any king had ever been succeeded by any Prince
+of Wales."  (1658).
+
+The talents of Cromwell, and the vigor of his administration, deeply
+impressed those who heartily disliked him. A strong illustration of
+this fact is presented in the character of the Protector as depicted by
+_Lord Clarendon_, in the _History of the Great Rebellion_;
+and by the poet _Cowley_ in his essay or _Discourse_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X. COLONIZATION IN AMERICA: ASIATIC NATIONS; CULTURE AND
+LITERATURE (1517-1648).
+
+
+COLONIZATION IN AMERICA.
+
+The European nations kept up their religious and political rivalship in
+exploring and colonizing the New World.
+
+FRENCH EXPLORERS.--The French and English sent their fishermen to the
+coasts of _Newfoundland_ and _Nova Scotia_. French fishermen
+from _Breton_ gave its name to _Cape Breton_. _Francis
+I._ sent out _Verrazano_, an Italian sailor, who is thought to
+have cruised along the coast of North America from Cape Fear northward
+(1524). Later, _Jacques Cartier_ explored the _St. Lawrence_
+as far as the site of _Montreal_ (1535); other expeditions
+followed, and thus was founded the claim of the French to that region.
+
+SPANISH EXPLORERS.--The Spaniards brought negroes from the coast of
+Africa to the West Indies, to take the place of the Indians; and thus
+the _slave-trade_ and _negro slavery_ were established. They
+gave the name of _Florida_ to a vast region stretching from the
+Atlantic to Mexico, and from the Gulf of Mexico to an undefined limit
+in the North. From _Tampa Bay_, in what we now call
+_Florida_, they sent into this unexplored region an expedition
+under _Narvaez_ (1528); and afterwards, on the same track, another
+party led by _Hernando de Soto_ (1539), which made its way to the
+_Mississippi_ near the present site of _Vicksburg_. Tempted
+by tales of rich cities, _Coronado_ led an army to the conquest of
+the pueblos of the south-west. He penetrated as far as the boundary of
+the present Nebraska.
+
+CONTEST IN FLORIDA.--The great Huguenot leader, _Coligny_, made
+three attempts to found Huguenot settlements in America. He wanted to
+provide for them an asylum, and to extend the power of France. One
+company went to _Brazil_, and failed; a second perished at _Port
+Royal_ in _Florida_; a third (1564) built _Fort Caroline_
+on the shores of the _St. John_. This last company was mercilessly
+slaughtered by _Menendez_, the leader of a Spanish expedition
+which founded _St. Augustine_ (1565), the oldest town in the
+United States. The act was avenged by the massacre of the Spanish
+settlers at _Fort Caroline_, by _Dominique de Gourgues_ and
+the French company that came over with him.
+
+ENGLISH VOYAGES.--The English, full of zeal for maritime discovery,
+tried to find a north-west passage to Asia. This was attempted by
+_Martin Frobisher_, a sea-captain, from whom _Frobisher's
+Strait_ takes its name. After him followed _John Davis_, who
+gave his name also to a strait. As the English grew stronger and bolder
+on the water, they ceased to avoid a contest with Spain. In 1577 _Sir
+Francis Drake_ set out from the harbor of _Plymouth_ on his
+voyage around the globe. The defeat of the Spanish Armada occurred in
+1588; and after that the English felt themselves to be stronger than
+their old adversary.
+
+GILBERT AND RALEIGH.--_Sir Humphrey Gilbert_, in 1583, took
+possession of _Newfoundland_ in the name of the queen of England.
+_Walter Raleigh_, his half-brother, on his voyage in 1584,
+visited _Roanoke Island_, and named the whole country between the
+French and the Spanish possessions, _Virginia_, in honor of "the
+Virgin Queen," _Elizabeth_. A colony which he sent out to
+_Roanoke_ (1585) failed, and a second settlement had no better
+result.  _Bartholomew Gosnold_ landed on _Cape Cod_, and
+cruised along the neighboring coast (1602).
+
+THE FRENCH IN CANADA.--In 1603 _Champlain_, a French gentleman,
+sailed to _Canada_, whither the fur-trade enticed explorers. A
+few years later he founded _Quebec_ (1608), and explored the
+country as far as _Lake Huron_. The Jesuit missionaries commenced
+their efforts to convert the Indian tribes, in which they evinced an
+almost unparalleled fortitude and perseverance. The _Huron_ and
+_Algonquin_ Indians helped _Champlain_ gain a victory over
+the hostile and warlike _Iroquois_, who afterwards hated the
+French. The French occupants of the country of the _St. Lawrence_
+devoted themselves too exclusively to trading, and too little to the
+tilling of the ground and to the forming of a community.
+
+THE DUTCH SETTLEMENTS.--The Dutch were as eager as the other maritime
+powers to find a passage to India. In 1609 an English captain in their
+service, _Henry Hudson_, balked in this endeavor, sailed up the
+river now called by his name. The next year, being in the service of
+an English company, he discovered _Hudson's
+Bay_. _Amsterdam_ traders established themselves on the island
+of _Manhattan_ (an Indian name); which led to the formation of
+the New Netherlands Company, by whom a fort (_Orange_) was built
+at the place afterwards called _Albany_ (1615). The West India
+Company followed (1621), with authority over _New Netherlands_,
+as the country was called. The powerful land-owners were styled
+_patroons_. Their territory reached to Delaware Bay; and they had
+a trading-post on the Connecticut, on the site of the present city of
+Hartford.
+
+In 1637 the Swedes made a settlement at the mouth of the Delaware
+River, but in 1655 they were subdued by the Dutch.
+
+SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA.--The _Virginia Company_, divided into two
+branches,--the _London Company_, having control in the South, and
+the _Plymouth Company_, having control in the North,--received its
+patent of privileges from _James I_. (1606). A settlement by the
+_Plymouth Company_ on the _Kennebec River_ (1607)--the
+_Popham Colony_--was given up. In 1607 _Jamestown_ in
+Virginia, as the name _Virginia_ is now applied, was settled. A
+majority of the first colonists were gentlemen not wonted to labor. The
+military leader was Capt. _John Smith_, whose life, according to
+his own account, was spared by _Powhatan_, an Indian
+chief. Powhatan's daughter _Pocahontas_ married _Rolfe_, an
+Englishman. The Jamestown colony seemed likely to become extinct, when,
+in 1610, _Lord Delaware_ arrived with fresh supplies and
+colonists. He was the first of a series of governors who ruled with
+almost unlimited authority. But the colony grew to be more independent,
+and in sympathy with the popular party in England. In 1619 the _House
+of Burgesses_ first met, which brought in government by the people.
+At this time _negroes_ began to be imported from Africa, and sold
+as slaves.
+
+THE PILGRIM SETTLEMENT.--The first permanent settlement in _New
+England_ was made at _Plymouth_ in 1620, by a company of
+English Christians, who landed from the "Mayflower." They were Puritans
+of that class called "Independents," who had separated from the English
+Church, and did not believe in any national church organization. The
+emigrants left _Leyden_, in Holland, where they had lived for some
+time in exile, and where the remainder of their congregation remained
+under the guidance of a learned and able pastor, _John
+Robinson_. In the harbor of _Provincetown_, they agreed to a
+compact of government. Their civil polity was republican; their church
+polity was _Congregational_. They endured with heroic and pious
+fortitude the severities of the first winter, when half of their number
+died. Their military leader was Capt. _Miles Standish_. In their
+dealings with the Indians, they were equally just and brave.
+
+SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS.--Somewhat different in its origin and
+character from the "Pilgrim" settlement at _Plymouth_, was the
+other Puritan settlement of _Massachusetts_. The emigrants to
+Massachusetts were not separatists from the Church of England, but more
+conservative Puritans who desired, however, many ecclesiastical changes
+which they could not obtain at home. Both classes of settlers,
+transferred to _New England_, found no difficulty in agreeing in
+religious matters; for when left free, they desired about the same
+things. But at _Plymouth_ there was more toleration for religious
+dissent than in the later colony. In 1629 certain London merchants
+formed a corporation called "the Governor and Company of the
+Massachusetts Bay in New England," and received a charter directly from
+_Charles I_. They sent out _John Endicott_ to be governor of
+a settlement already formed at _Salem_. _Charles_ had
+dissolved Parliament, and was beginning the experiment of
+absolutism. The new company was strengthened by the accession of a
+large number of Puritan gentlemen who were anxious to emigrate. They
+resolved to transfer the company and its government to the shores of
+America. _John Winthrop_ was chosen governor, and in 1630 landed
+at _Charlestown_ with a large body of settlers. _Winthrop_
+and his associates soon removed to the peninsula of _Boston_. The
+new colony was well provided with artisans. Soon ships began to be
+built. In 1636 a college, named in 1639, in honor of a benefactor,
+_Harvard_, was founded at _Cambridge_. At first all the
+voters met together to choose their rulers and frame their laws. As the
+towns increased in number, a _General Court_, or legislative
+assembly, was established by the colony, in which each town was
+represented. Each town had its church, and only church-members
+voted. The _General Court_ superintended the affairs of both town
+and church. The political troubles in England stimulated
+emigration. Within ten years, about twenty thousand Englishmen, mainly
+Puritans, crossed the Atlantic, and took up their abode in New
+England. In the ecclesiastical system each church was self-governing,
+except as the _General Court_ was over all. There were no bishops,
+and the liturgy was dispensed with in worship.
+
+SETTLEMENT OF CONNECTICUT.--After the Dutch had built a trading-post on
+the site of _Hartford_, people from _Plymouth_ formed a
+settlement at _Windsor_, on the Connecticut, six miles above. From
+_Boston_ and its neighborhood, there was a migration which settled
+_Hartford_. In 1637 the three towns of _Windsor_,
+_Wethersfield_, and _Hartford_ became the distinct colony of
+_Connecticut_. A colony led by the younger _John Winthrop_,
+under a patent given to _Lord Say and Sele_ and _Lord Brook_,
+drove away the Dutch from the mouth of the Connecticut, and settled
+_Saybrook_ (1635). This colony was afterwards united with the
+Connecticut colony. A third colony was established at _New Haven_
+(1638), which had an independent existence until 1662.
+
+SETTLEMENT OF RHODE ISLAND, OF NEW HAMPSHIRE, AND OF MAINE.--_Roger
+Williams_, a minister who was not allowed to live in
+_Massachusetts_, on account of his differences with the
+magistrates, was the founder of _Rhode Island_ (1636). He held
+that the State should leave matters of religious opinion and worship
+to the conscience of the individual, and confine government to secular
+concerns. This was not the view of the Puritans generally; and the
+incoming of dissenters from their religious and political system made
+them afraid that the colony would be broken up, or fall into
+disorder. _Williams_, in most of his qualities a noble man,
+obtained a patent for his government, which was framed in accordance
+with his liberal ideas. On lands granted by the Plymouth Company to
+_Sir Ferdinando Gorges_, settlements were made in _New
+Hampshire_ and in _Maine_ (1623). A line between the two was
+drawn in 1631; _Gorges_ taking the territory on the east of the
+_Piscataqua River_, and Capt. _John Mason_ taking the
+remainder.
+
+VIRGINIA.--After 1624 the king appointed the governor in Virginia,
+which, however, had its own assembly. The colony grew rapidly, its
+chief export being tobacco. The people lived on their estates or
+plantations, employing indented servants and negro slaves.
+
+MARYLAND.--Maryland was founded by George Calvert, _Lord
+Baltimore_, a Roman Catholic, to whom _Charles I._ granted a
+charter (1632). The first settlement was made by Calvert's sons, after
+his death. They planted a colony near the mouth of the Potomac. The
+_Calverts_ sent out both Puritans and Roman Catholics, and
+secured the safety of the adherents of their own faith by the grant of
+toleration to the Protestants. Under _Cromwell_, a Puritan
+governor was appointed by _Lord Baltimore_ (1649). There were
+boundary disputes with Virginia; and _Clayborne_, a Puritan and a
+Virginian, at one time got control of the government, which the
+_Calverts_ regained under _Charles II._ (1660).
+
+NEW ENGLAND: NEW YORK.--During the war between king and Parliament in
+England, the Puritan colonies were in sympathy with the popular party,
+but were cautious in their avowals. They took great pains to prevent
+the king, and later the Parliament under the Commonwealth, from taking
+away their self-government. The English navigation acts, which forbade
+them to use foreign ships for their trade and forced them to send
+nearly all their products to English ports, were a grievance to
+them. The rivalries of _the English_ and _the Dutch_ gave
+the colonists a chance to expel _the Dutch_ from
+_Connecticut_. _Charles II._ at length conquered _New
+Netherland_, and ceded this territory to his brother, the Duke of
+York, afterwards James II. _New Amsterdam_ became _New
+York_, and _Fort Orange_ became _Albany_. In 1674 the
+country was formally ceded to England by Holland.
+
+THE INDIANS.--When America was discovered, _Mexico_, _Central
+America_, and _Peru_ were empires, to a considerable degree
+civilized. Relics taken from the mounds of the Ohio and Mississippi
+valleys indicate, also, that races somewhat advanced in culture had
+once dwelt in those regions. The most of both continents was inhabited
+by very numerous tribes of _Indians_, who were savages, with the
+ordinary virtues and vices of savage life. They were brave and patient,
+but indolent, treacherous, and implacable. There was an immense variety
+of dialects among them, yet there are traces of a common original unity
+of language. The tribes had no fixed boundaries, but roamed over
+extensive hunting-grounds. The _Iroquois_, or the Six Nations,
+occupied central New York from the Hudson to the Genesee. The
+_Algonquins_ were spread over nearly all the rest of the country
+on the east of the _Mississippi River_, and north of _North
+Carolina_. The _Creeks_, _Choctaws_, and _Chickasaws_
+were in the South.
+
+THE WHITES AND THE RED MEN.--It was fortunate for the settlers of New
+England, that, before their arrival, the Indians had been much reduced
+in numbers by pestilence. Sometimes they were treated wisely and
+humanely, and efforts were made by noble men like _John Eliot_
+(1604-1690), who has been called "the Apostle to the Indians," to
+teach and civilize them. But this spirit was not always shown by the
+whites, and wrongs done by an individual are avenged by savages upon
+his race. The first important conflict between the English and the
+Indians was the _Pequot War_ (1636), when the English, helped by
+the _Narragansetts_, who were under the influence of _Roger
+Williams_, crushed the _Pequots_, who were a dangerous
+tribe. A league between the New-England colonies, for mutual counsel
+and aid, followed (1643). Into this league, _Massachusetts_ would
+not allow _Rhode Island_, whose constitution was disliked, to be
+admitted. There were to be two commissioners to represent each colony
+in common meetings.
+
+
+SCIENCE, PHILOSOPHY, LITERATURE.
+
+ASTRONOMY.--In this period wonderful progress was made in astronomy.
+_Copernicus_, a German or Polish priest (1473-1543), detected the
+error of the Ptolemaic system, which made not the sun, but the earth,
+the center of the solar system. Thus a revolution was made in that
+science. _Tycho Brahe_, a Danish astronomer (1546-1601), was a
+most accurate and indefatigable observer, although he did not adopt
+the Copernican theory. His pupil _Kepler_ (1571-1630) discovered
+those great principles respecting the orbits and motions of the
+planets, which are called the "Laws of Kepler." _Galileo_
+(1564-1642), the Italian scientist, in addition to important
+discoveries in mechanics, with the telescopes, which his ingenuity had
+constructed, discerned the moons of Jupiter, and made other striking
+discoveries in the heavens. In promulgating the Copernican doctrine,
+he incurred the displeasure of ecclesiastics, and was driven by the
+Inquisition to renounce his opinion. It was reserved for _Sir Isaac
+Newton_ (1643-1727) to discover the law of gravitation.
+
+JURISPRUDENCE.--In jurisprudence, the Roman law was more and more
+studied in universities. In political science, _Bodin_, a learned
+Frenchman (1530-1596), wrote a work on the State, advocating a strong
+monarchy. In the Netherlands, _Hugo Grotius_ (1583-1645), a great
+jurist and scholar, was one of the principal founders of the science
+of _International Law_. An eminent expounder of natural and
+international law in Germany was _Pufendorf_ (1632-1694).
+
+HISTORICAL WRITINGS.--In history, _Sleidan_, a German (1506-1556),
+and later a learned statesman, _Seckendorf_ (1626-1692), wrote
+histories of the Reformation. _De Thou_, a Frenchman (1553-1617),
+wrote a valuable history of his own times. _Grotius_ described the
+war for independence in the Netherlands. Church history, on the
+Protestant side, was written by a company of authors called the
+_Magdeburg Centuriators_; and on the Catholic side, in the Annals
+of _Baronius_ (who died in 1607). In the Tower of London, _Sir
+Walter Raleigh_ employed himself in writing a History of the World,
+remarkable, if not for its researches, for passages of noble
+eloquence. In Italy, historians followed in the path opened by
+_Machiavelli_, through his _Discourses on Livy_ and his
+_Florentine History_. _Davila_ (1576-1631) composed a
+narrative of the Civil Wars in France, and the Cardinal
+_Bentivoglio_ wrote the history of the Civil War in the
+Netherlands. _Sarpi_, a keen Venetian, of much independence of
+thought, related the history of the Council of Trent, which was
+followed by a history of the same Council by the more orthodox
+_Pallavicini_. In Spain, there was at least one historian of
+superior value, _Mariana_, who composed a history of his own
+country.
+
+MEDICINE.--Medicine felt the benefit of the revival of
+learning. _Hippocrates_ and _Galen_ were studied, and were
+translated into Latin. _Paracelsus_, a German physician
+(1493-1541), besides broaching various theories more or less visionary,
+advanced the science on the chemical side, introducing certain mineral
+remedies. _Vesalius_, a native of _Brussels_ (1514-1564), who
+became chief physician of _Charles V_. and _Philip II_.,
+dissected the human body, and produced the first comprehensive and
+systematic view of anatomy. In the sixteenth century clinical
+instruction was introduced into hospitals. _Harvey_, an English
+physician (1578-1657), discovered the circulation of the blood. In the
+seventeenth century activity in medical study was shown by the rise of
+various discordant systems.
+
+PHILOSOPHY.--In philosophy, _Aristotle_ continued to be the
+master in the most conservative schools, where the old ways of
+thinking were cherished. His ethical doctrines were especially
+attacked by _Luther_. _Giordano Bruno_, an Italian, not
+without genius, promulgated a theory of pantheism, which identified
+the Deity with the world. He wandered from land to land, was a
+vehement assailant of received religious views, and was burned at the
+stake at _Rome_ (1600). In some gifted minds, the conflict of
+doctrinal systems, and the influence of the Renaissance, engendered
+skepticism. _Montaigne_ (1533-1592), the genial essayist on men
+and manners, the Plutarch of France, is an example of this class. The
+opposition to _Aristotle_ and to the schoolmen found a great
+leader in the English philosopher, _Francis Bacon_
+(1561-1626). The influence of _Lord Bacon_ was more in
+stimulating to the use of the inductive method, the method of
+observation, than in any special value belonging to the rules laid
+down for it. He pointed out the path of fruitful investigation.
+_Hobbes_ (1588-1679), an English writer, propounded, in his
+_Leviathan_ (1651) and in other writings, his theory of the
+absolute authority of the king, and the related doctrine that right is
+founded on the necessity of "a common power," if the desires are to be
+gratified, and if endless destructive contention is to be
+avoided. From the epoch of Bacon, the natural and physical sciences
+acquire a new importance. In metaphysical science, the modern epoch
+dates from _Descartes_ (1596-1650), born in France, who insisted
+that philosophy must assume nothing, but must start with the
+proposition, "I think, therefore I am." Before, philosophy had been
+"the handmaid of theology."  It had taken for granted a body of
+beliefs respecting God, man, and the world. _Descartes_ was a
+theist. _Spinoza_ (1632-1677), of Jewish extraction, born in
+_Holland_, is the founder of modern pantheism. He taught that
+there is but one substance; that God and the world--the totality of
+things--are the manifestation of one impersonal being.
+
+LITERATURE IN ITALY.--In Italy, among many authors in different
+departments of poetry, _Tasso_ (1544-1595), the author of the
+epic _Jerusalem Delivered_, is the most eminent. In it, the
+classic and the romantic styles are combined; the spirit of the Middle
+Ages blends with the unity and harmony of Homer and Virgil. In the
+seventeenth century, under the hard Spanish rule, the literary spirit
+in Italy was chilled.
+
+LITERATURE IN SPAIN AND PORTUGAL.--In Spain, it was poetry and the
+drama that chiefly flourished. Other sorts of literary activity were
+stifled with the extinction of liberty. _Lope de Vega_
+(1562-1635), one of the most facile and marvelous of all poets, the
+author of twenty-two hundred dramas,--was the precursor of a
+school. After him came _Calderon_ (1600-1681), who carried the
+Spanish drama to its perfection. Early in the seventeenth century
+_Cervantes_ published the classic tale of _Don Quixote_, "to
+render abhorred of men the false and absurd stories contained in books
+of chivalry," an end which he accomplished. _Mariana's_
+(1536-1623) vivid and interesting _History of Spain_ was continued
+in a less attractive style by _Sandoval_. _Herrera_
+(1549-1625) composed a General History of the Indies. Other works
+relating to the New World and the Spanish conquests were written. In
+the production of proverbs, the Spanish mind is without a rival. Not
+the least of the bad effects of the despotic system of _Philip
+II_. was the decay of literature.
+
+The most celebrated writer of _Portugal_ is the poet
+_Camoens_ (1524-1579), who, in his epic the _Lusiad_, has
+treated of the glorious events in the history of his country, giving
+special prominence to the discovery by _Vasco da Gama_ of the
+passage to India.
+
+LITERATURE IN FRANCE.--In France, with the exception of
+_Montaigne_, it was _Rabelais_ (1495-1553), a physician,
+philosopher, and humorist, who, notwithstanding his profanity and
+obscenity, was the most popular author of his day, and who well
+represents the tone of the Renaissance in that country. _Ronsard_
+(1524-1585), an imitator of the Latins and Greeks, was the favorite
+poet of _Mary, Queen of Scots_. In the first half of the
+seventeenth century the light literature of the French is ruled by
+fashion, and is void of serious feeling. In this time the literary
+societies of France take their rise. _Madame de Rambouillet_
+(1588-1665), a lady of Italian birth, set the example in establishing
+such reunions. She made her hotel a resort for writers and
+politicians. Being an invalid, she kept her bed, which was placed in an
+alcove of the _salon_ where she received her visitors.
+
+LITERATURE IN ENGLAND.--In England, in the age of _Elizabeth_,
+there is a galaxy of great authors in prose and verse. The events and
+debates of the Reformation, the voyages and geographical discoveries of
+the period, gave a powerful quickening to thought and imagination. The
+Renaissance culture, which made familiar the stories of Greek and Roman
+mythology, and the romantic tales and poetry of Italy and Spain, was
+potent in its effect. Some of the numerous theological writers, as
+Bishop _Hall_ (1574-1656), _Jeremy Taylor_ (1613-1667), and
+_Richard Hooker_ (1553-1600), have gained a high place in general
+literature. _Bacon_, apart from his philosophical writings, towers
+above almost all his contemporaries in the field of letters. The
+chivalrous _Sir Philip Sidney_ (1554-1586) wrote the pastoral
+romance of _Arcadia_. _Burton_ (1576-1640), the author of
+_The Anatomy of Melancholy_, and _Sir Thomas Brown_, who
+published (1642) the _Religio Medici_ (the religion of a
+physician) and, at a later date, the _Urn Burial_, are quaint and
+original authors. The merit of _Shakspeare_ (1564-1616) is so
+exalted and unique that he almost eclipses even the greatest names. The
+English drama did not heed what are called the classic unities of time
+and place, which limit the action of a play to a brief duration and a
+contracted area. Other celebrated dramatic writers are _Beaumont_
+(1586-1615) and _Fletcher_ (1579-1625), who wrote many plays
+jointly; _Ben Jonson_ (1574-1637), and _Massinger_
+(1584-1640). The imaginative poetry which is not dramatic, in this
+period, begins with _Spenser_ (1553-1599), whose _Faërie
+Queene_ is a poem of chivalry; and it ends with _Milton_
+(1608-1674), the Puritan poet, imbued with the culture of the
+Renaissance, whose majesty and beauty place him almost on a level, at
+least in the esteem of readers of the English race, with Dante. Among
+the religious poets is _George Herbert_ (1593-1635). One of the
+most famous of the lyric authors was the last of them, _Cowley_
+(1618-1667).
+
+LITERATURE IN GERMANY.--In Germany, the great literary product of this
+period was _Luther's_ translation of the _Bible_. The
+immediate effect of the controversy in religion was not favorable to
+the cause of letters. Attention was engrossed by theological inquiries
+and discussion. But in most of the countries, in the department of
+theology, preachers and writers of much ability and learning appeared
+on both sides of the controversy. Biblical study and historical
+researches were of necessity fostered by the exigencies of religious
+debate.
+
+
+
+
+ASIATIC NATIONS.
+
+
+I. CHINA.
+
+THE JESUIT MISSIONS.--The _Ming_ dynasty continued in power in
+China until 1644. About the middle of the sixteenth century the
+_Portuguese_ came to the island of Macao, and commercial relations
+began between China and Europe. They brought opium into China, which
+had previously been imported overland from India. In 1583 _Matteo
+Ricci_, a Jesuit missionary, began his labors in China. He and his
+associates had great success. His knowledge of the book language was
+most remarkable. The concessions of the Jesuit fathers to the Chinese
+in matters of ritual excited much opposition in the Church. But for
+this dissension among the different Catholic orders, the Roman Catholic
+faith, which had gained very numerous converts, would have spread far
+more widely.
+
+THE MANCHU CONQUEST.--There were notable literary achievements in this
+period, one of which was an _encyclopedia_ in more than twenty-two
+thousand books. Four copies were made: only one, a damaged copy, now
+remains. The great political event of the time was the seizure of the
+throne by the _Manchu Tartars_ (1644), who came in as auxiliaries
+against a rebellion, but have worn the crown until now. The shaved head
+and the long cue are customs introduced by the Tartar
+conquerors. Certain privileges, and certain habits to which the natives
+clung, as the mode of dress for women, and the compression of their
+feet, were retained by express stipulation.
+
+
+II. JAPAN.
+
+FEUDAL SYSTEM.--In 1603 _Iyéyasu_, an eminent general, founded the
+_Tokugawa_ dynasty, which continued until the resignation of the
+last Shôgun (or Tycoon) in 1867. The rulers of that line held their
+court at _Yedo_, which grew into a flourishing city. The long
+period of anarchy and bloodshed that had preceded, was brought to an
+end. Iyéyasu laid the foundation of a feudal system which his grandson
+_Iyémitsu_ (1623-1650) completed. Japan was divided into fiefs,
+each under a _daimiô_ for its chief, who enjoyed a large degree of
+independence. The people consisted of four classes:
+(1) the military families, who had the right to wear two swords,
+the clansmen of the great nobles; (2) the farming class; (3) the
+artisans; (4) the tradesmen.
+
+CHRISTIANITY IN JAPAN.--Christianity was preached in Japan by
+_Xavier_, a successful Jesuit missionary, in 1583. Other Jesuit
+preachers followed. A multitude of converts were made. But on account
+of immoralities of Europeans, and the dread of foreign political
+domination, the government engaged in a series of severe
+persecutions. In 1614 an edict proscribed Christianity. A portion of
+the peasants who were converts were so oppressed, that they revolted
+(1637). The result was an act of terrible cruelty,--the massacre of
+all Christians; so that none remained openly to profess the Christian
+faith.
+
+
+III. INDIA.
+
+THE MUGHAL EMPIRE.--In the latter half of the fourteenth and in the
+fifteenth centuries, the most of _India_ was ruled by distinct
+Mohammedan dynasties. The dominion of the Afghan dynasty at
+_Delhi_ was thus greatly reduced. In 1525 the _Mughal
+(Mogul)_ Empire was founded by _Babar_, a descendant of
+_Tamerlane. Babar_ invaded India, and defeated the Sultan of
+_Delhi_ in the battle of _Paniput_. The new empire was not
+permanently established until his grandson _Akbar_ (1556-1605), in
+a series of conquests, spread his dominion over all India north of the
+Vindhyar mountains. Not until the reign of _Aurungzeb_
+(1658-1707), was the Deccan subdued. After 1600 the Portuguese no
+longer had the monopoly of the foreign trade: the Dutch and English
+became their rivals.
+
+  LITERATURE.--See lists of works on general history, p. 16; on modern
+  history, p. 395; on the history of particular countries, p. 359.
+
+  General Works on the Period. De Thou's _History of his own
+  Times_; ROBERTSON'S _History of Charles V_. (Prescott's ed.);
+  Von Raumer's _Gesch. Europas seit d. Ende d, 15 tu Jahrk_, (8
+  vols).; Hallam's _Introduction to the Literature of Europe in the
+  Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries_; RANKE'S series
+  of works on this period,--the _History of the Popes_, and the
+  Histories of Germany, France, and England; Histories of the
+  Reformation by D'Aubigné, Döllinger (Roman Catholic), Spalding (Roman
+  Catholic), Fisher, HAUSSER, Hardwick, Stebbing; Laurent, _La
+  Reforme_; Lavisse et Rambaud, _Histoire Genérale_ (iv. and
+  v.); Seebohm's _Era of Protestant Revolution_; Works of Janssen,
+  Pastor, Creighton.
+
+  On the German and Swiss Reformation: Waddington's _History_,
+  etc.; Hagenhach, _Vorlesungen_, etc.; Lives of Luther, by
+  Meurer, Michelet, Beard, KÖSTLIN; Lives of Zwingh, by CHRISTOFFEL,
+  MORIKOFER; Lives of Calvin, by HENRY, Dyer, Kampschulte (Roman
+  Catholic).
+
+  Reformation in France. Works by Soldan, Von Polenz, Smiles, Browning;
+  BAIRD'S works on _Huguenots_; Perkins, _France under Richelieu
+  and Mazarin_ (2 vols.); Hanotaux, _Richelieu_ (2 vols.).
+
+  The Revolt of the Netherlands. Blok's _History of the Netherlands
+  _(3 vols.), etc.; MOTLEY'S _Rise of the Dutch Republic_, and
+  _History of the United Netherlands_; PRESCOTT'S _History of
+  Philip II._; TH. JUSTE, _Hist, de la Rèvol. des Pays-Bas_,
+  etc. (2 vols).
+
+  The Reformation in England. The Histories of Macaulay. Lingard,
+  Froude, Burnet's _History of the Reformation in
+  England_. S. R. Gardiner's _History of England_ (1603 to
+  1656); Clarendon's _History of the Great Rebellion_; a series of
+  works on this period by GUIZOT; Neal's _History of the
+  Puritans_; Gairdner, _History of the English Church from Henry
+  VIII. to Mary_; selections of documents by Prothero and by
+  Gardiner; Lives of Cromwell, by CARLYLE, by Forster, Gardiner,
+  Harrison, Firth; Strype's Lives of the Leading Reformers--Cranmer,
+  etc.
+
+  On the Reformation in Scotland. BURTON'S _History of Scotland_;
+  Robertson's _History of Scotland_; McCrie's _Life of John
+  Knox_; W. M. TAYLOR, _Life of John Knox_.
+
+  On the Thirty Years' War. GINDELY'S _History_, etc.; Gardiner,
+  _The Thirty Years' War; Life of Gustavus Adolphus_.
+
+  For more extended lists, see Adams's _Manual_, etc.; and
+  Fisher's _The Reformation_ (Appendix). For list of works on
+  colonization in America, see the list at the end of Period III.
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD III. FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION.
+(1648-1789)
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+CHARACTER OF THE PERIOD.--One feature of this period is the efforts
+made by the nations to improve their condition, especially to increase
+the thrift and to raise the standing of the middle class. An
+illustration is what is called the "mercantile system" in France. Along
+with this change, there is progress in the direction of greater breadth
+in education and culture. In both of these movements, rulers and
+peoples cooperate. Monarchical power, upheld by standing armies,
+reaches its climax. The result is internal order, coupled with
+tyranny. Great wars were carried on, mostly contests for succession to
+thrones. The outcome was an equilibrium in the European state system,
+dependent on the relations of five great powers.
+
+FIRST SECTION OF THE PERIOD.--In the first half of the period, the East
+and the West of Europe are slightly connected. In the West,
+_France_ gains the preponderance over _Austria_, until, by
+the Spanish war of succession, _England_ restores the balance. In
+the East, _Sweden_ is in the van, until, in the great Northern war
+(1700-1721), _Russia_ becomes predominant.
+
+SECOND SECTION OF THE PERIOD.--In the second half of the period, the
+East and the West of Europe are brought together in one state system,
+in particular by the rise of the power of _Prussia_.
+
+CHIEF EVENTS.--The fall of _Sweden_ and the rise of _Russia_
+and _Prussia_ are political events of capital importance. The
+maritime supremacy of _England_, with the loss by England of the
+_American_ colonies, is another leading fact. In the closing part
+of the period appear the intellectual and political signs of the great
+Revolution which broke out in _France_ near the end of the
+eighteenth century.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  THE PREPONDERANCE OF FRANCE: FIRST PART OF THE REIGN OF
+LOUIS XIV. (TO THE PEACE OF RYSWICK, 1697): THE RESTORATION OF THE
+STUARTS: THE ENGLISH REVOLUTION OF 1688.
+
+
+LOUIS XIV.: MAZARIN.--The great minister _Richelieu_ died in
+1642. "Abroad, though a cardinal of the Church, he arrested the
+Catholic reaction, freed Northern from Southern Europe, and made
+toleration possible; at home, out of the broken fragments of her
+liberties and her national prosperity, he paved the way for the glory
+of France." He paved the way, also, for the despotism of her kings. He
+had been feared and hated by king and people, but had been obeyed by
+both. A few months later _Louis XIII._, a sovereign without either
+marked virtues or vices, followed him (1643). _Louis XIV._
+(1643-1715) was then only five years old; and _Mazarin_, the heir
+of _Richelieu's_ power, stood at the helm until his death
+(1661). To this Italian statesman, ambitious of power and wealth, but
+astute, and, like _Richelieu_, devoted to France, the queen,
+_Anne_ of Austria, willingly left the management of the
+government. The rebellion of the _Fronde_ (1648-1653) was a rising
+of the nobles to throw off the yoke laid on them by
+_Richelieu_. They were helped by the discontent of parliament and
+people with the oppressive taxation. In Paris, there was a rising of
+the populace, who built barricades; but the revolt was quelled. Its
+leaders, _Conti_, the Cardinal de _Retz_, and the great
+_Condé_, a famous soldier, were compelled to fly from the
+country. _Mazarin_, who had been obliged to fly to Cologne,
+returned in triumph. After that, resistance to the absolute monarch
+ceased,--the monarch whose theory of government was expressed in the
+assertion, "I am the State" (_l'etat c'est moi_). In the
+_Peace_ of the _Pyrenees_ (1659), _Spain_ gave in
+marriage to _Louis_, the Infanta _Maria Theresa_, the
+daughter of _Philip IV._, and ceded to France important places in
+the Netherlands. _Maria_ renounced all claims on her inheritance,
+for herself and her issue, in consideration of a dowry of five hundred
+thousand crowns to be paid by Spain. Shortly after, _Mazarin_, who
+had negotiated the treaty, in full possession of his exalted authority
+and the incalculable treasures which he had amassed, died.
+
+LOUIS XIV. AND HIS OFFICERS.--_Louis XIV._ was now his own
+master. His appetite for power was united with a relish for pomp and
+splendor, which led him to make _Versailles_, the seat of his
+court, as splendid as architectural skill and lavish expenditure could
+render it, and to make France the model in art, literature, manners,
+and modes of life, for all Europe. With sensual propensities he mingled
+a religious or superstitious vein, so that from time to time he sought
+to compound for his vices by the persecution of the Huguenots. He was
+the central figure in the European life of his time. Taking care that
+his own personal authority should not be in the least impaired, he made
+_Colbert_ controller-general, to whom was given charge of the
+finances of the kingdom. _Louvois_ was made the minister of
+war. _Colbert_ not only provided the money for the costly wars,
+the luxurious palaces, and the gorgeous festivities of his master, but
+constructed canals, fostered manufactures, and built up the French
+marine. _Louvois_, with equal success, organized the military
+forces in a way that was copied by other European states. Able
+generals--_Turenne_, _Condé_, and _Luxemburg_--were in
+command. The nobles who held the offices, military as well as civil,
+vied with one another in their obsequious devotion to the "great king."
+_Vauban_, the most skillful engineer of the age, erected
+impregnable fortifications in the border towns that were seized by
+conquest. In the arts of diplomacy, the French ambassadors were equally
+superior. The monarch was sustained by the national pride of the
+people, and by their ambition to dominate in Europe.
+
+ATTACK ON THE NETHERLANDS.--_Louis_ had already purchased of the
+English _Dunkirk_,--which was shamefully sold to him by _Charles
+II._,--when _Philip IV._ of Spain died (1665). He now claimed
+parts of the Netherlands as being an inheritance of his queen,
+according to an old law of those provinces. He conquered the county of
+_Burgundy_, or _Franche Comté_, and various places in that
+country. _Holland_, afraid that he might push his conquests
+farther, formed the _Triple Alliance_ with _England_ and
+_Sweden_. In the Treaty of _Aachen_ (Aix), Louis gave up to
+the Spaniards _Franche Comté_, but retained the captured cities in
+the Netherlands (1668), which _Vauban_ proceeded to fortify.
+
+ATTACK ON HOLLAND.--The next attack of _Louis_ was upon
+_Holland_. Holland and the Spanish Netherlands were at variance in
+religion, as well as in their political systems, and rivals in trade
+and industry. The first minister of the emperor, _Leopold._, was
+in the pay of _Louis_. Sweden, in the minority of _Charles
+XI._, was in the hands of the Swedish nobles. England had now joined
+_Louis_, who, in return for help in the Netherlands, was to
+furnish subsidies to assist _Charles II._ in establishing
+Catholicism in his realm. In Holland, there was a division between the
+republicans, of whom the grand pensionary, _John de Witt_, was the
+chief, and the adherents of the house of Orange.
+
+THE WAR: THE PEACE OF NIMWEGEN.--_Louis_, having first seized
+_Lorraine_,--whose duke had allied himself to the United
+Provinces,--accompanied by his famous generals, _Condé, Turenne,_
+and _Vauban_, put himself at the head of an army of one hundred
+and twenty thousand men, which crossed the Rhine, and advanced to the
+neighborhood of the capital of Holland. The Orange party charged the
+blame of the failure to defend the land on their adversaries, whom they
+accused of treachery. _De Witt_ and his brother, _Cornelius_,
+were killed in the streets of Hague. _William III._, the Prince of
+Orange (1672-1702), assumed power. _Gröningen_ held out against
+the French troops. Storms on the sea and on the land aided the
+patriotic defenders of their country. The "Great Elector" of
+Brandenburg, _Frederic William_, lent them help. At length the
+German emperor was driven by the French aggressions to join actively in
+the war, on the side of the Dutch. The English Parliament (1674) forced
+_Charles II._ to conclude peace with them. In the battle of
+_Sasbach_, _Turenne_ fell (1675). _Sweden_ took the side
+of France, and invaded the elector's territory; but the elector's
+victory at _Fehrbellin_ (1675) laid the foundation of the
+greatness of _Prussia_. _William III._ kept the field against
+the great generals of France, and married the daughter of _James_,
+the Duke of York, the brother of _Charles II._ In bringing the war
+to an end, _Louis_, by shrewd diplomacy, settled with the United
+Provinces first. By the _Peace of Nimwegen_ (1678 and 1679),
+Holland received back its whole territory; France kept most of her new
+conquests in the Netherlands, with the county of _Burgundy_, the
+city of _Besançon_, and some imperial towns in _Alsace_ not
+ceded in the Peace of Westphalia; the emperor lost to France
+_Freiburg_ in the Breisgau. The elector, left to shift for
+himself, was forced to give back his profitable conquests to Sweden
+(1679).
+
+EFFECT OF THE WAR.--In the war with Holland, _Louis_ had shown his
+military strength, and his skill in making and breaking alliances. He
+had made progress towards the goal of his ambition, which was to act as
+dictator in the European family of states. To the end of the century,
+France stood on the pinnacle of power and apparent prosperity.
+
+CONDITION OF FRANCE.--Manufactures flourished to an astonishing
+degree. France became a naval power with a large fleet and with all its
+services better organized than those of the contemporary English
+marine. _Colbert_ finished the canal between the Mediterranean and
+the Atlantic. Colonies were founded in _St. Domingo_,
+_Cayenne_, _Madagascar_. _Canada_ was increasing in
+strength. A uniform, strict judicial system was established. Restless
+nobles were cowed, and the common people thus drawn to the monarch.
+
+THE FRENCH COURT.--In his court, the king established elaborate forms
+of etiquette, and made himself almost an object of worship. The
+nobility swarmed about him, and sought advancement from his
+favor. Festivals and shows of all sorts--plays, ballets, banquets,
+dazzling fireworks--were the costly diversion of the gay throngs of
+courtiers, male and female, in that court, where sensuality was thinly
+veiled by ceremonious politeness and punctilious religious
+observances. Poets, artists, and scholars were liberally patronized,
+and joined in the common adulation offered to the sovereign. Stately
+edifices were built, great libraries gathered; academies of art and of
+science, an astronomical observatory, and the botanic garden for the
+promotion of the study of natural history, were founded. The palace at
+_Versailles_, with its statues, fountains, and gardens, furnished
+a pattern which all the rest of Europe aspired to copy. Every thing
+there wore an artificial stamp, from the trimming of the trees to the
+etiquette of the ballroom. But there was a splendor and a fascination
+which caused the French fashions, the French language and literature,
+with the levity and immorality which traveled in their company, to
+spread in the higher circles of the other European countries.
+
+THE GALLICAN CHURCH.--_Louis XIV._ desired, without any rupture
+with Rome, to take to himself a power in ecclesiastical affairs like
+that assumed in England by _Henry VIII_. Under the pontificate of
+_Innocent XI._, the assembly of the French clergy passed four
+propositions asserting the rights of the national Gallican Church, and
+limiting the Pope's prerogative (1682). The king had for his
+ecclesiastical champion the able and eloquent _Bossuet_, the
+Bishop of Meaux. Subsequently, under _Innocent XII._,
+_Louis_, afraid of a schism and anxious to procure other
+advantages, yielded up the four obnoxious propositions.
+
+JANSENISM.--The controversy raised by the _Jansenists_ was an
+important event in the history of France. They took their name from
+_Jansenius_, who had been Bishop of _Ypres_, an ardent
+disciple of _St. Augustine's_ theology. They strenuously opposed
+the theology and moral maxims of the powerful Jesuit order. Their
+leaders, _St. Cyran_, _Pascal_, _Arnauld_,
+_Nicole_, and others, were called _Port Royalists_, from
+their relation to a cloister at _Port Royal_, where some of them
+resided. They were men of literary and philosophical genius, as well as
+theologians and devotees. _Blaise Pascal_ wrote the "Provincial
+Letters," a satirical and polemical work against the Jesuit
+doctrines. This has always been deemed in style a masterpiece of French
+prose. His posthumous _Thoughts_ is a profound and suggestive
+fragment on the evidences of religion. In the heated controversy that
+arose, the Jansenist leaders were for a more limited definition of the
+Pope's authority in deciding questions of doctrine. The French court at
+length took the side of the Jesuits. In 1713 the Pope's bull against
+the _Moral Reflections_ of _Quesnel_, a Jansenist author, was
+a heavy blow at his party. Finally, the Jansenists were proscribed by
+the king, and the cloister at Port Royal leveled to the ground. The
+Jansenist influence made a part of the tendencies to liberalism that
+led to the Revolution at the close of the century.
+
+THE HUGUENOTS.--After _Mazarin's_ death, the king fell under the
+influence of a party hostile to the Huguenots. _Louvois_ fostered
+this feeling in him, as did _Madame de Maintenon_, whom he had
+secretly married, and by whom he was influenced through life. As he
+grew older, he sought to appease a guilty conscience by inflicting
+tortures on religious dissenters. He issued edicts of the most cruel
+character. He adopted the atrocious scheme of the _dragonade_, or
+the billeting of soldiers, over whom there was no restraint, in
+Huguenot families. In the course of three years, fifty thousand
+families, industrious and virtuous people, had fled the country. In
+1685 the _Edict of Nantes_, the charter of Protestant rights, was
+revoked. Emigration was forbidden; yet not far from a quarter of a
+million of refugees escaped, to enrich by their skill and labor the
+Protestant countries where they found an asylum. Many of the refugees
+were received by the Elector _Frederick_, and helped to build up
+_Berlin_, then a small city of twelve thousand
+inhabitants. France was not only in a degree impoverished by those who
+fled, but, also, by the much larger number who remained to be harassed
+and ruined by the foolish and brutal bigotry of their ruler.
+
+The loss to France by the exile of the Huguenots was incalculable.
+"Here were the thriftiest, the bravest, the most intelligent of
+Frenchmen, the very flower of the race; some of their best and purest
+blood, some of their fairest and most virtuous women, all their picked
+artisans. In war, in diplomacy, in literature, in production of
+wealth, these refugees gave what they took from France to her enemies;
+for they carried with them that bitter sense of wrong which made them
+henceforth foremost among those enemies, the forlorn hope of every
+attack on their ancient fatherland. Large numbers of officers, and
+those among the ablest, emigrated; among them pre-eminent Marshal
+Schomberg, 'the best general in Europe.' The fleet especially
+suffered: the best of the sailors emigrated; the ships were almost
+unmanned. The seamen carried tidings of their country's madness to the
+ends of the earth: as Voltaire says, 'the French were as widely
+dispersed as the Jews.' Not only in industry, but in thought and
+mental activity, there was a terrible loss. From this time literature
+in France loses all spring and power."
+
+In England, the Huguenot exiles quickened manufactures; in Holland,
+commerce; in Brandenburg, they made a new era in agriculture. Moreover,
+from this time the policy of Brandenburg was changed: the hostility to
+the emperor and the house of Austria gave way. An antagonism to France
+arose: "a process begun by the Great Elector, carried on by Frederick
+the Great, and brought to a triumphant close in our own days, dates
+from the revocation of the Edict of Nantes."
+
+THE COST OF NATIONAL UNITY IN FRANCE.--From the beginning of the
+Reformation, the problem for the nations to solve was, how to combine
+_religious freedom_ with _national unity_. The intolerance of
+the Spanish branch of the Hapsburgs deprived them of _Holland_,
+and broke down their power. This effort to secure uniformity of belief
+was shattered. A like effort in _Germany_ resulted in the Thirty
+Years' War, and the utter loss of the national unity which it aimed to
+restore. The civil wars in _France_, aiming at the same result,
+uniformity of belief, ended in an accommodation between the parties,
+secured by _Henry IV_. in the _Edict of Nantes_. There was a
+partial sacrifice of national unity. This was reestablished by the
+policy of _Richelieu_ and the acts of _Louis XIV.,_ but at a
+fearful cost. The loss of the Huguenot emigrants; the loss of
+character, with the loss of the spirit of independence, in the nobles
+of France; the full sway of a monarchical despotism,--this was the
+price paid for national unity.
+
+AGGRESSIONS OF LOUIS.--The readiness of the European states to accept
+the provisions of the _Nimwegen Treaty_ emboldened _Louis_ to
+further outrages and aggressions. Germany, split into a multitude of
+sovereignties, and for the most part inactive as if a paralysis lay
+upon her, was a tempting prey to the spoiler. He claimed that all the
+places which had stood in a feudal relation to the places acquired by
+France in the Westphalian and Nimwegen treaties, should become
+dependencies of France. He constituted _Reunions_, or courts of
+his own, to decide what these places were, and enforced their decrees
+with his troops (1679). He went so far, in a time of peace, as to seize
+and wrest from the German Empire the city of _Strasburg_, to
+establish his domination there, and to introduce the Catholic worship,
+in the room of the Protestant, in the minster (1681). Instead of
+heeding the warning of the Prince of Orange, the empire concluded with
+_Louis_ the truce of _Regensburg_, by which he was suffered
+to retain these conquests. He evinced his arrogance in making a quarrel
+with _Genoa_, in bombarding the city, and in forcing the doge to
+come to Versailles and beg for peace (1684).
+
+HUNGARY AND AUSTRIA.--The Emperor _Leopold_ was busy in the
+eastern part of his dominions. The success of the Turks, who gained
+possession of Lower Hungary, called out a more energetic resistance;
+but a victory gained by the imperial general, _Montecuculi_, at
+_St. Gothard_, on the Raab (1664), only resulted in a truce. The
+Austrian government, guided by the minister, _Lobkowitz_, used the
+opportunity to rob the Hungarians of their liberties and
+rights. Political tyranny and religious persecution went hand in
+hand. Protestant preachers were sold as galley-slaves. _Tököly_,
+an Hungarian nobleman, led in a revolt, and invoked the help of the
+Turks. In 1683 the Turks laid siege to _Vienna_, which was saved
+by a great victory gained under its walls by a united German and Polish
+army; the hero in the conflict being _John Sobieski_, king of
+Poland. The German princes and _Venice_ now united in the
+prosecution of the war. The conquest of Hungary from the Turks enabled
+_Leopold_ to destroy Hungarian independence. After their defeat by
+_Charles of Lorraine_ at _Mohacs_ (1687), the Diet of
+_Pressburg_ conferred on the male Austrian line the crown of
+Hungary, and abandoned its old privilege of resisting unconstitutional
+ordinances (1687). A great victory gained over the Turks by Prince
+_Eugene_ at _Zenta_ was followed by the Peace of
+_Carlowitz_, which gave Hungary and Transylvania to Austria, Morea
+to Venice, and Azof to Russia. _Tököly_ died in exile.
+
+THE RESTORATION IN ENGLAND (1660).--_Richard Cromwell_ quietly
+succeeded to the Protectorate. But the officers of the army recalled
+the "Rump" Parliament, the survivors of the Long Parliament. After
+eight months _Richard_ gave up his office. The "Rump" was soon in
+a quarrel again with the army, and was expelled by its chief,
+_Lambert_. _Monk_, the commander of the English troops in
+_Scotland_, refused to recognize the government set up by the
+officers in London. The fleet declared itself on the side of
+Parliament. _Lambert_ was forsaken, and _Monk_ entered London
+(1660). A new Parliament or Convention was convoked, which included the
+Upper House. The restoration of _Charles II_. was now effected by
+means of the combined influence of the Episcopalians and Presbyterians,
+and through the agency of _Monk_. _Charles_, in his
+Declaration from _Breda_, prior to his return, promised "liberty
+to tender consciences." This and subsequent pledges were falsified: he
+had the Stuart infirmity of breaking his engagements. With an easy
+good-nature and complaisant manners, he was void of moral principle,
+and in his conduct an open profligate. At heart he was a Roman
+Catholic, and simply from motives of expediency deferred the avowal of
+his belief to his death-bed. The army was disbanded. Vengeance was
+taken on such of the "regicides," the judges of _Charles I_., as
+could be caught, and on the bodies of _Cromwell_, _Ireton_,
+and _Bradshaw_. The Cavalier party had now every thing their own
+way. The Episcopal system was reestablished, and a stringent _Act of
+Uniformity_ was passed. Two thousand Presbyterian ministers were
+turned out of their parishes. If there was at any time indulgence to
+the nonconformists, it was only for the sake of the Roman
+Catholics. _John Bunyan_, the author of "Pilgrim's Progress," was
+kept in prison for more than twelve years. The sale of _Dunkirk_
+to France (1662) awakened general indignation.
+
+THE "YEAR OF WONDERS:" THE CONDUCT OF CHARLES.--The year 1665 was
+marked as the year of the _Great Plague_ in London, where the
+narrow and dirty streets admitted little fresh air. It was estimated
+that not less than one hundred thousand people perished. In less than a
+year after the plague ceased, there occurred the _Great Fire_ in
+London (Sept., 1666), which burned for three days, and laid London in
+ashes from the Tower to the Temple, and from the Thames to
+Smithfield. St. Paul's, the largest cathedral in England, was consumed,
+and was replaced by the present church of the same name, planned by
+_Sir Christopher Wren_. The king showed an unexpected energy in
+trying to stay the progress of the flames. But neither public
+calamities, nor the sorrow and indignation of all good men, including
+his most loyal and attached adherents, could check the shameless
+profligacy of his palace-life. The diaries of _Evelyn_ and of
+_Pepys_, both of whom were familiar with the court, picture the
+disgraceful depravation of morals, which was stimulated by the king's
+example. But the nation was even more aggrieved by his conduct in
+respect to foreign nations. In a war with Holland, arising out of
+commercial rivalry, the English had the mortification of seeing the
+Thames blockaded by the Dutch fleet (1667). _Hyde_, Earl of
+Clarendon, Charles's principal adviser, whose daughter married the Duke
+of York, was driven from office, and went into exile to escape a
+trial. The _Triple Alliance_ against Louis (p. 453) was gratifying
+to the people; but in the _Treaty of Dover_ (1670), _Charles_
+engaged to declare himself a Roman Catholic as soon as he could do so
+with prudence, and promised to join his cousin, _Louis XIV_.,
+against Holland, and to aid him in his schemes; in return for which he
+was to receive a large subsidy from _Louis_, a pension during the
+war, and armed help in case of an insurrection in England.
+
+THE "CABAL" MINISTRY.--A _cabinet_, as we now term it,--a small
+number of persons,--had, before this reign, begun to exercise the
+functions which belonged of old to the King's Council. At this time,
+the _cabal_ ministry--so called from the first letters of the
+names, which together made the word--was in power. In 1672 war with
+_Holland_ was declared, and was kept up for two years.
+
+DECLARATION OF INDULGENCE.--When _Charles_ began this second Dutch
+war, he issued orders for the suspension of the laws against the
+Catholics and Dissenters. His design was to weaken the Church of
+England. The anger of Parliament and of the people at this usurpation
+obliged him to recall the declaration.
+
+THE TEST ACT.--Parliament, in 1673, passed an act which shut out all
+Dissenters from office. This act the king did not venture to reject;
+although the effect of it was to oblige his brother _James_, the
+Duke of York, to resign his office of lord high admiral.
+
+DANBY'S MINISTRY.--The cabal ministry was gradually broken up; and
+_Shaftesbury_, an able minister, went over to the other side. The
+_Earl of Danby_ became the chief minister. He was in agreement
+with the House of Commons. He favored the marriage which united
+_Mary_, the daughter of the Duke of York, to _William_,
+Prince of Orange.
+
+THE "POPISH PLOT" (1678).--The already exasperated nation was
+infuriated by an alleged "Popish Plot" for the subverting of the
+government, and for the murder of the king and of all
+Protestants. _Titus Oates_, a perjurer, was the main
+witness. Many innocent Roman Catholics were put to death. This
+pretended plot led to stringent measures shutting out papists from
+office. _Halifax_, an able man who called himself "a trimmer,"
+because he did not always stay on one side or with one party, opposed
+a bill that would have excluded the king's brother from the
+succession, and it failed.
+
+HABEAS CORPUS ACT.--In 1679 the _Habeas Corpus Act_ was passed,
+providing effectually against the arbitrary imprisonment of
+subjects. Persons arrested must be brought to trial, or proved in open
+court to be legally confined.
+
+PARTIES: RUSSELL AND SIDNEY.--At this time the party names of
+_Whig_ and _Tory_ came into vogue. Insurgent Presbyterians in
+Scotland had been called "Whigs," a Scotch word meaning whey, or sour
+milk. The nickname was now applied to _Shaftesbury's_ adherents,
+opponents of the court, who wished to exclude the Duke of York from the
+throne on account of his being a Catholic. _Tories_, also a
+nickname, the designation of the supporters of the court, meant
+originally Romanist outlaws, or robbers, in the bogs of Ireland. Many
+of the Whigs began to devise plans of insurrection, from hatred of
+_Charles's_ arbitrary system of government. Some of them were
+disposed to put forward _Monmouth_, the eldest of Charles's
+illegitimate sons, and a favorite of the common people. The
+"_Rye-House Plot_" for the assassination of the king and his
+brother was the occasion of the trial and execution of two eminent
+patriots,--_William_, Lord _Russell_, and _Algernon
+Sidney_, a warm advocate of republican government. Both, it is
+believed, were unjustly condemned. The Duke of York assumed once more
+the office of admiral. _Charles_, before his death, received the
+sacrament from a priest of the Church of Rome (1685).
+
+JAMES II. (1685-1688): MONMOUTH'S REBELLION.--A few months after
+James's accession, the Duke of Monmouth landed in England; but his
+effort to get the crown failed. His forces, mostly made up of
+peasants, were defeated at _Sedgemoor_; and he perished on the
+scaffold. Vengeance was taken upon all concerned in the revolt; and
+Chief Justice _Jeffreys_, for his brutal conduct in the "Bloody
+Assizes," in which, savage as he was, he nevertheless became rich by
+the sale of pardons, was rewarded with the office of lord chancelor.
+
+JAMES'S ARBITRARY GOVERNMENT.--James paid no heed to his promise to
+defend the Church of England. Of a slow and obstinate mind, he could
+not yield to the advice of moderate Roman Catholics, and of the Pope,
+_Innocent XI._; but set out, by such means as dispensing with the
+laws, to restore the old religion, and at the same time to extinguish
+civil liberty. He turned out the judges who did not please him. He
+created a new _Ecclesiastical Commission_, for the coercion of
+the clergy, with the notorious _Jeffreys_ at its head. After
+having treated with great cruelty the Protestant dissenters, he
+unlawfully issued a _Declaration of Indulgence_ (1687) in their
+favor, in order to get their support for his schemes in behalf of his
+own religion. He turned out the fellows of Magdalen College, Oxford,
+for refusing to appoint a Catholic for their president. He sent seven
+bishops to the Tower in 1688, who had signed a petition against the
+order requiring a second Declaration of Indulgence to be read in the
+churches. Popular sympathy was strongly with the accused, and the news
+of their acquittal was received in the streets of London with shouts
+of joy.
+
+REVOLUTION OF 1688: WILLIAM AND MARY (1689-1694).--The birth of a
+Prince of Wales by his second wife, _Mary of Modena_, increased
+the disaffection of the English people. His two daughters by his first
+wife--_Mary_ and _Anne_--were married to Protestants;
+_Mary_, to _William_, Prince of Orange and stadtholder of
+Holland, and _Anne_ to _George_, Prince of Denmark. By a
+combination of parties hostile to the king, _William_ was invited
+to take the English throne. _James_ was blind to the signs of the
+approaching danger, and to the warnings of _Louis XIV_. of
+France. When it was too late, he attempted in vain to disarm the
+conspiracy by concessions. _William_ landed in safety at
+_Torbay_. He was joined by persons of rank. Lord _Churchill_,
+afterwards the celebrated _Duke of Marlborough_, left the royal
+force of which he had the command, and went over to him. The king's
+daughter, _Anne_, fled to the insurgents in the
+North. _William_ was quite willing that _James_ should leave
+the kingdom, and purposely caused him to be negligently guarded by
+Dutch soldiers. He fled to France, never to return. Parliament declared
+the throne to be, on divers grounds, vacant, and promulgated a
+_Declaration of Right_ affirming the ancient rights and liberties
+of England. It offered the crown to _William and Mary_, who
+accepted it (1689). A few months later, the estates of Scotland
+bestowed upon them the crown of that country. Presbyterianism was made
+the established form of religion there. The union of the kingdoms was
+consummated under their successor, _Anne_, when Scotland began to
+be represented in the English Parliament.
+
+THE MASSACRE OF GLENCOE.--A Highland chief, _MacIan_ of
+_Glencoe_, with many of his followers, was treacherously
+slaughtered by order of _Dalrymple_, the Master of Stair, who
+governed Scotland, and had obtained by misrepresentation from William
+leave to extirpate that "set of thieves," as he had called them.
+
+WILLIAM IN IRELAND.--The sovereignty of Ireland passed, with that of
+England, to _William_ and _Mary_. There _James II_.,
+supported by France, made a stout resistance. It was a conflict of the
+Irish Catholics, together with the descendants of the Norman-English
+settlers, comprising together about a million of people, against the
+English and Scottish colonists, not far from two hundred thousand in
+number. The latter, with steadfast courage, sustained a siege in
+_Londonderry_ until the city was relieved by ships from
+England. Many of the inhabitants had perished from hunger. The victory
+of William at _Boyne_ (1690), where _Schomberg_, his brave
+general, a Huguenot French marshal, fell, decided the
+contest. _William_ led his troops in person through the Boyne
+River, with his sword in his left hand, since his right arm was
+disabled by a wound. _James_ was a spectator of the fight at a
+safe distance.
+
+ENGLISH LIBERTY.--In _William's_ reign, liberty in England was
+fortified by the _Bill of Rights_, containing a series of
+safeguards against regal usurpation. Papists were made ineligible to
+the throne. The _Toleration Act_ afforded to Protestant dissenters
+a large measure of protection and freedom. The press was made free from
+censorship (1695), and newspapers began to be published. Provision was
+made for the fair trial of persons indicted for treason. The _Act of
+Settlement_ (1701) settled the crown, if there should be no heirs of
+_Anne_ or of _William_, upon the Princess _Sophia,
+Electress of Hanover_, the daughter of _Elizabeth_ of Bohemia,
+and granddaughter of _James I_., and on her heirs, being
+Protestants.
+
+THE GRAND ALLIANCE: TO THE PEACE OF RYSWICK.--The next war which
+_Louis XIV_. began was that of the succession in the territory of
+the Palatinate, which he claimed, on the extinction of the male line of
+electors, for _Elizabeth Charlotte_, the gifted and excellent
+sister of the deceased Elector _Charles_, and the wife of the
+_Duke of Orleans_, the king's brother.
+
+The table which follows will show the nature of this claim:--
+
+
+
+FREDERIC, V, 1610-1632, Elector and King of Bohemia, _m_.
+Elizabeth, daughter of James I. of England.
+|
++--CHARLES LEWIS, 1649-1680.
+|  |
+|  +--CHARLES, 1680-1685.
+|  |
+|  +--Elizabeth, _m_. Philip, Duke of Orleans, _d_. 1701.
+|
++--Sophia, _m_. Ernest Augustus, Elector of Hanover.
+   |
+   +--George I of England.
+
+_Philip_, _Duke of Orleans_, was the only brother of Louis
+XIV. From him descended King _Louis Philippe_ (1830-1848).
+
+
+Another reason that Louis had for war was his determination to secure
+the archbishopric of Cologne for the bishop of Strasburg, a candidate
+of his own. In 1686 the _League of Augsburg_ had been formed by
+the emperor with Sweden, Spain, Bavaria, Saxony, and the Palatinate,
+for defense against France. The _Grand Alliance_, in which England
+and Holland were included, was now made (1689). In the year before, by
+the advice of _Louvois_, the French had deliberately devastated
+the Palatinate, demolishing buildings, and burning cities and villages
+without mercy. The ruins of the _Castle of Heidelberg_ are a
+monument of this worse than vandal incursion, the pretext for which was
+a desire to prevent the invasion of France. In the war the English and
+Dutch fleets, under _Admiral Russell_, defeated the French, and
+burned their ships, at the battle of _La Hogue_ (1692). This
+battle was a turning-point in naval history: "as at Lepanto," says
+Ranke, where the Turks were defeated (1571), "so at La Hogue, the
+mastery of the sea passed from one side to the other." But in the
+Netherlands, where _William III_., the soul of the League,
+steadfastly kept the field, after being defeated by _Luxemburg_;
+in Italy, where the Duke of Savoy was opposed by the Marshal
+_Catinat_; and in a naval battle between the English and French at
+_Lagos Bay_,--the French commanders were successful. In 1695
+_William's_ troops besieged and captured the town of
+_Namur_. At length _Louis_ was moved by the exhaustion of his
+treasury, and the stagnation of industry in France, to conclude the
+_Peace of Ryswick_ with England, Spain, and Holland (1697). The
+_Duke of Savoy_ had been detached from the alliance. Most of the
+conquests on both sides were restored. _William III._ was
+acknowledged to be king of England. In the treaty with the emperor,
+France retained _Strasburg_. _William_ was a man of sterling
+worth, but he was a Dutchman, and was cold in his manners. The plots of
+the Jacobites, as the adherents of James were called, did more than any
+thing else to make him popular with his subjects.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.  WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION (TO THE PEACE OF UTRECHT,
+1713); DECLINE OF THE POWER OF FRANCE: POWER AND MARITIME SUPREMACY OF
+ENGLAND.
+
+
+OCCASION OF THE WAR.--The death of _Charles II._ of Spain (1700)
+was followed by the War of the Spanish Succession.  The desire of
+_Louis_ to have his hands free in the event of _Charles's_
+death had influenced him in making the Treaty of
+_Rysivick_. _Charles_ had no children. It had been agreed in
+treaties, to which France was a party, that the Spanish monarchy should
+not be united either to Austria or to France; and that Archduke
+_Charles, second_ son of the Emperor _Leopold I._, should
+have Spain and the Indies. But _Charles II._ of Spain left a will
+making Louis's second grandson, _Philip_ Duke of Anjou, the heir
+of all his dominions, with the condition annexed that the crowns of
+France and Spain should not be united. Instigated by dynastic ambition,
+_Louis_ made up his mind to break the previous agreements, and
+seize the inheritance for Philip. _Philip V._ thus became king of
+Spain. On the death of _James II._ (1701), _Louis_ recognized
+his son _James_, called "the Pretender," as king of Great
+Britain. This act, as a violation of the Treaty of Ryswick, and as an
+arrogant intermeddling on the part of a foreign ruler, excited the
+wrath of the English people, and inclined them to war. The _Grand
+Alliance_ against France (1701) included the Empire, England,
+Holland, Brandenburg (or Prussia), and afterwards Portugal and Savoy
+(1703). France was supported by the electors of Bavaria and Cologne,
+and at first by Savoy. _William III._ died in 1702, and was
+succeeded by _Anne_, the sister of his deceased wife, and the
+second daughter of _James II_.
+
+The following table will help to make clear the several claims to the
+Spanish succession:--
+
+
+
+Philip III, King of Spain, 1598-1621.
+|
++--Maria Anna, _m._ Emperor Ferdinand III.
+|  |
+|  +--Leopold I, _m._ (3) Eleanor, daughter of Elector Palatine.
+|  |  |
+|  |  +--Joseph I, d. 1711.
+|  |  |
+|  |  +--Charles VI.[2]
+|  |
+|  +--Anna Maria
+|      _m._
++--PHILIP IV (1621-1665)
+|  |
+|  +--CHARLES II, 1665-1700.
+|  |
+|  +--Margaret Theresa _m._ Leopold I
+|  |  |
+|  |  +--Maria Antonia _m._ Maximilian of Bavaria
+|  |     |
+|  |     +--Joseph Ferdinand, [1] Electoral Prince of Bavaria.
+|  |
+|  +--(1) Maria Theresa.
+|       _m._
+|  +--Louis XIV
+|  |  |
+|  |  +--Louis, the Dauphin.
+|  |     |
+|  |     +--Philip of Anjou [2] (PHILIP V of Spain), d. 1746.
+|  |
++--Anne. _m._ Louis XIII of France
+
+
+
+1  Recognized as heir of Charles II of Spain until his death.
+
+2  Rival claimants for the Spanish crown after Charles II, the elder
+   brother of each having resigned his pretensions.
+
+
+
+EVENTS OF THE WAR.--In this war, there were displayed the military
+talents of two great generals,--the _Duke of Marlborough_ and
+Prince _Eugene_ of Savoy. _Marlborough_ had two glaring
+faults, He was avaricious, and, like other prominent public men in
+England at that day, was double-faced. After deserting the service of
+_James_ for that of _William_, he still kept up at times a
+correspondence with the exiled house. He was a man of stately and
+winning presence, a careful commander, in battle cool and
+self-possessed. At the council board, he had the art of quietly
+composing differences by winning all to an adhesion to his own views.
+It is said of him, that he "never committed a rash act, and never
+missed an opportunity for striking an effective blow." _Eugene_,
+on his father's side, sprang from the house of Savoy. His mother was a
+niece of _Mazarin_. He was brought up at the court of _Louis
+XIV_.; but when the king repeatedly refused him a commission in the
+army, he entered the service of Austria, was employed in campaigns
+against the Turks, and rose to the highest distinction. Flattering
+offers from _Louis XIV_. he indignantly rejected. His career as a
+soldier was long and brilliant. The personal sympathy of _Eugene_
+and _Marlborough_ with each other was one important cause of their
+success. _Eugene_ was first sent to Italy. There he drove
+_Catinat_, the French general, back on _Milan_, and captured
+his successor in command, _Villeroi_ (1702). After a drawn battle
+between _Eugene_ and _Vendome_ (1702), a commander of much
+more skill than his predecessor, the French had the advantage in
+Italy. In 1703, _Eugene_ came to Germany, and _Marlborough_
+invaded the Spanish Netherlands. In 1704 Marlborough carried out the
+plan of a grand campaign which he had devised. He crossed the Rhine at
+Cologne, moved southward, captured _Donauwörth_, and drove the
+Bavarians across the Danube. The united forces of _Marlborough_
+and _Eugene_ defeated the French and Bavarian armies at
+_Blenheim_ (or _Hochstädt_), on the left bank of the river,
+with great slaughter. There were captured fifteen thousand French
+soldiers, with their general _Tallard_. This victory raised
+_Marlborough's_ reputation, already great on account of his
+masterly conduct of his army, to the highest point. He was made a duke
+by Queen _Anne_, and a prince of the Empire by _Leopold_. In
+Spain, the English captured _Gibraltar_. _Charles_ of Austria
+(who had assumed the title of _Charles III._ of Spain) conquered
+Madrid (1706), but held it for only a short time. The country generally
+favored _Philip_; the arms of _Vendome_ were triumphant; and
+_Aragon_, _Catalonia_, and _Valencia_ had to submit to
+Castilian laws as the penalty of their adhesion to the Austrian
+cause. In 1706 _Marlborough_ vanquished _Villeroi_ at
+_Ramillies_, a village in the Netherlands, in a great battle in
+which the French army was routed, and their banners and war material
+captured. The Netherlands submitted to Austria. At _Turin_,
+_Eugene_ gained a victory over an army of eighty thousand men; and
+the fame of this modest and unpretending, but brave and skillful leader
+was now on a level with that of the English general. Lombardy submitted
+to _Charles III_., and the French were excluded from
+Italy. Another victory of the two commanders at _Oudenarde_ (1708)
+over _Vendome_ and the _Duke of Burgundy_, broke down the
+hopes of _Louis_, and moved him to offer the largest concessions,
+which embraced the giving up of _Strasburg_ and of
+_Spain_. But the allies, flushed with success, went so far as to
+demand that he should aid in driving his grandson out of Spain. This
+roused France, as well as _Louis_ himself, to another grand
+effort. At _Malplaquet_, in a bloody conflict, the French were
+again defeated by _Marlborough_ and _Eugene_.
+
+TO THE PEACE OF UTRECHT.--Circumstances now favored the vanquished and
+humbled king of France. The Whig ministry in England, which the
+victories of _Marlborough_ had kept in office, fell from power
+(1710); and its enemies, and the enemies of _Marlborough_, were
+anxious to weaken him. _Anne_ dismissed from her service the
+Duchess of Marlborough, a haughty woman of a violent
+temper. _Harley_, Earl of Oxford, and _St. John_, afterwards
+Viscount _Bolingbroke_, became the queen's principal ministers.
+They wished to end the war. The Emperor _Joseph_ (1705-1711), who
+had succeeded _Leopold I._, died; so that _Charles_, if he
+had acquired Spain, would have restored the vast monarchy of
+_Charles V_., and brought in a new source of jealousy and
+alarm. Negotiations for peace began. _Marlborough_, who had been
+guilty of traitorous conduct, was removed from his command, and
+deprived of all his offices (1712). In 1713 the Peace of _Utrecht_
+was concluded between England and France, in which Holland, Prussia,
+Savoy, and Portugal soon joined. It was followed by the Peace of
+_Rastadt_ and _Baden_ with the emperor (1714). Spain and
+Spanish America were left to _Philip V_., the Bourbon king, with
+the proviso that the crowns of France and Spain should never be
+united. France ceded to England _Newfoundland_, _Nova
+Scotia_, and the _Hudson Bay Territory_. Spain ceded to England
+_Gibraltar_ and _Minorca_. The _Elector of Brandenburg_
+was recognized as _King of Prussia_. Savoy received the island of
+_Sicily_, which was exchanged seven years later for
+_Sardinia_, and for the title of king for the duke. Holland gained
+certain "barrier" fortresses on its border. Austria received the
+appanages of the Spanish monarchy,--the _Spanish Netherlands_,
+_Naples_, _Sardinia_, and _Milan_, but not
+_Sicily_. The emperor did not recognize the Bourbons in Spain.
+
+LAST DAYS OF LOUIS XIV.--In the next year after the peace, _Louis
+XIV_. died. Within two years (1710-1712) he had lost his son, his
+grandson the _Duke of Burgundy_ (whom the pious _Fenélon_ had
+trained), his wife, and his eldest great-grandson, and, two years later
+(1714), his third grandson, the _Duke of Berry_. He left France
+overwhelmed with debt, its resources exhausted, its credit gone, its
+maritime power prostrate; a land covered with poverty and
+wretchedness. This was the reward of lawless pride and ambition in a
+monarch who owed his strength, however, to the sympathy and
+subservience of the nation.
+
+LAW'S BANK.--During the minority of _Louis XV_. (1715-1774)
+_Philip, Duke of Orleans_, was regent, a man of extraordinary
+talents, but addicted to shameful debauchery. The opportunity for
+effective reform was neglected. The most influential minister was
+Cardinal _Dubois_, likewise a man of unprincipled character. The
+state was really bankrupt, when a Scottish adventurer and gambler,
+_John Law_, possessed of unusual financial talents, but infected
+with the economical errors of the time, offered to rescue the national
+finances by means of a _bank_, which he was allowed to found, the
+notes of which were to serve as currency. Almost all the coined money
+flowed into its coffers; its notes went everywhere in the kingdom, and
+were taken for government dues; it combined with its business "the
+Mississippi scheme," or the control of the trade, and almost the
+sovereignty, in the _Mississippi_ region; it absorbed the
+privileges of the different companies for trading with the East;
+finally it took charge of the national mint and the issue of coin, and
+of the taxation of the kingdom, and it assumed the national debt. The
+temporary success of the gigantic financial scheme turned the heads of
+the people, and a fever of speculation ran through all ranks. The
+crash came, the shares in the bank sunk in value, the notes
+depreciated; and, in the wrath which ensued upon the general
+bankruptcy, _Law_, who had been honored and courted by the high
+and the low, fled from the kingdom. He died in poverty at
+_Venice_. The state alone was a gainer by having escaped from a
+great part of its indebtedness.
+
+ITALY.--Before the middle of the eighteenth century, the Spanish
+Bourbons again had possession of _Naples_ and _Sicily_,
+besides other smaller Italian states. Austria, besides holding
+_Milan_, was the virtual ruler of _Tuscany_.
+
+SPAIN IN ITALY.--_Philip V_. was afflicted with a mental
+derangement peculiar to his family. The government was managed by the
+ambitious queen, _Elizabeth_ of Parma, and the intriguing Italian,
+_Alberoni_, the minister in whom she confided. He sought to get
+back the Italian states lost by the Peace of _Utrecht_. But
+_Sardinia_ and _Sicily_ were restored when he was overthrown,
+through the fear excited by the _Quadruple Alliance_ of France,
+England, Austria, and Holland (1718). Later, the queen succeeded in
+obtaining the kingdom of _Naples_ and _Sicily_ for her oldest
+son, _Don Carlos_, under the name of _Charles III. Parma,
+Piacenza_, and _Guastalla_, she gained for her second son,
+_Philip_ (1735). When _Charles_ succeeded to the Spanish
+throne (1759-1788), he left _Naples_ and _Sicily_ to his
+third son, _Ferdinand_.
+
+AUSTRIA IN ITALY.--The house of Savoy steadily advanced in power. By
+the Peace of Ryswick, Victor _Amadeus II_. (1675-1730), secured
+important places previously gained. He became "King of Sardinia"
+(1720).  By him the University of Turin was founded, and the
+administration of justice much improved. His next two successors
+carried forward this good work. _Venice_ lost _Morea_ to the
+Turks, but retained _Corfu_ and her conquests in _Dalmatia_
+(1718). Liberty was gone, and there was decay and conscious weakness in
+the once powerful republic. _Genoa_ was coveted by Savoy, Austria,
+and France. The consequent struggles are the material of Genoese
+history for a long period. _Corsica_ was oppressed, and
+_Genoa_ called on France to lend help in suppressing its revolt
+(1736). The Corsicans especially, under _Paoli_, defended
+themselves with such energy that France found its work of subjugation
+hard and slow (1755). The island was ceded to France by
+Genoa(1768). _Milan_, with Mantua, was Austrian, after the Peace
+of Utrecht (1713). _Tuscany_ under _Ferdinand
+II_. (1628-1670) bestowed its treasure on Austria and Spain, and
+fell under the sway of ecclesiastics. Under _Cosmo
+III_. (1670-1723), the process of decline went on. After the death
+of the last of the Medici, _John Gasto_ (1737), Tuscany was
+practically under the power of Austria, notwithstanding the stipulation
+that both states should not have the same ruler. It was governed by
+_Francis Stephen_ (1738-1765), Duke of Lorraine, husband of the
+Empress _Maria Theresa_; and, when he became emperor (_Francis
+I_.), by his second son, _Leopold_ (1765-1790). At Rome, Pope
+_Innocent XI_. (1676-1689) had many conflicts with _Louis
+XVI_. which came to an end under the well-meaning _Innocent
+XII_. (1691-1700).  Contests arose on the part of Rome against the
+Bourbon courts respecting the Jesuit order, and with the forces adverse
+to the Church and the Papacy, in the closing part of the eighteenth
+century. In 1735, the Emperor _Charles VI_. allowed that Naples
+and Sicily should be handed over, as a kingdom, to _Don Carlos_,
+the son of the Spanish Bourbon king, under the name of _Charles
+III_., by whom it was granted to his son _Ferdinand
+IV_. (1759).
+
+CLOSE OF ANNE'S REIGN.--_Anne's_ husband, Prince _George of
+Denmark_, had no influence, and deserved none. One of the important
+events of her reign was the Union of England and Scotland in 1707
+(p. 461). After the Tories came into power, the two leaders,
+_Oxford_ and _Bolingbroke_, were rivals. An angry dispute
+between them hastened the queen's death (1714). One of the Tory
+measures, prompted by hostility to Dissenters, was a law forbidding any
+one to keep a school without a license from a bishop.
+
+
+GEORGE I, 1714-1727, _m._ Sophia Dorothea of Zell.
+|
++--GEORGE II, 1727-1760, _m._ Caroline,
+   daughter of John Frederick, Margrave of Anspach.
+   |
+   +--Frederick, Prince of Wales, _d._ 1751, _m._
+      Augusta of Saxe Gotha.
+      |
+      +--Augusta _m._
+      |  Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick.
+      |  |
+      |  +--Caroline
+      |       _m._
+      |  +--GEORGE IV, 1820-1830.
+      |  |
+      +--GEORGE III, 1760-1820, _m._
+         Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz.
+         |
+         +--WILLIAM IV, 1830-1837.
+         |
+         +--Edward, Duke of Kent, _d._ 1820, _m._
+            Victoria of Saxe Coburg.
+            |
+            +--VICTORIA, succeeded 1837, _m._
+               Albert of Saxe Coburg.
+
+
+
+REIGN OF GEORGE I.--_George I_., the first king of the house of
+_Hanover_, could not speak English. His private life was immoral.
+His first ministers were Whigs. _Bolingbroke_ and _Oxford_
+were impeached, and fled the country. The "_Pretender_," _James
+Edward_ (son of _James II_.), with the aid of Tory partisans,
+endeavored to recover the English crown. His standard was raised in the
+Highlands and in North England (1715), but this Jacobite rebellion was
+crushed. After the rebellion of 1715, a law was passed, which is still
+in force, allowing a Parliament to continue for the term of seven
+years. A second conspiracy in 1717 had the same fate. England had an
+experience analogous to that of France with _Law_, with the
+_South Sea_ Company, which had a monopoly of trade with the
+Spanish coasts of South America. A rage for speculation was followed by
+a panic. The estates of the directors of the company were confiscated
+by Parliament for the benefit of the losers. _Robert Walpole_ was
+made first minister, a place which he held under _George I._ and
+_George II._ for twenty-one years. _William_ and _Anne_
+had attended the meetings of the Cabinet. _George I._, who could
+not speak English, staid away. From this time, one of the ministers was
+called the "prime minister."
+
+THE REIGN OF GEORGE II.--George II. was systematic in his ways, frugal,
+willful, and fond of war. In his private life, he followed the evil
+ways of his father. _Walpole's_ influence was predominant. The
+clever Queen _Caroline_ lent him her support. Walpole reluctantly
+entered into war with _Spain_ (1739), on account of the measures
+adopted by that power to prevent English ships from carrying goods, in
+violation of the treaty of _Utrecht_, to her South American
+colonies. The principal success of England was the taking of _Porto
+Bello_ by _Admiral Vernon_.
+
+When the war was declared, the people expressed their joy by the
+ringing of bells. "They are ringing the bells now," said
+_Walpole:_ "they will be wringing their hands soon." The blame for
+the want of better success in the war was laid on the prime minister,
+and he was driven to resign. Then followed the ministry of the
+_Pelhams_, Henry Pelham and the Duke of Newcastle, who, like
+Walpole, managed Parliament by bribing the members through the gift of
+offices.
+
+In the war of the Austrian succession (1740), England took part with
+Austria, and the king in person fought in Germany. In 1745 _Prince
+Charles Edward Stuart_, the young _Pretender_ (whose father,
+the old Pretender, styled himself _James III_.), landed in the
+Highlands. The Highlanders defeated the English at _Preston
+Pans_, near Edinburgh. The Pretender marched into England as far as
+Derby, at the head of the Jacobite force, but had to turn back and
+retreat to Scotland. The contest was decided by the victory of the
+English under the _Duke of Cumberland_, at Culloden (1746), which
+was attended by an atrocious slaughter of the wounded. _Culloden_
+was the last battle fought in behalf of the Stuarts. Nearly eighty
+Jacobite conspirators, one of whom was an octogenarian, _Lord
+Lovat_, were executed as traitors. These Jacobites were the last
+persons who were beheaded in England. The Pretender wandered in the
+Highlands and Western Islands for five months, under different
+disguises. He was concealed and aided by a Scottish lady, _Flora
+Macdonald_. Then he escaped to the Continent, where he led a
+miserable and dissipated life, and died in 1788. His brother Henry,
+Cardinal York, the last of the Stuarts in the male line, died in 1807.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.  THE GREAT NORTHERN WAR: THE FALL OP SWEDEN: GROWTH OF
+THE POWER OF RUSSIA.
+
+
+SWEDEN.--The eventful epoch in the history of Sweden, in this period,
+is the reign of Charles XII. (1697-1718). At his accession, when he was
+only sixteen years old, Sweden ruled the Baltic. Its army was strong
+and well disciplined. What is now St. Petersburg was a patch of swampy
+ground in Swedish territory, where a few fishermen lived in their
+huts. The youth of Charles was prophetic of his career. In doors, he
+read the exploits of Alexander the Great; out of doors, gymnastic
+sports and the hunting of the bear were his favorite diversions. He
+became an adventurous warrior after, the type of Alexander. His
+rashness and obstinacy occasioned at last the downfall of his
+country. Three great powers, _Russia, Poland_, and _Denmark,_
+with the support of _Patkul_, a disaffected Livonian subject of
+Sweden, joined in an attack on the youthful monarch
+(1699). _Patkul_, who was a patriot, unable to secure the rights
+of Livonia, and condemned as a rebel, had entered the service of the
+Elector Augustus of Saxony, who was king of Poland. There were
+territories belonging to Sweden which each of the confederates
+coveted. _Frederick IV._ of Denmark expected to incorporate Sweden
+itself in his dominions.
+
+RUSSIA: PETER THE GREAT.--The first ruler of the house of Romanoff,
+which has raised Russia to its present rank, was _Michael_
+(1613-1645). Under _Alexis,_ his son (1645-1676), important
+conquests were made from the Poles, and the _Cossacks_
+acknowledged the sovereignty of the Czar. The principal founder of
+Russian civilization was _Peter the Great_ (1682-1725). Through
+the machinations of his half-sister _Sophia_, who contrived to get
+the armed aid of the streltzi,--the native militia,--he had to share
+the throne with a half-brother, _Ivan_, who was older than
+himself, and lived until 1696. _Sophia_ pushed aside Peter's
+mother, and grasped the reins of power. Peter learned Latin, German,
+and Dutch, and acquired much knowledge of various sorts. As he grew
+older, his life was in danger; but at the age of seventeen, he was able
+to crush his enemies (1689). _Sophia_, who was at their head, he
+shut up in a monastery for the remainder of her days. From
+_Lefort_, a Swiss, and other foreigners, Peter derived information
+about foreign lands, and was led to visit them in order to instruct
+himself, and to introduce into his own country the arts and inventions
+of civilized peoples. He invited into Russia artisans, seamen, and
+officers from abroad. He traveled through _Germany _and _Holland
+_to _England_, and with his own hands worked at ship-building
+at the dock-yards of _Zaandam_ (near Amsterdam) and
+_Deptford_. On his way to Venice, he was called home by a revolt
+of the streltzi, which he put down. He was unsparing in his vengeance,
+and, despite his veneer of culture, never got rid of his innate
+barbarism. _Azoff _he conquered, and it was ceded to him by the
+Turks in the Peace of _Carlowitz_ (1699). Then his ambitious
+thoughts turned to the Baltic, for he was bent on making Russia a naval
+power. He formed a secret alliance with Denmark and Poland against
+Sweden.
+
+CONDITION OF POLAND.--In 1697 _Frederick Augustus _II.,--Augustus
+_the Strong_,--Duke of Saxony, was elected king of Poland: he
+became a Roman Catholic that he might get the crown. But the Polish
+nobles took care to increase their power, which was already far too
+great to be compatible with unity or order. Under the anarchical but
+despotic nobility and higher clergy, stood the serfs, embracing
+nine-tenths of the whole population, who were without protection
+against the greed and tyranny of their lords.
+
+EVENTS OF THE NORTHERN WAR.--The _Danes _first attacked the
+territory of _Holstein Gottorp_, whose duke had married the sister
+of _Charles XII_. _William III_. of England supported Sweden.
+The Anglo-Dutch fleet came to Charles's assistance. He landed his
+troops in _Zealand_. The Danes gave up their alliance, and sued
+for peace. Europe was now astonished to discover that the Swedish king
+was an antagonist to be feared. In the field he shared the hardships of
+the common soldier, and was as brave as a lion. _Charles _now
+attacked the Russian army before _Narva_, in Livonia. With the
+Swedish infantry he stormed the camp of the Russians, and routed their
+army, which was much larger in numbers than his own (1700). He then
+raised the siege of _Riga_, which the Poles and Saxons were
+besieging, having first defeated their troops on the
+_Dwina_. These brilliant successes might have enabled _Charles
+_to conclude peace on very advantageous terms. But he lacked
+moderation. He was as passionate in his public conduct as _Peter the
+Great _was in his private life. He was resolved to dethrone
+_Augustus _in Poland. After the battle of _Clissau_ (1703),
+he occupied that country, and made the Diet give the crown to
+_Stanislas Lesczinski_, the Palatine of Posen. To prevent Russia
+and Saxony from uniting against the new king, _Charles_ carried
+the war into Saxony, and forced _Augustus_, in the Peace of
+_Altranstädt_, to renounce his claim to the Polish crown, and to
+surrender _Patkul_, the rebel, who had become a subject of Russia,
+whom he put to death with circumstances of cruelty. In 1703
+_Peter_ laid the foundations of the new city of
+_St. Petersburg_. But, a few years later, Russia was invaded by
+_Charles_, who in 1708 almost captured the Czar at _Grodno_,
+defeated his army near _Smolensk_, and was expected to advance to
+_Moscow_. But the imprudent Swede turned southward into the
+district of the _Ukraine_, there to be joined by _Mazeppa_,
+the "hetman" of the Cossacks, who led them in revolt against
+Peter. Mazeppa was able, however, to bring him but few auxiliaries. The
+harshness of the winter, and other untoward events, weakened the
+Swedish force. The battle of _Pultowa_ (1709) was a great victory
+for the Czar. Charles escaped with difficulty to Turkey. There he
+remained for three years, supported with his retinue, at _Bender_,
+by the Sultan. His object was to bring about a war between the Sultan
+and the Czar. He so far succeeded that _Peter_, when surrounded on
+the _Pruth_ by Turkish troops, was rescued only by the courage and
+energy of _Catherine_, the mistress whom he afterwards
+married. _Charles_ was finally obliged to leave Turkey, after
+being exposed to imminent peril in an attack by the janizaries, who
+seized his camp and took him captive. With a few attendants, riding by
+day and sleeping in a cart or carriage by night, he journeyed back to
+Sweden, and arrived at _Stralsund_ (1714). The hostile allies,
+together with _Hanover_ and _Prussia_, were once more in
+array against him. _Baron van Görtz_, a German, became his
+principal adviser. He negotiated a peace with _Peter_, of whom the
+other allies were beginning to be jealous. _Charles's_ plan was to
+invade Norway, then to land in Scotland, and, with the help of Spain
+and of the Jacobites, to restore the Stuarts to the English
+throne. While besieging _Friedrichshall_, a fortress in Norway, he
+exposed himself near the trenches, and was killed by a bullet
+(1718). It was long a question whether the fatal shot was fired from
+the enemy or by an assassin. Not until 1859 was it settled, by an
+examination of the skull, that the gun was discharged from the
+fortress.
+
+RESULTS OF THE WAR--One result of the Northern war was the execution of
+_Görtz_, to whom the Swedish aristocracy were inimical, and a
+reduction of the king's authority. _Hanover_ received
+_Bremen_ and _Verden_; _Prussia_, the largest part of
+_Pomerania_; _Sweden_ gave up its freedom from custom duties
+in the Sound.  _Augustus_ was recognized as king of
+_Poland_. _Russia_, by the _Peace of Nystadt_ (1721),
+obtained _Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermannland,_ and a part of
+_Carelia_, but restored _Finland_. _Sweden_ no longer
+had a place among the great powers. The place that Sweden had held was
+now taken by _Russia_.
+
+CHANGES IN RUSSIA.--The Czar, _Peter_, took the title of emperor.
+He transferred the capital from _Moscow_ to _St. Petersburg_.
+By constructing canals, roads, and harbors, he promoted trade and
+commerce. By fostering manufactures and the mechanic arts, and by
+opening the mines, he increased the wealth of the country. He altered
+the method of government, making the _ukases_, or edicts, emanate
+from the sole will of the emperor. He abolished the dignity of
+_Patriarch_, making the _Holy Synod_, of which the Czar is
+president, the supreme ecclesiastical authority. _Peter_ made a
+second journey through Germany, Holland, and France (1716). His son
+_Alexis_, who allied himself with a reactionary party that aimed
+to reverse the Czar's policy, he finally caused to be tried for
+treason. He was condemned, but died either from the bodily torture
+inflicted on him to extort confession, or, as many have believed, by
+poison, or other means, used by the direction of his father. His
+friends, after being barbarously tortured, were put to death.
+
+Great as was the work of _Peter_, "he brought Russia prematurely
+into the circle of European politics. The result has been to turn the
+rulers of Russia away from home affairs, and the regular development of
+internal institutions, to foreign politics and the creation of a great
+military power." In his last years, the frugality of his own way of
+living in his new capital was in striking contrast with the splendor
+with which his queen, _Catherine_, preferred to surround
+herself. He died at the age of fifty-three, in consequence of plunging
+into icy water to save a boat in distress.
+
+  The document called "The Testament of Peter the Great," which
+  explains what has to be done in order that Russia may conquer all
+  Europe, is not genuine. It is first heard of in 1812, in a book
+  published by _Lesur_, probably by direction of Napoleon
+  I. "Lesur's book," says _Mr. E. Schuyler_, "was merely a
+  pamphlet to justify the invasion of Russia by Napoleon."  (Schuyler's
+  _Life of Peter the Great_, vol. ii, p. 512.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSION; GROWTH OP THE POWER OF
+PRUSSIA: THE DESTRUCTION OF POLAND.
+
+
+THE PRAGMATIC SANCTION.--On the death of _Augustus II._, there
+were two competitors for the Polish crown,--his son, _Augustus
+III._ of Saxony, and _Stanislaus Lesczinski_ whom France
+supported. After a contest, by the consent of the Emperor _Charles
+VI._, _Lesczinski_, whose daughter had married _Louis
+XV._, obtained the duchy of _Lorraine_, which thus became a
+possession of France (1735). In return, the emperor's son-in-law,
+_Francis Stephen_ (afterwards _Francis I._), was to have
+_Tuscany_; and France, in connection with the other powers,
+assented to the _Pragmatic Sanction_, according to which the
+hereditary possessions of Austria were to descend intact in the female
+line. It was expected that the empire would pass along with them.
+
+PRUSSIA: FREDERICK WILLIAM I.--In 1611 the duchy of _Prussia_ and
+the mark or electorate of _Brandenburg_ were joined together. The
+duchy was then a fief of Poland. But under the Great Elector,
+_Frederick William_ (1640-1688), this relation of the duchy to
+Poland ended. By him the military strength of the electorate was
+increased. _Frederick_, his son (1688-1713), with the emperor's
+license, took the title of King of Prussia (_Frederick I._). He
+built up the city of _Berlin_, and encouraged art and
+learning. King _Frederick William I._ (1713-1740), unlike his
+predecessor, was exceedingly frugal in his court. He was upright and
+just in his principles, but extremely rough in his ways, and governed
+his own household, as well as his subjects generally, with a Spartan
+rigor. Individuals whom he met in the street, whose conduct or dress
+he thought unbecoming, he did not hesitate to scold, and he even used
+his cane to chastise them on the spot. He cared nothing for
+literature: artists and players were his abomination. He favored
+industry, and was a friend of the working-class. Every thing was done
+with despotic energy. He disciplined the military force of Prussia,
+and gathered at _Potsdam_ a regiment of tall guards, made up of
+men of gigantic height, who were brought together from all
+quarters. He left to his son, _Frederick II._ (1740-1786), a
+strong army and a full treasury.
+
+CHARACTER OF FREDERICK THE GREAT.--Young _Frederick_ had no
+sympathy with his father's austere ways. The strict system of training
+arranged for him, in which he was cut off from Latin and from other
+studies for which he had a taste, his time all parceled out, and a
+succession of tasks rigorously ordained for him, he found a yoke too
+heavy to bear. Once he attempted to escape to the court of his uncle,
+_George II._ of England; but the scheme was discovered, and the
+incensed father was strongly inclined to execute the decree of a
+court-martial, which pronounced him worthy of death. _Frederick_,
+from the window of the place where he was confined, saw _Katte_,
+his favorite tutor, who had helped him in his attempt at flight, led to
+the scaffold, where he was hanged. In the later years of the old king,
+the relations of father and son were improved. The prince had for his
+abode the little town of _Rheinsberg_, where he could indulge,
+with a circle of congenial friends, in the studies and amusements to
+which he was partial. He grew up with a strong predilection for French
+literature, and for the French habits and fashions--free-thinking in
+religion included--which were now spreading over Europe. On his
+accession to the throne, _Frederick_ broke up the Potsdam regiment
+of giants, and called back to Halle the philosopher _Wolf_, whom
+his father had banished. _Frederick_ was visited by
+_Voltaire_, who at a later day took up his abode for a time with
+him in _Berlin_. But the king was fond of banter, and the foibles
+of each of these companions were a target for the unsparing wit of the
+other; so that eventually they parted company with mutual
+disgust. Later they resumed their correspondence, and never wholly lost
+their intellectual sympathy with each other. As a soldier,
+_Frederick_ had not the military genius of the greatest
+captains. He applied superior talents to the discharge of the duties of
+a king, and to the business of war. He was cool, knew how to profit by
+his errors and to repair his losses, and to press forward in the
+darkest hour. Napoleon said of him that "he was great, especially at
+critical moments."
+
+WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCESSION---_Charles VI._ was succeeded, in
+1740, by his daughter _Maria Theresa_, who united in her character
+many of the finest qualities of a woman and of a sovereign.
+Notwithstanding the _pragmatic sanction_ by which all the Austrian
+lands were to be hers, different princes deemed the occasion favorable
+for seizing on the whole, or on portions, of her inheritance.
+_Charles_, elector of Bavaria, claimed to be the lawful heir, and
+was aided by France, which was afraid of losing _Lorraine_ if
+_Maria Theresa's _ husband, _Francis Stephen_, should become
+emperor. _Augustus III._ of Poland was a participant in the
+plot. _Frederick II._ of Prussia claimed _Silesia_, and,
+after defeating the Austrians at _Molwitz_ (1741), seized the
+greater part of that district. Soon after, the French and Bavarians
+overran Austria. The Bavarian elector was chosen emperor. Even the
+elector of Hanover (_George II._ of England) engaged not to assist
+the empress.
+
+  The claims to Austria were as follows:--
+
+  _Augustus III._, king of Saxony, and _Charles Albert_,
+  elector of Bavaria, had married daughters of the Emperor _Joseph
+  I._ (the brother and predecessor of _Charles VI._). The wife
+  of _Charles Albert _ was the _younger_ daughter; but he
+  appealed to an alleged provision in the will of the Emperor
+  _Ferdinand I._, according to which the posterity of his
+  daughter _Anna_ (who married a Bavarian duke) was to inherit
+  the duchy of Austria and Bohemia, in case his _male_
+  descendants should die out. It was not to the _male_
+  descendants, but to the _legitimate_ descendants, however, that
+  the will referred. The _Bourbons_ in France and Spain seized
+  the occasion to regain the possessions of Spain lost in the Peace of
+  Utrecht (p. 466). _Francis Stephen_, the husband of _Maria
+  Theresa_, it was feared, might seek to get back Lorraine from
+  France (p. 474). Spain was anxious to recover Milan. _Philip
+  V._ of Spain claimed the Austrian possessions on the basis of
+  certain stipulations of _Charles V._ and _Philip III._ in
+  the cession of them. To weaken the Austrian house in Germany, was an
+  aim of France. The courts of France and Spain were ready, on all
+  these grounds, to support _Charles_ of Bavaria. They were
+  ready, also, to support _Frederick II._ in legal claims which
+  he set up to a portion of Silesia. The empress rejected the offer of
+  _Frederick_ to defend Austria if she would give up this
+  territory.
+
+SPIRIT OF THE EMPRESS: CESSION OF SILESIA.--_Maria Theresa_
+proved herself a Minerva. She threw herself for support on her
+Hungarian subjects, who responded with loyal enthusiasm to her appeal
+made at the _Diet of Presburg_. Her forces drove the Bavarian and
+French troops before them in Austria, entered Bavaria, and captured
+_Munich_.  Reluctantly the queen, in the _Peace of Breslau_
+(1742), ceded _Silesia_ to _Frederick_, in order to lessen
+the number of her antagonists. She was crowned (1743) in _Prague_,
+and at length gained an ally in _George II._ of England. The
+"Pragmatic Army," as it was called, defeated the French under Marshal
+_Noailles_ at _Dettingen_. _Sardinia_ and _Saxony_
+joined the Austrian alliance.
+
+TO THE PEACE OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.--These events widened the dimensions
+of the contest. France declared war directly against England and
+Austria. _Frederick II._ of Prussia was now the ally of France,
+and began the _second Silesian war_. He took _Prague_, but,
+being deserted by the French, was driven back into _Saxony_. The
+son of _Charles Albert_ of Bavaria, _Maximilian Joseph_, made
+peace with Austria,--the Peace of _Füssen_,--promising to give his
+vote to _Francis_, the husband of _Maria Theresa_, for the
+office of emperor. _Francis_ (1745-1765) was crowned at Frankfort.
+Victories in Saxony on the side of _Frederick_ led to the
+_Treaty_ of _Dresden_, which left _Silesia_ in his hands
+(1745). The most of the English army went back to England to fight the
+Pretender. The war went on in the Netherlands and in Italy, and between
+France and England; the English being victors on the sea under
+_Anson_ (1747), while the French were generally successful on the
+land. The peace of _Aix-la-Chapelle_ (1748) provided for a
+reciprocal restoration of all conquests: _Silesia_ was given to
+_Prussia_, and the _Pragmatic Sanction_ was sustained in
+_Austria_.
+
+ALLIANCE AGAINST FREDERICK.--_Frederick the Great_ used the next
+eight years in doing what he could to encourage industry and to
+increase the prosperity and resources of Prussia, at the same time
+that he strengthened his military force. Prussia had evinced so much
+power in the late conflicts as to be an object of envy and
+apprehension. _Maria Theresa_ was anxious to recover
+_Silesia_. _Frederick_ had a foe in _Elizabeth_,
+empress of Russia, whose personal vices he made a subject of sarcastic
+remark, and who, besides, coveted Prussian provinces on the Baltic. An
+alliance was formed between _Russia_ and _Austria._ This was
+joined by _Saxony_, and by _France;_ since _Louis XV._
+had become alarmed by the calculating selfishness of
+_Frederick's_ policy, and was induced to depart from the French
+traditional policy, and to unite with Austria.  The only ally of
+_Frederick_ was _George II. _of England, which was then
+engaged in a contest with France respecting the American colonies
+(1756).
+
+THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR.--Thus arose the _Seven Years' War._
+_Frederick,_ secretly informed of the plans of his enemies,
+anticipated their action by invading Saxony and capturing _Dresden
+_(1756). At _Lobositz_ he defeated the Austrians: he soon took
+eighteen thousand Saxon troops. He had now to encounter the military
+strength of the various nations opposed to him. With the bulk of his
+forces he marched into Bohemia, and gained a great but costly victory
+at _Prague_ (1757). For the next six months, successes and
+reverses alternated; but before the end of the year (1757)
+_Frederick_ won two of his most famous triumphs,--one at
+_Rossbach,_ over the French and the Imperialists; and the other
+over the Austrians, at _Leuthen._ _Frederick_ was now
+admired as a hero in England, and was furnished by the elder
+_William Pitt,_ who had succeeded _Newcastle_, with money
+and troops. In 1758 the Prussians vanquished the Russians at
+_Zorndorf_, but were, in turn, soon defeated by the Austrians at
+_Hochkirch_ Of the numerous battles in this prolonged war, in
+which the military talents of _Frederick_ were so strikingly
+shown, it is possible to refer only to a few of the most important. He
+was defeated by the united Austrians and Russians at
+_Kunersdorf;_ and so completely that he was for the moment thrown
+into despair, and wrote to his minister _Finkenstein,_ "All is
+lost." In 1760 _Berlin_ was held for a few days by the Russians,
+but _Frederick_ soon defeated the Austrians once more at
+_Torgau._ In 1761, however, his situation was in the highest
+degree perilous. His resources were apparently exhausted. _Spain_
+joined the ranks of his enemies. He faced them all with determined
+resolution, but he confessed in his private letters that his hopes
+were gone.
+
+END OF THE WAR.--At this time there was a turn of events in his
+favor. In Russia, _Peter III._, who succeeded _Elizabeth_,
+was an admirer of _Frederick,_--so much so that he wore a Prussian
+uniform,--and hastened to conclude a peace and alliance with him
+(1762). _Peter_ was soon dethroned and killed by Russian nobles;
+and his queen· and successor, _Catherine II._, recalled the troops
+sent to _Frederick's_ aid. Nevertheless, they helped him to a
+victory over the Austrians, under the command of _Daun,_ at
+_Burkersdorf_ (1762). Austria, too, was exhausted and ready for
+peace. The negotiations between England and France, which ended in the
+_Peace of Paris_ (1763), made it certain that the French armies
+would evacuate Germany. _Prussia_ and _Austria_ agreed to the
+_Peace of Hubertsburg_, by which Prussia retained _Silesia_,
+and promised her vote for the Archduke _Joseph_, son of _Maria
+Theresa_, as king of Rome and successor to the empire (1763).
+
+POSITION OF PRUSSIA.--_Joseph II_. succeeded his father as emperor
+in 1765, and was associated by his mother, _Maria Theresa_, in the
+government of her hereditary dominions. From the conclusion of the
+Seven Years' War, _Prussia_ took her place as one of the five
+great powers of Europe.
+
+THE BRITISH INDIAN EMPIRE.--It was during this period that the empire
+of the British in _India_ grew up out of the mercantile
+settlements of a trading corporation, the _East India
+Company_. The result was effected after a severe struggle with the
+French. After the beginning of the eighteenth century, the _Mughal
+empire_ at _Delhi_ declined. Insubordinate native princes
+admitted only a nominal control over them. The effect of successive
+_Mahratta_ and _Afghan_ invasions was such, that when England
+and France went to war in Europe, in 1745, _India_ was broken up
+into different sovereignties, to say nothing of the great number of
+_petty_ chieftains who were practically
+independent. _Pondicherry_ was the chief French settlement. For a
+time it seemed that in the struggle for control France, under the
+masterly guidance of _Dupleix_, must triumph. In 1756
+_Calcutta_ was taken from the English by the _Nabob of
+Bengal_, and many Englishmen died in the close room of the military
+prison in which they were shut up,--"the Black Hole." In 1757
+_Clive_ defeated a great army of the natives, with whom were a few
+French, in the decisive battle of _Plassey_. He had previously
+shown his indomitable courage in the seizure of _Arcot_, and in
+its defense against a host of besiegers. The victory at _Plassey_
+secured the British supremacy, which gradually extended itself over the
+country. The various local sovereignties became like Roman
+provinces. On the death of _Clive_, _Warren Hastings_ was
+made governor-general (1772). After his recall, he was impeached
+(1788), on charges of cruelty and oppression in India, and his trial by
+the House of Lords did not end until seven years after it began. He was
+then acquitted. Among the conductors of the impeachment on the part of
+the House of Commons, were the celebrated orators _Edmund Burke_
+and _Richard Brinsley Sheridan_. In 1784 the power of the
+East-India Company had been restricted by the establishment of the
+_Board of Control_. Up to that time the Indian Empire, made up of
+dependent and subject states, had been governed by the sole authority
+of the company.
+
+CATHERINE II. OF RUSSIA.--_Catherine II_. (1762-1796) in her
+private life was notoriously dissolute. If she did not connive at the
+assassination of her husband, _Peter III_., she heaped gifts upon
+his murderers. In her policy, she aimed to strengthen Russia,
+especially towards the sea. This occasioned successful conflicts with
+the Turks.
+
+THE PARTITION OF POLAND.--At first inimical to _Frederick the Great,
+Catherine_ afterwards made an alliance with him. She compelled the
+election of one of her lovers, _Poniatowski_, to the throne of
+_Poland_. Poland was mainly Catholic; and the _Confederation_
+of _Bar_ (1768), made by the Poles to prevent the toleration of
+Greek Christians and Protestants, was defeated by a Russian army, and
+broken up. The Turks were worsted in the war which they made in defense
+of the confederacy. As one result, Russia gained a firm footing on the
+north coasts of the Black Sea (1774). The "free veto," oppression of
+the peasantry, their distress, and the general want of union and public
+spirit, had reduced Poland to a miserable condition. _Catherine_,
+however, favored no reforms there looking to an improvement in the
+constitution. She preferred to prolong the anarchy and confusion. She
+wished to make the death of Poland in part a suicide. At length she
+invited _Prussia_ and _Austria_ to take part with her in the
+first seizure and partition of Polish territory (1772). Each took
+certain provinces. In 1793 the second, and in 1795 the final partition
+of Poland, was made by its three neighbors. The capture of
+_Warsaw_, and the defeat of the national rising under
+_Kosciusko_, obliterated that ancient kingdom from the map of
+Europe. It should be said that a large part of the territory that
+Russia acquired had once been Russian, and was inhabited by Greek
+Christians. By the division of Poland, Russia was brought into close
+contact with the Western powers. The _Crimea_ was incorporated
+with Russia in 1783. After a second war, provoked by her, with the
+Turks, who now had the Austrians to help them, the Russian boundaries
+through the Treaty of _Jassy_ (1792) were carried to the
+_Dniester_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.  CONTEST OF ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN AMERICA: WAR OF AMERICAN
+INDEPENDENCE: THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES.
+
+
+In this period the United States of America achieved their
+independence, and began their existence as a distinct nation.
+
+THE ENGLISH COLONIES.--The English colonies south of Canada had become
+thirteen in number. In the southern part of what was called Carolina,
+_Charleston_ was settled in 1680. More than a century before
+(1562), a band of Huguenots under _Ribault_ had entered the harbor
+of _Port Royal_, and given this name to it, and had built a fort
+on the river May, which they called _Charlesfort_--the
+_Carolina_--in honor of King _Charles IX_. of France. In 1663
+the territory thus called, south of _Virginia_, was granted to the
+_Earl of Clarendon_. In it were two distinct settlements in the
+northern part. The English philosopher _John Locke_ drew up a
+constitution for _Carolina_, never accepted by the freemen. The
+rights of the proprietors were purchased by _George II._; and the
+region was divided (1729) into two royal provinces, _North_ and
+_South Carolina_, each province having a governor appointed by the
+king, and an assembly elected by the people. Besides the English,
+Huguenots and emigrants from the North of Ireland, as well as from
+Scotland, planted themselves in South Carolina. _Georgia_ was
+settled by _James Oglethorpe_, who made his settlement at
+_Savannah_. He had a charter from _George II._, in whose
+honor the region was named (1732). Soon the "trustees" gave up their
+charter, and the government was shaped like that of the other colonies
+(1752). _John Wesley_, afterwards the founder of Methodism,
+sojourned for a time in Georgia. The settlement of _New Jersey_
+was first made by members of the Society of Friends, or Quakers, sent
+over by _William Penn_, the son of an English admiral, and
+familiar at court. The Quakers gave up the government to the crown, and
+from 1702 to 1738 it formed one province with _New
+York_. _Pennsylvania_ was granted to _Penn_ himself, by
+the king, in discharge of a claim against the crown. _Penn_
+procured also a title to _Delaware_. He sent out emigrants in
+1681, and the next year came himself. By him _Philadelphia_ was
+founded. He dealt kindly with all the settlers, and made a treaty of
+peace and amity with the Indians. The government organized by
+_Penn_ was just and liberal. In 1703 the inhabitants of
+_Delaware_ began to have a governing assembly of their own.
+
+_THE FRENCH COLONIES._--Among the French explorers in America,
+_La Salle_ is one of the most famous. Having traversed the region
+of the upper lakes, he reached the Mississippi, and floated in his
+boats down to its mouth (1682). The region of the great river and of
+its tributaries, he named _Louisiana_, in honor of his king,
+_Louis XIV_. This name was applied to the whole region from the
+Alleghanies to the Rocky Mountains. On his return, _La Salle_
+built _Fort St. Louis_. Afterwards (1684) he took part in an
+expedition from France which had for its purpose the building of a fort
+at the mouth of the _Mississippi_, but which was so wrongly guided
+as to land on the coast of _Texas_. _La Salle_ himself
+perished, while seeking to find his way to Canada. But a French
+settlement was made near the mouth of the river (1699), and a
+connection established by a series of forts with _Canada_.
+
+On the principle that the country belonged to the explorer, Spain
+claimed all the southern part of North America from the Atlantic to the
+Pacific. The French claim stretched from the coast of _Nova
+Scotia_ westward to the Great Lakes, and embraced the valley of the
+Mississippi to its mouth. England claimed the country from
+_Labrador_ as far south as _Florida_, and westward to the
+Pacific. This region included within it the claims of the Dutch,
+founded on the discoveries of _Henry Hudson_.
+
+War between England and France, whenever it occurred, was attended
+with conflicts between the English and the French settlements in
+America. The Indians were most of them on the side of the French. But
+the fierce _Iroquois_ in central New York, who wished to
+monopolize the fur-trade, were hostile to them. A massacre perpetrated
+by these at _La Chine_, near _Montreal_ (1689), provoked a
+murderous attack of French and Indians upon the settlement at
+Schenectady, the most northern post of the English. This was an
+incident of _King William's War_ (1689). In _Queen Anne's
+War_ (1702-1713) _Deerfield_ in Massachusetts was captured and
+destroyed by French and Indians (1704). By an expedition fitted out in
+Massachusetts, and commanded by _Sir William Phipps, Port Royal_
+in Nova Scotia was captured (1710). The colonies incurred great
+expense in fitting out expeditions (1709 and 1711) against Canada,
+which were abandoned. The contest between France and England for
+supremacy in America was further continued in a series of conflicts
+lasting from 1744 for nearly twenty years. An early event of much
+consequence in the contest known as _King George's War_,--a part
+of the war of the Austrian succession (p. 476),--was the capture of
+_Louisburg_, an important fortified place on Cape Breton, by an
+expedition from Boston (1745). The colonists, who were with reason
+proud of their achievement, had the mortification to see this place
+restored to the French in the treaty of peace (1748). In these
+contests the French had the help of their Indian allies, who fell upon
+defenseless villages. The English were sometimes aided by the
+Iroquois. The English founded _Halifax_ (1749).
+
+THE "OLD FRENCH WAR" (1756-1763).--The "Old French and Indian War" in
+America was a part of the Seven Years' War in Europe. A British
+officer, Gen. _Braddock_, led a force which departed from Fort
+Cumberland in Maryland, against _Fort Du Quesne_ at the junction
+of the Monongahela and Alleghany Rivers. Disregarding the advice of
+_George Washington_, who was on his staff, he allowed himself to
+be surprised by the Indians and the French, and was mortally
+wounded. The remains of his army were led by _Washington_, whose
+courage and presence of mind had been conspicuous, to Philadelphia
+(1755). Prior to the expedition, _Washington_ had made a perilous
+journey as envoy, to demand of the French commander his reasons for
+invading the Ohio valley. The English held Nova Scotia, and expelled
+from their homes the French _Acadians_, seven thousand in number,
+in a way that involved severe hardships, including the separation of
+families (1755). They were carried off in ships, and scattered among
+the colonies along the Atlantic shore. The English also took the forts
+in _Acadia_. There were two battles near _Lake George_
+(1755), in the first of which the French were victors, but in the
+second they were routed. _Montcalm_, the French commander,
+captured the English fort near _Oswego_, from which an expedition
+was to have been sent against the French fort at _Niagara_
+(1756). In 1757 he took _Fort William Henry_ on Lake George.
+
+THE CAMPAIGNS OF 1758 AND 1759.--The English were dissatisfied at their
+want of success on the Continent and in America. But they had
+advantages for prosecuting the conflict. The French, who had been
+successful at the outset, had to bring their troops and supplies from
+Europe. They were, to be sure, disciplined troops; but the English had
+the substantial strength which was derived from the prosperous
+agriculture, and still more from the brave and self-respecting spirit,
+of their American colonies. The elder _William Pitt_, afterwards
+_Earl of Chatham_, again entered the cabinet, and began to manage
+the contest (1757). The French held posts at important points,--_Fort
+Du Quesne_, where _Pittsburg_ now stands, for the defense of
+the West; _Crown Point_ and _Ticonderoga_ on Lake Champlain,
+guarding the approach to Canada; _Niagara_, near the Great Lakes
+and the region of the fur-trade; and _Louisburg_, on the coast of
+Nova Scotia, which protected the fisheries, and was a menace to New
+England. To seize these posts, and to break down the French power in
+America, was now the aim of the English. In 1758 an expedition of
+_Gen. Abercrombie_, at the head of sixteen thousand men, against
+Crown Point and Ticonderoga, was repulsed; Lord Howe was killed, and
+the army retreated. _Louisburg_, to the joy of the colonies, was
+captured anew by _Lord Amherst_ (1758). _Fort Du Quesne_ was
+taken (1758), and named _Fort Pitt_; _Fort Frontenac_ on Lake
+Ontario was destroyed. The object of the campaign of 1759 was the
+conquest of Canada. _Fort Niagara_ was captured by _Sir William
+Johnston_ (1759). _Ticonderoga_ and _Crown Point_ were
+taken, and the French driven into Canada. Then came the great
+expedition under Major-Gen, _Wolfe_, a most worthy and
+high-spirited young officer, which left _Louisburg_ for the
+capture of Quebec, "the Gibraltar of America." The attempt of
+_Wolfe_ to storm the heights in front of the city, which were
+defended by the army of _Montcalm_, failed of success. From a
+point far up the river, he embarked a portion of his troops in the
+night, and, silently descending the stream, climbed the heights in the
+rear of the city, and intrenched himself on the "Plains of Abraham."
+In the battle which took place in the morning, both commanders,
+_Wolfe_ and _Montcalm_, were mortally wounded. _Wolfe_
+lived just long enough to be assured of victory; _Montcalm_ died
+the next day. Five days after the battle the town surrendered (1759).
+
+An incident connected with Wolfe's approach by night to Quebec is thus
+given by Mr. _Parkman_: "For full two hours the procession of
+boats, borne on the current, steered silently down the
+St. Lawrence. The stars were visible, but the night was moonless and
+sufficiently dark. The general was in one of the foremost boats; and
+near him was a young midshipman, John Robison, afterwards professor of
+natural philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. He used to tell in
+his later life how Wolfe, with a low voice, repeated Gray's _Elegy in
+a Country Churchyard_ to the officers about him. Among the rest, was
+the verse which his fate was soon to illustrate,--
+
+  'The paths of glory lead but to the grave.'
+
+"'Gentlemen,' he said, as his recital ended, 'I would rather have
+written those lines than take Quebec.' None were there to tell him
+that the hero is greater than the poet." (_Montcalm and Wolfe_,
+p. 287.)
+
+In the following year _Montreal_ and all _Canada_ were in
+the hands of the English. The English colonies were safe. It was
+decided that English, not French, should be spoken in aftertimes on
+the banks of the Ohio. In the _Peace of Paris_ (1763), France
+kept _Louisiana_, but had already ceded it to Spain (1762).
+
+CONSPIRACY OF PONTIAC.--The Indians in the West were dissatisfied with
+the transference of Canada and the region of the Lakes to
+England. _Pontiac_, chief of the _Ottawas_, combined a large
+number of tribes, and kindled a war against the English, which spread
+from the Mississippi to Canada (1763). He captured eight forts, but
+failed to take Detroit and Fort Pitt. Three years passed before the
+Indians were completely beaten, and a treaty of peace concluded with
+their leader (1766).
+
+STATE OF THE COLONIES: POPULATION.--At the close of the French war, the
+population of the thirteen colonies probably exceeded two millions, of
+whom not far from one fourth were negro slaves. The number of slaves in
+New England was small. They were proportionately much more numerous in
+New York, but they were found principally in the Southern colonies.
+Quakers were always averse to slavery. The slave-trade was still kept
+up. Newport in Rhode Island was one of the ports where slave-ships
+frequently discharged their cargoes.
+
+GOVERNMENT.--The forms of government in the different colonies
+varied. All of them had their own legislative assemblies, and regarded
+them as essential to their freedom. Under _Charles II._, the
+charter which secured to Massachusetts its civil rights was annulled
+(1684). Under _James II._, the attempt was made to revoke all the
+New England charters. Sir _Edmund Andros_ was appointed governor
+of New England, and by him the new system began to be enforced. The
+revolution of 1688 restored to the colonies their privileges; but
+Massachusetts (with which Plymouth was now united), under its new
+charter (1691), no longer elected its governor. Prior to the
+Revolution, there were three forms of government among the
+colonies. Proprietary governments (that is, government by owners or
+proprietors) still remained in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland. In
+these the king appointed no officers except in the customs and
+admiralty courts. In Rhode Island and Connecticut, which like
+Massachusetts retained their charters, the governors were chosen by the
+people. New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North and South
+Carolina, had royal or provincial governments: the governor and council
+were appointed by the king.
+
+OCCUPATIONS.--The chief occupation of the colonists was agriculture. In
+the North, wheat and corn were raised. From Virginia and Maryland,
+great crops of tobacco were exported from the plantations, in English
+ships which came up the Potomac and the James. Rice was cultivated in
+the Carolinas. Indigo was also raised. Cotton was grown in the
+South. Labor in the fields in the Southern colonies was performed by
+the negroes. Building of ships was a profitable occupation on the coast
+of New England. The cod and other fisheries also gave employment to
+many, and proved a school for the training of seamen. The colonists
+were industrious and prosperous, but generally frugal and plain in
+their style of living.
+
+EDUCATION AND RELIGION.--Common schools were early established by law
+in New England, and by the Dutch in New York. As Mr. _Bancroft_
+well observes, "He that will understand the political character of New
+England in the eighteenth century must study the constitution of its
+towns, its congregations, its schools, and its militia." Harvard
+College was founded in 1636; William and Mary, in 1693; Yale, in
+1700. Eighteen years after the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth, a
+printing-press was set up at Cambridge. In 1704 the first American
+newspaper, "The Boston News Letter," was established. In the Puritan
+colonies, the minds of the people were quickened intellectually as well
+as religiously, by the character of the pulpit discourses. Theology was
+an absorbing theme of inquiry and discussion. In the town-meetings,
+especially in the closing part of the colonial period, political
+affairs became a subject of earnest debate. In all the colonies, the
+representative assemblies furnished a practical training in political
+life. In the Eastern colonies, the people were mostly
+Congregationalists and Calvinists: Presbyterians were numerous in the
+Middle States. In Virginia the Episcopal Church was supported by
+legislative authority; and it was favored, though not established by
+law, in New York. In Pennsylvania, while there was freedom in religion,
+the Quakers "still swayed legislation and public opinion."
+Philadelphia, with its population of thirty thousand, was the largest
+city in America, and was held in high esteem for its intelligence and
+refinement.
+
+COMPLAINTS OF THE COLONIES.--The colonists all acknowledged the
+authority of king and parliament, but they felt that they had brought
+with them across the ocean the rights of Englishmen. One thing that was
+more and more complained of was the laws compelling the colonies to
+trade with the "mother country" exclusively, and the enactments laying
+restraint on their manufactures. In the conflicts with the Indians from
+time to time, the necessity had arisen for leagues; and, more than
+once, congresses of delegates had met. One of these was held at Albany
+in 1754, where _Benjamin Franklin_ was present. In the Old French
+War, there had been a call for concert of action, and a deepening of
+the sense of common interests and of being really one people.
+
+NEW GROUNDS OF DISAFFECTION.--The colonies had taxed themselves in the
+French War; but the condition of the finances in England at the close
+of it inspired the wish there to enforce the laws of trade more rigidly
+in America, and to levy additional taxes upon the provinces. These
+English laws were so odious that they were often evaded. The _writs
+of assistance_ in Massachusetts authorized custom-house officers to
+search houses for smuggled goods (1761). In the legal resistance to
+this measure, a sentence was uttered by a Boston patriot, _James
+Otis_, which became a watchword. "Taxation," he said, "without
+representation is tyranny."  Taxation, it was contended, must be
+ordained by the local colonial assemblies in which the tax-payers are
+represented. But the _Stamp Act_ (1765), requiring for legal and
+other documents the use of stamped paper, was a form of taxation. It
+excited indignation in all the colonies, especially in Virginia and in
+New England. In all the measures of resistance, _Virginia_ and
+_Massachusetts_ were foremost. _Patrick Henry_, an
+impassioned, patriotic orator, in the Virginia Legislature, was very
+bold in denouncing the obnoxious Act, and the alleged right to tax the
+colonies which it implied. This right was denied in a _Congress_
+where nine colonies were represented, which met in New York in
+1765. They called for the repeal of the Stamp Act, and declared against
+the importation of English goods until the repeal should be
+granted. _William Pitt_, in the House of Commons, eulogized the
+spirit of the colonies. The Stamp Act was repealed. The discussions
+which it had provoked in America had awakened the whole people, and
+made them watchful against this sort of aggression. Political topics
+engrossed attention. When Parliament ordered that the colonies should
+support the troops quartered on them, and that the royal officers
+should have fixed salaries, to be obtained, not by the voluntary grants
+of colonial legislatures, but by the levy of new duties, there was a
+renewed outburst of disaffection, especially in _New York_ and
+_Boston_ (1768). By way of response to a petition that was sent to
+the king against these Acts of Parliament, four regiments of troops
+were sent to _Boston_. Their presence was a bitter grievance. In
+one case, there was bloodshed in a broil in the street between the
+populace and the soldiers, which was called "The Boston Massacre"
+(1770). An influential leader of the popular party in Boston was the
+stanch Puritan patriot, _Samuel Adams_.
+
+PROGRESS OF THE CONTROVERSY.--After the other taxes were repealed, the
+tax on tea remained in force. A mob of young men, disguised as Indians,
+went on board three vessels in Boston Harbor, and threw overboard their
+freight of tea (1773). Before, there had been outbreakings of popular
+wrath against the stamp-officers. Their houses had been sometimes
+attacked: they had been burnt in effigy, and in some cases driven to
+resign. In general, however, the methods of resistance had been legal
+and orderly. When the news of the destruction of the tea reached
+England, Parliament retaliated by passing the _Boston Port Bill_
+(1774), which closed that port to the exportation or importation of
+goods, except food or fuel. The courts, moreover, were given the power
+to send persons charged with high crimes to England, or to another
+colony, for trial. To crown all, General _Gage_, the commander of
+the British troops, was made Governor of Massachusetts.
+
+THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS.--In order to produce concert of action,
+committees of correspondence between the several colonies were
+established. The First Continental Congress, composed of delegates from
+the colonies, was convened in Philadelphia (1774). The remedies to
+which they resorted were, addresses to the king and to the people of
+Great Britain; an appeal for support to Canada; and a resolve not to
+trade with Great Britain until there should be a redress of grievances.
+
+CONCORD AND BUNKER HILL.--The Legislature in Massachusetts, which
+_Gage_ would not recognize, formed itself into the "Provincial
+Congress." The first collision took place at _Concord_ (April 19,
+1775), where a detachment of British troops was sent to destroy the
+military stores gathered by this body. On _Lexington_ Green, the
+British troops fired on the militia, and killed seven men. Arriving at
+_Concord_, they encountered resistance. There the first shot was
+fired by America in the momentous struggle,--"the shot heard round the
+world." A number were killed on both sides, and the attacking force was
+harassed all the way on its return to Boston. The people everywhere
+rose in arms. Men flocked from their farms and workshops to the camp
+which was formed near Boston. _Israel Putnam_, who had been an
+officer in the French War, left his plow in the field at his home in
+Connecticut, and rode to that place, a distance of sixty-eight miles,
+in one day.  _Stark_ from New Hampshire, and _Greene_ from
+Rhode Island, soon arrived.
+
+THE _SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS_, in session at Philadelphia,
+assumed control of military operations in all the colonies. At the
+suggestion first made by _John Adams_ of Massachusetts, Colonel
+_George Washington_ of Virginia was unanimously appointed
+commander-in-chief. His mingled courage and prudence, his lofty and
+unselfish patriotism, his admirable sobriety of judgment, and his rare
+power of self-control, connected as it was with a not less rare power
+of command, and with a firmness which no disaster could shake, made him
+one of the noblest of men. Before he reached _Cambridge_, where he
+assumed command of the gathering forces (July 3, 1775), he received the
+news of the battle of _Bunker Hill_, in which the provincial
+soldiers, under _Putnam_ and _Prescott_, made a stand against
+the "regulars," as the British troops were called, and retreated only
+on the third assault, and when their ammunition had given
+out. _Dr. Joseph Warren_, a leading Boston patriot, was slain in
+the battle. Before this time, _Fort Ticonderoga_ had been captured
+by _Ethan Allen_, and cannon been sent from it to aid in the siege
+of Boston (1775). But an attack on Quebec by _Arnold_ and
+_Montgomery_, who entered Canada by different routes, failed of
+its object. Before British reinforcements arrived, the American troops
+abandoned Canada. In the attack on Quebec, _Montgomery_ fell, and
+_Arnold_ was severely wounded (Dec. 31, 1775).
+
+INDEPENDENCE.--Only a brief sketch can here be given of the seven
+years' struggle of the United Colonies. On the 4th of July, 1776, the
+Declaration of Independence, drawn up in the main by _Thomas
+Jefferson_, and of which _John Adams_ was the most eloquent
+advocate on the floor of Congress, passed that body. It was signed by
+the President, _John Hancock_, and fifty-five members. The
+colonies easily converted themselves into States, nearly all of them
+framing new constitutions. Thirteen _Articles of Confederation_
+made them into a league, under the name of the _United States_ of
+America, each State retaining its sovereignty (1777). _Franklin_,
+an old man, and respected in Europe as well as at home for his
+scientific attainments as well as for his sturdy sagacity, went to
+France as their envoy. Among the soldiers who came from Europe to join
+the Americans were _La Fayette_,--a young French nobleman, who was
+inspired with a zeal for liberty, and was not without a thirst for
+fame, which, however, he desired to merit,--and _Steuben_, an
+officer trained under _Frederick the Great_. In Parliament, the
+Whig orators spoke out manfully for the American cause. The king hired
+German troops for the subjugation of its defenders.
+
+THE EVENTS OF THE WAR.--The maneuvers of _Washington_ forced
+_Gage_ to evacuate _Boston_. The American general then
+undertook the defense of New York. The British forces, to the number
+of thirty thousand, under _Gen. Howe_, and _Admiral Howe_
+his brother, were collected on Staten Island. The Americans were
+defeated in a battle on Long Island (Aug. 27, 1776), and could not
+hold the city. It remained in the hands of the British to the end of
+the war. _Washington_ withdrew his troops to _White Plains_.
+_Fort Washington_ and _Fort Lee_ were lost. The American
+commander, followed by _Lord Cornwallis_, retreated slowly
+through New Jersey (1776). These were serious reverses. By bold and
+successful attacks at _Trenton_ and _Princeton_, the
+depressed spirits of the army and the country were revived. In the
+spring of 1777 _Howe_ sought to capture _Philadelphia_, and
+landed his forces at the head of Chesapeake Bay. The Americans were
+defeated at _Brandywine_ (Sept. 10); and Philadelphia, which had
+been the seat of Congress, was, like New York, in the possession of
+the British. Their policy was to isolate New England. To this end,
+Gen. _Burgoyne_, with a large army of French and Indians, came
+down from the north of Lake Champlain. A detachment of his forces was
+defeated by _Stark_ at _Bennington_. _Burgoyne_ himself
+was obliged to surrender, with six thousand men, to _Gates_, at
+Saratoga (Oct. 17). This event made its due impression
+abroad. _France_ recognized the independence of the United
+States, and entered into an alliance with them. This alliance was a
+turning-point in the struggle. _Washington's_ army, ill-clad and
+ill-fed, suffered terribly in the winter of 1777-78 at _Valley
+Forge_; but he shared in their rough fare, and their discipline was
+much improved by the drill which they received there from
+_Steuben_. Sir Henry _Clinton_ left Philadelphia in order
+that the British forces might be concentrated in New York. He was
+overtaken by Washington, and the battle of _Monmouth_ took place,
+which was, on the whole, a success for the Americans. The design of
+the British to separate New England from the rest of the States had
+failed. _Washington_ was again at _White Plains_. They now
+began operations in the Southern States. Among the occurrences in this
+period of the war were the massacre of the settlements in the valley
+of the _Wyoming_, in Pennsylvania, by the Indian auxiliaries of
+the British; the surrender of Savannah, and with it Georgia and
+Charleston, by the Americans; the gallant storming of _Stony
+Point_, on the Hudson, by _Wayne_ (July 15, 1779), and a
+brilliant naval victory of _Paul Jones_ in a desperate engagement
+with two British frigates near the north-eastern coast of England
+(Sept. 1779). The American "partisan leaders," Marion, Sumter, and
+Pickens, carried forward an irregular but harassing warfare in South
+Carolina. At Camden, _Gates_ was defeated by _Cornwallis_;
+and _Baron de Kalb_, a brave French officer, of German
+extraction, in the American service, fell (Aug. 16, 1780). In this
+year (1780) _Benedict Arnold's_ treason was detected; and Major
+_André_, a British officer through whom Arnold had made
+arrangements for giving up the fortress of _West Point_ to the
+enemy, was taken captive, and executed as a spy. In the next year
+Gen. _Nathanael Greene_ conducted military operations in
+_Georgia_ and the _Carolinas_ with much skill, and succeeded
+in pressing the army of Lord _Cornwallis_ into the peninsula
+formed by the York and James Rivers in Virginia. Thither the French
+fleet sailed under Count _De Grasse_; and _Washington_, by
+forced marches, was enabled to join with the French in surrounding the
+British works at _Yorktown_. On the day when _Clinton_ left
+New York, at the head of his forces, to unite with _Cornwallis_,
+that officer surrendered, with his entire army of seven thousand men,
+to _Washington_ (1781). This blow was fatal to the British
+cause. The independence of the United States was recognized by
+Holland, Sweden, Denmark, Spain, and Russia (1782). The war had been
+prolonged by the personal obstinacy of _George III_., against the
+wishes of his minister, Lord _North_. The surrender of
+_Cornwallis_ made it plain that further effort to conquer America
+was hopeless. Spain and Holland had joined hands with France, but
+_Rodney_ had won a great naval victory over _De Grasse_
+(April 12, 1782). By the treaty of peace, signed at _Paris_ and
+_Versailles_ (1783), England recognized the independence of her
+former colonies.
+
+AMERICA AT THE CLOSE OF THE WAR.--The Congress during the war had
+issued paper money to the amount of twenty millions of dollars. It had
+no power to lay taxes, or to compel the States to pay their several
+portions of the public indebtedness. The States themselves were poor,
+and largely in debt. They surrendered, however, their unoccupied
+public lands to the United States. In 1787 Congress made one territory
+of the district north-west of the Ohio River, which Virginia had
+ceded, and by an ordinance excluded slavery from it for ever.
+
+THE CONSTITUTION.--The lack of one system of law for the different
+States in reference to duties on imports, and on various other matters
+of common concern, and disorders springing up in different places,
+inspired an anxious desire for a stronger central government. A
+convention, over which _Washington_ presided, met in
+_Philadelphia_ in 1787, and formed the new _Constitution_.
+_Hamilton_ of New York and _Madison_ of Virginia were leading
+members. There was much opposition to the new plan of government which
+they agreed upon, but it was finally adopted by all the States. It
+supplied the defects of the old confederation by uniting
+_national_ with _federal_ elements. To the Senate, made up of
+two delegates from each State, it added a _House of
+Representatives_, where the number of members from each State was
+made proportionate to the population. It put the general government,
+within the limit of its defined functions, into a _direct_
+relation to the citizens, and gave to it judicial and executive
+departments to carry out and enforce its legislation. It committed to
+the central authority the management of foreign affairs, and various
+other powers necessary for the preservation of peace and unity in the
+land, and for the securing of the common weal of the whole
+country. _Washington_ was unanimously chosen as the first
+president of the Republic, and _John Adams_ was chosen
+vice-president. The first Congress met in _New York_ in April,
+1789, although the day appointed was March 4.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND RELIGION.
+
+
+LITERATURE.
+
+I. FRANCE.
+
+POETRY AND THE DRAMA.--The literature of France in the age of _Louis
+XIV_. was classical in its spirit. The ancient Greek and Roman
+writers were admired and imitated. The Renaissance was now to run its
+course. The French Academy, founded by _Richelieu_, undertook to
+regulate and improve the French language. Measure, finish, elegance,
+were demanded by the reigning taste, in all literary
+productions. _Corneille_ (1606-1684), the father of French
+tragedy, was the most virile of the French dramatists. _Racine_
+(1639-1699), who followed, if less grand, was more pathetic. We find,
+however, in writers of genius,--even in the great preachers, as
+_Bourdaloue_ and _Massillon_, who formed a type of pulpit
+eloquence peculiar to France,--a tendency to what seems now a stilted
+style. The master in comedy was _Molière_ (1622-1673), an actor,
+as well as an author of inimitable humor. One of the most popular of
+French authors has been _La Fontaine_ (1621-1695), whose fables
+have charmed multitudes by their smooth versification, as well as by
+their contents. _Boileau_ (1636-1711), the Horace of France,
+prescribed, as a lawgiver, rules upon the "Art of Poetry," and himself
+wrote satires and other poems of high merit.
+
+PROSE LITERATURE.--_Bossuet_ (1627-1704) was an eloquent preacher
+and historical writer, and an expert theological polemic of the liberal
+Catholic school. Of a very different tone is _Rochefoucauld_,
+whose _Maxims_, expressed in pithy language, seek to trace all
+virtuous action to self-seeking. The French fondness for epigram--for
+terse, paradoxical statement--is exemplified even in the best writers,
+as, for example, _Blaise Pascal_. _La Bruyère_ (1645-1696), a
+genial philosopher, wrote in a most attractive style a work entitled
+_The Characters of Our Age_. The metaphysician _Malebranche_
+(1638-1715) taught that we know through our spiritual union with God,
+or that we see all things in God. A disciple of _Des Cartes_, he
+did not strictly follow his master. _Fénelon_ (1651-1715),
+illustrious for his piety as well as for his versatile authorship,
+wrote on religious topics and on education. Of all his writings, his
+_Telemachus_, composed for the young Duke of Burgundy, his pupil,
+has been the most read. The letters of Madame _de Sévigné_,
+addressed to her daughter, and not meant for publication, present most
+graphic descriptions of the characters and occurrences of the day.
+
+THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.--When we cross the limit of the eighteenth
+century, we meet with growing signs of skepticism in religion, and of
+innovation in political thought. Criticism of the past, of traditional
+creeds and established institutions, is spreading. The _Historical
+and Critical Dictionary of Bayle_, a storehouse of chronicle and
+anecdote, is leavened with the spirit of doubt. Three great writers
+deserve special attention. _Montesquieu_ (1689-1755) satirized all
+dogma in his _Persian Letters_. His celebrated work on the
+_Spirit of Laws_ is just and humane in its tone, and full of
+original and inspiring views on history and government. He is one of
+the founders of modern political science. _Voltaire_ (1694-1778),
+the most popular of all the writers of his age, was the incarnation of
+its critical and skeptical spirit, the highest example of its wit as of
+its levity, and of the artificial character of its literary ideals. He
+was play-writer, poet, historian, critic, and brilliant converser, all
+in one. In religion, a scoffer not only at superstition, but at all
+beliefs and rites which imply revelation, he still clung to the belief
+in a personal God. His creed was deism, _Jean Jacques Rousseau_
+(1712-1778) was, like _Voltaire_, a deist in his creed; but in
+religion, as in all his mental action, there was a vein of
+sentiment. By the fascination of his style, he was able, in his various
+writings, including his autobiographical _Confessions_, to
+interest profoundly multitudes of readers of both sexes, and even to
+move them to sympathy with himself in a career which deserves not less
+abhorrence than commiseration. He was, perhaps, the first author to
+evoke in others a genuine relish, which he felt himself, for the wild
+scenery of nature.  In his _Social Contract_ he maintained that
+government grows out of a contract of individuals with one another, all
+of whom in the state of nature are free and independent. He carried to
+a great extreme an idea which in England had been held by
+_Hooker_, and more explicitly expounded by _Locke_. His
+doctrine furnished a theory for the political revolution in France. The
+"Encyclopĉdists" went much beyond _Voltaire_ and
+_Rousseau_. _D'Alembert_, _Helvetius_, _Holbach_,
+advocated atheism and materialism. _Condillac_ (1715-1780) sought
+to reduce this species of infidelity to an exact philosophical system
+by tracing even conscience to sensation and self-interest. All
+religious sentiment was condemned as morbid illusion.
+
+
+II. GERMANY.
+
+In Germany, the great name in philosophy is that of _Leibnitz_
+(1646-1716), a rival of _Newton_ in mathematics and natural
+science, and an eminent thinker in metaphysics, theology, and in
+jurisprudence. In intellect and in variety of attainments, he is almost
+the peer of _Aristotle_. _Wolf_ (1679-1754) his disciple,
+systemized and modified his philosophical views. _Klopstock_
+(1724-1803), the author of _Messiah_, written somewhat after the
+manner of the _Paradise Lost_ of _Milton_, excelled the other
+German poets of his day. _Frederick the Great_ treated with
+disrespect the native literary products of his country. Yet a new era
+in German letters and criticism was opened by _Lessing_
+(1729-1781), a poet, and a critic of admirable insight, whose influence
+in this direction in Germany has been likened in its power to that of
+_Luther_ in religion.
+
+
+III. ITALY.
+
+In the eighteenth century, there was a new revival of literature in
+Italy. _Vico_ (1668-1744) almost made an epoch in the scientific
+treatment of history and mythology; in political economy and in
+archeology, there were numerous explorers; Florence became once more a
+seat of learning. _Beccaria_ (1738-1794) by his writings
+introduced more humane views in criminal jurisprudence. _Volta_
+(1745-1827), an electrician, constructed the instrument called the
+voltaic pile. _Metastasio_ (1698-1782) fostered the melodrama, or
+Italian opera, by his dramatic writings. _Goldoni_ (1707-1793), a
+Venetian, was the most eminent writer of comedies. Tragedy reached its
+acme in the works of _Alfieri_ (1749-1803), the founder of a new
+school.
+
+
+IV. ENGLAND.
+
+In England, after the Restoration, the influence of French standards
+in literature is obvious. The drama declined, partly from the earlier
+antagonism of the Puritans, and partly from the rage for indecency
+which infected the dramatic writers,--even those of much ability, as
+_Congreve_,--and defiled the stage. The _Pilgrim's Progress_
+of _Bunyan_ (1628-88) is written in a plain, unaffected style,
+and is the most popular work of that age. In sharp contrast with
+_Bunyan_ is _Butler's Hudibras_, a witty satire, in doggerel
+verse, upon Puritanism. The principal writer, prior to Queen
+_Anne_, is _Dryden_ (1631-1700). We have passed now from the
+_Romantic_ school of poetry, in which Shakspeare is the most
+exalted name, to the _Classical_ school. In the age of Queen
+_Anne_, _Pope_ (1688-1744), with his vigor, without
+elevation, of thought, his smooth versification and bright wit, is the
+principal figure. The same period produced the labored novels of
+_Richardson_ (1689-1761), and the vigorous and lifelike fictions
+of _Fielding_ (1707-1754), which are, unhappily, disfigured by
+coarse and licentious passages. In the early part of the century,
+_Addison_ (1672-1719) and _Steele_ (1672-1729) were the most
+distinguished essayists. In them, as in the novels of _Defoe_
+(1661-1731), the author of _Robinson Crusoe_, and in the prose
+writings of _Swift_ (1667-1745), the richness and idiomatic force
+of the English tongue are seen; while in _Samuel Johnson_, the
+literary dictator in the latter part of the century, the author of the
+_English Dictionary_, of _The Rambler_, the _Lives of the
+Poets_, and _Rasselas_, we have a striking and contagious
+example of a stately, sounding, Latinized diction. In pleasing
+contrast, as regards style, which charms from its simplicity, are the
+writings of _Goldsmith_ (1728-74). In poetry, _Gray_
+(1716-71), the author of the _Elegy in a Country Churchyard_, and
+_Collins_ (1721-59), wrote little, but wrote well. The
+triumvirate of great English historians of the century are
+_Hume_, _Robertson_, and _Gibbon_. Gibbon's _Decline
+and Fall of the Roman Empire_ is a monument of masterly ability and
+of vast research; a work, however, marred by a want of naturalness in
+style, and, still more, by a lack of religious faith and reverence,
+and by impurity of tone and allusion. _Hume's_ style is one of
+his chief claims to esteem as an historian; for he was indolent in his
+researches, and prejudiced in his views. He merited distinction
+chiefly as an economist and a metaphysician.
+
+PHILOSOPHY.--In English philosophy, there are several writers of
+extraordinary talents and influence. _John Locke_ (1632-1704), an
+upright man and a lover of freedom, wrote the celebrated _Essay on
+the Understanding_, besides other important works in political
+science and theology. He traced all our knowledge to two sources,
+_sensation_ and _reflection_, ultimately to the first of
+these. _Berkeley_ (1685-1753) advocated with rare genius an ideal
+theory of matter, and defended theism. _Hume_ (1711-76) indirectly
+gave rise to much of the later philosophy, by his acute speculations in
+behalf of skepticism as to the reality of human knowledge and the
+foundation of accepted beliefs. _Reid_ (1710-96) rescued
+philosophy from the attacks of _Hume_ by the doctrine of "common
+sense," and thus founded the Scottish school of metaphysicians. Among
+the numerous authors who cultivated both philosophy and theology,
+particular distinction belongs to _Dr. Samuel Clarke_ (1675-1729),
+and to Bishop _Joseph Butler_ (1692-1752) who wrote briefly, but
+with marked power, on the nature of conscience, and on the
+_Analogy_ between religion and what we know of the constitution
+and course of nature.
+
+NEWTON: ADAM SMITH.--_Sir Isaac Newton_ (1642-1727), the
+discoverer of the law of gravitation, made, through his
+_Principia_, one of the most important contributions ever made to
+the advancement of physical science. In 1776 _Adam Smith_, a
+Scotchman, who had previously written on metaphysics and politics,
+published his treatise on _The Wealth of Nations_, the first
+complete system of political economy. He showed that money is not
+wealth, but simply one product serving as a means of exchange. He made
+it clear, that, for one nation to gain in trade, it is not requisite
+that another should lose. Much light was thrown on political economy by
+essays of _Hume._
+
+
+V. AMERICA.
+
+The most notable American writers before the War of Independence were
+_Jonathan Edwards_ (1703-58), a great metaphysical genius, and the
+founder of a school in theology; and _Benjamin Franklin_
+(1706-90), whose writings, in excellent English, related mainly to
+ethical and economical topics. As the Revolution approached, there
+sprung up authors of ability on the political questions of the
+day. _The Federalist_, written after the war, by _Hamilton,
+Madison_, and _Jay_, in favor of the proposed Constitution, is
+a work of high merit, as regards both matter and style.
+
+
+NATURAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
+
+The inductive method, or the "Baconian" method of observation and
+experiment, began to bear rich fruits. _Sir Isaac Newton_
+(1642-1727) not only discovered the law of gravitation: other
+discoveries by him in mechanics and optics were of great moment in the
+progress of those sciences. Fluxions, or the differential calculus, was
+discovered independently by both _Newton_ and
+_Leibnitz_. _Euler_, a Swiss mathematician of the highest
+ability (1707-1783), contributed essentially to the advancement of
+mechanics. _Napier_ invented logarithms, to shorten mathematical
+calculations. _Huygens_, a Dutch philosopher (1629-1695), invented
+the pendulum clock. _Gregory_ (1638-1675) invented the reflecting
+telescope, _Halley_, an English astronomer (1656-1742), gave his
+name to a comet whose return he predicted. _Guericke_ invented
+(1680), and _Robert Boyle_ (1627-1691) perfected, the
+air-pump. _Boyle_ was active in founding the Royal Society
+(1660). _Volta_, by the invention of the pile called by his name,
+and _Franklin_, signally advanced the study of electricity. In the
+history of zoölogy, _Buffon_ is a great name, as is that of
+_Lavoisier_ in chemistry. _Linnaeus_, a Swede, born in the
+same year with Buffon (1707), attained to the highest distinction by
+reducing botany to a system. The lives of the eminent astronomers
+_Lagrange_ (1736-1813), _Laplace_ (1749-1827), and _Sir
+William Herschel_ (1738-1822), outlasted the eighteenth century.
+
+The radical improvement of the steam-engine by _James Watt_, a
+Scotchman (1736-1819),--who obtained his first patent in 1769,--and the
+invention of the spinning-jenny by _Richard Arkwright_
+(1732-1792), are indicative of a new era of progress in the application
+of science to practical arts and uses.
+
+
+RELIGION AND THEOLOGY.
+
+ENGLISH DEISM.--The religious debates and the religious wars of the
+seventeenth century were followed by much indifference and disbelief in
+the eighteenth. Weariness with sectarian struggles, and revolt against
+the yoke of creeds, were pushed to the extreme of a denial of revealed
+religion,--finally, in France, to a denial of the truths of natural
+religion also. In England, there appeared a school of deistical
+writers, beginning earlier with _Lord Herbert_ of Cherbury
+(1581-1648), and continued through _Tindal_, _Morgan_,
+_Bolingbroke_, _Shaftesbury_, _Collins_, and others. On
+the other side, _Butler_, _Lardner_ (1684-1768),
+_Bentley_, the best of England's classical scholars and critics
+(1662-1742), and, later, _Paley_ (1743-1805), were among the
+authors who defended the divine origin of Christianity on rational and
+historical grounds. Of these writers, _Butler_ was the most
+profound, _Lardner_ and _Bentley_ the most learned, and
+_Paley_ the most lucid.
+
+THE "QUAKERS."--During this period, the Society of Friends, "Quakers,"
+was founded in England by _George Fox_ (1624-1691), who in 1647,
+impelled by what he considered a divine call, began the life of an
+itinerant preacher. He and his followers were subjected frequently to
+cruel persecution, both in England and America. In exceptional cases,
+they fell into extravagances of enthusiasm, interrupted public worship,
+walked in the streets clothed in sackcloth, or in some instances
+naked. They condemned war, practiced non-resistance, objected to oaths
+and to a paid ministry, and set an example of the utmost plainness and
+simplicity in speech and dress. Among their many converts were
+_William Penn_, and their able and learned theologian, _Robert
+Barclay_ (1648-1690). The Friends, by their Christian forbearance
+and patience, their purity of conduct and their philanthropy, and their
+tranquil piety, gradually won the respect of the other religious
+bodies, who were at first offended by their novel tenets and manners,
+and by the occasional occurrence of revolting manifestations of a
+half-insane enthusiasm.
+
+METHODISM.--Of the religious movements in Protestant countries,
+Methodism is the most noteworthy. This movement was originated by a
+little group of students at Oxford, of whom _John Wesley_, his
+brother _Charles_, and _George Whitefield_ were the chief. Of
+these, _John Wesley_ (1703-1791) united with intellectual ability
+and cultivation, and religious fervor, a remarkable organizing
+capacity. _Whitefield_ was an orator in the pulpit, of unrivaled
+eloquence. He was a Calvinist in his theology, and separated from
+_Wesley_ on account of Wesley's Arminian views. They were
+nicknamed "Methodists," from their strictness of life in the
+University, and their systematic ways. _Wesley_ and his associates
+preached to the common people in England, including the poor colliers
+and miners, with untiring ardor and surprising effect. Their converts
+were very numerous, and were formed into societies under a definite
+polity and discipline. The Wesleyan movement was much opposed in the
+Church of England by those who stood in dread of enthusiasm. By
+ordaining lay preachers and superintendents for America, and by putting
+its chapels under the protection of the Toleration Act,--measures which
+_Wesley_ deemed necessary,--Methodism became separate from the
+Anglican Established Church. As a distinct body, it gained a. multitude
+of adherents in England and America.
+
+MORAVIANISM.--In 1722 a company of persecuted Moravian Christians was
+received by Count _Zinzendorf_ (1700-1760) on his estate, situated
+on the borders of Bohemia. They founded a town called
+_Herrnkut_. _Zinzendorf_ became their bishop. The new
+community was distinguished for sincere piety and for missionary
+zeal. They did not in the least antagonize the Lutheran churches, yet
+had an organization of their own. Some of them settled in America. The
+Moravians never became a very numerous body; but their influence in
+promoting spiritual religion and education, and in carrying
+Christianity to the heathen, has been more potent than that of many
+larger bodies of Christians. It was specially wholesome in Germany, at
+a time when, under the auspices of _Frederick the Great_, the
+French type of unbelief prevailed in the higher classes of society.
+
+PIETISM.--Prior to _Zinzendorf_, _Spener_ (1635-1705), a man
+of devout feeling, had given rise to the "Pietists," as the promoters
+of a warmer type of religious experience than was approved by the
+current opinion were derisively named.
+
+SWEDENBORG.--_Swedenborg_ (1688-1772), a Swedish noble, a
+mathematician and naturalist of large attainments, communicated, in
+copious writings, what he sincerely professed to consider special
+revelations made to him respecting God, the unseen world, and the sense
+of the Scriptures. His adherents are called "The New Church," or
+Swedenborgians.
+
+THE JESUIT ORDER.--Under the influences that had sway in the eighteenth
+century, the authority of the popes sank in the Catholic countries. The
+spirit of innovation was rife. One of the remarkable incidents of the
+time, characteristic of its tendency, was the conflict of Portugal and
+the Bourbon courts of France and Spain, with the Society of
+Jesuits. The Jesuits had secretly established, unobserved, a state
+under their own exclusive control in _Paraguay_, a part of which,
+by a treaty of Portugal with Spain, fell to Portugal. Other charges,
+some relating to interference in political affairs, and some to other
+and different grounds of complaint, led to the expulsion of the order
+from all Portuguese territory (1757); and soon after, it was suppressed
+in France and in Spain, and in several of the Italian states. The
+Jesuit order was formally abolished by _Pope Clement XIV._ in
+1773, to be again restored by papal authority in 1814.
+
+
+ESSAYS AT POLITICAL REFORM.
+
+RUSSIA: GERMANY.--The minds of men were unsettled, not only by the
+prevalent tone of literature and speculation, but by governmental
+changes and reforms. The disposition was to introduce French methods of
+administration. _Catherine II._ of Russia (1762-1796) tried the
+experiment of various judicial and educational reforms. _Frederick
+the Great_, with more wisdom and consistency, introduced many
+changes for the benefit of the industrial class. The most sweeping
+reforms were undertaken by the Emperor _Joseph II_. (1780-1790),
+after the death of his mother, _Maria Theresa_. His measures for
+the reduction of the power of the clergy and of the nobility, the
+closing of monasteries, and the weakening of the connection of the
+Austrian Church with Rome, were of a very radical character. He himself
+finally became convinced that they were too radical to be completely
+realized, in the existing state of opinion among his subjects. Two of
+his reforms--the abolition of serfdom, and the edict of religious
+toleration--remained in force. The other changes did not survive
+him. The attempts to impose his reforms in the Austrian Netherlands
+provoked an insurrection. _Leopold II. _(1790-1792),
+_Joseph's_ successor, suppressed the Belgian revolt, but repealed
+the ordinances of his brother which had occasioned it.
+
+TUSCANY.--In Tuscany, the brother of _Joseph II., Leopold,_ prior
+to his becoming emperor, undertook likewise a great plan of
+ecclesiastical reform in the same line as that of _Joseph_ (1786);
+but there the opposition of the bishops prevented him from practically
+carrying out his scheme.
+
+PORTUGAL.--In Portugal, the house of _Braganza_ had ascended the
+throne in 1640. _Joseph Emanuel_ (1750-1777) left the management
+of the government to his minister, _Pombal_. His measures were
+contrived to weaken the power of the nobles and the clergy. By him the
+warfare against the Jesuits was carried forward. The fall of
+_Pombal_, which followed the death of the king, led to the
+abolition of all his reforms, which had the same fate as those
+undertaken later in Austria by _Joseph II_.
+
+  LITERATURE.--See the lists of works on pp. 16, 395, 450, and Adams's
+  _Manual of Historical Literature_; SCHLOSSER'S _History of the
+  Eighteenth Century_ (8 vols,); NOORDEN'S _Europaische Gesch. im
+  18tn. Jahr.: Der Spanische Erbfolgekrieg_ (2 vols.); Lord John
+  Wakeman, _European History_, 1598-1715; Hassall, _European
+  History_, 1715-1789; Perlcins, _Regency_ and _Louis XV_,
+  (3 vols.); St. Simon, _The Memoirs of the Reign of Louis XIV. and
+  the Regency_ [an abridgment, 3 vols.]; Voltaire, _Age of Louis
+  XIV_.; PHILIPPSON (in Oncken's Series), _Das Zeitalter Ludwigs
+  d. Vierzehten_; A. de Broglie, _Louis XV: The King's Secret
+  Correspondence with his Agents_, etc. (2 vols.); A. Thiers, _The
+  Mississippi Bubble_; Morley's _Life of Voltaire_, and _Life
+  of Rousseau_.
+
+  A. v, Arneth, _Geschichte Maria Theresas_ (10 vols., 1863-79):
+  DUNCKER, _Aus der Zeit Friedrichs d. Grossen_, etc.; RANKE,
+  _Memoirs of the House of Brandenburg, and History of Prussia during
+  the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries_ (3 vols); CARLYLE'S
+  _History of Frederick the Second_ (6 vols.); Tuttle, _History
+  of Prussia_ (4 vols.); Von Raumer, _Frederick the Second and his
+  Times_; A. de Broglie, _Frederick the Great and Maria
+  Theresa_ (2 vols.); ONCKEN, _Das Zeitalter Friedrich
+  d. Grossen_ (2 vols.).
+
+  The _Diaries_ of PEPYS and EVELYN; R. Vaughan, _Protectorate
+  of Oliver Cromwell_; MACAULAY'S _History of England from the
+  Accession of James II_. (4 vols.); MAHON'S _History of
+  England_ (1701-13), also _History of England_ (1713 to 1783)
+  (7 vols.); BURTON, _History of the Reign of Queen Anne_;
+  E.E.MORRIS, _The Age of Anne_; Alison, _Military Life of the
+  Duke of Marlborough_; _Life of Marlborough_, by Gleig, by
+  Coxe (3 vols.); LECKY'S _History of England in the Eighteenth
+  Century_ (2 vols.); Froude, _The English in Ireland in the
+  Eighteenth Century_ (2 vols.); Mahan, _Influence of the Sea
+  Power on History_; Egerton, _Short History of British Colonial
+  Policy_; Seeley, _The Expansion of England_; Payne,
+  _European Colonies_; Lucas, _Introduction to a Historical
+  Geography of the British Colonies_; H. Walpole, _Memoirs of the
+  Reign of George II._ (3 vols.), and of _George III_. (4
+  vols.); J. G. Phillimore, _History of England during the Reign of
+  George III_.; J. Adolphus, _History of England_ [1760 83] (3
+  vols.); Wraxall (1751-1831), _Historical Memoirs of his own
+  Time_ (4 vols.). and _Posthumous Memoirs of his own Time_, (3
+  vols.); May, _Constitutional History of England_ [1760-1860] (2
+  vols.); STOUGHTON, _History of Religion in England from the Opening
+  of the Long Parliament to the End of the Eighteenth Century_ (6
+  vols.); TYERMAN'S _Life of Wesley_; SOUTHEY'S _Life of
+  Wesley_; TYERMAN'S _Life of Whitefield_; TYLER'S _History
+  of American Literature_; VAN LAUN, _History of French
+  Literature_ (3 vols.); MORLEY'S _Series of English Men of
+  Letters_; TAINE'S _History of English Literature_.
+
+  Schuyler's _Life of Peter the Great_; Catherine II., _Memoirs
+  written by herself_; RAM-BAUD'S _History of Russia_.
+
+  Histories of the United States by BANCROFT, HILDRETH, McMaster,
+  Bryant and Howard, DOYLE, Wilson, Laboulaye, NEUMANN, Fiske,
+  Schouler; Winsor, _Narrative and Critical History of America_
+  (8 vols.); Hart, _American History told by Contemporaries_ (4
+  vols.); Macdonald, _Select Charters_ and _Select
+  Documents_; Preston, _Documents_; Channing, _The United
+  States of America_ (1765-1865); Higginson, _Larger History of
+  the United States_; Goldwin Smith, _The United States_;
+  LODGE'S _Short History of the English Colonies in America_;
+  PARKMAN'S Series of Histories of the French in America; Frothingham,
+  _Rise of the Republic_ [to 1790]; Weeden, _Economic and
+  Social History of New England_; Palfrey's _History of New
+  England_; Sabine's _American Loyalists_; Bruce, _Economic
+  History of Virginia_; Trevelyan, _The American Revolution_
+  (1766-76); LOSSING, _Field Book of the American Revolution_;
+  Fiske's _Old Virginia_ and _Dutch and Quaker Colonies_;
+  brief treatment of epochs by Fisher, Thwaites, Hart, Sloane, Walker.
+
+  _Lives_ of Washington, by MARSHALL, SPARKS, IRVING, Weems;
+  _Lives_ of John Adams, by C. F. ADAMS, by MORSE; _Life of
+  Franklin_, by himself (Bigelow's ed.), by SPARKS, by Parton;
+  _Lives_ of Jefferson, by RANDALL, Parton, Morse; Tudor's
+  _Life of James Otis_; _Life_ of Samuel Adams, by Wells, by
+  Hosmer; _Life_ of Hamilton, by MORSE; _Life_ of Madison,
+  by RIVES; W. Jay's _Life of John Jay_ (2 vols.); H. Von Hoist,
+  _Constitutional and Political History of the United States_
+  [from 1759]; Sparks's _American Biography_ (2 series, 25
+  vols.).  WINSOR's _Reader's Handbook of the American
+  Revolution_ (1761-83), a very useful work, gives the literature
+  on the subject (1880); Bancroft, _History of the Formation of the
+  Constitution of the United States_.
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD IV. THE ERA OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. (1789-1815.)
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+CHARACTER OF THE REVOLUTION.--The French Revolution was a tremendous
+upheaval of society, which brought with it the abolition of feudalism
+and monarchy, and the securing of an equality of political rights. Its
+immediate result in France was the establishment of a democratic
+republic, followed by an empire resting on military power. Its
+conquests, and the predominance of France, provoked an uprising of the
+other European peoples in behalf of national independence. This
+overthrew the French empire, and produced a temporary restoration of
+the old dynasty. But the effect of the Revolution, in which the other
+civilized nations largely shared, was the substitution, in the room of
+the _medieval state_, of the _modern state_ resting on a
+broader basis of equality as regards the rights and obligations of
+different classes. In the Western nations of the Continent, serfdom,
+and manifold abuses, civil and ecclesiastical, were abolished.
+
+CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION.--First among the causes of the Revolution in
+France, was the hostility felt towards the privileged classes,--the
+king, the nobles, and the clergy,--on account of the disabilities and
+burdens which law and custom imposed on the classes beneath them. When
+_Charles Vll_. organized a standing army, and laid direct taxes to
+support it, the burghers and peasants rejoiced (p. 328). The monarchy
+was thus enabled to shield them, and subdue the great nobles. _Louis
+XIV_., as long as he was successful, was sustained by the pride and
+national spirit of the country. Yet his domination over the nobility
+and the Church left the higher orders in possession not only of the
+offices and honors which helped to fasten them submissively to the
+monarch, but also left them in the exercise of the numberless
+complicated privileges of local rule and taxation,--privileges which
+were the growth of ages, and which laid on the necks of the people a
+yoke too heavy to be borne.
+
+1. THE LAND: THE PEASANTS.--Nearly two-thirds of the land in France
+was in the hands of the nobles and of the clergy. A great part of it
+was ill cultivated by its indolent owners. The nobles preferred the
+gayeties of Paris to a residence on their estates. There were many
+small land-owners, but many had individually too little land to
+furnish them with subsistence. The treatment of the peasant was often
+such that when he "looked upon the towers of his lord's castle, the
+dearest wish of his heart was to burn it down, with all its registers
+of debt." There was not a large middle class of land-owners, possessed
+of farms which, although small, were yet adequate to yield them a
+living. The clergy, besides having the whole management of education,
+held an immense amount of land, seigniorial control over thousands of
+peasants, and a vast income from tithes and other sources. In some
+provinces, there was a better state of things than in others; but, in
+general, the rich had the enjoyments, and the poor carried the
+burdens.
+
+2. MONOPOLIES.--Manufactures and trade, although encouraged under
+_Colbert_, were fettered by oppressive monopolies and a strict
+organization of guilds.
+
+3. CORRUPT GOVERNMENT.--The administration of government was both
+arbitrary and corrupt. Places in parliament and in the army, and most
+higher offices, were sold, but sold, as a rule, only to nobles. When
+parliament refused to register decrees of taxation, the king held "beds
+of justice,"--a method of passing laws against parliamentary protest
+(p. 299). Warrants of arrest and imprisonment--_lettres de
+cachet_--were issued by his sole authority.
+
+4. LOSS OF RESPECT FOR ROYALTY.--Respect for the throne was lost. Under
+_Louis XIV_., the number of salable offices was incredibly
+multiplied. In his last days, "in many towns the trade in timber, wine,
+and spirits was taken out of private hands; nay, even the poor earnings
+of those who towed boats on the rivers, of porters and funeral mutes,
+were made a monopoly, and secured to certain families exclusively, in
+consideration of a large premium."  "Famine prevailed in every
+province. The bark of trees was the daily food of hundreds of
+thousands." The debauchery of _Louis XV_., and his feeble foreign
+policy, tended to dissipate what reverence for royalty was left.
+
+5. ABORTIVE ESSAYS AT REFORM.--The efforts at political and social
+reform in France and in other countries, emanating from sovereigns
+after the great wars, produced a restless feeling without effecting
+their purpose of social reorganization.
+
+6. POLITICAL SPECULATION.--The current of thought was in a
+revolutionary direction. Traditional beliefs in religion were boldly
+questioned. Political speculation was rife. _Montesquieu_ had
+drawn attention to the liberty secured by the English constitution.
+_Voltaire_ had dwelt on human rights,--the rights of the
+individual. _Rousseau_ had expatiated on the sovereign right of
+the majority.
+
+7. EXAMPLE OF AMERICA.--Add to these agencies, the influence of the
+American Revolution, and of the American Declaration of Independence,
+with its proclamation of human rights, and of the foundation of
+government in contract and the consent of the people.
+
+8. THE IMMEDIATE CAUSE.--The immediate cause of the Revolution was the
+immense public debt, and the virtual bankruptcy of the government.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I. FROM THE ASSEMBLING OF THE STATES GENERAL TO THE EXECUTION
+OF LOUIS XVI. (1789-1793).
+
+
+LOUIS XVI. (1774-92): THE QUEEN.--_Louis XVI_. differed from his
+two predecessors in being morally pure, and benevolent in his feelings;
+but he was of a dull mind, void of energy, and with an obstinacy of
+character that did not supply the place of an enlightened firmness. He
+had married (1770) _Marie Antoinette_, the daughter of the Empress
+_Maria Theresa_. The vivacious young queen, as well as the
+youthful king, at first charmed the people. But her disregard of court
+etiquette, and her gay, impulsive ways, provoked the dislike of many
+high in station, and exposed her to the natural but unmerited
+suspicion, on the part of the people, that she had faults worse than
+mere indiscretion. A great scandal connected with a _diamond
+necklace_, which an unprincipled woman, the _Countess Lamotte_,
+falsely asserted that the queen desired the _Cardinal de Rohan_ to
+purchase for her, did much to make her the victim of gross defamation
+(1785). Her forbearance towards unworthy favorites, and her
+intermeddling in the affairs of government, in opposition to political
+reforms, gradually kindled against her wide-spread disrespect and
+aversion.
+
+TO THE STATES GENERAL.--Helpless under the pressure of the heavy debt
+and the deficit in revenue, the king called to his side _Turgot_
+(1774) as controller-general of finance, a political economist and
+statesman of remarkable integrity and insight. He set to work to reduce
+the enormous and extravagant public expenditures, and to introduce
+reforms for the purpose of increasing the public income. He proposed to
+do away with internal duties on articles of commerce; to break up many
+guilds; to abolish the _corvée_, or the hard and hateful
+requirement upon the peasant to labor so many days on the land of the
+lord; and to introduce a greater amount of local
+self-government. These, and other wholesome reforms in the civil
+service and in the army, excited the violent opposition of the nobles
+and the clergy, and of the whole body of interested courtiers. The king
+weakly yielded; the great minister was dismissed; and France lost its
+golden opportunity to prevent infinitely greater calamities than any
+which the selfish opponents of change dreaded for
+themselves. _Necker_, a Genevan banker of far less financial
+ability, was now placed at the helm (1776-1781). His remedies were not
+radical; yet his movements in the direction of economy, and for giving
+publicity to the financial situation of the government, provoked such
+hatred in the classes affected that he had to withdraw. _Calonne_,
+a prodigal and incapable successor, in connection with the increased
+expenses of the government consequent on the American War, brought
+things to such a pass that the king called together (1787) an
+_Assembly of Notables_, not so much to get their advice as to
+obtain their support for a plan of reform not unlike that of
+_Turgot_. This necessary reform they selfishly refused to
+sanction. _Calonne_ fled to London. _Necker_, to the joy of
+the people, who built on him vain hopes, was recalled (1788); and it
+was resolved to summon the States General, who had not met since
+1614. To this measure the incompetence and selfishness of the ruling
+classes had inevitably led.
+
+THE TRIUMPH OF THE THIRD ESTATE.--The States General met at
+Versailles, May 5, 1789. The clergy numbered three hundred, the nobles
+three hundred, and the third estate (_tiers etat_)--whose plain
+black dress was in contrast with the more showy costume of the higher
+orders--numbered six hundred. A pamphlet of Abbé _Sieyés_, in
+answer to the question, "What is the Third Estate?"  declared that is
+the nation in its true sovereignty and supreme authority. A contest
+arose at once on the question, whether there should be three houses,
+or whether all the members should sit together. The Third Estate
+insisted on the latter plan. The Parisian astronomer, _Bailly_,
+was their president. Among the members were _Sieyes_, and
+_Mirabeau_, a man of great intellect and of commanding
+eloquence. They declared themselves to be the _National
+Assembly_; and they persisted, against the king's will, in sitting
+apart until, at his request, the other orders gave away and joined
+them. It was resolved not to adjourn until the nation should be put in
+possession of a constitution; meantime, however, that, so long as the
+body should not be dissolved, money should be raised by increase of
+taxation, and the interest be paid on the public debt. The attempts of
+_Louis_ to dissolve the assembly were firmly resisted by the
+third estate, which was joined by _Talleyrand_, Bishop of Autun,
+_Gregoire_, afterwards Bishop of Blois, and, of the nobility, by
+the rich, ambitious, and unprincipled _Duke of Orleans_. The king
+again yielded, and advised the nobles and clergy to remain.
+
+DESTRUCTION OF THE BASTILLE: EMIGRATION OF NOBLES.--The aristocratic
+party, on account of this victory of the third estate, and because
+they could not trust the guard of the king, procured the substitution
+for it of German and Swiss troops. The excitement caused by this
+proceeding, and the news of _Necker's_ dismissal, led to a mob of
+the rough Parisian populace, who seized weapons from the workshops,
+and forced the surrender of the _Bastille_, the grim old prison
+where political offenders had been immured,--the visible monument of
+ages of royal tyranny,--which they razed to the ground. The heads of
+_Delaunay_ the governor, and several of the garrison, were
+carried on pikes through the streets by the frenzied crowd. The mob
+wore _cockades_ on their hats; these became the badges of the
+Revolution. This first outbreaking of mob violence had at once
+important effects. _Necker_ was recalled. _Lafayette_ was
+made commander of the militia of Paris, organized as a _National
+Guard_. The _tricolor_--red, white, and blue--was adopted for
+the flag. _Bailly_ became mayor of Paris. The king came to Paris,
+and showed himself, with the national colors on his breast, to the
+people, at the _Hotel de Ville_, thereby giving a tacit sanction
+to what had been done. Then began the _emigration_ of the nobles
+to foreign countries: the king's brother, the _Prince of Condé_,
+and others high in rank, left the country. The vices which the nobles
+had learned to practice at home were now to be exhibited abroad. The
+passions of the revolutionary party were to be inflamed by the
+suspicion of a complicity of the king and court with the plots of
+their absent supporters, who strove to enlist other nations in the
+work of trampling down liberty in France. The emigrants had some
+reason to fear. Municipal guards were formed in various towns by the
+party of progress. Soon there were risings of peasantry in several
+districts. Individuals in _Paris_--among them one of the
+ministers who succeeded _Necker_-were massacred. Nevertheless,
+the emigration was a grand error. The danger at the moment was not
+great; and, whatever the peril, the evils of desertion were far more
+to be deprecated.
+
+THE NEW CONSTITUTION: ASSIGNATS.--The National Assembly, at the
+instigation of _Lafayette_, passed a Declaration of Rights, after
+the pattern of the American Declaration of Independence. On motion of
+his brother-in-law, the _Vicomte de Noailles_, the representatives
+of the nobles, in an outburst of enthusiastic self-renunciation, gave
+up their feudal rights and privileges. They liberated the peasants from
+their burdensome obligations: the clergy relinquished their tithes; the
+sale of offices and titles was abolished; equality of taxes was
+ordained; all citizens were made eligible to all stations, civil and
+military. The new constitution provided for one legislative chamber, to
+which should belong the right to initiate all enactments. The king's
+veto only suspended the adoption of a measure for two legislative
+terms. The assent of the chamber was necessary for the validity of all
+foreign treaties, and for declaring war or concluding peace. The State
+assumed the support of the clergy. It was a _constitutional
+monarchy_ that was framed,--such a system as _La Fayette_ and
+moderate republicans desired. The essence of republicanism was secured
+under old forms. _Assignats_, or notes, were issued as a currency,
+for which the public lands were to be the security,--a safeguard that
+was ineffective.
+
+THE MOB AT VERSAILLES.--The delay of the king to proclaim the
+constitution, the call of a regiment of troops to _Versailles_,
+imprudent speeches and songs at a court banquet, stirred up the
+Parisian mob, who ascribed the scarcity of food to the absence of the
+king from Paris. A countless throng, made up largely of coarse women,
+went out to _Versailles_, intruded into the legislative chamber,
+and at night (Oct. 5) made their way into the palace, over the bodies
+of the guards. The royal family were rescued by La Fayette and the
+National Guard. The next day they were forced to go to Paris, attended
+by this wild and hungry retinue, and took up their abode in the
+_Tuileries_. To Paris, also, the National Assembly transferred
+itself. More and more, _Paris_ gained control.
+
+PROGRESS OF THE REVOLUTION.--The independence of the clergy, and the
+judicial authority of the parliaments, were now extinguished by the
+Assembly, The property of the Church was confiscated, as the salaries
+of the clergy were to be paid by the State; the cloisters and monastic
+orders were abolished; the clergy were to be chosen by the people;
+there was to be absolute religious freedom; there was a new
+organization of bishoprics; the press was to be free; France was
+divided, for purposes of government, into eighty-three departments;
+civil officers were to be chosen, directly or indirectly, by popular
+vote; hereditary nobility, with titles and coats-of-arms, was swept
+away. The equality of all citizens was ordained. There was to be
+uniformity in measures, weights, and coinage. A uniform judicial
+system was instituted, with jury trials in criminal cases.
+
+THE CLERGY.--Thenceforward the clergy were divided into two
+classes,--those who took the required oath to the constitution (about
+one third of the whole number), and the "refractory" ones, who, in
+accordance with the Pope's will, refused it.
+
+THE CLUBS: PARIS.--While these constitutional changes were taking
+place, the mass of the populace were becoming more and more excited by
+vehement orators, who discoursed of human rights, and by inflammatory
+journals. _Clubs_ were organized for democratic agitation, which
+were named, from the places where they met, _Jacobins_ and
+_Cordeliers_. The latter had for their head _Danton_, with
+his stentorian voice, and the brilliant young journalist _Camille
+Desmoulins_. The _Jacobins_ aimed later at the destruction of
+the old institutions. The moderate monarchists, such as _Bailly_
+and _La Fayette_, then formed another club (the
+_Feuillants_).  The municipality or commune of Paris was divided
+into forty-eight sections, each with an assembly which served as a
+theater for demagogical harangues.
+
+FÊTE OF THE FEDERATION.--For a time the skies appeared bright. On the
+14th of July, 1790, a great _Federative Commemoration_, or
+festival of civic fraternity, was held on the _Champ de Mars_ in
+_Paris_. _Talleyrand_ at the head of three hundred priests
+clad in white, with tri-color sashes, officiated at an altar in the
+midst of the arena. First, _La Fayette_ as president of the
+National Guard, then the president of the Assembly, and last the king,
+took an oath before the half-million of spectators to uphold the
+constitution. Then the queen, partaking in the common enthusiasm, held
+up the dauphin in her arms, and pledged his future obedience to the
+oath. There was unbounded joy at what was supposed to be a new
+millennial era of political freedom and brotherhood. The grand
+festival awakened sympathy and hope in all the countries of Europe.
+
+FLIGHT OF THE KING.--The hope of unity and political bliss, which
+exalted all minds to a high pitch of emotion, proved, before long, to
+be an illusive dream. The king was not ready to confirm the ordinance
+respecting priests, which made them civil officers; nor was he ready
+to declare the plotting emigrant nobles at _Coblenz_ and
+_Worms_ traitors. _Mirabeau_, who had enlisted in behalf of
+the king in a resistance to further measures for the reduction of
+regal authority, and in behalf of a constitutional monarchy, in which
+the legislative, judicial, and executive functions should be kept
+apart, suddenly died (April 2, 1791), at the age of forty-two. His
+death, caused partly by overwork of brain, and partly by dissolute
+habits, deprived the conservative republicans and the court of their
+ablest defender. No one like him was left to stem the current of
+revolutionary passion, which threatened to burst through all
+barriers. The Paris sections became more and more violent. They
+hindered a proposed journey of _Louis_ to _St. Cloud_. This
+determined him, against the urgent wishes of the queen, to escape,
+with his family, to the army of the _Marquis de Bouillé_, at
+_Montmédy_. But the fugitives were stopped in their flight, at
+_Varennes_, and brought back in custody to Paris. This unwise and
+abortive proceeding of the king, coupled with his formal annulling of
+all that he had done in the two years previous, had for its natural
+consequence his suspension from office. An insurrection of the mob, to
+put an end to the monarchy, was suppressed by _La Fayette_. At
+the end of September, _Louis_ swore to the revised constitution,
+and was restored to the throne. The Assembly then dissolved, to give
+place to another, which should complete the new political creation by
+needful legislation: hence it was called
+
+THE LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLY (Oct. 1791-Sept. 1792).--It was composed of
+seven hundred and forty-five members, mostly young men, among them a
+number of eloquent orators. One-half of the body were advocates. The
+National Assembly, by a kind of self-denying ordinance, had voted to
+exclude themselves from membership in the new body, which thus lacked
+the benefit of their knowledge and experience. In the Assembly, on the
+right, were the different classes of supporters of constitutional
+monarchy, the _royalists_, and the _Feuillants_ (of the
+school of _La Fayette_). On the left, were the majority, which
+steadily increased in numbers, and embraced (1) the _Girondists_,
+or moderate republicans; (2) the _Mountain_,--so called from their
+higher seats in the hall,--comprising the most decided democrats or
+radicals. Here were the leaders of the _Jacobins_ and
+_Cordeliers_. A few of the _Girondists_ were for going beyond
+the constitution of 1791, in the direction of a republic after the
+model of the United States. They were enamored of the spirit of the
+ancient commonwealths. They were fond of recurring to the Roman orators
+and historians. _Roland_, _Brissot_, and _Vergniaud_
+were among their leaders.
+
+THE PARISIAN POPULACE.--The populace of _Paris_ made
+_Pétion_, a democrat, their mayor. In the Jacobin club were
+_Robespierre_; _Marat_, who denounced fiercely in his
+journal, "The Friend of the People," as aristocrats, all classes above
+the common level, whether by birth or property, and the former
+play-actor, _D'Herbois_. _Danton_, and _Camille
+Desmoulins_, who belonged to the _Cordeliers_, took part in its
+sessions. From this company, the _Girondists_ separated after the
+fall of the king. The red Jacobin cap came into vogue as a badge of
+republicanism, and the _Marseillaise_ as its favorite inspiring
+song. Declaimers and journals were in full blast, stirring up the fears
+and wrath of the people.
+
+THE ASSEMBLY AND THE KING.--The Assembly passed penal acts against the
+recusant priests,--those who refused the oath; and against the
+emigrants, who were trying to stir up the powers of Europe against the
+French government in its new form. These enactments were met by the
+king with a veto.
+
+WAR WITH AUSTRIA AND PRUSSIA.--The authors of the French Revolution
+have been so generally objects of execration, and so terrible crimes
+were actually perpetrated in the course of it, that it is only just to
+note the circumstances which explain the origin of these atrocities,
+and which enabled violent leaders and wild passions to usurp
+control. The efforts of the constitutionalists to save the throne were
+balked by the exiles and the foreign governments. _Frederick William
+II_. of Prussia (1786-1797), and _Leopold II_. the emperor
+(1790-1792), in the Declaration of _Pilnitz_ (Aug. 27, 1791),
+called on the other European powers to join them in aiding _Louis
+XVI_. to establish a right sort of government. From Russia, Sweden,
+Spain, and even Switzerland, there were not wanting manifestations of
+hostility. The attitude of _Austria_ had the effect to bring into
+power a _Girondist_ ministry. They wanted war as the best means of
+attaining the objects which they had in view at home. On April 20,
+1792, _Louis_ was compelled to go to the Assembly, and propose a
+declaration of war against Austria. "The courts of Europe had heaped up
+the fuel: the _Girondists_ applied the torch." They were not
+averse to a crusade in behalf of liberty.
+
+THE CONDITION OF GERMANY.--Germany consisted of a multitude of states,
+of which _Austria_ (which had large territories not German) and
+_Prussia_ were the chief, and were in constant rivalry. The Holy
+Roman Empire kept up its name and forms. Besides smaller sovereignties,
+as Saxony and Bavaria, there were two hundred and fifty petty
+principalities, fifty imperial cities, and several hundred knights,
+each with an insignificant domain subject to him. The empire was one
+body only in theory. National feeling had died out. The Diet had little
+to do, and no efficiency. Austria, which held the imperial office, and
+included in its extensive dominions _Milan_ and _Southern
+Netherlands_, had sunk into a "gloomy and soulless despotism." The
+reforms of _Joseph II_. produced a ferment; but after the death of
+_Leopold II_. (1790-1792), under _Francis II_., a sickly and
+selfish ruler, a reactionary policy, inspired by the dread of change,
+had full sway. _Thugut_, the minister of _Francis_, cared
+only for the acquisition of territory: the people were so many millions
+"to be taxed, to be drilled, to be kept down by the police." In
+Prussia, _Frederick William II_. (1786-1797) and his people had no
+feeling so strong as that of hostility to Austria, whose influence was
+predominant in the minor states. Prussia cared more for getting
+additional Polish territory than for helping the French emigrants. The
+Prussian people were separated by rigorous lines into three
+classes,--nobles, burghers, and peasants. The nobles were poor. The
+lawful occupations of each class were prescribed by law. "The mass of
+the peasantry, at least in the country east of the Elbe, were serfs
+attached to the soil." The offices in the army were confined to nobles,
+on whose absolute obedience the king could count. Blows were inflicted
+on the common soldier as if he were a slave. In some of the other
+Protestant states, the character of the government had improved. In the
+south and west, the serfs had been set free. In the ecclesiastical
+states, including the electorates of _Mentz_, _Trèves_, and
+_Cologne_, the prince-bishops and canons were nobles, who led a
+gay and luxurious life. Nowhere were poverty and wretchedness so
+general as in the lands of the knights. The political life of Germany,
+notwithstanding its abundant resources, mainly from the decay of public
+spirit and the want of political unity, had become stagnant and
+corrupt. Germany was almost incapable of vigorous, united action.
+
+CONFLICT OF LOUIS AND THE ASSEMBLY.--There was no real union between
+_Louis XVI._ and the Assembly. Troops of the National Guard, to
+the number of twenty thousand, from the provinces were to encamp near
+_Paris_. This measure, as well as a decree for the banishment of
+the non-juring clergy, the king refused to sanction. The Girondist
+ministers laid down their office. A mob burst into the Tuileries: they
+put on the king's head a Jacobin cap, but he remained calm and
+steadfast in his refusal to assent to the decrees. _La Fayette_
+came to Paris from the Northern army, to restore order; but the queen
+treated him with habitual distrust, and he fell under suspicion with
+the radicals. He went back to the army without effecting any thing.
+
+IMPRISONMENT OF THE KING.--Prussia had joined its rival, Austria.
+_Ferdinand of Brunswick_, an officer trained under _Frederick
+the Great_, commanded the Prussian forces. He issued (July 25) a
+threatening proclamation to the French people. There were three French
+armies in the field, under _Rochambeau_, _La Fayette_, and
+_Luckner_; but the fire of the Revolution had not yet entered into
+the veins of the soldiers. Military reverses heightened the
+revolutionary excitement in Paris. The municipal government was broken
+up by _Danton_ and his associates, with the mob of poor and
+desperate partisans at their back; and its place was taken by
+commissioners from the sections. An armed throng again attacked the
+Tuileries. The king took refuge in the hall of the Assembly. The Swiss
+guards fought bravely against the assailants, when they received an
+order from him to cease firing. The result was that they were
+slaughtered without mercy. The uniform composure of the king in the
+most trying situations, and his conscientious feelings, were a poor
+substitute for intellectual force. The Assembly voted to suspend the
+exercise of his authority, to put him and his family under
+surveillance, to hand over the young prince to the custody of a person
+charged with his education, and to call a national convention to draw
+up a constitution. The royal family were given into the hands of the
+Paris commune, and lodged as prisoners, in apartments scantily
+furnished, in the castle called _the Temple_.
+
+MASSACRES OF SEPTEMBER.--The blundering of the royalists, their
+intrigues, and the pressure of the coalition of foreign enemies, had
+thrown the power into the hands of the _Jacobins_. The city
+council, and _Danton_, the minister of justice, were really
+supreme, although the _Girondists_ had a share in the new
+ministry. _La Fayette_ was accused and proscribed, and fled from
+the country. He was captured by the Austrians, and kept in prison at
+_Olmutz_ until 1797. The news of the advance of the allies led to
+the "massacres of September," when the prisons in Paris, which had been
+filled with priests and laymen arrested on charges of complicity with
+the enemies of liberty, were entered by ruffians acting under influence
+of _Marat_ and the commune's "committee of surveillance," and,
+after "a burlesque trial" before an armed jury, were murdered. In
+_Versailles_, _Lyons_, _Orleans_, and other towns, there
+were like massacres. The victims of these massacres numbered about two
+thousand.
+
+TRIAL AND EXECUTION OF THE KING.--The National Convention was made up
+entirely of republicans. The monarchy was abolished, and France was
+declared a republic. The Girondists had at first the preponderance in
+numbers; but the Jacobins, led by _Robespierre_, _Danton_,
+_Marat_, _Couthon_, _Fouché_, the _Duke of Orleans_
+(who called himself _Philip Égalité_), _St. Just_,
+_Billaud-Varenne_, _Barère,_ were supported by the clubs and
+the city council, and by the savage populace of the sections,--the
+_sans culottes_. The _guillotine_--a machine for beheading,
+which _Guillotin,_ a physician, did not invent, but recommended
+for use--was the instrument on which the fanatical revolutionists
+placed most of their reliance for the extirpation of "aristocracy." The
+energy of the _Jacobins_, aided by the general dread of a
+restoration of the royalists to power, and by the fury of the Paris
+populace, proved too strong for the more moderate party to
+withstand. The king, designated as _Louis Capet_, was arraigned
+before the assembly, tried, and condemned to death. There were seven
+hundred and twenty-one votes: his death was decreed by a small majority
+(Jan. 17, 1793). Through all the terrible scenes of the trial, the
+parting with his wife and children, and the execution (Jan. 21),
+_Louis_ manifested a serene and Christian temper.
+
+VICTORIES OF FRANCE.--Meantime, in France the war was felt, and justly,
+to be a war of self-defense. The enemies were a privileged class in
+alliance with foreign invaders. Volunteers flocked to the field. The
+troops under _Dumouriez_ and others had been successful. At
+_Valmy_ (Sept. 20, 1792) the allies, under _Brunswick_, were
+defeated. The victory of _Dumouriez_ at _Jemmappes_ was
+followed by the conquest of the Austrian Netherlands (Nov., 1792).
+_Savoy_ and _Nice_ were annexed to France. The _Scheldt_
+was declared free and open to commerce, and _Antwerp_ was made an
+open port.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II. FROM THE EXECUTION OF LOUIS XVI. TO THE FALL OF ROBESPIERRE
+(JAN. 21, 1793-JULY 27, 1794).
+
+
+THE FIRST COALITION.-The execution of the king was the signal for the
+union of the European powers against France. The intention of the
+revolutionary party to propagate their system in other countries
+afforded one excuse for this interference. The Convention (Nov. 19,
+1792) had offered their assistance to peoples wishing to throw off the
+existing governments. Another reason was the recent annexations, and
+the proceedings in respect to the free navigation of the
+_Scheldt_. The main ground and cement of the coalition was the
+dread which the governments felt of revolutionary movements among their
+own subjects, from their sympathy with the new institutions in France.
+
+POLITICS IN ENGLAND.--The reason just mentioned was operative in Great
+Britain. The revolution of 1688 had given power to a group of Whig
+families and their retainers. To shake off this Whig control, which had
+long continued, was a constant aim of _George III_. In _William
+Pitt_, the younger, he found a minister capable, under the favoring
+circumstances, of achieving this result. He was made prime minister in
+1783, when he was only twenty-five years old. The king, in 1788, had
+been attacked with insanity; and while he was thus afflicted,
+_George_, _Prince of Wales_, who was unpopular on account of
+his loose morals, ruled as regent. The regent affiliated with the
+Whigs, but _Pitt_ retained his office. The leader of the liberal
+party was _Charles James Fox_, a man of noble talents and generous
+instincts, but notoriously irregular in his habits. The sympathy in
+England with the Revolution of 1789 was widely diffused. _Edmund
+Burke_, however, the great philosophical statesman, who had defended
+the cause of freedom in the American War, was alarmed by the events in
+France, and still more by the theories of human rights propounded by
+the enthusiastic friends of the Revolution. These ideas were set forth
+in England, in an offensive form, in the writings of _Thomas
+Paine_. _Burke_ published, in 1790, his _Reflections on the
+French Revolution_, in which he attacked as visionary the political
+notions of the French school in regard to human rights, and denounced
+them for their dangerous tendency. He separated from his party, and
+publicly broke friendship with _Fox_. Pitt was personally averse
+to war with France, but was driven into it by the prevailing
+sentiment. The anti-revolutionary feeling excited by the news of the
+death of _Louis_ moved England to an armed interference which
+involved the most important consequences to all Europe. A Tory
+minister, _Pitt_ was supported in the long struggle in Europe by a
+majority of the Whigs.  In the next twenty years, Great Britain, by her
+military strength on the land, and much more on the sea, and in
+particular by her wealth, freely poured out in subsidies to her allies
+on the Continent, was a powerful, as well as the most persevering,
+antagonist of France.
+
+FALL OF THE GIRONDISTS.--The advance of the allied armies increased
+the violence and strengthened the hands of the
+Jacobins. _Dumouriez_ lost a battle in _Neerwinden_ (March
+18, 1793), and fell back, through Belgium, to the French frontier. He
+was in sympathy with the _Girondists_, and complained of the
+doings of the _Jacobins_ in Paris and in his army. Being called
+to account, he went over to the Austrians. This desertion weakened the
+Girondist party, and put new force into the party of
+_Jacobins_. At the same time, news came of a royalist revolt in
+the West, and of conflicts between the Jacobins and their adversaries
+in the cities of the South. Danton, who understood that "audacity" was
+the secret of success, procured the appointment by the convention of a
+_Committee of Public Safety_ (April 6, 1793), which was to
+exercise the most frightful dictatorship known in history. A
+"committee of general security" was put in charge of the police of the
+whole country. The commune of Paris co-operated in the energetic
+efforts of the Jacobin leaders to collect recruits and to strengthen
+the military force. The three chiefs were _Danton, Marat_, and
+_Robespierre_. There was a mortal struggle between the advocates
+of order and the apostles of anarchy. The fate of the moderates and
+Girondists was sealed by a great insurrection in Paris, and an
+invasion of the Convention by an armed force. The violent party had at
+their back eighty thousand National Guards, who hemmed in the
+Convention. Twenty-nine Girondist leaders were placed under
+arrest. Their party fell. The boldest and most reckless faction, which
+had the Paris commune behind it, triumphed.
+
+WAR OF LA VENDÉE.--Outside of _Paris_, in other parts of France,
+there were risings against the Jacobin rule. The most formidable of
+these was in the West, where the relation of the nobles to the
+peasants had been kindly, and where the common people looked on the
+violent proceedings at Paris with anger and disgust. Thus began the
+war of _La Vendée_, a terrible episode of civil strife, in which
+the people of that region were subdued, but not until after protracted
+conflict and immense slaughter.
+
+THE JACOBIN REVOLUTION.--_Danton_ and the other revolutionary
+leaders showed a tremendous energy in their attack on both domestic
+and foreign enemies. A levy was ordered of the whole male population
+capable of bearing arms. A _maximum_ price was fixed by law for
+commodities, and also for wages. The government paid its dues in
+depreciated _assignats_ at the face value. Its emissaries were in
+all parts of France, stirring up the people and forming revolutionary
+committees. Thus a system of revolutionary government was everywhere
+established. A new _constitution_, of an extreme democratic type,
+was offered to the acceptance of the people. This dominion of the
+_Jacobins_, it must be observed, was a second revolution. The
+Revolution of 1792 was as different from that of 1789 as was the
+proposed constitution of 1793 from that of 1791. The insurrections,
+except at _Lyons_ and _Toulon_ and in _La Vendée_, were
+soon quelled. The Jacobin rule was identified with the cause of
+patriotism in arms against foreign invasion, and with antipathy to the
+restoration of Bourbon royalty and misrule. In _Paris_, the
+revolutionary tribunal was filling the prisons with the suspected, and
+sending daily its wagon-loads of victims to the guillotine.
+
+MILITARY SUCCESSES OF FRANCE.-The achievements of the great coalition
+were not at all in proportion to its apparent strength. It was
+weakened by mutual jealousies and inefficient commanders. In the
+South, the Spaniards and Piedmontese did not profit by their
+successes. In the North and North-east, the summer of 1793 was partly
+wasted by the English, Austrians, and Prussians, in long sieges and in
+dissensions among themselves. Meantime the French army was growing
+stronger, and more and more on fire with patriotic ardor. The _Duke
+of York_, an incapable general, was obliged to raise the siege of
+_Dunkirk_ (Sept. 8, 1793). The forces of the coalition began to
+retire from ground that they had won. At _Paris_, _Carnot's_
+efficient management of military affairs gave France an advantage over
+her foes. The Prussians were inactive on the Rhine; and
+_Jourdan_, reinforced by a French detachment from that quarter,
+defeated the Austrians at _Wattignies_. By the movements of
+_Hoche_, the allies were driven out of Alsace. _Lyons_,
+after a stubborn defense, was captured and savagely punished, and the
+brave _Vendeans_ were completely defeated by _Kleber_ at
+_Savenay_. Near the end of the year, _Toulon_, then in
+revolt, was captured. At the siege, a young artillery officer,
+_Napoleon Bonaparte_, first distinguished himself by pointing out
+the proper spot for the planting of batteries that would drive away
+the English and Spanish fleets, and by carrying out his project.
+
+BONAPARTE.--Napoleon was born on the island of _Corsica_,
+Aug. 15, 1769, two months after Corsica became subject to the
+French. His family, on both sides, were Italians. _Napoleon_
+himself never became so fully master of the French tongue that he did
+not betray in his speech his foreign extraction. He was educated at
+the military school of _Brienne_ (1779-1784), and then went to
+the military school at _Paris_. His principal studies were
+mathematics and history. He quickly made manifest his military
+talents, and seems first to have aspired to gain distinction and
+power, in this line, in Corsica. His connection was at first with the
+_Jacobins_, although he afterwards denied it. He had imbibed the
+ideas of the Revolution, and saw that in the service of the leaders in
+the war there was opened to him a military career. He turned against
+his patriotic countryman, _Paoli_, when the latter sought to
+separate Corsica from France, at that time under the Jacobin rule.
+
+THE REIGN OF TERROR.--The Reign of Terror had now established itself
+in France. The Committee of Public Safety wielded absolute
+power. Every man, woman, and child was called upon to take part in the
+defense of the country. The property of all the "emigrants" and
+prisoners of state was seized. Whoever was suspected of being hostile
+to the established tyranny was thrown into prison. Even to be lukewarm
+in adhesion to it, was a serious offense. Summary trials were followed
+by swift executions. The tenderness of youth and the venerableness of
+age were no protection. Day after day, the stream of human blood
+continued to flow.  A new calendar was ordained: Sept. 22, 1792, was
+the beginning of the year _one_. There was a new division of
+months; in the room of the week, each tenth day was made a
+holiday. The commune of _Paris_, followed by other cities, began
+a crusade against Christianity. Fashions of dress, modes of speech,
+and manners were revolutionized. Every vestige of "aristocracy" was to
+be swept off the earth. There was a wild license given to divorce and
+to profligacy. _Paris_ was like a camp where young soldiers were
+drilled, weapons were forged, and lint and bandages made ready for the
+wounded. There were seen, even in the hall of the Convention, throngs
+of coarse and fierce men, and of coarser and fiercer women, with their
+songs and wild outcries and gestures. The commune of _Paris_
+instituted a sacrilegious festival in the ancient cathedral of Notre
+Dame, where an actress was enthroned as "Goddess of Liberty." There
+were priests and bishops who abjured the Christian faith, and there
+were others who adhered to it at the peril of their lives. The
+prisons, which were packed with all classes, were theaters of strange
+and thrilling scenes. In many cases, death, made familiar, ceased to
+terrify. Crowds escorted the batch of victims carried on carts each
+day to the place of execution, and insulted them with their brutal
+shouts. The arrested Girondist deputies were executed. Some of the
+leaders of that party, including _Roland_, perished by
+suicide. Among the eminent persons sent to the guillotine were the
+eloquent _Vergniaud, Brissot, Bailly, Malesherbes_ (the brave
+advocate who had defended _Louis XVI._), and _Madame
+Roland_; also the infamous _Duke of Orleans_, who had
+intrigued to get himself raised to the throne. _Marie
+Antoinette_, her hair turned white in the tragic scenes through
+which she had passed, miserably clad, was dragged before the merciless
+tribunal. There she was insulted with foul accusations which nobody
+believed. After the mockery of a trial, she was carried like a common
+criminal, in a cart, with her arms bound, to the place of execution
+(Oct. 16). Her dignity and serenity, her pallid countenance, and the
+simple, pathetic words uttered by her at her arraignment, touched for
+the moment the hardened hearts of the imbruted spectators. Her sad
+fate has blinded many to the calamitous errors committed by her in the
+days of her power.
+
+THE JACOBIN CHIEFS.--The Reign of Terror was not confined to
+Paris. The unexampled atrocities there were repeated in the other
+large towns with like circumstances of barbarity. A species of
+fanaticism ruled and raged in the land. The mania, if one may so call
+it, reached its height in such chiefs of the revolutionary party as
+_Marat, Billaud_, and _Robespierre_. In _Marat_
+especially, the mastery gained by one idea almost amounted to mental
+disorder. He demanded first five hundred heads, then (in Sept., 1793)
+forty thousand; then, six weeks later, two hundred and seventy
+thousand. It did seem to be a "homicidal mania."  _Marat_ was
+assassinated by a young maiden, _Charlotte Corday_, who devoted
+herself to the task of ridding the world of such a monster.
+
+DEATH OF DANTON.--The Jacobin leaders found their ideal of virtue in
+the Spartan spirit. Infatuated by _Rousseau_'s theory of the
+omnipotence of the state, in which the individual is merged and lost
+under the despotism of the majority, they looked on the massacre of
+countless persons, guilty of no crime, as a good deed. At length men
+began to grow weary of this frightful tyranny. The leaders became
+divided among themselves. _Danton_, though often the advocate of
+violent measures, was a statesman, and, to his credit be it said,
+halted at a point where the others advanced. He made an objection to
+the confounding of the innocent with the guilty. _Hébert_ and the
+leaders of the commune, with their atheism, as dangerous political
+rivals, were offensive to _Robespierre_, who was a deist. He held
+a sort of middle position, had most power with the Jacobins, and was
+enabled to crush and destroy his associates. He was a dull man, of a
+quiet mien, often seen with a nosegay in his hand, and bloodthirsty
+according to a precise theory. His ascendency gave him the power,
+after scenes of tempestuous debate, to inflict first on _Hébert_,
+on _Clootz_, and his other confederates, and then on
+_Danton_ and the Dantonist chiefs, the same death by the
+guillotine to which they had doomed so many. _Robespierre_
+abolished the worship of Reason, and caused the Convention to pass a
+resolution acknowledging the existence of a supreme Being, in whose
+honor fêtes were held. Christianity was denounced as a base
+superstition.
+
+CRUELTIES IN THE PROVINCES.--When _Robespierre_ was supreme, the
+Reign of Terror became still more terrible. In trials, the hearing of
+evidence and of argument were dispensed with. The prisons were crowded
+with "suspects." Alleged conspiracies in prisons were made a pretext
+for wholesale slaughter under the guillotine. Suicide and madness were
+of common occurrence. Even before _Robespierre's_ predominance
+there had been in the provinces scenes of horror like those which
+occurred in the capital. The revolted cities, as _Lyons_ and
+_Toulon_, were punished with savage ferocity. At _Lyons_,
+men, women, and children in masses were shot down with
+artillery. Those who were not killed with the shot were cut in pieces
+by the soldiery. At _Nantes_ prisoners were bound together in
+pairs, and huddled together in barges, which were scuttled and set
+afloat down the Loire. For these atrocities the deputy _Carrier_
+was responsible.
+
+FRENCH VICTORIES.--Yet, at this time, the arms of the republic, except
+on the sea, where the French fleet was badly beaten by the English,
+were mostly successful. The _Duke of York_ was vanquished on the
+Belgian frontier, and the defeat of the allies at _Fleurus_ (June
+26, 1794) obliged them to evacuate Belgium.
+
+
+
+THE BONAPARTES
+
+
+Charles Bonaparte, _m._ Letitia Ramolino.
+|
++--1, Joseph, King of Spain, _d._ 1844.
+|  |
+|  |  +--Lucien, Cardinal.
+|  |  |
+|  +--Zénaïde,
+|       _m._
+|  +--Charles, _d._ 1857
+|  |
++--3, Lucien, Prince of Canino, d .1840.
+|  |
+|  +--Lucien.
+|  |
+|  +--Pierre.
+|
++--2, NAPOLEON I, 1804-1814, (deposed, _d._ 1821), _m._
+|  (1), Maria Louisa, daughter of Emperor Francis II.
+|  |
+|  +--Napoleon, Duke of Reichstadt (Napoleon II), _d._ 1832.
+|
+|  (2), Josephine, _m._ General Beauharnais.
+|  |
+|  +--Eugene, Duke of Leuchtenberg, _d._ 1824. _m._
+|  |  Augusta, daughter of Maximilian Joseph of Bavaria.
+|  |  |
+|  |  +--Josephine, _m._ Oscar I of Sweden.
+|  |
+|  +--Hortense,
+|        _m._
++--4, Louis, King of Holland, _d._ 1846.
+|  |
+|  +--Napoleon Charles, _d._ 1807.
+|  |
+|  +--Napoleon Louis, _d._ 1831.
+|  |
+|  +--LOUIS NAPOLEON III, 1852-1870, _d._ 1873. _m._
+|     Eugenie, Countess of Teba
+|     |
+|     +--Napoleon, _d._ 1879.
+|
++--5, Caroline, _m._ Joachim Murat, King of Naples, shot 1815.
+|
++--6, Jerome, King of Westphalia, _d._ 1860, _m._
+   Catharine of Wurtemberg.
+   |
+   +--Napoleon. _m._ Clotilde, d. of Victor Emmanuel II of Italy
+      |
+      +--NAPOLEAN VICTOR JEROME FREDERIC.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III. FROM THE FALL OF ROBESPIERRE TO THE EMPIRE OF NAPOLEON
+(1794-1804).
+
+
+FALL OF ROBESPIERRE (9TH THERMIDOR).--A reaction set in against the
+cruelties of Jacobinism. Men--even the judges of the murderous
+tribunal--grew weary of bloodshed. The authority of _Robespierre_
+began to wane, even with his colleagues. The assembly at length turned
+against him. On July 27 (the _9th Thermidor_, according to the new
+calendar) he was arrested. He was released, but was again seized, and,
+with _St. Just, Couthon_, and most of the leaders of the commune,
+was guillotined.
+
+Bare statistics, accompanied by no thrilling descriptions, convey a
+strong impression of the atrocities of the Reign of Terror. According
+to _M. Taine_, "there were guillotined at _Paris_, between
+April 16, 1793, and the 9th Thermidor, 2,625 persons. The same process
+went forward all over France. In Arras, 299 men and 93 women; in
+Orange, 331 persons; in Nantes, 1,971; in Lyons, 1,684 (avowedly, but a
+correspondent of Robespierre estimates the total at 6,000); in the
+_fusillades_ (deaths by shooting) of _Toulon_, more than
+1,000; in the _noyades_ (drownings) of Nantes, nearly 5,000
+perished. In the eight departments of the West, it is reckoned that
+nearly half a million perished."  The deaths from want, under the
+Jacobin government, _M. Taine_ thinks, much exceeded a
+million. "France was on the brink of a great famine on the Asiatic
+scale."
+
+REACTION: CONTROL OF THE MODERATES.--The Reign of Terror was brought to
+an end. The moderates controlled the Convention. The prison doors were
+opened, and the multitude of suspects were set free. The revolutionary
+tribunal was broken down. The commune of Paris was so shaped as to
+strip it of its most dangerous powers. The Jacobin and other incendiary
+clubs were suppressed. Religion was declared to be free, and the
+churches were opened to their congregations. The Girondist deputies who
+survived were invited back to their seats in the Convention. The
+National Guards were filled up from the middle class,--the
+_bourgeoisie_. Little mercy was shown to the Jacobins
+anywhere. The reaction was seen in the altered character of society and
+of manners. Those who had acquired wealth in the late time by the
+changes of property came to the front. The old fondness for dress and
+gayety reappeared. Paris was again alive with balls and other festive
+entertainments. The salons were crowded with elegant youth of the
+higher class (the _jeunesse dorée_). The party of Terror were
+cowed; but in consequence of the rise in the cost of provisions, and of
+the distress caused by it, and by the sudden abrogation of tyrannical
+laws settling the price of food and wages, there were two fierce
+outbreakings of the mob of Paris (April 1, May 20, 1795). These were
+quelled, and the power of the Jacobins was finally crushed. The
+moderates had now to guard against the increasing strength and rising
+hopes of the royalists.
+
+CONQUEST OF HOLLAND: PRUSSIA.--The armies of France were everywhere
+successful. Through the victories of _Jourdan_ and
+_Pichegru_, Holland was conquered, and converted into the
+_Batavian Republic_, and Dutch Flanders surrendered to France. The
+Low Countries were now a dependency of the French Republic
+(1794-1795). _Hoche_, an excellent general, partly by
+conciliation, reduced the West--the theater of the La Vendée revolt--to
+submission. The English and emigrants landed in _Quiberon_, on the
+coast of Brittany, but were defeated. The coalition was broken up,
+first by the withdrawal of Prussia, which ceded (April 5, 1795), and,
+in a secret article, ceded permanently, its territories on the left
+bank of the Rhine to the French, for a compensation to be obtained from
+secularized German states,--that is, states in which the old
+ecclesiastical rule should be abolished. A few months later (July,
+1795), Spain concluded peace, ceding _St. Domingo_ to the
+Republic. The soldiers of France were fast becoming trained, and their
+confidence rose with their increasing success. This success was due
+largely to the weak generalship of the allies. The French were commonly
+hard masters in the conquered places.  On the other hand, however, they
+effected a welcome abolition of old feudal inequalities and abuses.
+
+CONSTITUTION OF 1995.--Meanwhile, there was disaffection, especially in
+the cities, with the rule by the Convention. In the cities there was
+distress, except in the moneyed class. There was a yearning for a
+strong and stable government. The Convention framed and submitted to
+the nation a new constitution, the _third_ in the order of
+political fabrics of this sort. There were to be seven hundred and
+fifty legislators, divided into two bodies,--the Council of Elders, or
+the _Ancients_, of two hundred and fifty, and the _Council of
+Five Hundred_. The executive power was given to a _Directory_
+of five persons. Two-thirds of the councils for the first term were to
+be taken from the Convention. The constitution, thus conservative and
+anti-Jacobin in its character, was well received. But there was
+dissatisfaction in the reactionary parties; and a great insurrection of
+the royalist middle class in Paris (Oct. 5, 1795, the _13th
+Vendémaire_) was promptly put down by the resolute action of
+_Bonaparte_, to whom had been given the command of the troops of
+the city. It was the royalist and the anti-republican parties which now
+threatened the government. But a new authority, the will of the
+_army_, was beginning plainly to disclose itself. The dread of
+Jacobinism still existed. What the people more and more craved was
+internal tranquillity and order.
+
+BONAPARTE IN ITALY: TO THE PEACE OF CAMPO FORMIO.--The assignats became
+worthless. This bankruptcy had one benefit: it relieved the state of
+its debt, and brought coin into circulation. A triple attack was
+planned by _Carnot_ against Austria. In Germany, _Jourdan_
+and _Moreau_ were driven back by the Archduke _Charles_ of
+Austria. But a splendid success attended the arms of _Bonaparte_
+in the attack on the Austrian power in Italy. He had been lately
+married to _Josephine Beauharnais_, the widow of a French general
+guillotined in 1794, the only woman to whom he appears ever to have
+been warmly attached. There were two children by her former
+marriage,--_Eugène_ (1781-1824), and _Hortense_ (1783-1837)
+who married _Louis Bonaparte_. Starting from Nice, and following
+the coast, Bonaparte defeated the Austrians and Piedmontese separately,
+and forced the latter to conclude a distinct peace, which ceded
+_Savoy_ and _Nice_ to France. He exemplified in this campaign
+the characteristics which in after-years contributed essentially to his
+success as a general. He struck the enemy before they could combine
+their forces. He did not, after the old method, wait to capture all the
+fortresses in his path, but by swift marches made his attacks at
+unexpected places and times. He defeated the Austrians after a brief
+struggle at the bridge of _Lodi_ on the Adda, captured
+_Milan_, overran Lombardy as far as Mantua, and forced the Pope,
+and Parma, Modena, and Naples, to purchase peace by giving up their
+treasures of art. Thus began the custom of despoiling conquered
+capitals, and other subjugated cities, of works of art, which went to
+adorn and enrich Paris,--a new custom among civilized Christian
+nations. _Wurmser_, the veteran Austrian general, was defeated in
+a series of engagements; and, after him, another great Austrian army,
+under _Alvinzi_, was vanquished at _Arcola_ (Nov. 14-17,
+1796) and at _Rivoli_ (Jan. 14, 1797). _Bonaparte_ now
+crossed the Alps to meet the Archduke _Charles_, who had cleared
+Germany of its invaders. The French general, although his own situation
+was not free from peril, was able to dictate the terms of peace. In the
+treaty of _Campo Formio_ (Oct. 17, 1797), Austria ceded the
+Belgian provinces to France, recognized the _Cisalpine Republic_
+to be established by _Bonaparte_ in North Italy, and secretly
+consented to the cession of the German provinces on the left bank of
+the Rhine. In return, he gave _Venice_ to Austria, in disregard of
+the principles of international law, and perfidiously as regards that
+republic, which had made its peace with him, and become a democracy
+dependent on France. In this treaty with Austria, there was another
+secret stipulation that Prussia should not be indemnified in Germany
+for her losses on the west of the Rhine. Thus _Napoleon_ used the
+selfishness of the allies to divide them from one another. At
+_Tolentino_ in February the Pope had ceded for the _Cispadane
+Republic_ the _Romagna_, _Bologna_, and _Ferrara_. A
+young man of twenty-seven, Bonaparte had given proof of his astonishing
+military genius by a series of victories over large armies and
+experienced generals; and he had evinced equally his skill, as well as
+his lack of principle, in the field of diplomacy. He had won admiration
+from his enemies by his evident freedom from the revolutionary
+fanaticism, and his contempt for declamation about "the rights of man."
+Returning to _Paris_, he was received with acclamation, but
+thought it politic to avoid publicity, and to live quietly in his
+modest dwelling.
+
+COUP D'ÉTAT: 18 FRUCTIDOR (Sept. 4, 1797).--During _Bonaparte's_
+absence, the royalist and reactionary faction had gained ground in the
+governing bodies. _Pichegru_ was plotting on that side. These
+schemes had been baffled with the timely assistance of a detachment of
+troops sent to _Paris_ by Bonaparte under _Augereau_. On
+Sept. 4 (the 18th Fructidor), the palace of the Tuileries, where the
+councils met, was surrounded. The reactionary deputies were arrested;
+_Pichegru_ and his fellow-conspirators were banished. This _coup
+d'état_ sealed the triumph of the republicans, but it was effected
+through the army.
+
+THE EGYPTIAN EXPEDITION.--The Directory were conscious of weakness,
+and looked with alarm and distrust on the young general, who was fast
+becoming the idol of the people, as well as of the army. They wished
+him to attempt a descent on England. He preferred, in the room of this
+impracticable venture, to conduct an expedition to _Egypt_, with
+the design of getting control, if possible, of the Eastern
+Mediterranean, and of striking at the possessions of Great Britain in
+_India_. To this scheme the Directory, quite willing to have him
+at a distance, readily consented. Hiding his plans until all was
+ready, he sailed from _Toulon_ (May 19, 1798) with a strong fleet
+and army; on his way captured _Malta_ through treachery of the
+knights, and landed safely in Egypt. With him were some of the best of
+the French generals, and a large company of scientific men. He
+defeated the _Mamelukes_ in a great battle fought within sight of
+the _Pyramids_. But at _Aboukir_, in the _Battle of the
+Nile_, the French fleet was destroyed by the English naval force
+under _Nelson_. The French army was thus cut off from the means
+of return. Bonaparte invaded _Syria_, but was prevented by the
+English fleet from getting a foothold on the coast. He had to raise
+the siege of _Acre_, and returned to Egypt, where he vanquished
+the Turks at _Aboukir_.
+
+REVERSES OF FRANCE IN ITALY.--Here _Bonaparte_ received
+information which determined him to leave the army under the command of
+_Kléber_, and himself to return to France. The European powers had
+once more taken up arms. Among the causes of the renewal of the war
+were the formation by the French of the _Roman Republic_ out of
+the dominion of the Pope, the establishment of the _Helvetian
+Republic_ in Switzerland, and the change of _Genoa_ by its own
+act into the _Ligurian Republic_. Prussia, since 1795, from
+selfish motives had cooperated with France, and stood aloof from the
+new--the _second_--coalition. _Paul I_., emperor of Russia,
+was active against the French Republic, and _Pitt_ was its
+indefatigable enemy. The Czar had been made Grand Master of the Knights
+of Malta, and made much of this empty dignity. The victory of
+_Nelson_ at _Aboukir_ cemented the union of the hostile
+powers, with whom the Sultan was now joined. The management of the
+French armies by the government at _Paris_ was
+unskillful. _Naples_, to be sure, was overcome, and transformed
+into the _Parthenopĉan Republic_. The king of _Sardinia_ was
+driven out of Piedmont. But _Jourdan_ was defeated by the Archduke
+_Charles_, and retreated across the Rhine. The Austrians and the
+Russian army under _Suvoroff_, a veteran officer, were victorious
+south of the Alps (June, 1799); _Moreau_ and _Macdonald_ were
+defeated at _Trebbia_. The French were defeated again at
+_Novi_ (Aug. 15), and lost almost all Italy. The king of Naples
+came back, and thousands of republicans there were cruelly put to
+death,--a proscription in which _Nelson_ had a part. It was the
+victory of _Masséna_, over the Russians at _Zurich_, that
+saved France itself from invasion.
+
+OVERTHROW OF THE DIRECTORY: 18TH BRUMAIRE.--These reverses added to the
+unpopularity of the Directory. The discontent of the Jacobins with
+their government had given rise to strong measures of repression. On
+the other hand, the wealthy class were disgusted at the renewal of the
+war. A rising was threatened in _La Vendee_. The feeling was
+widely diffused, that there was need of a strong man at the helm to
+save the ship of state from another terrible shipwreck. At this
+juncture _Napoleon_ appeared in _Paris_, and was greeted with
+enthusiasm. _Sieyès_ and one other director, with a majority of
+the _Ancients_, agreed to another _coup d'état_ which should
+make Bonaparte the first magistrate. The garrison of Paris was ready to
+lend its aid. The resistance of the _Council of five Hundred_ at
+_St. Cloud_ was baffled by _Lucien Bonaparte_, Napoleon's
+brother, their president, and by the use of military force. Thus there
+was accomplished the revolution of the _18th Brumaire_ (Nov. 9,
+1799).
+
+THE CONSULATE.--In the provisional government set up by the remnant of
+the council, _Napoleon_ only gradually assumed the chief rôle. He
+was later enabled to take and to hold supreme power, because of the
+mutual fear of royalists and republicans, their common dread of
+Jacobinism, and a prevailing conviction that safety must be sought in
+the sway of an individual, representing neither extreme, and strong
+enough to hold all in check. Yet the event evinced the supremacy now
+gained by the military power. _Napoleon_ immediately made
+excellent financial reforms, and repealed or softened the laws against
+the "emigrants" and the priests. By such mild and conservative
+measures, the prosperity of France began to be renewed. The
+constitution of the year VIII., as planned by _Sieyès_ and
+modified by _Bonaparte_, kept up the semblance, without much of
+the reality, of democracy. The checks on the power of the First Consul
+were more nominal than real.  The mass of the people had power only to
+vote for lists of citizens, out of whom all the higher officers were to
+be selected by successive steps. All legislation was initiated by the
+_Council of State_; the _Tribunate_ of a hundred members
+could discuss proposals made thus, but could not act; the
+_Legislative Chamber_ of three hundred could vote, but not
+discuss; and the _Senate_ of eighty was chosen for life, with
+little to do. This constitution of 1799, in opposition to the communal
+system of 1789 and 1791, established a _centralized_
+administration which destroyed local liberty and self-government.
+France no longer represented in other countries the cause of
+liberty. In this character its armies had been hailed in Italy, where a
+yearning for national unity was awakened. Equality, not liberty, was
+all that the cause of France now represented.
+
+Napoleon could not have expected that his overtures of peace would be
+accepted by Austria. The rough, impolitic response made by England,
+helped him by rousing resentment in France.
+
+MARENGO: PEACE OF LUNGVILLE.--If _Sieyès_ and others expected
+that _Napoleon_ would merely direct military operations from
+_Paris_, they were soon undeceived. _Masséna_ was at the
+head of the army in Italy, and found it most difficult to hold
+_Genoa_ against the Austrians. _Moreau_ was at the head of
+the army in Germany. Apart from other reasons for taking the field in
+person, it would not have been safe for the new ruler of France to
+allow himself to be eclipsed in military fame by
+_Moreau_. _Napoleon_, as usual veiling his purpose,
+gradually collected a large army, and between May 16 and 19, 1800, led
+his troops, and dragged his cannon, over the _Great St. Bernard
+Pass_ into Italy, threw himself in the rear of _Melas_, the
+Austrian general, and entered Milan. He appears, however, to have used
+less than his usual caution, probably from fear that _Melas_
+might escape; so that he was attacked at _Marengo_ (June 14), by
+that general, at a moment when the French forces were not sufficiently
+concentrated. What threatened to be a disastrous defeat for the
+French, however, was turned into a signal victory by the timely
+arrival of _Desaix_; and the name of _Marengo_ rang through
+Europe. In December, _Moreau_ won the great victory of
+_Hohenlinden_ over the Archduke _John_. In February, 1801,
+the peace of _Lunéville_ was concluded. France kept its "natural
+boundaries," Belgium and the west of the Rhine. The _Italian
+republics_, except Rome and Naples, were restored.  _Tuscany_
+was to be given to a prince of Spain, a country now dependent on
+France. The German princes who lost territory were to be indemnified
+by "secularizing" German ecclesiastical states, and vied with one
+another in imploring favors of the conqueror.
+
+THE NORTHERN ALLIANCE: THE PEACE OF AMIENS.--England now stood alone
+against France. Her navies were supreme, and had captured most of the
+_Dutch_ as well as _French colonies_. The French army in
+_Egypt_ had been driven to capitulate on the condition that it
+should be transported in English vessels to France. Russia, Sweden,
+and Denmark made (1800) a defensive alliance of armed neutrality on
+the sea, to maintain the right of neutrals to trade with belligerents,
+and the doctrine that the neutral ship protects its freight (not being
+munitions of war) against seizure. England succeeded in ruining this
+alliance. _Pitt_ now retired from office. He had accomplished the
+legislative union of England and Ireland, by which the separate Irish
+Parliament had ceased to exist (1800). But he had encouraged the Irish
+Catholics to expect that they would be delivered from the restrictions
+which excluded them from the House of Commons and from many other
+offices. When the king refused to consent to the fulfillment of these
+expectations, _Pitt_ resigned (1801). _Addington_ became
+prime minister. England was tired of the war. Peace was concluded at
+_Amiens_ (March, 1802). France was to retain all her conquests on
+the Continent. England surrendered to France and her allies all
+conquests except Trinidad and Ceylon. _Malta_ was to be given
+back by England to the Knights of Malta. A third great civil triumph
+of Napoleon, added to _Luneville_ and _Amiens_, was the
+_Concordat_ with the Pope.
+
+REFORMS OF NAPOLEON.--Napoleon now was free to give his attention to
+internal reforms in France. He called into his counsels the ablest men
+in all departments of knowledge. In the reconstruction of political
+and social order, his own clear perceptions and energy were everywhere
+seen. He brought back from the old institutions whatever was good and
+valuable which the tempest of revolution had swept away. He reformed
+the judicial system. He caused to be framed the famous _Code_
+which bears his name, and which still forms the basis of law in
+several European countries. He reduced the power of the communes, and
+centralized the administration of government by the system of prefects
+and sub-prefects. Through the _Concordat_, he renewed the
+connection of the Catholic Church of France with Rome, reserving,
+however, to the executive the nomination of archbishops and bishops,
+whom the government was to support, and guarding, in the spirit of the
+Gallican theory, the supremacy of the civil authority. Full toleration
+was secured for non-Catholics. _Napoleon_ personally participated
+in the religious ceremonies which attended the formal restoration of
+the old system of worship where "the Goddess of Reason" had been
+enthroned during the Terror. The ultimate effect of the
+_Concordat_ was to build up the ultramontane, or papal, theory
+and sway within the church of France. Education was organized by the
+establishment of the university, the comprehensive name for the entire
+educational system of the country. All branches of technical
+instruction were carefully fostered. The devotees of science were
+encouraged with an enlightened sympathy and liberal aid. A better
+organization and discipline were brought into the army.
+
+CHARACTER OF THE CHANGES.--The changes made by _Napoleon_, while
+they secured the _equality_ of all Frenchmen before the law, did
+nothing to rescue civil _liberty_, such as the republicans had
+aimed to secure. They were all in the direction of
+monarchy. Distinctions, like the Legion of Honor, were invented; titles
+were instituted; a new aristocracy, made up of relics of the old
+_noblesse_ and of fresh recruits, was created; _Napoleon_ was
+declared to be consul for life, and the mechanism of the government was
+converted into a practical dictatorship. Unsparing in his treatment of
+Jacobins, he aimed still to moderate the passions of party. His
+activity was seen in an excellent system of public works, such as
+canals and noble highways, in new towns, and in magnificent buildings
+which he erected in Paris. At the same time, he went as far as it was
+safe to go in bringing in monarchical manners and luxuries. He himself
+adopted a regal way of living. He had no faith in democracy, and spoke
+with unaffected scorn of "ideology," or the theoretical statesmanship
+which based itself on ideas of "human rights" in the matter of
+exercising government. The press was placed under stringent police
+regulation. _Napoleon's_ family began to contend, with "Corsican
+shamelessness," for high honors. A feud soon came to exist between them
+and the _Beauharnais_,--the family of _Josephine_. Was the
+principle of heredity to come back?
+
+RENEWED WAR WITH ENGLAND.--In 1803 the war was renewed with
+England. That _Napoleon_ was resolved to dictate in European
+affairs, as he was practical dictator in the French Republic, was
+plain. He controlled the republics dependent on France. He annexed
+_Piedmont_. He made the _Spanish Bourbons_ do his bidding. He
+intervened in _Germany_; among other things, offending Austria by
+enlarging the bounds of Prussia. He exercised over the minor German
+states the influence of which Austria had been robbed. He complained of
+the strictures of the English press, and of the asylum granted in
+England to conspirators against his rule. He was angry that
+_Malta_ was not given up, which England refused to do on account
+of an aggrandizement of France not consistent with the Peace of
+Amiens. There were provocations on both sides, and war was inevitable.
+
+PLAN OF INVADING ENGLAND.--Napoleon seized _Hanover_. He talked of
+making a descent on England. He gathered a vast army near
+_Boulogne_, and constructed an immense flotilla for the
+transportation of it across the Channel. His design was to decoy away
+the British fleet, and then to concentrate enough ships of his own in
+the Channel to protect the passage of his forces.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE EMPIBE TO THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN
+(1804-1812).
+
+
+THE EMPIRE (1804).--Various attempts had been made against
+_Napoleon's_ life. An "infernal machine" was exploded near his
+carriage. On that occasion, only the swift driving of the coachman
+saved him from death (1800). There were now royalist plots against his
+life, of which _Count d'Artois_ was cognizant. _Pichegru_ was
+an accomplice; and _Moreau_, although not favoring the restoration
+of the Bourbons, was not entirely innocent. The former died in prison;
+_Moreau_ escaped to America. Napoleon, exasperated by these plots,
+caused the _Duke d'Enghien_, a young prince of the Condé branch of
+the Bourbons, to be seized on German territory,--in Baden,--and dragged
+away into France, where, at _Vincennes_, after a hurried military
+examination, he was shot, and buried in a grave that had been dug for
+him before the sentence was pronounced. Of this act of Napoleon, it was
+said by _Fouché_, "It was worse than a crime: it was a blunder."
+The young prince was really innocent. He was a victim of the natural,
+but violent, wrath of Napoleon, who wanted to strike a blow that his
+enemies would feel. The event opened the way for him--as it was perhaps
+intended that it should--to the object of his ambition, the imperial
+title and throne. He was authorized to adopt a successor. This, the
+different parties felt, would make his government stable and secure. He
+was proclaimed emperor, the election being ratified by popular
+vote. The crown was to be handed down in his family. In imitation of
+_Charlemagne_, whom he affected to consider a Frenchman and a
+predecessor, he was crowned, with splendid pomp, by Pope _Pius
+VII_. (Dec. 2, 1804), in Notre Dame. He took the crown from the
+Pope's hands, and placed it on his own head.
+
+THE NEW ROYALTY.--The emperor surrounded himself with the insignia and
+ceremonies of royalty. The members of his family became princes and
+princesses. A new nobility, with the various ancient titles, was called
+into being. He made his generals--eighteen in number, most of whom had
+sprung from the ranks--marshals. He first diminished the number of the
+_Tribunate_, then (1807) abolished it. The republic of 1789 had
+now passed into an absolute military monarchy.
+
+THIRD COALITION AGAINST FRANCE (1805).--_Napoleon_ turned the
+Italian Republic into a vassal monarchy, with himself for its ruler
+(1805). He incorporated _Genoa_ with France. His step-son,
+_Eugène Beauharnais_, he made viceroy of _Italy_. _Pitt_
+had come back to office. Events since the death of the _Duke
+d'Enghien_ made it possible for him to create the third coalition of
+England (in union with Austria, Russia, and Sweden) for restoring the
+balance of power in Europe. _Paul I_. of Russia had been won over
+from the previous coalition by the adroit efforts of _Napoleon_,
+and by the Czar's hostility to England on account of _Malta_
+(1800), he being grand master of the knights. His ordinary state of
+mind bordered on derangement, so that he was not fit to reign. Refusing
+to abdicate, he was assassinated by nobles (1801), and his son
+_Alexander I_. (1801-24) succeeded him. Russia was now reconciled
+to England, and the Northern Neutrality Convention against her maritime
+oppression was dissolved.
+
+POSITION OF PRUSSIA.--The king of Prussia, _Frederick William
+III_. (1797-1840), and the ministers whom he trusted, refused to
+listen to his spirited queen, _Louisa_, and the more earnest,
+patriotic party, by which he was urged to unite with the coalition. He
+clung to his policy of neutrality, and was to be bribed by the gift of
+_Hanover_. The attitude of Prussia, which had been governed by
+selfish considerations, was long the pivot on which the success of
+_Napoleon's_ aggressions hung.
+
+FAILURE OF VILLENEUVE.--If Napoleon ever seriously projected an
+invasion of England he abandoned the scheme before 1805, although he
+retained an army at Boulogne to alarm the English. _Villeneuve_,
+whose fleet was to command the Channel, had escaped from _Nelson_
+and was on his way back from the West Indies. The admiralty were warned
+of his movement by a vessel of light draught which _Nelson_, when
+he could not find his foe, dispatched to inform them of the
+danger. _Villeneuve_, after an indecisive action against the force
+sent to meet him under _Sir Robert Calder_, put first into the
+harbor of _Ferrol_, and then repaired to
+_Cadiz_. _Nelson_ came back with his fleet to the Channel.
+
+ULM AND TRAFALGAR.--The allies marked out four lines of invasion. The
+second and principal advance was to be up the valley of the Danube, and
+to be pursued by the Russians and Austrians. _Napoleon_ did not
+wait for them to unite. He now made use of the army collected for the
+proposed invasion of England. He suddenly broke up his camp at
+_Boulogne_, and swiftly led his splendid and thoroughly drilled
+army across the Rhine, to the rear of the Austrian forces, of which
+_Mack_ was the commander. Other detachments from Hanover and
+Holland came down the Main to take part in the movement. The Austrians
+were surrounded in _Ulm_, and gave themselves up, thirty thousand
+in number, as prisoners of war (Oct. 17, 1805). The strategy was like
+that pursued in the campaign of _Marengo_: the result was even
+more astonishing. It was not long, however, before news came to him of
+a great disaster to the French on the sea. Four days after the
+surrender at _Ulm_, _Nelson_ achieved a grand victory off
+Cape _Trafalgar_, over the French and Spanish fleets. Before
+_Villeneuve_ decided to leave the shelter of _Cadiz_, he had
+been obliged to weaken himself by sending away a number of his
+ships. The watchword sent from the flag-ship just before the
+encounter--"England expects every man to do his duty"--called forth
+shouts of enthusiasm from the decks of the British fleet. Two-thirds of
+the French ships were captured or ruined. _Nelson_ himself was
+struck by a bullet, and died the same night. His private life was not
+free from grave faults, but he was the greatest naval hero England has
+ever produced.
+
+AUSTERLITZ: CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE.--On the land, the career of
+_Napoleon_ was triumphant. The "Grand Army," with its system of
+corps and reserves, marched on _Vienna_, which was occupied on the
+13th of November. The Russians were still to be encountered. The army
+of _Alexander_ was a very powerful one; but he made, instead of
+awaiting, the attack, and, on the 2d of December, was utterly defeated
+on the memorable field of _Austerlitz_. The Peace of
+_Pressburg_ followed (Dec. 26, 1805). Austria gave up
+_Venice_, which was annexed to the new Italian kingdom, of which
+Napoleon was the head. The _Tyrol_ went to Bavaria, whose elector
+was recognized as a king, as was also the elector of
+_Würtemberg_. Soon after, the Bourbons were dethroned at
+_Naples_, and Napoleon's brother _Joseph_ took that kingdom.
+_Bavaria_, _Baden_, _Würtemberg_, and other smaller
+states were united into a _Confederation of the Rhine_ (1806),
+with _Napoleon_ for its protector. The Holy Roman Empire from that
+time had no longer even the shadow of a reality. _Francis I._ was
+simply emperor of Austria, and Austria was greatly reduced in power.
+
+FALL OF PRUSSIA.--Prussia now stood by herself. Out of alarm at the
+progress of the French arms, and anger because French troops had been
+led across her territory without her consent, she had preferred to join
+the coalition. _Austerlitz_ moved her to retrace her steps. She
+received _Hanover_ as the price of a renewed alliance. England now
+declared war against Prussia. But _Fox_, who was an advocate of
+peace, had come into power in England (Jan. 23, 1806); and Prussia
+discovered that Napoleon, who was friendly to him, was negotiating for
+the surrender of Hanover to that country. This crowning indignity moved
+Prussia, at this inopportune moment, to take up arms against
+him. Prussia had no ally but Russia. The Prussian army was full of
+pride and hope; but its organization and method of warfare were after
+the old, traditional fashion which had come down from the days of
+_Frederick the Great_, and its commander, the _Duke of
+Brunswick_, though brave, was superannuated. In the two battles of
+_Jena_ and _Auersfadt_, fought on the same day (Oct. 14,
+1806), the Prussian forces were routed, and either captured or
+dispersed. A fortnight later (Oct. 27), _Napoleon_ was in
+_Berlin_. Fortress after fortress was surrendered, and corps after
+corps captured by his troops. The royal family, including the Queen
+_Louisa_, were treated personally with harshness and disdain. The
+Prussian monarchy, to all appearance, was in ruins. Its museums and
+picture-galleries were robbed of their treasures, which went away as
+trophies to _Paris_. The Saxon Elector, made a king, joined the
+Rhenish Confederacy.
+
+Fox died on Sept. 13, 1806. In 1807 (March 31), the Duke of Portland
+became prime minister; the rival and rising statesmen,
+_Castlereagh_ and _Canning_, being both in the cabinet.
+
+TO THE PEACE OF TILSIT.--It remained for the conqueror to deal with
+_Russia_. He had intended to prosecute a winter campaign in
+_Poland_, but the severity of the winter and the lack of supplies
+obliged him to fall back from Pultusk to the _Vistula_. The
+Russians now took the initiative. A terrible battle at _Eylau_
+(Feb. 7 and 8, 1807) was indecisive. _Napoleon_ drew additional
+troops from all parts of his empire to supply the losses of the grand
+army. _Benningsen_, the Russian general, was incautious, and at
+_Friedland_ (June 14) was routed. _Dantzic_ and the still
+unconquered provinces of _Prussia_ fell into the hands of the
+French. This series of wonderful successes made the revolution in the
+art of war, which _Napoleon_ had introduced, obvious to the
+dullest eyes. His peculiar method of rapid movement, and subsistence on
+the country, and the obstacles to its uniform success, were likewise
+evident. The Emperor _Alexander_ and _Napoleon_ met on the
+_Niemen_. _Alexander_ was won by _Napoleon's_ gracious
+and friendly demeanor. At _Tilsit_, on the North-Prussian
+frontier, peace was concluded (July 7 and 9, 1807). Prussia fared the
+hardest. She lost half of her territory. She had to close her ports and
+lands to British trade, to limit her army to forty-two thousand men,
+and to consent to the erection of a _duchy of Warsaw_ out of her
+Polish territory. Out of the Elbe provinces, a kingdom of
+_Westphalia_ was constructed, of which _Jerome Bonaparte_
+received the crown. Russia also recognized _Louis Bonaparte_,
+another brother of Napoleon, as king of
+_Holland_. _Alexander_ promised to go to war with England in
+case England rejected the offer of peace which he was to make as
+mediator. _Alexander_ and _Napoleon_ were to be fast friends
+and allies. Russia was to expand on the north and east, but not to have
+_Constantinople_. Napoleon had no better apology for the
+dismemberment of Prussia than a reference to the intemperate manifesto
+of the _Duke of Brunswick_ in 1792, on the occasion of the first
+invasion of France. His real object was thoroughly to divide and
+disable Germany, and to take away the last obstacle to his complete
+control within its borders.
+
+POWER OF NAPOLEON.--No ruler since _Charlemagne_ had held such
+power as was now wielded by _Napoleon_. "Sovereign of France from
+the Scheldt to the Pyrenees, and of Italy from the Alps to the Tiber,"
+he had given the throne of _Holland_ to his brother _Louis_,
+that of _Naples_ to _Joseph_, and made _Jerome_ king of
+_Westphalia_. _Spain_ was content to do his will, and
+_Germany_ was under his feet. He was the leader of mighty armies,
+with no military rival to endanger his supremacy over them. His
+conquests, it was impossible to deny, carried with them the abolition
+of numerous time-worn abuses, and the introduction of important
+material improvements. France was in many respects prosperous under the
+despotism established over it.
+
+ELEMENTS OF WEAKNESS.--But there were certain elements of weakness
+which _Napoleon_ did not sufficiently discern. The feeling of
+nationality and patriotism in the subject countries was certain to
+awake with a strength which he did not at all anticipate. Old Rome had
+extinguished this feeling in most of her provinces, but there were
+countries whose spirit even Rome could not break. Napoleon undertook a
+task to which no man was equal. Meantime, he was exhausting the
+military resources of _France_. If its male population continued
+to be willing to follow him to the slaughter, where were the men to be
+found to fill the places of the multitudes that fell? The time must
+come when the hunger of the French for military glory would be sated,
+and dazzling victories would cease to hide the fearful cost at which
+they were purchased.
+
+THE CONTINENTAL SYSTEM.--The Treaty of _Tilsit_ was followed by
+acts on the part of Napoleon which show the presumptuous confidence and
+arrogant spirit of domination, which, however natural on the pinnacle
+of might to which he had raised himself, proved disastrous, and, in the
+end, fatal. One of these acts was the "Continental System," ordained in
+the _Berlin_ and _Milan Decrees_.
+
+A Prussian decree (1806), Prussia being then a vassal of
+_Napoleon_, undertook to close the ports and rivers of the North
+Sea to English shipping. In retaliation, there was issued a British
+"Order in Council," declaring the coast from the Elbe to Brest in a
+state of blockade; the portion from Ostend to the Seine being declared
+to be under a rigorous blockade. This led to the _Berlin Decree_
+of _Napoleon_ (Nov. 21, 1806). Then second "Orders in Council"
+(Nov. 11, 1807), prohibiting trade with France, her allies and
+colonies, as if they were blockaded, called out the _Milan Decree_
+of Napoleon (Dec. 17, 1807).
+
+The continental system thus originated undertook to cut off trade
+between the entire Continent and England, by ordering all the
+merchandise of England and her colonies to be seized and confiscated,
+wherever it might be found,--even ships which touched at English
+ports. The design was to inflict injury on England. It had this effect,
+but it had the same effect on France, and still more in the other
+countries which profited by English trade. Wide-spread disaffection at
+the attempts to enforce this system was the inevitable
+consequence. Moreover, one result of it was to stimulate
+_Napoleon_ to further conquests to keep up and to extend his
+commercial policy. Another motive was added to his growing and
+insatiable ambition for universal dominion.
+
+INVASION OF SPAIN: WAGRAM.--Russia had declared war against Great
+Britain, according to the promise of _Alexander_ at
+_Tilsit_. The British seized the Danish fleet in the harbor of
+_Copenhagen_, to prevent it from falling into the hands of Russia
+and France (Sept., 1807). _Napoleon_ made this act a partial
+excuse for invading the Spanish peninsula, under the pretense of
+guarding the coasts against the English. His army entered
+_Lisbon_, and he declared that the house of _Braganza_ had
+ceased to reign. His forces advanced into Spain beyond
+Madrid. Dissensions between _Charles IV_. and his son
+_Ferdinand_ enabled _Napoleon_ to get himself chosen as
+arbiter; and having enticed the two contestants to _Bayonne_, he
+set them both aside, and gave the crown of Spain to his brother
+_Joseph_,--_Murat_, who had married Napoleon's sister
+_Caroline_, taking the throne of _Naples_. This high-handed
+proceeding roused the Spanish people to revolt. The officers of
+_Napoleon_ were several times defeated. A British force under
+_Wellington_--then _Sir Arthur Wellesley_--appeared in
+_Portugal_ to lend help to the national movement. A French fleet
+in _Cadiz_ was destroyed. _Napoleon_ invaded Spain with an
+overwhelming force, and established his brother at _Madrid_
+(Dec. 2, 1808). But the people still kept up a harassing guerilla
+war. From Spain _Napoleon_ was called away by the rising of
+_Austria_, which the events in Spain had once more moved to begin
+hostilities. Within a month from the beginning of the campaign, he
+again entered _Vienna_ as a victor (May 11, 1809). He suffered a
+reverse at _Aspern_; but in the desperate battle of _Wagram_,
+in which not far from three hundred thousand men took part, he was
+triumphant. Austria purchased peace by further cessions of territory,
+and by joining the Continental System. The brave _Tyrolese_ kept
+up the struggle with an heroic spirit; but at last _Hofer_, their
+leader, was captured and shot at _Mantua_ (1810).
+
+PIUS VII.--As _Pius VII_. refused to close his ports against
+England, and to ally himself with France, _Napoleon_ proclaimed
+(May, 1809) that the Papal States were annexed to his empire. The Pope,
+who had steadfastly resisted his attempts at coercion, excommunicated
+him. The pontiff was arrested, and conveyed to _Savona_, and
+afterwards to _France_.
+
+SWEDEN: BERNADOTTE.--Another ally in upholding the "Continental System"
+against England, Napoleon gained in Sweden, where one of his marshals,
+_Bernadotte_, had been chosen Crown Prince.
+
+Under _Adolf Frederic_ (1751-1771), a council of nobles usurped
+many of the functions of the king. A combined Russian and French party
+in Sweden was against him. His son, _Gustavus III_. (1771-1792),
+being supported by France, invaded Russian Finland, and, by the help of
+the Estates, reduced the power of the nobles, giving, however, to the
+Estates in the new constitution, the right to veto a project for
+offensive war. He was murdered in 1792. His son _Gustavus IV_.,
+who became of age in 1808, was a bitter opponent of _Napoleon_,
+whom he considered to be the beast of the Apocalypse
+(Rev. xiii. 1). After the Peace of _Tilsit_, he made war on
+Russia, and on Denmark, from which he sought to wrest Norway. The
+nobles and the army rose against him, and obliged him to abdicate
+(1809). His uncle, _Charles XIII_., became king. _Finland_
+was surrendered to Russia. The king having no children,
+_Bernadotte_ (1764-1844), a French marshal, made by
+_Napoleon_ Prince of Pontecorno, but who often showed himself
+independent in his relations to him, was elected Crown Prince of Sweden
+(1810). Sweden joined the Continental System.
+
+NAPOLEON'S DIVORCE AND MARRIAGE.--_Napoleon_, who was childless,
+in the hope of founding a dynasty on a sure basis procured a divorce
+from _Josephine_, and married _Maria Louisa_, the daughter
+of _Francis I_. of Austria. To the son who was born of this
+marriage he gave the sounding title of _King of Rome_, the old
+designation of the emperors-elect before their coronation.
+
+TORRES VEDRAS.--The first successful stand against the military
+supremacy of Bonaparte was made in _Spain_. _Wellington_
+divined the secret of the French victories, and devised the means of
+effectual resistance. In _Portugal_, between the _Tagus_ and
+the sea he fortified the position called _Torres Vedras_, which
+could be defended against superior forces. This he held against all the
+efforts of _Masséna_ to conquer and dislodge him. Deprived of the
+means of subsistence, the French suffered great losses and privations,
+and were obliged to retreat (May, 1811). Their method depended for
+success on the attaining of the desired result in a short time by swift
+operations.
+
+REACTION AGAINST NAPOLEON.--The campaign of _Wellington_ produced
+a strong moral effect in other parts of Europe. While _France_ was
+beginning to show signs of weariness with the endless war, and with the
+despotic government under which it was kept up, in _Germany_ a new
+spirit of patriotism was stirring in the hearts of the people. Under
+_Stein_, a great and patriotic minister, the Prussian system of
+civil administration was reorganized on a sound basis. The army was
+likewise reconstructed on the basis of universal military
+service. Serfdom was abolished and the old caste system, with its
+restrictions on land-holding, abandoned. A new Germany was slowly
+waking to life, and collecting its energies for the combat for
+freedom. The "Continental System" caused increasing
+irritation. _Louis Bonaparte_ abdicated his throne in
+_Holland_, rather than enforce its odious requirements (July,
+1810). The quarrel of _Napoleon_ with the Pope, and the
+indignities suffered by the pontiff, who lived for three years upon
+alms, added to the discontent which the emperor's commercial policy
+provoked, even in France.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V. FROM THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN (1812) TO THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA
+(1814-15).
+
+
+THE RUSSIAN CAMPAIGN--The circumstances narrated above did not prevent
+_Napoleon_ from the fatal mistake of invading _Russia_. The
+czar would not enforce the commercial restrictions. _Napoleon_
+refused to promise not to restore the kingdom of _Poland_. There
+were various other causes of mutual jealousy and
+coolness. _Sweden_, under _Bernadotte_, which had been forced
+to declare war against _England_ (1810), now joined
+_Russia_. _Austria_ and _Prussia_, in their state of
+practical vassalage, had to furnish military help to Napoleon. In June,
+1812, when he crossed the _Niemen_, he had brought together a
+force of five hundred and fifty thousand men. He had reinforcements
+from _Poland_, and might have had more had he not, from deference
+to Austria and Prussia, refused to restore the Polish kingdom. The
+Russians retreated as he advanced. _Barclay_, the Russian general,
+declined a battle, and destroyed whatever places could afford an
+advantage to the invader. At length, _Kutusoff_ took the command,
+and was compelled by the Russian feeling, against his will, to give
+battle. At _Borodino_, where there was immense slaughter on both
+sides, the Russians retired, but without disorder. When the French
+arrived at _Moscow_, they found an empty town, which was set on
+fire by accident or by Russians. The Czar refused to treat for
+peace. There was no alternative but to retreat (Oct. 19, 1812). The
+sufferings of the soldiers from cold and famine were terrible. The
+Russians availed themselves of every opportunity to harass the
+retreating force. When it reached the ruins of _Smolensk_, only
+forty thousand were left of more than a hundred thousand that had left
+Moscow. The army continued to dwindle. At _Smorgoni_,
+_Napoleon_ left _Murat_ in command, and hastened in disguise
+to Paris. The expedition cost the lives of not less than three hundred
+thousand men. This gigantic failure was due to the foiling by the
+Russians of Napoleon's habitual plan of forcing decisive battles by
+movements so rapid that his troops could subsist upon the country which
+they overran, and to the unexpected destruction of Moscow.
+
+THE GERMAN WAR OF LIBERATION: LEIPSIC.--In Germany, there now began the
+great _War of Liberation_. _York_--the commander of the
+Prussian contingent reluctantly furnished to _Napoleon_--went over
+to the Russians (Dec. 1812). During the first three months of 1813, all
+North Germany rose in arms. Heart-stirring appeals were issued by
+_Frederick William III_. to his people. He called for the
+formation of volunteer corps, and all young men capable of bearing arms
+responded with alacrity to the summons. Russia and Prussia formed a
+defensive alliance. Sweden made a treaty with England, and agreed to
+assist the allies. Napoleon's wonted success attended him at first in
+the encounter with the Russian and Prussian forces. He gained a victory
+at _Lützen_ (May 2), and another at _Bautzen_ (May 20,
+21). Austria sought to mediate, but Napoleon unwisely preferred
+war. Austria now, disregarding the family tie with Napoleon, was drawn
+by the current of German patriotism, as well as by self-interest, into
+the alliance against him. His imperious and arrogant domination was
+felt to be insupportable. But the circumstance that determined the
+course of Austria was the victory gained by _Wellington_ at
+Vittoria, in Spain, over the French under _Jourdan_ (June 21). The
+news of it turned the scale in the Austrian councils. The odds against
+Napoleon were now fearful, especially as his own army was largely
+composed of recruits who were hardly above the age of boys. He won one
+more triumph at _Dresden_ (Aug. 27), but this was his last victory
+on German soil. The allies avoided the errors which he had taught them
+to avoid, and succeeded in bringing their forces together, and in
+compelling Napoleon to fight at _Leipsic_. The allied armies
+numbered three hundred thousand, while the French force did not exceed
+a hundred and eighty thousand. The "battle of the nations" lasted for
+three days (Oct. 16, 18, 19), although the fighting was chiefly on the
+first and third. On the last day it continued for nine hours. The Saxon
+contingent abandoned the French on the field, and went over to the
+allies. The defeat of the French, as night approached, became a
+rout. Napoleon, with the remnant of his army, was driven to the
+Rhine. The battle of _Leipsic_ was really the decisive contest in
+the wars of Europe against Napoleon. From the defeat there, it was
+impossible for him to recover.
+
+FALL OF NAPOLEON: ELBA.--The members of the _Confederacy of the
+Rhine_ joined the allies. _Holland_ rose in revolt, and drove
+out the French officials. Even _France_ was exhausted and full of
+discontent. Meantime _Wellington_ defeated _Soult_ in the
+Pyrenees, and invaded France from that side. _Napoleon_ was bent
+on resistance, and by his superior skill succeeded in ousting the brave
+Prussian soldier, but inexpert strategist, Blücher, as well as the
+Austrian general _Schwartzenberg_ (Jan. and Feb. 1814). But the
+preponderance of numbers on the side of the allies was too great. Their
+bold decision to march on Paris secured their triumph. The city
+surrendered (March 30). _Napoleon_ had lost his hold on the ruling
+bodies. The senate, through the influence of the astute
+_Talleyrand_, once his minister, declared that he and his family
+had forfeited the throne. At _Fontainebleau_, he signed his
+abdication in favor of his son (April 6), but this condition was
+rejected. The small island of _Elba_ was given to him by the
+allies as a sovereign principality. After a pathetic farewell to his
+veteran Guard, he betook himself to his small dominion. _Louis
+XVIII_., the brother of _Louis XVI_., was placed on the throne
+of France. France, by the _Peace of Paris_ (May 30), was left with
+its ancient boundaries as they were before the Revolution slightly
+increased.
+
+THE CHARTER.--According to a promise which the king had given, he (June
+4, 1814) promulgated a constitutional CHARTER, a name borrowed from the
+Middle Ages when charters were granted to vassals. There was to be a
+legislature, with a house of peers or lords appointed by the king, and
+a chamber of deputies chosen by limited suffrage; the electors to be
+owners of property to a certain amount, and to be thirty years old. The
+king was to have the initiative in legislation. The Roman Catholic
+religion was declared to be the religion of the state, but liberty was
+given to dissenters. The right to make peace and war was given to the
+king, and also the right to issue ordinances necessary for the
+execution of the laws and the safety of the state. This last provision
+opened a door for arbitrary government, and paved the way for the
+downfall of the dynasty. The points of resemblance in the constitution
+to the English system were adapted to provoke a constant contrast with
+it, in respect to the degree of liberty actually secured and exercised
+by the people. The charter was dated from the nineteenth year of Louis
+XVIII., as if there had been no Republic or Empire.
+
+PIUS VII.--Pope _Pius VII_., who, after 1809, was a virtual
+prisoner at _Savona_, refused to comply with Napoleon's
+demands. He could not be moved to invest the bishops whom the emperor
+had appointed. This was a principal point in the dispute. Napoleon
+called a national council of French bishops (1811). In 1812 the Pope
+was taken to _Fontainebleau_, and treated by him with
+harshness. When the pontiff refused to give a full and final sanction
+to the proposed agreement, until he should be free to confer with his
+cardinals, he was treated with still greater severity. The fall of
+Napoleon set him free, and he entered Rome, May 24, 1814.
+
+CONGRESS OF VIENNA.--In September, 1814, the congress of Vienna met to
+readjust the map of Europe after the whirlwind of change and
+revolution. There were present the emperors of Russia and Austria, the
+kings of Prussia, Denmark, Bavaria, and Würtemberg, and a great number
+of German princes. _Castlereagh_, and later _Wellington_,
+represented England, and _Talleyrand_ was one of the
+representatives of France. The conferences were far from being
+harmonious. In particular, the claims of Russia upon Poland, and the
+claims of Prussia on Germany, threatened another war. While the
+debates, alternating with gay festivities, were still proceeding, the
+participants were startled by the news of the reappearance of
+_Napoleon_ in France.
+
+RETURN OF NAPOLEON FROM ELBA.--The new Bourbon rule was unpopular with
+the French. It was felt to be the effect and sign of national
+humiliation. The offensive conduct of the returned emigrant nobility,
+and measures looking towards a restoration of bygone abuses in
+government, fomented the disaffection. _Napoleon_, while
+apparently busy in laying out roads and canals, and regulating the
+affairs of his little kingdom, which was only sixty miles in
+circumference, kept himself well informed as to the state of public
+opinion in France. With a few hundred men of the Imperial Guard, he
+landed at _Cannes_ (March I, 1815), and was joined by one regiment
+after another which were sent out to crush him. _Ney_, one of the
+best of his marshals, was carried away by the common feeling, and went
+over to the side of his old commander. _Louis XVIII_. fled from
+Paris; and, on March 20, _Napoleon_ was again installed in the
+Tuileries.
+
+WATERLOO.--Napoleon offered to the country a more liberal constitution,
+but the Bourbons were more hated than he was trusted. He professed to
+the great powers his desire for peace, but they did not listen to these
+assurances. Each agreed to furnish an army of one hundred and eighty
+thousand men to serve against him. He put forth prodigious exertions to
+gather a force with which to meet the host of his enemies; and although
+he could appeal to no warm national feeling, such as had called into
+being the armies of the Revolution, he succeeded in bringing together a
+force of over one hundred thousand men. He decided not to wait for the
+attack, but to assail the two armies of _Blücher_ and
+_Wellington_ in Belgium. His plan was to attack them separately.
+_Blücher_ so far fell into the trap, that, in his eagerness to
+meet the detested foe, he offered battle to Napoleon at _Ligny_
+(June 16), and, after a desperate contest, was forced to retire from
+the field. On the same day, _Wellington_ so far checked _Ney_
+in his attack at _Quatre Bras_, that he could not strike the
+Prussians on the flank, as Napoleon had designed. Napoleon thought that
+the Prussians would not be able, after their defeat, at once to aid
+Wellington. He sent _Grouchy_, however, with thirty-four thousand
+men, to observe them and inflict on them a final blow. On the forenoon
+of June 18, he himself attacked the British forces at
+_Waterloo_. The French got possession of _La Haye Sainte_, a
+farmhouse in front of Wellington's center, the scene of a bloody
+contest; but all their charges on Wellington's main line were met and
+repelled by the immovable squares of the British infantry. In the
+afternoon Napoleon's right began to be assailed by the Prussians; and
+finding, at seven o'clock, that they were coming in great force, he
+ordered a charge of the Imperial Guard on Wellington's forces. After a
+fierce struggle, the Guard was compelled to recoil and retire. The
+Prussians, piercing the right flank of the French army, turned its
+defeat into a rout. _Grouchy_ was at _Wavre_, fighting the
+Prussian corps of _Thielmann_, which he seems to have mistaken for
+the entire Prussian army.
+
+ABDICATION OF NAPOLEON: ST. HELENA.--On the 22nd of June
+_Napoleon_ again abdicated in favor of his son. _Carnot_ was
+for a dictatorship. The French Assembly, with _La Fayette_ at its
+head, insisted on the abdication. On July 7 _Blücher_ and
+_Wellington_ entered Paris. Napoleon fled to _Rochefort_,
+and, finding himself unable to escape to America, surrendered to the
+British admiral, and was taken on board the war-ship
+_Bellerophon_.  _Louis XVIII_. was brought back to
+Paris. _Napoleon_, by the agreement of the allies, was conveyed to
+the island of _St. Helena_, where he remained, a fretful captive,
+until his death (May 5, 1821). _Ney_ escaped, but was captured,
+condemned, and shot (Dec. 7, 1815). France engaged to pay a war
+indemnity of seven hundred million francs. Its boundaries were fixed as
+at 1790.
+
+CHARACTER OF NAPOLEON.--Respecting certain traits of Napoleon, there is
+no dispute. His military genius all allow, although his daring was
+sometimes over-daring; and there are critics who profess to discern,
+after the beginning of the Russian campaign, and especially in the last
+contest in Belgium, signs of a decline in his almost superhuman
+vigilance and energy. Yet all must admit "that transcendent geometrical
+faculty," as _Sainte-Beuve_ calls it, "which characterized
+Napoleon, and which that powerful genius applied to war with the same
+ease and the same aptitude that Monge [a great French mathematician]
+applied it to other subjects." No general ever had greater power to
+fascinate soldiers, and secure their devotion to him. One reason was,
+that he recognized and rewarded merit wherever he saw it. His
+intellectual movements were as much swifter than the ordinary as his
+marches were more rapid than those to which armies had been
+accustomed. For civil organization and administration he had rare
+talents, and in many directions enlightened views. Europe owes much to
+his innovations in this sphere. He was not incapable of warm personal
+attachments; as was manifested, for example, in his grief over
+_Duroc_, the favorite general, who fell at _Bautzen_. But an
+insatiable appetite for war, and, still more, a conviction, which he
+sometimes confessed, that he could retain and fortify his authority
+only by dazzling France, and continuing to astonish mankind by
+brilliant achievements, drove him forward on a path of aggression and
+bloodshed. He had an unpitying nature: he was careless of human
+suffering. Early in his career, in Italy, he ordered a needless and
+useless attack on the outposts of the enemy, "to treat a lady to a
+sight of real war." He did not shrink from ordering two thousand
+prisoners at _Jaffa_ to be shot. He shocked all Germany by causing
+_Palm_, a bookseller of Nuremberg, to be shot for refusing to tell
+the name of the author of a publication offensive to him. He frequently
+displayed a petty rancor,--as, for example, in leaving a legacy in his
+will to the man who was accused of an attempt to assassinate the
+_Duke of Wellington_. His violence of temper, as in the murder of
+the _Duke d'Enghien_, hurried him into acts that were not less
+impolitic than criminal. His tyrannical will would brook no
+contradiction, even in matters o£ trifling importance. He broke away
+from engagements when he thought it advantageous to do so. It is not an
+injustice to say, that he was habitually untruthful: his bulletins were
+disfigured by flagrant falsehoods, as well as gross exaggerations. In a
+letter to _Talleyrand_ from Italy (Oct. 17, 1797) he says, "This
+is history: what I say in my proclamations and speeches is a romance."
+With his wonderful intellectual powers, inexhaustible energy, and
+amazing achievements, he never quite loses the characteristic spirit of
+an adventurer. He is haunted by a secret consciousness that this
+character belongs to him.
+
+  The judgment Of an adversary must be taken with allowance; but
+  _Wellington_ spoke at least without passion when he said,
+  "Bonaparte's whole life--civil, political, and military--was a
+  fraud. There was not a transaction, great or small, in which lying
+  and fraud were not introduced." His "foreign policy was force and
+  menace, aided by fraud and corruption."--Croker's Correspondence,
+  etc., vol. ii. p. 86.
+
+THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA.--The Congress of Vienna was dissolved in June,
+1815. Its Acts were finally signed by the five great powers,--Austria,
+France, Great Britain, Prussia, and Russia,--and by Spain, Portugal,
+and Sweden. The Austrian and Prussian monarchies were restored. Austria
+received back _Venice_ with _Milan_,--forming the subject
+Lombardo-Venetian kingdom,--besides receiving the _Illyrian
+provinces_ and the _Tyrol_. The old possessions of Prussia were
+restored. She received the _Rhenish provinces_, a part of the
+duchy of Warsaw (_Posen_), and a great part of Saxony, besides
+other important additions. Holland and Belgium were formed into the one
+kingdom of the Netherlands, which had also a part of _Luxemburg_,
+and was ruled by the stadt-holder _William I_. The German
+Confederacy was instituted, with thirty-nine sovereign states,
+including the four free cities,--Austria being the presiding state. The
+greater part of the _duchy of Warsaw_ fell to Russia, under the
+name of the Kingdom of Poland. Sweden retained _Norway_, which,
+however, kept its own free constitution; and Denmark acquired
+_Lauenburg_. England had vastly enlarged her colonial
+possessions. The present Swiss Confederation, consisting of twenty-two
+cantons, was established; three new cantons having been added to the
+former nineteen. The old dynasties were restored in Spain, in Tuscany,
+Modena, and the Papal States, in Naples, and in Sardinia. To Sardinia,
+_Genoa_, against its will, was annexed.
+
+CHRONOLOGICAL STATEMENT.--The _First Coalition_ was formed in
+1793, when all Europe, except Sweden, Denmark, Tuscany, Switzerland,
+Venice, and Genoa, and Turkey, joined against France. In 1792 France
+had been at war with Austria and Prussia. In 1795 the coalition was
+broken: Prussia and Spain made peace with France. In 1797 Austria also
+concluded peace with France (the Peace of _Campo'Formio_). In 1798
+the Second Coalition was formed, in which Turkey was included. Prussia
+and Spain were not parties to it. The Peace of Amiens, made with
+England (1802), ended the contest following it. The Third Coalition was
+formed in 1805, by England, Russia, Austria, and Sweden. Peace was
+concluded between Austria and France (Dec. 26, 1805). War followed in
+1806-7, between France on one side, and Prussia and Russia on the
+other. These allies, with England, made a _Fourth Coalition_. In
+1807 France and Russia were allies. The rupture between Austria and
+France in 1809 gave rise to what is often called the _Fifth
+Coalition_. In 1813 the _Sixth Coalition_, made up, after the
+accession of Austria, of all the principal powers, was in arms against
+France. On March 25, 1815, after _Napoleon's_ return from Elba,
+the powers again declared war against him. As there was a fresh treaty,
+this may be called a _Seventh Coalition_.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. AMERICAN HISTORY IN THIS PERIOD (1789-1815).
+
+
+THE TWO PARTIES.--The cabinet of _Washington_ consisted of four
+members. The secretary of the treasury was _Alexander Hamilton_ of
+New York. The secretary of state was _Thomas Jefferson_ of
+Virginia. The seat of government was placed at _Philadelphia_; but
+in 1800 it was removed to the _District of Columbia_, which was
+ceded for the purpose by Virginia and Maryland. Almost from the
+beginning, there were two political parties. The _Federalists_
+were made up of those who had been most in favor of the new
+Constitution, and desired to build up a strong central
+government. Accordingly they advocated a liberal construction of the
+Constitution as regards the extent of federal authority. They cherished
+the traditional spirit of the English laws and English political
+institutions. _Washington_ and _John Adams_ belonged to this
+class, and _Hamilton_ was their most active leader. The
+_Anti-Federalists_, of whom _Jefferson_ was the chief, were
+for a careful guarding of the rights of the States, and a strict
+interpretation of the powers allotted to the General Government. They
+had more sympathy with the political ideas at that time fast coming
+into vogue in France. They had a warm faith in the capacity of the mass
+of the people for self-government and for suffrage. They were called
+_Republicans_, and were sometimes styled _Democrats_.
+
+HAMILTON'S MEASURES: THE CONFLICT OF PARTIES.--_Hamilton_ proposed
+and carried highly important measures for the restoration of public
+credit and for the revival of industry and commerce. Under his
+leadership, the debts of the old confederacy, and the debts of the
+separate States which they had incurred in the common defense, were
+assumed. To provide revenue, a protective tariff and a system of
+internal taxation were ordained. A national bank was incorporated
+(1791), and a mint was established at _Philadelphia_. These
+measures had a great effect at home, and made a strong impression
+favorable to the new government abroad; but they were opposed by the
+_Anti-Federalists_ as an unwarrantable assumption of power by the
+General Government. The excise on domestic spirits provoked an
+insurrection, called "the Whisky Rebellion," in _Western
+Pennsylvania_, which was put down by the militia. As the French
+Revolution advanced from step to step, the division of parties in
+America became more marked, and their mutual hostility more intense. At
+first all were in sympathy with France. _La Fayette_ sent the key
+of the fallen Bastille as a gift to _Washington_. But the
+Federalists were determined to maintain a strict neutrality in the
+conflict between France and England. As the Revolution proceeded, a
+strong antipathy was awakened in America to the radical theories, as
+well as to the bloody deeds, of its promoters. This was enhanced by the
+strenuous efforts of the French Republic, aided by the
+Anti-Federalists, to induce the United States to take an active part in
+the war, on the side of France. _Genet_, the French minister,
+undertook to fit out privateers in _Charleston_. Washington issued
+a proclamation of neutrality (1793), which was followed by a Neutrality
+Act of Congress (1794). When _Genet_ had the effrontery to appeal
+from the President to the people, at the demand of _Washington_ he
+was recalled.
+
+JAY'S TREATY.--The contest of parties reached its climax in connection
+with Jay's Treaty with Great Britain (1794),--a treaty negotiated by
+_John Jay_, chief justice, whom _Washington_ had sent as
+envoy to London. There were mutual grounds of complaint between the two
+countries. The British had not surrendered the Western military posts,
+and were in the habit of "impressing seamen." 'This last practice was
+founded on the claim that a British subject can never become the
+subject of another country, and that, moreover, his military service
+may be always called for by his sovereign. When almost all Europe was
+at war, the carrying trade naturally fell, to a large extent, into
+American hands; hence, it was alleged, many English sailors deserted to
+get employment in American ships. The British claimed and exercised the
+right to visit foreign vessels, and to take from their decks the
+sailors who were asserted to be British subjects. The English, on their
+part, complained that the treaty stipulations as to debts due in
+America to British subjects had not been observed. Jay's Treaty
+provided for the giving-up of the Western posts, according to the
+previous stipulation; but said nothing respecting the right of
+impressment, which the British at that time would never have consented
+to relinquish. It was alleged, also, that in other features the treaty
+favored England unwarrantably, and unfairly in relation to France. It
+encountered violent opposition from the Republicans; but it was
+approved by _Washington_, and the legislative measures for
+carrying it out were passed in the House of Representatives by a
+slender majority, obtained through the eloquence of _Fisher Ames_,
+a member from Massachusetts.
+
+NEW STATES: INVENTIONS.--According to the census of 1790, there were
+somewhat less than four millions of people in the United
+States. _Virginia_ was the most populous State; next to Virginia
+stood _Pennsylvania_, then _North Carolina_, and, fourth in
+order, _Massachusetts_. A little more than one-fifth of the
+population were negro slaves. _Vermont_, the territory of which
+had been claimed by both New York and New Hampshire, was the first new
+State admitted to the Union (1791). A genius for mechanical invention
+early manifested itself in the country. _Eli Whitney_ invented the
+cotton-gin (1792), for separating the seed from the fiber of the
+cotton-plant,--a machine which indirectly lent a powerful impulse to
+the production of cotton. In 1788 _John Fitch_ was running a
+steamboat on the Delaware River; but the construction of a steamboat
+with side-paddles was due to the inventive talent of _Robert
+Fulton_ (1807). Emigration from the Atlantic border to the West took
+three principal routes,--one from New England and New York, through the
+valley of the Mohawk; the second, through the passes of the
+Alleghanies; and the third, across the Blue Ridge to the rivers flowing
+from the south into the Ohio. In 1792 _Kentucky_, settled mainly
+by emigrants over the last-mentioned path, was made a State. The next
+State to be admitted was _Tennessee_ (1796). The new settlers
+carried into the West the spirit and institutions of the several
+communities which they had left. South of the Ohio, negro slavery was
+introduced. A treaty with Spain (in 1795) secured the free navigation
+of the Mississippi.
+
+WASHINGTON'S RETIREMENT AND DEATH.--_Washington_ himself was not
+exempt from bitter partisan attack in public prints. On his retirement
+from office, he prepared, with the assistance of _Hamilton_, a
+Farewell Address to the people, in which he exhorted them to maintain
+the Union as the only safeguard of liberty, and warned them against
+"entangling alliances" with European powers. The deep and universal
+sorrow which was felt when he died (1799) was a tribute as exalted as
+any nation ever paid to a fallen hero and benefactor.
+
+ADAMS: RUPTURE OF THE FEDERAL PARTY.--_John Adams_, a Federalist,
+succeeded _Washington_ as president; and _Jefferson_ became
+vice-president (1797). The French had seized a large number of American
+vessels, on the pretense that they were affording aid to England. In
+order, if possible, to prevent war, the President sent out a special
+mission to France; but the commissioners--_Pinckney_,
+_Gerry_, and _Marshall_--were told by the Directory that they
+must pay money as a bribe before they could be received, and were
+finally ordered to quit the country (1797). The phrase of
+_Pinckney_, "Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute,"
+expressed the universal feeling. The report of the insulted envoys
+roused the indignation of the American people, and moved Congress to
+prepare for war. _Washington_ was made general of all the forces
+to be raised, and he appointed _Hamilton_ to be second in
+command. Hostilities had really commenced; the Federalists were eager
+for a declaration of war; but President _Adams_, without the
+knowledge of his cabinet, suddenly nominated to the senate another
+ambassador to France. He had previously become assured that such a
+messenger would be well received. _Napoleon_ having come into
+power, a treaty was concluded with him (1800). The course of the
+President, however, gave mortal offense to the adherents of
+_Hamilton_, and fatally divided the Federal party. Hamilton and
+his supporters became wholly alienated from _Adams_, so that the
+triumph of the Republicans was rendered certain.
+
+"RESOLUTIONS OF '98."--The violence of the attacks upon the
+administration, which were made partly by foreign emissaries, had
+caused the Federalists (1798) to pass the _alien_ and _sedition
+laws_. The first authorized the President to order out of the
+country aliens who were conspiring against its peace. Its operation was
+limited to two years. The second punished seditious libels upon the
+government with fine and imprisonment. These acts provoked a storm of
+opposition. Under the auspices of _Jefferson_, and of
+_Madison_, who was now one of his supporters, the _Virginia_
+and _Kentucky Resolutions_ of 1798-99 were passed by the
+Legislatures of those States. These resolves affirmed the right of a
+State to judge of the constitutionality and validity of an Act of
+Congress. They were interpreted as an assertion of the extreme doctrine
+of State rights.
+
+PURCHASE OF LOUISIANA.--In 1800 Jefferson was elected to the
+presidency, and _Aaron Burr_, a scheming politician of the
+Republican school, was made vice-president.
+
+At that time, and until the amendment of the Constitution (1804), the
+electors voted for two persons, without designating either for the
+presidency or the vice-presidency. The candidate having the highest
+number of votes became president. As Jefferson and Burr had an equal
+number, the choice between them for the highest office was made by the
+House of Representatives.
+
+The obnoxious laws of the preceding administration disappeared with
+it. One of the most important events under _Jefferson's_
+administration was the purchase of _Louisiana_ from France, which
+had acquired it from Spain. _Napoleon_ knew that he could not keep
+it from falling into the hands of England, and readily sold it for
+fifteen millions of dollars. Thereby the territory of the United States
+was doubled in its extent. The whole region between the Mississippi and
+the Rocky Mountains, with New Orleans, was added to the country,
+together with whatever claim France had to _West Florida, Texas_,
+and the district west of the Rocky Mountains. _Ohio_, composed of
+the south-eastern portion of the northwest territory, was admitted to
+the Union in 1803.
+
+In the first fifteen years after the government was organized, there
+are four things that affected powerfully the character and career of
+the United States. The first was the influence of _Washington_ in
+inspiring attachment to the Union. The second was the genius of
+_Hamilton_ in creating an efficient administration of the new
+civil polity. The third was the democratic political tendency fostered
+by _Jefferson_. The fourth was the vast expansion of the national
+territory by the Louisiana Purchase, insuring the extension of the
+_Union_, and preventing the rise of rival political communities in
+its neighborhood.
+
+WAR WITH THE ALGERINES.--The pirates of _Algiers, Morocco_, and
+the other Barbary States, demanded tribute of American vessels on the
+Mediterranean. The first exploits of the navy of the United States were
+in combats with these marauders (1801-5). _Decatur_ performed the
+exploit of burning in the harbor of _Tripoli_ the American ship
+_Philadelphia_, which the Tripolitans had captured
+(1804). _Derne_ was captured, and _Tripoli_
+bombarded. Finally a treaty put an end to the exaction of tribute
+(1805).
+
+An event that deeply moved the whole country was the killing of
+_Hamilton_ by _Burr_ in a duel (1804). _Burr_ was
+afterwards charged with an intention to form a new government on the
+south-western borders of the United States. He was tried for treason
+(1807), and not convicted, although many have believed him to be
+guilty.
+
+CAUSES OF THE WAR OF 18l2-15.--The great European wars brought the
+United States into serious difficulties, principally in regard to
+questions relating to commerce. Attempts were made by the European
+nations to establish blockades by mere enactment, without actual and
+sufficient occupation of the ports which were declared to be
+closed. The tendency of the British _Orders in council_, and of
+Napoleon's _Berlin_ and _Milan Decrees_ (p. 528), was "to
+grind to pieces the few remaining neutral powers." These were in effect
+cut off from trade with both Continental and English ports by the
+ordinances of one or the other of the two belligerents, the penalty
+being the confiscation of the vessels employed in such traffic. Such
+were the restrictions upon neutrals, that a great number of American
+ships were seized and confiscated by English and French cruisers. In
+addition to these grievances, the _Leander_, a British ship,
+exercised the pretended right of impressment by firing on an American
+trading-sloop (1806); and in like manner another British vessel, the
+_Leopard_, fired on the frigate Chesapeake, which was not prepared
+for resistance, and took four men from its crew (June 22, 1807). In
+retaliation, _Jefferson_ ordered all British ships of war to leave
+the coast of the United States. Then followed the _Embargo_,
+embracing a succession of enactments of Congress, which forbade
+American vessels to leave the harbors of the United States for Europe,
+and forbade European vessels to land cargoes in American ports. The
+result of this measure was to smite American commerce with an utter
+paralysis. The ships rotted at the wharves. The unpopularity of the
+Embargo, especially in the Eastern commercial States, was such that in
+_Jefferson's_ second term it was repealed. It was followed (1809)
+by the _Non-Intercourse Act_, prohibiting commerce with France and
+England. The British _Orders in Council_ were then, in a measure,
+relaxed, as was the practical enforcement against our vessels of the
+_Berlin Decree_. In 1812, the French rescinded their obnoxious
+decrees; and the English immediately took the same step, but not soon
+enough to prevent a war with the United States.
+
+EVENTS OF THE WAR IN 1812 AND 1813.-_James Madison_, a wise and
+moderate statesman of the Republican party, became president in
+1809. He was personally averse to engaging in war with Great Britain;
+but the exasperation of a large part of the country, and the pressure
+of the younger leaders of his party,--_Calhoun, Clay_, and
+_Lowndes_,--moved him to a reluctant consent. The war, which was
+declared in 1812, was bitterly opposed in the New-England States, where
+the strength of the Federalists chiefly lay. By them the real motive of
+it was considered to be partiality for France. The treasury was nearly
+empty; there were but few ships of war, and only a small land force of
+about ten thousand men, made up in part of raw recruits. Before this
+time, the North-western Indians, under _Tecumseh_, whom the
+British were suspected of inciting to war, had been defeated at
+_Tippecanoe_ (1811), by _William Henry Harrison_, governor of
+Indiana. The war with England opened inauspiciously with the surrender
+of Detroit by Gen. _William Hull_ to Gen. _Brock_ (Aug. 16,
+1812), and an unsuccessful attempt to invade Canada at
+_Queenstown_. On the sea, however, the Americans had successes
+which filled them with pride and exultation. Captain _Isaac Hull_,
+of the frigate è_Constitution_, captured the British frigate
+_Guerrière_, and brought his prisoners to Boston. _Decatur_,
+captain of the _United States_, brought the _Macedonian_ as a
+prize into the harbor of New York. The _Constitution_ destroyed
+the _Java_; but the _Chesapeake_, whose captain was killed,
+surrendered to the _Shannon_. Privateers were fitted out, which
+captured several hundreds of British ships and several thousands of
+prisoners. In 1813 _Perry_ defeated the English fleet on Lake
+Erie. His victory gave the Americans the command of Lake Erie and Lake
+Michigan. _Harrison_ defeated the British and Indians,--who had
+been driven to abandon Michigan,--near the River _Thames_ in
+Canada. Except on the Lakes the navy was successful only in single ship
+actions. The Americans had taken possession of _Mobile_, which
+they as well as the Spanish claimed; but the _Creek Indians_ were
+incited by the Spaniards to engage in hostilities. Forces from
+Tennessee, under _Andrew Jackson_, and troops from Georgia and
+Mississippi, fought the Creeks with success.
+
+THE WAR IN 1814-15.--In 1814 a third attempt of the Americans under
+Gen. _Brown_, to invade Canada, produced no decisive result. There
+was hard fighting. The British were routed at _Chippewa_; and they
+were repulsed at _Lundy's Lane_, opposite Niagara Falls, by
+Lieut. (afterwards General) _Winfield Scott_. _Napoleon_ had
+now been defeated; and the English sent twelve thousand troops, who had
+served under _Wellington_ in Spain, to Canada, to invade the
+United States from the north, while another army was to make an
+invasion by way of _New Orleans_. A fleet under Admiral
+_Cockburn_ sailed up the Potomac, and burned the Capitol and other
+public buildings at _Washington_ (Aug. 24, 1814). An attack was
+made on _Baltimore_ by a British fleet, but was bravely
+repelled. The defeat of the British fleet near _Plattsburg_, on
+_Lake Champlain_, by Commodore _Macdonough_ (Sept. 11, 1814),
+resulted in the retreat of the British army, which was besieging that
+place, to Canada. New Orleans was defended by General
+_Jackson_. The British under _Pakenham_ and _Gibbs_
+attacked his works, but were defeated and withdrew (Jan. 8, 1815). The
+town was protected from the approach of the English fleet by the
+fort. Before the battle, peace had been concluded, but the news had not
+reached this country.
+
+THE HARTFORD CONVENTION.--The antagonism to the war in the New England
+States found expression in the call of a _convention_ at
+_Hartford_, where their delegates met (Dec. 15, 1814). These
+States complained, that while their commerce and fisheries were ruined,
+there was no protection afforded to their sea-coast. _Stonington_
+in Connecticut had been bombarded, and _Castine_ in Maine had been
+captured. They denied, also, that the General Government had the power
+over the State militia which it claimed. For these and other
+grievances, they sought for a remedy "not repugnant to their
+obligations as members of the Union." They declared that measures of
+the General Government which are palpable violations of the
+Constitution are void, and that the States injuriously affected might
+severally protect their citizens from the operation of them, by such
+means as the several States should judge it wise to adopt; but they
+disavowed the right or intent to break up the Union. The effect of the
+convention was to bring great popular discredit on the Federalists, and
+to seal their doom as a distinct party.
+
+TREATY OF PEACE: ALGIERS.--In the _Treaty of Ghent_ (Dec. 24,
+1814), provisions were made for defining boundaries as settled by
+previous treaties, and an engagement was made on both sides to suppress
+the slave-trade; but no mention was made of maritime rights and the
+impressment of seamen. This last practice was, however, discontinued,
+although it was never renounced. The war left the disputes that caused
+it just where they were. Many then and since have regarded it as really
+undertaken by the dominant party in the United States, in order to help
+one of the belligerents in the great struggle then going forward
+between England and France. Whether this view be just, or not, it is
+certain that the war imparted to Americans the consciousness of power
+and nationality. The connection between America and Great Britain was
+broken off at the Revolution, because, as _Turgot_ once said,
+colonies are like fruits which only stay on the tree until they are
+ripe. But the conflict was not over at the conclusion of the Peace of
+1783. _Bancroft_ has called the war of 1812-15 "the second war of
+independence." Nothing lent it this character so much as the naval
+victories won by the United States, which gave them a standing among
+the nations. In 1815 a squadron under _Decatur_ was sent to
+_Algiers_, and the Barbary States were compelled to give up by
+treaties all their demands.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. LITERATURE, ART, AND SCIENCE (1789-1815).
+
+
+NEW SPIRIT IN LITERATURE.--In the latter part of the eighteenth and the
+early part of the nineteenth centuries, literature broke away from the
+artificial rules and the one-sided intellectual tone of the "classical"
+school,--that school which had prevailed through the influence of the
+French writers of the age of _Louis XIV._ The new era was marked
+by more spontaneity, and a return to nature, and by a more free rein
+given to imagination and feeling. "Romanticism," a general designation
+of the results of this new movement as contrasted with the "classical"
+period, sometimes ran out into extravagances of sentiment, and an
+exaggerated relish for the mediaeval spirit.
+
+WRITERS IN ITALY AND IN FRANCE.--In Italy, there were few writers of
+distinction. _Monti_ (1754-1828) was a poet full of harmony and
+elegance, a follower, but with unequal steps, of
+_Alfieri_. Another of the same school is the patriotic poet,
+_Ugo Foscolo_ (1778-1827), a master of his native tongue. The
+poems of _Pindemonte_ (1753-1828) are graceful and
+pathetic. _Leopardi_ (1798-1837) mingles sublimity with pathos. Of
+the Italian historians of this period, _Botta_ (1766-1837), who
+published a history of the American Revolution, and histories of Italy,
+is a clear writer, with a talent for vivid description. In France,
+_Chateaubriand_ (1768-1848), who figured both in political life
+and as a prolific and brilliant author, by his _Genius of
+Christianity_ and many other productions gained great
+celebrity,--more, however, by charms of style and sentiment, than by
+weight of matter. Madame _de Staël_ (1766-1817) was the daughter
+of _Necker_. Between her and _Napoleon_ there was a mutual
+hostility. She wrote _Corinne, Delphine_,--"in which she idealizes
+herself,"--a work on _Germany_, and various other productions. She
+was versatile, vigorous in thought, and humane in her temper and
+spirit. In philosophy, a believing and spiritual school, in opposition
+to materialism, was founded by _Maine de Biran_ (1766-1824),
+_Royer-Collard_ (1763-1846), and _Benjamin Constant_. _De
+Maistre_ (1754-1821) wrote ably on the side of authority and of the
+Catholic Church.
+
+ENGLISH POETRY.--Literature in England, especially in the department of
+poetry, casting off the trammels of the classical school, in which
+_Dryden_ and _Pope_ were foremost, entered on a new and
+splendid era. Whether it dwelt on external nature or human passions and
+experiences, it appealed to sensibility. It was no more exclusively, or
+in the main, an address to the understanding. _Cowper_ (1731-1800)
+set the example of genuine naturalness, and of interest in nature and
+in every-day life. _Robert Burns_, a Scottish peasant (1759-1796),
+by his wonderful union of tenderness, passion, and humor, with poetic
+fancy and simplicity of diction, was more than the poet of a single
+nation. _Wordsworth_ (1770-1850) blended in his poems a delight in
+rural and mountain scenery, with a deep vein of pensive thought and
+sentiment. If he wrote dull pages, even the severest critics allow that
+in _The Excursion_ there are most beautiful "oases in the desert;"
+while in such poems as the _Ode on the Power of Sound_, the
+_Intimations of Immortality from the Recollections of Childhood_,
+and _Laodamia_, there are passages not excelled since Milton. A
+more sustained fervor of feeling and imagination belonged to
+_Byron_ (1788-1824), who, notwithstanding his morbid egotism and
+offenses against morality, combined passion with beauty, and was never
+dull. _Walter Scott_ (1771-1832) exhibited in his narrative poems
+the spirit of the romantic school, with none of its sentimentality or
+extravagance. _Coleridge_ (1772-1834), the author of
+_Christabel_ and _The Ancient Mariner_, was a highly original
+poet, as well as a philosopher. _Southey_ (1774-1843), with less
+genius, was a man of letters, prolific both in verse and in
+prose. _Shelley_ and _Keats_ had a much higher gift of
+imagination. _Campbell, Rogers_, and _Moore_ are names of
+distinction, although less illustrious than those of _Wordsworth_
+and _Coleridge_, _Scott_ and _Byron_. _Walter Savage
+Landor_ (1775-1864), a poet and the author of _Imaginary
+Conversations_, and other prose writings, was master of a style of
+extraordinary power and purity.
+
+ENGLISH PROSE WRITERS.--In novel-writing, Miss _Austen_, Miss
+_Porter_, and Miss _Edgeworth_ preceded _Walter
+Scott_. _Waverley_, the first in the series of _Scott's_
+novels, appeared anonymously in 1814. In 1802 the _Edinburgh
+Review_, the first of the noted critical quarterlies, began its
+existence, under the editorship of _Francis Jeffrey_, and numbered
+among its writers _Brougham, Sydney Smith_, and _Sir James
+Mackintosh_. In 1809 the _Quarterly Review_, the organ of the
+Tories as the Edinburgh Review represented the Whigs, began, with
+_Gifford_ for its editor. Among the essayists of that time, in a
+lighter vein, were _John Wilson_ ("Christopher North"), poet and
+critic in one; and the genial humorist, the friend of Wordsworth and
+Coleridge, _Charles Lamb_. _John Foster_ (1770-1843) was an
+original essayist on grave themes. In philosophy, _Dugald Stewart_
+(1753-1828), a clear and fluent expositor, and _Thomas Brown_
+(1778-1821), kept up the reputation of the Scottish school founded by
+_Reid_. _Burke, Alison_, and _Jeffrey_ wrote on beauty,
+and on the taste for the beautiful. _Mackintosh_, a statesman of
+liberal opinions, wrote on ethics. _Coleridge_, inspired by the
+German thinkers _Kant_ and _Schelling_, through his
+philosophical fragments and theological essays did much to create a new
+current in English philosophical and religious thought. _Jeremy
+Bentham_ (1748-1832) was less eminent as a metaphysician than as a
+contributor, through his writings, to legislative reform.
+
+AMERICAN WRITERS.--In America, the political writings of _Adams,
+Jefferson, Hamilton, Jay, Madison, Marshall_, and _Ames_, have
+a permanent value. Their letters and the letters of _Washington_
+are written in clear and manly English. _Lindley Murray_
+(1745-1826) published (1795) an _English Grammar_, which
+superseded all others. In theology, there were a number of vigorous
+thinkers and writers, such as the younger President _Edwards, Samuel
+Hopkins, Bellamy, Emmons, J. M. Mason_, and _Dwight_. Dwight's
+System of Theology was much read in England and
+Scotland. Belles-lettres literature in America was in its
+infancy. There was a triad of poets,--_Trumbull_, a humorous
+writer (1750-1831), _Joel Barlow_ (1755-1812), and _Dwight_
+(1752-1817); all of them survivors of the school of _Pope_. Their
+patriotic feeling was their chief merit, but _Barlow_ and
+_Dwight_ each wrote one excellent hymn.
+
+GERMAN AUTHORS.--One of the most versatile and stimulating of German
+writers was _Herder_ (1744-1803). Full of imagination and spirit,
+he made his quickening influence felt as a theologian, critic,
+philosopher, and philologist. His name is in some measure eclipsed by
+the fame of his two great associates at Weimar, _Goethe_
+(1749-1832) and _Schiller_ (1759-1805). By the universality of his
+genius, which was equally exalted in the sphere of criticism and of
+original production, Goethe is, by common consent, the foremost of
+German authors. His dramas, especially _Tasso_, _Egmont_, and
+_Faust_, and his pastoral epic, _Hermann and Dorothea_, are
+the most celebrated of his poems; but many of his minor pieces are
+marked by exquisite harmony and beauty. _Schiller_, with less
+repose and a less profound artistic feeling, yet from his humane
+impulses and fire of emotion stands closer to the popular
+heart. _Körner_ (1791-1813), and _Arndt_ (1769-1860), the
+author of the song, "Where is the German's Fatherland," were patriotic
+lyrists of high merit. _Uhland_ (1787-1862) is a ballad-writer,
+not surpassed in this species of composition by any of his
+contemporaries. The "Romantic School," with its predilection for the
+Middle Ages, included _Novalis_, _Tieck_, and also the two
+brothers _Schlegel_, who were critics rather than poets. One of
+the most unique and original of the German writers was _Jean Paul
+Richter_ (1763-1825), essentially a philosopher and moralist, yet
+with a pervading element of humor and pathos.
+
+GERMAN PHILOSOPHY.--In philosophy, the first name in the order of time
+and of merit is that of _Immanuel Kant_ (1724-1804). The
+_Critique of Pure Reason_ is the most important of his
+productions. He showed, against _Hume_, that the ideas of cause,
+substance, self, etc., are not products of imagination, or due to a
+mere custom of thought, but are from within, and are _necessary_
+and _universal_. In the _Critique of the Practical Reason_ he
+found the real basis of faith in God, free-will, and immortality, in
+our moral nature. On all the topics which he treated, he was both
+earnest and profound. On the basis of a portion of his teaching,
+subsequent speculative philosophers reared a system of idealism and
+pantheism. Of these, the most celebrated are _Fichte_ (1762-1814),
+who held that the world external to the mind has no existence;
+_Schelling_ (1775-1854), who taught that nature and mind are at
+bottom one and the same substance, in different manifestations; and
+_Hegel_ (1770-1831), who resolved all being into a realm of ideas,
+a self-existent and self-developing thought-world.
+
+Among the numerous writers in other departments in this period, the
+brothers _Alexander von Humboldt_ and _William von Humboldt_
+were eminent,--the former in natural science and as an explorer; the
+latter in political sciences, criticism and philology.
+
+PAINTING AND SCULPTURE.--In Italy, a great sculptor--the greatest since
+_Michael Angelo_--appeared in the person of _Canova_
+(1757-1822); who, however, was equaled by an Englishman, _John
+Flaxman_ (1755-1826). An eminent follower of _Canova_ was
+_Thorwaldsen_ (1770-1844), a Dane. _Dannecker_, a German
+sculptor (1758-1844), excelled in portrait statues. Another German
+sculptor, the founder of a school, was _Rauch_ (1774-1857), whose
+statues are faithful, yet idealized, likenesses. A famous French
+painter in this period was _David_, whose pictures, in the classic
+style, lack force and warmth. Many of his scholars attained to high
+proficiency in the art. _Horace Vernet_ (1789-1863) and _Paul
+Delaroche_ (1797-1856) chose their subjects from modern European
+history. The modern German school of painting was founded by
+_Overbeck, Von Schadow_, and _Cornelius_. The greatest
+English painter after _Hogarth_ was _Sir Joshua Reynolds_
+(1723-1792), whose portraits have seldom, if ever, been
+surpassed. Almost or quite on a level with him was _Gainsborough_
+(1727-1788). _Benjamin West_ (1738-1820) was by birth an American,
+as was _Copley_, an artist of superior talents
+(1739-1815). _Lawrence_ (1769-1830) was a British painter whose
+portraits have a high historical value. The greatest of the English
+landscape painters was _Turner_ (1775-1851).
+
+_John Trumbull_ (1756-1843), an American, painted spirited
+battle-pieces, and miniature portraits of decided artistic
+merit. _Washington Allston_ (1779-1843), another American painter,
+produced works admired for their warmth of color, and for the refined
+feeling expressed in them.
+
+MUSIC.--The great German musicians _Haydn_ and _Mozart_ were
+followed by an equal or greater genius in music, _Beethoven_
+(1770-1827). At the head of the school of German song-writers is
+_Schubert_ (1797-1828). One of the most popular of the German
+composers was _Weber_ (1786-1826).
+
+PHYSICAL AND NATURAL SCIENCE.--The most brilliant discoveries in
+astronomy were made by the French philosopher _Laplace_, whose
+_Mécanique Céleste_ made an epoch in that science. _Dr. Thomas
+Young_ (1773-1829) did much to explain the true theory of the tides,
+and to confirm the undulatory theory of light. Others eminent in the
+progress of optics are _Fresnel_ (1788-1827), _Biot_,
+_Arago_,--all French physicists,--and _Sir David
+Brewster_. _Lavoisier_ (1743-1794) infused a new spirit into
+chemical science. _Priestley_ (1733-1804) discovered oxygen and
+other gases. _Dalton_ (1766-1844) is the author of the atomic
+theory of the composition of matter. _Sir Humphry Davy_ added to
+chemical knowledge, and, simultaneously with _George Stephenson_,
+invented the safety-lamp for miners. _Berzelius_ (1779-1848), a
+Swedish chemist, and _Gay-Lussac_ (1778-1850), a Frenchman, are
+great names in the history of this science. _Galvani_, the
+discoverer of animal electricity, and _Volta_, the inventor of the
+galvanic pile, stimulated others to fruitful experiments in this branch
+of study. _Lamarck_ (1744-1829) was one of the first of the modern
+advocates of the origin of species by development. _Cuvier_
+(1769-1832), the greatest naturalist of modern times, made most
+important observations in comparative anatomy, and "established many of
+the positive laws of geology and paleontology." Geology first assumed
+the place of a science through the labors of _Werner_ (1750-1817),
+a German mineralogist. There were two classes of geologists,--the
+_Neptunians_, or _Wernerians_, who ascribed rocks to aqueous
+deposition exclusively; and the _Vulcanians_, or
+_Huttonists_,--adherents of the view of _Dr. Hutton_
+(1726-1797) of Edinburgh,--who attributed many of them to the action of
+fire. The _Geological Society_ of _London_ was founded in
+1807. Among discoveries of practical utility in science, the discovery
+of vaccination for the prevention of small-pox, by _Jenner_
+(1749-1823), an English physician, is one of the most remarkable.
+
+  LITERATURE: See the lists on pp. 16, 359, 497; also President
+  A. D. White's list, with critical notes, attached to Morris's _The
+  French Revolution and First Empire_ (in "Epochs of history"), and
+  Adams's Manual: the Histories of Alison (Tory), Louis Blanc, Carlyle,
+  Jomini, Fyffe, Stephens, Mahan, Chuquet. Aulard, Lavisse et Rambaud,
+  _Histoire Gènèrale_ VIII., IX. Michelet (7 vols.), Mignet,
+  Morris, Von Sybel (4 vols.), Thiers, Taine, L. Haüsser; Madame de
+  Rémusat's _Memoirs_; Metternich's _Memoirs_ (5 vols.),
+  Joyneville, _Life and Times of Alexander I_. (3 vols.); Seeley,
+  _Life of Stein_; Lowell, _Eve of the French Revolution_; on
+  Napoleon, Rose, Lanfrey, Sloane.
+
+  De Tocqueville's _L'Ancien Règime et la Révolution_; P. Janet's
+  _Philosophie de la Révolution Française_; Quinet, _La
+  Rèvolution_; The Essays on the Revolution, by Burke, Mackintosh,
+  Croker; Macaulay's Essays on Mirabeau and Barère; Lamartine's _The
+  Girondists_; A. Young's _Travels in France in 1787-88-89_
+  (London, 1794); Oncken, _Das Zeitalter der Revolution des
+  Kaiserreiches_ (2 vols.); Sorel, _L'Europe et la Rèvolution
+  Française_ (5 vols.); Debidour, _Rapports de l'Église et de
+  l'Etat en France_; Vandal, _Napoléon et Alexandre
+  1st_. Treitschke _Deutsche Geschichte im neunzehnten
+  Fahrhundert_ (4 vols.).
+
+  Taine, _History of English Literature_; Mrs. Oliphant,
+  _Literary History of England in the end of the 18th and beginning
+  of the 19th centuries_; Allibone, _Dictionary of British and
+  American Authors_; Wendell, _A Literary History of America_.
+
+
+
+
+PERIOD V. FROM THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA (1815) TO THE PRESENT TIME.
+
+
+INTRODUCTION.
+
+POLITICAL CHANGES IN EUROPE.--The aspiration of the peoples of Europe
+after constitutional freedom and national unity, after the yoke of
+Napoleon had been thrown off, was for a long season baffled. This was
+owing partly to the lassitude natural after the protracted and
+exhausting wars, and more to the combination of the principal
+sovereigns, instigated by the love of power and the dread of
+revolution, for the purpose of preventing the popular yearning from
+being gratified. But in 1830--when half of the lifetime of a generation
+had passed by--the overthrow of the old Bourbon line of kings in France
+was the signal for disturbances and changes elsewhere on the
+Continent. In _England_, at about the same time, there began an
+era of constitutional and legislative reforms which effected a wider
+diffusion of political power. In 1848--after a second interval of about
+equal length--another revolutionary crisis occurred. At the same time,
+movements in favor of communism and socialism brought in a new
+peril. Alarm felt on this account, by the middle class in France, was
+one important aid to the third _Napoleon_ in reviving the empire
+in _France_. The condition of Europe--in particular, the divided
+state of _Germany_--enabled him to maintain a leading influence
+for a score of years in European politics. The unification of
+_Germany_, which began in the triumph of Prussia over Austria, was
+completed in _Napoleon's_ downfall through the
+_Franco-German_ war. The unification of _Italy_, to which
+_Louis Napoleon_ had contributed by the French alliance with
+_Sardinia_ against _Austria_, was consummated under _Victor
+Emmanuel_, after his cooperation with _Prussia_ in her great
+struggle with _Austria_. Thus _Germany_ and _Italy_
+reached the goal to which they had looked with desire and hope at the
+close of the Napoleonic wars in 1815.
+
+AMERICA.--On the Western Continent, _Mexico_ and the
+South-American dependencies of Spain and Portugal gained their
+independence in connection with political revolutions in the European
+countries to which they had been attached. The _United States,_ in
+the enjoyment of peace, and favored by great material advantages,
+advanced with marvelous rapidity in population and in wealth. Discord,
+growing out of the existence of negro slavery in the South, brought on
+at last the Civil War, which terminated in the conquest of the
+_Confederate States_ and their restoration to the Union, in the
+freedom of the slaves, and in the prohibition of slavery by
+Constitutional amendment.
+
+MILITARY SYSTEM IN EUROPE.--During this period, in Europe there has
+been a wide diffusion of popular education. But a serious hinderance in
+the way of physical comfort and general improvement in the principal
+European states has long existed, in the immense standing armies and
+costly military system which their mutual jealousies and apprehensions
+have caused them to keep up.
+
+SCIENCE AND INVENTION.--This period outstrips all previous eras as
+regards the progress of the natural and physical sciences, and of
+invention and discovery in the practical applications of science. An
+almost miraculous advance has taken place in the means of travel and of
+transmitting thought. There has been an equally marvelous advance in
+devising machinery for use in agriculture and manufactures, and in
+connection with labor of almost every sort.
+
+PEACE AND PHILANTHROPY.--The vast extension of commerce, with its
+interchange of products, and the intercourse which is incidental to it,
+has proved favorable to international peace. The better understanding
+of economical science, by bringing to view the mischiefs of war and the
+bad policy of selfishness, has tended in the same
+direction. Philanthropy has manifested itself with new energy and in
+new forms of activity. A quickened and more enlightened zeal has been
+shown in providing for the infirm and helpless, and for mitigating the
+sufferings of the soldier. Missionary undertakings, for the conversion
+and civilizing of heathen nations, have been a marked feature of the
+age.
+
+SOCIALISM.--The "industrial age" had its own perils to confront. The
+progress of manufactures and trade, the accumulation of wealth
+unequally distributed, brought forward new questions pertaining to the
+rights and reciprocal aggressions of laborer and
+capitalist. _Socialism_, with novel and startling doctrines as to
+the right of property, and to the proper function of the state,
+inaugurated movements of grave concern to the order and well-being of
+society.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I. EUROPE, FROM THE CONGRESS OP VIENNA (1815) TO THE FRENCH
+REVOLUTION OF 1830.
+
+
+GERMANY: THE HOLY ALLIANCE.--The years of peace which followed the
+_War of Liberation_ produced a signal increase of thrift and of
+culture in Germany. But they brought also a grievous disappointment of
+ardent political hopes. There was a feeling of national brotherhood,
+which that struggle had engendered,--such a feeling as Germans had not
+experienced for centuries before. Constitutional government and German
+unity were objects of earnest desire. _Frederick William III._,
+the king of Prussia (1797-1840), had promised his people a
+constitution. But the two emperors, _Francis I._ of Austria and
+_Alexander_ of Russia, together with _Frederick William_,
+had, at the instigation of _Alexander_,--whose mind was tinged
+with religious mysticism,--formed at Paris (Sept. 26, 1815) _"the
+Holy Alliance,"_ a covenant in which they pledged themselves, in
+dealing with their subjects and in their international relations, to be
+governed by the rules of Christian justice and charity. They invited
+all the potentates of Europe, except the Sultan and the Pope, to become
+parties to this sacred compact. With the exception of _George
+IV_., the Prince Regent of England, the sovereigns complied with the
+request. This alliance, which was sincerely meant by _Alexander_,
+was popularly confused with the alliance of _Austria, Russia,
+Prussia, England,_ and _France,_ the aim of which was to
+prevent further revolutions. _Francis I.,_ who lived until 1835,
+was stubbornly averse to every movement that in the least favored
+popular freedom and constitutional government. Supreme in his counsels
+for a whole generation was _Metternich_, not a profound statesman,
+but an expert diplomatist, who labored, generally with success, to
+stifle every effort for an increase of freedom in Germany, and
+elsewhere on the Continent. In the smaller German states, especially
+those which had belonged to the _Confederacy of the Rhine_, there
+was a disposition to found a constitutional system; but the Prussian
+government followed in the wake of Austria, and Austria stood in the
+way of every such innovation.
+
+AGITATION AND REACTION.--The agitation for liberty was specially rife
+among the students in the German universities. A demonstration by them
+at the _Wartburg_ (1817), in commemoration of _Luther_ and of
+the victory over Napoleon at _Leipsic,_--in which there were songs
+and speeches, and a burning of anti-liberal books,--was noticed by the
+Prussian and Austrian ministers; and the alleged revolutionary
+movements of students were denounced by the Emperor
+_Alexander_. This reactionary zeal was whetted by the murder of
+_Kotzebue_, a German poet, who was hated as a tool of Russia and a
+foe of liberty, and was assassinated by _Karl Sand_, a fanatical
+Prussian student (March 23, 1819). Young _Sand_ was executed for
+the deed, but his fate drew out many expressions of pity and
+sympathy. The Diet of the confederacy (Sept. 20, 1819) adopted what
+were called _the Carlsbad Resolutions_, which provided for a more
+rigid censorship of the press, committees of investigation to suppress
+revolutionary agitation, and a strict supervision of the universities
+by the governments. All the states were required to enforce these
+regulations. The liberal party, the party of freedom and unity, still
+subsisted, especially in the smaller states, where some of the princes,
+as _William I_. of _Würtemberg_ (1819-1864) and _Louis
+I_. of _Bavaria_ (1825-1848), entertained comparatively liberal
+views.
+
+FRANCE UNDER LOUIS XVIII.--The Congress of _Aix-la-Chapelle_
+(1818) withdrew the army of occupation left by the allies in France.
+The Pentarchy, or Five Great Powers, pledged themselves to the
+continued maintenance of peace by means of conferences and
+congresses. _Louis XVIII_. (1814-1824), although inactive, was not
+void of good sense, and was disposed to accommodate himself to the
+times. But the court party, with his brother the _Count d'Artois_
+at its head, were unyielding in their despotic ideas. They were for
+restoring the system of the old monarchy. The increase in the liberal
+members of the Chamber, or legislative assembly, impelled
+_Richelieu_, the head of the ministry, to resign (Dec., 1818). A
+more liberal man, _Decazes_, succeeded him. He was supported by a
+party which arose at this time, called _Doctrinaires_ on account
+of a certain pedantic spirit, and a disposition to shape political
+action by preconceived theories or ideas, which was imputed to them. In
+their ranks were _Royer-Collard, Guizot, Villemain, Barante_, and
+others. They advocated a constitutional monarchy. Among the liberals
+not affiliated with them was _La Fayette_, who encouraged the
+_Charbonniers_, a secret society for promoting liberty, that had
+its origin in Italy.
+
+TYRANNY IN SPAIN.--In 1820 revolts broke out against the Bourbon
+governments in _Spain_ and _Italy_. _Ferdinand VII_. had
+been restored to liberty by _Napoleon_ in 1814, and had returned
+to the Spanish throne. In 1812 the Cortes had established a
+constitution with a system of parliamentary government, limited
+prerogatives being left to the king. In favor of the new system were
+the educated and enlightened class generally. But--as was not the case
+in Germany--the uprising against _Napoleon_ in Spain had owed its
+strength very much to the ignorant and superstitious peasantry, who,
+while they hated the foreign yoke, clung to the feudal and
+ecclesiastical abuses which the French rulers in Spain, as far as time
+and opportunity permitted, swept away. _Ferdinand_ thus had a
+strong support in his movement to bring back the former bigoted and
+exclusive system. He wrested the national property from the holders to
+whom it had been sold. He restored the Inquisition: not less than fifty
+thousand individuals were imprisoned for their opinions. From his
+tyranny ten thousand Spaniards escaped into France.
+
+SOUTH AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE.--The French usurpation in Spain cost that
+country its American colonies. They would not submit to the French
+sovereignty, and after its fall maintained their
+independence. _Buenos Ayres_ broke loose from Spain in 1810, and
+in 1816 joined the Plate states in a confederation. _Paraguay_
+declined a union with Buenos Ayres, and continued under the patriarchal
+absolutism introduced by the Jesuits, _Dr. Francia_ being its
+ruler until his death (1840). _Uruguay_ became a republic distinct
+from Buenos Ayres in 1828. In the northern colonies, the principal hero
+of the struggle for independence was _Simon Bolivar_, who sprang
+from a noble Creole family. He first fought for the independence of
+Venezuela (1810), but was made by _New Granada_ its general in
+1812, and became president of the two countries, which were united
+under the name of _Colombia_ (1819). _Quito_ was now taken,
+and Peru was set free from the Spanish rule. Upper Peru, in 1825, was
+named, in honor of the "Liberator," _Bolivia_. He found it
+impracticable to connect the different states in one confederacy, and
+closed his eventful life in 1830. _Colombia_ divided itself into
+the three states, _Venezuela_, _New Granada_, and
+_Ecuador_ (1831).
+
+MEXICAN INDEPENDENCE.--After the year 1808, there were various attempts
+at revolution in _Mexico_. In 1821 its independence was achieved
+by an insurrection under _Iturbide_, a native Mexican. He failed
+in the effort to make himself emperor (1822); and the Republic of
+Mexico was organized in 1824, and was recognized by the United States
+in 1829.
+
+MILITARY REVOLT IN SPAIN.--The loss of her American colonies, and the
+efforts to restore them, reduced Spain to extreme poverty. In 1820 a
+successful military insurrection, led by _Quiroga_, _Riego_,
+and _Mina_, proclaimed anew the constitution of
+1812. _Ferdinand_, who was capable of any amount of hypocrisy as
+well as cruelty, swore to uphold it. The revolution was supported by
+the intelligent class of people, but the defenders of it were split
+into different parties. The clergy and the peasantry were arrayed on
+the other side. Guerilla bands were organized under the name of the
+"Army of the Faith."
+
+CONGRESS OF VERONA.--The military revolt in Spain alarmed the Great
+Powers. The three sovereigns were now leagued for the defense of "the
+throne and the altar;" for _Alexander_, who had shown liberal
+inclinations on the subject of the emancipation of the serfs, and even
+towards _Greece_ in its aspiration for independence, now recoiled
+from every thing that savored of freedom. At the Congress of
+_Verona_ (Oct., 1822), the sovereigns resolved to interfere in
+Spain. The _Duke of Wellington_ declined to concur with them, and,
+on his return from the congress, advised _Louis XVIII._ to take
+the same course.
+
+ENGLAND: CANNING.--_George IV._ (1820-1830) had been regent since
+1810. Already unpopular, he became still more so in consequence of his
+abortive effort (1820) to procure a divorce from _Queen Caroline_,
+whom he had married at the demand of his father (1795). She was not
+allowed to be present at his coronation. On account of the profligacy
+of her husband, there was a strong sympathy with her, although she was
+a coarse-minded woman. For a number of years after the Peace of 1815,
+the English government resisted movements towards reform at home; and
+in its foreign policy, under the guidance of _Castlereagh_, it
+sustained the reactionary cause abroad. Disaffection towards the
+ministers gave rise to a plot, contrived by some desperate men, to
+destroy them in a body. It was detected; and _Thistlewood_, with
+some of his confederates, was executed (1820). On the death of _Lord
+Castlereagh_ in 1822, _Canning_, a disciple of _Pitt_,
+became foreign secretary. He adopted a more liberal policy, and worked
+against the schemes of Metternich for interference in the affairs of
+foreign states. He transferred England, says Guizot, "from the camp of
+resistance and of European order into the camp of liberty."
+
+THE REBELLION CRUSHED IN SPAIN.--The French unwisely rejected
+England's advice. _Louis XVIII_. sent an army into Spain, under
+the _Duke of Angoulême_, released _Ferdinand_ at Cadiz, and
+gave him the power to revoke all that he had done in favor of
+liberty. The brave _Riego_ was hung on a gibbet of enormous
+height. The Spanish army was disbanded, and the "Army of the Faith"
+took its place. Many thousands of constitutionalists were thrown into
+prison. _Canning_ recognized the republics of South America, lest
+they, too, should fall under French control. It was his boast, that he
+"called the New World into existence to redress the balance of the
+Old."
+
+PORTUGAL: BRAZIL.--The royal family of Portugal were residing in
+_Brazil_ when the Spanish revolution occurred. Portugal, in the
+absence of King _John VI_., framed a liberal constitution. The
+Brazilians were eager for independence from Portugal. _John_
+decided to withdraw. Arrived in Portugal, he accepted the new
+constitution; but the anti-revolutionary party rallied about his son
+_Dom Miguel_, who was supported by his mother, a sister of
+_Ferdinand VII_, of Spain. _Dom Miguel_ was at length driven
+into exile, and went to _Vienna_. Meantime _Dom Pedro_, a son
+of _John VI_., had made himself emperor in Brazil by allying
+himself with the constitutional party; and _John_ was prevailed on
+by the British, in 1825, to recognize the new South American empire.
+
+NAPLES AND SICILY.--In all the eight principalities of Italy, except in
+Tuscany, the misrule of the restored governments was galling to the
+people, whose hope of freedom had been raised only to be cast
+down. Everywhere the tyrannical influence of _Austria_ was
+dominant. The rulers in Italy were slavishly submissive to her will;
+and any rising of the people, if not put down by them, was crushed by
+Austrian forces sent down from Lombardy. Secret societies sprung up;
+the chief of which, the _Carbonari_, aimed at national
+independence, but beyond that cherished no definite, united
+purpose. The Spanish revolution served as the occasion for a similar
+rebellion of the soldiery of _Naples_. A new liberal constitution
+was established, which _Ferdinand IV_. (July 13, 1820) solemnly
+swore to maintain. The insurrection in Sicily aimed at independence,
+but Palermo was surrendered to the revolutionary government of
+_Naples_. The Neapolitan rebellion led to the Congress of
+_Troppau_ (Oct., 1820), which was transferred to _Laybach_
+(Jan., 1821). There Austria, Prussia, and Russia formed a league, the
+fruit of which was, that an Austrian army of sixty thousand men marched
+into the South of Italy, and the revolution was
+crushed. _Ferdinand_ reëstablished his despotism, disbanded the
+greater part of his army, and punished with exile, imprisonment, and
+death the leading supporters of the constitution which he had taken an
+oath to defend.
+
+SARDINIA.--In Piedmont, the demand for a constitution and a rising at
+_Alessandria_ impelled _Victor Emmanuel I_. to abdicate in
+favor of his brother, _Charles Felix_, who was favorable to
+Austria and her policy. Prince _Charles Albert_,--a distant
+cousin,--who had liberal views, held the regency for a few months; but
+_Charles Felix_, on his return from _Modena_ (Oct., 1821),
+governed according to despotic principles. The contest in Italy between
+"despots and conspirators" went on until the renewed outbreakings of
+revolt in 1830.
+
+THE GREEK INSURRECTION.--The weakness of Turkey emboldened the Greeks
+to attempt to throw off the hated Ottoman yoke. The sultans had become
+the puppets of their guards, the janizaries. One after another of them
+had been dethroned by their soldiers. The pashas were insubordinate: in
+Egypt, _Mehemet Ali_ had almost made himself independent. Russia,
+by the Peace of _Bucharest_ in 1812, had possessed herself of
+_Bessarabia_ and of Eastern _Moldavia_ as far as the
+_Pruth_. Among the Greeks, who were not more than a million in
+number, and were only one among the various peoples subject to Turkey,
+there were formed _Hetaireiai_, or secret societies, for the
+purpose of organizing an insurrection. The people were first summoned
+to rise by _Alexander Ypsilanti_ (1821). A "national congress"
+promulgated a new constitution for Greece (1822). Great enthusiasm in
+behalf of the Greek cause was awakened in most of the civilized
+countries; but the _Congress of Verona_ (1822), inspired by
+_Metternich_, decided to give no help to the "insurgents." In the
+war of the Greeks with the Turks, there were atrocities committed on
+both sides. _Scio_ was taken by the latter in 1822. Not far from
+twenty thousand of the inhabitants were massacred, and twice that
+number were enslaved. In 1824 the Greeks began to receive foreign
+help. Among those who volunteered with a chivalrous sympathy to aid
+them in their combat was _Lord Byron_, who died at
+_Missolonghi_ (1824). _Nicholas I_. of Russia, who in 1825
+succeeded _Alexander I_., was more inclined to take an active part
+in the Greek contest, as he considered himself the head of all
+Christians of the Greek faith.  The Sultan _Mahmoud II_., by
+crushing the janizaries, strengthened himself at home, but weakened his
+means of attack and defense abroad. In 1826 he made important
+concessions to _Russia_; among other things, allowing her to
+occupy the east coast of the Black Sea, and giving to her vessels a
+free admission to Turkish waters.
+
+GREEK INDEPENDENCE.--_Mehemet Ali_ hoped to succeed
+_Mahmoud_.  His son _Ibrahim_ had defeated the Greeks at
+_Navarino_ (1825). The next year, in conjunction with the Turks,
+he captured _Missolonghi_. The apprehension that _Nicholas_
+might seek to divide Turkey with _Mehemet Ali_ caused the
+_Treaty of London_ to be concluded by the Great Powers which
+founded the kingdom of _Greece_ (July 6, 1827). England, Russia,
+and France joined in executing the treaty. They destroyed the
+Turkish-Egyptian fleet at _Navarino_ (Oct. 20). Later,
+_Nicholas_ waged a separate war with the Porte, which was
+terminated by the Peace of _Adrianople_ (1829), when the latter
+recognized the independence of Greece. The crown of Greece was accepted
+in 1832 by _Otho_, son of Louis of Bavaria.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II. EUROPE FROM THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 TO THE REVOLUTIONARY
+EPOCH OF 1848.
+
+
+CHARLES X.--_Louis XVIII_. died in 1824. His brother, _Charles
+X_. (1824-30), dealt generously with the collateral branch of the
+Bourbons, the house of _Orleans_. He restored to _Louis
+Philippe_, the son of that _Philip Egalite_ whose base career
+was ended by the guillotine (p. 512), the vast estates of the Orleans
+family, and gave him the title of "Royal Highness." But he failed to
+secure the cordial support of this ambitious relative. The _Duke of
+Orleans_ stood well with the king, but was on good terms with the
+liberal leaders. The king sought to reinstate the ideas and ways of the
+old _régime_. He was specially zealous in behalf of ecclesiastics,
+and ceremonies of devotion. But liberal views in politics gained ground
+in the second Chamber, as well as in the army and among the people. A
+liberal ministry under _Martignac_ was in power for a while; but
+in 1829 it was succeeded by a ministry the head of which was the
+unpopular Prince _Polignac_, and the other principal members of
+which were hardly less obnoxious. They represented the extreme
+reactionary and royalist party. Their active opponents--_Guizot_,
+_Thiers_, and _Benjamin Constant_ among them--found that
+their assaults on the government were generally applauded. All of these
+were brilliant political writers. _Constant_ (from 1825) had been
+the leader of the opposition. _Thiers_ was a journalist of wide
+influence. _Guizot_ had held office under the liberal ministers,
+and as lecturer on modern history, and by his writings, had laid the
+foundation of the great distinction which he deservedly gained, as one
+of the foremost students and expounders of history in recent
+times. _Thiers_ and _Guizot_ were at this time united in the
+advocacy of a constitutional system, as opposed to the reactionary
+policy and the personal government to which the king and his ministers
+were committed. Later we shall see that the paths of these two
+statesmen diverged. In 1830 _Guizot_ was the opposition leader in
+the Chamber of Deputies. In the Chamber of Peers, the ministry was
+attacked by _Chateaubriand_, who had been a valuable supporter of
+the Bourbon cause, and by others. The Chambers were dissolved by the
+king. The capture of _Algiers_, in a war against the piratical
+power of which it was the seat, did not avail to lessen the growing
+hostility to his government. It found expression through the press and
+in speeches at a great banquet.
+
+ORDINANCES OF ST. CLOUD.--Taking advantage of the provision in the
+charter which gave extraordinary powers to the king for special
+emergencies (p. 537), the ministry took the fatal step (July 25, 1830)
+of issuing the "ordinances of St. Cloud," dissolving the Chamber of
+Deputies, further restricting the suffrage so that many merchants and
+manufacturers lost this privilege, and reëstablishing the censorship
+of the press in a peculiarly burdensome form.
+
+THE JULY REVOLUTION.--The ordinances were published on July 26. That
+evening Prince _Polignac's_ windows were broken by a mob. The
+whole city of Paris was in a tumult. The liberal journals
+protested. There were collisions between the mob and the king's
+troops. A protest of the liberal deputies, who met at the house of
+_Casimir Perier_, was issued. In the night the people armed
+themselves. _La Fayette_ arrived in Paris. On the 28th students,
+workmen, and all classes of citizens, armed themselves with whatever
+weapons they could lay hold of. The revolutionists took possession of
+the Hôtel de Ville. The cry was that the charter was violated. All
+efforts to induce the king to make concessions failed. Many of the
+soldiers in Paris fraternized with the people, who on the 29th had
+control of the whole city, except the vicinity of the Tuileries, which
+they gained possession of that evening. _La Fayette_, at the call
+of the deputies, assumed command of the National Guard. Finally, when
+it was too late, the king decided to withdraw the ordinances, and to
+change the ministry. _Thiers_ and _Mignet_ caused anonymous
+placards to be posted, proposing that the _Duke of Orleans_ should
+take the crown from the people. On the 30th _Louis Philippe_
+entered Paris on foot: he had passed the summer at his country place at
+_Neuilly_. _Talleyrand_,--whose influence was great with
+foreign courts,--_Lafitte_, and _Thiers_ were active in the
+effort to advance him to the throne. The deputies decided that he must
+be made lieutenant-general of the kingdom. _Charles X._, who still
+blindly confided in him, on the 31st appointed him to this office. What
+the intentions of _Louis Philippe_ were, is not clear. He probably
+meant to be governed by circumstances. On the 29th a municipal
+commission was installed at the Hôtel de Ville, consisting of _La
+Fayette_ and six other leading men. They selected several persons as
+officials whose authority was generally acknowledged. _Louis
+Philippe_, at the head of the deputies, went to the Hôtel de
+Ville. He was cordially received by _La Fayette_ and his
+associates. It was agreed that there should be "a popular throne, with
+free institutions." On the balcony, under the tri-color flag, the Duke
+of Orleans was introduced as "the man of the people."  _La
+Fayette_ felt that a republic would be contrary to the national
+wish. _Thiers_ was of the same mind. They feared complications and
+contests abroad, and what might be the results of general suffrage, in
+the existing state of the country, at home.
+
+FLIGHT OF CHARLES X.--The desertion of _Charles X._ by his troops
+would have rendered an armed contest on his part impracticable. The
+dexterous management of _Louis Philippe_ was made effectual by the
+favoring circumstances. On Aug. 2 the king abdicated in favor of his
+grandson, the _Duke of Bordeaux_, and was compelled to fly from
+the kingdom. The volunteer army had been stirred up to go out to
+_Rambouillet_ to drive him away. The angry old king did not wait
+for their coming.
+
+LOUIS PHILIPPE MADE KING.--The Chamber of Deputies declared the throne
+vacant. They altered the charter,--putting all religious bodies on a
+level, giving freedom to the press, limiting the powers of the king,
+and giving to the Chambers, as well as to him, the initiative in
+framing laws. They chose _Louis Philippe_ "King of the French."
+He owed his elevation to the middle classes, and claimed to be the
+"citizen king."
+
+SEPARATION OF BELGIUM.--The effect of the new revolution was to set in
+motion the elements of discontent in the other European
+countries. _Belgium_ was the first to feel the shock. The Belgians
+were restless under the rule of _William I._, whose treatment of
+them aggravated the disaffection which their political relation to
+Holland constantly occasioned. A revolt broke out at _Brussels_.
+The offer of a legislative and administrative separation of
+_Belgium_ from _Holland_, with one king over both, might have
+been accepted if it had been made earlier; but it followed unsuccessful
+efforts to quell the insurrection by force. A provisional government
+was created at _Brussels_, which proclaimed the independence of
+_Belgium_ (Oct. 4), and convoked a national congress. France
+confined itself to preventing the interference of foreign powers. A
+conference of ministers at _London_ (Jan., 1831) recognized the
+new state, which adopted a liberal constitution. _Leopold I._ of
+_Saxe-Coburg_ was chosen king. He was aided by the forces of the
+French; but the war with Holland lasted until 1833, and it was not
+until 1839 that Holland definitely accepted the action of the London
+congress.
+
+POLAND.--Poland was harshly ruled for the Czar by the Grand Duke
+_Constantine_. The revolution in France was the signal for a
+Polish rising, that began in an unsuccessful attempt of students and
+others to seize the person of the grand duke. The insurrection spread:
+men of talents and distinction, as well as Polish soldiers, joined the
+cause of the people. The Czar, _Nicholas_, would make no terms
+with the insurgents, and the Diet (Jan. 25, 1831) declared him to have
+forfeited the Polish crown. The Poles fought with desperate valor in a
+series of bloody battles, only to be overwhelmed by superiority of
+numbers. They were defeated at _Ostrolenka_ by _Diebitsch_
+(May 26). After his death, _Warsaw_ surrendered to
+_Paskievitch_ (Sept. 8), and another Russian general entered
+_Cracow_. _Poland_ was now reduced, as far as it could be, to
+a Russian province. The army was merged in the Russian forces; the
+university was suppressed; the Roman Catholic religion, the prevailing
+faith, was persecuted; and it was computed that in one year (1832)
+eighty thousand Poles were sent to Siberia.
+
+GERMANY: HUNGARY.--In Saxony and in the minor states of Germany,
+disturbances were consequent on the tidings of the revolution at
+Paris. Prussia and Austria were little affected by it; but the demands
+of the Diet in _Hungary_, when _Ferdinand_, the son of
+_Francis I._ was crowned king of that country, were an augury of a
+far greater commotion to arise at a later day. In the Diet of 1832
+_Louis Kossuth_ first appeared as a member. Between the years 1828
+and 1834, the German states (not including Austria), under the guidance
+of Prussia and Bavaria, formed a _Zollverein_, or customs-union,
+which was an important step in the direction of German unity, and one
+which Austria looked on with disfavor.
+
+ITALY.--In 1831, there were signs of revolt in different states of
+Italy. At _Modena_, a provisional government was erected. The same
+thing was done at _Bologna_. _Maria Louisa_ was driven out of
+_Parma_. Among those who joined the insurgents in the Papal
+Kingdom were _Napoleon_ and his younger brother _Louis
+Bonaparte_, sons of _Louis Bonaparte_ king of Holland. The
+elder of the sons died soon after at _Forli_. The Italians relied
+on the help of _Louis Philippe_, but the citizen king had no
+disposition to engage in war with _Austria_. The uprisings were
+put down with the assistance of Austrian troops. _Charles Albert_,
+after April, 1831, king of _Sardinia_, did a good work in the
+discipline of his army. Without any esteem for Austria, he refused to
+further the plans of the revolutionary party, and thus incurred the
+hostility of _Mazzini_, who was organizing the movement of "Young
+Italy" for independence and unity. _Mazzini_, a man of elevated
+spirit and disinterested aims, was long to be known as the head of the
+republican patriots and plotters.
+
+ENGLAND.--In _England_, reform went forward peacefully. The middle
+class gradually obtained its demands. The national debt, at the close
+of the wars with Napoleon, amounted to nearly eight hundred millions of
+pounds. In 1823, with the accession of _Mr. Huskisson_ to office,
+began the movement for a more free commercial policy, which led in the
+end to the repeal of the corn-laws. The question of "Catholic
+disabilities" was agitated from time to time, and something had been
+done to lighten them. Yet in 1828 Catholics were still shut out by law
+from almost every office of trust and distinction. They could not sit
+in either house of Parliament. The endeavors of liberal statesmen for
+their relief were defeated by the Tory majorities. The agitation was
+increased by the "Catholic Association" formed in Ireland by the Irish
+leader and orator, _Daniel O'Connell_. A Tory ministry was formed
+by the _Duke of Wellington_, with Mr. (afterwards _Sir_)
+Robert _Peel_ for its chief supporter in the House of Commons
+(1829). Yet, to avert the danger of civil war, the ministry introduced,
+and with aid of the Whigs carried, the "Catholic Emancipation Bill."
+
+THE REFORM BILL.--On the death of _George IV._, _William
+IV._, his brother (1830-1837), succeeded to the throne. He was
+favorable to parliamentary reform. The ferment on this subject caused
+the resignation of the _Wellington_ ministry, which was succeeded
+by the ministry of Earl _Grey_. A bill for reform was presented to
+Parliament, depriving eighty-eight "rotten or decayed" boroughs, where
+there were very few inhabitants, of a hundred and forty-three members
+of the House of Commons, who were given to counties or to large towns,
+such as _Birmingham_ and _Manchester_, which had no
+representation. At the same time the franchise was greatly
+extended. The bill was strenuously resisted by the Tories, who now
+began to be called _Conservatives_. Its repeated rejection by the
+House of Lords caused a violent agitation. Finally, in 1832, when it
+was understood that the king would create new peers enough to pass the
+measure, it was carried in the upper house, and became a law.
+
+SLAVERY ABOLISHED.--In 1833 the system of slavery in the British
+colonies was abolished, twenty million pounds being paid as a
+compensation to the slave-owners. This measure was the result of an
+agitation in which _Wilberforce_, _Clarkson_, and
+_Buxton_ had been foremost.
+
+In the latter part of the eighteenth century, a strong feeling arose
+against the slave-trade. _Granville Sharp_ (1734-1813) was one of
+the earliest promoters of its abolition. By his agency, in the case of
+a negro,--_Somerset_,--claimed as a slave, the decision was
+obtained from Lord _Mansfield_, that a slave could not be held in
+England, or carried out of it. The Quakers were early in the field in
+opposition to the traffic in slaves. In the House of Commons,
+_Wilberforce_, a man of earnest religious convictions and one of
+the most eloquent orators of his time, contended against it for
+years. His friend _Pitt_, and _Fox_, joined him in 1790. The
+measure of abolition was carried in 1807. Then followed the agitation
+for the abolition of slavery itself. The slave-trade was made illegal
+by France in 1819. It had been condemned by the Congress of Vienna. In
+the French colonies, slavery continued until 1848.
+
+LEGAL REFORMS.--In the same year the monopoly of the East-India Company
+was abolished, and trade with the East was made free to all
+merchants. A new _Poor Law_ (1834) checked the growth of
+pauperism. In 1835, by the _Municipal Corporations Act_, the
+ancient rights of self-government by the towns, which had been lost
+since the fourteenth century, were restored to them. Civil marriage was
+made legal, in compliance with a demand of the Dissenters, who were
+likewise relieved of other grounds of complaint (1836). Increased
+attention began to be paid to popular education.
+
+CHARTISM.--Notwithstanding the constitutional changes in England, the
+distress and discontent of the poorer classes occasioned the riotous
+"Chartist" movement in 1839, when universal suffrage, annual
+parliaments, and other radical changes were in vain demanded. Mass
+meetings were held, and outbreakings of violence were feared; but order
+was preserved.
+
+CHINA: AFGHANISTAN.--A war with China (1839) had no better ground than
+the refusal of the Chinese government to allow the importation of
+opium. The occupation of _Kabul_ in 1839 caused a general revolt
+of the Afghans. A British army was destroyed in the _Khyber
+Pass_. The British then conquered, but did not care to retain,
+Afghanistan.
+
+REPEAL OF THE CORN LAWS.--_Victoria_, the only child of the Duke
+of Kent, the brother of _William IV._, succeeded the latter in
+1837. She married her cousin, _Albert_ of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
+(1840). In 1846 the party which had long advocated free trade gained a
+triumph in the repeal of the _Corn Laws_, which had existed since
+1815, imposing duties on imported grain. In the agitation which
+preceded the repeal, _Richard Cobden_ was the leader: he was
+effectively aided by _John Bright_. But the measure was carried by
+_Sir Robert Peel_, who on this question abandoned his former views
+and those of the Conservatives, by whom he had been raised to power. He
+was bitterly assailed, especially by _D'Israeli_, who was rising
+to the position of a leader among them.
+
+LOUIS PHILIPPE.--Louis Philippe made up his first ministry from the
+party which had raised him to the throne. Among its members were
+_Broglie_, _Guizot_, and _Casimir Périer_. The king
+aimed by shrewd management to maintain his popularity at home, and to
+keep the peace with foreign powers, by taking care to encourage liberal
+movements abroad, yet without taking any step in that direction which
+would bring on war. He did nothing for the _Poles_ in their mortal
+struggle, and nothing really effectual for the _Italians_. Several
+abortive attempts upon his life were made by secret societies; one of a
+dangerous character, by _Fieschi_ (1835), who fired "an infernal
+machine" from his window when the king was passing. This was followed
+by the "Laws of September," to curb the license of the press. They
+reminded the public of the royalist laws of 1820. They were opposed by
+the more liberal men: _Royer-Collard_ and _Villemain_ spoke
+against them. They went by the name of the "Fieschi laws." An effort to
+raise an insurrection among the French troops in _Strasburg_ was
+made by _Louis Napoleon Bonaparte_ (1836), who, after his flight
+from Italy, had resided in Switzerland, where he had busied himself in
+study, and had written several books. The enterprise proved a
+ridiculous failure: its author was allowed to go to America.
+
+FRENCH POLICY IN THE EAST.--Various causes conspired to undermine
+_Louis Philippe's_ government. One of these was its connection
+with the war of _Mehemet Ali_ with the Sultan. In the former war
+with his over-lord, the Sultan, the viceroy of Egypt had been invested
+with _Syria_ as a fief. He now sent an army into Syria, under his
+son _Ibrahim_, who overran that country, advanced victoriously
+into Asia Minor, and threatened _Constantinople_ (1832). The
+European powers intervened, and obliged _Mehemet Ali_ to content
+himself with Syria, together with the district of _Adana_ in Asia
+Minor, and the island of _Candia_, which the Sultan had ceded to
+him before. In 1839 the Sultan tried to recover Syria, but encountered
+an overwhelming defeat, and lost the entire Turkish fleet. England now
+combined with Austria, Prussia, and Russia, and the Western powers once
+more saved the Turkish Empire; although France, under the ministry of
+_Thiers_, had strongly favored the cause of _Mehemet Ali_
+(1840). Contrary to the wish of the French, he had to give up Syria. He
+secured for himself and his descendants the pashalic of Egypt
+(1841). The failure of the French policy in the East, by this action of
+the _Quadruple Alliance_, caused indignation and chagrin in
+France. Even _Thiers_, who was in sympathy with the cause of
+Mehemet Ali, was loudly blamed. There was danger of a rupture with
+England. _Thiers_ was a principal author of the plan for
+fortifying Paris by encircling the city with forts. The king judged
+that they might prove to be of use in putting down
+insurrections. _Louis Napoleon_ thought the occasion favorable for
+another attempt to seize the crown. He landed from England at
+_Boulogne_ with a few followers, and proclaimed himself
+emperor. He was captured, tried, and imprisoned in the fortress of Ham,
+where he spent six years. His time there was mostly given to study and
+writing. A few months before this attempt of _Louis Napoleon_, the
+French government had arranged for the bringing of the body of the
+first _Napoleon_ from _St. Helena_ to _Paris_. It was
+one of various impolitic measures, in which _Thiers_ was actively
+concerned, for doing honor to the emperor and his military
+achievements. But at that time _Louis Napoleon_, who was known to
+be a man of slow mind, but whose capacity for intrigue was not
+understood, was regarded with contempt, and the Bonapartists excited no
+alarm. In 1841, in the presence of the royal family and of a vast
+concourse, the remains of _Napoleon_ were deposited with great
+pomp in a magnificent tomb under the dome of the Church of the
+Invalides. Marshal _Soult_ superseded _Thiers_ at the head of
+the ministry (1840); but _Guizot_ was the ruling spirit in the
+cabinet, and was associated with the king until his dethronement. The
+death of the _Duke of Orleans_, the eldest son of _Louis
+Philippe_, by a fall from his carriage (July 13, 1842), endangered
+the new dynasty. The duke's eldest son, the _Count of Paris_, was
+then only four years of age.
+
+GUIZOT'S ADMINISTRATION.--From 1840 _Guizot_ was the principal
+minister of _Louis Philippe_, and _Thiers_ was in the
+opposition. They differed both as regards foreign and domestic
+policy. _Thiers_, who in his convictions was a decided liberal,
+and in full sympathy with the spirit of the French Revolution, was for
+the extension of suffrage, and for making the influence of France felt
+and respected in matters of European concern, even at the risk of war.
+_Guizot_, on the contrary, clung to the English alliance, and he
+considered that a foreign war--for example, in defense of _Mehemet
+Ali_,--would be to France a great and needless calamity. Claiming to
+be a fast friend of representative government, _Guizot_
+nevertheless inflexibly resisted movements for the extension of popular
+rights,--movements which he believed would lead, if they were not
+withstood, to revolution and anarchy. On the one hand were the
+legitimists, aiming at the restoration of the elder branch of the
+Bourbons; on the other hand there were the republicans, who wished to
+be rid of monarchy altogether. The government of _Louis Philippe_
+satisfied neither. It served as a transition, or temporary
+halting-place, in the progress of France towards the goal of rational
+and stable republicanism, to which the great Revolution tended. It was
+an "attempt to put new wine in old bottles."  This inherent weakness of
+the Orleans rule, it would have been difficult by any means to
+neutralize in such a way as to avert, sooner or later, a
+catastrophe. The unbending conservatism of _Guizot_--as seen, for
+instance, in his refusal to extend suffrage--hastened this result. A
+government over which less than half a million of voters of the middle
+class alone had an influence, could not stand against the progressive
+feeling of the country. The middle class, on which the throne depended,
+became separated from the advanced party, to which the youth of France
+more and more rallied. _Guizot_ was personally upright; but
+official corruption was suffered to spread in the last years of his
+administration, and bribery was used in the elections. These
+circumstances, added to the mortification of national pride from the
+little heed paid to France by the other powers, weakened the
+throne. The failure of the government to support the cause of liberty
+in _Poland_ and _Italy_ was another important source of its
+growing unpopularity.
+
+_Guizot_, in the personal _Memoirs_ written by him after the
+fall of _Louis Philippe_, has defended himself against the charge
+of a want of loyal support of _Thiers_, the head of the ministry,
+while he (Guizot) was ambassador to England (1840). There was a private
+understanding that he should go no farther than his sympathy with the
+views of _Thiers_ extended. _Guizot_ has undertaken, also, to
+show that a war in behalf of _Mehemet Ali_ would have been most
+unwise; and that it was for the interest of France to regain its weight
+in European affairs, not by the renewal of the bloody and fruitless
+contests of the past, but by methods of peace. He deemed it his duty
+not to give way to the "warlike tastes and inclinations" of the French
+people. The effort, however, to tie down so spirited a nation to so
+tame a policy, proved to be futile. The recollections of the empire,
+which the government itself did so much to arouse, moved the people to
+compare the achievements of the past with the humiliating position of
+their country under the Orleans rule.
+
+  Guizot has left this interesting exposition of his principles and
+  policy: "In the diplomatic complication which agitated Europe, I saw
+  a brilliant opportunity of exercising and loudly proclaiming a
+  foreign policy, extremely new and bold in fact, though moderate in
+  appearance, the only foreign policy which in 1840 suited the peculiar
+  position of France and her government, as also the only course in
+  harmony with the guiding principles and permanent wants of the great
+  scheme of civilization to which the world of to-day aspires and
+  tends.
+
+  "The spirit of conquest, of propagandism, and of system, has hitherto
+  been the moving cause and master of the foreign policy of states. The
+  ambition of princes or peoples has sought its gratification in
+  territorial aggrandizement. Religious or political faith has
+  endeavored to expand by imposing itself. Great heads of government
+  have attempted to regulate the destinies of nations according to
+  profound combinations, the offspring rather of their own thought than
+  the natural result of facts. Let us cast a glance over the history of
+  international European relations. We shall see the spirit of
+  conquest, or of armed propagandism, or of some systematic design upon
+  the territorial organization of Europe, inspire and determine the
+  foreign policy of governments. Let one or other of these impulses
+  prevail, and governments have disposed arbitrarily of the fate of
+  nations. War has ever been their indispensable mode of action.
+
+  "I know that this course of things has been the fatal result of men's
+  passions; and that, in spite of those passions and the evils they
+  have inflicted on nations, European civilization has continued to
+  increase and prosper, and may increase and prosper still more. It is
+  to the honor of the Christian world, that evil does not stifle
+  good. I know that the progress of civilization and public reason will
+  not abolish human passions, and that, under their impulse, the spirit
+  of conquest, of armed propagandism, and of system, will ever
+  maintain, in the foreign policy of states, their place and
+  portion. But, at the same time, I hold for certain that these various
+  incentives are no longer in harmony with the existing state of
+  manners, ideas, interests, and social instincts; and that it is quite
+  possible to-day to combat and restrain materially their empire. The
+  extent and activity of industry and commerce; the necessity of
+  consulting the general good; the habit of frequent, easy, prompt, and
+  regular intercourse between peoples; the invincible bias for free
+  association, inquiry, discussion, and publicity,--these
+  characteristic features of great modern society already exercise, and
+  will continue to exercise more and more, against the warlike or
+  diplomatic fancies of foreign policy, a preponderating
+  influence. People smile, not without reason, at the language and
+  puerile confidence of the _Friends of Peace_, and of the
+  _Peace Societies_. All the leading tendencies, all the most
+  elevated hopes of humanity, have their dreams, and their idle, gaping
+  advocates, as they have also their days of decline and defeat; but
+  they no less pursue their course; and through all the chimeras of
+  some, the doubts and mockeries of others, society becomes
+  transformed, and policy, foreign and domestic, is compelled to
+  transform itself with society. We have witnessed the most dazzling
+  exploits of the spirit of conquest, the most impassioned efforts of
+  the spirit of armed propagandism; we have seen territories and states
+  molded and re-molded, unmade, re-made, and unmade again, at the
+  pleasure of combinations more or less specious. What survives of all
+  these violent and arbitrary works?  They have fallen, like plants
+  without roots, or edifices without foundation. And now, when
+  analogous enterprises are attempted, scarcely have they made a few
+  steps in advance when they pause and hesitate, as if embarrassed by,
+  and doubtful of, themselves; so little are they in accord with the
+  real wants, the profound instincts, of existing society, and with the
+  persevering, though frequently disputed, tendencies of modern
+  civilization.... I repeat, our history since 1789, our endless
+  succession of shocks, revolutions, and wars, have left us in a state
+  of leverish agitation which renders peace insipid, and teaches us to
+  find a blind gratification in the unexpected strokes of a hazardous
+  policy. We are a prey to two opposing currents,--one deep and
+  regular, which carries towards the definite goal of our social state;
+  the other superficial and disturbed, which throws us here and there
+  in search of new adventures and unknown lands. Thus we float and
+  alternate between these two opposing directions,--called towards the
+  one by our sound sense and moral conviction, and enticed towards the
+  other by our habits of routine and freaks of imagination."
+  (_Memoirs of a Minister of State, from the year 1840_ pp. 7-9,
+  10.)
+
+THE KING'S AVARICE.--The imputation of avarice to Louis Philippe was
+one source of his increasing unpopularity. On his accession he had
+handed over to his children the estates of the house of Orleans, in
+order that, as private property, they might not be forfeited with the
+loss of the crown. He was not content with increasing his wealth by
+adding to it all the possessions of _Charles X_. and of the
+_Duke of Bourbon_, but it was discovered that he was engaged in
+business ventures. In providing for ample marriage settlements for his
+children, he resorted to devices which gave offense to the Chamber of
+Deputies and to the public. Yet writers like _Martin_, who are
+strongly averse to his method of rule, clear him of blame in these
+particulars, if he is to be judged by what is usual in a monarchical
+system.
+
+THE SPANISH MARRIAGES.--An event of consequence in relation to the fall
+of Louis Philippe from power was the affair of the Spanish marriages,
+which took place under the ministry of Guizot. The _Duke de
+Montpensier_, the youngest son of the king, was married to the
+sister of _Isabella II_. of Spain. The design, it was believed,
+was, in the anticipated childlessness of the queen, to secure for his
+heirs the Spanish crown.
+
+_Ferdinand VII_. of Spain was an absolutist; but the extreme
+monarchical party there wished for a king of more energy, and desired
+to raise to the throne his brother _Don Carlos_. In 1830
+_Ferdinand_, being then childless, was induced by his wife, the
+daughter of _Ferdinand IV_. of Naples, to abrogate the Salic law
+excluding females from the succession. Her daughter _Isabella_ was
+born a few months later. After the death of the king (1833), the
+_Carlists_ resisted the exclusion of their favorite from the
+throne. _Don Carlos_ was proclaimed in the Basque provinces, and a
+civil war arose. The queen, _Maria Christina_, as regent, was
+supported by the _moderados_ (moderates) and the liberals, and was
+allowed to recruit for her army in England and France. The leading
+constitutionalist general, _Espartero_, was successful; and _Don
+Carlos_ fled into France (1839). The queen regent allied herself
+with the conservative wing of the progressive party (the
+_moderados_); but insurrections at _Barcelona_ and
+_Madrid_, in the interest of the radical wing, obliged her to make
+_Espartero_, the head of the movement, prime minister (1840). His
+administration greatly promoted the prosperity of the country. But the
+conservatives and absolutists were against him; and, as the result of a
+counter-insurrection, _Gen. Narvaez_, the leader of the
+conservatives, became chief of the cabinet (1844); but he was dismissed
+two years later. The constitution was divested of some of its liberal
+features. The queen, _Isabella II_., had been declared of age by
+the Cortes, and placed on the throne (Nov. 10, 1843). _Christina_,
+her dissolute mother, returned from France, whither she had fled. In
+the hope of securing the Spanish throne to the Orleans family, _Louis
+Philippe_ arranged with _Christina_ to effect a marriage
+between _Isabella_ and a weakling in body and mind, _Francis de
+Assis_; and, at the same time, a marriage of his son, the _Duke de
+Montpensier_, with her sister _Maria Louisa_ (Oct. 10,
+1846). An Orleans prince would not have acquired the crown, even if
+Louis Philippe had remained on the French throne, since a daughter was
+born to Isabella in 1851.
+
+There was loud complaint in England against the king and _Guizot_,
+for the alleged violation of a promise in this affair. Their defense
+was that _Lord Palmerston_, who succeeded _Aberdeen_, took a
+very different position from that of this minister, which had been the
+condition of the engagement. It was from _Palmerston's_ action
+previously in the affair of Egypt, that the French were embittered, the
+English alliance was weakened, and the policy of _Guizot_, who was
+sincerely desirous to maintain this friendly relation, was discredited
+at home.
+
+FALL OF LOUIS PHILIPPE.--The scarcity of provisions in 1846 and 1847
+provoked much discontent in France. "Bread riots" broke out in various
+places. The liberal party, composed of diverse elements, organized
+committees as one of their instruments of agitation in behalf of
+political reform. The democratic and socialistic journals published
+inflammatory discussions and appeals. The complaint of corruption among
+officials grew louder. Communism had numerous votaries; and _M. Louis
+Blanc_ was an apostle of socialism,--the theory that the government
+should furnish work and maintenance to all of its subjects. Great
+reform banquets were held, where the spirit was inimical to
+_Guizot_,--who would yield nothing to the popular clamor,--and
+hostile to the reactionary policy of the Orleans monarchy. The spark
+that kindled the flames of revolution was the prohibition by
+_Guizot_ of a great reform banquet appointed to be held on the 22d
+of February, 1848, in the _Champs Elysées_, in which a hundred
+thousand persons were expected to participate. On that day barricades
+were thrown up in the streets, and there were some conflicts with the
+municipal guard. These disturbances continued on the next day. The
+king, who did not lack physical courage, evinced no firmness or
+boldness in this crisis, dismissed _Guizot_ as a peace-offering,
+and called upon Count _Molé_ to form a cabinet. _Molé_
+declined; the riotous disturbances increased; and _Thiers_, on the
+promise of the king to consent to the reforms demanded, undertook, when
+it was too late, to take office, and try to pacify the people. Soldiers
+began to fraternize with the mob. The king showed no spirit, but
+abdicated in favor of his grandson, the _Count of Paris_. The
+_Duchess of Orleans_ presented her two sons, the count and his
+brother, before the Chamber of Deputies. But the motion for a
+provisional government prevailed (Feb. 24). It consisted of _Dupont
+de l'Eure, Lamartine_ the poet, _Arago, Ledru-Rollin_, and six
+associates. It established itself in the Hotel de Ville. This act, and
+the firmness and eloquence of _Lamartine_, prevented the
+establishment of an ultra-republican, socialistic Directory. The middle
+classes, alarmed on account of the displays of mob violence, rallied to
+the support of _Lamartine_ and the party of order. _Louis
+Philippe_ and his family were allowed to escape to England. There
+_Guizot_ temporarily took up his abode. After a year, this "last
+of the Huguenots" returned to France, where he died in 1874.
+
+CONTEST WITH SOCIALISTS.--A concession was made to the socialists in
+the establishment of government workshops, which turned out to be not
+workshops at all, but mere excavations. A mob of the Red Republicans
+was checked (April 16) by the National Guards. The National Assembly
+voted for a republic. Another mob of socialists and communists was
+suppressed (May 15). But the great contest came (June 23-26) when the
+government dismissed a part of those given employment on public
+works. The battle was severe; but the government troops under the
+command of a patriotic general, _Cavaignac_, who was made dictator
+during the struggle, subdued the insurgents. He was now appointed
+president of the council, or chief of the executive commission.
+
+THE REPUBLIC: LOUIS NAPOLEON.--Fear of communism and of mob violence
+gave a new impetus to the conservative tendency. A republican
+constitution, however, with a president holding for a term of four
+years, was adopted. _Louis Napoleon_ was elected a member of the
+assembly. He was chosen president of the republic, mainly by the votes
+of the peasantry and common soldiers, and with the help of
+_Thiers_ and others who thought him incapable, and desired to
+bring about a restoration of the Orleans rule.
+
+  _Thiers_ was a personal enemy of
+  _Cavaignac_. "_Thiers_" says _Martin_, "did not feel
+  the same repulsion for the consulate and the empire as does the
+  present generation: he took Louis Napoleon for an inexperienced and
+  somewhat narrow-minded man, whom he could easily restrain and direct,
+  not guessing the determined obstinacy and prejudice hidden beneath
+  his heavy and commonplace exterior."  (_Popular History of
+  France_ [from 1789], iii. 200.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III. EUROPE, FROM THE REVOLUTIONS OF 1848 TO THE
+AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR (1866).
+
+
+DISTURBANCES IN GERMANY.--The effect of the revolution which dethroned
+_Louis Philippe_ was felt like an electric shock through all
+Europe. It was experienced immediately in the smaller states of
+Germany. New ministries were installed, which were pledged to a liberal
+policy. _Louis of Bavaria_ resigned the crown to his son
+_Maximilian_. The _Grand Duke of Baden_ agreed to the demands
+of a popular convention at _Mannheim_, and he placed a liberal
+ministry in control of the government. _Prussia_ and
+_Austria_ were thoroughly disturbed by the movement for freedom
+and national unity. A rising in _Vienna_ (March 13-15), headed by
+the students, compelled _Metternich_ to depart for safety to
+England, the asylum of political exiles of every creed. The emperor
+summoned a Diet to be chosen by popular suffrage, and went for safety
+to _Innsbruck_ among his faithful Tyrolese. In _Berlin_, at
+the same time, there were excited meetings, and conflicts in the
+streets between the people and the soldiers. The Prussian king yielded
+to the demand of the crowd which gathered before his palace on the 18th
+of March, that the troops should be sent out of Berlin; but he did not
+send them away until the next day, and after an attack had been made on
+them from behind barricades. The ministry was dismissed, and a call was
+issued for a National Assembly to be chosen by ballot.
+
+THE FRANKFORT CONVENTION.--There was a gathering at _Frankfort_,
+of about five hundred Germans, who organized themselves as a
+provisional parliament under the presidency of _Mittermaier_
+(March 31). They resolved to call a National Assembly, to be elected by
+the German people. The Confederate Diet recognized the authority of the
+provisional parliament.
+
+THE FRANKFORT PARLIAMENT.--The National Assembly met on May 18, and
+created a new provisional central government, with the Archduke _John
+of Austria_ as its head. The Confederate Diet ceased to exist. But
+the division of parties in the assembly, with respect to the system of
+government for united Germany, gave rise to long and profitless
+discussions. Differences of opinion as to the steps to be taken in a
+war which had sprung up with Denmark, respecting the duchies of
+_Schleswig_ and _Holstein_, made the strife of factions in
+the parliament still more bitter.
+
+NEW PRUSSIAN CONSTITUTION.--The Prussian National Assembly met on May
+22. A hot contention arose between the moderate and the radical
+parties. At length the king adjourned the assembly to meet in
+_Brandenburg_; but the party of the "Left" (the radical party)
+protested, and was soon dispersed by force. In Brandenburg a quorum
+failed to meet. The government framed a constitution with two
+chambers,--the second to be chosen by universal suffrage,--and called a
+new parliament to consider it. The new parliament failed to agree with
+the government, but another parliament met (Aug. 7, 1849). Mutual
+concessions were made, and the king swore to maintain the new
+constitution (Feb. 6, 1850).
+
+AUSTRIA: END OF THE FRANKFORT ASSEMBLY.--The Diet of the Austrian
+Empire was a confused assembly representing different
+nationalities. _Kossuth_, an eloquent Hungarian deputy in the
+lower house, demanded independence for his country. The _Slavonic
+tribes_ resisted the supremacy of the _Magyars_. When the
+emperor took active measures against these (Oct. 6), there was an
+uprising in _Vienna_. The city was held by the revolutionists
+until the 30th, when it was captured by the emperor after much
+bloodshed. _Ferdinand I_ abdicated in favor of his young nephew,
+_Francis Joseph_. The Frankfort Assembly debated the question,
+what relation Austria should have to united Germany. A majority decided
+(March 27, 1849) that a president should be appointed, whose office
+should descend in his family, and that he should be styled "Emperor of
+the Germans." The station was offered to _Frederick William of
+Prussia_, but he declined it. The new constitution was not accepted
+by the more important states. The assembly dwindled away through the
+withdrawal or resignation of members, and, having adjourned to
+_Stuttgart_, was finally dispersed by the Würtemberg government
+(June 18). Its history was a grievous disappointment of ardent
+hopes. The Prussians helped the _Saxon_, _Bavarian_, and
+_Baden_ governments, to put down formidable and partially
+successful popular insurrections in their states.
+
+THE HUNGARIAN REVOLT.--Austria reduced her _German_ provinces to
+subjection, and early in 1849 the _Italian_ provinces also. But a
+great contest was to be waged with the _Hungarians_, who gathered
+an army of one hundred thousand men, and gained decided advantages over
+incompetent Austrian generals. But in the end Austria brought together
+overwhelming forces and was aided by the intervention of _Russia,_
+which sent an army into Hungary. The Hungarian general, _Gorgey,_
+whom _Kossuth_ and the ministers had made dictator, surrendered at
+_Vilagos_ (Aug. 13, 1849). _Kossuth_ and other Hungarian
+patriots fled into Turkey. Hungary was dealt with as conquered
+territory. The Austrian commander, _Haynau,_ treated the
+vanquished people with brutal severity. The Hungarian constitution was
+abolished. The general constitution of Austria was abrogated on
+Dec. 31, 1851.
+
+CONDITION OF ITALY.--_Charles Albert,_ the king of
+_Piedmont,_ or _Sardinia,_ disliked the preponderance of the
+Austrians, and desired to give his people good government, but was
+disinclined to enter into the schemes of "Young Italy," composed of the
+ardent republicans of whom _Mazzini_ was the chief. On this
+account they were exasperated with him. On the contrary, a great part
+of the "moderates" placed their hope for Italy in the Sardinian king
+and his house. To one of these, _D'Azeglio,_ a nobleman of high
+character, who reported to him, in 1845, the danger that revolutionary
+risings against misrule in Italy would occur, and set forth the
+necessity for a speedy remedy, the king said, "Make known to these
+gentlemen, that they must be quiet and not move, for at present nothing
+can be done; but let them be certain, that, if the occasion presents
+itself, my life, the life of my sons, my arms, my treasure, my army,
+all shall be devoted to the cause of Italy." In _Tuscany,_ there
+was much less oppression than elsewhere, but even there the government
+was despotic.
+
+LIBERAL POLICY OF PIUS IX.--On the death of _Gregory XVI._ (1846),
+Cardinal _Mastai Feretti_ was made Pope, and took the name of
+_Pius IX._ He adopted a new and liberal policy. Prisoners for
+political offenses were set free, an amnesty was proclaimed, and
+improvements--including railroads--were promised. The "Gregoriani," who
+were devoted to the old administrative system and to Austrian
+predominance, were offended. The Roman people generally were full of
+joy and hope. The extreme republicans were dissatisfied and
+suspicious. On the occasion of disturbances, the Pope consented to the
+formation of a National Guard, as the liberal party wished. The
+consequence was, that Austrian troops were marched into his
+territory. This movement roused _Charles Albert_ to espouse more
+actively the Italian cause. In Tuscany the Liberals, with
+_Ricasoli_ for a leader, drove the Grand Duke to measures of
+reform. Austrian aggressions were more severely felt in _Parma_
+and _Modena._ In _Palermo,_ there was a rising (Jan. 12)
+against the unbearable tyranny of _Ferdinand II._ This was
+followed by an insurrection in _Naples_ itself. The king was
+obliged to grant to his people a constitution. The same boon was
+granted by _Pius IX._, by the king of _Sardinia_, and by the
+_Tuscan_ Grand Duke. Italy, it should be observed, was already on
+fire with these revolutionary movements prior to the overthrow of the
+government of _Louis Philippe_. The earliest popular
+demonstrations at Milan were on Sept. 5 and 8, 1847.
+
+EVENTS IN ITALY.--The revolt in _Vienna_ and in _Hungary_ in
+1848 furnished the long-coveted occasion for the Italians to attack the
+hated Austrian rule. _Lombardy_ flew to arms, and expelled the
+Austrian troops. The _Venetians_ set up a provisional government
+under _Daniele Manin_, their leader in the insurrection. The king
+of Sardinia declared war against Austria. A multitude of Italian
+volunteers rushed to his standard. But there was no national league;
+his military management lacked skill; and after some successes he was
+defeated by _Radetzky_, the Austrian general, at _Custozza_
+(July 25). _Garibaldi_, who had been a sailor, but was now a
+gallant and adventurous champion of the Italian movement, kept up the
+contest in the mountains on the north. The Austrians were once more in
+power. The refusal of the Pope to take part in hostilities against them
+alienated the liberals. His best minister _Rossi_, who stood
+midway between the extreme parties, was assassinated (Nov. 15). From
+the disorder that reigned at _Rome, Pius IX._ escaped in the dress
+of a common priest to _Gaeta_. The extreme democrats in
+_Tuscany_ got the upper hand, and set up a provisional
+government. In _Piedmont, Gioberti_, the minister, gave way to
+_Ratazzi_, who was of the democratic school. But the dream of an
+Italian confederation was dissipated by the great defeat of _Charles
+Albert_ by _Radetzky_ at _Novara_ (March 23). The
+broken-hearted king resigned his crown to his son, _Victor
+Emmanuel_. In _Rome_, the government, after the flight of the
+Pope, was lodged in an assembly elected by popular suffrage, with
+triumvirs, of whom _Mazzini_ was the first. The French were not
+disposed to allow the Austrians to dominate in the peninsula, and sent
+an army under _Oudinot_, who captured _Rome_ from the
+republicans, after a stubborn defense by _Garibaldi_. A French
+garrison now occupied the city. The Pope, who had abandoned the idea of
+political changes in the direction of Italian freedom and unity, was
+brought back to the Vatican (April, 1850). By the close of the summer
+of 1849, the Austrian authority was restored, and was exercised with
+redoubled severity in _Venice_ and _Milan_. The rulers of
+_Tuscany, Modena_, and _Parma_ had before returned to their
+capitals. They were kept in power by means of Austrian garrisons. The
+will of Austria was law in the greater part of Italy. _Ferdinand
+II._ (called _Bomba_) maintained his tyranny by the help of
+Swiss mercenaries and loathsome dungeons. _Piedmont_ was the only
+spot where constitutional freedom survived. In its youthful monarch and
+in _Garibaldi_, the hope of Italy rested. The course of events
+ultimately proved that both the fire of the republicans and the
+prudence of more moderate statesmen were requisite for its
+emancipation.
+
+COUP D'ÉTAT OF LOUIS NAPOLEON.--The Legislative Assembly in France,
+consisting of one chamber, had in it many monarchists. As the
+_first_ Napoleon was sustained by the dread of Jacobin rule, so
+the _third_ Napoleon profited by the dread of the
+ultra-republicans.  It was felt by the trading-class, that the safety
+of society depended on him. When the French troops were sent to Rome in
+1849, the opposition of _Ledru-Rollin_ and his radical party
+became more furious. But _Changarnier_ and his troops dispersed
+their procession (June 13), and broke down their barricades. The Paris
+insurrection was put down, and _Ledru-Rollin_ fled the
+country. _Thiers_, _Broglie_, _Molé_,
+_Montalembert_, and other adherents of the Bourbons, either of the
+old or of the Orleans branch, now professed to yield to _Louis
+Napoleon_ their adhesion. His measures for the restraint of the
+press, the punishment of political offenses, etc., were popular,
+especially in the provinces. The clergy were favorable to him. The
+soldiers, in the autumn of 1850, began to shout "_Vive
+I'Empéreur!_" _Changarnier_ was removed from the command of the
+troops (Jan., 1851) when it was learned that his regiments did not join
+in the cry. Movements of this kind, together with petitions for a
+revision of the constitution, provoked hostility in the Assembly. The
+struggle between the president and that body culminated in the "_Coup
+d'État_" of December 2, 1851. _St. Arnaud_ had been appointed
+minister of war, the fidelity of the troops in Paris rendered sure, and
+all needful preparations made with profound secrecy. The president gave
+a great party on the night of the first. During the night, the
+republican and Orleanist leaders--_Cavaignac_, _Changarnier_,
+_Lamoricière_, _Thiers_, _Victor Hugo_, and many
+others--were surprised in their beds, and imprisoned. They were sent
+away in custody to different places. Placards were posted, dissolving
+the Assembly, and declaring Paris in a state of siege; also, an address
+submitting to the people the question whether there should be a
+responsible chief of state for ten years. The soldiers fired on
+gatherings of the people in the streets, killing many innocent persons,
+for the purpose of forestalling any attempt at resistance. The
+deputies, as they persisted in their purpose to meet, were surrounded,
+and placed under arrest. Within a few weeks many thousands of persons
+suspected of disaffection were exiled or imprisoned. Nearly seven and a
+half million votes were cast for _Napoleon_, and only 647,292
+against him. The political prisoners were released. _Thiers_ was
+allowed to return to Paris.
+
+NEW FRENCH EMPIRE.--A new constitution was promulgated (Jan. 14, 1852),
+resembling that which existed under the consulate. The Legislative
+Assembly was virtually stripped of power.
+
+One year later, the restoration of the Empire was decreed, and
+sanctioned by popular vote. The change was at first viewed with alarm
+by Austria, Prussia, and Russia. _Francis Joseph_ made a visit to
+_Berlin_, and was received with great honor. The two principal
+German sovereigns reviewed the troops of Berlin, in front of the bronze
+statue of _Blücher_. But _Napoleon_ declared that the Empire
+meant peace, and the other great powers followed the example of England
+in recognizing his imperial government.
+
+THE CRIMEAN WAR.--The administration of the French emperor was
+acceptable to the commercial classes, who prized tranquillity. He
+erected new edifices in _Paris_, and made many other improvements,
+which, however, had an eye to defense against popular insurrection, and
+involved much hardship for the poor. He married (Jan. 30, 1853) a young
+Spanish countess, _Eugénie Montijo_. What did most to give
+stability to his power, and to raise his repute in Europe, was the
+union of _France_ with _England_ in the prosecution of the
+Crimean war. The Emperor _Nicholas_ thought the time propitious
+for the aggressive ambition of _Russia_ with regard to
+_Turkey_. His plan of attack embraced a "provisional" occupation
+of _Constantinople_ by Russian troops. He had intimated to England
+that the situation of "the sick man"--meaning the decaying government
+of _Turkey_--opened the way for a division of the Turkish Empire
+between the two powers. _Lord Aberdeen_ was then prime minister in
+England, and _Mr. Gladstone_ was chancellor of the exchequer. The
+dispute of Russia with Turkey, which was the ostensible occasion of the
+war, related to the holy places in Jerusalem, the resort of worshipers
+of different creeds, and to the privileges accorded by the Sultan to
+the Greek and Latin Christians respectively. The claim of
+_Nicholas_ resolved itself into a demand to exercise a sole
+protectorate over the Christians of the Greek faith in the Turkish
+Empire. Without formally declaring war his forces crossed the
+_Pruth_. Alarm was awakened in Austria, in consequence of the
+Russian movements in that region. _Nicholas_ had only been able to
+secure neutrality from Prussia and Austria. _Louis Napoleon_ was
+anxious for war. _Lord Aberdeen_ was averse to it; but the
+pressure of _Lord Palmerston_ and his supporters was too strong,
+and war was declared (March 27, 1854) by _England_ and
+_France_ in alliance with _Turkey_. At first the Turks had
+unexpectedly gained advantages over the Russians, but the Turkish fleet
+was destroyed at _Sinope_ (Nov. 30, 1853). Approaches of Russia
+which portend the acquisition of the mouths of the Danube, or of any of
+the Slavonic districts of European Turkey, can only excite jealousy and
+apprehension on the side of Austria. Nicholas, on the demand of
+_Francis Joseph_, which was seconded by _Prussia_, evacuated
+the Danubian principalities, which were provisionally held by Austrian
+forces. The English and French fleets that were sent into the Baltic
+did not produce the effect that was anticipated by the allies. The
+shores of the Black Sea were the main theater of the conflict. The
+troops of the English and French landed at _Eupatoria_ in the
+_Crimea_ in September, 1854, and defeated the Russians in the
+battle of the _Alma_. There was a second engagement at
+_Balaklava_ (Oct. 25); and in the battle of _Inkermann_
+(Nov. 5) the attempt of the Russians to surprise the British forces met
+with a defeat. The effort of the allies was directed to the capture of
+the strong fortress of _Sebastopol. St. Arnaud_, the French
+general, had died, and been succeeded by _Canrobert_. Later,
+_Lord Raglan_, the English commander, died. The siege was
+prolonged. Once the batteries of _Malakoff_ and _Redan_ were
+attacked by the allies unsuccessfully; but, after a month's
+bombardment, both were taken by storm (Sept. 8, 1855), and
+_Malakoff_, which the French took, was held. The Russians blew up
+their forts at Sebastopol, and withdrew to the northern part of the
+fortress. Meantime _Nicholas_ had died (March 2, 1855), and been
+succeeded by _Alexander II.;_ and _Lord Aberdeen_ had been
+superseded by _Palmerston_ as head of the English ministry.
+
+PEACE OF PARIS (MARCH 30, 1856)--In the _Peace of Paris_, Russia
+was obliged to cede the mouths of the Danube and a small portion of
+_Bessarabia_ to _Moldavia_, to limit the number of her ships
+in the Black Sea, and to engage to establish no arsenals on its
+coast. The Black Sea was to be open to commerce, but interdicted to
+vessels of war. Russia gave up the claim to an exclusive protectorate
+over Christians in Turkey. She surrendered also the fortress of
+_Kars_ in Turkish Armenia, which she had
+captured. _Wallachia_ and _Moldavia_ were confirmed in
+important privileges of self-government, under the Porte. Austria,
+France, and Great Britain, in a distinct treaty, guaranteed the
+independence and integrity of the Ottoman Empire.
+
+  NEUTRALITY DECLARATIONS.--The parties to the Treaty of Paris
+  (including Austria and Prussia) united in four declarations on the
+  subject of neutrality, by which privateering was abolished, the
+  neutral flag was made to protect enemy's goods except contraband of
+  war, these goods under an enemy's flag were exempted from capture,
+  and it was ordained that blockades in order to be binding must be
+  effective. The _United States_ declined to concur in this
+  agreement unless the private property of subjects or citizens of a
+  belligerent power (unless it be contraband of war) should be also
+  exempted from seizure by armed vessels of the enemy. This rule, were
+  it adopted, would put private property on the _sea_ on a level
+  with private property on the _land_, in case of war.
+
+WAR OF FRANCE AND SARDINIA WITH AUSTRIA.--After the contests of
+1848-49, Victor _Emmanuel II_. was looked on by all except the
+ardent republicans of the school of _Mazzini_ as the champion of
+Italian independence. He made _Azeglio_ his chief minister, and
+_Cavour_ his minister of commerce. Various reforms were adopted,
+especially for the reduction of the power and wealth of
+ecclesiastics. The rapid progress of administrative changes led
+_Azeglio_ to withdraw from office. _Cavour_, his successor, a
+statesman of broad views and consummate ability, began to plan not only
+for the Sardinian kingdom, but likewise for all Italy. By his advice,
+Sardinia joined England and France in the Crimean war. At the Congress
+of Paris (1856), he spread before the European powers the deplorable
+misgovernment at Naples and in the other states of Southern Italy. He
+denounced a plot against the life of _Louis Napoleon_, which
+_Orsini_, a Roman, and a member of a secret society, tried to
+carry out, but failed (Jan. 14, 1858). Communications and a personal
+interview between _Napoleon_ and _Cavour_ followed. An
+alliance was formed, one of the objects of which was the expulsion of
+the Austrians from Italy. _Prince Napoleon_, the son of Louis
+Napoleon's uncle _Jerome_, was married to _Clotilde_, the
+daughter of _Victor Emmanuel_. Napoleon's ministers were opposed
+to a war with Austria, and he himself affected to have no intention of
+that kind. Russia proposed a congress; but Austria refused to admit
+Sardinia, or to join it herself, unless that power should immediately
+disarm. Russia was at that moment unfriendly to Austria, which had
+refused to help the Czar in the Crimean war. Prussia, also, showed a
+disinclination to interfere. _France_ and _Sardinia_ declared
+war against _Austria_, and _Napoleon_ proclaimed that he
+would free Italy, from the Alps to the Adriatic (May, 1859). As the war
+began, a revolt broke out in _Tuscany_. The Tuscan Duke, the
+Duchess regent of _Parma_, and the Duke of _Modena_, had to
+fly from their capitals. _Cavour_ accepted help from all Italian
+patriots except the adherents of _Mazzini_, to whom were imputed
+schemes of assassination. _Garibaldi_ led the "Riflemen of the
+Alps."  _Louis Napoleon_ commanded the French army in person. The
+French were victorious at _Magenta_ (June 4), where
+_MacMahon_ was made a marshal. At the battle of _Solferino_
+(June 24), all of the three contending sovereigns were present. The
+Austrians were vanquished with very heavy losses. At this time
+_Napoleon_, unexpectedly to his Italian ally, in a personal
+interview with _Francis Joseph_ at _Villafranca_, arranged
+preliminaries of peace, which provided, to be sure, for the cession of
+_Lombardy_ to Sardinia, but left _Venice_ and the
+"Quadrilateral,"--as the district, with its fortifications, east of the
+Mincio, was called,--under the Austrian rule. It was proposed that an
+Italian confederation should be formed, with the Pope for its honorary
+president,--a plan not destined to be realized. The Grand Duke of
+_Tuscany_ and the Duke of _Modena_ were to be restored, could
+it be done without a resort to arms. Napoleon was afraid of a long
+war. Russia was not disposed to suffer him to stir up a revolution in
+Hungary. Prussia might soon intervene; and this, Austria, too, did not
+anticipate without anxiety, since Prussia would thereby become
+predominant in Germany. _Cavour_, in disgust and indignation at
+this premature close of the struggle, laid down his office.
+
+FURTHER EXTENSION OF THE SARDINIAN KINGDOM.--Tuscany, Modena, and
+Parma, and Romagna which belonged to the Pope, by deputies implored
+_Victor Emmanuel_ to annex them to his kingdom. _Plus
+IX_. made the most strenuous opposition. _Napoleon_ refused to
+use coercion, or to suffer it to be used by others, to carry out the
+Villafranca arrangements in the duchies. _Cavour_ was recalled to
+office in 1860; and at his suggestion, made to _Napoleon_, the
+communities just named were allowed to dispose of themselves by popular
+vote. The result was their incorporation in the Sardinian kingdom. By
+way of compensation to _Napoleon_, _Savoy_ and _Nice_
+were ceded by the Sardinian government to France. The Pope
+excommunicated all invaders and usurpers of the Papal States, without
+the mention of names.
+
+ANNEXING OF NAPLES AND SICILY.--The next great event in Italy was the
+expulsion of _Francis II_., the tyrant who reigned in
+_Naples_ and _Sicily_ after the death of Ferdinand
+II. (1859).  _Garibaldi_, without the consent of the Sardinian
+government, raised the standard of revolt in Sicily (1860), and
+conquered the island. The king and _Cavour_ feared that his
+movement would give control to the republicans, and also bring Sardinia
+into war with other powers. But, despite this opposition,
+_Garibaldi_ entered _Naples_ as a victor, and was joined by
+_Mazzini_. The Sardinian troops entered the Papal States, which
+the king had threatened to do unless the guerilla attacks of pontifical
+troops in the south were suppressed. The French general,
+_Lamoricière_, in the service of the pontiff, was defeated at
+_Castelfidardo_. _Garibaldi_, triumphant in the Neapolitan
+kingdom, met _Victor Emmanuel_ in the Abruzzi, and hailed him as
+"King of Italy." _Naples_ and _Sicily_ voted to join the
+kingdom of Sardinia. With the exception of _Venice_ and the
+_Roman Campagna_, the whole of Italy was now united under the
+house of Savoy. On Feb. 18, 1861, the first parliament of united Italy
+was opened by _Cavour_. Shortly after, there was a public
+reconciliation between him and _Garibaldi_, between whom there had
+been an estrangement.
+
+In addition to _Garibaldi's_ general and constant dissent from the
+moderate policy of _Cavour_, the former was displeased that his
+soldiers had not been rewarded with higher positions in the Sardinian
+army than it was practicable or safe to grant to them. _Cavour_
+believed that society was on the march towards democracy, but that no
+republic, at the present, in Italy could be stable. _Cavour_ had
+his heart set on gaining Rome for the capital of the kingdom, and on
+establishing "a free church in a free state." He did not live to see
+the realization of his hopes. His death occurred (May 30, 1861),
+shortly after the amicable interview with the republican patriot, to
+which reference has just been made.
+
+"THE SEPTEMBER CONVENTION."--The hope of the national party in Italy
+was now directed towards the gaining of _Venice_ and
+_Rome_. But, as regards Austria, the European powers would not
+have suffered a breach of the Peace of Villafranca. _Louis
+Napoleon_ had assumed the part of protector of the Holy See, and a
+French garrison was stationed at Rome. After Cavour's death,
+_Ricasoli_, the head of the ministry, led the constitutional
+party; and _Ratazzi_, who succeeded him and had been more in
+sympathy with the Garibaldians, did not deviate from his predecessor's
+cautious policy. The relations of the Italian government to France,
+even obliged the king to interfere to put down a rising, set on foot by
+_Garibaldi_, for driving the French out of Rome. Garibaldi was
+defeated by the Sardinian troops at _Aspromonte_ (Aug. 27, 1862),
+and taken to _Spezzia_. Thence he went to _Caprera_. The
+liberal party in Europe were incensed with _Louis Napoleon_. This
+was one inducement that moved him to enter into an agreement with
+_Victor Emmanuel_, by which France engaged to withdraw her troops
+gradually from Rome, leaving the Pope to form an army of his own;
+while, on the other hand, the king engaged (Sept. 1864) to prevent any
+attack on the papal territory. The French minister of foreign affairs
+said to the Italian minister at Paris, "Naturally the result of all
+this will be that you will end by going to Rome;" but matters were to
+be so managed that France should not be held responsible. This was the
+_September Convention_. _Florence_ was made the capital of
+Italy; but it was acknowledged that this was a temporary arrangement,
+and that, as soon as the progress of events should open the way, the
+seat of government would be transferred to Rome. After the withdrawal
+of the French troops in 1866, _Garibaldi_, with the connivance of
+the Italian government,--in which _Ratazzi_, who had been obliged
+to leave his office, was again the ruling spirit,--once more gathered a
+force for the capture of Rome (1867); but France interfered, and the
+advance of Garibaldi was checked at _Mentana_ by French
+troops. Afterwards _Napoleon_ again placed a French garrison in
+Rome. _Ratazzi_, whose scheme of capturing Rome by
+non-interference was balked, had to lay down his office. The next step
+towards Italian unity was to be a result of the _Austro-Prussian_
+war.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. EUROPE, FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR TO
+THE END OF THE FRANCO-GERMAN WAR (1866-1871).
+
+
+RIVALSHIP OF PRUSSIA AND AUSTRIA.--The brief but mighty struggle which
+secured for Prussia the preponderance in Germany grew immediately out
+of complications respecting _Schleswig-Holstein_. It was, however,
+the fruit of a rivalship which had been gaining in intensity since the
+times of Frederick the Great. It was the grand triumph of Prussia,
+after a long succession of defeats and humiliations in the field of
+diplomacy.
+
+SCHLESWIG-HOLSTEIN.--The two duchies of _Holstein_ and
+_Schleswig_ had long been annexed to the crown of Denmark, whose
+king, as Duke of Holstein, was a member of the German
+Confederation. The two duchies, as regards their government, did not
+stand on the same footing; but the people of _Holstein_ and the
+German portion of the _Schleswig_ people held that by a treaty in
+1460 the two duchies could not be separated. Moreover, the law of
+succession in the duchies excluded the female line, and when there was
+a prospect that the male line of the Danish dynasty would die out the
+Germans wished the duchies to become independent under an Augustenburg
+prince while the Danes wished to absorb the duchies in Denmark. In 1848
+the Germans of Schleswig-Holstein revolted against _Frederick
+VII._ The troops of the German confederation assisted them; but the
+attitude of England and Russia, which favored the Danes, moved Prussia
+to conclude the armistice of _Malmö_,--an act that excited the
+anger of the German National Assembly at Frankfort. After the
+expiration of the truce, the war, with intermissions, went on, waged by
+Schleswig-Holstein, alone or with aid from Germany; later in a
+protocol--an agreement signed in _London_ in 1852 by the Great
+Powers, in which Austria and Prussia concurred,--the king of Denmark
+and his heirs were guaranteed in the possession of the duchies. This
+act, however, was not accepted by the duchies themselves, or by the
+Diet of the German Confederation; so that the seeds of strife still
+remained.
+
+PREPONDERANCE OF AUSTRIA.--After the suppression of the revolts of
+1848, Austria, whose counsels were guided by the astute minister
+_Schwarzenberg_, labored to dwarf and supplant the influence of
+Prussia. _Frederick William IV_. of Prussia aimed to bring about a
+closer union of German states, and called a national parliament to meet
+at _Erfurt_. Austria withstood these attempts. The disposition of
+Prussia to support the resistance in _Hesse_ to the tyranny of its
+elector, threatened to bring on an armed contest with Austria and its
+German allies; but the attitude of Russia caused Prussia to desist from
+its movement. At the conference at _Olmütz_ (1850),
+_Manteuffel_, the Prussian minister, yielded every thing to
+Austria; and subsequently, under the influence of Russia, the German
+Confederation of 1815 was restored. Prussia took no part with the
+Western powers in the Crimean war, with which it had no direct concern,
+and thus did not, like Austria, make herself obnoxious to the Czar.
+
+WILLIAM I: BISMARCK.--On the accession of _William I_. as regent
+(Oct. 1857), the Prussian government initiated a more spirited and
+independent policy in its relations to Austria. It refused to lend
+active aid to that country in the war with France and Sardinia
+(1859). The efficient measures of King _William_ for the
+reorganization and increase of the army encountered constant
+opposition, year after year, in the assembly, from the liberal party,
+which did not divine his motives, and saw in them nothing but the
+usurping of an unconstitutional authority. In 1862 the king made
+_Bismarck_ minister of foreign affairs, and the virtual head of
+the administration. This able man had widened his knowledge of European
+politics by serving as ambassador first at _St. Petersburg_ and
+then at _Paris_. Previously he had been allied with the absolutist
+party of _Manteuffel_: he was always for "strong government."
+After 1851, when he was delegate of Prussia at the Federal Diet at
+_Frankfort_, he made up his mind to deliver Prussia from the
+domineering influence of Austria. But he was held in distrust by the
+Prussian liberals, who saw in him only an energetic supporter of the
+king in his reform of the army by acts of arbitrary power not warranted
+by the constitution. In 1863 _Francis Joseph_ summoned a congress
+of German princes to _Frankfort_ to frame a new German
+constitution; but as Prussia stood aloof, nothing was
+accomplished. There was much bitterness between the two states. For the
+moment, however, attention was diverted by the aspect of affairs in
+_Schleswig-Holstein_.
+
+EVENTS LEADING TO WAR.--On March 30, 1863, _Frederick VII_. of
+Denmark issued a decree for the separation of _Schleswig_, and its
+incorporation in Denmark. The troops of the German Confederacy were
+sent by the Diet into _Holstein_. Prussia and Austria, who held
+that the Danes had broken the Treaty of 1852, announced their agreement
+to prosecute the war with Denmark as independent powers, apart from the
+confederation. They persisted in this purpose, and their victories over
+the Danes compelled _Christian IX_. to sign a treaty (Oct. 30,
+1864) by which he resigned his rights in the duchies in favor of the
+emperor of Austria and the king of Prussia. How should the duchies be
+disposed of? It was _Bismarck's_ aim to annex them to Prussia,
+which was sorely in need of seaports. He professed that the war had
+abrogated the London Treaty of 1852. The prime object of Austria was to
+prevent Prussia from making this gain. The dispute was hot and
+threatening; but in the _Gastein Convention_ (Aug. 14, 1865),
+_Lauenburg_ (which the Danes had also ceded) was sold to Prussia,
+and the disposition of the duchies was left to be determined later.
+Meantime the Prussians were to hold _Schleswig_, and the Austrians
+_Holstein_. The Prussians were, moreover, to hold provisionally
+the port of _Kiel_. The scheme of Austria was to hand over the
+debated question to the Diet of the Confederation, where it could
+command a majority. To this Prussia would not consent, but demanded
+that the Confederacy should be reconstituted in such a that Prussia, as
+well as Germany, might have strength in the event of a European
+war. _Bismarck_ made a secret treaty with Sardinia, which provided
+that Prussia and Sardinia should act together in case of war with
+Austria, and that peace should not be made until _Venetia_ had
+been given up to the kingdom of Italy. When Austria convoked the
+estates of _Holstein_ Prussia retorted by sending twenty thousand
+troops into _Holstein_. The Austrian force, which was inferior,
+retired. When the Confederation (June 14) passed a motion made by
+Austria to put the confederate troops, not Austrian or Prussian, on a
+war footing, the Prussian plenipotentiary protested, and declared the
+Diet dissolved. He also presented a new constitution as the basis of a
+new league of states, from which Austria was to be excluded. Prussia
+issued a proclamation, to the effect that the purpose of the war that
+was now to begin was the union of Germany, and the establishment of a
+free parliament of the German nation.
+
+THE AUSTRO-PRUSSIAN WAR.--The Prussian military plans were the work of
+_Von Moltke_, chief of the general staff, who was without a
+superior in military science. They were carried out with astonishing
+precision and celerity. On June 15 Prussia required _Saxony_,
+_Hanover_, and _Hesse_ to disarm, to remain neutral, and to
+send delegates to a German parliament. A few hours were given them to
+decide. They refused the demand, and on the 16th the Prussian forces
+marched into their lands. On that day they seized the capital of
+_Hesse_, and took the elector prisoner. On the 29th they had
+surrounded _King George of Hanover_, and he was compelled to
+surrender with his whole army. The main Austrian army, under
+_Benedek_, made up of contingents from the various nations subject
+to the emperor, with the troops of Saxony, one of his German allies,
+were gathered in _Bohemia_. Thither three Prussian armies moved,
+on different lines, as they were directed by telegraph from
+Berlin. Several battles occurred. The armies approached one another,
+but were purposely kept apart. On June 30 _King William_ and
+_Von Moltke_ left Berlin. On the 2d of July it was determined to
+attack the Austrians the next day; and word was sent to the crown
+prince, whose division was not so far that he could not bring up his
+forces to take part in the combat. In the morning the battle of
+_Sadowa_, in which between two hundred thousand and three hundred
+thousand men were in each of the contending hosts, began. It raged
+until noon, with no decisive advantage on either side. At two o'clock
+the division of the crown prince, after a hard march, arrived; and
+their attack on the flank of the Austrians was the signal for a forward
+movement along the whole Prussian line. The battle in its course
+resembled that of _Waterloo_. The defeat of the Austrians
+virtually decided the whole contest. _Francis Joseph_ asked France
+to mediate, but Prussia and Italy refused to consent to the
+proposal. The Austrian emperor ceded _Venice_ by telegraph to
+_Louis Napoleon_. The Austrians had defeated the Italians at
+_Custozza_ (June 24), and in a naval battle at _Lissa_. But a
+great part of the Austrian army it was necessary to transfer to the
+North.
+
+THE PEACE OF PRAGUE: THE PEACE OF VIENNA.--The Peace of Prague was
+concluded between Prussia and Austria (Aug. 23, 1866). Austria was
+excluded from Germany, and gave up her rights in
+_Schleswig-Holstein_ to Prussia. At the request of Prussia,
+_Venice_ was ceded to Italy. _Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover,
+Hesse-Cassel, Nassau_, and _Frankfort_ were incorporated in
+Prussia. The population of Prussia from about nineteen millions was
+increased to twenty-three millions five hundred thousand. In the Peace
+of Vienna (Oct. 3), Austria recognized the kingdom of Italy, to which
+_Venice_ had been ceded.
+
+NORTH GERMAN CONFEDERATION.--The South German states remained
+independent; but the _North German Confederation_ was formed,
+under the leadership of Prussia, which was to have control of the
+military forces of its members. In the council of the Confederation,
+Prussia was to have seventeen votes, and the other states together
+twenty-six votes. An imperial Diet was established, the members of
+which were to be elected by general suffrage. _Bismarck_ was made
+chancelor of the Confederation.
+
+THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN EMPIRE.--The war with Prussia was followed by the
+political reorganization of the Austro-Hungarian empire on a more
+liberal basis. _Von Beust_, who had been a Saxon minister, became
+minister of foreign affairs (1866), and afterwards president of the
+ministry and chancellor of the empire. The Hungarian constitution of
+1848 was restored, and a separate ministry was constituted for
+_Hungary_; while, as regards the army and foreign affairs of both
+divisions of the empire, an imperial ministry was established. The
+_Cisleithan_ division, composed of the German and Slavonic
+provinces, was to have its own ministry and constitution. This
+conferred on the people and their representatives "rights and
+privileges of the greatest importance,--equality of all citizens before
+the law, freedom of the press, right of association and meeting,
+complete liberty of faith and conscience, the unrestricted right to
+impose taxes and levy recruits, etc." The reconciliation with Hungary
+having been effected, _Francis Joseph_ was crowned as King of
+Hungary at _Pesth. Transylvania_ and _Croatia_ were united
+with Hungary. Great legal improvements in Austria ensued. The army was
+re-constituted after the example of the Prussian military system. There
+was an improvement in financial administration. Marriage by civil
+contract was authorized; and on subjects connected with marriage, the
+clergy were deprived of jurisdiction. The control of education, except
+religious education, was assumed by the state. In case of marriage
+between Catholics and Protestants, the male children were to be
+educated according to the faith of the father; the female children,
+according to that of the mother.
+
+LOUIS NAPOLEON BAFFLED.--The Austro-Prussian war hastened the downfall
+of _Louis Napoleon_. The only consolation which the French had for
+the loss of freedom at home was power and reputation abroad. The
+astonishing rapidity of the Prussians, and the overwhelming success of
+their arms, had disconcerted the schemes of the French emperor. The
+defeat of Austria was so quick and so complete that he could not come
+in as mediator between the belligerents, and manage to secure the
+extension of France to its "natural frontiers" on the Rhine. He was
+baffled by _Bismarck's_ diplomacy, as before he had been outwitted
+by _Cavour_; for Napoleon had wished, not a united Italy, but
+simply a Northern Kingdom. The French felt humiliated at the sight of
+military achievements parallel to those by which in other days they had
+disposed of the fate of Prussia herself. The opposing factions grew
+bolder in their attitude towards the Napoleonic government. The emperor
+made cautious attempts to secure cessions of territory from Prussia on
+the Rhine, but was met with a blunt refusal from _Bismarck_. He
+then sought to purchase from the king of Holland, _Luxemburg_,
+which had formerly belonged to the German Confederation. This attempt
+was resisted by _Prussia_, and war seemed imminent; but it was
+finally settled at the _London Conference_, that the duchy should
+be neutral territory, and that the fortress, which had been occupied by
+the Prussians, should be demolished. Germany was making progress
+towards a more complete union. A customs parliament, representing all
+the states, met at _Berlin_ in May, 1868. Before that time,
+treaties of offensive and defensive alliance had been made between the
+_North German Confederation_ and _Würtemberg_, _Baden_,
+and _Bavaria_. They were published on March 17, 1867.
+
+BEGINNING OF THE FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR.--As _Louis Napoleon_, or
+those who held sway in his counsels, were bent on war with Prussia, a
+pretext was easily found. The bad administration of _Queen
+Isabella_ of Spain, and her personal misconduct, caused
+insurrections to break out in 1868; and she was obliged to fly to
+France. A provisional government was established under
+Gens. _Serrano_ and _Prim_, and Señor _Olozaga_. Later
+(1869) _Serrano_ was made regent. The Cortes in 1870 offered the
+Spanish crown to Prince _Leopold_ of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who
+belonged to a younger branch of King _William's_ family. The
+proposal was regarded in France with indignation, as a new step in the
+upbuilding of Prussian power. King _William_ was required to
+forbid his relative's candidacy, which he declined to do. The prince,
+however, of his own accord withdrew. Not satisfied with this issue of
+the affair, _Napoleon_ insisted that the Prussian king should
+engage never to support the candidacy of a Hohenzollern prince for the
+Spanish crown. _William_, who was at _Ems_, told the French
+ambassador, _Benedetti_, that he could not give a promise of this
+sort. When the question was again raised he sent an aide-de-camp,
+declining to discuss the matter further. This act was represented at
+Paris as an insult to France, and orders were issued to mobilize the
+army. The king, on his way to Berlin, was met at the Brandenburg
+station by the crown prince, _Von Moltke_, _Von Roon_, the
+able war minister, and _Bismarck_. The Confederate Diet assembled
+July 19, and placed its resources at the disposal of the king. The
+French declaration of war was received on the same day. _Bavaria_,
+_Würtemberg_, and the _South German States_, contrary to the
+unreasonable expectation of _Napoleon_, allied themselves with
+Prussia. In a moment all Germany was ablaze. The recollection of the
+days of the first _Napoleon_, and of the war of liberation, filled
+the whole land with patriotic enthusiasm. More than a million of men
+took the field in defense of the fatherland.
+
+EVENTS TO SEDAN.--At the outset _Napoleon_ tried to modify the
+plans _Marshal Niel_ had drawn up in 1867 for such an emergency,
+and which called for three armies. He unwisely attempted to unite all
+the troops under his own command. Had he been able by a bold initiative
+to have gained a foothold in South Germany, _Italy_ and
+_Austria_ would probably have come to his support. But the French
+army was not in the state of full readiness which had been alleged to
+exist. The masterly dispositions of _Von Moltke_, and the swift
+movements of the Germans, broke up the French programme. The three
+great divisions of the German army were led by _Steinmetz_, Prince
+_Frederick Charles_, the king's nephew, and the crown prince,
+_Frederick William_. They advanced towards the boundary from
+_Treves_ to _Landau_. Three victories of the Germans--at
+_Weissenburg_ (Aug. 4), over Marshal _MacMahon_ at
+_Wörth_ (Aug. 6), and at _Spicheren_ on the same
+day--compelled the French army to retreat towards the Moselle. The
+Baden division was left to besiege _Strasburg_. The next great
+battles, of which _Gravelotte_ (Aug. 18) was the most hotly
+contested, were fought for the purpose of preventing Marshal
+_Bazaine_ from joining with the main army the forces of
+_MacMahon_. _Bazaine_ was defeated, and confined with his
+immense body of troops in and about the fortress of _Metz_; and
+his efforts to break through the German lines were baffled. The
+Prussian crown prince and the crown prince of Saxony, with their
+combined armies, proceeded against _MacMahon_. The defeats of the
+French had occasioned such wrath at Paris, that the ministry of
+_M. Ollivier_ was compelled to retire (Aug. 10), and it was not
+safe for the emperor, who was with _MacMahon_, to return to the
+capital. The French general concentrated his forces at _Sedan_. On
+Sept. 1 the decisive battle was fought. The French were worsted and
+surrounded. The Emperor _Napoleon_ yielded his sword to King
+_William_. The terms of capitulation were agreed upon by _Von
+Moltke_ and Gen. _Wimpffen_ (_MacMahon_ being disabled by
+a wound), while other matters of a civil nature were arranged between
+_Napoleon_ and _Bismarck_. The army that was surrendered
+numbered eighty-two thousand men, with fifty generals and five thousand
+other officers.
+
+SIEGE OF PARIS: SURRENDER OF METZ.--As soon as the news of _Sedan_
+reached Paris, the imperial government fell to pieces. The Empress
+_Eugénie_ escaped to England. A republic was proclaimed; and a new
+government was improvised, composed of enemies of the Empire, who
+belonged to different parties. _Trochu_ was president, and
+governor of Paris; _Jules Favre_, a moderate republican, was
+minister of foreign affairs; and _Gambetta_, an extreme
+republican, was minister of the interior. The wish was for peace; but
+the inexorable demand of the Germans for the cession of _Alsace_
+and _Lorraine_, once parts of Germany, and now asserted to be
+necessary for its defense against future attack from France, called out
+a united and indignant spirit of resistance. The defense of
+_Paris_ was undertaken with extraordinary energy: a large army was
+collected there, and a great supply of provisions was gathered. The
+siege of Paris was prosecuted by the Germans with an equally
+unflinching determination, from Sept. 19, 1870, to Jan. 28,
+1871. Repeated sallies of the French troops, although made with much
+spirit, failed of success. The efforts to break the Prussian lines of
+connection with Paris, and to compel them by movements from without to
+raise the siege, were likewise baffled. _Gambetta_ escaped from
+Paris in a balloon, and at _Tours_ directed in the formation of
+two armies,--the army of the _Loire_, and the northern army, both
+of which were defeated. _Strasburg_ capitulated (Sept. 27); and a
+month later (Oct. 27) _Bazaine_ surrendered _Metz_, with
+three marshals, three thousand officers, and one hundred and
+seventy-three thousand soldiers. The main army of France was thus lost.
+
+WILLIAM MADE EMPEROR: SURRENDER OF PARIS.--While the siege of Paris was
+in progress, all the princes of Germany, and the senates of the three
+free towns, united in the resolution to offer to the President of the
+Confederation the title of Emperor. Accordingly, on Jan. 18, 1871, King
+_William_, in the Hall of Mirrors at _Versailles_, was
+formally proclaimed Emperor of Germany. On the next day _Trochu_
+led the final sortie from Paris, of a hundred thousand men, which was
+repulsed after a severe contest. The provisions in the city were nearly
+exhausted, and on Jan. 23 an armistice for twenty-one days was
+signed. Paris surrendered on the 28th; and on the first day of March a
+national convention at Bordeaux accepted the preliminaries of peace,
+which included the cession of _Alsace_ and the German part of
+_Lorraine_ with _Metz_, and the payment of an indemnity of
+five thousand million francs. _Thiers_, who was elected chief of
+the executive department (Feb. 17), had managed the negotiations with
+_Bismarck_ at _Versailles_, and urged the acceptance of them
+on the convention.
+
+THE GERMAN IMPERIAL CONSTITUTION.--The first Diet of the new German
+Empire was opened at _Berlin_ on March 21. The constitution of it
+left to each state the management of its domestic affairs. To the
+imperial government, with the Federal Council or _Bundesrath_, the
+_Reichstag_, and the emperor were relegated the affairs of common
+interest. The president of the Council was the imperial chancellor:
+_Bismarck_ was appointed to that office. The _Reichstag_ was
+composed of deputies chosen by general suffrage. The chancellor is not
+responsible to the Reichstag, but to the emperor. Power has not passed
+from the monarch to the representatives of the people.
+
+CONTEST WITH THE COMMUNISTS: REPUBLICAN CONSTITUTION.--After the
+conditions of peace with the Germans were settled, _Paris_ had to
+pass through a terrible period of disorder. The communists were bent on
+establishing municipal independence, or the self-government of the
+_Commune_, and a democratic republic. They demanded a federation
+of the townships, or _communes_, and distrusted the republicanism
+of the officials who were in the exercise of power. They are not to be
+confounded with _communists_ in the socialistic sense: only a
+small fraction of the communal government, or central committee, were
+socialists. The party comprised a multitude of fanatical democrats of
+the lower classes, who were ready for the most violent measures. They
+had risen several times during the siege of Paris, and had tried to
+seize on power, but had been put down by the troops. After the
+surrender of Paris, they gained possession of the northern part of the
+city, and fortified it. The attempt to get back the cannon which they
+had seized caused a great communist uprising (March 18, 1871). A new
+reign of terror began. _Darboy_, the Archbishop of Paris, and many
+others, were murdered. _MacMahon_, acting for the Assembly,
+besieged Paris anew; the Germans being neutral in the forts that were
+still left, according to the treaty, in their hands. In the fierce
+struggle for the possession of the city, the principal buildings of
+Paris were set on fire by the savage communistic mob. The Tuileries,
+the Hôtel de Ville, and a part of the Palais Royal, with other public
+edifices, were destroyed. The insurrection was at length suppressed,
+and severe punishments were inflicted. A large number of the
+ringleaders were either shot or transported.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V. EUROPE, THE THIRD FRENCH REPUBLIC, AND THE UNION OF ITALY
+(1871-).
+
+
+COMPLETED UNION OF ITALY.--When the war between Prussia and France
+broke out, the republicans in Italy were disposed to take possession of
+_Rome_ at once. _Mazzini_ urged them to this step. The king,
+however, was bound by the agreement with France to prevent this action;
+which, moreover, might have divided, instead of uniting,
+Italy. _Mazzini_ was arrested, and sent to _Gaeta_. But with
+the fall of Napoleon, on the declaration of _Jules Favre_ that the
+"September Convention" (p. 574) was at an end, _Victor Emmanuel_,
+professing that he was bound to maintain order in the peninsula, sent
+his troops into _Rome_. The Pope lost his temporal dominions, and
+was limited to the title and prerogatives of the spiritual head of the
+Catholic Church. The seat of the Italian government was removed to the
+ancient capital (July 1, 1871). The present king, _Umberto I._,
+ascended the throne 1878.
+
+PIUS IX.: THE COUNCIL OF THE VATICAN.--The long pontificate of _Pius
+IX_. was distinguished by important acts having relation to the
+doctrine and discipline of the Roman Catholic Church. In 1854 he
+promulgated the declaration of the _Immaculate Conception of the
+Virgin Mary_. He thus determined authoritatively a question which
+had long been debated in the schools of theology. Ten years later
+(1864) he issued an _Encyclical_, together with a _Syllabus_
+of Errors, in which, besides the condemnation of opinions in matters of
+faith which were adjudged heterodox, various alleged encroachments of
+the civil authority and heretical views respecting the control of the
+state in reference to marriage, education, etc., were denounced. The
+views thus condemned are such as the kingdom of Belgium had recognized,
+and France and some other Roman Catholic countries have shown
+themselves willing to accept. In 1869 the Oecumenical _Council of the
+Vatican_ assembled, and after long debate sanctioned the doctrine of
+papal infallibility; that is, they promulgated the dogma that the Pope,
+when addressing the whole Church on a subject of morals or theology, is
+kept by the Spirit of God from enunciating error.
+
+"OLD CATHOLICS."--Most of those who had strenuously endeavored to
+prevent this action, either because they considered it inexpedient, or
+disbelieved in the doctrine which it established, acquiesced in the
+decision of the council. There were some persevering dissentients,
+however, in Germany especially, of whom Dr. _Döllinger_ was the
+most distinguished. They organized themselves as a distinct body, under
+the name of "Old Catholics."  They were mostly educated persons; the
+party had no root among the common people. In France, the most
+distinguished of them was Père _Hyacinthe_, a preacher of much
+popularity and eloquence.
+
+REVOLUTIONS IN SPAIN.--After the revolution attended by the flight of
+Queen _Isabella_ from Spain (1868), a majority of the Cortes
+decided for a monarchy, although many desired a republic. In 1870
+_Amadeus_, the second son of the King of Italy, accepted the
+crown. But he found it impossible to restore order and peace, and
+Feb. 11, 1873, abdicated the throne. A bloody conflict of factions
+ensued. _Don Carlos_, the new Pretender of that name, raised his
+standard in the North. The Cortes were for a federal
+republic. _Castelar_, who as president was at the head of the
+government, and after him Marshal _Serrano_, by whom he was
+superseded, made no decisive progress against the
+Carlists. _Alfonso_, the youthful son of _Isabella_, was
+proclaimed king by General _Martinez Campos_; and the army
+pronounced in his favor (Dec. 29, 1874). _Serrano_ laid down his
+office. The Carlist revolt was crushed, and _Don Carlos_ driven
+out of the country. _Alfonso_ died 1885, and was succeeded by a
+regency during the long minority of his posthumous son, _Alfonso
+XIII_. Both _Canovas_ and _Sagasta_ loyally supported the
+queen-mother, _Maria Christina_, acting as regent.
+
+STATE OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE.--In July, 1875, the Turkish provinces of
+_Herzegovina_ and _Bosnia_ rebelled against the intolerable
+oppression of the Sultan's government. The little mountainous kingdom
+of _Montenegro_--which for four centuries had preserved its
+independence through numerous struggles with Turkey, and had a quarrel
+of its own with that power--lent help to its Slavonian
+neighbor. _Servia_ did the same. The Austro-Hungarian Empire, a
+composite of distinct provinces and nationalities, was strongly
+interested to avert war in that region. The revolt was not put down by
+the Turks. The three European emperors moved the Sultan to pledge
+himself to an extensive programme of reforms in _Bosnia_ and
+_Herzegovina_,--a pledge which there was no intention on his part
+to fulfill. England gave no aid to the revolt, but strengthened herself
+in the East by obtaining, through a purchase of shares from the Khedive
+of Egypt, the control of the _Suez Canal_ (Nov. 25, 1875). Russia,
+as kinsman of all the Slavonic peoples, and protector of Greek
+Christians, assumed alone the part of a champion of the maltreated
+provinces. But England refused to join with Russia, Germany, Austria,
+and France, in threatening "more effectual"--that is,
+coercive--measures, in case of the Porte's refusal to pacify the
+insurgents by carrying out his promises. Great Britain was bent on
+keeping the Sultan's empire, as being a barrier in the way of Russian
+ambition and essential to the security of India, from being
+dismembered, and professed to be swayed by respect for the rights of
+Turkey as an independent power. A revolt in Bulgaria was crushed by the
+Turks, who were guilty of such terrible atrocities that the "Bulgarian
+massacres" shocked all Christendom (1876). In the course of the
+difficulties just narrated, two revolutions, by which sultans had been
+dethroned, had taken place in the palace at Constantinople. The
+ambassadors of the Great Powers, in a conference at Constantinople,
+agreed in demanding of Turkey a constitution and guaranties for the
+benefit of the oppressed subjects in the provinces of the Ottoman
+Empire. This requirement the Porte refused to accept. A subsequent
+attempt of the same nature met with no better success (1877). Russia
+allowed its subjects to render effective help to the revolted
+districts. On the contrary, England was offended by the alleged
+ambitious schemes of the Muscovites, and advocated longer forbearance
+with the Sultan; but _Lord Derby_ announced (April 19, 1877) that
+Turkey had been warned to expect no assistance from
+England. Nevertheless, the mission of Mr. _Layard_ to
+Constantinople, and all the other circumstances, emboldened the Turks
+to refuse compliance with the Czar's demands.
+
+THE RUSSO-TURKISH WAR.--The Turko-Russian war began in April,
+1877. Russia, according to her previous declaration, took up arms
+alone. The Russian troops crossed the Danube and the Balkan Mountains,
+and seized on the important _Shipka Pass_. At first they seemed
+destined to a speedy triumph. But the Turks under _Osman Pasha_
+fought with unexpected valor and success. At length, however, their
+leader was obliged to surrender his army of forty-four thousand men at
+_Plevna_ (Dec. 10). _Adrianople_ was occupied by the Russians
+(Jan. 28). They were thus in the neighborhood of
+Constantinople. Meantime, after reverses in the East, the Russians had
+taken _Kars_, and pushed on to _Erzeroum_.
+
+TREATY OF SAN STEFANO: THE BERLIN CONFERENCE.--Turkey now appealed to
+England to mediate; but Russia declined any such intervention, and
+insisted on treating separately with Turkey. England was now ready to
+interfere in behalf of the Sultan, and for the safety of
+Constantinople. Russia hastened to conclude with Turkey the _Peace of
+San Stefano_ (March 3), the stipulations of which greatly reduced
+the Turkish power in Europe. _Bulgaria_ was to be governed by a
+Christian prince, and fifty thousand Russian troops were to occupy it
+for two years. England concluded (June 4) a secret treaty engaging to
+protect Turkey in Asia: _Cyprus_ was given up to be occupied by
+the British. Austria, as well as Great Britain, was anxious to deprive
+Russia of the advantages which she had naturally expected to reap by
+the war,--a war in which the other powers had declined to take
+part. Thus another great war was threatened, about the provisions of
+the _San Stefano_ treaty. The conflict was averted by the
+_Congress at Berlin_ (June 13-July 13, 1878), where
+_D'lsraeli_--who was then prime minister, and a friend of the
+anti-Russian policy--represented England. Austria and England were
+aided by Germany, and the diplomacy of _Gortchakoff_ was thus
+overborne. _Servia_ and _Roumania_, as well as
+_Montenegro_, were declared independent. _Bulgaria_ was
+divided into two portions; the southern of which, called _East
+Roumelia_, was to be governed by the Sultan directly, but with a
+separate administration under a Christian governor. To Austria, the
+military occupation of _Bosnia_ and _Herzegovina_, which
+meant the possession of these provinces, was yielded. _Thessaly_
+had engaged in an insurrection, and _Greece_ had hoped for an
+extension of her boundaries; but nothing effectual was done by England
+to forward this claim. Here Russia, always opposed to the building-up
+of a strong Greek kingdom, was at one with England. Russia obtained
+_Kars_, but her gains were far less than she deemed herself
+entitled to receive. The other powers, on the contrary, permitted
+Austria to advance far in the direction of Constantinople. During the
+war, the hostility of the _Magyars_ (or Hungarians proper) to the
+_Slaves_ had been ready to break out in the form of direct armed
+assistance to Turkey. On the other hand, the Slaves in Hungary, and in
+all the Austrian territories, were with difficulty restrained from
+enlisting actively in aid of the Russians. The arbitrary dealing of the
+Berlin Conference with _Bosnia_ and _Herzegovina_ occasioned
+an armed but ineffectual resistance, in these provinces, to the
+extension of the Austrian sway over them.
+
+SITUATION OF RUSSIA.--Russia, embittered by Austria's refusal to aid in
+the Crimean War, had remained neutral in the struggle with Prussia,
+which ended in the exclusion of Austria from Germany. Russia was now
+offended with Germany for repaying her neutrality in the
+Franco-Prussian struggle by helping in the Berlin Conference the
+schemes of England and Austria. The attempt of Russia to form an
+alliance with France prompted _Bismarck_ (Sept., 1879) to
+negotiate a defensive alliance with Austria. The activity of the
+_Nihilists_, and the refusal of France (March, 1880) to deliver up
+_Hartmann_, charged with an attempt on the life of the Czar, made
+the French alliance impossible. The sympathy of the Emperor
+_William_, after the endeavor made to assassinate _Alexander_
+(Feb. 17, 1880), tended to restore cordiality. Russia was embarrassed
+by these internal troubles. _Alexander_ was murdered by Nihilists
+(March 13, 1881), and was succeeded by his son, _Alexander III._,
+who died after a lingering illness, Nov. 1, 1894.  He was succeeded by
+his son Nicholas II. In 1891 and 1892 Russia was afflicted by famine
+and cholera.
+
+NIHILISM.--The accession of _Alexander II._, following on the
+rigid autocracy of _Nicholas_, had introduced a more lenient
+rule. _Alexander_ decreed (March 3, 1861) the emancipation of the
+serfs, who were also endowed with small possessions in land. The boon
+thus conferred, along with its advantages, brought with it hardship;
+for there were ways of oppression still open to the nobles, by which
+the emancipated class were made grievously to suffer. The great measure
+served to increase the national agitation which was connected with
+other causes. There had long been an enthusiastic party of
+"Slavophils," actuated by a strong race-feeling, and eager for
+"Panslavism," or a union of Slavonic peoples. It was the people in
+Russia which moved the court, against its will, to go to war,
+single-handed, with Turkey, in 1877. In the prosecution of the war, the
+abuses which were brought to light among officials, civil and military,
+heightened the indignation which the corrupt "bureaucracy"--the
+administration by departments, each under its chief--provoked. The
+failure to gather the harvest of the war, of which Russia was deprived
+by diplomacy, increased the popular unrest. A party of socialistic
+democracy, a revolutionary party, had developed itself as early as
+1874. The way had been preparing for it for a decade of years. Out of
+this party came later (1878) the "Terrorists,"--the secret body which
+sought for a remedy for social and governmental evils by annihilating
+all existing authority in Church and State. They had begun with the
+demand of a constitution. The despotic, repressive measures of the
+government--in 1879 and 1880, sixty thousand persons were sent to
+_Siberia_ without a trial--were followed by more desperate
+attempts of Nihilist conspirators upon the lives of the rulers of the
+land, and of their agents. These culminated in the murder of the Czar.
+
+COMMUNISM AND SOCIALISM.--A brief sketch of the various movements thus
+designated may be here in place. _Communism_ is the name given to
+the theory that it is desirable to have a community of goods, and a
+total or partial abolition of private property. _Socialism_ is
+often used to designate the same system, but is more commonly applied
+to the doctrine that government should own the land and all the
+implements of industry. Not a few religious sects of communists, like
+the _Shakers_ (established in 1780, in the United States), have
+long existed. The hope of social amelioration by societies of a
+communistic character has led to a variety of movements for the
+formation of them on both sides of the Atlantic. Equality, education,
+deliverance from poverty and from burdensome toil, have been the
+blessings sought. Prominent leaders in such movements were
+_Saint-Simon_ (1760-1825), whose ideas produced a strong effect in
+France; _Charles Fourier_ (1772-1837), by whose influence
+"phalanxes," as the communities adopting his views were named, were
+formed in Europe and America; and _Robert Owen_ (1771-1858), whose
+societies were built up at _New Lanark_ in Scotland, _New
+Harmony_ in Indiana, and in other places. Since the French
+Revolution of 1848, these particular attempts of philanthropic
+socialism have passed out of notice. Shortly after the Reign of Terror,
+_Babeuf_ attempted (1796) to overthrow the authorities in Paris,
+and to bring to pass an equal division of property. The course of
+political struggles in France, in connection with the revolutions in
+industry and trade, which have occurred since the fall of the first
+Napoleon, have given rise to a disaffected working-class, or
+_proletariat_. The complaint has arisen, that the benefits
+resulting from political freedom in Europe have come to the _middle
+class_,--to tradesmen and manufacturers possessed of capital,--and
+that the laboring class are deprived of their due share of the profits
+of industry. One noted expounder of communism in France was
+_Proudhon_ (1809-1865), who sought to give emphasis to his
+doctrine by affirming that "property is theft." _Louis Blanc_, who
+was a member of the provisional government in France in 1848, both
+before and after that time was an active promoter of the scheme under
+which government is to furnish labor on a large scale, and to become
+the grand employer of the working-class. In Germany, socialism in its
+later distinctive form, as defined above, has been advocated by a
+number of well-known writers. Perhaps the ablest of these was
+_Ferdinand Lasalle_ (1825-1864). Like the other principal
+socialists, he would clothe the State with a vastly augmented power and
+responsibility. In this particular, socialism is directly antagonistic
+to the ideas of democracy which had previously
+prevailed. _Lasalle's_ doctrine was that the State should lend
+capital at interest to associations of laborers. This, he thought,
+would be the first step in their emancipation. _Karl Marx_ would
+go much farther. He would transfer to the State all capital and all
+means of production. He would, as he professes, "overthrow all the
+existing arrangements of society." With property, inheritance is to be
+abolished; labor is to be made compulsory; all means of transport are
+to be in the hands of the State, and so forth. _The International
+Working Men's Association_--popularly called "the
+International"--was organized in London in 1864. It has held congresses
+in _Geneva_, and in other cities. It entered upon the most
+destructive schemes of social agitation and revolution. But the society
+was divided in 1872, on the expulsion of _Bakunin_, a Russian
+Nihilist. A faction of the most violent class continued its activity
+for a while, and stirred up risings in several towns in Spain in 1873,
+in imitation of the insurrections in Paris in 1871. Different shades of
+socialistic theory have been advocated; from the "Christian Socialism"
+which aims at such objects as the creation of cooperative associations
+in the working-class, to the fanatics who would sweep away existing
+institutions by violence, and who resort to the use of dynamite as a
+means of inspiring terror.
+
+THE FRENCH REVOLUTION SINCE 1871.--_Thiers_ had wonderful success
+in providing for the payment of the German indemnity. His term of
+office was prolonged (Aug. 31, 1871) for three years, with the title of
+President. _Thiers_ had cooperated with _MacMahon_ in
+crushing the commune, and in wholesome measures for the preservation of
+order. An adverse vote in the Assembly (May 24, 1873) caused his
+resignation. This was effected by a combination of the monarchical
+parties. _MacMahon_, his successor, took a very conservative
+position. The monarchists united to restore the _Count of
+Chambord_ to the throne as _Henry V._, but the scheme
+failed. In February, 1875, a new constitution, of a conservative
+republican cast, was established, which provided for a president and a
+cabinet, a senate, and a chamber of deputies. The legitimists,
+Orleanists, and imperialists united with the president in his
+reactionary, anti-republican policy. The whole clerical party were on
+that side. The republicans were divided among themselves, the most
+radical group being under the leadership of _Gambetta_. The danger
+to the republic compelled a common policy. One of the great subjects of
+controversy related to public education, in the management of which the
+Church and the clergy desired to retain and extend their influence and
+control. To secularize education, was a main aim of the body of the
+republicans. The success of the republicans, against extraordinary
+efforts made to defeat them, in the elections of 1877, at last
+prevailed on the marshal-president to accept the verdict of the
+country; and late in the year a republican cabinet was formed. The
+measures of _Jules Ferry_ and his supporters, for taking the
+business of instruction out of the hands of ecclesiastics and of the
+clerical orders, although most earnestly resisted by Bishop
+_Dupanloup_ and the whole clerical party, and opposed by a section
+of the republicans led by _Jules Simon_, were, after heated
+contention, adopted, and were completely carried out (1880). The death
+of _Thiers_ (Sept., 1877) did not weaken the party of which he was
+the most honored leader. The death of the young Prince _Louis
+Napoleon_ (1879) in South Africa, where he was serving, under the
+British, against the _Zulus_, was an almost fatal blow to the
+hopes of the Bonapartist faction. The more recent death of _Count
+Chambord_ (1883) was followed by the recognition, on the part of the
+legitimists, of the _Count of Paris_, of the Orleans house, as the
+next heir to the throne. A manifesto of Prince _Jerome Napoleon_
+(1883), after the death of the young Prince _Napoleon_, aroused an
+agitation against all pretenders to the throne,--in particular, against
+the Orleanists; which led, after protracted debates, to the forced
+retirement of all the princes of this family from active service in the
+French army. In November, 1881, _Gambetta_ became the head of the
+cabinet; but the opposition to his policy within the republican ranks
+was stronger than had been anticipated. After a short time he laid down
+his office. He died Dec. 31, 1882. _Jules Grévy_ (first elected
+Jan. 30, 1879) was re-elected president Dec. 28, 1885. He was forced to
+resign in 1887 because his son-in-law was implicated in corrupt
+transactions. His successor was _Sadi Carnot_.
+
+FRENCH CONQUESTS ABROAD.--The failure of France, in the Oriental
+difficulties, to gain the power which she desired, impelled her to
+build up colonial interests and settlements. Partly to punish marauding
+tribes, in 1881, an expedition was sent against _Tunis_; and the
+Bey was forced to accept a protectorate of the French over his
+dominion. Thus the French enlarged their power in Africa. This
+proceeding gave great offense to England, Italy, and the Turkish
+Sultan. On the ground of a treaty of 1841, a French admiral demanded
+the submission of the north-west coast of _Madagascar_ to a French
+protectorate; and when this demand was refused, he bombarded and
+captured the second city in the island, _Tamatave_ (1883). The
+efforts of France to gain control over _Tonquin_ and the adjacent
+territory in _China_ attracted still more
+attention. _Tonquin_ is the most populous province of the kingdom
+of _Anam_, of which it formed a part after 1802. Over this
+kingdom, China claimed the rights of a suzerain; which the French
+refused to acknowledge. In 1862, after a war lasting for almost four
+years, _Napoleon III._ obtained from _Anam_, by the treaty of
+_Saigun_, the provinces called _Cochin-China_. In 1874 the
+French Republic extorted from King _Tuduc_ of Anam a treaty by
+which his foreign policy was placed under the direction of
+France. Against this treaty, China protested. In 1882 the French
+commander _Rivière_ seized the city of _Hanoi_. The "Black
+Flags," a body of free-lances or pirates, whose leader had been one of
+the Chinese rebels, fought against the French; but it soon appeared
+that both the king of _Anam_ and the government of China were in
+league with his hostile force. Two years later a treaty was signed
+bringing _Tonkin_ almost directly under French rule and
+reëstablishing the protectorate in _Anam_.
+
+THE CONFLICT OF PRUSSIA AND THE VATICAN.--The Roman Catholic Church in
+Germany is recognized as a legal institution. Its revenues are received
+from the state, which, in turn, exercises a supervision over the
+education of its clergy. In Prussia, especially under _Frederick
+William IV._, large privileges were granted by law to the Catholic
+body. The proceedings of the Vatican Council awakened in Germany, as
+elsewhere in Europe, the apprehension that the decree of papal
+infallibility might give rise to conflict between the authorities of
+the Church and of the State. _Bismarck_ considered that the
+"ultramontane" party in the Church involved danger to the newly created
+German Empire. The Prussian government resisted the attempt of the
+Church, in 1871, to remove from office Catholic teachers who refused to
+subscribe to the Vatican dogma of papal infallibility. In other words,
+the government recognized and undertook to protect the "Old Catholics."
+The contest with the clerical or ultramontane party went on; and before
+the end of the year, the Catholic branch of the Prussian Ministry of
+Worship and Instruction was abolished. In a debate in 1872,
+_Bismarck_ said, "Of this be sure, that neither in Church nor in
+State are we on the way to Canossa." His policy met with a determined
+resistance from _Pius IX._ The Jesuits were expelled from the
+German Empire. This law was afterwards construed to include other
+orders.
+
+THE FALK LAWS: CONTINUED CONFLICT.--The laws proposed by the Prussian
+minister of worship, _Falk_, required that candidates for the
+clerical office in the Catholic Church should have a training in the
+gymnasium and university, and that every ecclesiastical appointment
+should be sanctioned by the civil authorities. They provided for a
+royal court for the settlement of ecclesiastical questions. These laws
+were passed in 1873. In 1875 civil marriage was made obligatory in the
+empire. These measures were stoutly resisted by "the Center," or the
+clerical party, in the Prussian Parliament, and in the
+_Reichstag_. They were declared by the Pope to be invalid, and
+Roman Catholics were forbidden to obey them. Other enactments, one of
+which forbade all payments to the bishops and clergy unless they should
+sign a promise to obey the laws of the state, were adopted by Prussia.
+Refractory bishops and priests were punished in various ways. The
+result was that the Roman Catholic party, led by _Windhorst_,
+ex-minister of Hanover, in opposition to _Bismarck's_ measures,
+was consolidated. The struggle extended beyond the bounds of Prussia:
+it was _Bavaria_, a Catholic state, which proposed the law
+requiring civil marriage. After the accession of _Leo XIII._,
+there was on both sides an increased disposition to find terms of peace
+by which the numerous vacancies in Catholic clerical offices could be
+filled. The need which _Bismarck_ felt of the support of "the
+Center" for his financial measures favored this result. _Falk_
+resigned (July 13, 1879), he being personally odious to the Roman
+party. After long debates, a bill was passed (Jan. 1, 1882) giving to
+the king and his ministers discretionary powers, which opened the way
+for filling the vacant places. Still, in the great festival at the
+completion of the Cologne Cathedral (Oct. 15), the clerical party stood
+aloof. But the mutual friendly approaches of the chancelor and his
+ultramontane opponents continued. Diplomatic correspondence was opened
+with the Vatican. Some of the harsher features of the anti-papal
+legislation were revoked.
+
+BISMARCK AND SOCIALISM.--One motive in this modification of the
+chancelor's policy was the rapid progress of socialism. At first, while
+_Bismarck_ was engaged in a struggle with the liberals, who
+impeded his plans in the Prussian Parliament, he had willingly availed
+himself of the support of _Lasalle_ and his socialistic
+followers. But after the war with France, the party of the "Social
+Democrats" became more and more numerous and formidable. It was not,
+however, until a second attempt was made on the emperor's life, that
+Bismarck was able to carry, against the combination of parties, his
+measures giving to the government extraordinary powers for the stifling
+of socialistic agitation (1879). The law for the suppression of
+socialistic meetings, newspapers, etc., was rigorously enforced.
+
+THE "PARTICULARISTS."--Bismarck was, moreover, obliged to contend with
+the "Particularists," who were hostile to the Empire, and with a large
+number besides them, who were opposed to a greater degree of imperial
+centralization at the expense of the power of the separate
+states. Unable to obtain for the imperial government the control over
+the German railroad system, he devised a plan (1879) by which Prussia
+would eventually control three-quarters of the railroads of Germany. An
+imperial code of laws was adopted (1877); but, from jealousy of
+Prussia, the seat of the supreme court of appeal was fixed at
+_Leipsic_. In his economical and financial measures, the chancelor
+was often charged with the exercise of arbitrary power. Free,
+representative government, according to the English system, did not
+accord with his idea of the Prussian monarchy, and with the character
+of the new empire, the unity of which he was naturally anxious to
+fortify. By his alliance with Austria in 1879, he placed Germany in a
+situation to resist Russia and France, in case Russia, aggrieved by the
+action of Germany at the Berlin Conference (1878), should join hands
+with France in acts of hostility against the German empire. In 1888
+_William I._ died and was succeeded by his son, _Frederick
+III._, who held the sovereignty but a few months, dying June 15,
+1888. His son, _William II._, succeeded him.
+
+THE BRITISH SWAY IN INDIA.--British sway by degrees extended itself
+over India. The fall of the Mogul empire left the country in a state of
+anarchy. Strife arose with one tribe after another, until the authority
+of England came to be acknowledged as far north as the Himalayas. The
+English advance was made with the help of native auxiliaries, and could
+not have been made without it. It was quite as much an internal
+revolution as a foreign conquest. As the British enlarged their
+dominion, and came into conflict with the French, the appetite for
+supremacy grew. Under the rule of the _Marquis of Wellesley_
+(1798-1805), partly through the victories of _Sir Arthur
+Wellesley_ (afterwards the Duke of Wellington), "the policy of
+intervention and annexation" was pursued with brilliant success. The
+_Burmese_ were conquered, and parts of their territory annexed, in
+1826, 1852, and 1885. The effort always was to secure a quiet
+frontier. In 1843 a war with _Scinde_ resulted in its absorption
+in British territory. In 1849 the annexation of _Punjab_ followed,
+a British protectorate having been found insufficient. The
+misgovernment of the native princes in _Oude_ led to the
+assumption of the government of that province by the English in 1856.
+
+THE INDIAN MUTINY.--There was hostility to British rule among the
+Mohammedans in India, and distrust among the Hindoos. The latter
+acquired a fanatical belief that the English, who had abolished the
+burning of widows, and even legalized their marriage, meant to force
+the people to lose caste by driving them to sacrilegious practices. The
+report that cartridges had been served out which had been lubricated
+with the fat of the swine, abhorred by Moslems, and of the cow,
+venerated by the Hindoos, stirred up a revolt among the native Sepoy
+troops (1857). The insurrection spread, and was attended with savage
+cruelties. There was a frightful massacre of women and children at
+_Cawnpore_, before General _Havelock_ could arrive for its
+relief. The English, who were besieged in _Lucknow_, after
+terrible suffering, were relieved by the opportune coming of this
+gallant soldier. All the English residents in _Delhi_, who could
+not escape into the jungle, were murdered. The weak old king placed
+himself at the head of the rebellion. _Delhi_ was recaptured by
+the British, and the conquest completed by _Sir Colin Campbell_
+(March 22, 1858).  _Oude_ was subdued. Gradually the rebellion was
+crushed, and merciless severity was exercised by the conquerors upon
+those most actively concerned in it. One consequence of the revolt was
+the entire transference of the government of India from the East India
+Company to the Crown. The measure was introduced into Parliament by
+_Lord Palmerston_ (1858). Under the ministry of _Disraeli_,
+and on his motion, the Queen added to her titles that of "Empress of
+India" (1877).
+
+BRITISH WARS WITH THE AFGHANS.--In the last century _Ahmed Khan_,
+the ruler of Afghanistan, extended his dominion as far as
+_Delhi_. But he died in 1773, and his son _Timour_ changed
+the seat of government from _Candahar_ to _Cabul_. In 1838
+the English declared war against _Dost Mohammed_, one of the three
+rulers of the country, whose seat of power was in this city. The
+British attack was successful; but insurrections broke out (1841), and
+they agreed to evacuate the country. The whole British army, which had
+to pass through the _Kurd-Cabul Pass_, was destroyed by cold and
+hunger, and by the harassing attacks of the mountaineers (1842). It
+numbered forty-five hundred fighting men and twelve thousand five
+hundred camp-followers. Another British army, under
+_Gen. Pollock_, forced the _Khyber Pass_, and took vengeance
+on _Cabul_. In 1855 _Dost Mohammed_, now an ally of the
+English, drove the Persians out of _Herat_, which, as "the key of
+India," the British were anxious to protect against ambitious schemes
+of Russia. In 1863 he took _Herat_ from _Ahmed_, the sultan
+there, who was considered a tool of Persia and of Russia. _Dost
+Mohammed_ died soon after, and was succeeded by his son _Sher Ali
+Khan_. After the acquisition of _Quetta_ by the English, he
+began to side with the Russians. His intrigues with them, and his
+refusal to receive a British embassy, brought on the second Afghan war
+of the British (1878-81). The ameer died (Feb. 21, 1879); the Afghans
+were defeated by _Gen. Roberts_, who took _Cabul_, and
+installed as ameer _Abdurrahman Khan_ (1880). The English then
+decided to evacuate the territory. On their march they were attacked by
+_Ayub Khan_ of Herat. Later he was defeated by _Roberts_, and
+driven back to that place. The _Gladstone_ ministry had succeeded
+the ministry of _Disraeli_, who had been anxious to establish a
+"scientific frontier" between Afghanistan and the Czar's
+territories,--such a frontier as would secure a "neutral zone" between
+them and India, to serve as a barrier against Russian invasion.
+
+RUSSIA AND AFGHANISTAN.--The gradual approaches of Russia in the
+direction of _Herat_ have been on two lines. The one is the line
+south-easterly from the Caspian. She gained a lodgment in 1869 at
+_Krasnovodsk_ on the eastern shore of that sea. In 1880
+_Geopteke_ and _Askabat_ were taken. The other line of
+aggressive approach is south-westerly from the neighborhood of the
+Oxus. On this line, partly from displeasure at the English occupation
+of Egypt, and in pursuance of the policy, adopted especially since the
+Berlin Conference (1878), to advance towards _Herat_, the Russians
+suddenly seized _Merv_, an oasis extremely important from a
+military point of view, over which _Persia_ claimed a certain
+suzerainty. The Russians occupied it in force, under
+Gen. _Komaroff_ (March 16, 1884). Subsequently England and Russia
+agreed to ascertain and fix the northern boundary of Afghanistan. The
+occupation of _Penjdeh_ by the Afghans, followed by the advance of
+_Komaroff_,--of which the British complained as an
+aggression,--brought the two countries to the verge of war (1885).
+
+THE WESTERN POWERS AND EGYPT.--"The Oriental question"--the question
+relating to Turkey and its dependencies--constantly took on new phases,
+and presented to the powers of Europe fresh difficulties and dangers of
+conflict. The Khedive of Egypt, _Ismail Pasha_, was a friend and
+admirer of _Napoleon III_. and of the French. He succeeded in
+obtaining from the Sultan repeated concessions, which reduced his
+dependence on Turkey to little more than an obligation to pay an annual
+tribute, together with certain marks of respect and honor. His
+conflicts with lands on the south, _Dafour_ and _Abyssinia_,
+his extravagant outlays in public works of internal improvement, and
+the enormous interest paid to foreign capitalists for their loans,
+involved him in the utmost financial embarrassment. This furnished the
+occasion to the Western powers, in particular to England and France, to
+intermeddle still more in Egyptian affairs. The Khedive sold to the
+British Government his shares in the _Suez Canal_, and gave into
+the hands of the English and French (1878) the control of the financial
+administration of the country. This sort of dependence was repugnant to
+both the Khedive and the Egyptian people. The native officers were
+pushed into the background. The most lucrative stations were filled by
+foreigners, and the weight of taxation was almost intolerable. The
+attempt to throw off this yoke only resulted in the deposition of
+_Ismail_ by the Sultan, on the demand of the two Western
+powers. His weak son, _Tewfik Pasha_, took his place. The control
+of the finances remained in foreign hands. The result of the discontent
+of the people, and of the disaffection of the Egyptian officers, was a
+revolt led by _Arabi Pasha_, a military officer (1881). The
+Khedive complied with the demands of the insurgents: their chief was
+made minister of war. The Western powers were bent on suppressing this
+movement, and, in addition to threats and diplomatic measures, sent
+their fleets to Egypt. A revolt broke out in _Alexandria_, in
+which the English consul was wounded and many Europeans were slain
+(June, 1882). The city was filled with terror, and all trade was
+suspended. The English fleet bombarded the city, and set it on
+fire. _Arabi_ withdrew his troops to _Cairo_. He was now
+deposed by the Khedive, and declared a rebel. His troops showed little
+spirit. The fortifications of _Tel-el-Kebir_ were taken by the
+English general, Sir _Garnet Wolseley_, almost without
+resistance. _Aboukir, Damietta_, and _Cairo_ surrendered, and
+the Egyptian leader, _Arabi_, was captured and banished. From that
+time Egypt fell into a condition of helpless dependence on
+England. France found herself without the influence there which she had
+always coveted since the days of the first _Napoleon_. The system
+of administration in Egypt was now organized by the English, through
+Lord _Dufferin_. Great complaint was made against them by the
+other powers, for not taking sufficient precautions to prevent the
+introduction of the cholera from India. The principal troubles of the
+English grew out of the invasion of the false prophet called _El
+Mahdi_, who gathered to himself a host of followers in the
+_Soudan_, partly instigated by Moslem fanaticism, but largely
+impelled by their hatred of the Egyptian government established over
+that region. The people of the _Soudan_ complained bitterly of the
+oppressive Egyptian officers. The slave-dealers there were exasperated
+at the prohibition of their traffic, on which England had insisted. In
+the course of the conflict with _El Mahdi_, _Hicks Pasha_, an
+English officer in the service of the Khedive, was defeated and slain,
+and his force cut to pieces, near _El Obeid_ (Nov. 3, 4, and 5,
+1883). There was great fear now for the province of _Sennaar_ and
+especially for the city of _Khartoum_, where there were many
+Europeans. Mr. _Gladstone_, and the English ministry of which he
+was the head, were not disposed to hold the _Soudan_, but desired
+to give it up as soon as the garrisons could be rescued and brought
+away. To this policy the Khedive was opposed. The project of a military
+interference in the _Soudan_ by the Sultan, the English took care
+to prevent by attaching to it impossible conditions. On the Red Sea,
+_Osman Digna_, a partisan of the _Mahdi_, made repeated
+attacks upon _Suakim_, the base of the operations of _Baker
+Pasha_, another former English officer, now become general of the
+Egyptian army. On account of the cowardice of the Egyptian troops,
+_Baker_ was defeated with heavy loss (Feb. 4, 1884). The British
+troops from _Cairo_ under _Graham_ had better success; and
+_Osman Digna_ was vanquished, and driven into the mountains. The
+English government adopted the extraordinary measure of sending General
+_Gordon_ to Khartoum; his errand being to pacify the tribes of the
+_Soudan_, to provide for the deliverance of the garrisons, and to
+arrange terms of accommodation with _El Mahdi_. This last it was
+found impossible to accomplish. _Berber_ was captured by the
+enemy, and garrison and male population were slaughtered. _Gordon_
+was shut up in _Khartoum_. The peculiar financial situation
+obliged the English ministry to hold a conference of the great powers
+(June 28, 1885) at London. Lord _Granville_ insisted that only
+financial points, and not the general Egyptian question, should be
+considered, which did not accord with the views of the other powers,
+and the conference adjourned without effecting anything. The perilous
+situation of _Gordon_, and the feeling in England on this account,
+obliged the government to send out General _Wolseley_ with a large
+force to Egypt; but before aid could be given _Gordon_,
+_Khartoum_, was betrayed, and he was slain. The course of England
+respecting Egypt had left her isolated as regards the other European
+powers, and had awakened much disaffection in England. It was the
+policy of the Gladstone ministry in relation to Egypt, even more than
+complaints growing out of their conduct in the troubles with Russia,
+that obliged them to resign, and to give place to the Tory cabinet of
+Lord _Salisbury_. Upon the death of _Tewfik_ (Jan. 7, 1892)
+his son, _Abbas Pasha_, became khedive.
+
+GREAT BRITAIN AND CANADA.--On the cession of Canada to Great Britain
+(1763), the French inhabitants of _Lower Canada_ were secured in
+the free exercise of the Catholic religion, and in the possession of
+equal rights with English settlers. "The Quebec Act" of 1774 made
+Canada one royal government, and brought in the English criminal code
+with trial by jury. During the Revolution, many loyalists emigrated to
+Upper Canada. A strong desire arose for a repeal of the "Quebec Act."
+In 1791, under _Pitt_, the two parts of Canada were made separate
+provinces. A constitution was granted, which provided for an elective
+legislature for each. The governors, the executive councils, and the
+legislative councils were to be appointed by the Crown. The governments
+were still subject to the Colonial Office in London. A spirit of
+opposition between the two provinces increased. _Upper Canada_,
+under English law, grew in numbers and prosperity; but the growth of
+population in _Lower Canada_ was much more rapid. Here there was
+an antagonism between the Assembly and the English governors. There was
+an open rebellion in 1837, which spread into Upper Canada. The two
+Canadas were united in 1841; the executive department became
+responsible, as in England, to the popular branch of the legislature;
+and under the liberal and enlightened administration of Lord
+_Elgin_ (1847-54), a better feeling arose. He was obliged,
+however, to suppress a mob of the conservatives, or "loyalists" (1849),
+who were hostile to the extension of a general amnesty to former
+rebels. In 1856 the Upper House was made elective. In 1857
+_Ottawa_ was made the seat of government. In 1867 the _Dominion
+of Canada_ was constituted. It was at first a federal union of Nova
+Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Canadas; _Upper Canada_ receiving
+the name of _Ontario,_ and _Lower Canada_ being named
+_Quebec._ _Manitoba,_ formed out of a part of Hudson Bay
+Territory, was admitted to the Dominion in 1870, and _British
+Columbia_ in 1871. _Prince Edward Island_ was admitted in 1873;
+and the same year the territories were received by transfer from the
+Hudson Bay Company. The Dominion has a Senate and a House of
+Commons. The authority of the Crown is represented by the
+governor-general and the council. Legislation is subject to a veto from
+the sovereign. Each province has its local government, but whatever
+powers are not expressly reserved to the several provinces are granted
+to the General Government,--a provision the reverse of that found in
+the Constitution of the United States, which the Canadian system in
+various features resembles.
+
+In the Peace of Utrecht (1713), France gave up its claim to _Nova
+Scotia:_ the Peace of Paris (1763) surrendered to Great Britain
+_New Brunswick,_ and _Cape Breton_ and _Prince Edward_
+islands. These are known at present as the _maritime provinces._
+When the American War of Revolution began, thousands of loyalists
+emigrated to _Nova Scotia,_ as well as to _Upper Canada,_
+from whom many of the present inhabitants are descended. The island of
+_Vancouver,_ on the western coast of _British Columbia,_ was
+surrendered to the navigator of this name by _Quadra,_ a Spanish
+commander, in 1792. In 1843 a trading-post was established at
+_Victoria_ by the Hudson Bay Company. The island forms politically
+a part of _British Columbia._ The Government of the Dominion, when
+British Columbia was received, engaged to construct a railway to the
+Pacific across British North America. England acquired a title to
+_Newfoundland_ in 1713. It first received a constitution in
+1832. The government was made responsible to the Assembly in 1852.
+
+GREAT BRITAIN AND AUSTRALIA.--Australia, which covers an area of three
+million square miles, when it was first visited by Europeans was found
+to be inhabited by native tribes of the Papuan, Melanesian, or
+Australasian race, of whom about eighty thousand now remain. In the
+seventeenth century, various points along its coasts were touched by
+European voyagers, especially by the Dutch. The discoveries of Captain
+_Cook_ (1769 to 1777) had an important influence in leading to
+settlements on this island-continent. _New South Wales,_ a name
+given by _Cook,_ is the oldest of the English provinces in
+Australia. Not _Botany Bay,_ which he had selected for a
+settlement, but _Port Jackson,_ was made a penal station (1788)
+for convicts from England. This place, however, continued to be
+erroneously called _Botany Bay._ The principal harbor was named
+_Sydney Cove._ In 1803 _Van Dieman's Land,_ now called
+_Tasmania,_ was first occupied. Thus the beginnings of
+colonization in Australia were made by the dregs of English
+society. The convicts labored for their own support, and, when their
+terms had expired, sometimes received as a gift small farms, and
+implements with which to till them. The character of the settlement,
+and the management of it, became much more humane after 1810, when
+_Macquarie_ became governor. Free colonists, English and Scotch,
+came and joined it. The discovery of the upland pastures beyond the
+Blue Mountains, which were remarkably adapted to sheep, made an epoch
+in the history of the colony. Spanish merino sheep were introduced:
+wool became the chief staple; the production of it, especially after
+the invention of the combing-machine, became very profitable, and free
+emigrants poured in. The Australian Agricultural Company was formed in
+England. Western Australia began to be settled in 1829, but did not
+thrive. New colonies continued to be formed in Eastern Australia. South
+Australia was made prosperous by copper-mines. Victoria, which became a
+distinct province in 1851, owes its growth to gold
+mines. _Melbourne_, its chief town, was planted in 1837. The first
+British governors at _Sydney_ were military officers, ruling with
+despotic authority. Representative institutions were gradually formed
+in the different provinces. The constitutions were framed on the model
+of the home government; but in _Victoria_ and _Tasmania_ the
+Upper House was made elective. After long conflicts with the home
+government, the Australian colonies escaped from the misfortune of
+being places to which convicts were transported. The discovery of gold
+in _New South Wales_ and _Victoria_ was made in 1851, and
+caused at once an immense influx of immigrants. Next to gold, the most
+important article of export has been wool. Wheat and copper have been
+exported in large quantities. The breeding of cattle has been a
+profitable employment in these communities.
+
+NEW ZEALAND.--In 1838 the first regular and permanent settlement was
+made in New Zealand. _Wellington_ was founded in the next
+year. New Zealand, with South Island and North Island, became a colony
+independent of Australia in 1841.
+
+ENGLAND AND IRELAND.--The disaffection of the Irish, and their
+antipathy to English rule, broke out in different forms, as
+circumstances changed. For a long time the demand was for "Catholic
+emancipation."  This was granted (p. 558); but most of the English
+concessions were made under such a pressure, and in appearance so
+grudgingly, that little was accomplished by them in placating Irish
+hostility. The outcry against tithes for the support of the Protestant
+Established Church was to a great extent quieted in 1838, when the
+odious features of this tax were removed. The Act disestablishing the
+Irish Protestant Church, carried by Mr. _Gladstone_ in 1869, and
+put in execution in 1871, took away one of the great grievances of
+which the Irish nation had to complain.  The repeal of the legislative
+union of England and Ireland was the watchword of _O'Connell_ and
+his followers. In one form or another, the demand for local
+self-government or independence, which has been more lately urged under
+the name of "home rule," has been kept up with little intermission. It
+is about the special question of land reform that the most bitter
+conflicts have centered. The ownership of a great part of the land in
+Ireland by a few persons: the fact that great obstacles and great
+expenses--difficulties of late somewhat lightened--have existed in the
+way of the transference of land if any one had the means to purchase
+it: the circumstances that the owners have generally been, not
+residents, but absent landlords; that, in cases of dispute with
+tenants, the laws were for a long period framed in their interest; that
+the management of estates was left to agents or middle-men; that
+multitudes of tenants, whose holdings were small, could glean a bare
+subsistence from the soil, were doomed to famine if the potato-crop
+failed, and, when unable to pay the rent, were liable to "eviction,"
+that is, to be turned out of doors, with their families, to
+perish,--these have been causes sufficient to give rise to endless
+disputes and conflicts. Add to these facts the inbred hostility arising
+from differences of race and religion; the memory, on the part of the
+Irish, of centuries of misgovernment, and the feeling that the lands
+held by sufferance were wrested from their ancestors by force,--and the
+animosity manifested in revolts and outrages is easily explained. The
+English government, in a series of measures,--in connection with which,
+acts of coercion for preventing and punishing violence have been
+passed,--undertook to lessen the evils that exist, and to produce a
+better state of feeling. The _Encumbered Estates Court_ was
+established to render more easy the transfer of lands. This Act, and
+the _Land Act_ passed the same year (1860), although well meant,
+failed to improve the situation of the tenants. Mr. _Gladstone's_
+great measure of disestablishment has been referred to. His second
+great reform measure was the Land Law of 1870, the effect of which was
+to make the landlord pay damages to the evicted tenant, to compensate
+him for improvements which he had made, etc. One object of this Act was
+to create a body of peasant proprietors in Ireland. Additional Acts, in
+1880, were designed to assist tenants to purchase their holdings. The
+hopes as to the practical benefit to follow the Act of 1870 were
+disappointed. In 1877, 1878, and 1879, there was a partial failure of
+the crops. The _Fenian_ movement, designed to secure Irish
+independence by force, was organized in the United States, 1857. By
+uniting with similar Irish brotherhoods, it extended itself in Great
+Britain as well as America, collected large funds, and, 1866, made
+ineffectual attempts to invade Canada. An armed rising in Ireland
+shortly after, under Fenian leadership, was suppressed. The national
+agitation consequent on these proceedings in Ireland, issued in the
+organization, 1870, of the Home Rule party, with Mr. _Isaac Butt_
+a leading promoter. The object was to secure an Irish Parliament for
+Irish affairs, and for the control of Irish resources; the Imperial
+Parliament being left to deal with imperial affairs. In this period
+(about 1874) Mr. _Parnell_ grew to be conspicuous in politics. He
+became the leader of the Home Rule members of the House of Commons, who
+sought, by obstructing the progress of business, to compel the English
+government to withdraw its measures of coercion, and to legislate in
+accordance with the views of himself and his associates. The
+"obstructionists," by joining the Tories, effected the retirement of
+the Gladstone Cabinet (1885). In Ireland a system of "boycotting" was
+adopted for the punishment of landlords guilty of evicting
+tenants. This led to deeds of violence and blood. _Parnell_ died
+in 1891. and _Justin McCarthy_ became the leader of the Irish
+cause in Parliament. A Gladstone Cabinet again came into power in 1892,
+with an avowed object of securing Home Rule for Ireland.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. THE UNITED STATES (1815-1890): MEXICO: SOUTH AMERICAN
+STATES: EASTERN ASIA.
+
+
+END OF THE FEDERAL PARTY.--The end of the war with Great Britain
+(1812-15) was marked by the extinction of the Federal party. But the
+Republicans, the opposing party, were now equally zealous for the
+perpetuity of the Union, and were quite ready to act on a liberal
+construction of the Constitution with respect to the powers conferred
+on the General Government. This had been shown in the purchase of
+Louisiana: it was further exemplified in 1816 in the establishment of a
+national bank, and in the enactment of a protective tariff. Then, and
+until 1832, presidential candidates were nominated by Congressional
+"caucuses." _James Monroe_ (1817-25) received the votes of all of
+the States but three. The absence of party division has caused his time
+to be designated as "the era of good feeling."
+
+PURCHASE OF FLORIDA.--Slaves in Georgia and Alabama frequently escaped
+from their masters, and fled for shelter to the swamps of Florida. The
+_Creek_ and the _Seminole_ Indians were always disposed to
+aid them. In 1817 General _Andrew Jackson_ was appointed to
+conduct an expedition against the Seminoles. He came into conflict with
+the Spanish authorities in Florida, where he seized Spanish forts, and
+built a fort of his own. Finally, in 1819, the Floridas were purchased
+of Spain for five million dollars, and the United States gave up its
+claim to the extensive territory west of the Sabine River, which was
+known afterwards as _Texas_. This became a part of Mexico two
+years later.
+
+SLAVERY: THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE.--In 1820 a sectional struggle arose
+in Congress, on the question of the admission of Missouri as a State
+with a constitution permitting slavery. The slave-trade had been
+carried on by the States separately, before the National Constitution
+was formed. It was abolished by Congress in 1808, the earliest date
+allowed by the Constitution for the power to abolish it to be
+exercised. The principal founders of the government, both in the North
+and South, considered slavery an evil, and looked forward to its
+gradual extinction. In the North, where the slaves were less numerous,
+laws for gradual emancipation were early passed. But the rapid increase
+of slaves in the South, the growing demand for cotton, and the stimulus
+given to the production of it by the cotton-gin, made the prospect of
+emancipation by legislative action less probable as time advanced. The
+_American Colonization Society_ was formed in 1811; and the
+fallacious hope was entertained by many, that the negroes might be
+carried back to the _Liberian_ settlement on the African
+coast. The extension of slavery in the territory north-west of the Ohio
+had been prevented by the Congressional ordinance of 1787. When the
+question of the admission of _Missouri_ to the Union came up, the
+members of Congress from the North and the members from the South were
+in hostile array on the point, and a dangerous excitement was
+kindled. By the exertions of _Henry Clay_, the "Missouri
+Compromise" was adopted, by which the new State was admitted with
+slavery in it; but, as a kind of equivalent, slavery was prohibited
+forever in all the remaining territory of the United States north of
+36° 30' north latitude, the southern boundary of _Missouri_.
+
+THE "MONROE DOCTRINE."--When the "Holy Alliance" was engaged in its
+crusade against liberty in Europe, it was thought that they might
+attempt to conquer for Spain the revolted South American
+republics. _Canning_ suggested to the American minister in
+England, that it would be well for the United States to take action
+against such a scheme. President Monroe, in his annual message in 1823,
+said that we should consider an attempt of the allied powers to extend
+their system in this country, or any interference on their part for the
+purpose of controlling the destiny of the American States, as
+unfriendly action towards the United States. This is the "Monroe
+Doctrine."  An additional statement in disapproval of future
+colonization on the American continents by European powers was made in
+the same message. This second statement was never sanctioned by the
+House of Representatives. It is vague, and was probably meant to
+exclude _indirect_ attempts to overthrow the liberty of the new
+American republics. The only thing which the "Monroe Doctrine" really
+contains is the intimation on the part of the United States of a right
+to resist attempts of European powers to alter the constitutions of
+American communities.
+
+  The true origin and intent of the "Monroe Doctrine" are often
+  misunderstood. They are set forth in Woolsey's _International
+  Law_, and in his article in Johnson's _Encyclopedia_, "Monroe
+  Doctrine;" also in Webster's writings, Vol. III. p. l78, and in
+  Calhoun's "Speech on the Panama Question." See also Foster, _A
+  Century of American Diplomacy_, Chap. XII.
+
+PARTIES AFTER MONROE.--At the expiration of Monroe's second term, there
+being no choice for president by the people, _John Quincy Adams_,
+who had long been in public life in various important stations, was
+chosen by the House of Representatives. His supporters combined with
+the adherents of _Henry Clay_, who became secretary of state. This
+alliance was loudly denounced by their opponents as a "bargain." From
+the close of the last war with Great Britain, a party called by their
+adversaries "loose constructionists" of the Constitution, of which
+_Clay_ was a leader,--a party who were in favor of measures like a
+protective tariff, a national bank, and internal improvements,--as the
+making of canals,--to be undertaken by Congress,--had been growing
+up. It now took the name of _National Republicans_, which was
+afterwards exchanged for that of _Whigs_. On the other side were
+the "strict constructionists," who, however, differed among themselves
+respecting certain measures,--for example, the tariff. In their ranks
+_Andrew Jackson_ belonged. Of this political tendency, _John
+C. Calhoun_ of South Carolina became a leading promoter. _Andrew
+Jackson_ was a favorite candidate for the presidency, and the name
+of _Democrats_ was applied to his followers.
+
+PRESIDENCY OF JACKSON.--_Jackson_ was elevated to the presidency
+in 1829. He was a fearless man, an ardent patriot, with a choleric
+temper and an imperious will. He carried to an unexampled extent a
+custom, which had begun with _Jefferson_, of supplanting
+office-holders of the opposite political party by supporters of the
+administration. This came to be called the "spoils system," from the
+maxim once quoted in defense of it, that "to the victors belong the
+spoils."
+
+NULLIFICATION.--During _Jackson's_ administration, there occurred
+the "nullification" crisis. In 1828 a new protective tariff had been
+passed, which was regarded in the South, especially in South Carolina,
+as extremely unjust and injurious. The New England States had been
+averse to protection; and in 1816 _Daniel Webster_ opposed the
+tariff measure as specially hurtful to the Eastern States, whose
+capital was so largely invested in commerce. After the protective
+policy had been adopted, and when, under its shield, manufacturing had
+been extensively established in the North, the former adversaries of
+protection, with _Webster_, as well as _Clay_, who had been
+a protectionist before, thought it unfair and destructive to do away
+with the tariff. Its adversaries denounced it as
+unconstitutional. _Calhoun_ and his followers, moreover,
+contended that _nullification_ is legal and admissible; in other
+words, that a law of Congress may be set aside by a State within its
+own limits, provided it is considered by that State a gross infraction
+of the Constitution. There was a memorable debate on this subject in
+1830, in the United States Senate, when the State-rights theory was
+advocated by _Robert Y. Hayne_ of South Carolina, and the
+opposite doctrine defended by _Webster_. In 1832 South Carolina
+passed an ordinance declaring that the tariff laws of 1828 and 1832
+were null and void, and not binding in that State. President
+_Jackson_ issued a spirited proclamation in which the
+nullification doctrine was repudiated, and the opposite, or national,
+theory was affirmed, and the President's resolute intention to execute
+the laws of the United States was announced. The difficulty was ended
+by the compromise tariff introduced by _Henry Clay_, providing
+for the gradual reduction of duties (1833).
+
+REMOVAL OF THE DEPOSITS.--The President was hostile to the National
+Bank, which he considered dangerous, as liable to be converted into a
+tool for partisan ends. Not being able to carry Congress with him, he
+assumed the responsibility, after his second election, of removing the
+deposits, or public funds, from its custody, or, rather, of an order
+for the cessation of these deposits. For this he was censured by the
+Senate, a majority of which regarded his act as arbitrary and
+unconstitutional.
+
+ANTI-SLAVERY AGITATION.--From about this time, the agitation respecting
+slavery constantly increased. In the North a party arose, which,
+through lectures and in newspapers and pamphlets, denounced slavery as
+iniquitous, and called for immediate emancipation. The most prominent
+leader of this party was _William Lloyd Garrison_, and its most
+captivating orator was _Wendell Phillips_. This party advocated
+disunion, on account of the obligations imposed upon the North in
+reference to slavery by the Constitution. They were sometimes assailed
+by mobs in Northern cities. The major part of the people in the North
+desired some method of extinguishing slavery which should leave the
+Union intact. Meantime they were for obeying the Constitution, although
+the obligation to restore fugitive slaves was felt to be obnoxious, and
+there grew up a disposition to avoid compliance with it. The
+"colonizationists" diminished in number. There were various types and
+degrees of anti-slavery sentiment. The resolution to confine slavery,
+by political action, within the limits of the States where it was under
+the shield of local law, became more and more prevalent. In the South,
+on the contrary, the enmity to "abolitionism" was intense, and served
+to increase the popularity of the doctrine of State-rights. Slavery
+came to be defended as necessary under the circumstances, and as
+capable of justification on moral and Scriptural grounds. Occasions of
+reciprocal complaint between North and South, for illegal doings
+relating in one way or another to slavery, tended to multiply.
+
+ANNEXATION OF TEXAS.--In 1836 _Texas_ declared its independence of
+Mexico. General _Sam Houston_, an emigrant from Tennessee, was the
+leader in the revolt. He defeated the Mexicans under _Santa Ana_,
+at the _San Jacinto_ (1836). In 1845, largely by the agency of
+Mr. _Calhoun_, Texas, by an Act of Congress, was annexed to the
+United States. The motive which he avowed was the fear that it might
+fall into the hands of England, and become dangerous to the institution
+of slavery in the South. The measure was strenuously opposed in the
+North as a scheme by which it was intended to strengthen the influence
+of the slaveholding States in Congress. It was favored, for the same
+reason, by those who were inimical to abolitionism in whatever form.
+
+WAR WITH MEXICO.--A consequence of the acquisition of Texas was a war
+with _Mexico_. The successes of Gen. _Zachary Taylor_ at
+_Palo Alto_ and _Monterey_ (1846), and at _Buena Vista_
+(1847), and the campaign of Gen. _Winfield Scott_, who captured
+_Vera Cruz_, fought his way through the pass of _Cerro
+Gordo_, and at length entered the city of _Mexico_ (Sept. 14,
+1847), compelled the Mexicans to agree to the Treaty of _Guadaloupe
+Hidalgo_ (1848). By this treaty all claim on Texas to the Rio Grande
+was relinquished, together with the provinces of _Upper
+California_ and _New Mexico_.
+
+THE "WILMOT PROVISO."--The Wilmot Proviso was proposed in Congress,
+excluding slavery from all territory to be acquired from Mexico. This
+demand for the prevention of the further extension of slavery in the
+territories subject to national jurisdiction, became a rallying-cry. On
+the nomination of General _Taylor_ to the presidency by the Whigs
+(1848), a "Free-Soil" party was organized on this basis,--the precursor
+of the Republican party. The convention which nominated _Taylor_
+laid on the table a motion approving of the Wilmot Proviso. The Whigs
+succeeded in the election, but their party lost a portion of its
+adherents.
+
+CLAY'S COMPROMISE.--The application of _California_ for admission
+to the Union, which, on account of the rapid growth of that community
+through the discovery of gold, was soon made, brought the sectional
+difficulty to another crisis. _President Taylor_ died (July 9,
+1850), and was succeeded by _Millard Fillmore_, the
+vice-president. The contest in Congress was soon after adjusted by
+_Clay's_ compromise, by which _California_ was admitted as a
+free State, _Utah_ and _New Mexico_ were organized into
+Territories without any mention of slavery, the slave-trade was
+prohibited in the District of Columbia, and a new fugitive-slave law
+was enacted, that was framed in such a way as to give great offense at
+the North. _Webster_, in a celebrated speech in favor of the
+compromise (March 7), gave as a reason for not insisting on the Wilmot
+Proviso, that the physical character of the new Territories of itself
+excluded slavery from them.
+
+THE KANSAS TROUBLES.--In 1854, during the administration of _Franklin
+Pierce_, the standing sectional controversy reached a new phase. Two
+Territories, _Kansas_ and _Nebraska_, were knocking at the
+doors of Congress for admission as States. _Kansas_ lay west of
+Missouri, and, like _Nebraska_ on the north, was protected from
+slavery by the Missouri Compromise (p. 601). But the Democrats carried
+through Congress a bill introduced by Mr. _Douglas_ of Illinois,
+practically repealing that compromise, and leaving the matter of the
+toleration of slavery to be determined by the actual settlers as they
+might see fit. This measure was extensively regarded in the North as a
+breach of faith. Companies of emigrants were organized in the Northern
+States, to form permanent settlements in _Kansas_; and in order to
+prevent that country from becoming a free State, marauders from
+_Missouri_ crossed the line, to attack them, and to harass the
+newly planted colonies.
+
+THE DRED-SCOTT CASE.--_James Buchanan_ became president in
+1857. At this time the Supreme Court decided that neither negro slaves
+nor their descendants, slave or free, could become citizens of the
+United States; and added incidentally the dictum that the Missouri
+Compromise was unconstitutional, and that Congress had no right to
+prohibit the carrying of slaves into any State or Territory. The effect
+of this opinion, if embodied in a legal decision, would have been to
+prevent the exclusion of slavery, even by a Territorial legislature,
+prior to the existence of the State government. This judicial act,
+following upon the attitude taken by the government at Washington with
+reference to the Kansas troubles, greatly strengthened the numbers and
+stimulated the determination of the Republican party in the Northern
+States.
+
+THE JOHN BROWN RAID.--An occurrence not without a considerable effect
+in exciting the resentment, as well as the apprehensions, of the South,
+was the attempt of _John Brown_, a brave old man of the Puritan
+type, whose enmity to slavery had been deepened by conflict and
+suffering in the Kansas troubles, to stir up an insurrection of slaves
+in Virginia. With a handful of armed men, he seized the United States
+arsenal at _Harper's Ferry_ in Virginia. Half of his followers
+were killed: he himself was captured, and, after being tried and
+convicted by the State authorities, was hanged (Dec. 2, 1859).
+
+SECESSION OF STATES.--In the election of 1860, _Abraham Lincoln_
+received the electoral vote of every Northern State except New
+Jersey. The conviction of the Southern political leaders that the
+anti-slavery feeling of the North, with its great and growing
+preponderance in wealth and population, would dictate the policy of the
+general government, determined them to attempt to break up the
+Union. The result, it was expected, would be the permanent
+establishment of a slave-holding confederacy, or the obtaining of new
+constitutional guaranties and safeguards of the institution of slavery;
+which, it was felt, would be undermined even if nothing more were done
+than to prevent the spread of it beyond the States where it
+existed. _South Carolina_ passed an ordinance of secession
+(Dec. 20, 1860), and was followed in this act by _Mississippi,
+Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana,_ and _Texas_. The
+delegates of the seceding States met at _Montgomery_, Ala., and
+formed a new government under the name of the Confederate States of
+America (Feb. 8, 1861). _Jefferson Davis_ was elected president,
+and _Alexander H. Stephens_ vice-president. Except at
+_Pensacola_ in Florida, and in _Charleston_, all the national
+property within the borders of the seceding States was seized. Efforts
+looking to compromise and conciliation were of no effect. After the
+accession of Mr. _Lincoln_, the purpose of the government to send
+supplies to the garrison of _Fort Sumter_ in the harbor of
+Charleston, caused the Confederates to attack that fortress, which the
+commander, Major _Anderson_, after a gallant defense, was obliged
+to surrender. President _Lincoln_ immediately issued a
+proclamation calling for seventy-five thousand volunteers to serve for
+three months, and called Congress together (April 15). There was a
+great uprising in the Northern States. The President's call for troops
+at once met with an enthusiastic response. _Virginia_,
+_Arkansas_, _Tennessee_, and _North Carolina_ now joined
+the Southern Confederacy, the capital of which was established at
+_Richmond_.  Great Britain recognized the Confederate States as
+having the rights of belligerents (May 13). France did the same.
+
+EVENTS OF THE WAR IN 1861-62.--Only a brief account can be given of the
+events of the war. General _Winfield Scott_ was at first in
+command of the Union forces, and General _J. E. Johnston_ of the
+forces of the Confederates. It was imagined at the North, that there
+could be an easy and quick advance of the Federal forces to
+_Richmond_; but the troops were not drilled, and the preparations
+for a campaign were wholly inadequate. The Union troops were defeated
+at _Bull Run_, or _Manassas_, and _Washington_ was
+thrown into a panic (July 21, 1861). Congress at once adopted energetic
+measures for raising a large army and for building a navy. General
+_George B. McClellan_ was placed in command of the forces. It was
+foreseen on both sides, that the result of the conflict might depend on
+the course taken by foreign powers, especially by England. The South
+counted upon the demand for cotton as certain to secure English help,
+direct or indirect, for the Southern cause. Mr. _Charles Francis
+Adams_ was selected by Mr. _Seward_, the secretary of state, to
+represent the Union at the Court of St. James. The Confederates sent
+abroad Mr. _Mason_ and Mr. _Slidell_ to procure the full
+recognition of the new Confederacy by England and France. The
+_Trent_, on which they sailed, was stopped by Captain
+_Wilkes_ of the United States Navy, and the commissioners taken
+from it. This breach of international law threatened war, which was
+averted by the surrender of the two captives to England. England,
+however, refused to assent to _Louis Napoleon's_ proposal to
+recognize the independence of the seceding States; but the laxness of
+the British Government in not preventing the fitting out of vessels of
+war in her ports, to prey on American commerce, excited indignation in
+the United States. _Palmerston_ was at the head of the cabinet,
+and Lord _John Russell_ was secretary for foreign affairs. For the
+depredations of the _Alabama_, the tribunal chosen to arbitrate at
+the end of the war, and meeting at Geneva, condemned England to pay to
+the United States an indemnity of fifteen and a half millions of
+dollars. Early in 1862 _Fort Henry_ on the Tennessee, and _Fort
+Donelson_ on the Cumberland, were taken by General _Ulysses
+S. Grant_, who led the land forces, and Commodore
+_A. H. Foote_, who commanded the gunboats. At Fort Donelson nearly
+fifteen thousand prisoners were captured. _Grant_ fought the
+battle of Pittsburg Landing, or _Shiloh_, which continued two days
+(April 6, 7), and ended in the retreat of the Confederates. Their
+general, _A. S. Johnston_, was killed, and the command of his
+troops devolved on _Beauregard_. _Grant_, who had been
+reinforced by _Buell_, drove the Confederates back to
+_Corinth_, Miss., nineteen miles distant. The capture of _Island
+Number Ten_, by _Pope_, followed; and soon _Memphis_ was
+in the hands of the Union forces. _Farragut_ ran the gauntlet of
+the forts at New Orleans (April 24), and captured that city. In the
+East the Union forces had not been so successful. The iron-sheathed
+frigate _Merrimac_ destroyed the Union fleet at _Hampton
+Roads_ (March 9), but was driven back to _Gosport_ by the
+timely appearance of the iron-clad Union vessel, the
+_Monitor_. _McClellan_ undertook to approach _Richmond_
+by the peninsula. The campaign lasted from March to July, and included,
+besides various other engagements, the important battles of _Fair
+Oaks_, and of _Malvern Hill_ (July 1). At the end of June the
+Union army was driven back to Harrison's Landing on the James
+River. Meantime the Confederate general, _Jackson_, in the valley
+of the Shenandoah, repulsed _Fremont, Banks_, and _McDowell_,
+and joined General _Robert E. Lee_, the commander of the
+Confederate forces, who now pressed forward towards
+Washington. _Pope_ was defeated at _Manassas_ (Aug. 29, 30),
+and _Lee_ crossed the Potomac into Maryland. He was met by
+_McClellan_, and defeated at _Antietam_ (Sept. 17), but was
+able to withdraw in safety across the river. _McClellan_ was
+superseded by _Burnside_, who was defeated by _Lee_ at
+_Fredericksburg_ (Dec. 13).
+
+EMANCIPATION.--On the 1st of January, 1863, President _Lincoln_
+issued a proclamation declaring all slaves in States or parts of States
+in rebellion, to be free. This act was legally possible only as a
+belligerent measure, or as an exercise of the right of a commander. The
+refusal of the Government to carry on the war for the direct purpose of
+emancipation, or to adopt measures of this character before,--measures
+which the Constitution did not permit,--was not understood in foreign
+countries, and, in England especially, had tended to chill sympathy
+with the Northern cause. Regiments of negro soldiers were now formed.
+
+THE FIRST SIX MONTHS OF 1863.--_Hooker_ succeeded _Burnside_
+in command of the Potomac Army, and was defeated by _Lee_ at
+_Chancellorsville_ (May 3). There _"Stonewall" Jackson_, one
+of the best and bravest of the Confederate generals, lost his
+life. _Lee_ now crossed the river, and entered
+_Pennsylvania_. This was the critical moment in the
+struggle. Great pains were taken, by such people in the North as were
+disaffected with the administration at Washington, to manifest
+hostility to the war, or to the method in which it was prosecuted. A
+riot broke out in the city of New York while the drafts for troops were
+in progress, and it was several days before it was put down. The defeat
+of _Lee_ by _Meade_ at _Gettysburg_ (July 1-3) turned
+the tide against the Confederates; their army again retired beyond the
+Potomac. At the same time, in the West, General _Grant_ captured
+_Vicksburg_ with upwards of thirty thousand men (July 4), and
+_Port Hudson_ was taken. The Mississippi was thus opened to its
+mouth. The Union navy acted effectively on the Atlantic coast, and at
+the end of the year nearly all the Southern ports were closed by
+blockades.
+
+VICTORIES AT CHATTANOOGA.--_Grant_ assumed command of the military
+division of the Mississippi, including the region between the
+Alleghanies and that river. With the Army of the Cumberland under
+_Thomas_, with reinforcements from Vicksburg under _Sherman_
+and from the Army of the Potomac under _Hooker_, he won the
+victories of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, at
+_Chattanooga_, Tennessee (Nov. 24 and 25). This success opened a
+path for the Union forces into Alabama and the Atlantic States.
+_Sherman_ was sent to reinforce _Burnside_ in Tennessee, and
+defeated _Longstreet._
+
+TO THE SURRENDER OF LEE.--_Grant_ was made lieutenant-general, or
+first in command under the President (March 7, 1864). Three attempts to
+reach Richmond, made severally by _McClellan_, _Hooker_, and
+_Burnside_, had failed, as Lee's two aggressive movements had been
+defeated at _Antietam_ and _Gettysburg_. The "border States"
+in the West were in the hands of the Union forces, as well as the lower
+Mississippi; and the blockade was maintained along the Atlantic
+coast. The plan now was for _Sherman_ to secure _Georgia_,
+and to march eastward and northward into the heart of the Confederacy,
+starting at _Chattanooga_. Military operations, which had been
+prosecuted over so vast an extent of territory, now began to have a
+unity which they had greatly missed before. _Grant_ personally
+took command of the Army of the Potomac. His object was to get between
+Lee's army and Richmond. This object was not effected; but the
+sanguinary battle of _the Wilderness_ (May 5, 6), and other
+subsequent battles, had the effect, in the course of six weeks, to push
+_Lee_ back within the fortifications of _Petersburg_ and
+_Richmond_. During the long siege of these places, diversions were
+attempted by _Early_ in Maryland and Pennsylvania; but he was
+repelled and defeated by _Sheridan_. The Confederate vessel
+_Alabama_ was sunk in the English Channel by the _Kearsarge_
+(June, 1864). _Farragut_ captured the forts in _Mobile
+Bay_. _Sherman's_ forces, after a series of engagements,
+entered _Atlanta_, Ga., which the Confederates had been compelled
+to evacuate (Sept. 2). A detachment was sent by _Sherman_, under
+_Thomas_, after _Hood_, which defeated him at
+_Nashville_ (Dec. 15, 16). _Sherman_ marched through Georgia,
+and entered _Savannah_ (Dec. 21). On Feb. 1, 1865, he commenced
+his movement northward. The attempts of General _J. E. Johnston_
+to check his advance were ineffectual. _Sherman_ entered
+_Columbia_, S. C., and pushed on to _Raleigh_;
+_Johnston_, whose numbers were inferior, retiring as he
+approached. The efforts of _Lee_ to break away from _Grant_,
+in order to effect a junction with _Johnston_, did not
+succeed. _Sheridan's_ victory over _Lee_ at _Five Forks_
+(April 1) compelled him to evacuate _Petersburg_. He was pursued
+and surrounded by _Grant_, and surrendered his army at
+_Appomattox Court House_ (April 9). The Union forces had entered
+_Richmond_ (April 2). _Johnston_ surrendered his forces to
+_Sherman_ (April 26). _Jefferson Davis_ was captured by a
+body of Union cavalry in Georgia (May 10).
+
+MURDER OF LINCOLN.--The joy felt in the North over the complete victory
+of the Union cause was turned into grief by the assassination of
+President _Lincoln_ (April 14), who had begun his second term on
+the 4th of March. He was shot in a theater in Washington, by a fanatic
+named _Booth_, who imagined that he was avenging wrongs of the
+South. An attempt was made at the same time to murder Secretary
+_Seward_ in his bed. The assailant inflicted on him severe but not
+fatal wounds.
+
+Mr. _Lincoln_ had taken a strong hold upon the affections of the
+people. With a large store of plain common-sense, with an even temper,
+an abounding good-nature, and a humor that cast wise thoughts into the
+form of pithy maxims and similes, he combined an unflinching firmness,
+and loyalty to his convictions of duty. He refused to be hurried to the
+issue of an edict of emancipation, which, as he judged, if prematurely
+framed, would lose to the Union cause the great States of Maryland,
+Tennessee, Arkansas, and Missouri. Keeping steadily before him the
+prime object of the war, he inculcated, as he felt, malice toward none,
+and charity for all. What _Clarendon_ says of _Cromwell_ is
+true of _Lincoln_: "As he grew into place and authority, his parts
+seemed to be raised, as if he had had concealed faculties, till he had
+occasion to use them."
+
+FINANCES IN THE WAR.--The Confederate Government had carried on the war
+by the issue of paper money made redeemable on the condition of success
+in gaining independence. This currency, of course, became
+worthless. The debt of the United States at the close of the war had
+risen from about sixty-five millions to more than twenty-seven hundred
+millions of dollars, not to speak of the debts incurred by States and
+towns.
+
+AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION.--The _Thirteenth_ Amendment to the
+Constitution (declared in force Dec. 18, 1865) prohibited slavery in
+the United States. The _Fourteenth_ Amendment (declared in force
+July 28, 1868) secured to all the freedmen the right of citizenship and
+equality under State law, and ordained that the basis of representation
+in each State should be reduced in proportion to any abridgment by
+State law of the right of suffrage in its male population. The
+Fifteenth Amendment (declared in force March 30, 1870) forbade the
+abridgment of the right to vote, on account of race, color, or previous
+condition of servitude. The effect of the amendments was to confer on
+the blacks the civil and political rights enjoyed by the whites.
+
+RECONSTRUCTION: ADMINISTRATION OF JOHNSON.--The Southern States were
+conquered communities; but the theory was held that they had not been,
+and could not be in law, dissevered from the Union. The difficulty of
+reconstructing State governments was aggravated by the fact that the
+bulk of the intelligent people in the seceding States were precluded,
+or excluded themselves, from taking part in the measures requisite for
+this end; by the additional fact of the ignorance of the blacks, and of
+the selfish greed of white adventurers who took the place of leaders
+among them; and by dissensions in the North, and in the administration
+at Washington, as to the right and lawful course to be pursued. The
+President, _Andrew Johnson_, who succeeded _Lincoln_, became
+involved in a contest with the dominant Republican party in Congress,
+on questions pertaining to reconstruction. He was impeached and tried
+by the Senate (Feb. 24-May 16, 1868), but the number of votes for his
+conviction was one less than the number required. On the expiration of
+_Johnson's_ term, General _Grant_ was raised to the
+presidential office. It was complained, that the new governments
+instituted in the South by the freedmen and their white coadjutors were
+grossly corrupt and incapable, and that their "returning boards" made
+false results of elections. On the other hand, it was complained, that
+the opponents of these governments resorted to violence and fraud to
+intimidate their political adversaries, and to keep them out of
+office. The troops of the United States, which had sustained the
+officers appointed by the blacks and by their white allies in several
+of the States, were at length withdrawn; and political power was
+resumed throughout the South by the adverse party, or the class which
+had contended against what were derisively styled "carpet-bag"
+governments. A difficulty arose in 1876, in consequence of a dispute
+about the result of the presidential election. It was referred to an
+"Electoral Commission" appointed by Congress, and _Rutherford
+B. Hayes_ was declared to be chosen (1877-1881). During his
+administration (Jan. 1, 1879) the banks and the government resumed
+specie payments, which had been suspended since an early date in the
+civil war. The rapid diminution of the national debt is one of the
+important features of later American history. The Republicans succeeded
+in the next national election; but General _Garfield_, who was
+chosen President, was mortally wounded by an assassin (July 2, 1881), a
+few months after his inauguration. _Guiteau_, who committed the
+causeless and ruthless deed, claimed to be "inspired by the Deity," but
+was judged to be morally and legally responsible, and died on the
+gallows. _Chester A. Arthur_, the Vice-president, filled the
+highest office for the remainder of the presidential term. At the
+election in 1884 _Grover Cleveland_, Governor of New York, was
+elected as Chief Magistrate; and the Democrats, for the first time
+since the retirement of Mr. _Buchanan_ and the inauguration of
+Mr. _Lincoln_ (in 1861), took the reins of power into their hands;
+the Republicans, however, retaining a majority in the
+Senate. _Benjamin Harrison_ (Republican) succeeded
+_Cleveland_ as President, 1889. The McKinley Tariff Bill, 1890,
+reduced the duty on some imports, but increased them heavily on
+others. In 1892 the four hundredth anniversary of America's discovery
+was celebrated, and _Grover Cleveland_, Democratic nominee, was
+again elected to the presidency. The revival of industry and prosperity
+in the Southern States, and efforts for popular education for the
+blacks as well as whites, are circumstances worthy of special record.
+
+GRANT AND LEE.--About two months after his retirement from the
+presidency, General _Grant_ began a tour of the world. He landed
+in San Francisco from Japan, on his return, in September, 1879, after
+an absence of nearly two years and a half. In 1880 an effort was made
+by his warm political supporters to bring him forward as a candidate of
+the Republicans for a third term in the presidency. This effort failed,
+as had a similar endeavor, made with less vigor, four years before. The
+remainder of his days were spent in private life. His death occurred on
+July 23, 1885. He was buried in New York, on Aug. 8, with distinguished
+honors. General _Lee_, the commander of the Confederate forces in
+the civil war, from the close of the struggle to his death (Oct. 12,
+1870) was president of Washington and Lee University, at Lexington, Va.
+
+  UTAH: THE MORMONS.--The sect of Mormons was founded in _Manchester,
+  N. Y._, in 1830, by _Joseph Smith_, a native of Vermont, who
+  claimed to have received heavenly visions from the time when he was
+  fifteen years old. He pretended that he was guided by an angel to the
+  spot, near _Manchester_, where was buried a stone box containing
+  a volume made up of thin gold plates, which were covered with strange
+  characters in the "reformed Egyptian" tongue. This "Book of Mormon"
+  was really a manuscript composed, in 1812, for quite another purpose,
+  by one _Solomon Spaulding_, who had been a preacher. A copy of
+  it made by a printer, _Sidney Rigdon_, fell into the hands of
+  _Joseph Smith_. It contains fabulous stories of the settlement
+  of refugees coming from the Tower of Babel to America, who were
+  followed in 600 B.C. by a colony from Jerusalem that landed on the
+  coast of Chili. War broke out among their descendants, from the bad
+  part of whom the North American Indians sprung. One of the survivors
+  of the better class of these Hebrews, named _Mormon_, collected
+  in a volume the books of records of former kings and priests, which,
+  with some additions from his son, was buried until the prophet chosen
+  of God should appear. In style the Book of Mormon endeavors to
+  imitate the English version of the Scriptures. On the basis of this
+  volume and of its alleged miraculous origin, _Smith_ founded the
+  sect of "Latter Day Saints," as he styled them. From _Kirtland,
+  O._, where they came in 1831, and where the converts were
+  numerous, they removed to a place which they named _New
+  Jerusalem_, in Jackson County, Mo. Here they were joined by
+  _Brigham Young_, also a native of Vermont, a man of much energy
+  and shrewdness. _Smith_ was charged by the Missourians, and some
+  of his own followers who deserted him, with outrageous crimes and
+  frauds. The conflict between the Mormons and the Missourians resulted
+  in the migration of the former to _Nauvoo_ in Illinois, where a
+  community was organized in which _Smith_ exercised supreme
+  power. In 1843 Smith, who was as profligate as he was knavish,
+  professed to receive a revelation sanctioning polygamy. His bad
+  conduct, and that of his adherents, brought on a conflict with the
+  civil authorities. Smith, with his brother, was killed in the jail by
+  a mob. Driven out of _Nauvoo_, the Mormons (1848) made their way
+  to Utah, and founded _Salt Lake City_. Their systematic efforts
+  to obtain converts brought to them a large number from the ignorant
+  working-class in Great Britain and in Sweden and Norway. The
+  Territory of Utah was organized by Congress in 1849. The laws and
+  officers of the United States, however, were treated with defiance
+  and openly resisted by Brigham Young, the Mormon leader; and he was
+  removed from the office of governor, to which he had been appointed
+  by President _Fillmore_. A contest with the United States
+  authorities was succeeded by the submission of the Mormons in
+  1858. In 1871 efforts for the suppression of polygamy by law were
+  undertaken by the Federal Government, and have since been continued
+  with imperfect success. _Brigham Young_ died in 1877, and was
+  succeeded in the presidency of the Mormons by _John Taylor_, an
+  Englishman. A body of anti-polygamist seceders from the Mormon
+  community, including a son of _Brigham Young_, has been
+  formed. Another Mormon sect opposed to polygamy, calling itself the
+  "Reorganized Church of Latter Day Saints," originated in 1851. The
+  number of professed believers in the strange and grotesque tenets of
+  Mormonism, in all the different places where its disciples are found,
+  probably exceeds two hundred thousand.
+
+THE FORMATION OF THE STATES.--The "_District of Maine_" formed a
+part of Massachusetts from 1651 to 1820, when it was admitted to the
+Union as a distinct State. Its northern boundary was not clearly
+defined until the treaty of 1842 between the United States and England,
+which was made by Mr. _Webster_ and Lord _Ashburton_. The
+_North-West Territory_, which was organized in 1789, comprised the
+cessions north of the Ohio and as far west as the Mississippi, which
+had been made by the "landed States;" that is, the several States
+holding portions of this region. A small portion, "the Western
+Reserve," was retained by Connecticut until 1795, when it was sold to
+the National Government. Out of this "North-West Territory," there were
+formed five States. Connected with the name of each is the date of its
+admission to the Union: Ohio (1802), Indiana (1816), Illinois (1818),
+Michigan (1837), Wisconsin (1848). South of the Ohio and east of the
+Mississippi, lay the territory belonging to Virginia, the Carolinas,
+and Georgia. From this, the cession of Virginia formed the State of
+Kentucky (1792); that of the Carolinas formed Tennessee (1796); that of
+Georgia formed Alabama (1819) and Mississippi (1817). The extensive
+territory called _Louisiana_ was ceded by France to Spain in 1762,
+was ceded back to France in 1801, and purchased by the United States in
+1803. From this territory, there have been formed the States of
+Louisiana (1812), Missouri (1820), Arkansas (1836), Iowa (1846),
+Minnesota (1858), Kansas (1861), Nebraska (1867), Colorado (1876),
+Montana and the two Dakotas (1889), Wyoming (1890), and Oklahoma and
+Indian Territories. From the cession of Florida by Spain (1819), the
+State of Florida was formed (1845). _Oregon_ was claimed by the
+United States by the right of prior discovery: it was organized as a
+Territory in 1849; the Territory of Washington was formed from it in
+1853, and Idaho in 1863. Oregon was admitted as a State in 1859,
+Washington in 1889, and Idaho in 1890. Texas was admitted to the Union
+in 1845. From the cessions of Mexico (1848) there have been formed the
+States of California (1850) and Nevada (1864), and the Territories of
+Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. Alaska was purchased from Russia in
+1867. West Virginia was formed into a distinct State in 1863, in
+consequence of the secession of Virginia.
+
+
+MEXICO.
+
+THE FRENCH INVASION: MAXIMILLIAN.--After the close of the war with the
+United States (1848), there continued to be a war of factions in
+Mexico. There was a democratic party, which obtained the upper hand in
+1857, but was opposed by the church party. The clergy and the religious
+bodies were possessed of nearly one-half of the landed property in the
+country. _Benito Juarez_, who had been chief justice, became
+president; but he was resisted by the clerical party, with their
+military supporters, and there was civil war (1857-58). _Juarez_
+was recognized as the lawful president by the United States. Spain,
+France, and England demanded reparation for injuries and losses
+suffered in Mexico by their subjects. In December, 1861, and January,
+1862, they landed troops at _Vera Cruz_, to compel Mexico to
+satisfy their claims. The demands of England and Spain were met, and
+they withdrew their forces. It became clear, however, that _Louis
+Napoleon_, who refused to recognize _Juarez_, had an ulterior
+design to overthrow the Mexican government, and to establish an empire
+in its place. It was a part of a visionary scheme to establish the
+domination of "the Latin race." He expected to check the progress of
+the United States, and ventured on this aggressive enterprise on
+account of the opportunity offered by the civil war in America. He
+persuaded the Archduke _Maximilian_, the brother of _Francis
+Joseph_, emperor of Austria, to accept the throne, and agreed to
+sustain him with men and money. _Maximilian_ arrived in Mexico in
+1864. Large bodies of French troops fought on his side. The war
+resolved itself into a guerrilla contest, in which great cruelties were
+perpetrated on both sides. The end of the American civil war put the
+Government of the United States in a position to demand of _Louis
+Napoleon_ the withdrawal of the French forces. His own situation in
+France, and the state of public opinion there, prevented him from
+refusing this demand. The folly, as well as criminality, of the
+undertaking, had become more and more obvious. He therefore decided to
+violate his promises to _Maximilian_. Deserted thus by his
+defenders, this prince, who, although misled by ambition, had noble
+traits, was captured by the troops of _Juarez_, tried by
+court-martial, and shot (1867). His wife _Carlotta_, the daughter
+of _Leopold I_. of Belgium, and the grand-daughter of _Louis
+Philippe_, failing in negotiations at Rome, had lost her
+reason. _Juarez_ was installed in power at the capital. In 1868
+and 1869, there was a succession of insurrections and revolutions; but
+he was again elected in 1871, and died the next year. After that time,
+there was more tranquillity in Mexico, and much was done to develop the
+mines and other material resources of the country, and for public
+education.
+
+DIAZ: INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS.--President _Juarez_ died in 1872, and
+was succeeded by _Lerdo de Tejada_. Under him the authority of the
+State over the Church was maintained. The monastic orders were
+abolished. The democratic constitution, which had been framed in 1857,
+was amended (1873-4), and was afterwards upheld against the efforts of
+the reactionary or ecclesiastical party to overthrow it. In 1876, there
+were three claimants of the presidency,--_Tejada, Iglesias_, the
+chief justice, who denied the validity of his election, and
+Gen. _Porfirio Diaz_, who was at the head of a revolt. _Diaz_
+established himself in power, and was succeeded in 1880 by _Manuel
+Gonzalez_. On the expiration of his term (1884), _Diaz_ was
+once more chosen to the same office. In 1891 an insurrection, headed by
+_Catarino Garza_, a journalist, and General _Riez Sandival_,
+was directed against the Diaz government. It was put down and
+_Diaz_ was re-elected president, July 11, 1892. Under _Diaz_
+and his coadjutors much was done for the development of the
+country. Mexico has advanced towards a stable government in the
+republican form.
+
+
+SOUTH AMERICA.
+
+BRAZIL.--After returning to Portugal, King John recognized the
+independence of Brazil, and his son Dom Pedro as emperor of the country
+(1825), although John kept the title during his lifetime (p. 553). The
+two crowns were not to be united. On the death of his father (1826),
+Dom Pedro resigned his claim to the throne of Portugal. His subsequent
+career in Brazil was a troublous one, owing to his contest with a
+liberal party. He returned to Spain in 1831. After his departure there
+were party contests under a regency. In 1840 Dom Pedro II., who had
+been left behind in Brazil by his father, and was then fourteen years
+of age, was proclaimed emperor. Measures were taken against the
+slave-trade, and it was finally abolished; an effective plan for the
+gradual emancipation of slaves was adopted (1871). Rosas, dictator of
+Buenos Ayres, who intended to subvert the republics of Uruguay and
+Paraguay, was defeated by the Brazilian forces and their allies
+(1852). A long war against Lopez, dictator of Paraguay, ended in his
+capture and death (1870). This war involved losses to Brazil in men and
+money. Under Dom Pedro II., public works, manufactures, and commerce
+were promoted. A long strife of the government with the Catholic
+hierarchy ended in an accommodation (1875). In November, 1889, as the
+result of a bloodless revolution, Dom Pedro II. was dethroned, and a
+republican form of government declared. In Feb., 1891, Marshal Deodoro
+da Fonseca was confirmed as President, resigned in November, and was
+succeeded by Vice-President Floriano Peixoto, who held office until
+Nov. 15, 1894, when Prudente de Moraes, the first Brazilian President
+elected by a popular vote, was inaugurated.
+
+OHILI, PERU, BOLIVIA.--The contest of Chili with Peru and Bolivia has
+attracted special notice. Chili, after the formation of its
+constitution in 1833,--which resembles the constitution of the United
+States,--enjoyed remarkable prosperity. The strife to which we refer
+began between Chili and Bolivia. The point in dispute was the right to
+the province of Atacama, between Chili and Peru, the southern part of
+which was claimed by Chili. Bolivia claimed the whole. By a treaty in
+1866, the territory in dispute was to be, under certain conditions,
+common property. A rivalry existed between Chili and Peru, and a secret
+alliance was formed in 1873 between Peru and Bolivia. Bolivia now
+asserted her title to the entire province of Atacama. The Argentine
+Republic was disposed to take sides against Chili, but, in consequence
+of the success of the Chilians, remained neutral. The Chilians captured
+(Oct. 8, 1879) the Peruvian iron-clad vessel, the Huascar. They gained
+other advantages, and took possession of the whole province, with its
+deposits of nitrate and guano. Revolutions ensued in Bolivia and
+Peru. Chilians took _Lima_, the Peruvian capital, and overran the
+country. Terms of peace proposed by Chili, involving large cessions of
+territory, were ratified by the Congress at _Lima_ (March 1,
+1884). A treaty of peace was made between Chili and Bolivia (May 4). In
+Jan., 1891, war broke out in Chili, resulting in the defeat of
+President _Balmaceda_ in August. An assault on American seamen by
+Chilians in Valparaiso, Oct., 1891, caused strained relations between
+Chili and the United States, the latter demanding apology and
+reparation. Chili complied, Jan., 1892.
+
+
+CHINA AND JAPAN.
+
+CHINA AND FOREIGN NATIONS: THE TAIPING REBELLION.--In the recent
+period, there has been a gradual but grudging and reluctant opening of
+_China_ to commercial intercourse with foreign nations, and to the
+labors of Christian missionaries. In 1840 there began the first war
+with Great Britain, called the "opium war" for the reason that it was
+caused by the Chinese prohibition of the importing of that article. In
+the treaty at the end of the war, five ports were made free to British
+trade; _Hong-Kong_ was ceded to England; and it was provided that
+the intercourse between the officials of the two nations should be on
+the basis of equality (1842). Two years later an advantageous treaty
+was concluded by the United States with China: a treaty was also
+concluded with France (1844). Aggressions of the Chinese led to a
+second war with Great Britain, in alliance with France (1857-60); in
+which the Chinese fleet was destroyed, and _Canton_, a city of a
+million inhabitants, was captured. Treaties were made, but the
+infraction of them was followed by the capture of _Peking_
+(1859). In the settlement which immediately took place, toleration was
+granted to Christianity, and liberty to foreign ambassadors to reside
+at the capital. In 1868 Mr. _Anson Burlingame_, who had been
+United States minister to China, with two Chinese envoys, visited the
+powers which had made treaties with China, and negotiated agreements by
+which important principles of international law were mutually
+adopted. The most important domestic event in China, in recent times,
+is the _"Taiping"-rebellion_, which broke out in 1850, in Southern
+China. Complaints of oppression and consequent disorder were brought to
+a climax on the accession of the young emperor, _Heen-fung_. The
+revolt spread from province to province, and found a leader in the
+person of _Hung Lew-tseuen_, who called himself _Teen-Wang_
+(Celestial Virtue). He proclaimed his purpose to overthrow the
+_Manchu_ dynasty, and to restore the throne to the native
+Chinese. He claimed a divine commission, had caught up certain
+Christian ideas, and professed to be an adherent of
+Christianity. Multitudes flocked to his standard.
+
+City after city fell into their hands. The war with England and France
+operated in his favor. After the conclusion of peace, the government
+was more energetic and successful in its effort to suppress the
+rebellion, and was helped by foreign officers, in particular by Major
+(afterwards General) _Gordon_. _Nanking_ was recaptured
+(1864); and the revolt, which had been attended with an enormous
+destruction of life, came to an end.
+
+JAPAN AND FOREIGN NATIONS.--Up to the year 1866, the actual rulers of
+Japan were the _Shogun_, or emperor's lieutenant, who resided at
+_Yedo_, and the _daimios_, or territorial nobles, whose
+residence was also there. The _Mikado_, or emperor, lived in
+_Kioto_, surrounded by his relatives, the imperial nobles. There
+was a strict classification of the whole people, and a strict
+supervision of them, and the country was shut to foreigners. In 1853
+Commodore _Perry_, of the United-States Navy, first entered the
+harbor of _Yedo_, and in 1854 returned, and negotiated a treaty
+with the _Shogun_, which opened certain ports to foreign trade,
+and to the admission of consuls. Treaties of a like nature between
+Japan and the other principal nations were soon made. The _Mikado_
+and his court were deeply incensed at the _Shogun's_ usurpation of
+authority, and were at the same time hostile to the introduction of
+foreigners. Thus a double contest arose. There was an attempt to put
+down the _Shogun_, and to strip him of his authority, and to drive
+off the strangers. This last effort led the _Mikado's_ officers to
+fire on the ships of the foreign nations. The punishment which these
+inflicted in the harbor of _Shimonoseki_ (1864) so impressed the
+emperor, in conjunction with his fear lest the foreigners should help
+the _Shogun_, that he completely reversed his policy, and
+proceeded to remove the barriers to intercourse with them. The
+_daimios_, who had been compelled to live at _Yedo_, flocked
+to _Kioto_. The _Mikado_, countenanced by the foreigners,
+overcame the resistance of the party of the Shoguns. He removed his
+residence to _Yedo_, now called _Tokio_ (1869). Feudalism was
+abolished (1871), and a constitution promulgated in 1889. The empire
+was thus united and strengthened. Institutions and customs of Western
+civilization were rapidly introduced. Political and legal reforms kept
+pace with the introduction of railroads and other material
+improvements. Christian missionaries actively engaged in preaching and
+teaching.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. THE LAST DECADE OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
+
+
+During the last decade of the nineteenth century tendencies which years
+before had begun to appear became the dominant feature of the European
+situation. The old ideals of the Manchester school--freer trade, more
+intimate and peaceful intercourse between nations, the right of each
+people to control its destiny, the development of liberal
+institutions--gave way to a policy of high protective tariffs and
+bitter commercial warfare, of constant increase in armaments, of eager
+rivalry in seizing the territory of less civilized and weaker peoples,
+accompanied, particularly on the continent, by a decrease in the
+effectiveness of parliamentary government. Several of the great
+statesmen of the century yielded to new men. Although the close came
+without such wars as desolated Europe at the end of the eighteenth
+century, the heavy burdens which rested upon the taxpayer and the
+constant danger that the work of civilization would be rudely
+interrupted hardly justified the optimism of the earlier decades. The
+pronunciamento of the Czar Nicholas in favor of restricting the growth
+of armaments and the consequent establishment, in 1900, of an
+international tribunal of arbitration at the Hague held out hopes of a
+better future.
+
+ENGLAND.--An analysis of the majority which Gladstone had obtained in
+the general election of 1892 showed that the prospects of Home Rule for
+Ireland were slight. This majority was composed of an English minority
+supported by Scottish, Welsh, and Irish groups. The bill which was
+introduced in the following year differed from the previous bill in
+that it did not withdraw the Irish members from Westminster. Although
+the House of Commons gave it a small majority, it was defeated in the
+Lords.  Gladstone felt that his support was too precarious to force the
+question to a final settlement by an appeal to the country. He
+accordingly turned his attention to the remainder of his programme, the
+most important part of which was a Parish Councils bill. This aimed to
+do for local government in the parishes what the previous Salisbury
+ministry had done for local government in the counties. After the
+success of the bill was assured Gladstone withdrew, and Lord Rosebery
+became prime-minister. Gladstone spent the remainder of his life in
+retirement. The Rosebery ministry soon fell, and a new Salisbury
+ministry dissolved Parliament. In the general election of 1895 the
+Conservatives and their allies, the Liberal-Unionists, received an
+overwhelming majority. This took the Home Rule question out of
+practical politics. Only through a series of minor concessions was the
+attempt to be made to satisfy Ireland's legitimate aspirations. This
+victory also showed that English public sentiment was ready to break
+definitely with the principles of Gladstone and his friends, and
+support a policy of energetic imperialism. The Queen, whose jubilee was
+again celebrated in 1897, died on January 22, 1901. The new king,
+Edward VII., at the age of sixty-one, was crowned in 1902.
+
+GERMANY: BISMARCK's LATER POLICY.--Since 1878, when Bismarck abandoned
+his alliance with the National Liberals, he had been endeavoring to
+increase the financial strength of the empire by changing the customs
+and excise system, to conquer the socialists both by direct attack and
+by taking the working classes under the special care of the state, and,
+more recently, to procure for Germany colonial possessions. Although
+his new financial policy was definitely protectionist, his chief aim
+was to free the imperial government from the need of applying to the
+different states for a subvention. In consequence of his policy, the
+income from customs and excises rose in ten years from 230,000,000
+marks to 700,000,000. But the plan of state subventions although
+altered in fact was preserved in appearance, for Bismarck was obliged
+to concede to Particularist jealousies that all income from these
+sources above 130,000,000 must be paid to the states and the deficiency
+in the imperial treasury be made up in the usual manner. Later on the
+new naval programme again made state contributions a reality. In the
+laws to protect the workingmen Bismarck affirmed this to be the duty of
+the Christian state; he did not concede that such measures were simply
+the right of the workmen. The plan was carried out in three great laws:
+that of insurance in case of illness (1883), in case of accident in
+mines or factories (1884), and in case of old age or incapacity (1889).
+These laws were enacted in the face of much outcry from employers, and
+were effectively administered. They did not, however, so far remove the
+grievances of the lower classes as to check the growth of the Social
+Democratic party. Although the party has since 1891 embodied in its
+programme the theories of Marx, it is not wholly socialistic in
+character; it is also a protest of the democratic spirit against the
+administration of Germany as an aristocratic, military monarchy. In the
+face of repressive laws the party grew steadily, so that in 1890 it was
+able to cast 1,400,000 votes. The only force able to resist its advance
+was the Catholic Center, because the Catholic Church included among its
+members all classes in the community; while the Protestant Church, in
+the cities at least, was more generally composed of the employing
+class.  From 1884 Bismarck had put Germany forward as an eager
+competitor for colonial acquisitions in Africa and the Pacific. The
+lands that Germany was able to obtain were hardly suited to
+distinctively German settlement, and afforded comparatively little
+advantage to trade.
+
+BISMARCK'S FALL.--William II. began by continuing the policies which
+had been characteristic of the closing years of his grandfather's
+reign. It was not long before he became restive under the leadership of
+Bismarck. He desired to make his own personal aims more prominent. In
+1890 there was a struggle over the renewal of the laws against the
+socialists and a consequent general election. The Emperor seized the
+opportunity to declare his purpose to improve still further the
+situation of the working classes, and, with this in view, to call an
+international congress. In Prussia he declared it to be the duty of the
+state to regulate the conditions of labor. Such declarations took the
+control of the electoral campaign out of Bismarck's hands. One result
+was decided losses for the conservative groups. Bismarck tried to
+maintain his ascendency by insisting that, according to a cabinet order
+of Frederick William IV., the king of Prussia must communicate with the
+ministers through the president of the council. William retorted by
+denying Bismarck's right to negotiate with the chiefs of the
+parliamentary groups, and by requiring a decree reversing the obnoxious
+cabinet order. On March 20 he demanded Bismarck's resignation. Bismarck
+left Berlin amid a great ovation a few days later. For some years he
+and his friends formed an unofficial center of opposition and
+criticism. He died in July, 1898.
+
+GERMANY SINCE BISMARCK'S FALL.--Bismarck's successors were Count
+Caprivi (1890-1894), Prince Hohenlobe (1894-1900), and Count Bülow. It
+was tacitly recognized that the anti-socialist laws had failed, and
+they were not renewed. The socialists as well as all other groups
+received the additional advantage that somewhat later a law was passed
+permitting societies of all kinds to affiliate. It was estimated that
+in 1900 the Social Democrats controlled over 2,000,000 votes. The
+government vainly attempted to dike the rising flood by laws providing
+a practical censorship of art and of literature, but these had to be
+abandoned. In the parliamentary life of Germany the most significant
+change was the disintegration of the old parties, the strengthening of
+such groups as the Catholic Center and the Social Democrats, and the
+creation of a strong Agrarian party or interest. The Agrarians became
+prominent during the controversy over a commercial treaty with
+Russia. This treaty was part of a general attempt to develop the
+European market to make good the loss through the adoption of high
+tariffs in countries like America and France, and, at first, by Russia
+herself. Although Germany could not furnish enough grain to feed her
+own people, and there was a tariff on imported grain, the price kept
+falling, while the prices of manufactured articles steadily
+increased. The peasants and the landowners felt that they were
+threatened with ruin. Accordingly they formed an alliance in 1893, and
+a parliamentary union which, from that time on, was so formidable as to
+force important concessions from the government. Among other important
+measures of this period were the adoption of a new Civil Code for the
+empire, to go into effect Jan. 1, 1900; the reduction of the term of
+military service to two years; and the efforts by the successive naval
+programmes of 1897 and 1900 to create for Germany a strong sea power
+capable of supporting her trade and colonial aspirations.
+
+FRANCE: BOULANGER.--In 1888 the continuance of the Republic was
+endangered by the support which many of its enemies and some of its
+ignorant friends lent to the pretensions of General Boulanger, who had
+made himself popular as minister of war by his army reforms and by his
+belligerent attitude toward Germany. When he ceased to be minister, and
+particularly after he was deprived of his military command, he began an
+energetic propaganda for a revision of the constitution, with the cry
+"Dissolution, Revision, Constituent." The royalists gave freely to
+further the campaign, hoping that moderate men would be frightened into
+calling the Count of Paris to the throne in order to save the country
+from another military empire. The Boulangists took skillful advantage
+of the fact that the deputies representing each department were elected
+"at large," and not on single district tickets, so that it was possible
+for Boulanger's name to be placed on each departmental ticket, and so
+in time to receive the votes of all France. With such a mandate it
+would be impossible for the moderate Republicans to resist him. For a
+time the scheme was successful. Boulanger was even elected on the Paris
+list. Had he been willing to undertake a coup d'etat he might then have
+overthrown the Republic, but he wished for a more peaceful triumph at
+the approaching general election. This his opponents deprived him of by
+abolishing the method of election "at large," so that each deputy was
+to represent a particular district. Boulanger was soon after attacked
+on a charge of treason before the Senate acting as a high court. He
+fled to Belgium and a little later committed suicide on the grave of
+his mistress.
+
+PANAMA CRISIS.--Hardly had the danger from Boulanger subsided when, in
+1892, many of the leading politicians were discredited by the
+disclosures made in the judicial investigation of the bankruptcy of the
+Panama Canal Company. It appeared that the company had spent large sums
+to muzzle the press, so that ignorant investors should not discover the
+precarious condition of the enterprise. It had also contributed to the
+campaign expenses of friendly deputies and directly purchased votes in
+order to obtain authority to negotiate a loan in a manner ordinarily
+illegal.
+
+Although several deputies and senators were tried, no one was convicted
+save an ex-minister, who confessed that he had accepted 300,000
+francs. Had the exposure come a little earlier, it must have led to the
+triumph of Boulanger. Its principal consequence was to bring new men of
+less tarnished reputations to the front.
+
+THE CHURCH.--In the same year the Church with direct encouragement and
+even pressure from Pope Leo XIII, rallied to the support of the
+Republic. The pope issued an encyclical to French Catholics and
+followed this by a letter to the French cardinals. Many royalists were
+afflicted by this attitude, but nearly all were submissive. They called
+themselves the "constitutional party," but were also called the
+"rallied." Their watchword seemed to be, "Accept the constitution in
+order to modify legislation."
+
+PARTIES.--The radical revolutionary groups, which had been crushed in
+the suppression of the Commune of 1871, and which had not been able to
+reconstitute themselves effectively until the amnesty of 1880, began in
+the early nineties to make their influence more effective. This
+coincided with a general shifting of political power toward the
+Left. The assassination of President Carnot, in 1894, and the
+enthusiasm provoked by the cementing of the Russian alliance and by the
+coming of the Czar to Paris, prolonged the control of the moderates, or
+Progressists, as they were called in 1896. It was the persistent
+attacks of the radicals that disgusted Casimir-Périer with the
+presidency. His successor was Félix Faure, a successful business
+man. When he died suddenly in 1899, Émile Loubet was chosen by the
+support of the groups of the Left. Before the moderate Republicans lost
+control they revolutionized the economic policy of France, substituting
+for practical free trade and commercial treaties a high protective
+tariff.
+
+DREYFUS CASE.--France had not recovered from the shock of the Panama
+scandal before she was involved in another scandal far more subtle in
+its demoralizing influence. Jealousy of the success of Jewish
+financiers, strengthened by the common feeling that capitalists are
+enriched by ill-gotten gains, led to an obscure campaign against the
+Jews and all capitalists. The reminiscences of Panama did not allay
+these feelings. Soon the royalists seized this instrument as a means of
+discrediting the Republic, asserting that it had been organized through
+the influence of German-Jewish immigrants who were enriching themselves
+at the expense of the thrifty but guileless French. It was also
+asserted that Jews in the army were betraying its secrets to their
+German kindred. As the army was universally popular, this was an
+effective blow at the Jews. The denouement was the arrest of Captain
+Dreyfus, his degradation, and his confinement on an island off the
+coast of French Guiana. The evidence had been slight, and it was
+discredited when a courageous officer of the Intelligence Department
+told his superiors that even this had been constructed by a Major
+Esterhazy. The officer, Colonel Picquart, was removed, and his place
+taken by Colonel Henry, who undertook to supply the necessary
+evidence. Although he imposed on the minister of war, he was unable to
+endure the moral strain, especially after distinguished men like Zola
+became champions of the innocence of Dreyfus, and he committed suicide
+after making a confession. The government was obliged to bring the case
+before the Court of Cassation in 1898, which ordered a new
+trial. Although Dreyfus was again convicted by a military court, he was
+immediately pardoned by the President.
+
+OTHER COUNTRIES.--After 1897 the situation in Austro-Hungary became
+precarious, owing to the difficulties which arose when the time came to
+renew the _Ausgleich_, or agreement, between Austria and Hungary,
+first made in 1867. Neither portion of the empire was satisfied with
+its part of the bargain. As the Hungarians always stood together in any
+struggle with Austria, they were likely to get the better of the
+bargain. There was the additional difficulty that no agreement of any
+sort could be adopted in the Austrian parliament, which had become
+hopelessly disorganized through the savage conflicts between the
+various groups, Germans, Czechs, anti-Semites, etc. The only way to
+prevent the actual dissolution of the empire was to renew the agreement
+in behalf of Austria by imperial warrant. Another country belonging to
+the Triple Alliance, Italy, was brought into trouble by the policy of
+extravagant expansion, pursued especially under the leadership of
+Crispi. But the disastrous defeat by the Abyssinians at Adowa, in 1896,
+gave pause to the plans of such statesmen. Spain also suffered disaster
+in this period, first through the outbreak of revolt in Cuba, and then
+through the loss of the remnant of her once splendid colonial empire in
+consequence of the war with the United States.
+
+EUROPEAN DIPLOMACY.--The foundation of the Triple Alliance had been
+laid by the treaty between Germany and Austria. To this Italy had
+acceded in 1883. Such a combination tended to bring Russia and France
+together, especially as Russia began to see that the only power
+pursuing a policy favorable to her desires was France. Finally Russian
+and French officers were authorized to arrange for the possible
+coöperation of armies in case of war, and in 1894 a military convention
+was completed. That there came to be a definite understanding still
+more comprehensive has been generally believed, but its terms were not
+divulged. The French minister of foreign affairs used the word
+"alliance" in the Chamber of Deputies in 1895, and two years later,
+when President Faure visited the Czar at St. Petersburg, the Czar used
+the phrase "two great nations, friends and allies." The consequence of
+these two alliances, and of the peaceful policy pursued by England, was
+the localizing of difficulties and the maintenance of a "concert" on
+all questions likely to embroil Europe. This was evident from the
+treatment of the Eastern, the African, and the Far Eastern questions.
+
+ARMENIA.--Bulgarian affairs had not received their final solution at
+the Berlin Congress, for the peaceful revolution of Philippopolis in
+1885 had forcibly reunited Bulgaria and East Roumelia. But the powers
+did not recognize the change until Prince Alexander had withdrawn, and
+Prince Ferdinand had placed himself more under Russian tutelage, making
+this emphatic by the decision to bring up his son, Prince Boris,
+according to the Greek rite. The success of Bulgaria rendered the
+Armenians envious. Discontent at the failure to carry out the reforms
+promised by the treaty of Berlin led to the formation of a
+revolutionary party which hoped by provoking a Turkish repression,
+similar to the Bulgarian "atrocities," to necessitate a new European
+intervention. Such a scheme was opposed by American missionaries and by
+the native clergy, for they saw that it was doomed to disaster. The
+revolutionists endeavored to compromise the missionaries by posting
+their placards on the walls of the American college at Marsivan. The
+suspicions of the Turks were directed against the missionaries, and the
+Girls' Schoolhouse was burned by a mob. Ostensibly to capture agitators
+the Kurds followed by the regular troops perpetrated terrible massacres
+in the mountain villages of Sasún in 1893 and 1894. The powers could
+not agree upon any common plan to check such evils, and when they did
+force upon the Sultan a scheme of reform, it served only as a signal
+for worse massacres, which recurred chronically until the final
+massacre in Constantinople in August, 1896. As the "concert" was
+honeycombed by jealousies, it was impossible to do more than prevent
+the development of this horror into a general European war. England was
+unable to intervene separately because of the hostile attitude of
+Russia. Such statesmen as Lord Salisbury recognized that England's
+traditional support of Turkey had been discredited by such
+events. When, in the following year, war broke out between Greece and
+Turkey, and when Crete fell into a state of anarchy, the powers were
+more successful in their common action, for they were able to mitigate
+the terms which the victorious Turks demanded, and to withdraw Crete
+from direct Turkish control.
+
+EGYPT.--The history of Egypt touches both the situation in the Turkish
+empire and the more general situation of Africa and the routes to the
+Far East. England's occupation of Egypt, at first considered temporary,
+gave her practical control of the Suez Canal; it also gave her a strong
+position in the eastern Mediterranean, the lack of which had been one
+reason for her hostility to the treaty of San Stefano in 1878. The
+problem of the equatorial provinces had remained vexatious ever since
+the triumph of the Mahdi and of his successor, the Kalifa. Any attempt
+to begin a campaign for their recovery was hindered by the peculiar
+financial condition of Egypt. As all the funds were either mortgaged to
+creditors, or at least under an international control not favorable to
+the presence of England, the only money absolutely under the control of
+the Egyptian government was a special reserve fund, the result of
+painful administrative economies. But the necessity of an advance was
+imperative. Although the attempt of the Congo Free State to establish a
+permanent foothold in the upper Nile basin had been checked by England,
+France was striving to extend her territorial possessions straight
+across from Senegal to Jibutil, on the Gulf of Aden. Major Marchand had
+left Paris secretly in 1896 with this mission. In this year also the
+defeat of the Italians at Adowa, and the pressure of the troops of the
+Kalifa upon Kassala, held by the Italians for the English, did not
+permit longer delay. A great preparatory work had been done in the ten
+years previous. A new army had been created. The advance began in
+March, under the leadership of Sir Herbert Kitchener. One of its most
+effective and brilliant features was the construction in the following
+year of a railway 230 miles across the Nubian desert to save a river
+journey of 600 miles. The decisive campaign took place in 1898, with
+the battle on the Atbara and the crushing defeat of the Kalifa at
+Omdurman in September. During the summer Marchand had been establishing
+posts in the upper Nile region as far as Fashoda. Kitchener immediately
+proceeded thither, raised the English and Egyptian flags near by,
+leaving the settlement of the question to diplomacy. The French, not
+being supported by Russia in an aggressive attitude, were obliged to
+give way, and their sphere of influence was not to include any portion
+of the Nile basin. The war had been economically managed, so that
+Egyptian finances were not seriously disarranged. The help that England
+was obliged to give justified her in considering the Sudan as territory
+held jointly by her and by Egypt. The general consequence of English
+rule in Egypt has been a reduction of taxation, and, at the same time,
+the collection of a larger revenue. Vast public improvements, like the
+dam at Assouan, also added to the resources of the country.
+
+AFRICA.--Although Africa since 1885 had been the subject of an
+important conference at Berlin and of various international agreements
+it was, strictly speaking, beyond the sphere of action of the European
+concert. Its partition among the European states, a movement
+originating in the expeditions of Livingstone and Stanley, went on
+rapidly from 1884. The Congo Free State, which at first promised to be
+an international enterprise, speedily changed into a territorial
+possession of the king of Belgium. When in 1890 it became necessary for
+him to raise funds for the support of his rule, it was agreed that the
+reversion of the territory belonged to Belgium as a colony. King
+Leopold, as already remarked, made an attempt to establish his
+authority over a part of the upper Nile basin, but here he was thwarted
+by the ambition of both England and France. England undertook to lease
+the Bahr-el-Ghazal in consideration of the lease from him of a strip
+fifteen and a half miles wide along the eastern border of the state, in
+order to make possible the scheme of a railway on land under British
+control from "the Cape to Cairo." This scheme was defeated by the
+Germans as well as by the French. The Portuguese were in turn prevented
+from extending their holdings from Angola to Mozambique. The French and
+the English, though each disappointed in their extreme purposes, made
+substantial gains; England in the regions north of the Cape, across the
+Zambezi, in Uganda, and in the Sudan; France in western and northern
+Africa, so that all the northwest, except the coast colonies and the
+independent Sultanate of Morocco, came under her power. France also
+turned her protectorate of Madagascar into a colonial
+possession. England's policy of expansion, together with difficulties
+arising out of the gold mining industry, involved her in a war with the
+Boer republics, the South African Republic and the Orange Free
+State. The center of the mining industry was Johannesberg. So rich were
+the mines that the foreign population there soon outnumbered the
+Boers. These foreigners, or uitlanders, desired all the privileges of
+Englishmen, although they had become residents in a state ruled by
+primitive agriculturists. They claimed that their industry was
+ruinously hampered by unwise taxation.  So great did their sense of
+wrong become that they entered into an arrangement with Cecil Rhodes,
+premier of Cape Colony, and with Dr. Jameson, administrator of the
+South African Chartered Company, in accordance with which, at a given
+signal, they were to rise and Dr. Jameson with armed troopers was to
+come to their assistance. Dr. Jameson did not wait for the signal, the
+scheme broke down, and he and his troops were captured. To the Boers
+all this seemed to be an English plot against their independence, and
+so they became more suspicious. Through a series of incidents the
+Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain, was led to attempt to extort by
+force from the Boers the desired concessions. Before the diplomatic
+campaign was well begun new issues were introduced, both parties began
+to prepare for war, and finally in October, 1899, the Boers took the
+initiative and invaded the British colonies. The war was at first
+disastrous for the English, but finally through a large army under Lord
+Roberts the Boers were driven from both the Transvaal and the Orange
+Free State, which were occupied and declared to be colonies of the
+empire. But it was not until three years after the beginning of the war
+that the last Boer bands were compelled by Lord Kitchener to surrender,
+and the country was pacified. England's influence in South Africa was
+greatly strengthened by this victory, although her prestige in the
+world at large was somewhat compromised.
+
+THE FAR EAST.--Before the close of the century the interest which had
+once belonged to the near East was transferred to the Far East. The
+first indication of this was the action of the powers at the close of
+the war which broke out between Japan and China, in 1894, over their
+relations to Korea. Japan was triumphant, demonstrating in the battle
+of the Yaloo River the superiority of her new navy. She occupied the
+peninsula of Liaotung and Port Arthur, a harbor of strategic
+importance. She demanded a cession of this peninsula, together with
+Formosa and a large indemnity. Russia, Germany, and France intervened
+and kept Japan from establishing herself on the mainland. This action
+did not appear altogether in the interest of China, for each of the
+three powers soon asked of China quite as important concessions for
+themselves,--France in the south, Germany at Kiaochow, and Russia at
+Port Arthur,--which compelled England to guard her interests by leasing
+WVei-hai-wei, opposite Port Arthur. At this time began the marking out
+of spheres of influence, a practical partition of China, accompanied by
+demands of all sorts of railway and mining concessions. This unedifying
+pressure from aggressive Europeans seemed for a time to awaken
+China. The emperor began to urge forward reform. It was thought that
+China might follow in the footsteps of Japan, but suddenly there was a
+palace revolution, the dowager-empress seized control, and the
+reformers had to fly for their lives. Closely following this came a
+serious anti-foreign outbreak, led by "the Boxers," and encouraged by
+certain high officials. Before Europe was aware of the gravity of the
+situation it was alarmed by the report that the foreign legations at
+Pekin had been besieged, captured, and massacred. Although this was a
+false report, it was true that from June 20 to August 14, 1899, the
+legations were besieged, partly by a mob and partly by Chinese
+regulars. The siege was raised by a mixed expedition of European and
+Japanese troops sent from the coast. The satisfaction with which the
+news of rescue was received in Europe was chilled by stories that some
+portions of the expeditionary corps had been guilty of crimes only to
+be paralleled in the history of European wars in the seventeenth
+century. After the war a difficult diplomatic question remained, all
+the more puzzling because the ambitions of the powers prevented any
+hearty agreement among them. These questions were only in appearance
+settled by the signing of the protocol in January, 1901. Attention was
+fixed upon Russia, supported by a new instrument of influence, the
+Trans-Siberian railway, because it appeared to be her purpose to
+establish her power in Manchuria on a permanent basis.
+
+AUSTRALIA.--During the Boer war the English colonies by their loyal and
+generous cooperation strengthened the bonds of empire and forced to the
+front schemes to render the imperial tie more practically beneficial
+and effective. One of these groups succeeded in completing its own
+federal organization. This was Australia. Active effort towards
+federation was begun in 1889 by Sir Henry Parkes, but not until six
+years later was public sentiment sufficiently aroused. The main
+difficulty, as in the case of the American colonies, was to reconcile
+the differing trade-interests and to establish a proper balance between
+the larger and the smaller states. Finally, in 1900, these difficulties
+were overcome, and all the colonies save New Zealand voted to become
+parts of the commonwealth of Australia. Each state was to have six
+senators, and to be represented in the lower house in proportion to its
+population, although no state was to have fewer than five
+representatives. Matters of taxation were more fully intrusted to the
+lower house than in the United States. For a time it seemed impossible
+to settle the delicate questions of appeal to the Judicial Committee of
+the Privy Council of England, the only instrument of control left in
+the hands of the home government, but this was settled by a judicious
+compromise. During the last decade not only Australia, but also New
+Zealand, made many interesting attempts to solve labor and social
+problems by legislation. Although the prosperity of Australia received
+heavy blows after 1890, it began to recover after 1895, and to advance
+towards its earlier level.
+
+UNITED STATES: CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION.--Although the
+McKinley tariff aided in elevating its author to the presidency, its
+first political consequences were not helpful to the Republican
+party. In 1892 there was a popular cry for tariff reduction, and
+Cleveland was triumphantly elected by the Democrats, who also obtained
+control of both houses of Congress. President Cleveland's purpose of
+reforming the tariff was hindered at first by a grave financial and
+industrial crisis, which came in the spring of 1893. The causes of this
+crisis were the extravagant inflation of business during the preceding
+years, a financial policy accompanied by the purchase for coinage of
+vast quantities of silver, and the natural timidity of capital while
+the economic policy of the government was in danger of fundamental
+change. The opponents of the administration took skillful advantage of
+the panic to bring its policies into discredit. So great was the
+stringency of the money market, especially on account of the depletion
+of the gold reserve in the treasury, that President Cleveland was
+obliged to call an extra session of Congress, and to urge upon that
+body the repeal of the law requiring the monthly purchases of silver
+for coinage. This measure, adopted by the Senate with evident
+reluctance in the late fall, did not wholly relieve the situation, and
+to maintain the gold reserve and defend its credit the government was
+forced four times to issue bonds for more gold, the consequence of
+which was the increase of the public debt by over $262,000,000. During
+the controversies upon monetary legislation, the President had
+alienated many members of his party in the House, and particularly in
+the Senate. He was unable to bring them together for such tariff
+legislation as had been promised. A bill was passed which also embodied
+income tax provisions, and this bill became a law without the
+President's signature. Not long afterwards the Supreme Court declared
+the income-tax clauses unconstitutional. Since the tariff bill did not
+produce the expected revenue, the government was obliged to face an
+ominous deficit. The President, however, by his courage and honesty,
+upheld the national credit despite attacks from his own party. His
+foreign policy, save in one instance, was conservative. He refused to
+take advantage of the Hawaiian revolution to bring on the annexation of
+those islands, and he endeavored to maintain the neutrality of the
+United States in the struggle between Spain and the Cuban
+revolutionists; but he intervened in a boundary dispute between Great
+Britain and Venezuela, insisting that the question should be submitted
+to arbitration rather than be settled on the terms imposed by the
+stronger.
+
+MCKINLEY ADMINISTRATION.--In the campaign of 1896 the older leaders of
+the democracy were thrust aside and William J. Bryan became the party
+candidate, with the free coinage of silver at the ratio of 16 to 1 as
+its watchword. This appealed strongly to the distressed debtor class,
+very numerous in the West on account of the "hard times." The tone of
+the platform and of the speeches of the leaders was such as to attract
+the workingmen. The Republicans nominated McKinley, with the promise to
+reenact the former tariff legislation, to foster industries, and to
+protect the financial credit of the country. The success of the
+Republicans was at first doubtful; but the conservative interests
+became alarmed, and finally the Republicans gained a decisive
+victory. By the time President McKinley was inaugurated, the period of
+business liquidation and readjustment was over, confidence had
+returned, and so the new President became, as campaign placards of his
+party had announced, "the advance agent of prosperity." The tariff was
+restored to its older level, the monetary system was reformed, and the
+gold standard legally established. It was not this legislation,
+however, that rendered the period significant; it was the adoption of a
+new national policy of expansion, incident to the war with Spain. The
+Spaniards had been unable to put down the Cuban insurrection. The
+drastic measures, especially the policy of "reconcentration" adopted by
+General Weyler, had discredited the Spanish cause. The ancient
+tradition of Spain's cruelty to her colonies predisposed the American
+people to credit reports of atrocity. The administration was apparently
+anxious to perform its duties as a friendly power, but this was
+rendered more and more difficult owing to the growing popular demand
+for intervention. On the 15th of February, 1898, the American
+battleship _Maine_ was blown up in Havana harbor. Although there
+was no decisive proof that this was due to the Spaniards, there was no
+doubt of it in the popular mind. A little later the Spaniards were
+ready to make any concessions short of an actual abandonment of their
+sovereignty. It was now too late. There was an irresistible demand for
+war, and war was declared in April. The result was inevitable, and
+Spain was obliged to yield sooner than was anticipated. Her fleet at
+Manila was destroyed by Admiral Dewey, May 1, and her West India
+squadron by the fleet in which Rear Admiral Sampson held the chief
+command, on July 3. Meantime a small American army had rendered
+Santiago untenable. After the surrender of Santiago, Porto Rico was
+soon overrun. Manila, which had been under the American guns since May,
+was also forced to surrender. A protocol signed in August led to the
+negotiation of peace in December. According to its terms, not only was
+Cuba to be evacuated, but Porto Rico, the Philippines, and the Ladrones
+were to become American possessions. In this way a war begun because of
+popular sympathy with the Cubans, turned into a means of territorial
+expansion. The resistance to the policy of an expansion of this sort
+was strong in certain sections of the country. Many senators held
+similar opinions, long delaying the ratification of the treaty of
+peace.
+
+COLONIAL PROBLEMS.--Simultaneously with the ratification of the peace,
+war broke out in the Philippines between the American army and the
+natives, whose leaders had been bent on securing independence. The
+American troops easily defeated the organized native armies, though one
+consequence of the struggle was widespread ruin in the island of Luzon;
+but they were unable for over two years to pacify the country. Even
+before these troubles were ended, measures were taken to substitute a
+civil for a military administration, which went into effect in the
+summer of 1901. Porto Rico was organized as a partly autonomous
+territory, and although on its trade with the United States there was
+not at first a full freedom from tariff restrictions, these
+subsequently disappeared. In dealing with Cuba there had been no formal
+recognition of the revolutionary organization. It was suspected by many
+that the military occupation would be prolonged until annexation was
+brought about, but the President insisted upon the fulfilment of the
+pledges which had been made at the beginning of the war. A Cuban
+convention agreed to a treaty in accordance with which the United
+States acquired the right to intervene to guarantee the independence of
+the island should this be endangered by entanglements with foreign
+states. The Cubans also promised to sell or lease to the United States
+sites for naval stations. The army of occupation was then withdrawn,
+and the new government inaugurated in 1902. Even before the outbreak of
+the war, President McKinley had endeavored to bring about the
+annexation of the Hawaiian Islands, but it required such a pressing
+need of a controlling position in the mid-Pacific, as the hostilities
+emphasized, to overcome the opposition. It was not until after the war
+closed that the islands were organized as a territory. About the same
+time England withdrew from her joint control of Samoa, and Germany
+agreed with the United States for a partition of the group. Active
+preparations were also made for the building of an interoceanic canal
+through Nicaragua or the Isthmus of Panama on the route laid out by the
+French. With these questions of expansion and colonial government,
+other equally important problems, growing out of the new period of
+prosperity, agitated the public mind, particularly the formation of
+gigantic corporations, a form of organization which tended to supersede
+the trusts. As the state laws were helpless to check abuse of power by
+such corporations, there was a growing demand for the better
+enforcement of the national laws already enacted or the adoption of
+other laws more effective. In 1900 McKinley was reëlected, Bryan again
+being put forward by the Democrats. A few months after his
+inauguration, while he was visiting the Pan-American Exposition at
+Buffalo, he was fatally shot by an anarchist. Upon his death, the
+Vice-President, Theodore Roosevelt, became President.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. DISCOVERY AND INVENTION: SCIENCE AND LITERATURE:
+PROGRESS OF HUMANE SENTIMENT: PROGRESS TOWARD THE UNITY OF MANKIND.
+
+
+As an era of invention and discovery, the nineteenth century is a rival
+of the fifteenth.
+
+GEOGRAPHICAL DISCOVERIES.--Too much was already known of the globe to
+leave room for another so stupendous discovery as that of the New
+World. Nevertheless, many important geographical discoveries have been
+made, especially since about 1825. Geographical societies without
+number have been founded, of which the Royal Geographical Society in
+England (1830) is one of the best known. Geographical knowledge is
+increased in two ways,--first, by the discovery of places not before
+known; and secondly, by the scientific examination of countries and
+districts, with accurate surveys, and the making of maps. In both these
+departments, especially in the latter, the recent period won
+distinction. The _Russians_ in their advance rendered the regions
+of Northern and Central Asia accessible to travelers. Not only India,
+but also extensive districts in Central Asia, have been explored by the
+British. China has been traversed by a succession of travelers, and
+Japan has unbarred its gates for the admission of foreigners. Abyssinia
+has been traversed.  The mystery respecting the sources of the Nile has
+been dispelled by _Speke_, _Grant_, and _Baker_. In 1822
+and 1825 _Clapperlon_, in two journeys, went over the whole route
+from Tripoli to the coast of Guinea. In 1830 _Richard_ and _John
+Lander_ settled the question as to the outlet of the _Niger_.
+_Barth_, and other later explorers, have carried forward the study
+of the course of this great river, in the exploration of which _Mungo
+Park_ lost his life (1806). In 1816 the Congo was explored to the
+falls of Yellala. The travels of _Schweinfurth_,
+_Livingstone_, _Barth_, _Cameron_, and _Stanley_
+have greatly enlarged our acquaintance with formerly unknown portions
+of the African continent. In 1879 _Stanley_, commissioned by King
+_Leopold_ of Belgium, opened up communication with the populous
+basin of the Congo. During the struggle of the European states to
+acquire colonial territory, no part of the continent remained
+unexplored. European rivalries also had similar important consequences
+to geography in Asia, especially in the Trans-Caspian region and in
+Tibet. Dr. Sven Hedin was the most successful of the explorers in
+Tibet, traversing wholly unknown districts. Unknown regions on the
+American continent, in South America, in far north-western North
+America, and in Labrador, have been visited. The same is true of the
+interior of Australia. The eagerness to find a north-western passage
+(and later in scientific exploration) has led to hazardous and not
+unfruitful expeditions under _Ross_, _Parry_,
+_Franklin_, _Kane_, _Markham_, _McClintock_,
+_Greely_, and other voyagers. In 1875 _Markham_ reached the
+highest latitude that up to that time had been attained (83° 21'
+26"). A still higher point (86° 14') was reached by Dr. Nansen who in
+1893 started to drift in the _Fram_ across the polar regions. In
+1892 Lieutenant Peary crossed Greenland from the west coast to a part
+of the north-east coast never before visited. The Antarctic seas were
+also explored first by the _Challenger_ in 1874. By 1900 the
+farthest point reached was 78° 50'. Geography has become a much more
+profound and instructive science. The physical character of the globe,
+and of the atmosphere that surrounds it, have been studied in their
+relation to man and history. Physical geography, or physiography, has
+thus arisen. In recent years scientists have gone far in the study of
+the physical geography of the sea, in making maps of its bottom, and in
+the endeavor to define the system of oceanic winds and currents. In
+connection with physical geography, the distribution of animal life on
+the land and in the depths of the sea has been studied, and much
+valuable information gained.
+
+FOUR INVENTIONS.--Among the useful inventions of the present century,
+there are four which are of preëminent consequence. The honor connected
+with each of these, as is generally the case with great inventions,
+belongs to no individual exclusively. Several, and in some cases many
+persons, can fairly claim a larger or smaller share in it. (1) The most
+efficient agent in bringing the _steam-engine_ to perfection was
+_James Watt_ (1736-1819), a native of Scotland. (2) In connection
+with the application of steam to navigation, no name stands higher than
+that of _Robert Fulton_. (3) Carriages on railroads were at first
+drawn by horses. In 1814 _George Stephenson_, in England, invented
+the locomotive, and afterwards (1829) an improved construction of it.
+
+The first great railroad for the transportation of passengers began to
+run between Manchester and Liverpool in 1830. Remarkable achievements
+in engineering have been connected with the construction of
+railways. The Alps were pierced, and the Mont Cenis tunnel was
+completed in 1871. The principal civilized countries have gradually
+become covered with networks of railways. The whole method of
+transportation of the products of industry has been altered by
+them. Besides their vast influence in facilitating and stimulating
+travel and trade, they have modified the method of conducting warfare,
+with very important results. (4) In contriving the _electric
+telegraph_, _Wheatstone_, an Englishman, _Oersted_, a
+Dane, and _Henry_, an American, had each an important part. The
+most simple and efficient form of the telegraphic instrument is
+admitted to be due to the inventive sagacity of _Morse_
+(1837). His instrument was first put in use in 1844. The first
+submarine wires connecting Europe with America transmitted messages in
+1858, between England and the United States. Since that time numerous
+submarine cables have been laid in different parts of the globe. Upon
+the invention of the telegraph, another invention--that of the
+_telephone_--has followed, by which conversation can be held with
+the voice between distant places. By the phonograph it has become
+possible to reproduce audibly songs, speeches, and conversations. Still
+more recently a system of wireless telegraphy has been invented by
+which messages may be sent even across the Atlantic without the use of
+a cable.
+
+  The Suez Canal, a channel for ships, connecting the Mediterranean
+  with the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean, and opening thus a shorter
+  highway by water between Europe and the East, was officially opened
+  on the 17th of November, 1869.
+
+USES OF STEAM.--The practical applications of steam, besides its use in
+the propulsion of vessels, and of carriages on railways, are
+numberless.  It is used, for example, in automobiles, in traction
+engines, in plowing and harvesting machinery, in fire-engines, in
+road-rollers, and in all sorts of hoisting and conveying machinery.
+
+  Steam forge hammers were invented by _Nasmyth_, an engineer of
+  Manchester, in 1839. In a multitude of industrial occupations, where
+  water-power was once used, or tools and machines whose use involved
+  muscular exertion, the work is now done by the energy of steam. More
+  recently electricity has been displacing steam not only on street
+  railroads and suburban railroads, but also in many other industrial
+  processes, as well as the lighting of buildings and streets.
+
+TOOLS AND MACHINES.--In modern days no small amount of skill has been
+directed to the devising of tools and machines for the more facile and
+exact production of whatever costs labor. Factories have become
+monuments of ingenuity, and museums in the useful arts. Improved
+machinery lightens the toil of the sailor. Machines in a great variety
+facilitate agricultural labor. They open the furrow, sow the seed, reap
+and winnow the harvest. In-doors, the sewing-machine performs a great
+part of the labor formerly done by the fingers of the seamstress. The
+art of printing has attained to a marvelous degree of
+progress. _Hoe's_ printing-press, moved by steam, seizes on the
+blank paper, severs it from the roll in sheets of the right size,
+prints it on both sides, and folds it in a convenient shape,--all with
+miraculous rapidity. Inventions in rock-boring and rock-drilling have
+made it possible to tunnel mountains. The use of explosives for
+mechanical purposes is a highly important fact in connection with the
+modern labor-saving inventions.
+
+INDIA RUBBER.--Shoes made of _caoutchouc_, the thickened milky
+juice of the india-rubber plant, were imported from Brazil to Boston as
+early as 1825. Improvements in the use of this material, in the solid
+form and in solution, were made by Mr. _Macintosh_ of Glasgow, and
+_Thomas Hancock_ of Newington, England, about 1820. From the
+dissolved caoutchouc, a coating was obtained making garments
+water-proof. In 1839 _Charles Goodyear_, an American, discovered
+the process of vulcanizing india-rubber,--that is, producing in it a
+chemical change whereby its valuable qualities are greatly
+enhanced. The material thus procured was applied to a great number of
+uses. It enters into a great variety of manufactured articles.
+
+ENGINERY OF WAR.--A continual advance has been made in the construction
+of the implements of war. The whole science and art of war have been
+fundamentally changed, mainly in consequence of these modern
+inventions.  Reference may be made to the invention of _rifled
+cannon_, heavier ordnance, breech-loading guns, and shells and
+explosive bullets. It was the _needle-gun_ of the Prussians, which
+gave them a signal advantage in their war with the French. The building
+of armored battle ships has been followed by the construction of small
+swift vessels from which to launch torpedoes at the battle ships. Other
+swift vessels have been constructed to pursue and destroy the torpedo
+boat. High explosives and smokeless powder have also been invented.
+
+THE TELESCOPE AND MICROSCOPE.--Among the instruments which have
+promoted the extension of science, the microscope, with its modern
+improvements, is one of the most interesting. It has aided discovery in
+botany, in physiology, in mineralogy, and in almost all other branches
+of science. It has even assisted in the detection of crime. The large
+refracting telescopes have been constructed within the last few
+decades. Telescopes have recently been used with increasing success in
+photographing the heavens with accuracy.
+
+INSTRUMENTS IN MEDICINE AND SURGERY.--The microscope has rendered
+inestimable service to the healing art. Rare ingenuity has been exerted
+in contriving surgical instruments by which difficult operations are
+performed with comparative safety and without pain. In medicine and
+surgery, the discovery of _anesthetics_ for the general or partial
+suspending of nervous sensibility is one of the triumphs of practical
+science in later times. _Chloroform_ was brought into general use
+in the medical profession in 1847; although it had been discovered, and
+had been used by individuals in the profession, much
+earlier. _Nitrous oxide_ was first used by _Horace Wells_, a
+dentist of Hartford, in the extraction of a tooth (1844). In 1846 the
+great discovery of anĉsthetic _ether_, by _Morton_ of Boston,
+was first applied in surgery. _Jackson_ and others were claimants,
+with more or less justice, to a part in the honors of this
+discovery. Lately _cocaine_ has been found to benumb the
+sensibility of the more delicate membranes, as those of the eye and the
+throat. In _auscultation_, or the ascertaining of the state of the
+internal organs by listening to their sound, a very valuable instrument
+is the _stethoscope_. The principle of the _ophthalmoscope_,
+that wonderful instrument for inspecting the interior of the eye, was
+expounded by _Helmholtz_ in 1851. By its aid, not only the
+condition of that organ is explored, but indications of certain
+diseases in the brain, and in other parts of the body, are
+discovered. Helmholtz did an equal work in acoustics. The recent
+discovery and use of the _X-rays_ has assisted surgeons in
+locating foreign substances and in diagnosing disease.
+
+THE SPECTROSCOPE: PHOTOGRAPHY.--In connection with the phenomena of
+light, the _spectroscope_, by which the chemical elements entering
+in the composition of the sun and of other heavenly bodies are
+ascertained, is one of the marvels of the age. The way was paved for
+this discovery by a succession of chemists and
+opticians,--_Fraunhofer_ (1814), _Brewster_ (1832), _Sir
+John Herschel_ (1822), _J. W. Draper_, and others; but the
+instrument was devised by _Kirchhoff_ and
+_Bunsen_. _Photography_, or the art of making permanent
+sun-pictures, is the result of the labors of _Niepce_ (who died in
+1833), _Daguerre_ (1839), _Fox Talbot_, an Englishman,
+_J. W. Draper_, and other men of science and practical
+artisans. _Instantaneous_ photography has been of much service in
+the observation of eclipses and other astronomical phenomena. Progress
+has also been made in color-photography.
+
+THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY.--Perhaps the most important conclusion of
+physical science which has been reached in the recent period is the
+doctrine of the conservation of energy. Chemists had shown that the sum
+of matter always remains the same. In the transformations of chemistry
+no matter is destroyed, however it may change its form. Now, it has
+been proved that the quantity of power or energy is constant. If lost
+in one body, it reappears in another; if it ceases in one form, it is
+exerted in another, and this according to definite ratios. One form of
+energy is convertible into another: heat, light, electricity,
+magnetism, chemical action, are so related that one can be made to
+produce either of the others. This fact is termed the
+_correlation_ of physical forces. Connected with the discovery of
+it are _Meyer_ in Germany, and _Grove_ and _Joule_ in
+England. It has been expounded by _Sir William Thompson_,
+_Helmholtz_, _Tait_, _Maxwell_, etc. The truth was
+elucidated by _Tyndall_ in his _Heat considered as a Mode of
+Motion_, and by _Balfour Stewart_ in his _Conservation of
+Energy_. But _Count Rumford_, an American (1753-1814), the real
+founder of the Royal Institution, long ago opened the path for this
+discovery by furnishing the data for computing the mechanical
+equivalent of heat.
+
+GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY.--In geology, from the publication of
+_Lyell's_ work (1830), the tendency has more and more prevailed to
+explain the geological structure of the earth by the slow operation of
+forces now in action, rather than by violent convulsions and
+catastrophes. In 1831 _Sedgwick_ and _Murchison_, likewise
+English geologists, commenced their labors. _Agassiz_ published
+his Essay on the Glaciers in 1837, the precursor of like investigations
+by _Tyndall_ and others. These are only a small fraction of the
+numerous body of explorers and writers in geological science. In the
+United States, _Benjamin Silliman_ (1779-1864), an eminent
+scientific teacher, lent a strong stimulus to the progress of geology,
+as well as of chemistry. Even in the branch of _paleontology_, or
+the study of the fossil remains of extinct animals, it would be
+impracticable to give the names of those who have added so much to our
+knowledge of the earth and its inhabitants in the ages that preceded
+man.
+
+ASTRONOMY.--The great French geometers, _Lagrange_ and
+_Laplace_, made an epoch in astronomical science. Since their
+time, however, there has been a large increase of knowledge in this
+branch. The discovery of the planet Neptune (1846) by _Galle_, as
+the result of mathematical calculations of _Leverrier_, which were
+made independently also by _Adams_, was hailed as a signal proof
+of scientific progress; and, recently, the discovery of a fifth
+satellite of Jupiter. Besides Neptune hundreds of thousands of stars
+have been discovered and registered. Mathematical astronomy has
+advanced, while the study of nebulae and of meteors, and the
+investigation of the constitution of celestial bodies by the help of
+the spectroscope, are among the more recent achievements of this oldest
+of the sciences. Among the names identified with the recent progress of
+astronomy are _Sir John Herschel_ and _A. Herschel_,
+_Maxwell_, _Struve_, _Secchi_, _Bessel_,
+_Bond_, _Peirce_, _Newton_, _Newcomb_,
+_Young_, _Lockyer_, _Schiaparelli_.
+
+PROGRESS IN CHEMISTRY.--In chemistry the major part of the more rare
+elements have been discovered since the century began. It was proved in
+1819 that the capacities for heat which belong to the atoms of the
+different elements are equal. In the same year _Mitscherlich's_
+law was propounded,--the law of _isomorphism_, according to which
+atoms of elements of the same class may replace each other in a
+compound without altering its crystalline structure. Chemists have
+directed their attention to the _molecular_ structure--the
+ultimate constitution--of various compounds. _Faraday_ (1791-1867)
+developed the relations of electricity to chemistry. _Liebig_
+(1803-1873), a German chemist, in connection with numerous laborers in
+the same field, made interesting contributions in the different
+departments of chemical science. Among the recent elements which have
+been discovered are argon, which enters into the composition of air,
+helium, and radium.
+
+BIOLOGY.--No branch of natural science has been more zealously
+cultivated of late than _biology_. Among those who have given an
+impulse to the study of natural history, one of the most eminent names
+is that of _Charles Darwin_. His work on _The Origin of
+Species_ (1859) advocated the opinion that the various species of
+animals, instead of being all separately created, spring by natural
+descent and slow variation from a few primitive forms of animal
+life. He laid much stress upon "natural selection," or the survival of
+the strongest or fittest in the struggle for existence. With the name
+of Darwin should be associated that of _Wallace_, who
+simultaneously propounded the same doctrine. The general doctrine of
+_evolution_, or of the origin of species by natural generation,
+has been held in other forms and modifications by _Richard Owen_,
+and other distinguished naturalists. One of the most noted opponents of
+the evolution doctrine in zoology was _Louis Agassiz_ (1807-1873),
+a very able and enthusiastic student of nature. One of its most eminent
+expounders and defenders was _Huxley_. Some have sought to extend
+the theory of natural development over the field of inorganic as well
+as living things, and to trace all existences back to nebulous vapor.
+
+ARCHEOLOGY.--Geology lends its aid to _archeology_, or the inquiry
+into the primitive condition of man. Not only has much light been
+thrown on obscure periods of history, by the uncovering of the remains
+of Babylon, Assyria, and other abodes of early civilization, and by the
+deciphering of monumental inscriptions in characters long forgotten;
+but the discovery of buried relics of prehistoric men has afforded
+glimpses of human life as it was prior to all written memorials. One of
+the most instructive writers on this last subject is _Tylor_ in
+his _Primitive Culture_, and in other works on the same general
+theme.
+
+
+PHILOSOPHY AND LITERATURE.
+
+  PHILOSOPHY IN FRANCE.--_Victor Cousin_ (1792--1867), a brilliant
+  thinker and eloquent lecturer and writer, founded in France the
+  _eclectic school_ of philosophy. He aimed to construct a
+  positive view on the basis of previous systems, which he classified
+  under four heads,--_idealism_, _sensualism_,
+  _skepticism_, and _mysticism_. In his teaching, he sought a
+  middle path between the German and the Scottish schools, leaning now
+  more decidedly to the one, and now to the other. _Jouffroy_
+  (1796-1842), the most prominent of _Cousin's_ disciples, but
+  more exact and methodical than his master, wrote instructively,
+  especially on _aesthetics_ and _moral
+  philosophy_. Philosophy in France took an altogether different
+  direction in the hands of _Auguste Comte_ (1798-1857), the
+  founder of the _positivist_ school. He taught that we know only
+  phenomena, or things as manifested to our consciousness, and know
+  nothing either of first causes, efficient causes, or of final causes
+  (or design). We are limited to the ascertaining of facts by
+  observation and experiment, which we register according to their
+  likeness or unlikeness, and their chronological relation, or the
+  order of their occurrence in time.
+
+  SCOTTISH PHILOSOPHY.--The most distinguished expounder of the
+  _Scottish_ philosophy, and the most learned of that whole
+  school, was _Sir William Hamilton_ (1788-1856). He maintained
+  the doctrine of _natural realism_,--that we have a direct, "face
+  to face" perception of external things. He held that the range of the
+  mind's power of conceptive thought lies between two
+  _inconceivables_, one of which must be real. Thus we can not
+  conceive of free-will (which would be a new beginning), nor can we
+  conceive of an endless series of causes. Free-will--and the same is
+  true of the fundamental truths of religion--is verified to us as real
+  by our moral nature. A Scottish writer of ability, who, however,
+  opposed the peculiar tenets of the Scottish school, was
+  _Ferrier_ (1808-1864). Among the other philosophical writers of
+  Scotland, affiliated, but with different degrees of dissent, with the
+  school of Reid and Hamilton, are Professors _Fraser_ and
+  _Calderwood_, and the late _James McCosh_.
+
+  PHILOSOPHY IN ENGLAND.--More allied to the philosophy of Hume and of
+  Comte are the metaphysical theories of _John Stuart Mill_
+  (1806-1873). _Intuitions_ were regarded by Mill as the
+  impression produced by a frequent conjunction of like experiences,
+  and thus to be the product of sensation. _Causation_ was
+  resolved into the invariable association of phenomena, by which an
+  expectation is created that seems instinctive. Another writer of the
+  same general tendency, who seeks for the explanation of knowledge in
+  the materials furnished by the senses, is _Alexander Bain_, a
+  Scottish author, versed in physiology. _Herbert Spencer_
+  constructed a general system of philosophy on the basis of the theory
+  of evolution. He holds that our knowledge is limited to
+  _phenomena_, which are the manifestation in our consciousness of
+  things which in themselves are unknown; and that behind and below all
+  is "the Unknowable,"--an inscrutable force, out of which the universe
+  of matter and mind is developed, and which gives to it unity and
+  coherence.
+
+  PHILOSOPHY IN GERMANY.--In Germany the decline of the school of
+  _Hegel_ was succeeded by a sort of anarchy in
+  philosophy. _Herbart_ (1776-1841), a contemporary of
+  _Hegel_, framed a system antagonistic to Hegelian
+  idealism. Among numerous metaphysical authors, each of whom has a
+  "standpoint" of his own, are the justly distinguished names of
+  _Fichte_ (the younger), _Ulrici, Trendelenburg_, and
+  _Hermann Lotze. Lotze._ in his _Microcosm_, has unfolded,
+  in a style attractive to the general reader, profound and genial
+  views of man, nature, and religion. A remarkable phenomenon in German
+  speculation is "pessimism,"--the doctrine gravely propounded in the
+  systems of _Schopenhauer_ and _E. Von Hartmann_, that the
+  world is radically and essentially evil, and personal existence a
+  curse from which the refuge is in the hope of annihilation. In its
+  view of the world as springing from an unconscious force, and of the
+  extinction of consciousness as the state of bliss, as well as in its
+  notions of evil as inwrought in the essence of things, this
+  philosophy is a revival of Indian Oriental speculation. Historical
+  and critical writings in the department of philosophy abound in
+  Germany. The histories of philosophy by _Ritter, Erdmann, Zeller,
+  Kuno Fischer,_ and _Lange_, are works of remarkable merit.
+
+  PHILOSOPHY IN ITALY.--Among the Italian metaphysicians, the two
+  writers who are most noteworthy are _Rosmini_ (1797-1855), who
+  taught idealism; and _Gioberti_ (1801-1882), whose system is on
+  a different basis,--a gifted writer who was equally conspicuous as a
+  statesman and a philosopher.
+
+  PHILOSOPHY IN THE UNITED STATES.--Philosophy in America has been
+  zealously cultivated, both in connection with theology and apart from
+  it, by a considerable number of teachers and writers. Among them are
+  _James Marsh, C. S. Henry, Francis Wayland, L. P. Hickok,
+  H. B. Smith_, and other eminent authors, mostly of a more recent
+  date.
+
+  POLITICAL ECONOMY.--_Ricardo_ (1772-1823), who followed _Adam
+  Smith_ (p. 492), dealt more in abstractions and processes of
+  logic, than his predecessor. The writings of _Ricardo_, together
+  with the discussions of _Malthus_ (1766-1834) on population,--in
+  which it was maintained that the tendency to an increase of
+  population outstrips the increase of the means of subsistence,--led
+  to numerous other writings.
+
+  Political economy was handled in productions by _James Mill_
+  (1821), _J. R. McCulloch, N. W. Senior_ (1790-1864),
+  _R. Torrens_ (1780-1864), _Harriet Martineau_ (1802-1876),
+  _Thomas Chalmers_, the celebrated Scottish divine, Archbishop
+  _Richard Whately, Richard Jones_ (1790-1855), a critic of the
+  system of _Ricardo_, and others. An eminent writer, an expositor
+  with important modifications of the Ricardian teaching, is _John
+  Stuart Mill_ (1806-1873). _Fawcett_ and other able authors
+  have followed for the most part in Mill's path. An English author of
+  distinction in this field is _J. E. Cairnes_ (1824-1875). The
+  French school of economists have adhered to the principles of _Adam
+  Smith_ much more than have the Germans. Among the most noted of
+  the French authors in this field are _Say_ (1767-1832), whose
+  views are founded on those of _Smith; Sismondi_ (1773-1842),
+  who, however, departs from the English doctrine, and favors the
+  intervention of government to "regulate the progress of wealth";
+  _Dunoyer_ (1786-1862); _Bastiat_ (1801-1850), one of the
+  most brilliant advocates of free-trade; _Cournot_ (1801-1877),
+  who applies, with much acumen, mathematics to economical questions.
+  In America, since the days of _Franklin_ and _Hamilton_,
+  both of whom wrote instructively on these topics, a number of writers
+  of ability have appeared. Among them are _H. C. Carey_, who
+  opposes the views of _Ricardo_ and _Malthus_, and defends
+  the theory of protection; _Francis Bowen_, also a protectionist;
+  _F. A. Walker, Perry_, etc. In Italy, there have not been
+  wanting productions of marked acuteness in this department. Of the
+  numerous German writers, one of the most eminent is _List_
+  (1798-1846), a critic of _Adam Smith_, and not an adherent of
+  the unqualified doctrine of free-trade. In the list of later English
+  writers, the names of _Bagehot, Leslie, Jevons_, and
+  _Sidgwick_ are quite prominent. With regard to free-trade and
+  protection, the latter doctrine has been maintained in two
+  forms. Some have regarded protection as the best _permanent_
+  policy for a nation to adopt. Others have defended it as a
+  _provisional_ policy, to shield manufactures in their infancy,
+  until they grow strong enough to compete, without help, with foreign
+  products. After the repeal of the corn-laws in England (1846), the
+  free-trade doctrine prevailed in England. Since _Comte_
+  published his exposition of _Sociology_ (1839), the tendency has
+  arisen to consider political economy as one branch of this broader
+  theme. With it the controversies pertaining to socialism are
+  intimately connected.
+
+  The disciples of _Adam Smith_ have contended for the
+  non-intervention of governments in the industrial pursuits of the
+  people. They are to be left to the natural desire of wealth, and the
+  natural exercise of competition in the pursuit of it. The prevalent
+  theories of _socialism_ are directly hostile to this--called the
+  _laissez-faire_--principle. Socialists would make government the
+  all-regulative agent, the owner of land and of the implements of
+  labor.
+
+ENGLISH ESSAYISTS.--In literature the later time has seen an
+extraordinary multiplying of periodicals and newspapers, among whose
+editors and contributors have been included numerous writers of much
+celebrity. In Great Britain, several famous authors first acquired
+distinction mainly by historical and critical articles in reviews. This
+is true of _Thomas Babington Macaulay_ and _Thomas
+Carlyle_. Each of them became a historian. _Macaulay_, an
+ardent Whig, with an astonishing familiarity with political and
+literary facts, wrote in a spirited and brilliant style a _History of
+England from the Accession of James II_. to the death of his hero,
+_William III. Carlyle_, with a unique force of imagination and a
+rugged intensity of feeling, original in his thought, yet strongly
+affected by German literature, especially by _Richter_ and
+_Goethe_, wrote in his earlier days a _Life of Schiller_. He
+wrote later a history of the French Revolution, in which the scenes of
+that tragic epoch are depicted with dramatic vividness; and a copious
+_History of Frederick the Great_. Among the most characteristic of
+his writings are his _Heroes and Hero-Worship_; the "Latter-Day
+Pamphlets," in which is poured out his contempt of democracy; and the
+_Life of John Sterling_,--the counterpart of a biography of
+_Sterling_, written in a different vein by a learned and scholarly
+divine, _Julius Hare_.
+
+Of essayists in a lighter, discursive vein, one of the most popular,
+who has already been referred to (p. 544), was the Scottish writer,
+_John Wilson_ (1785-1854), the author of numerous tales and
+criticisms, and of diverting papers written under the name of
+"Christopher North."  Without the fancy and humor of Wilson, yet master
+of a style keeping within the limits of prose while verging on poetry,
+was _Thomas De Quincey_, the author of _The Confessions of an
+Opium Eater, Essays on the Roman Emperors_, etc.
+
+HISTORICAL WRITINGS IN ENGLAND.--The literature of history has been
+enriched by British authors with important works besides those named
+above. _Grote_ and _Thirlwall_ each composed histories of
+Greece which are the fruit of thorough and enlightened scholarship. The
+work of _Grote_ is a vindication of the Athenian democracy, a view
+the antipode of that taken in the work on Grecian history by
+_Mitford_. An elaborate work on the _History of the Romans under
+the Empire_ is one of several historical productions of _Charles
+Merivale. Stanhope_ [Lord _Mahon_] composed a narrative of the
+War of the Spanish Succession, and other useful histories. Sir
+_W. F. P. Napier_ wrote a _History of the War in the
+Peninsula_, in which the campaigns of _Wellington_ in Spain are
+described by an author who took part in them. The constitutional
+history of England has been treated with satisfactory learning and
+judgment by _Hallam, May,_ and _Stubbs_. The Puritan
+revolution has been described with masterly skill and judicial fairness
+by _S. R. Gardiner_. In the earlier field, Mr. _Edward
+A. Freeman_ labored with distinguished success, the _History of
+the Norman Conquest_ being his principal work in this branch of
+historical inquiry. _J. R. Green_ is the author of an attractive
+history of the English people. _J. A. Froude_ wrote with engaging
+literary art a _History of England in the Reign of Elizabeth_,
+which attempts, in the preliminary part, an apology for the character
+and conduct of _Henry VIII_. _Spencer Walpole_ has written a
+_History of England since 1815_. _Ramsay_ has written the
+_Foundations of England, Angevin England, Lancaster, and
+York_. _John Hill Burton_, a Scottish author, educated as a
+lawyer, composed vigorously written histories of Scotland and of the
+reign of Queen Anne. _Lecky_ wrote in a pleasing style a
+_History of England in the Eighteenth Century_, besides a
+_History of Rationalism in Europe_, and a _History of European
+Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne_. In ecclesiastical history,
+_Milman_, whose leading work is the _History of Latin
+Christianity_, Dean _Stanley_, and Bishop _Creighton_ have
+been the principal writers.
+
+ENGLISH NOVELISTS.--The series of "Waverley novels" by _Walter
+Scott_ (1771-1832) had an unbounded popularity. Pervaded by a
+cheerful, healthy tone, they presented fascinating pictures of life and
+manners, and kindled a fresh sympathy with the Middle Ages and with the
+spirit of chivalry. The poems of Scott depicted, in a metrical form,
+like picturesque scenes, and knightly combats and adventures. The
+fictions of Scott gave rise to a school of writers, one of whom was
+_G. P. R. James_ (1801-1860). A new and different type of novel
+appeared, in connection with which the names of _Dickens_
+(1812-1870) and _Thackeray_ (1811-1863) are preëminent. Both are
+humorists; in _Dickens_ especially, humor runs into broad
+caricature. Both present pictures of society and of common life. They
+illustrate the tendency of the novel at present to rely for its
+attraction upon scenes and incidents of ordinary life, and the minute
+portraiture of manners and of character. _Dickens_ owes his
+popularity largely to the unique sort of drollery and the genuine
+pathos that are mingled in his pages. _Thackeray_ is a satirist,
+with a keen eye to detect the weaknesses of humanity, but with a deep
+well of sympathy, veiled, however, and sedulously guarded from
+sentimentalism, by a tone of banter and a semblance of
+cynicism. Measured by their popularity with the cultivated class, the
+novels of Mrs. _Lewes_ (_George Eliot_) stand next in rank to
+the productions last referred to. In some of her tales, the artistic
+motive and spirit are qualified by the didactic aim, or the underlying
+"tendency,"--the purpose to teach, or to promote a favorite
+cause,--which has become a frequent characteristic in modern
+fiction. Among the other English novelists, _Bulwer_ (1805-1873),
+whose later stories are free from the immorality that stains the
+earlier, is one of the most widely read. The novels of _Charles
+Kingsley_ (1819-1875) are among the justly popular productions in
+this department. Among the novelists of the late Victorian Era were
+_Charles Keade_, _Blackmore_, _Stevenson_,
+_Kipling_, _Meredith_, _Hardy_, and Mrs. _Humphry
+Ward_.
+
+ENGLISH POETS.--_Alfred Tennyson_ (1809-1892), the author of
+_The Princess_, _In Memoriam_, and the _Idylls of the
+King_, held the first place among the poets of his day. An adept in
+the metrical art, he combines in these mature productions, with
+terseness of diction and fresh, striking imagery, deep reflection and
+sympathy with the intellectual questionings and yearnings of the
+time. In his lyrical poems the fullness of his power is seen. He was,
+without question, a consummate literary artist. _Browning_
+(1812-1889), careless of rhythmical art, with a defiance of form, but
+with dramatic power, in his descent to "the under-currents" of the
+soul, placed himself open to the reproach of obscurity. Among English
+poets of high merit in the recent period stand the names of the
+delightful humorist _Thomas Hood_ (1798-1845), _Arthur
+Clough_ (1819-1861), and more recently, _Matthew Arnold_
+(1822-1888).
+
+With this reference to the poets may be coupled the name of the most
+eloquent and suggestive of the English writers on art, _John
+Ruskin_.
+
+THEOLOGY IN ENGLAND.--Theological scholarship in Great Britain, after a
+long season of partial eclipse, again shone forth in the present
+period. Critical works relating to the Scriptures have been produced,
+which are on a level with the best Continental learning. About 1833,
+there began at Oxford what has been called the "Tractarian movement,"
+from a series of "Tracts for the Times," relating to theology and the
+Church, which were issued by its promoters. The party thus originating
+were called "Puseyites," as Dr. _Edward Pusey_ (1800-1882), the
+author of learned commentaries, and of works in other departments of
+divinity, was their acknowledged leader. They formed one branch of the
+class called "High Churchmen." They laid great emphasis on the doctrine
+of the "apostolic succession" of the ministry, the necessity and
+efficacy of the sacraments administered by them, and the importance of
+visible ecclesiastical unity. They claimed to stand in the "middle
+path" between the Church of England and the Church of Rome. One of the
+leading associates of _Pusey_ was _John Keble_ (1792-1866),
+the poet, author of _The Christian Year_. The most eminent writer
+in this group of theologians was _John Henry Newman_ (1801-1890),
+who won general admiration by the subtlety of his genius and its rare
+felicity of expression. He entered the Church of Rome, and was advanced
+to the rank of a cardinal. One of the principal literary undertakings
+of the recent period is the Revision of the Authorized Version of the
+Bible, by associated companies of English and American scholars. In the
+long catalogue of influential writers in theology, it is practicable to
+refer here to a few suggestive names. _Thomas Chalmers_
+(1780-1847) was equally noted as a glowing preacher, an eloquent
+defender of the Christian faith, and a lucid expounder of the
+Calvinistic system. _Edward Irving_ (1792-1834) was a pulpit
+orator of unsurpassed eloquence in his day, whose peculiar view as to
+the restoration of the miraculous gifts of the Spirit, that were
+granted in the apostolic age, gave rise to a religious body calling
+itself the "Catholic Apostolic Church." _Frederick Denison
+Maurice_ (1805-1872) was one of the leaders of the "liberal," or
+"Broad Church," portion of the English Episcopal Church. His writings
+have exerted a strong influence. In the same general direction, but of
+a more critical and argumentative tone, were _Richard Whately_
+(1787-1863), Archbishop of Dublin; and _Thomas Arnold_, who, in
+addition to his influence as a teacher, classical scholar, and
+historian, engaged actively in discussions on the questions relating to
+Church and State.
+
+LITERATURE IN AMERICA: POEMS AND TALES.--The period which we are now
+considering witnessed a gratifying development of belles-lettres and
+historical literature in the United States. At the outset, two writers
+appeared who acquired a transatlantic fame. _Washington Irving_
+(1783-1859) in 1818 published _The Sketch Book_, in a series of
+pamphlets. It had been preceded by _Knickerbocker's History of New
+York_ and other humorous publications. Among his later writings were
+included the _Life of Columbus_, the _Life of Mohammed_, and
+the _Life of Washington_. The refinement and charm of his style,
+which brought back the simplicity of Goldsmith, satisfied the foreign
+critics who had ridiculed the florid rhetoric of previous American
+authors. _James Fenimore Cooper_ (1789-1851) published _The
+Spy_, the first of his novels, which attracted much attention, in
+1821. This was followed, two years later, by _The Pioneers_, the
+first of the famous "Leatherstocking" series of novels, in which Indian
+life and manners were portrayed. Cooper was also the founder of the
+"sea-novel," a line of fiction in which he was followed by an English
+writer, _Marryat_ (1792-1848). _Richard H. Dana_ and
+_Fitz-Greene Halleck_ were poets who had a much higher than the
+merely negative merit of freedom from tumidity, the bane of the earlier
+American bards. Not only in verse, but also in his prose tales,
+_Dana_ manifested genius. Several later poets, acknowledged at
+home and abroad, well deserve the name. Such are _Bryant_
+(1794-1878), whose poems, pensive and elevated in their tone, lack
+neither vigor nor finish; _Longfellow_ (1807-1882), a poet of
+exquisite culture, whose purity of sentiment, as well as polish and
+melody of diction, have made him a favorite in both Europe and America;
+_Whittier_ (1807-1892), whose spirited productions are pervaded
+with a glowing love of liberty and humanity. _Lowell_ (1819-1891)
+has justly earned fame as a poet and a critic; and, as a poet, in both
+serious and humorous compositions. The "Biglow Papers" are without a
+rival in the species of humor that characterize them. Distinction as a
+poet and a prose writer belongs likewise to _Oliver Wendell
+Holmes_ (1809-1894), who was especially successful as an author of
+"poems of society."  _Edgar Allan Poe_ (1809-1849), faulty in his
+moral spirit as he was wayward in his conduct, exhibited, both in his
+poems and tales, which are unique in their character, the traits of a
+wild and somber genius. _Ralph Waldo Emerson_ (1803-1882), admired
+as a poet, but more generally as an essayist, valuing insight above
+logic, has commented on nature, man, and literature with so rare a
+penetration and felicity of expression that _Matthew Arnold_ has
+placed his productions on a level with the Meditations of the Emperor
+_Marcus Aurelius_. In the list of American novelists the foremost
+name is that of _Nathaniel Hawthorne_. In his romances the subtle
+analysis of the workings of conscience and sensibility, in particular
+the obscure--including the morbid-action of these powers, is combined
+with perfection of style and of literary art. The novels of _Harriet
+Beecher Stowe_, especially those which relate to slavery and depict
+negro character, have had a world-wide currency. Among other novelists
+were _Paulding_ and _Sedgwick_, and more recently,
+_Howells, James, Bret Harte, Cable_, and _Aldrich_. The most
+distinguished humorist has been _S. M. Clemens_ (Mark Twain).
+
+Good work has been done by Americans in literary history and criticism.
+The _History of Spanish Literature_, by _George Ticknor_, is
+the fruit of many years of labor by a competent scholar.
+
+HISTORICAL WRITINGS IN AMERICA.--Creditable works have been produced in
+America in the department of historical literature. The lives of
+Washington and Franklin, and other biographical and historical writings
+of much value, have been composed or edited by _Jared Sparks. George
+Bancroft_ (1800-1891) published, in successive editions, the results
+of extensive researches in the history of the United States. Works on
+the same subject have been published by _Richard Hildreth_ and
+many others. _John G. Palfrey_ is the author of an excellent
+history of New England. _William H. Prescott_ by his _History of
+the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella_, his histories of Spanish
+conquest in America, and his fragment on the reign of Philip II. of
+Spain, has deservedly attained to a high distinction on both sides of
+the Atlantic.  The same may be said of _John Lothrop Motley_
+(1814-1877), in his _Rise and Progress of the Dutch Republic_. The
+history of French colonization and of the contests of France in America
+has been detailed with thoroughness and skill by _Francis
+Parkman_. Other prominent writers have been _John Fiske, Justin
+Winsor, Henry. Adams, James F. Rhodes_, and _A. T. Mahan_.
+
+AMERICAN WRITERS ON LAW ANS POLITICS.--American writers on law embrace
+names of world-wide celebrity. Among them are _Henry Wheaton_, in
+international law, a science to which _Woolsey_ and
+_Lawrence_ have made valuable contributions; _James Kent_,
+whose _Commentaries on American Law_ is a work held in high honor
+by the legal profession; and _Joseph Story_, a jurist and legal
+writer of distinguished merit. The speeches and other productions of
+_Webster, Calhoun, Clay, John Quincy Adams, Edward Everett, Seward,
+Sumner_, form a valuable body of political writings. The works of
+_Francis Lieber_, a German by birth, and the treatise on
+_Political Science_ by _Theodore D. Woolsey_, are important
+contributions to the branch of knowledge to which they relate.
+
+PHILOLOGY IN AMERICA.--On the catalogue of students of language, the
+name of _Noah Webster_ (1758-1843) is prominent, through his
+English Dictionary, the fruit of many years of arduous labor; a work
+that since his death has appeared in successive and improved
+editions. Another successful laborer in the same field was _Joseph
+E. Worcester_ (1784-1865), likewise the author of a copious and
+valuable lexicon of the English language. _George P. Marsh_, an
+erudite Scandinavian scholar, wrote also on the _Origin and History
+of the English Language_. In the departments of classical learning,
+of Oriental study, and of general philology, there have appeared other
+American authors of acknowledged merit, e.g. _William D. Whitney_.
+
+THEOLOGY IN AMERICA.--Theology has been cultivated with much fruit by a
+large number of preachers and authors, of different religious bodies.
+_Moses Stuart_, by his commentaries on Biblical books, and
+_Edward Robinson_, especially through his published Travels in the
+Holy Land, were widely known. _Charles Hodge_, long a professor at
+Princeton; _Nathaniel W. Taylor_, who broached modifications of
+the Calvinistic system; _Henry B. Smith_, an acute and learned
+theologian; and _Horace Bushnell_,--are among the influential
+authors on the Protestant side. To these should be added the name of
+_William Ellery Channing_, the most prominent leader of the
+Unitarians, equally distinguished as a preacher and as a
+philanthropist.
+
+  The Unitarian movement in New England, which began in the early part
+  of the nineteenth century, included other theological writers, one of
+  the most learned and scholarly of whom was _Andrews Norton_
+  (1786-1853). _Theodore Parker_ (1810-1860) subsequently went so
+  far in his divergence from received views as to reject miracle and
+  supernatural revelation altogether. He was one of the most vigorous
+  combatants in the warfare carried on through the press and in the
+  pulpit against slavery. Out of the Unitarian school there came a
+  class of cultured writers in literature and criticism, of whom
+  _George Ripley_ (1802-1880) was a representative. The
+  "transcendentalists," as they were popularly styled, with whom these
+  were often at the outset affiliated, were much influenced by
+  contemporary French and German authors and speculations. Emerson, was
+  the most prominent writer in this vaguely defined class. A periodical
+  called "The Dial" was issued by them.
+
+One of the most ingenious and active-minded thinkers in the Roman
+Catholic Church was _Orestes A. Brownson_, a prolific author on
+topics of religion and philosophy.
+
+LITERATURE IN GERMANY.--The German mind has been so productive in
+almost all branches of literary effort, that the annual issues of the
+German press have numbered many thousands. The political condition of
+Germany until a recent date was such as to attract large numbers to the
+pursuits of literature and science. It is possible to allude to but few
+of the principal authors. In imaginative literature, _Heinrich
+Heine_ (1799-1856), of Jewish extraction, was a most witty yet
+irreverent satirist, and one of the principal song-writers of modern
+times. _Gustav Freytag_ has written some of the best of the later
+German novels. _Auerbach_, _Keller_, and _Spielhagen_
+stand very high on the roll of novelists. Of numerous recent poets,
+_Lenau_ and _Freiligrath_ are among the few best esteemed. In
+the long catalogue of German historical writers, to whom the world owes
+a debt, are found the names of _Schlosser_ (1776-1861),
+_Heeren_ (1760-1842), _Raumer_ (1781-1873); _Ranke_,
+whose numerous works are based on original researches, and are written
+with masterly skill; _Gervinus_, a critic as well as historian;
+_Von Sybel_, _Droysen_, _Duncker_, _Weber_,
+_Giesebrecht_, _Mommsen_, _Curtius_,
+_Treitschke_. A powerful impulse was given to the study of history
+by _Niebuhr_ (1776-1831). German researches have been carried into
+every region of the past. In Egyptology, _Lipsius_, _Bunsen_,
+_Brugsch_, and _Ebers_ are leading
+authorities. _Neander_, _Gieseler_, _Baur_,
+_Döllinger_, _Hefele_, _Alzog_, _Harnack_,
+_Janssen_, and _Pastor_ are writers on ecclesiastical
+history. German travelers have explored many of the countries of the
+globe. _Schliemann_ has uncovered the ruins of Troy. In
+mathematics and the natural sciences, in philology and criticism, in
+philosophy, in law and the political sciences, and in the different
+branches of theology, the world acknowledges its debt to the patient,
+methodical investigations and the exhaustive discussions of German
+students during the nineteenth century.
+
+  THEOLOGY IN GERMANY.--The history of religious thought in Germany
+  includes the successive phases of _rationalism_, or that general
+  theory which makes the human understanding, apart from supernatural
+  revelation, the chief or the exclusive source of religious knowledge,
+  and the umpire in controversies. In the age of _Frederick II._,
+  the Anglo-French deism was widely diffused (p. 493). _Lessing_;
+  the genial poet and critic (1729-1781), allied himself to no
+  party. In his work on _The Education of the Human Race_, he set
+  forth the view that the Scriptures have a high providential purpose
+  as an instrument for the religious training of mankind, but that
+  their _essential_ contents are ultimately verified by reason on
+  grounds of its own; so that the prop of authority eventually becomes
+  needless, and falls away. Not radically different was the position of
+  _Kant_ (p. 545), who gave rise to a school of theologians that
+  for a time flourished. This school made the essential thing in
+  Christianity to be its morality. With _Semler_ (1721-1791), the
+  rationalistic _Biblical criticism_ took its rise. From that day,
+  a host of scholars have engaged in the investigation of the origin
+  and interpretation of the Bible, and of the early history of
+  Christianity. A middle position between the established orthodoxy and
+  the Kantian rationalism was taken by _Frederick Schleiermacher_
+  (1768-1834), a man of genius, alike eminent as a critic, philosopher,
+  and theologian. He placed the foundation of religion in the feeling
+  of absolute dependence. In laying stress on _feeling_ as at the
+  root of piety, he had been preceded by the philosopher
+  _Jacobi_. From the impulse given by _Schleiermacher_, there
+  sprung up an intermediate school of theologians, many of whom
+  departed less than he from the traditional Protestant creed. This
+  they professed to undertake to revise in accordance with the results
+  of the scientific study of the Bible and of history. In their number
+  belong _Neander_, _Nitzsch_, _Twesten_,
+  _Tholuck_, _J. Müller_, _Dorner_, _Rothe_,
+  _Bleek_, _Ullman_, and many other influential authors and
+  teachers. In the department of Biblical criticism, _Ewald_,
+  _Tischendorf_, _Meyer_, _Weiss_, are among the names
+  of German theological scholars which are familiar to Biblical
+  students in all countries. The critical works of _De Wette_
+  (1780-1849) were extensively studied. The philosophy of
+  _Hegel_connected itself with a new form of rationalism, which
+  found expression in the _Life of Jesus_, by _Strauss_,
+  published in 1835, in which the Gospel miracles were treated as
+  myths; and in the writings of _Ferdinand Christian Baur_, in
+  connection with his followers of the "Tubingen School," who attempted
+  to resolve primitive Christianity into a natural growth out of
+  preëxisting conditions, and held that the historical books of the New
+  Testament were the product of different theological "tendencies" and
+  parties in the apostolic and the subsequent age. The Roman Catholic
+  system has not lacked in Germany able defenders, one of the most
+  noted of whom was _Möhler_, the author of _Symbolism_
+  (_Symbolik_), an ingenious polemical work in opposition to
+  Protestantism.
+
+  PHILOLOGY AND LAW IN GERMANY.--Classical philology was founded as a
+  science by _Heyne_ (1729-1812) and _Wolf_
+  (1759-1824). Their work was carried forward by _G. Hermann_
+  (1772-1848), _Buttmann_ (1764-1829), _Jacobs_ (1764-1847),
+  _K. O. Muller_ (1797-1840), and by numerous contemporaries and
+  successors of these. By this succession of scholars, not only have
+  the tongues of Greece and Rome been accurately learned and taught,
+  but classical antiquity has been thoroughly explored. Comparative
+  philology, under the hands of _Bopp_ (1791-1867), of
+  _Lassen_ (1800-1876), a Norwegian by birth, of _W. von
+  Humboldt_ (1767-1835), of _Pott_ (born in 1802), of
+  _Schleicher_ (1821-1868), and their coadjutors, has grown to be
+  a fruitful science. In the study of the German language and early
+  literature, _J. Grimm_ (1785-1863), _W. Grimm_ (1786-1859),
+  _Lachmann_ (1793-1851), _Simrock_ (1802-1878), have been
+  among the pioneers. The study of law, especially of Roman law, was
+  placed on a new foundation by the labors of _Savigny_
+  (1779-1861), while a like thoroughness was brought to the exposition
+  of German law by _Mittermaier_ and others. In political science,
+  _Mohl_ (1779-1875), _Bluntschli_ (1808-1881), _Stahl_
+  (1802-1861), and _Gneist_ (1816-1895) gained a worldwide
+  celebrity.
+
+LITERATURE IN FRANCE.--A class of vigorous young writers in France
+broke loose from the restraints of the "classical" school and its
+patterns, and composed dramas in the more free method of the "romantic"
+school. They drew their ideas of the drama from _Shakspeare_,
+rather than from _Corneille_. Among these writers were
+_Alexandre Dumas_, a most prolific novelist as well as writer of
+plays; and the celebrated poet and dramatist, _Victor Hugo_. The
+romances of _Dumas_ comprise more than a hundred volumes. In his
+historical novels, incidents and characters without number crowd upon
+the scene, but without confusion, while the narrative maintains an
+unfailing vivacity. Of the authors of light and witty comedies,
+_Scribe_ is one of the most fertile. _George Sand_
+(Mme. _Dudevant_) is one of the principal novel-writers of the
+age. _Eugene Sue_ and _Balzac_ are both popular authors in
+this department. The leading poets are the song-writer _Béranger_,
+_Lamartine_, _Victor Hugo_, and _Alfred de Musset_. With
+the close of the first half-century romanticism began to give way
+before realism, from which, however, there was a reaction before the
+century closed. Among the greater poets are _Sully-Prudhomme_ and
+_Coppée_; among the novelists, _Daudet_, _Zola_,
+_Maupassant_, and _Bourget_. In history some writers, as
+_Villemain_, are remarkable for their power of descriptive
+narrative; others, like _Guizot_, for their breadth of
+philosophical reflection, superadded to deep researches. Some, like
+_Augustin Thierry_, in his work on the Middle Ages, combined both
+elements. His brother, _Amédée Thierry_, depicted the state of
+society in Gaul and other countries in the period of the fall of the
+Roman Empire. _Barante_ composed an interesting history of the
+Dukes of Burgundy. Among those, besides Guizot, who treated of the
+history of France, _Sismondi_, the spirited _Michelet_, and
+the thorough and dispassionate _Henri Martin_ are specially
+eminent. _Thiers_, _Mignet_, _Louis Blanc_,
+_Taine_, and _Lanfrey_ wrote on the Revolution or
+Napoleon. The most eminent of the newer school of scientific historians
+are _Boissier_, _Sorel_, _Lavisse_, _Luchaire_, and
+_Aulard_. In political economy and the science of politics,
+_Chevalier_, _De Tocqueville_ (the author of _Democracy in
+America_), and _Bastiat_ are among the writers widely read
+beyond the limits of France. _Sainte-Beuve_ is only one of the
+foremost in the class of literary critics, in which are included
+_Renan_, _Sarcey_, _Brunetière_, _Lemaître_,
+_Faguet_, and others, themselves authors. The clearness of
+exposition which goes far to justify the claim of the French to be the
+interpreters of European science to the world, appears in numerous
+treatises in mathematics and physics. The qualities of lucid
+arrangement, transparency of style, and terseness of language have
+extended, however, to other branches of authorship; so that the French
+have presented a fair claim to precedence in the literary art.
+
+  SWEDEN AND RUSSIA.--There are Swedish authors who are well known in
+  other countries. Such are the historian _Geijer_ (1783-1847);
+  and the novelist _Fredrika Bremer_, who wrote "The Neighbors,"
+  and other tales. The most famous of the Russian novelists is _Ivan
+  Turgenejff_, some of whose stories contain admirable pictures of
+  Russian life.
+
+ARCHITECTURE.--The nineteenth century witnessed in Germany, France, and
+England a revival of the ancient or classic styles of
+architecture. This appears, for example, in edifices at _Munich_,
+and in such buildings as _St. George's Hall_ at Liverpool. But a
+reaction arose against this tendency, and in behalf of the Gothic
+style, which is exemplified in the new _Houses of Parliament_ in
+London. Many Gothic churches have been erected in Great
+Britain. Many-storied office buildings are characteristic of America.
+
+SCULPTURE AND PAINTING.--One of the most original of modern sculptors
+was _Schwanthaler_ (1802-1848), who carved the pediments of the
+Walhalla at Munich, and the bronze statue of Bavaria. French sculptors
+at the present day are fully on a level with the recent sculptors of
+Italy. _Chantrey_ (1788-1841) and _John Gibson_ (1791-1866),
+a pupil of _Canova_ and himself an original mind, are high on the
+roll of English sculptors. A genius for sculpture appeared among
+Americans, and to the names of _Powers and Crawford_, of _Story,
+Brown, and Ward_, the names of other meritorious artists in this
+province might justly be added. The German national school of painting
+had _Overbeck_ for its most eminent founder. _Cornelius_
+(1783-1867) revived the art of fresco-painting, and established the
+Munich school. _Von Kaulbach_, who painted the "Battle of the
+Huns" in the Berlin Museum, was one of his pupils. _W. von
+Schadow_ is the founder of the Düsseldorf school. One of his eminent
+pupils was _K. F. Lessing_. Still more recent are _Ad. Menzel,
+Liberman, and Lenbach_. In Great Britain, _Constable_
+(1796-1837) painted English landscapes full of thought and feeling, and
+gave a fresh impulse to this branch of art. _Stanfleld_
+(1788-1864) was a master of the realistic school, which aims at a
+simple and faithful representation of the landscape to be
+depicted. _Wilkie_, a Scotchman (1785-1841), was chief among the
+_genre_ painters, of whom _Leslie_ (1794-1859), by birth an
+American, was one of the most forcible and refined. _Eastlake_
+(1793-1865) was a writer on art, as well as a painter. _Landseer_
+(1802-1873) was unrivaled as an animal painter.  _William Hunt_
+(1790-1864) had decided skill as a painter in water-colors. The
+_pre-Raphaelite school_, professing to go back of _Raphael_
+to nature, included _Turner, Hunt, Millais_, _and
+Burne-Jones_. Other prominent artists have been _Herkomer,
+Leighton_, and _Alma-Tadema_. In France, _Paul Delaroche_
+(1797-1856) followed in the path of _Horace Vernet_ (1789-1863),
+as a painter of battle-pieces and other modern historical
+scenes. _Ary Scheffer_ (1795-1858), a Dutchman by birth, painted
+in a graceful and pathetic tone "Christ the Consoler," and other sacred
+subjects. The more recent French school, comprising _Delacroix,
+Meissonier, Gérome, Cabanel, Millet, Rosa Bonheur_, an artist of
+masculine vigor, the famous painter of animal pictures,--is
+distinguished for technical skill and finish, but also for a bold and
+peculiar method of treatment. Among the leading landscape-painters of
+this school, _Corot, Daubigny, Rousseau, Diaz_, are
+conspicuous. Still more recent are _Bastien-Lepage, Chavannes,
+Bréton, Bouguereau, Dagnan-Bouveret, Lhermitte, Jean-Paul Laurens_,
+and _Dupré_.
+
+About the year 1825 an American school of landscape-painters was
+founded by _Thomas Cole_, many of whose pictures were
+allegorical. _Durand_ is one of those who excelled in landscape
+painting. In other provinces of the art, _Peale_, _Weir_,
+_Huntington_, _Page_, _Morse_, _Chase_,
+_Whistler_, _Sargent_, _Abbey_; in landscape,
+_Gifford_, _Kensett_, _Church_, _Bierstadt_,
+_McEntee_, _Inness_, _Winslow Homer_, well represent
+what is best and most characteristic in the later productions of
+American painters.
+
+MUSIC.--In music, Germany in the nineteenth century held the palm.
+_Schubert_, _Spohr_, _Weber_, _Meyerbeer_, and
+_Wagner_ are names of world-wide celebrity, while in the works of
+_Mendelssohn_ (1809-1849) and _Schumann_ (1810-1856) the art
+of music reached its climax. _Chopin_ (1810-1849), the founder of
+a new style of piano-forte music, was born in Poland: his father,
+however, was French.
+
+
+PHILANTHROPIC REFORM.
+
+In a survey of the course of recent history, notice should be taken of
+the increased activity of a humane spirit in the several nations.
+
+1. SOCIAL SCIENCE.--The investigation of social evils and of their
+proper remedies, and of the laws which govern man in his social
+relations, has received of late the name of _social science_. In
+1857 a meeting in _London_, over which Lord _Brougham_
+presided, resulted in the organization of a society of persons
+interested in different forms of social improvement, bearing the name
+of the _National Association for the Promotion of Social
+Science_. Its work embraced the consideration of these five
+subjects: law-amendment,--to promote which a society had existed, of
+which Lord _Brougham_ was the head; education; prevention and
+repression of crime; public health; and social economy. Branches were
+established in various towns in England. Similar societies have
+flourished in the United States. An international society of the same
+character held its first meeting in _Brussels_ in 1862. The wide
+range of special topics which these societies consider may give an
+appearance of indefiniteness to their aims. The movement at least
+indicates that social advancement has assumed the form of a distinct
+and comprehensive problem, and is drawing to itself the deliberate
+attention of thoughtful persons of diverse nations and creeds.
+
+2. MITIGATION OF THE SUFFERINGS OF WAR: HOSPITALS.--If wars are still
+frequent and destructive, much more has been done of late to mitigate
+the sufferings consequent upon armed conflicts. The right of an
+invading force to ravage the territory of an enemy was seldom
+practically asserted in the nineteenth century. Non-combatants,
+according to the modern rules of war, are not to be molested. Their
+property, if it is taken, is to be paid for at its fair value. The
+doctrine that requisitions may be made by a commander is not yet
+abandoned. It was acted on by _Napoleon_ on a large scale. It was
+not approved by _Wellington_. There is a growing opinion against
+it. It is not now held to be a crime for an officer to hold a fortress
+as long as he can. In the care of the sick and the wounded, there has
+been a great change for the better. The _ambulance_ system, or the
+system of movable hospitals accompanying armies on the field, was
+established by the French, with the approval of _Napoleon_, in
+1795. The name _ambulance_ is also frequently given to the
+vehicles for transporting the wounded and sick. The whole ambulance
+system was completely organized in the American civil war, and defined
+by an Act of Congress in 1864. To a French surgeon is due, also, the
+establishment of a corps of _stretcher-bearers_. By the European
+Convention adopted at _Geneva_ (1864), the wounded, and the whole
+official staff connected with ambulances, are exempted from capture as
+prisoners of war. For the more efficient organization of hospitals, a
+great service was rendered by the example of _Florence
+Nightingale_, an English lady, who, at the head of a company of
+volunteer nurses, during the Crimean war created a great establishment
+of this sort at Scutari (1854). The increased pains-taking in the
+method of building, in the ventilation and general management of
+hospitals, during the last half-century, has gone far towards freeing
+them from the dangers and evils to which they were formerly subject.
+
+SANITARY SCIENCE.--Sanitary science, and the engineering connected with
+it, belong to the nineteenth century, and mainly to the second half of
+it. Systems of drainage have been devised which involve much mechanical
+skill, not to dwell on their usefulness in promoting health. Prior to
+1815, in England, the law forbade the discharge of sewage in
+water-drains. The law of 1847 required that which up to 1815 was
+prohibited. The great change on this whole subject dates from the
+cholera of 1832, which awoke public attention to the sources of
+disease. The condition of the poor, and the discussions relating to it,
+lent a new stimulus to the inquiry. A series of English reports, from
+1842 to 1848, had a great influence in producing a sanitary reform, in
+the particulars referred to, in England and in other countries.
+
+3. PUBLIC EDUCATION.--During the nineteenth century, systems of general
+education were established in different countries. In a part of the
+United States, an effective common-school system has always existed. In
+Germany also, especially in Prussia, there have long been thorough
+provisions for the instruction of all the young in elementary
+branches. In France, in consequence of the laws requiring primary
+schools in all the communes of any considerable size, the average of
+illiteracy has of late steadily diminished. In 1881, in France,
+instruction in the public primary schools was made absolutely
+free. England has witnessed a very great change in the legal
+establishment of means of instruction in the rudiments of knowledge for
+the whole people. The Education Act of 1876 required that every child
+between the ages of five and fourteen should receive such teaching. In
+England, and in some other countries, the employment of children who
+have not had a certain amount of school instruction was prohibited by
+law. In the new kingdom of Italy, every commune having four thousand
+inhabitants was required by law (1859) to maintain a primary school. By
+subsequent legislation, the compulsory principle was adopted as far as
+the circumstances of the country would allow. The result has been a
+most remarkable diminution in the numbers of the wholly illiterate
+class. Other European states have made primary education
+compulsory. For instance, in Hungary, attendance at school was made
+obligatory for children from the beginning of the eighth to the end of
+the twelfth year. Such measures in behalf of general education as
+governments have adopted in recent times are founded, to be sure,
+partly on the conscious need of self-protection against ignorance and
+its baleful consequences to the state. A more directly humane impulse,
+however, mingles with this motive. The operation of benevolent feeling
+is seen in the multiplying of special schools for the benefit of the
+blind, of the deaf and dumb, and even of imbeciles.
+
+4. REFORM OF CRIMINAL LAW.--The advance of humane sentiment has
+produced a reform of criminal law. In England, in the closing part of
+the eighteenth century, there were two hundred and twenty-three
+offenses that were punished with death. To injure Westminster Bridge,
+to cut down young trees, to shoot at rabbits, to steal property of the
+value of five shillings, were capital offenses. Vigorous and
+persevering opposition was made to the mitigation of this bloody
+code. Sir _Samuel Romilly_ (1757-1818) began his effort at reform
+by endeavoring to secure the repeal of these cruel laws, one by
+one. His bills, when carried with difficulty through the Commons, were
+repeatedly thrown out by the House of Lords. One of the most strenuous
+opponents of the change was the Lord Chancellor, _Eldon_. Lord
+_Ellenborough_, the chief justice, stigmatized the proposed
+alteration of the statutes as the fruit of "speculation and modern
+philosophy." It was predicted that, if it were made, there would be a
+terrible increase of crime. Sir _James Mackintosh_ continued with
+success the effort of Romilly. In 1837 the list of capital offenses had
+been reduced to seven. One consequence was the striking diminution of
+crime. Another reform in England was that of the police-system
+(1816). The officers of the police had encouraged crime in order to
+secure the reward of forty pounds offered by the government on
+conviction, in the case of crimes of a certain grade.
+
+5. PRISON-DISCIPLINE REFORM.--One of the distinctions of modern
+philanthropy is the prison-discipline reform. When _Howard_ began
+his labors (1773), the prisons in England were generally dirty,
+pestiferous dens, crowded with inmates of both sexes,--nurseries of
+loathsome disease, and of still more loathsome vice. Soon after this
+time, a serious effort began to make prisons a means of reform, instead
+of schools of debauchery and crime. There was a movement for the
+erection of penitentiaries of improved construction. This was aided by
+the exertions of _Jeremy Bentham_. The most successful efforts in
+behalf of a better system of management in prisons were made by members
+of the Society of Friends. Of these, the most useful person in this
+cause was Mrs. _Elizabeth Gurney Fry_ (1780-1845), a woman of rare
+powers of mind and of the noblest Christian character. By her personal
+influence, she wrought such a transformation of character and behavior
+among the female convicts in Newgate Prison as it had been deemed
+impossible to effect. The reforms which Mrs. _Fry_ effected spread
+to other places. Her labors were not confined to Great Britain. She
+visited France (1838), Belgium, Holland, and other countries. Her
+correspondence in the interest of the cause which she served extended
+to Russia and Italy. Her recommendations bore fruit for good in almost
+all parts of Europe. Signal improvements in plans of construction, and
+in the interior life of prisons, have been effected under the auspices
+of the Prison Discipline Society in England. In these changes, the
+example of changes and reforms in this matter in the United States has
+had a marked influence. The two great ends kept in view at present in
+the arrangements and occupations of prisons are the reform of the
+criminal, and the deterring of others from the commission of
+crime. Distinct establishments for the detention, reform, and training
+of juvenile offenders, who were formerly corrupted by association with
+criminals mature in vice, are peculiar to recent times. The
+transportation of English convicts to Australia began in 1787. As these
+multiplied, there sprang up cruelty on the part of supervisors in the
+colonies; and in the penal settlements where the worst offenders were
+guarded, there were found the most corrupt and degraded herds of
+criminals. The opposition in the colonial communities to transportation
+found support in England. In 1840 deportation to New South Wales
+ceased. At length Van Dieman's Land also refused to receive this forced
+emigration even of released convicts. The British Government was
+obliged to rely on other methods of punishment, especially on the
+graduation of the term of confinement according to the conduct of the
+criminal.
+
+
+PROGRESS TOWARDS THE UNITY OF MANKIND.
+
+UNITY AMID DIVERSITY.--The path of human progress has led in the
+direction of _unity_ as the ultimate goal. It is, however, a
+_unity in variety_ toward which the course of history has moved.
+The development and growth of distinct nations, each after its own
+type, and, not less, the freedom of the individual to realize the
+destiny intended for him by nature, are necessary to the full
+development of mankind,--necessary to the perfection of the race. The
+final unity that is sought is to be reached, not by stifling the
+capacities of human nature, but by the complete unfolding of them in
+all their diversity. The modern era has made an approach toward this
+higher unity that is to coexist with a rich and manifold
+development. An enlightened man, Prince _Albert_ of England,
+remarked in a public address (1850): "Nobody who has paid any attention
+to the peculiar features of our present era will doubt for a moment
+that we are living at a period of most wonderful transition, which
+tends rapidly to accomplish that great end to which, indeed, all
+history points, _the realization of the unity of mankind!_ Not a
+unity which breaks down the limits and levels the peculiar
+characteristics of the different nations of the earth, but rather a
+unity, _the result and product_ of those very national varieties
+and antagonistic qualities."
+
+In concluding this volume, it is proper to advert to some of the signs
+and means of this unification of mankind, which belong to the recent
+era.
+
+1. INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS.--The words quoted above from Prince
+_Albert_ were spoken in anticipation of the Great International
+Exhibition in London, in 1854. The industrial exhibitions, in which the
+products of many nations are collected, and to which visitors are drawn
+from different parts of the earth, are one indication of the effect of
+manufactures and commerce in drawing mankind together. The first
+displays of this kind were for French manufactures alone, and were held
+in Paris in 1798, and, under the consulate of Napoleon, in 1801 and
+1802. The first _international_ exposition was in Paris in 1844;
+and it was followed by the "World's Fair" in London (1850), for which
+the vast edifice called "the Crystal Palace," made of iron and of
+glass, was constructed. Similar exhibitions were held in New York
+(1853), in Paris in 1855 and again in 1867, in Constantinople,
+Amsterdam, Vienna, (1873), in Philadelphia on the hundredth anniversary
+of American independence (1876), in Chicago in 1893, and in Paris in
+1900. In these fairs, the products of the industry of the far East were
+shown by the side of the products of European and American manufacture.
+
+2. ECONOMICAL ENLIGHTENMENT.--In connection with the wide extension of
+commerce, the better methods and ideas which have come into vogue in
+respect to commercial relations deserve notice. The _system of
+credit_, facilitating trade and forming a bond of confidence and of
+union between different nations, although it began in the Middle Ages,
+was not fairly established until the organization of the Bank of
+Amsterdam in 1609. This system, if it is "one of the most powerful
+engines of warfare," is likewise "one of the great pledges of peace."
+The stimulus given to manufactures by mechanical inventions has been an
+effective promoter of commercial intercourse. The teaching of _Adam
+Smith_, and of the political economists since his time, by which it
+is seen that the gain of one nation is not the loss of another, and
+that nations are mutually benefited by the interchange of the products
+of their labor, which is the true source of wealth, has operated as an
+antidote to discord. The ruin of a neighbor, or non-intercourse with
+him, has been discovered to be as contrary to the demands of a prudent
+self-interest as of a disinterested benevolence.
+
+3. COMMUNITY IN SCIENCE AND LETTERS.--The community of literature and
+science has been growing more cosmopolitan. The barriers created by
+differences of language are overcome. The custom of learning foreign
+languages has become more diffused. The most important writings, in
+whatever country they appear, circulate through translations in all
+other civilized lands. All well-stored libraries are polyglot.
+
+4. WIDENED POLITICAL SYSTEM.--In the political relations of countries,
+it is found necessary to comprehend all parts of the globe in the
+political system, in the right adjustment of which each country has a
+stake, and over which stretches an acknowledged code of international
+law. The establishment of an international tribunal of arbitration at
+The Hague is a long step toward making such a code effective and toward
+preventing war.
+
+5. INTERNATION PHILANTHROPY.--The growth of humane feeling, of the
+interest felt in man as man, engendered a spirit of universal
+philanthropy. For example, the hostility to the slave-trade led to the
+treatment of it as piracy by the municipal laws and by the treaties of
+several nations, while it is prohibited and punished by nearly all of
+the countries of Europe. This is the direct result of a heightened
+respect for man and for the rights of human nature, however poor or
+degraded man may be. Instances have occurred in which help has been
+generously given to sufferers by fire or famine, by strangers in remote
+lands. A famine in Persia called out liberal contributions from
+America. Examples of the exercise of justice and kindness toward
+distant nations may remind the reader of opposite examples of wrong and
+cruelty. We are pointing out, however, only the _drift_ of
+sentiment; and it must be remembered that the facts which have been
+referred to as illustrative of the growth of philanthropy, are such as
+never occurred in former ages.
+
+6. CHRISTIAN MISSIONS.--The spread of the Christian religion by
+missionary efforts is one of the means of unifying mankind. In ancient
+times and in the Middle Ages, the two great achievements of the Church
+were the conversion of the Roman Empire, and then of the barbarian
+nations by whom it was subverted. But, in the Middle Ages, there was
+also missionary labor, here and there among the Saracens and in the
+lands of the East. Since the thirteenth century, missions in the Roman
+Catholic Church have been chiefly prosecuted by the monastic orders. In
+this work, the Jesuits, from the first establishment of their order,
+were conspicuously active in all quarters of the globe. Of their
+missionaries, none have been more eminent and zealous than _Francis
+Xavier_ (1506?1552), who died just as he was about to undertake the
+conversion of China. Protestants, in the period after the Reformation,
+were too busy in the struggles going forward in their own lands, to
+undertake foreign missions on an extended scale. Yet they were not
+indifferent to the importance of the work. Under the protectorate of
+_Cromwell_, an ordinance established a Society for the Propagation
+of the Gospel in New England (1649). In 1701 the Society for the
+Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts was established in
+England. Later, the Moravians from the beginning evinced great interest
+in foreign missions, and planted missionary stations in several
+countries. In the Roman Catholic Church, the Congregation of the
+Propaganda was founded in 1622, for the general superintendence of
+missionary operations. Colleges for their training were established,
+the chief of which was the "Urban College" at Rome, where students from
+all nations have been educated for missionary service.
+
+The nineteenth century was marked by an extraordinary outburst of
+missionary activity. In this sort of exertion the Roman Catholic body
+has kept up an unflagging zeal. Within the various Protestant
+denominations, a remarkable increase of fervor and of success in this
+department of Christian labor has been witnessed. In the room of
+_seven_ societies for this purpose at the end of the eighteenth
+century, there were in 1880, in Europe and America, _seventy_
+organizations. At this last date, there were not less than twenty-four
+hundred ordained Europeans and Americans employed in this service,
+besides a great number of assistants, both foreign and native. The
+native converts numbered not less than 1,650,000. The yearly
+contributions for the support of the missions increased
+proportionately. In 1882 British contributions alone amounted to
+£1,090,000. It is not an exaggeration to say that the globe is now
+"covered with a network of Christian outposts."
+
+  The following passage, slightly abbreviated, from a German writer,
+  presents a glowing sketch of the wide extension of recent missionary
+  labors:--
+
+  "At the beginning of this century, the island world of the Pacific
+  was shut against the gospel; but England and America have attacked
+  those lands so vigorously in all directions, especially through
+  native workers, that whole groups of islands, even the whole Malayan
+  Polynesia, is to-day almost entirely Christianized, and in Melanesia
+  and Micronesia the mission-field is extended every year. The gates of
+  British East India have been thrown open wider and wider during this
+  century; at first for English, then for all missionaries. This great
+  kingdom, from Cape Comorin to the Punjaub and up to the Himalayas,
+  where the gospel is knocking on the door of Thibet, has been covered
+  with hundreds of mission-stations, closer than the mission-net which
+  at the close of the first century surrounded the Roman empire; the
+  largest and some of the smaller islands of the Indian Archipelago,
+  Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Celebes, and now New Guinea also, are
+  occupied, partly on the coast and partly in the interior. Burmah, and
+  in part Siam, is open to the gospel; and China, the most powerful and
+  most populous of heathen lands, forced continually to open her doors
+  wider, has been traversed by individual pioneers of the gospel, to
+  Thibet and Burmah, and half of her provinces occupied from Hong-Kong
+  and Canton to Peking; and in Manchuria, if by only a thin chain, yet
+  at many of the principal points, stations have been founded, while
+  the population overflowing into Australia and America is being
+  labored with by Protestant missionaries. Japan also, hungry for
+  reform, by granting entrance to the gospel has been quickly occupied
+  by American and English missionary societies, and already, after so
+  little labor, has scores of evangelical congregations. Indeed, the
+  aboriginal Australians have, in some places, been reached. In the
+  lands of Islam, from the Balkans to Bagdad, from Egypt to Persia,
+  there have been common central evangelization stations established in
+  the chief places, for Christians and Mohammedans, by means of
+  theological and Christian medical missions, conducted especially by
+  Americans. Also in the primitive seat of Christianity, Palestine,
+  from Bethlehem to Tripoli, and to the northern boundaries of Lebanon,
+  the land is covered by a network of Protestant schools, with here and
+  there an evangelical church. Africa, west, south, and east, has been
+  vigorously attacked; in the west, from Senegal to Gaboon, yes, lately
+  even to the Congo, by Great Britain, Basel, Bremen, and America,
+  which have stations all along the coast. South Africa at the
+  extremity was evangelized by German, Dutch, English, Scotch, French,
+  and Scandinavian societies. Upon both sides, as in the center,
+  Protestant missions, although at times checked by war, are
+  continually pressing to the north; to the left, beyond the Walfisch
+  Bay; to the right, into Zululand, up to Delagoa Bay; in the center,
+  to the Bechuana and Basuto lands. In the east, the sun of the gospel,
+  after a long storm, has burst forth over Madagascar in such
+  brightness that it can never again disappear. Along the coasts from
+  Zanzibar and the Nile, even to Abyssinia, out-stations have been
+  established, and powerful assaults made by the Scotch, English, and
+  recently also by the American mission and civilization, into the very
+  heart of the Dark Continent, even to the great central and east
+  African lakes. In America, the immense plains of the Hudson's Bay
+  Territory, from Canada over the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean,
+  have not only been visited by missionaries, but have been opened far
+  and wide to the gospel through rapidly growing Indian missions. In
+  the United States, hundreds of thousands of freedmen have been
+  gathered into evangelical congregations; and, of the remnants of the
+  numerous Indian tribes, some at least have been converted through the
+  work of evangelization by various churches, and have awakened new
+  hope for the future. In Central America and the West Indies, as far
+  as the country is under Protestant home nations, the net of
+  evangelical missions has been thrown from island to island, even to
+  the mainland in Honduras, upon the Mosquito Coast; and in British and
+  Dutch Guiana it has taken even firmer hold. Finally, the lands on and
+  before the southern extremity of the continent, the Falkland Islands,
+  Terra del Fuego, and Patagonia, received the first light through the
+  South American Missionary Society (in London); and recently its
+  messengers have pushed into the heart of the land, and are rapidly
+  pressing on to the banks of the great Amazon, to the Indians of
+  Brazil."
+
+RESULTS OF MISSIONS.--In carrying forward missionary work during the
+nineteenth century, the Bible has been translated into numerous
+languages. Missionaries, as in the early days of the Church, have
+reduced the languages of uncultivated peoples to writing, and made the
+beginning of native literatures. Schools, colleges, and
+printing-presses follow in the path of the preachers. The contributions
+made to philology and to other branches of science by missionary
+preachers and explorers are of high value. As far as the number of
+converts is concerned, progress has been more rapid, as was the case in
+the first Christian centuries, among uncivilized tribes. The reception
+of Christianity is more slow in a country like China, and among the
+Aryan inhabitants of India. But the influence exerted by missions in
+such communities is not to be measured by the number of
+converts. Moreover, history has often shown, that, in the spread of the
+Christian religion, the first steps are the most slow and difficult:
+they are like the early operations in a siege. Sir _Bartle Frere_
+writes thus: "Statistical facts can in no way convey any adequate idea
+of the work done in any part of India. The effect is enormous where
+there has not been a single avowed conversion. The teaching of
+Christianity amongst a hundred and sixty millions of civilized,
+industrious Hindoos and Mohammedans in India, is effecting changes,
+moral, social, and political, which for extent and rapidity in effect
+are far more extraordinary than any that have been witnessed in modern
+Europe." Of the same tenor is an opinion expressed in strong terms by
+Sir _Henry Lawrence_, governor-general of India during the mutiny
+of 1857, and a most competent judge.
+
+It is worthy of remark, as one characteristic of the Christian missions
+of the recent period, that the religions of the non-Christian nations
+have been studied more thoroughly, and the true and praiseworthy
+elements in them have been better appreciated.
+
+The progress made in the past encourages the hope that the unity of
+mankind, a unity which shall be the crown of individual and national
+development, will one day be reached. That unity of mankind, in loyal
+fellowship with Him in whose image man was made, is the community of
+which the ancient Stoic vaguely dreamed, and which the apostles of
+Christ proclaimed and predicted,--the perfected _kingdom of God_.
+
+  LITERATURE. See lists on pp. Alison, _Hist. of Europe_, from
+  1815 to 1852 (8 vols.); Bulle, _Gesch. d. neuesten Zeit_,
+  1815-1871 (2 vols.); Flathe. _Zeitalter der Restauration und der
+  Revolution_; Stern, _Geschichte Europas_ (3 vols.); Debidpur,
+  _Hist.  Diplomatique de l'Europe_ (2 vols.); Seignobus,
+  _Political History of Europe since 1814_; Sears. _Political
+  Growth in the Nineteenth Century_; Lavisse et Rambaud. _Hist
+  Gén._, Vols. X., XI., XII.; Phillips, _European History_,
+  1815-1899; Müller, _Political History of Recent Times_ (Peters's
+  translation, 1882); Müller, _Politische Gesch. d. Gegenwart_ (an
+  annual, since 1867); Honegger, _Grundsteine einer
+  allgem. Culturgeschichte d. neuesten Zeit_ (5 vols.).
+
+  Works on the History of Italy. Thayer, _Dawn of Italian
+  Independence_ (2 vols.); Reuchlin, _Geschichte Italiens_ (4
+  vols.); Stillman, _Union of Italy_; Probyn, _Italy from_
+  1815-1878; Lives of Cavour, by De la Rive (English translation), by
+  E. Dicey, by Mazade (French); _Life and Writings of Mazzini_ (9
+  vols.).
+
+  Works on the History of Germany. Treitschke, _Deutsche
+  Geschichte_; Von Sybel, _Founding of the German Empire_ (6
+  vols,); Busch,_ Bismarck in the Franco-Prussian War_ (2 vols.),
+  _Bismarck, The Man and the Statesman_ (2 vols.); Springer,
+  _Geschichte Oesterreichs_ (2 vols.).
+
+  France. Hillebrand, _Gesch. Frankreichs_ (1830-1870); Adams,
+  _Democracy and Monarchy in France_; Stein, _Gesch. der
+  Sozialen Bewegung in Frankreich_; Guizot, _Memoirs of His Own
+  Time_ (1807-1848) (4 vols.); Delord, _Hist. du Second Empire_
+  (6 vols.); Zevort, _Hist. de la 3'me Republique_ (4 vols.);
+  Hanotaux, _Contemporary France_ (Vol. I.); Bodley, _France_
+  (2 vols.); Simon, _The Government of M. Thiers_ (from 1871-1873)
+  (2 vols.).
+
+  Works on the History of England. Harriet Martineau, _The History of
+  England_ (1800-1854); Walpole, _A History of England_, from
+  1815 (6 vols., 1878-1880); Molesworth, _The History of England_
+  (1830-1874); Justin McCarthy, _A History of Our Own Times_
+  (1878-1880); Kinglake, _The Invasion of the Crimea_ (6 vols.);
+  Seeley, _The Expansion of England_; Rutherford, _The Fenian
+  Conspiracy_; Richey, _The Irish Land Laws_; King, _The
+  Irish Question_; Morley, _Life of Gladstone_, 3 vols. (1903)
+  (an able historical review).
+
+  Works on History of the United States. Benton, _Thirty Year's
+  View_ [1820-1850]; Johnston, _History of American Politics_;
+  DE TOCQUEVILLE, _Democracy in America_ (2 vols.); Thorpe,
+  _Constitutional History of the American People_ (2 vols.);
+  Roosevelt, _Winning of the West_ (4 vols); Stanwood, _A
+  History of the Presidency_; Bryce, _The American
+  Commonwealth_ (2 vols).; Ostrogorski, _Democracy and the Origin
+  of Political Parties_ (2 vols.); Henry Adams, _History of the
+  United States_ (1800-1817, 9 vols.); Rhodes, _History of the
+  United States from the Compromise of 1850_ (4 vols.); Wilson,
+  _Division and Reunion_; Burgess, _The Middle Period, The Civil
+  War and the Constitution _(2 vols.); Dunning, _Essays on the
+  Civil War and Reconstruction_; Bolles, _Financial History of the
+  United States_ (3 vols.); Wilson, _History of the Rise and Fall
+  of the Slave Power_; Blaine, _Twenty Years in Congress_;
+  Histories of the Civil War, by the Count of Paris (2 vols.), by
+  Roper, by J. W. Draper, by H. Greeley, by A. H. Stephens, by
+  E. A. Pollard (_The Lost Cause_); Swinton's _Twelve Decisive
+  Battles of the _[_Civil_] _War_; _Memoirs of
+  Gen. W. T. Sherman,_ by himself; Grant, _Personall Memoirs_
+  (2 vols.); John Sherman, _Recollections_ (2 vols.); Moore,
+  _The Rebellion Record_ (1861-1871); Biography of
+  _Gallatin_, by H. Adams; of _Jackson_, by Parton, by
+  W. G. Sumner; of _Madison_, by Rives; of _J. Q. Adams_, by
+  Morse; of _Josiah Quincy_, by Edmund Quincy; of _Webster_,
+  by G. T. Curtis, by Lodge; of _Clay_, by Schurz; of
+  _Calhoun_, by Crallé; of _Sumner_, by E. L. Pierce; of
+  _Lincoln_, by Nicolay and Hay, by Morse; of _Seward_, by
+  Fr. Brancroft; of _W. L. Garrison_, by O. Johnson, by
+  W. P. Garrison; _The American Commonwealths_, a series of
+  histories of the separate States (edited by H. E. Scudder); writings
+  of J. Q. Adams, Webster, Clay, Calhoun, E. Everett, C. Sumner,
+  W. H. Seward; John Fiske, _American Political Ideas_.
+
+  Literary Biographies. _Life of Walter Scott_, by Lockhart; of
+  Jeffrey, by Cockburn; of Macaulay, by Trevelyan; of Arnold, by
+  Stanley; of Dickens, by Forster; of Carlyle, by Froude; of George
+  Eliot [Mrs. Lewes], by Cross. _Life of Irving_, by P. M. Irving;
+  of Bryant, by Parke Godwin; _Life and Letters of George Ticknor;
+  Life of Ripley_, by Frothingham; Series of "American Men of
+  Letters," including _Washington Irving_, by Warner;
+  _Cooper_, by T. R. Lounsbury; _Emerson_, by O. W. Holmes,
+  etc.
+
+  Argyll, _The Eastern Question, 1856 to 1858 and the Second Afghan
+  War_; Taylor, _Russia before and after the War_ [of 1877]
+  (1880); _Daily News Correspondence of the War between Russia and
+  Turkey_ [1877-78] (2 vols.); Baker Pasha, _War in Bulgaria_
+  (2 vols.); Wallace, _Egypt and the Egyptian Question_; Malleson,
+  _History of Afghanistan_; Labilliere, _Early History of the
+  Colony of Victoria_ (2 vols.); Grant and Knollys, _The China War
+  of 1860_; Scott, _France and Tongking_ [in 1884]; Vambéry,
+  _Central Asia_; Stanley, _Congo and the Founding of its Free
+  State_ (2 vols.).
+
+  Rae, _Contemporary Socialism_; Woolsey, _Communism and
+  Socialism_; Laveleye, _Le Socialisme Contemporain_ (10th
+  ed.); Schaeffle, _Quintessens des Socialismus_; A. Menger,
+  _Das Recht auf den vollen Arbeitsertrag_ (2d ed.).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Outline of Universal History, by George Park Fisher
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK OUTLINE OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY ***
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #8896 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8896)