diff options
Diffstat (limited to '8862.txt')
| -rw-r--r-- | 8862.txt | 4467 |
1 files changed, 4467 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/8862.txt b/8862.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..858e27d --- /dev/null +++ b/8862.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4467 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 384, +May 12, 1883, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 384, May 12, 1883 + +Author: Various + +Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8862] +Release Date: September, 2005 +First Posted: August 15, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 384 *** + + + + +Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks +and the Distributed Proofreaders Team + + + + + + + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 384 + + + + +NEW YORK, MAY 12, 1883 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XV., No. 384. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. ENGINEERING.--Locomotive for St. Gothard Railway.--Several + figures. + + The Mersey Railway Tunnel. + + Dam Across the Ottawa River, and New Canal at Carillon, + Quebec. Several figures and map. + +II. ARCHITECTURE.--Dwelling Houses.--Hints on building. By + WILLIAM HENNAN.--Considerations necessary in order to have- + thoroughly sweet homes.--Experiment illustrating the necessity + of damp courses.--How to make dry walls and roofs.--Methods of + heating.--Artificial lighting.--Refuse.--Cesspools.--Drainage + + House at Heaton.--Illustration. + + A Mansard Roof Dwelling. 2 figures. + +III. ELECTRICITY.--The History of the Electric Telegraph.--Documents + relating to the magnetic telegraph.--Apparatus of Comus + and Alexandre.--Origin of the electric telegraph.--Apparatus of + Lesage, Lemond, Reveroni, Saint Cyr, and others.--Several figures. + + Electrical Transmission and Storage.--By DR. C. WM. SIEMENS. + +III. MEDICINE AND HYGIENE.--Malaria. By Dr. JAMES SALISBURY.--VII. + Report on the cause of ague.--Studies of ague plants + in their natural and unnatural habitats.--List of objects found in + the Croton water.--Synopsis of the families of ague plants.-- + Several figures. + + Ichthyol. + + Autopsy Table. 1 figure. + + The Exciting Properties of Oats. + + Filaria Disease. + +IV. CHEMISTRY.--Preparation of Hydrogen Sulphide from Coal Gas. + By J. TAYLOR. 1 figure. + + Setting of Gypsum. + +V. TECHNOLOGY.--On the Preparation of Gelatine Plates. By E. + HOWARD FARMER. + + Pictures on Glass. + +VI. NATURAL HISTORY.--Survey of the Black Canon. + + The Ancient Mississippi and its Tributaries. By J. W. SPENCER. + +VII. AGRICULTURE.--The Spectral Masdevallia.--Illustration. + + * * * * * + + + + +LOCOMOTIVE FOR ST. GOTHARD RAILWAY. + + +We give engravings of one of a type of eight-coupled locomotives +constructed for service on the St. Gothard Railway by Herr T.A. Maffei, +of Munich. As will be seen from our illustrations, the engine has +outside cylinders, these being 20.48 in. in diameter, with 24 in. +stroke, and as the diameter of the coupled wheels is 3 ft. 10 in., +the tractive force which the engine is capable of exerting amounts to +(20.48 squared x 24) / 46 = 218.4 lb. for each pound of effective pressure per +square inch on the pistons. This is an enormous tractive force, as it +would require but a mean effective pressure of 1021/2 lb. per square inch +on the pistons to exert a pull of 10 tons. Inasmuch, however, as the +engine weighs 44 tons empty and 51 tons in working order, and as all +this weight is available for adhesion, this great cylinder power can be +utilized. The cylinders are 6 ft. 10 in. apart from center to center, +and they are well secured to the frames, as shown in Fig. 4. The frames +are deep and heavy, being 1 3/8 in. thick, and they are stayed by a +substantial box framing at the smokebox end, by a cast-iron footplate at +the rear end, and by the intermediate plate stays shown. The axle box +guides are all fitted with adjusting wedges. The axle bearings are all +alike, all being 7.87 in. in diameter by 9.45 in. long. The axles are +spaced at equal distances of 4 ft. 3.1 in. apart, the total wheel base +being thus 12 ft. 9.3 in. In the case of the 1st, 2d, and 3d axles, the +springs are arranged above the axle boxes in the ordinary way, those of +the 2d and 3d axles being coupled by compensating beams. In the case of +the trailing axle, however, a special arrangement is adopted. Thus, as +will be seen on reference to the longitudinal section and plan (Figs. 1 +and 2, first page), each trailing axle box receives its load through the +horizontal arm of a strong bell-crank lever, the vertical arm of which +extends downward and has its lower end coupled to the adjoining end of a +strong transverse spring which is pivoted to a pair of transverse stays +extending from frame to frame below the ash pan. This arrangement +enables the spring for the trailing axle to be kept clear of the +firebox, thus allowing the latter to extend the full width between the +frames. The trailing wheels are fitted with a brake as shown. + +[Illustration: LOCOMOTIVES FOR ST. GOTHARD RAILWAY.] + +The valve motion is of the Gooch or stationary link type, the radius +rods being cranked to clear the leading axle, while the eccentric rods +are bent to clear the second axle. The piston rods are extended through +the front cylinder covers and are enlarged where they enter the +crossheads, the glands at the rear ends of cylinders being made in +halves. The arrangement of the motion generally will be clearly +understood on reference to Figs. 1 and 2 without further explanation. + +The boiler, which is constructed for a working pressure of 147 lb. per +square inch, is unusually large, the barrel being 60.4 in. in diameter +inside the outside rings; it is composed of plates 0.65 in. thick. The +firebox spreads considerably in width toward the top, as shown in the +section, Fig. 5, and to enable it to be got in the back plate of the +firebox casing is flanged outward, instead of inward as usual, so as to +enable it to be riveted up after the firebox is in place. The inside +firebox is of copper and its crown is stayed directly to the crown +of the casing by vertical stays, as shown, strong transverse stays +extending across the boiler just above the firebox crown to resist the +spreading action caused by the arrangement of the crown stays. The +firegrate is 6 ft. 11.6 in. long by 3 ft. 4 in. wide. + +[Illustration: ST. GOTHARD LOCOMOTIVES.] + +The barrel contains 225 tubes 1.97 in. in diameter outside and 13 ft. 91/2 +in. long between tube plates. On the top of the barrel is a large dome +containing the regulator, as shown in Fig. 1, from which view the +arrangement of the gusset stays for the back plate of firebox casing and +for the smokebox tube plate will be seen. A grid is placed across the +smokebox just above the tubes, and provision is made, as shown in Figs. +1 and 4, for closing the top of the exhaust nozzle, and opening a +communication between the exhaust pipes and the external air when the +engine is run reversed. The chimney is 153/4 in. in diameter at its lower +end and 18.9 in. at the top. The chief proportions of the boiler are as +follows: + + Sq. ft + + Heating surface: Tubes 1598.5 + Firebox 102.5 + ------ + 1701.0 + + Firegrate area 23.3 [1] + Sectional area through tubes (disregarding ferrules) 3.5 + Least sectional area of chimney. 1.35 + Ratio of firegrate area to heating surface. 1:73 + Ratio of flue area through tubes to firegrate area. 1:6.7 + Ratio of least sectional area of chimney to firegrate area. 1:17.26 + +[Transcribers note 1: Best guess, 2nd digit illegible] + +The proportion of chimney area to grate is much smaller than in ordinary +locomotives, this proportion having no doubt been fixed upon to enable a +strong draught to be obtained with the engine running at a slow speed. +Of the general fittings of the engine we need give no description, as +their arrangement will be readily understood from our engravings, and +in conclusion we need only say that the locomotive under notice is +altogether a very interesting example of an engine designed for +specially heavy work.--_Engineering_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MERSEY RAILWAY TUNNEL. + + +The work of connecting Liverpool with Birkenhead by means of a railway +tunnel is now an almost certain success. It is probable that the entire +cost of the tunnel works will amount to about half a million sterling. +The first step was taken about three years ago, when shafts were sunk +simultaneously on both sides of the Mersey. The engineers intrusted +with the plans were Messrs. Brunlees & Fox, and they have now as their +resident representative Mr. A.H. Irvine, C.E. The contractor for the +entire work is Mr. John Waddell, and his lieutenant in charge at both +sides of the river is Mr. James Prentice. The post of mechanical +engineer at the works is filled by Mr. George Ginty. Under these chiefs, +a small army of nearly 700 workmen are now employed night and day at +both sides of the river in carrying out the tunnel to completion. On +the Birkenhead side, the landward excavations have reached a point +immediately under Hamilton Square, where Mr. John Laird's statue is +placed, and here there will be an underground station, the last before +crossing the river, the length of which will be about 400 feet, with up +and down platforms. Riverward on the Cheshire side, the excavators have +tunneled to a point considerably beyond the line of the Woodside Stage; +while the Lancashire portion of the subterranean work now extends to +St. George's Church, at the top of Lord street, on the one side, and +Merseyward to upward of 90 feet beyond the quay wall, and nearly to the +deepest part of the river. + +When completed, the total length of the tunnel will be three miles one +furlong, the distance from wall to wall at each side of the Mersey being +about three-quarters of a mile. The underground terminus will be about +Church street and Waterloo place, in the immediate neighborhood of the +Central Station, and the tunnel will proceed from thence, in an almost +direct line, under Lord street and James street; while on the south side +of the river it will be constructed from a junction at Union street +between the London and Northwestern and Great Western Railways, under +Chamberlain street, Green lane, the Gas Works, Borough road, across the +Haymarket and Hamilton street, and Hamilton square. + +Drainage headings, not of the same size of bore as the part of the +railway tunnel which will be in actual use, but indispensable as a means +of enabling the railway to be worked, will act as reservoirs into which +the water from the main tunnel will be drained and run off to both sides +of the Mersey, where gigantic pumps of great power and draught will +bring the accumulating water to the surface of the earth, from whence +it will be run off into the river. The excavations of these drainage +headings at the present time extend about one hundred yards beyond the +main tunnel works at each side of the river. The drainage shafts are +sunk to a depth of 180 feet, and are below the lowest point of the +tunnel, which is drained into them. Each drainage shaft is supplied +with two pumping sets, consisting of four pumps, viz., two of 20 in. +diameter, and two of 30 in. diameter. These pumps are capable of +discharging from the Liverpool shafts 6,100 gallons per minute, and from +the Birkenhead 5,040 gallons per minute; and as these pumps will be +required for the permanent draining of the tunnel, they are constructed +in the most solid and substantial manner. They are worked by compound +engines made by Hathorn, Davey & Co., of Leeds, and are supplied +with six steel boilers by Daniel Adamson & Co., of Dukinfield, near +Manchester. + +In addition to the above, there is in course of construction still +more powerful pumps of 40 in. diameter, which will provide against +contingencies, and prevent delay in case of a breakdown such as occurred +lately on the Liverpool side of the works. The nature of the rock is +the new red sandstone, of a solid and compact character, favorable for +tunneling, and yielding only a moderate quantity of water. The engineers +have been enabled to arrange the levels to give a minimum thickness of +25 ft. and an average thickness of 30 ft. above the crown of the tunnel. + +Barges are now employed in the river for the purpose of ascertaining the +depth of the water, and the nature of the bottom of the river. It is +satisfactory to find that the rock on the Liverpool side, as the heading +is advanced under the river, contains less and less water, and this the +engineers are inclined to attribute to the thick bed of stiff bowlder +clay which overlies the rock on this side, which acts as a kind of +"overcoat" to the "under garments." The depth of the water in one part +of the river is found to be about 72 ft.; in the middle about 90 ft.; +and as there is an intermediate depth of rock of about 27 ft., the +distance is upward of 100 ft. from the surface of low water to the top +of the tunnel. + +It is expected that the work will shortly be pushed forward at a much +greater speed than has hitherto been the case, for in place of the +miner's pick and shovel, which advanced at the rate of about ten yards +per week, a machine known as the Beaumont boring machine will be brought +into requisition in the course of a day or two, and it is expected to +carry on the work at the rate of fifty yards per week, so that this year +it may be possible to walk through the drainage heading from Liverpool +to Birkenhead. The main tunnel works now in progress will probably be +completed and trains running in the course of 18 months or two years. + +The workmen are taken down the shaft by which the debris is hoisted, ten +feet in diameter, and when the visitor arrives at the bottom he finds +himself in quite a bright light, thanks to the Hammond electric light, +worked by the Brush machine, which is now in use in the tunnel on both +sides of the river. The depth of the pumping shaft is 170 feet, and the +shaft communicates directly with the drainage heading. This circular +heading now has been advanced about 737 yards. The heading is 7 feet in +diameter, and the amount of it under the river is upward of 200 yards on +each side. The main tunnel, which is 26 feet wide and 21 feet high, has +also made considerable progress at both the Liverpool and Birkenhead +ends. From the Liverpool side the tunnel now extends over 430 yards, and +from the opposite shore about 590 yards. This includes the underground +stations, each of which is 400 feet long, 51 feet wide, and 32 feet +high. Although the main tunnel has not made quite the same progress +between the shafts as the drainage heading, it is only about 100 yards +behind it. When completed, the tunnel will be about a mile in length +from shaft to shaft. In the course of the excavations which have been so +far carried out, about 70 cubic yards of rock have been turned out for +every yard forward. + +Ten horses are employed on the Birkenhead side for drawing wagons loaded +with debris to the shaft, which, on being hoisted, is tipped into the +carts and taken for deposit to various places, some of which are about +three miles distant. The tunnel is lined throughout with very solid +brickwork, some of which is, 18 inches thick (composed of two layers +of blue and two of red brick), and toward the river this brickwork is +increased to a thickness of six rings of bricks--three blue and three +red. A layer of Portland cement of considerable thickness also gives +increased stability to the brick lining and other portions of the +tunnel, and the whole of the flooring will be bricked. There are about +22 yards of brickwork in every yard forward. The work of excavation up +to the present time has been done by blasting (tonite being employed for +this purpose), and by the use of the pick and shovel. At every 45 ft. +on alternate sides niches of 18 in. depth are placed for the safety of +platelayers. The form of the tunnel is semicircular, the arch having a +13 ft. radius, the side walls a 25 ft. radius, and the base a 40 ft. +radius. + +Fortunately not a single life has up to the present time been lost in +carrying out the exceedingly elaborate and gigantic work, and this +immunity from accident is largely owing to the care and skill which are +manifested by the heads of the various departments. The Mersey Tunnel +scheme may now be looked upon as an accomplished work, and there is +little doubt its value as a commercial medium will be speedily and fully +appreciated upon completion. + + * * * * * + + + + +DAM ACROSS THE OTTAWA RIVER AND NEW CANAL AT CARILLON QUE + +By ANDREW BELL Resident Engineer + + +The natural navigation of the Ottawa River from the head of the Island +of Montreal to Ottawa City--a distance of nearly a hundred miles--is +interrupted between the villages of Carillon and Grenville which are +thirteen miles apart by three rapids, known as the Carillon, Chute a +Blondeau, and Longue Sault Rapids, which are in that order from east to +west. The Carillon Rapid is two miles long and has, or had, a fall of 10 +feet the Chute a Blondeau a quarter of a mile with a fall of 4 feet and +the Longue Sault six miles and a fall of 46 feet. Between the Carillon +and Chute a Blondeau there is or was a slack water reach of three and a +half miles, and between the latter and the foot of the Longue Sault a +similar reach of one and a quarter miles. + +Small canals limited in capacity to the smaller locks on them which were +only 109 feet long 19 feet wide, and 5 to 6 feet of water on the sills, +were built by the Imperial Government as a military work around each of +the rapids. They were begun in 1819 and completed about 1832. They were +transferred to the Canadian Government in 1856. They are built on the +north shore of the river, and each canal is about the length of the +rapid it surmounts. + +[Illustration: THE GREAT DAM ACROSS THE OTTAWA RIVER, AT CARILLON.] + +The Grenville Canal (around the Longue Sault) with seven locks, and the +Chute a Blondeau with one lock, are fed directly from Ottawa. But with +the Carillon that method was not followed as the nature of the banks +there would have in doing so, entailed an immense amount of rock +excavation--a serious matter in those days. The difficulty was overcome +by locking up at the upper or western end 13 feet and down 23 at lower +end, supplying the summit by a 'feeder from a small stream called the +North River, which empties into the Ottawa three or four miles below +Carillon, but is close to the main river opposite the canal. + +In 1870-71 the Government of Canada determined to enlarge these canals +to admit of the passage of boats requiring locks 200 feet long, 45 feet +wide, and not less than 9 feet of water on the sills at the lowest +water. In the case of the Grenville Canal this was and is being done by +widening and deepening the old channel and building new locks along +side of the old ones. But to do that with the Carillon was found to be +inexpedient. The rapidly increasing traffic required more water than the +North River could supply in any case, and the clearing up of the country +to the north had materially reduced its waters in summer and fall, when +most needed. To deepen the old canal so as to enable it to take its +supply from the Ottawa would have caused the excavation of at least +1,250,000 cubic yards of rock, besides necessitating the enlargement of +the Chute a Blondeau also. + +It was therefore decided to adopt a modification of the plan proposed +by Mr. T.C. Clarke, of the present firm of Clarke Reeves & Co, several +years before when he made the preliminary surveys for the then proposed +"Ottawa Ship Canal," namely to build a dam across the river in the +Carillon Rapid but of a sufficient height to drown out the Chute a +Blondeau, and also to give the required depth of water there. + +During the summer and fall of 1872 the writer made the necessary surveys +of the river with that end in view. By gauging the river carefully in +high and low water, and making use of the records which had been kept by +the lock masters for twenty years back, it was found that the flow of +the river was in extreme low water 26,000 cubic feet per second, and +in highest water 190,000 cubic feet per second, in average years about +30,000 and 150,000 cubic feet respectively. The average flow in each +year would be nearly a mean between those quantities, namely, about +90,000 cubic feet per second. It was decided to locate the dam where it +is now built, namely, about the center of Carillon Rapid, and a mile +above the village of that name and to make it of a height sufficient to +raise the reach between the head of Carillon and Chute a Blondeau about +six feet, and that above the latter two feet in ordinary water. At the +site chosen the river is 1,800 feet wide, the bed is solid limestone, +and more level or flat than is generally found in such places--the banks +high enough and also composed of limestone. It was also determined to +build a slide for the passage of timber near the south shore (see map), +and to locate the new canal on the north side. + +Contracts for the whole works were given out in the spring of 1873, but +as the water remained high all the summer of that year very little could +be done in it at the dam. In 1874 a large portion of the foundation, +especially in the shallow water, was put in. 1875 and 1876 proved +unfavorable and not much could be done, when the works were stopped. +They were resumed in 1879, and the dam as also the slide successfully +completed, with the exception of graveling of the dam in the fall of +1881. The water was lower that summer than it had been for thirty five +years before. The canal was completed and opened for navigation the +following spring. + + +THE DAM + +In building such a dam as this the difficulties to be contended against +were unusually great. It was required to make it as near perfectly tight +as possible and be, of course, always submerged. Allowing for water used +by canal and slide and the leakage there should be a depth on the crest +of the dam in low water of 2.50 feet and in high of about 10 feet. +These depths turned out ultimately to be correct. The river reaches +its highest about the middle of May, and its lowest in September. It +generally begins to rise again in November. Nothing could be done except +during the short low water season, and some years nothing at all. Even +at the most favorable time the amount of water to be controlled was +large. Then the depth at the site varied in depth from 2 to 14 feet, and +at one place was as much as 23 feet. The current was at the rate of from +10 to 12 miles an hour. Therefore, failures, losses, etc., could not be +avoided, and a great deal had to be learned as the work progressed. I +am not aware that a dam of the kind was ever built, or attempted to be +built across a river having such a large flow as the Ottawa. + +The method of construction was as follows. Temporary structures of +various kinds suited to position, time, etc., were first placed +immediately above the site of the dam to break the current. This was +done in sections and the permanent dam proceeded with under that +protection. + +In shallow water timber sills 36 feet long and 12 inches by 12 inches +were bolted to the lock up and down stream, having their tops a uniform +height, namely, 9.30 feet below the top of dam when finished. These +sills were, where the rock was high enough, scribed immediately to it, +but if not, they were 'made up' by other timbers scribed to the rock, as +shown by Figs 4 and 5. They were generally placed in pairs about 6 feet +apart, and each alternate space left open for the passage of water, to +be closed by gates as hereafter described. Each sill was fastened by +five 11/2 in. bolts driven into pine plugs forced into holes drilled +from 18 inches to 24 inches into the rock. The temporary rock was then +removed as far as possible, to allow a free flow of the water. + +In the channels of which there are three, having an aggregate width of +about 650 feet, cribs 46 feet wide up and down stream were sunk. In the +deepest water, where the rock was uneven, they covered the whole bottom +up to about five feet of the level of the silts, and on top of that +isolated cribs, 46 in. X 6 in. and of the necessary height were placed +seven feet apart, as shown at C Figs 2 and 3. At other places similar +narrow cribs were placed on the rock, as shown at D, Figs 2 and 3. The +tops of all were brought to about the same level as the before mentioned +sills. The rock bottom was cleaned by divers of all bowlders, gravel, +etc. The cribs were built in the usual manner, of 12 in. X 12 in. timber +generally hemlock, and carefully fitted to the rock on which they stand. +They were fastened to the rock by 11/2 in. bolts, five on each side of a +crib, driven into pine plugs as mentioned for the sills. The drilling +was done by long runners from their tops. The upstream side of the cribs +were sheeted with 4 in. tamarack plank. + +On top of these sills and cribs there was then placed all across river a +platform from 36 to 46 feet wide made up of sawed pine timber 12 in. +X 12 in., each piece being securely bolted to its neighbor and to the +sills and cribs below. It was also at intervals bolted through to the +rock. + +On top of the "platform" there was next built a flat dam of the +sectional form shown by Fig 1. It was built of 12 in. X 12 in. sawed +pine timbers securely bolted at the crossings and to the platform, and +sheeted all over with tamarack 10 in. thick and the crest covered with +1/2 in. boiler plate 3 ft. wide. The whole structure was carefully filled +with stone--field stone, or "hard head" generally being used for the +purpose. + +At this stage of the works, namely, in the fall of 1881 the structure +presented somewhat the appearance of a bridge with short spans. The +whole river--fortunately low--flowed through the sluices of which there +were 113 and also through a bulkhead which had been left alongside +of the slide with a water width of 60 ft. These openings had a total +sectional area of 4,400 sq. ft., and barely allowed the river to pass, +although, of course, somewhat assisted by leakage. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1. CROSS SECTION IN DEEP WATER.] + +It now only remained, to complete the dam, to close the openings. This +was done in a manner that can be readily understood by reference to +the cuts. Gates had been constructed with timber 10 in. thick, bolted +together. They were hung on strong wooden hinges and, before being +closed, laid back on the face of dam as shown at B, Figs. 1, 2, and 3. +They were all closed in a short time on the afternoon of 9th November, +1881. To do this it was simply necessary to turn them over, when the +strong current through the sluices carried them into their places, as +shown at A, Figs. 2 and 3 and by the dotted lines on Fig. 1. The closing +was a delicate as well as dangerous operation, but was as successfully +done as could be expected. No accident happened further than the +displacement of two or three of the gates. The openings thus left +were afterward filled up with timber and brushwood. The large opening +alongside of the slide was filled up by a crib built above and floated +into place. + +The design contemplates the filling up with stone and gravel on +up-stream side of dam about the triangular space that would be formed by +the production of the line of face of flat dam till it struck the rock. +Part of that was done from the ice last winter; the balance is being put +in this winter. + +Observations last summer showed that the calculations as to the raising +of the surface of the river were correct. When the depth on the crest +was 2.50 feet, the water at the foot of the Longue Sault was found to be +25 in. higher than if no dam existed. The intention was to raise it 24 +in. + +The timber slide was formed by binding parallel piers about 600 feet +long up and down stream, as shown on the map, and 28 ft. apart, with a +timber bottom, the top of which at upper end is 3 ft. below the crest +of dam. It has the necessary stop logs, with machinery to move them, to +control the water. The approach is formed by detached piers, connected +by guide booms, extending about half a mile up stream. See map. + +Alongside of the south side of the slide a large bulkhead was built, 69 +ft. wide, with a clear waterway of 60 ft. It was furnished with stop +logs and machinery to handle them. When not further required, it was +filled up by a crib as before mentioned. + +The following table shows the materials used in the dam and slide, and +the cost: + + ______________________________________________________________________ + | | | Stone | Exca- | | + | Timber, | Iron, | filling, | vation, | Cost. | + | cu. ft. | lb. | cu. yds. | cu. yds.| | + +---------+---------+----------+---------+----------+ + Temporary works | 134,500 | 92,000 | 11,400 | | $79,000 | + | | | | | | + Permanent dam | 265,000 | 439,600 | 24,000 | 6,500 | 151,000 | + | | | | | | + Slide, including | 296,500 | 156,400 | 32,800 | | 102,000 | + apparatus | | | | | | + +---------+---------+----------+---------+----------+ + | | | | | | + Total | 696,000 | 687,000 | 68,200 | 6,500 | $332,000 | + -----------------+---------+---------+----------+---------+----------+ + +The above does not include cost of surveys, engineering, or +superintendence, which amounted to about ten per cent, of the above sum. + +[Illustration: DETAILS OF THE OTTAWA RIVER DAM, AT CARILLON.] + +The construction of the dam and slide was ably superintended by Horace +Merrill, Esq., late superintendent of the "Ottawa River Improvements," +who has built nearly all the slides and other works on the Ottawa to +facilitate the passage of its immense timber productions. + +The contractors were the well known firm of F.B. McNamee & Co., of +Montreal, and the successful completion of the work was in a large +degree due to the energy displayed by the working member of that +firm--Mr. A.G. Nish, formerly engineer of the Montreal harbor. + + +THE CANAL + +The canal was formed by "fencing in" a portion of the river-bed by an +embankment built about a hundred feet out from the north shore and +deepening the intervening space where necessary. There are two +locks--one placed a little above the foot of the rapid (see map), and +the other at the end of the dam. Wooden piers are built at the upper and +lower ends--the former being 800 ft. long, and the latter 300 ft; both +are about 29 ft. high and 35 ft. wide. + +The embankment is built, as shown by the cross section, Fig. 6. On the +canal side of it there is a wall of rubble masonry F, laid in hydraulic +cement, connecting the two locks, and backed by a puddle wall, E, three +feet thick; next the river there is crib work, G, from ten to twenty +feet wide and the space between brick-work and puddle filled with earth. +The outer slope is protected with riprap, composed of large bowlders. +This had to be made very strong to prevent the destruction of the bank +by the immense masses of moving ice in spring. + +The distance between the locks is 3,300 feet. + +In building the embankment the crib-work was first put in and followed +by a part (in width) of the earth-bank. From that to the shore temporary +cross-dams were built at convenient distances apart and the space pumped +out by sections, when the necessary excavation was done, and the walls +and embankments completed. The earth was put down in layers of not more +than a foot deep at a time, so that the bank, when completed, was solid. +The water at site of it varied in depth from 15 feet at lower end to 2 +feet at upper. + +The locks are 200 ft. long in the clear between the gates, and 45 ft +wide in the chamber at the bottom. The walls of the lower one are 29 ft. +high, and of the upper one 31 ft They are from 10 to 12 ft thick at the +bottom, + +The locks are built similar to those on the new Lachine and Welland +canals, of the very best cut stone masonry, laid in hydraulic cement. +The gates are 24 in. thick, made of solid timber, somewhat similar to +those in use on the St. Lawrence canals. They are suspended from anchors +at the hollow quoins, and work very easily. The miter sills are made of +26 in. square oak. The bottom of the lower lock iis timbered throughout, +but the upper one only at the recesses, the rock there being good. + +[Illustration: MAP OF THE OTTAWA RIVER AT CARILLON RAPIDS. + +SECTION OF RIVER AT DAM. NOTE.--THE LOWEST DOTTED LINE IS LOW WATER +BEFORETHE DAM WAS BUILT. THEN THE LINE OF HIGH WATER WAS ABOUT A FOOT +ABOVE WHAT IS CREST OF DAM NOW.] + +The rise to be overcome by the two locks is 16 ft., but except in medium +water, is not equally distributed. In high water nearly the whole lift +is on the upper lock, and in low water the lower one. In the very lowest +known stage of the river there will never be less than 9 ft. on the +miter sills. + +As mentioned at the beginning of this article, four locks were required +on the old military canal to accomplish what is now done by two. + +The canal was opened in May, 1882, and has been a great success, the +only drawback--although slight--being that in high water the current for +about three-quarters of a mile above the upper pier, and at what was +formerly the Chute a Biondeau, is rather strong. These difficulties can +be easily overcome--the former by building an embankment from the pier +to Brophy's Island, the latter by removing some of the natural dam of +rock which once formed the "Chute." + +The following are, in round numbers, the quantities of the principal +materials used: + + Earth and puddle in embankment ...cub. yds. 148,500 + Rock excavation, " 38,000 + Riprap, " 6,600 + Lock masonry " 14,200 + Rubble masonry, " 16,600 + Timber in cribs, lock bottoms and gates " 368,000 + Wrought and cast iron, lb ................. 173,000 + Stone filling cu yds ...................... 45,300 + Concrete " 830 + +The total cost to date has been about $570,000, not including surveys, +engineering, etc. + +The contractors for the canal, locks, etc., were Messrs. R. P. Cooke & +Co., of Brockville, Ont., who have built some large works in the States, +and who are now engaged building other extensive works for the Canadian +Government. The work here reflects great credit on their skill. + +On the enlarged Grenville Canal, now approaching completion, there +are five locks, taking the place of the seven small ones built by the +Imperial Government. It will be open for navigation all through in the +spring of 1884, when steamers somewhat larger than the largest now +navigating the St. Lawrence between Montreal and Hamilton can pass up to +Ottawa City.--_Engineering News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +DWELLING HOUSES--HINTS ON BUILDING--"HOME, SWEET HOME." + +[Footnote: From a paper read before the Birmingham Architectural +Association, Jan 30, 1883] + +By WILLIAM HENMAN, A.R.I.B.A. + + +My intention is to bring to your notice some of the many causes which +result in unhealthy dwellings, particularly those of the middle classes +of society. The same defects, it is true, are to be found in the palace +and the mansion, and also in the artisan's cottage; but in the former +cost is not so much a matter of consideration, and in the latter, the +requirements and appliances being less, the evils are minimized. It is +in the houses of the middle classes, I mean those of a rental at from +L50 to L150 per annum, that the evils of careless building and want +of sanitary precautions become most apparent. Until recently sanitary +science was but little studied, and many things were done a few years +since which even the self-interest of a speculative builder would not do +nowadays, nor would be permitted to do by the local sanitary authority. +Yet houses built in those times are still inhabited, and in many cases +sickness and even death are the result. But it is with shame I must +confess that, notwithstanding the advance which sanitary science has +made, and the excellent appliances to be obtained, many a house is now +built, not only by the speculative builder, but designed by professed +architects, and in spite of sanitary authorities and their by-laws, +which, in important particulars are far from perfect, are unhealthy, and +cannot be truly called sweet homes. + +Architects and builders have much to contend with. The perverseness of +man and the powers of nature at times appear to combine for the express +purpose of frustrating their endeavors to attain sanitary perfection. +Successfully to combat these opposing forces, two things are above all +necessary, viz 1, a more perfect insight into the laws of nature, and a +judicious use of serviceable appliances on the part of the architect; +and, 2, greater knowledge, care, and trustworthiness on the part of +workmen employed. With the first there will be less of that blind +following of what has been done before by others, and by the latter the +architect who has carefully thought out the details of his sanitary work +will be enabled to have his ideas carried out in an intelligent manner. +Several cases have come under my notice, where, by reckless carelessness +or dense ignorance on the part of workmen, dwellings which might have +been sweet and comfortable if the architect's ideas and instructions had +been carried out, were in course of time proved to be in an unsanitary +condition. The defects, having been covered up out sight, were only made +known in some cases after illness or death had attacked members of the +household. + +In order that we may have thoroughly sweet homes, we must consider the +localities in which they are to be situated, and the soil on which they +are to rest. It is an admitted fact that certain localities are more +generally healthy than others, yet circumstances often beyond their +control compel men to live in those less healthy. Something may, in +the course of time, be done to improve such districts by planting, +subdrainage, and the like. Then, as regards the soil; our earth has +been in existence many an age, generation after generation has come and +passed away, leaving behind accumulations of matter on its surface, both +animal and vegetable, and although natural causes are ever at the work +of purification, there is no doubt such accumulations are in many cases +highly injurious to health, not only in a general way, but particularly +if around, and worse still, under our dwellings. However healthy a +district is considered to be, it is never safe to leave the top soil +inclosed within the walls of our houses; and in many cases the subsoil +should be covered with a layer of cement concrete, and at times with +asphalt on the concrete. For if the subsoil be damp, moisture will rise; +if it be porous, offensive matter may percolate through. It is my belief +that much of the cold dampness felt in so many houses is caused by +moisture rising from the ground inclosed _within_ the outer walls. +Cellars are in many cases abominations. Up the cellar steps is a +favorite means of entrance for sickness and death. Light and air, which +are so essential for health and life, are shut out. If cellars are +necessary, they should be constructed with damp proof walls and floors; +light should be freely admitted; every part must be well ventilated, +and, above all, no drain of any description should be taken in. If they +be constructed so that water cannot find its way through either walls or +floors, where is the necessity of a drain? Surely the floors can be +kept clean by the use of so small an amount of water that it would be +ridiculous specially to provide a drain. + +The next important but oft neglected precaution is to have a good damp +course over the _whole_ of the walls, internal as well as external. I +know that for the sake of saving a few pounds (most likely that they may +be frittered away in senseless, showy features) it often happens, that +if even a damp course is provided in the outer walls, it is dispensed +with in the interior walls. This can only be done with impunity on +really dry ground, but in too many cases damp finds its way up, and, to +say the least, disfigures the walls. Here I would pause to ask: What is +the primary reason for building houses? I would answer that, in this +country at least, it is in order to protect ourselves from wind and +weather. After going to great expense and trouble to exclude cold and +wet by means of walls and roofs, should we not take as much pains to +prevent them using from below and attacking us in a more insidious +manner? Various materials may be used as damp courses. Glazed +earthenware perforated slabs are perhaps the best, when expense is no +object. I generally employ a course of slates, breaking joint with a +good bed of cement above and below; it answers well, and is not very +expensive. If the ground is irregular, a layer of asphalt is more easily +applied. Gas tar and sand are sometimes used, but it deteriorates and +cannot be depended upon for any length of time. The damp course should +invariably be placed _above_ the level of the ground around the +building, and _below_ the ground floor joists. If a basement story is +necessary, the outer walls below the ground should be either built +hollow, or coated externally with some substance through which wet +cannot penetrate. Above the damp course, the walls of our houses must +be constructed of materials which will keep out wind and weather. Very +porous materials should be avoided, because, even if the wet does not +actually find its way through, so much is absorbed during rainy weather +that in the process of drying much cold is produced by evaporation. The +fact should be constantly remembered, viz., that evaporation causes +cold. It can easily be proved by dropping a little ether upon the bulb +of a thermometer, when it will be seen how quickly the mercury falls, +and the same effect takes place in a less degree by the evaporation of +water. Seeing, then, that evaporation from so small a surface can +lower temperature so many degrees, consider what must be the effect of +evaporation from the extensive surfaces of walls inclosing our houses. +This experiment (thermometer with bulb inclosed in linen) enables me as +well to illustrate that curious law of nature which necessitates the +introduction of a damp course in the walls of our buildings; it is known +as capillary or molecular attraction, and breaks through that more +powerful law of gravitation, which in a general way compels fluids to +find their own level. You will notice that the piece of linen over the +bulb of the thermometer, having been first moistened, continues moist, +although only its lower end is in water, the latter being drawn up by +capillary attraction; or we have here an illustration more to the point: +a brick which simply stands with its lower end in water, and you can +plainly see how the damp has risen. + +From these illustrations you will see how necessary it is that the brick +and stone used for outer walls should be as far as possible impervious +to wet; but more than that, it is necessary the jointing should be +non-absorbent, and the less porous the stone or brick, the better able +must the jointing be to keep out wet, for this reason, that when rain is +beating against a wall, it either runs down or becomes absorbed. If both +brick and mortar, or stone and mortar be porous, it becomes absorbed; if +all are non-porous, it runs down until it finds a projection, and then +drops off; but if the brick or stone is non-porous, and the mortar +porous, the wet runs down the brick or stone until it arrives at the +joint, and is then sucked inward. It being almost impossible to obtain +materials quite waterproof, suitable for external walls, other means +must be employed for keeping our homes dry and comfortable. Well built +hollow walls are good. Stone walls, unless very thick, should be lined +with brick, a cavity being left between. A material called Hygeian Rock +Building Composition has lately been introduced, which will, I believe, +be found of great utility, and, if properly applied, should insure a dry +house. A cavity of one-half an inch is left between the outer and inner +portion of the wall, whether of brick or stone, which, as the building +rises, is run in with the material made liquid by heat; and not only is +the wall waterproofed thereby, but also greatly strengthened. It may +also be used as a damp course. + +Good, dry walls are of little use without good roofs, and for a +comfortable house the roofs should not only be watertight and +weathertight, but also, if I may use the term, heat-tight. There can be +no doubt that many houses are cold and chilly, in consequence of the +rapid radiation of heat through the thin roofs, if not through thin and +badly constructed walls. Under both tiles and slates, but particularly +under the latter, there should be some non-conducting substance, such +as boarding, or felt, or pugging. Then, in cold weather heat will be +retained; in hot weather it will be excluded. Roofs should be of a +suitable pitch, so that neither rain nor snow can find its way in in +windy weather. Great care must be taken in laying gutters and flats. +With them it is important that the boarding should be well laid in +narrow widths, and in the direction of the fall; otherwise the boards +cockle and form ridges and furrows in which wet will rest, and in time +decay the metal. + +After having secured a sound waterproof roof, proper provision must be +made for conveying therefrom the water which of necessity falls on it in +the form of rain. All eaves spouting should be of ample size, and the +rain water down pipes should be placed at frequent intervals and of +suitable diameter. The outlets from the eaves spouting should not be +contracted, although it is advisable to cover them with a wire grating +to prevent their becoming choked with dead leaves, otherwise the water +will overflow and probably find its way through the walls. All joints +to the eaves spouting, and particularly to the rain-water down pipes, +should be made watertight, or there is great danger, when they are +connected with the soil drains, that sewer gas will escape at the joints +and find its way into the house at windows and doors. There should be a +siphon trap at the bottom of each down pipe, unless it is employed as a +ventilator to the drains, and then the greatest care should be exercised +to insure perfect jointings, and that the outlet be well above all +windows. Eaves spouting and rain-water down pipes should be periodically +examined and cleaned out. They ought to be painted inside as well as +out, or else they will quickly decay, and if of iron they will rust, +flake off, and become stopped. + +It is impossible to have a sweet home where there is continual dampness. +By its presence chemical action and decay are set up in many substances +which would remain in a quiescent state so long as they continued dry. +Wood will rot; so will wall papers, the paste used in hanging them, +and the size in distemper, however good they have been in the first +instance; then it is that injurious exhalations are thrown off, and the +evil is doubtless very greatly increased if the materials are bad in +themselves. Quickly grown and sappy timber, sour paste, stale size, and +wall papers containing injurious pigments are more easily attacked, and +far more likely to fill the house with bad smells and a subtile poison. +Plaster to ceilings and walls is quickly damaged by wet, and if improper +materials, such as road drift, be used in its composition, it may become +most unsavory and injurious to health. The materials for plaster cannot +be too carefully selected, for if organic matter be present, the result +is the formation of nitrates and the like, which combine with lime and +produce deliquescent salts, viz, those which attract moisture. Then, +however impervious to wet the walls, etc., may be, signs of dampness +will be noticed wherever there is a humid atmosphere, and similar evils +will result as if wet had penetrated from the exterior. Organic matter +coming into contact with plaster, and even the exhalations from human +beings and animals, will in time produce similar effects. Hence stables, +water closets, and rooms which are frequently crowded with people, +unless always properly ventilated, will show signs of dampness and +deterioration of the plaster work; wall paper will become detached from +the walls, paint will blister and peel off, and distemper will lose its +virtue. To avoid similar mishaps, sea sand, or sand containing salt, +should never be used either for plaster or mortar. In fact, it is +necessary that the materials for mortar should be as free from salts and +organic matter as those used for plaster, because the injurious effects +of their presence will be quickly communicated to the latter. + +Unfortunately, it is not alone by taking precaution against the +possibility of having a damp house that we necessarily insure a "sweet +home." The watchful care of the architect is required from the cutting +of the first sod until the finishing touches are put on the house. He +must assure himself that all is done, and nothing left undone which is +likely to cause a nuisance, or worse still, jeopardize the health of +the occupiers. Yet, with all his care and the employment of the best +materials and apparatus at his command, complete success seems scarcely +possible of attainment. We have all much to learn, many things must +be accomplished and difficulties overcome, ere we can "rest and be +thankful." + +It is impossible for the architect to attempt to solve all the problems +which surround this question. He must in many cases employ such +materials and such apparatus as can be obtained; nevertheless, it is his +duty carefully to test the value of such materials and apparatus as +may be obtainable, and by his experience and scientific knowledge to +determine which are best to be used under varying circumstances. + +But to pass on to other matters which mar the sweetness of home. With +many, I hold that the method usually employed for warming our dwellings +is wasteful, dirty, and often injurious to health. The open fire, +although cheerful in appearance, is justly condemned. It is wasteful, +because so small a percentage of the value of the fuel employed is +utilized. It is dirty, because of the dust and soot which result +therefrom. It is unhealthy, because of the cold draughts which in its +simplest form are produced, and the stifling atmosphere which pervades +the house when the products of imperfect combustion insist, as they +often do, in not ascending the flues constructed for the express purpose +of carrying them off; and even when they take the desired course, they +blacken and poison the external atmosphere with their presence. Some of +the grates known as ventilating grates dispose of one of the evils of +the ordinary open fire, by reducing the amount of cold draught caused by +the rush of air up the flues. This is effected, as you probably know, by +admitting air direct from the outside of the house to the back of the +grate, where it is warmed, and then flows into the rooms to supply the +place of that which is drawn up the chimneys. Provided such grates act +properly and are well put together, so that there is no possibility of +smoke being drawn into the fresh air channels, and that the air to +be warmed is drawn from a pure source, they may be used with much +advantage; although by them we must not suppose perfection has been +attained. The utilization of a far greater percentage of heat and the +consumption of all smoke must be aimed at. It is a question if such can +be accomplished by means of an open fire, and it is a difficult matter +to devise a method suited in every respect to the warming of our +dwellings, which at the same time is equally cheering in appearance. +So long as we are obliged to employ coal in its crude form for heating +purposes, and are content with the waste and dirt of the open fire, we +must be thankful for the cheer it gives in many a home where there are +well constructed grates and flues, and make the best use we can of the +undoubted ventilating power it possesses. + +A constant change of air in every part of our dwellings is absolutely +necessary that we may have a "sweet home," and the open fireplace with +its flue materially helps to that end; but unless in every other respect +the house is in a good sanitary condition, the open fire only adds to +the danger of residing in such a house, because it draws the impure air +from other parts into our living rooms, where it is respired. Closed +stoves are useful in some places, such as entrance halls. They are more +economical than the open fireplaces; but with them there is danger of +the atmosphere, or rather, the minute particles of organic matter always +floating in the air, becoming burnt and so charging the atmosphere with +carbonic acid. The recently introduced slow-combustion stoves obviate +this evil. + +It is possible to warm our houses without having separate fireplaces in +each room, viz., by heated air, hot water, or steam; but there are +many difficulties and some dangers in connection therewith which I +can scarcely hope to see entirely overcome. In America steam has been +employed with some success, and there is this advantage in its use, that +it can be conveyed a considerable distance. It is therefore possible +to have the furnace and boilers for its production quite away from the +dwelling houses and to heat several dwellings from one source, while at +the same time it can be employed for cooking purposes. In steam, then, +we have a useful agent, which might with advantage be more generally +employed; but when either it or hot water be used for heating purposes, +special and adequate means of ventilation must be employed. Gas stoves +are made in many forms, and in a few cases can be employed with +advantage; but I believe they are more expensive than a coal fire, and +it is most difficult to prevent the products of combustion finding their +way into the dwellings. Gas is a useful agent in the kitchen for cooking +purposes, but I never remember entering a house where it was so employed +without at once detecting the unpleasant smell resulting. It is rare to +find any special means for carrying off the injurious fumes, and without +such I am sure gas cooking stoves cannot be healthy adjuncts to our +homes. + +The next difficulty we have to deal with is artificial lighting. +Whether we employ candle, oil lamp, or gas, we may be certain that the +atmosphere of our rooms will become contaminated by the products of +combustion, and health must suffer. In order that such may be obviated, +it must be an earnest hope that ere long such improvements will be made +in electric lighting, that it may become generally used in our homes as +well as in all public buildings. Gas has certainly proved itself a very +useful and comparatively inexpensive illuminating power, but in many +ways it contaminates the atmosphere, is injurious to health, and +destructive to the furniture and fittings of our homes. Leakages from +the mains impregnate the soil with poisonous matter, and it rarely +happens that throughout a house there are no leakages. However small +they may be, the air becomes tainted. It is almost impossible, at times, +to detect the fault, or if detected, to make good without great injury +to other work, in consequence of the difficulty there is in getting at +the pipes, as they are generally embedded in plaster, etc. All gas pipes +should be laid in positions where they can be easily examined, and, if +necessary, repaired without much trouble. In France it is compulsory +that all gas pipes be left exposed to view, except where they must of +necessity pass through the thickness of a wall or floor, and it would be +a great benefit if such were required in this country. + +The cooking processes which necessarily go on often result in unpleasant +odors pervading our homes. I cannot say they are immediately prejudicial +to health; but if they are of daily or frequent occurrence, it is more +than probable the volatile matters which are the cause of the odors +become condensed upon walls, ceiling, or furniture, and in time undergo +putrefaction, and so not only mar the sweetness of home, but in addition +affect the health of the inmates. Cooking ranges should therefore be +constructed so as to carry off the fumes of cooking, and kitchens must +be well ventilated and so placed that the fumes cannot find their way +into other parts of the dwelling. In some houses washing day is an +abomination. Steam and stife then permeate the building, and, to say the +least, banish sweetness and comfort from the home. It is a wonder that +people will, year after year, put up with such a nuisance. + +If washing must be done home, the architect may do something to lessen +the evil by placing the washhouse in a suitable position disconnected +from the living part of the house, or by properly ventilating it and +providing a well constructed boiler and furnace, and a flue for carrying +off the steam. + +There is daily a considerable amount of refuse found in every home, from +the kitchen, from the fire-grate, from the sweeping of rooms, etc., and +as a rule this is day after day deposited in the ash-pit, which but +too often is placed close to the house, and left uncovered. If it were +simply a receptacle for the ashes from the fire-grates, no harm would +result, but as all kinds of organic matter are cast in and often allowed +to remain for weeks to rot and putrefy, it becomes a regular pest box, +and to it often may be traced sickness and death. It would be a wise +sanitary measure if every constructed ash pit were abolished. In place +thereof I would substitute a galvanized iron covered receptacle of but +moderate size, mounted upon wheels, and it should be incumbent on the +local authorities to empty same every two or three days. Where there are +gardens all refuse is useful as manure, and a suitable place should be +provided for it at the greatest distance from the dwellings. Until the +very advisable reform I have just mentioned takes place, it would be +well if refuse were burnt as soon as possible. With care this may be +done in a close range, or even open fire without any unpleasant smells, +and certainly without injury to health. It must be much more wholesome +to dispose of organic matter in that way while fresh than to have it +rotting and festering under our very noses. + +A greater evil yet is the privy. In the country, where there is no +complete system of drainage, it may be tolerated when placed at a +distance from the house; but in a crowded neighborhood it is an +abomination, and, unless frequently emptied and kept scrupulously clean, +cannot fail to be injurious to health. Where there is no system of +drainage, cesspools must at times be used, but they should be avoided as +much as possible. They should never be constructed near to dwellings, +and must always be well ventilated. Care should be taken to make them +watertight, otherwise the foul matter may percolate through the ground, +and is likely to contaminate the water supply. In some old houses +cesspools have been found actually under the living rooms. + +I would here also condemn the placing of r. w. tanks under any portion +of the dwelling house, for many cases of sickness and death have been +traced to the fact of sewage having found its way through, either by +backing up the drains, or by the ignorant laying of new into old +drains. Earth closets, if carefully attended to, often emptied, and the +receptacles cleaned out, can be safely employed even within doors; +but in towns it is difficult to dispose of the refuse, and there must +necessarily be a system of drainage for the purpose of taking off the +surface water; it is thereupon found more economical to carry away all +drainage together, and the water closet being but little trouble, and, +if properly looked after, more cleanly in appearance, it is generally +preferred, notwithstanding the great risks which are daily run in +consequence of the chance of sewer-gas finding an entrance into the +house by its means. After all, it is scarcely fair to condemn outright +the water closet as the cause of so many of the ills to which flesh is +subject. It is true that many w. c. apparatus are obviously defective +in construction, and any architect or builder using such is to be +condemned. The old pan closet, for instance, should be banished. It is +known to be defective, and yet I see it is still made, sold, and fixed, +in dwelling houses, notwithstanding the fact that other closet pans far +more simple and effective can be obtained at less cost. The pan of the +closet should be large, and ought to retain a layer of water at the +bottom, which, with the refuse, should be swept out of the pan by the +rush of water from the service pipe. The outlet may be at the side +connected with a simple earthenware s-trap with a ventilating outlet at +the top, from which a pipe may be taken just through the wall. From the +S-trap I prefer to take the soil pipe immediately through the wall, and +connect with a strong 4 in. iron pipe, carefully jointed, watertight, +and continued of the same size to above the tops of all windows. This +pipe at its foot should be connected with a ventilating trap, so that +all air connection is cut off between the house and the drains. All +funnel-shaped w. c. pans are objectionable, because they are so liable +to catch and retain the dirt. + +Wastes from baths, sinks, and urinals should also be ventilated and +disconnected from the drains as above, or else allowed to discharge +above a gulley trap. Excrement, etc., must be quickly removed from the +premises if we are to have "sweet homes," and the w.c. is perhaps the +most convenient apparatus, when properly constructed, which can be +employed. By taking due precaution no harm need be feared, or will +result from its use, provided that the drains and sewers are rightly +constructed and properly laid. It is then to the sewers, drains, and +their connections our attention must be specially directed, for in the +majority of cases they are the arch-offenders. The laying of main sewers +has in most cases been intrusted to the civil engineer, yet it often +happens architects are blamed, and unjustly so, for the defective +work over which they had no control. When the main sewers are badly +constructed, and, as a result, sewer gas is generated and allowed to +accumulate, ordinary precautions may be useless in preventing its +entrance by some means or other to our homes, and special means and +extra precautions must be adopted. But with well constructed and +properly ventilated sewers, every architect and builder should be able +to devise a suitable system of house drainage, which need cause no +fear of danger to health. The glazed stoneware pipe, now made of any +convenient size and shape, is an excellent article with which to +construct house-drains. The pipes should be selected, well burnt, well +glazed, and free from twist. Too much care cannot be exercised in +properly laying them. The trenches should be got out to proper falls, +and unless the ground is hard and firm, the pipes should be laid upon a +layer of concrete to prevent the chance of sinking. The jointing must be +carefully made, and should be of cement or of well tempered clay, care +being taken to wipe away all projecting portions from the inside of the +pipes. A clear passage-way is of the utmost importance. Foul drains are +the result of badly joined and irregularly laid pipes, wherein matter +accumulates, which in time ferments and produces sewer-gas. The common +system of laying drains with curved angles is not so good as laying them +in straight lines from point to point, and at every angle inserting +a man-hole or lamp-hole, This plan is now insisted upon by the Local +Government Board for all public buildings erected under their authority. +It might, with advantage, be adopted for all house-drains. + +Now, in consequence of the trouble and expense attending the opening up +and examination of a drain, it may often happen that although defects +are suspected or even known to exist, they are not remedied until +illness or death is the result of neglect. But with drains laid in +straight lines, from point to point, with man holes or lamp holes at the +intersections, there is no reason why the whole system may not easily be +examined at any time and stoppages quickly removed. The man holes and +lamp-holes may, with advantage, be used as means for ventilating the +drains and also for flushing them. It is of importance that each house +drain should have a disconnecting trap just before it enters the main +sewer. It is bad enough to be poisoned by neglecting the drainage to +one's own property, but what if the poison be developed elsewhere, and +by neglect permitted to find its way to us. Such will surely happen +unless some effective means be employed for cutting off all air +connection between the house-drains and the main sewer. I am firmly +convinced that simply a smoky chimney, or the discovery of a fault in +drainage weighs far more, in the estimation of a client in forming his +opinion of the ability of an architect, than the successful carrying out +of an artistic design. By no means do I disparage a striving to attain +artistic effectiveness, but to the study of the artistic, in domestic +architecture at least, add a knowledge of sanitary science, and foster a +habit of careful observation of causes and effects. Comfort is demanded +in the home, and that cannot be secured unless dwellings are built and +maintained with perfect sanitary arrangements and appliances.--_The +Building News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +HOUSE AT HEATON + + +This house, which belongs to Mr J. N. D'Andrea, is built on the Basque +principle, under one roof, with covered balconies on the south side, the +northside being kept low to give the sun an opportunity of shining in +winter on the house and greenhouse adjacent, as well as to assist in the +more picturesque grouping of the two. On this side is placed, approached +by porch and lobby, the hall with a fireplace of the "olden time," +lavatory, etc., butler's pantry, w. c., staircase, larder, kitchen, +scullery, stores, etc. + +On the south side are two sitting rooms, opening into a conservatory. +There are six bedrooms, a dining-room, bath room, and housemaid's sink. + +The walls are built of colored wall stones known as "insides," and +half-timbered brickwork covered with the Portland cement stucco, +finished Panan, and painted a cream-color. + +All the interior woodwork is of selected pitch pine, the hall being +boarded throughout. Colored lead light glass is introduced in the upper +parts of the windows in every room, etc. + +The architect is Mr. W. A. Herbert Martin, of Bradford.--_Architect_ + +[Illustration: HOUSE AT HEATON, BRADFORD.] + + * * * * * + + + + +A MANSARD ROOF DWELLING. + + +The principal floor of this design is elevated three feet above the +surface of the ground, and is approached by the front steps leading to +the platform. The height of the first floor is eleven feet, the second +ten feet, and the cellar six feet six inches in the clear. The porch is +so constructed that it can be put on either the front or side of the +house, as it may suit the owner. The rooms, eight in number, are airy +and of convenient size. The kitchen has a range, sink, and boiler, and +a large closet, to be used as a pantry. The windows leading out to the +porch will run to the floor, with heads running into the walls. In the +attic the chambers are 10x10 feet, 13x14 feet, 12x13 feet, 10x101/2 feet, +and a hall 6 feet wide, with large closets and cupboards for each +chamber. The building is so constructed that an addition can be made +to the rear any time by using the present kitchen as a dining room and +building a new kitchen. + +[Illustration: A MANSARD ROOF DWELLING. First Floor.] + +[Illustration: A MANSARD ROOF DWELLING. Second Floor.] + +These plans will prove suggestive to those contemplating the building +of a new house, even if radical changes are made in the accompanying +designs.--_American Cultivator_. + +[Illustration: A MANSARD ROOF DWELLING. Front Elevation.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE HISTORY OF THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. + +[Footnote: Aug. Guerout in _La Lurmiere Electrique_.] + + +An endeavor has often been made to carry the origin of the electric +telegraph back to a very remote epoch by a reliance on those more or +less fanciful descriptions of modes of communication based upon the +properties of the magnet. + +It will prove not without interest before entering into the real history +of the telegraph to pass in review the various documents that relate to +the subject. + +In continuation of the 21st chapter of his _Magia naturalis_, published +in 1553, J. B. Porta cites an experiment that had been made with the +magnet as a means of telegraphing. In 1616, Famiano Strada, in his +_Prolusiones Academicae_, takes up this idea, and speaks of the +possibility of two persons communicating by the aid of two magnetized +needles influenced by each other at a distance. Galileo, in _Dialogo +intorno_, written between 1621 and 1632 and Nicolas Caboeus, of Ferrara, +in his _Philosophia magnetica_, both reproduce analogous descriptions, +not however without raising doubts as to the possibility of such a +system. + +A document of the same kind, to which great importance has been attached +is found in the _Recreations mathematiques_ published at Rouen in 1628, +under the pseudonym of Van Elten, and reprinted several times since, +with the annotations and additions of Mydorge and Hamion and which must, +it appears, be attributed to the Jesuit Leurechon. In his chapter on the +magnet and the needles that are rubbed therewith, we find the following +passage. + +"Some have pretended that, by means of a magnet or other like stone, +absent persons might speak with one another. For example, Claude being +at Paris, and John at Rome, if each had a needle that had been rubbed +with some stone, and whose virtue was such that in measure as one needle +moved at Paris the other would move just the same at Rome, and if Claude +and John each had an alphabet, and had agreed that they would converse +with each other every afternoon at 6 o'clock, and the needle having made +three and a half revolutions as a signal that Claude, and no other, +wished to speak to John, then Claude wishing to say to him that the king +is at Paris would cause his needle to move, and stop at T, then at H, +then at E, then at K, I, N, G and so on. Now, at the same time, John's +needle, according with Claude's, would begin to move and then stop at +the same letters, and consequently it would be easily able to write or +understand what the other desired to signify to it. The invention is +beautiful, but I do not think there can be found in the world a magnet +that has such a virtue. Neither is the thing expedient, for treason +would be too frequent and too covert." + +The same idea was also indicated by Joseph Glanville in his _Scepsis +scientifica_, which appeared in 1665, by Father Le Brun, in his +_Histoire critique des pratiques superstitieuses_, and finally by the +Abbe Barthelemy in 1788. + +The suggestion offered by Father Kircher, in his _Magnes sive de arte +magnetica_, is a little different from the preceding. The celebrated +Jesuit father seeks however, to do nothing more than to effect a +communication of thoughts between two rooms in the same building. He +places, at short distances from each other, two spherical vessels +carrying on their circumference the letters of the alphabet, and each +having suspended within it, from a vertical wire a magnetized figure. If +one of these latter he moved, all the others must follow its motions, +one after the other, and transmission will thus be effected from the +first vessel to the last. Father Kircher observes that it is necessary +that all the magnets shall be of the same strength, and that there shall +be a large number of them, which is something not within the reach +of everybody. This is why he points out another mode of transmitting +thought, and one which consists in supporting the figures upon vertical +revolving cylinders set in motion by one and the same cord hidden with +in the walls. + +There is no need of very thoroughly examining all such systems of +magnetic telegraphy to understand that it was never possible for them to +have a practical reality, and that they were pure speculations which it +is erroneous to consider as the first ideas of the electric telegraph. + +We shall make a like reserve with regard to certain apparatus that +have really existed, but that have been wrongly viewed as electric +telegraphs. Such are those of Comus and of Alexandre. The first of these +is indicated in a letter from Diderot to Mlle. Voland, dated July 12, +1762. It consisted of two dials whose hands followed each other at a +distance, without the apparent aid of any external agent. The fact +that Comus published some interesting researches on electricity in the +_Journal de Physique_ has been taken as a basis for the assertion that +his apparatus was a sort of electrical discharge telegraph in which the +communication between the two dials was made by insulated wires hidden +in the walls. But, if it be reflected how difficult it would have been +at that epoch to realize an apparatus of this kind, if it be remembered +that Comus, despite his researches on electricity, was in reality only a +professor of physics to amuse, and if the fact be recalled that cabinets +of physics in those days were filled with ingenious apparatus in which +the surprising effects were produced by skillfully concealed magnets, we +shall rather be led to class among such apparatus the so-called "Comus +electric telegraph." + +We find, moreover, in Guyot's _Recreations physiques et +mathematiques_--a work whose first edition dates back to the time at +which Comus was exhibiting his apparatus--a description of certain +communicating dials that seem to be no other than those of the +celebrated physicist, and which at all events enables us to understand +how they worked. + +Let one imagine to himself two contiguous chambers behind which ran +one and the same corridor. In each chamber, against the partition that +separated it from the corridor, there was a small bracket, and upon the +latter, and very near the wall, there was a wooden dial supported on a +standard, but in no wise permanently fixed upon the bracket. Each dial +carried a needle, and each circumference was inscribed with twenty-five +letters of the alphabet. The experiment that was performed with these +dials consisted in placing the needle upon a letter in one of the +chambers, when the needle of the other dial stopped at the same letter, +thus making it possible to transmit words and even sentences. As for the +means of communication between the two apparatus, that was very simple: +One of the two dials always served as a transmitter, and the other as a +receiver. The needle of the transmitter carried along in its motion +a pretty powerful magnet, which was concealed in the dial, and which +reacted through the partition upon a very light magnetized needle that +followed its motions, and indicated upon an auxiliary dial, to a person +hidden in the corridor, the letter on which the first needle had been +placed. This person at once stepped over to the partition corresponding +to the receiver, where another auxiliary dial permitted him to properly +direct at a distance the very movable needle of the receiver. Everything +depended, as will be seen, upon the use of the magnet, and upon a deceit +that perfectly accorded with Comus' profession. There is, then, little +thought in our opinion that if the latter's apparatus was not exactly +the one Guyot describes, it was based upon some analogous artifice. + +Jean Alexandre's telegraph appears to have borne much analogy with +Comus'. Its inventor operated it in 1802 before the prefect of +Indre-et-Loire. As a consequence of a report addressed by the prefect of +Vienne to Chaptal, and in which, moreover, the apparatus in question was +compared to Comus', Alexandre was ordered to Paris. There he refused to +explain upon what principle his invention was based, and declared that +he would confide his secret only to the First Consul. But Bonaparte, +little disposed to occupy himself with such an affair, charged Delambre +to examine it and address a report to him. The illustrious astronomer, +despite the persistence with which Alexandre refused to give up his +secret to him, drew a report, the few following extracts from which +will, we think, suffice to edify the reader: + +"The pieces that the First Consul charged me to examine did not contain +enough of detail to justify an opinion. Citizen Beauvais (friend and +associate of Alexandre) knows the inventor's secret, but has promised +him to communicate it to no one except the First Consul. This +circumstance might enable me to dispense with any report; for how judge +of a machine that one has not seen and does not know the agent of? All +that is known is that the _telegraphe intime_ consists of two like +boxes, each carrying a dial on whose circumference are marked the +letters of the alphabet. By means of a winch, the needle of one dial is +carried to all the letters that one has need to use, and at the same +instant the needle of the second box repeats, in the same order, all the +motions and indications of the first. + +"When these two boxes are placed in two separate apartments, two persons +can write to and answer one another, without seeing or being seen by one +another, and without any one suspecting their correspondence. Neither +night nor fog can prevent the transmission of a dispatch.... The +inventor has made two experiments--one at Portiers and the other at +Tours--in the presence of the prefects and mayors, and the record shows +that they were fully successful. To-day, the inventor and his associate +ask that the First Consul be pleased to permit one of the boxes to be +placed in his apartment and the other at the house of Consul Cambaceres +in order to give the experiment all the _eclat_ and authenticity +possible; or that the First Consul accord a ten minutes' interview to +citizen Beauvais, who will communicate to him the secret, which is +so easy that the simple _expose_ of it would be equivalent to a +demonstration, and would take the place of an experiment.... If, as one +might be tempted to believe from a comparison with a bell arrangement, +the means adopted by the inventor consisted in wheels, movements, +and transmitting pieces, the invention would be none the less +astonishing.... If, on the contrary, as the Portier's account seems to +prove, the means of communication is a fluid, there would be the more +merit in his having mastered it to such a point as to produce so regular +and so infallible effects at such distances.... But citizen Beauvais +... desires principally to have the First Consul as a witness and +appreciator.... It is to be desired, then, that the First Consul shall +consent to hear him, and that he may find in the communication that will +be made to him reasons for giving the invention a good reception and for +properly rewarding the inventor." + +But Bonaparte remained deaf, and Alexandre persisted in his silence, and +died at Angers, in 1832, in great poverty, without having revealed his +secret. + +As, in 1802, Volta's pile was already invented, several authors have +supposed an application of it in Alexandre's apparatus. "Is it not +allowable to believe," exclaims one of these, "that the electric +telegraph was at that time discovered?" We do not hesitate to respond in +the negative. The pile had been invented for too short a time, and too +little was then known of the properties of the current, to allow a +man so destitute of scientific knowledge to so quickly invent all the +electrical parts necessary for the synchronic operation of the two +needles. In this _telegraphe intime_ we can only see an apparatus +analogous to the one described by Guyot, or rather a synchronism +obtained by means of cords, as in Kircher's arrangement. The fact that +Alexandre's two dials were placed on two different stories, and distant, +horizontally, fifteen meters, in nowise excludes this latter mode of +transmission. On another hand, the mystery in which Alexandre was +shrouded, his declaration relative to the use of a fluid, and the +assurance with which he promised to reveal his secret to the First +Consul, prove absolutely nothing, for too often have the most profoundly +ignorant people--the electric girl, for example--befooled learned bodies +by the aid of the grossest frauds. From the standpoint of the history +of the electric telegraph, there is no value, then, to be attributed to +this apparatus of Alexandre, any more than there is to that of Comus or +to _any_ of the dreams based upon the properties of the magnet. + +The history of the electric telegraph really begins with 1753, the date +at which is found the first indication of a telegraph truly based upon +the use of electricity. This telegraph is described in a letter written +by Renfrew, dated Feb. 1, 1753, and signed with the initials "C.M.," +which, in all probability, were those of a savant of the time--Charles +Marshall. A few extracts from this letter will give an idea of the +precision with which the author described his invention: + +"Let us suppose a bundle of wires, in number equal to that of the +letters of the alphabet, stretched horizontally between two given +places, parallel with each other and distant from each other one inch. + +"Let us admit that after every twenty yards the wires are connected to a +solid body by a juncture of glass or jeweler's cement, so as to prevent +their coming in contact with the earth or any conducting body, and so +as to help them to carry their own weight. The electric battery will be +placed at right angles to one of the extremities of the wires, and the +bundle of wires at each extremity will be carried by a solid piece of +glass. The portions of the wires that run from the glass support to the +machine have sufficient elasticity and stiffness to return to their +primitive position after having been brought into contact with the +battery. Very near to this same glass support, on the opposite side, +there descends a ball suspended from each wire, and at a sixth or a +tenth of an inch beneath each ball there is placed one of the letters of +the alphabet written upon small pieces of paper or other substance light +enough to be attracted and raised by the electrified ball. Besides this, +all necessary arrangements are taken so that each of these little papers +shall resume its place when the ball ceases to attract. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--LESAGE'S TELEGRAPH.] + +"All being arranged as above, and the minute at which the correspondence +is to begin having been fixed upon beforehand, I begin the conversation +with my friend at a distance in this way: I set the electric machine +in motion, and, if the word that I wish to transcribe is 'Sir,' for +example, I take, with a glass rod, or with any other body electric +through itself or insulating, the different ends of the wires +corresponding to the three letters that compose the word. Then I press +them in such a way as to put them in contact with the battery. At the +same instant, my correspondent sees these different letters carried in +the same order toward the electrified balls at the other extremity of +the wires. I continue to thus spell the words as long as I judge proper, +and my correspondent, that he may not forget them, writes down the +letters in measure as they rise. He then unites them and reads the +dispatch as often as he pleases. At a given signal, or when I desire it, +I stop the machine, and, taking a pen, write down what my friend sends +me from the other end of the line." + +The author of this letter points out, besides, the possibility of +keeping, in the first place, all the springs in contact with the +battery, and, consequently, all the letters attracted, and of indicating +each letter by removing its wire from the battery, and consequently +making it fall. He even proposed to substitute bells of different sounds +for the balls, and to produce electric sparks upon them. The sound +produced by the spark would vary according to the bell, and the letters +might thus be heard. + +Nothing, however, in this document authorizes the belief that Charles +Marshall ever realized his idea, so we must proceed to 1774 to find +Lesage, of Geneva, constructing a telegraph that was based upon the +principle indicated twenty years before in the letter of Renfrew. + +The apparatus that Lesage devised (Fig. 1) was composed of 24 wires +insulated from one another by a non conducting material. Each of these +wires corresponded to a small pith ball suspended by a thread. On +putting an electric machine in communication with such or such a one of +these wires, the ball of the corresponding electrometer was repelled, +and the motion signaled the letter that it was desired to transmit. Not +content with having realized an electric telegraph upon a small scale, +Lesage thought of applying it to longer distances. + +"Let us conceive," said he in a letter written June 22, 1782, to Mr. +Prevost, of Geneva, "a subterranean pipe of enameled clay, whose cavity +at about every six feet is separated by partitions of the same material, +or of glass, containing twenty-four apertures in order to give passage +to as many brass wires as these diaphragms are to sustain and keep +separated. At each extremity of this pipe are twenty-four wires that +deviate from one another horizontally, and that are arranged like the +keys of a clavichord; and, above this row of wire ends, are distinctly +traced the twenty-four letters of the alphabet, while beneath there is a +table covered with twenty-four small pieces of gold-leaf or other easily +attractable and quite visible bodies." + +Lesage had thought of offering his secret to Frederick the Great; but +he did not do so, however, and his telegraph remained in the state of a +curious cabinet experiment. He had, nevertheless, opened the way, and, +dating from that epoch, we meet with a certain number of attempts at +electrostatic telegraphy. [1] + +[Footnote 1: Advantage has been taken of a letter from Alexander Volta +to Prof. Barletti (dated 1777), indicating the possibility of firing his +electric pistol from a great distance, to attribute to him a part in the +invention of the telegraph. We have not shared in this opinion, which +appears to us erroneous, since Volta, while indicating the possibility +above stated, does not speak of applying such a fact to telegraphy.] + +The first in date is that of Lemond, which is spoken of by Arthur Young +(October 16, 1787), in his _Voyage Agronomique en France_: + +"In the evening," says he, "we are going to Mr. Lemond's, a very +ingenious mechanician, and one who has a genius for invention.... He has +made a remarkable discovery in electricity. You write two or three words +upon paper; he takes them with him into a room and revolves a machine +within a sheath at the top of which there is an electrometer--a pretty +little ball of feather pith. A brass wire is joined to a similar +cylinder, and electrified in a distant apartment, and his wife on +remarking the motions of the ball that corresponds, writes down the +words that they indicate; from whence it appears that he has formed an +alphabet of motions. As the length of the wire makes no difference in +the effect, a correspondence might be kept up from very far off, for +example with a besieged city, or for objects much more worthy of +attention. Whatever be the use that shall be made of it, the discovery +is an admirable one." + +And, in fact, Lemond's telegraph was of the most interesting character, +for it was a single wire one, and we already find here an alphabet based +upon the combination of a few elementary signals. + +The apparatus that next succeeds is the electric telegraph that Reveroni +Saint Cyr proposed in 1790, to announce lottery numbers, but as to the +construction of which we have no details. In 1794 Reusser, a German, +made a proposition a little different from the preceding systems, and +which is contained in the _Magazin fuer das Neueste aus der Physik und +Naturgeschichte_, published by Henri Voigt. + +"I am at home," says Reusser, "before my electric machine, and I am +dictating to some one on the other side of the street a complete +letter that he is writing himself. On an ordinary table there is fixed +vertically a square board in which is inserted a pane of glass. To this +glass are glued strips of tinfoil cut out in such a way that the spark +shall be visible. Each strip is designated by a letter of the alphabet, +and from each of them starts a long wire. These wires are inclosed in +glass tubes which pass underground and run to the place whither the +dispatch is to be transmitted. The extremities of the wires reach a +similar plate of glass, which is likewise affixed to a table and +carries strips of tinfoil similar to the others. These strips are also +designated, by the same letters, and are connected by a return wire with +the table of him who wishes to dictate the message. If, now, he who is +dictating puts the external armature of a Leyden jar in contact with the +return wire, and the ball of this jar in contact with a metallic rod +touching that of the tinfoil strip which corresponds with the letter +which he wishes to dictate to the other, sparks will be produced upon +the nearest as well as upon the remotest strips, and the distant +correspondent, seeing such sparks, may immediately write down the letter +marked. Will an extended application of this system ever be made? That +is not the question; it is possible. It will be very expensive; but the +post hordes from Saint Petersburg to Lisbon are also very expensive, +and if any one should apply the idea on a large scale, I shall claim a +recompense." + +Every letter, then, was signaled by one or several sparks that started +forth on the breaking of the strip; but we see nothing in this document +to authorize the opinion which has existed, that every tinfoil strip was +a sort of magic tablet upon which the sparks traced the very form of the +letter to be transmitted. + +Voigt, the editor of the _Magazin_, adds, in continuation of Reusser's +communication: "Mr. Reusser should have proposed the addition to this +arrangement of a vessel filled with detonating gas which could be +exploded in the first place, by means of the electric spark, in order +to notify the one to whom something was to be dictated that he should +direct his attention to the strips of tinfoil." + +This passage gives the first indication of the use of a special call for +the telegraph. The same year (1794), in a work entitled _Versuch ueber +Telegraphie und Telegraphen_, Boeckmann likewise proposed the use of the +pistol as a call signal, in conjunction with the use of a line composed +of two wires only, and of discharges in the air or a vacuum, grouped in +such a way as to form an alphabet. + +Experiments like those indicated by Boeckmann, however, seem to have +been made previous to 1794, or at that epoch, at least, by Cavallo, +since the latter describes them in a _Treatise on Electricity_ written +in English, and a French translation of which was published in 1795. +In these experiments the length of the wires reached 250 English feet. +Cavallo likewise proposed to use as signals combustible or detonating +materials, and to employ as a call the noise made by the discharge of a +Leyden jar. + +In 1796 occurred the experiments of Dr. Francisco Salva and of the +Infante D. Antonio. The following is what we may read on this subject in +the _Journal des Sciences_: + +"Prince de la Paix, having learned that Dr. Francisco Salva had read +before the Royal Academy of Sciences of Barcelona a memoir on the +application of electricity to telegraphy, and that he had presented at +the same time an electric telegraph of his own invention, desired +to examine this machine in person. Satisfied as to the accuracy and +celerity with which we can converse with another by means of it, he +obtained for the inventor the honor of appearing before the king. Prince +de la Paix, in the presence of their majesties and of several lords, +caused the telegraph to converse to the satisfaction of the whole court. +The telegraph conversed some days afterward at the residence of the +Infante D. Antonio. + +"His Highness expressed a desire to have a much completer one that +should have sufficient electrical power to communicate at great +distances on land and sea. The Infante therefore ordered the +construction of an electric machine whose plate should be more than +forty inches in diameter. With the aid of this machine His Highness +intends to undertake a series of useful and curious experiments that he +has proposed to Dr. D. Salva." + +In 1797 or '98 (some authors say 1787), the Frenchman, Betancourt, put +up a line between Aranjuez and Madrid, and telegraphed through the +medium of discharges from a Leyden jar. + +But the most interesting of the telegraphs based upon the use of static +electricity is without doubt that of Francis Ronalds, described by the +latter, in 1823, in a pamphlet entitled _Descriptions of an Electrical +Telegraph and of some other Electrical Apparatus_, but the construction +of which dates back to 1816. + +What is peculiarly interesting in Ronalds' apparatus is that it presents +for the first time the use of two synchronous movements at the two +stations in correspondence. + +The apparatus is represented in Fig. 2. It is based upon the +simultaneous working of two pith-ball electrometers, combined with the +synchronous running of two clock-work movements. At the two stations +there were identical clocks for whose second hand there had been +substituted a cardboard disk (Fig. 3), divided into twenty sectors. Each +of these latter contained one figure, one letter, and a conventional +word. Before each movable disk there was a screen, A (Fig. 2), +containing an aperture through which only one sector could, be seen at +a time. Finally, before each screen there was a pith-ball electrometer. +The two electrometers were connected together by means of a conductor +(C) passing under the earth, and which at either of its extremities +could be put in communication with either an electric machine or the +ground. A lever handle, J, interposed into the circuit a Volta's pistol, +F, that served as a call. + +When one of the operators desired to send a dispatch to the other he +connected the conductor with the machine, and, setting the latter in +operation, discharged his correspondent's pistol as a signal. The call +effected, the first operator continued to revolve the machine so that +the balls of pith should diverge in the two electrometers. At the same +time the two clocks were set running. When the sender saw the word +"attention" pass before the slit in the screen he quickly discharged the +line, the balls of the two electrometers approached each other, and, if +the two clocks agreed perfectly, the correspondent necessarily saw in +the aperture in his screen the same word, "attention." If not, he moved +the screen in consequence, and the operation was performed over until +he could send, in his turn, the word "ready." Afterward, the sender +transmitted in the same way one of the three words, "letters," +"figures," "dictionary," in order to indicate whether he wished to +transmit letters or figures, or whether the letters received, instead of +being taken in their true sense, were to be referred to a conventional +vocabulary got up in advance. It was after such preliminaries that the +actual transmission of the dispatch was begun. The pith balls, which +were kept constantly apart, approached each other at the moment the +letter to be transmitted passed before the aperture in the screen. + +Ronalds, in his researches, busied himself most with the construction of +lines. He put up on the grounds near his dwelling an air line 8 miles +long; and, to do so, stretched fine iron wire in zigzag fashion between +two frames 18 meters apart. Each of these frames carried thirty-seven +hooks, to which the wire was attached through the intermedium of silk +cords. He laid, besides, a subterranean line of 525 feet at a depth of 4 +feet. The wire was inclosed within thick glass tubes which were placed +in a trough of dry wood, of 2 inch section, coated internally and +externally with pitch. This trough was, moreover, filled full of pitch +and closed with a cover of wood. Ronalds preferred these subterranean +conductors to air lines. A portion of one of them that was laid by him +at Hammersmith figured at the Exhibition of 1881, and is shown in Fig. +4. + +Nearly at the epoch at which Ronalds was experimenting in England, +a certain Harrisson Gray Dyar was also occupying himself with +electrostatic telegraphy in America. According to letters published only +in 1872 by American journals, Dyar constructed the first telegraph in +America. This line, which was put up on Long Island, was of iron wire +strung on poles carrying glass insulators, and, upon it, Dyar operated +with static electricity. Causing the spark to act upon a movable disk +covered with litmus paper, he produced by the discoloration of the +latter dots and dashes that formed an alphabet. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +These experiments, it seems, were so successful that Dyar and his +relatives resolved to construct a line from New York to Philadelphia; +but quarrels with his copartners, lawsuits, and other causes obliged him +to leave for Rhode Island, and finally for France in 1831. He did not +return to America till 1858. + +Dyar, then, would seem to have been the first who combined an alphabet +composed of dots and dashes. On this point, priority has been claimed by +Swaim in a book that appeared at Philadelphia in 1829 under the title of +_The Mural Diagraph_, and in a communication inserted in the _Comptes +Rendus_ of the Academic des Sciences for Nov. 27, 1865. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +In 1828, likewise, Victor Triboaillet de Saint Amand proposed to +construct a telegraph line between Paris and Brussels. This line was to +be a subterranean one, the wire being covered with gum shellac, then +with silk, and finally with resin, and being last of all placed in glass +tubes. A strong battery was to act at a distance upon an electroscope, +and the dispatches were to be transmitted by the aid of a conventional +vocabulary based upon the number of the electroscope's motions. + +Finally, in 1844, Henry Highton took out a patent in England for a +telegraph working through electricity of high tension, with the use of +a single line wire. A paper unrolled regularly between two points, and +each discharge made a small hole in it, But this hole was near one +or the other of the points according as the line was positively or +negatively charged. The combination of the holes thus traced upon two +parallel lines permitted of the formation of an alphabet. This telegraph +was tried successfully over a line ten miles long, on the London and +Northwestern Railway. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +We have followed electrostatic telegraphs up to an epoch at which +telegraphy had already entered upon a more practical road, and it now +remains for us to retrace our steps toward those apparatus that are +based upon the use of the voltaic current. + + * * * * * + +Prof. Dolbear observes that if a galvanometer is placed between the +terminals of a circuit of homogeneous iron wire and heat is applied, no +electric effect will be observed; but if the structure of the wire +is altered by alternate bending or twisting into a helix, then the +galvanometer will indicate a current. The professor employs a helix +connected with a battery, and surrounding a portion of the wire in +circuit with the galvanometer. The current in the helix magnetizes the +circuit wire inclosed, and the galvanometer exhibits the presence of +electricity. The experiment helps to prove that magnetism is connected +with some molecular change of the magnetized metal. + + * * * * * + + + + +ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION AND STORAGE. + +[Footnote: From a recent lecture in London before the Institute of Civil +Engineers.] + +By Dr. C. WILLIAM SIEMENS, F.R.S, Mem. Inst. C.E. + + +Dr. Siemens, in opening the discourse, adverted to the object the +Council had in view in organizing these occasional lectures, which were +not to be lectures upon general topics, but the outcome of such special +study and practical experience as members of the Institution had +exceptional opportunities of acquiring in the course of their +professional occupation. The subject to be dealt with during the present +session was that of electricity. Already telegraphy had been brought +forward by Mr. W. H. Preece, and telephonic communication by Sir +Frederick Bramwell. + +Thus far electricity had been introduced as the swift and subtile agency +by which signals were produced either by mechanical means or by the +human voice, and flashed almost instantaneously to distances which were +limited, with regard to the former, by restrictions imposed by the +globe. To the speaker had been assigned the task of introducing to their +notice electric energy in a different aspect. Although still giving +evidence of swiftness and precision, the effects he should dwell upon +were no longer such as could be perceived only through the most delicate +instruments human ingenuity could contrive, but were capable of rivaling +the steam engine, compressed air, and the hydraulic accumulator in the +accomplishment of actual work. + +In the early attempts at magneto electric machines, it was shown that, +so long as their effect depended upon the oxidation of zinc in a +battery, no commercially useful results could have been anticipated. The +thermo-battery, the discovery of Seebeck in 1822, was alluded to as a +means of converting heat into electric energy in the most direct manner; +but this conversion could not be an entire one, because the second law +of thermo-dynamics, which prevented the realization as mechanical force +of more than one seventh part of the heat energy produced in combustion +under the boiler, applied equally to the thermo-electric battery, in +which the heat, conducted from the hot points of juncture to the +cold, constituted a formidable loss. The electromotive force of each +thermo-electric element did not exceed 0.036 of a volt, and 1,800 +elements were therefore necessary to work an incandescence lamp. + +A most useful application of the thermo-electric battery for measuring +radiant heat, the thermo pile, was exhibited. By means of an ingenious +modification of the electrical pyrometer, named the bolometer, valuable +researches in measuring solar radiations had been made by Professor +Langley. + +Faraday's great discovery of magneto-induction was next noticed, and the +original instrument by which he had elicited the first electric spark +before the members of the Royal Institution in 1831, was shown in +operation. It was proved that although the individual current produced +by magnetoinduction was exceedingly small and momentary in action, it +was capable of unlimited multiplication by mechanical arrangements of a +simple kind, and that by such multiplication the powerful effects of the +dynamo machine of the present day were built up. One of the means for +accomplishing such multiplication was the Siemens armature of 1856. +Another step of importance was that involved in the Pacinotti ring, +known in its practical application as the machine of Gramme. A third +step, that of the self exciting principle, was first communicated by Dr. +Werner Siemens to the Berlin Academy, on the 17th of January, 1867, and +by the lecturer to the Royal Society, on the 4th of the following +month. This was read on the 14th of February, when the late Sir Charles +Wheatstone also brought forward a paper embodying the same principle. +The lecturer's machine, which was then exhibited, and which might be +looked upon as the first of its kind, was shown in operation; it had +done useful work for many years as a means of exciting steel magnets. +A suggestion contained in Sir Charles Wheatstone's paper, that "a very +remarkable increase of all the effects, accompanied by a diminution in +the resistance of the machine, is observed when a cross wire is placed +so as to divert a great portion of the current from the electro-magnet," +had led the lecturer to an investigation read before the Royal Society +on the 4th of March, 1880, in which it was shown that by augmenting the +resistance upon the electro-magnets 100 fold, valuable effects could be +realized, as illustrated graphically by means of a diagram. The most +important of these results consisted in this, that the electromotive +force produced in a "shunt-wound machine," as it was called, increased +with the external resistance, whereby the great fluctuations formerly +inseparable from electric arc lighting could be obviated, and thus, +by the double means of exciting the electro-magnets, still greater +uniformity of current was attainable. + +The conditions upon which the working of a well conceived dynamo machine +must depend were next alluded to, and it was demonstrated that when +losses by unnecessary wire resistance, by Foucault currents, and by +induced currents in the rotating armature were avoided, as much as 90 +per cent., or even more, of the power communicated to the machine was +realized in the form of electric energy, and that _vice versa_ the +reconversion of electric into mechanical energy could be accomplished +with similarly small loss. Thus, by means of two machines at a moderate +distance apart, nearly 80 per cent, of the power imparted to one machine +could be again yielded in the mechanical form by the second, leaving +out of consideration frictional losses, which latter need not be +great, considering that a dynamo machine had only one moving part +well balanced, and was acted upon along its entire circumference by +propelling force. Jacobi had proved, many years ago, that the maximum +efficiency of a magneto-electric engine was obtained when + +e / E = w / W = 1/2 + +which law had been frequently construed, by Verdet (Theorie Mecanique +de la Chaleur) and others, to mean that one-half was the maximum +theoretical efficiency obtainable in electric transmission of power, and +that one half of the current must be necessarily wasted or turned into +heat. The lecturer could never be reconciled to a law necessitating such +a waste of energy, and had maintained, without disputing the accuracy of +Jacobi's law, that it had reference really to the condition of maximum +work accomplished with a given machine, whereas its efficiency must be +governed by the equation: + +e / E = w / W = nearly 1 + +From this it followed that the maximum yield was obtained when two +dynamo machines (of similar construction) rotated nearly at the same +speed, but that under these conditions the amount of force transmitted +was a minimum. Practically the best condition of working consisted in +giving to the primary machine such proportions as to produce a current +of the same magnitude, but of 50 per cent, greater electromotive force +than the secondary; by adopting such an arrangement, as much as 50 per +cent, of the power imparted to the primary could be practically received +from the secondary machine at a distance of several miles. Professor +Silvanus Thompson, in his recent Cantor Lectures, had shown an ingenious +graphical method of proving these important fundamental laws. + +The possibility of transmitting power electrically was so obvious that +suggestions to that effect had been frequently made since the days of +Volta, by Ritchie, Jacobi, Henry, Page, Hjorth, and others; but it +was only in recent years that such transmission had been rendered +practically feasible. + +Just six years ago, when delivering his presidential address to the Iron +and Steel Institute, the lecturer had ventured to suggest that "time +will probably reveal to us effectual means of carrying power to great +distances, but I cannot refrain from alluding to one which is, in my +opinion, worthy of consideration, namely, the electrical conductor. +Suppose water power to be employed to give motion to a dynamo-electrical +machine, a very powerful electrical current will be the result, which +may be carried to a great distance, through a large metallic conductor, +and then be made to impart motion to electromagnetic engines, to ignite +the carbon points of electric lamps, or to effect the separation of +metals from their combinations. A copper rod 3 in. in diameter would +be capable of transmitting 1,000 horse power a distance of say thirty +miles, an amount sufficient to supply one-quarter of a million candle +power, which would suffice to illuminate a moderately-sized town." This +suggestion had been much criticised at the time, when it was still +thought that electricity was incapable of being massed so as to deal +with many horse power of effect, and the size of conductor he had +proposed was also considered wholly inadequate. It would be interesting +to test this early calculation by recent experience. Mr. Marcel Deprez +had, it was well known, lately succeeded in transmitting as much as +three horse power to a distance of 40 kilometers (25 miles) through +a pair of ordinary telegraph wires of 4 millimeters in diameter. The +results so obtained had been carefully noted by Mr. Tresca, and had been +communicated a fortnight ago to the French Academy of Sciences. Taking +the relative conductivity of iron wire employed by Deprez, and the 3 +in. rod proposed by the lecturer, the amount of power that could be +transmitted through the latter would be about 4,000 horse power. But +Deprez had employed a motor-dynamo of 2,000 volts, and was contented +with a yield of 32 per cent. only of the energy imparted to the primary +machine, whereas he had calculated at the time upon an electromotive +force of 200 volts, and upon a return of at least 40 per cent. of the +energy imparted. In March, 1878, when delivering one of the Science +Lectures at Glasgow, he said that a 2 in. rod could be made to +accomplish the object proposed, because he had by that time conceived +the possibility of employing a current of at least 500 volts. Sir +William Thomson had at once accepted these views, and with the +conceptive ingenuity peculiar to himself, had gone far beyond him, in +showing before the Parliamentary Electric Light Committee of 1879, that +through a copper wire of only 1/2 in. diameter, 21,000 horse power might +be conveyed to a distance of 300 miles with a current of an intensity +of 80,000 volts. The time might come when such a current could be dealt +with, having a striking distance of about 12 ft. in air, but then, +probably, a very practical law enunciated by Sir William Thomson would +be infringed. This was to the effect that electricity was conveyed at +the cheapest rate through a conductor, the cost of which was such +that the annual interest upon the money expended equaled the annual +expenditure for lost effect in the conductor in producing the power to +be conveyed. It appeared that Mr. Deprez had not followed this law in +making his recent installations. + +Sir William Armstrong was probably first to take practical, advantage of +these suggestions in lighting his house at Cragside during night time, +and working his lathe and saw bench during the day, by power transmitted +through a wire from a waterfall nearly a mile distant from his mansion. +The lecturer had also accomplished the several objects of pumping water, +cutting wood, hay, and swedes, of lighting his house, and of carrying on +experiments in electro-horticulture from a common center of steam power. +The results had been most satisfactory; the whole of the management +had been in the hands of a gardener and of laborers, who were without +previous knowledge of electricity, and the only repairs that had been +found necessary were one renewal of the commutators and an occasional +change of metallic contact brushes. + +An interesting application of electric transmission to cranes, by Dr. +Hopkinson, was shown in operation. + +Among the numerous other applications of the electrical transmission +of power, that to electrical railways, first exhibited by Dr. Werner +Siemens, at the Berlin Exhibition of 1879, had created more than +ordinary public attention. In it the current produced by the dynamo +machine, fixed at a convenient station and driven by a steam engine +or other motor, was conveyed to a dynamo placed upon the moving car, +through a central rail supported upon insulating blocks of wood, the two +working rails serving to convey the return current. The line was 900 +yards long, of 2 ft gauge, and the moving car served its purpose of +carrying twenty visitors through the exhibition each trip. The success +of this experiment soon led to the laying of the Lichterfelde line, in +which both rails were placed upon insulating sleepers, so that the one +served for the conveyance of the current from the power station to the +moving car, and the other for completing the return circuit. This line +had a gauge of 3 ft. 3 in., was 2,500 yards in length, and was worked +by two dynamo machines, developing an aggregate current of 9,000 watts, +equal to 12 horse power. It had now been in constant operation since May +16, 1881, and had never failed in accomplishing its daily traffic. +A line half a kilometer in length, but of 4 ft. 81/2 in. gauge was +established by the lecturer at Paris in connection with the Electric +Exhibition of 1881. In this case, two suspended conductors in the form +of hollow tubes with a longitudinal slit were adopted, the contact being +made by metallic bolts drawn through these slit tubes, and connected +with the dynamo machine on the moving car by copper ropes passing +through the roof. On this line 95,000 passengers were conveyed within +the short period of seven weeks. + +An electric tramway, six miles in length, had just been completed, +connecting Portrush with Bush Mills, in the north of Ireland, in the +installation of which the lecturer was aided by Mr. Traill, as engineer +of the company by Mr. Alexander Siemens, and by Dr. E. Hopkinson, +representing his firm. In this instance the two rails, 3 ft. apart, were +not insulated from the ground, but were joined electrically by means of +copper staples and formed the return circuit, the current being conveyed +to the car through a T iron placed upon short standards, and insulated +by means of insulate caps. For the present the power was produced by +a steam engine at Portrush, giving motion to a shunt-wound dynamo of +15,000 watts=20 horse power, but arrangements were in progress to +utilize a waterfall of ample power near Bush Mills, by means of three +turbines of 40 horse power each, now in course of erection. The working +speed of this line was restricted by the Board of Trade to ten miles an +hour, which was readily obtained, although the gradients of the line +were decidedly unfavorable, including an incline of two miles in length +at a gradient of 1 in 38. It was intended to extend the line six miles +beyond Bush Mills, in order to join it at Dervock station with the north +of Ireland narrow gauge railway system. + +The electric system of propulsion was, in the lecturer's opinion, +sufficiently advanced to assure practical success under suitable +circumstances--such as for suburban tramways, elevated lines, and +above all lines through tunnels; such as the Metropolitan and District +Railways. The advantages were that the weight, of the engine, so +destructive of power and of the plant itself in starting and stopping, +would be saved, and that perfect immunity from products of combustion +would be insured The experience at Lichterfelde, at Paris, and another +electric line of 765 yards in length, and 2 ft. 2 in. gauge, worked +in connection with the Zaukerode Colliery since October, 1882, were +extremely favorable to this mode of propulsion. The lecturer however +did not advocate its prospective application in competition with the +locomotive engine for main lines of railway. For tramways within +populous districts, the insulated conductor involved a serious +difficulty. It would be more advantageous under these circumstances to +resort to secondary batteries, forming a store of electrical energy +carried under the seats of the car itself, and working a dynamo machine +connected with the moving wheels by means of belts and chains. + +The secondary battery was the only available means of propelling vessels +by electrical power, and considering that these batteries might be made +to serve the purpose of keel ballast, their weight, which was still +considerable, would not be objectionable. The secondary battery was not +an entirely new conception. The hydrogen gas battery suggested by Sir +Wm. Grove in 1841, and which was shown in operation, realized in the +most perfect manner the conception of storage, only that the power +obtained from it was exceedingly slight. The lecturer, in working upon +Sir Wm. Grove's conception, had twenty-five years ago constructed +a battery of considerable power in substituting porous carbon for +platinum, impregnating the same with a precipitate of lead peroxidized +by a charging current. At that time little practical importance attached +however to the object, and even when Plante, in 1860, produced his +secondary battery, composed of lead plates peroxidized by a charging +current, little more than scientific curiosity was excited. It was +only since the dynamo machine had become an accomplished fact that +the importance of this mode of storing energy had become of practical +importance, and great credit was due to Faure, to Sellon, and to +Volckmar for putting this valuable addition to practical science into +available forms. A question of great interest in connection with the +secondary battery had reference to its permanence. A fear had been +expressed by many that local action would soon destroy the fabric of +which it was composed, and that the active surfaces would become coated +with sulphate of lead, preventing further action. It had, however, +lately been proved in a paper read by Dr. Frankland before the Royal +Society, corroborated by simultaneous investigations by Dr. Gladstone +and Mr. Tribe, that the action of the secondary battery depended +essentially upon the alternative composition and decomposition of +sulphate of lead, which was therefore not an enemy, but the best friend +to its continued action. + +In conclusion, the lecturer referred to electric nomenclature, and to +the means for measuring and recording the passage of electric energy. +When he addressed the British Association at Southampton, he had +ventured to suggest two electrical units additional to those established +at the Electrical Congress in 1881, viz.: the watt and the joule, +in order to complete the chain of units connecting electrical with +mechanical energy and with the unit quantity of heat. He was glad to +find that this suggestion had met with a favorable reception, especially +that of the watt, which was convenient for expressing in an intelligible +manner the effective power of a dynamo machine, and for giving a precise +idea of the number of lights or effective power to be realized by its +current, as well as of the engine power necessary to drive it; 746 watts +represented 1 horse-power. + +Finally, the watt meter, an instrument recently developed by his firm, +was shown in operation. This consisted simply of a coil of thick +conductor suspended by a torsion wire, and opposed laterally to a fixed +coil of wire of high resistance. The current to be measured flowed +through both coils in parallel circuit, the one representing its +quantity expressible in amperes, and the other its potential expressible +in volts. Their joint attractive action expressed therefore volt-amperes +or watts, which were read off upon a scale of equal divisions. + +The lecture was illustrated by experiments, and by numerous diagrams and +tables of results. Measuring instruments by Professors Ayrton and Perry, +by Mr. Edison and by Mr. Boys, were also exhibited. + + * * * * * + + + + +ON THE PREPARATION OF GELATINE PLATES. + +[Footnote: Being an abstract of the introductory lecture to a course on +photography at the Polytechnic Institute, November 11.] + +By E. HOWARD FARMER, F.C.S. + + +Since the first announcement of these lectures, our Secretary has asked +me to give a free introductory lecture, so that all who are interested +in the subject may come and gather a better idea as to them than they +can possibly do by simply leading a prospectus. This evening, therefore, +I propose to give first a typical lecture of the course, and secondly, +at its conclusion, to say a few words as to our principal object. As the +subject for this evening's lecture I have chosen, "The Preparation of +Gelatine Plates," as it is probably one of very general interest to +photographers. + +Before preparing our emulsion, we must first decide upon the particular +materials we are going to use, and of these the first requisite is +nitrate of silver. Nitrate of silver is supplied by chemists in three +principal conditions: + +1. The ordinary crystallized salt, prepared by dissolving silver in +nitric acid, and evaporating the solution until the salt crystallizes +out. This sample usually presents the appearance of imperfect crystals, +having a faint yellowish tinge, and a strong odor of nitrous fumes, and +contains, as might be expected, a considerable amount of free acid. + +2. Fused nitrate, or "lunar caustic," prepared by fusing the +crystallized salt and casting it into sticks. Lunar caustic is usually +alkaline to test paper. + +3. Recrystallized silver nitrate, prepared by redissolving the ordinary +salt in distilled water, and again evaporating to the crystallizing +point. By this means the impurities and free acid are removed. + +I have a specimen of this on the table, and it consists, as you observe, +of fine crystals which are perfectly colorless and transparent; it is +also perfectly neutral to test paper. No doubt either of these samples +can be used with success in preparing emulsions, but to those who are +inexperienced, I recommend that the recrystallized salt be employed. We +make, then, a solution of recrystallized silver nitrate in distilled +water, containing in every 12 ounces of solution 11/4 ounces of the salt. + +The next material we require is a soluble bromide. I have here specimens +of various bromides which can be employed, such as ammonium, potassium, +barium, and zinc bromides; as a rule, however, either the ammonium or +potassium salt is used, and I should like to say a few words respecting +the relative efficiency of these two salts. + +1. As to ammonium bromide. This substance is a highly unstable salt. +A sample of ammonium bromide which is perfectly neutral when first +prepared will, on keeping, be found to become decidedly acid in +character. Moreover, during this decomposition, the percentage of +bromine does not remain constant; as a rule, it will be found to contain +more than the theoretical amount of bromine. Finally, all ammonium salts +have a most destructive action on gelatine; if gelatine, which has +been boiled for a short time with either ammonium bromide or ammonium +nitrate, be added to an emulsion, it will be found to produce pink +fog--and probably frilling--on plates prepared with the emulsion. For +these reasons, I venture to say that ammonium bromide, which figures so +largely in formulae for gelatine emulsions, is one of the worst bromides +that can be employed for that purpose, and is, indeed, a frequent source +of pink fog and frilling. + +2. As to potassium bromide. This is a perfectly stable substance, can be +readily obtained pure, and is constant in composition; neither has it +(nor the nitrate) any appreciable destructive action on gelatine. We +prepare, then, a solution of potassium bromide in water containing in +every 12 ounces of solution 1 ounce of the salt. On testing it with +litmus paper, the solution may be either slightly alkaline or neutral; +in either case, it should be faintly acidified with hydrochloric acid. + +The last material we require is the gelatine, one of the most important, +and at the same time the most difficult substance to obtain of good +quality. I have various samples here--notably Nelson's No. 1 and "X +opaque;" Coignet's gold medal; Heinrich's; the Autotype Company's; and +Russian isinglass. + +The only method I know of securing a uniform quality of gelatine is to +purchase several small samples, make a trial emulsion with each, and buy +a stock of the sample which gives the best results. To those who do not +care to go to this trouble, equal quantities of Nelson's No. 1 and +X opaque, as recommended by Captain Abney, can be employed. Having +selected the gelatine, 11/4 ounces should be allowed to soak in water, and +then melted, when it will be found to have a bulk of about 6 ounces. + +In order to prepare our emulsion, I take equal bulks of the silver +nitrate and potassium bromide solutions in beakers, and place them in +the water bath to get hot. I also take an equal bulk of hot water in a +large beaker, and add to it one-half an ounce of the gelatine solution +to every 12 ounces of water. Having raised all these to about 180 deg. F., I +add (as you observe) to the large beaker containing the dilute gelatine +a little of the bromide, then, through a funnel having a fine orifice, +a little of the silver, swirling the liquid round during the operation; +then again some bromide and silver, and so on until all is added. + +When this is completed, a little of the emulsion is poured on a glass +plate, and examined by transmitted light; if the mixing be efficient, +the light will appear--as it does here--of an orange or orange red +color. + +It will be observed that we keep the bromide in excess while mixing. I +must not forget to mention that to those experienced in mixing, by +far the best method is that described by Captain Abney in his Cantor +lectures, of keeping the silver in excess. + +The emulsion, being properly mixed, has now to be placed in the water +bath, and kept at the boiling point for forty-five minutes. As, +obviously, I cannot keep you waiting while this is done, I propose to +divide our emulsion into two portions, allowing one portion to stew, and +to proceed with the next operation with the remainder. + +Supposing, then, this emulsion has been boiled, it is placed in cold +water to cool. While it is cooling, let us consider for a moment what +takes place during the boiling. It is found that during this time the +emulsion undergoes two remarkable changes: + +1. The molecules of silver bromide gradually aggregate together, forming +larger and larger particles. + +2. The emulsion increases rapidly in sensitiveness. Now what is the +cause, in the first place, of this aggregation of molecules: and, in the +second place, of the increase of sensitiveness? We know that the two +invariably go together, so that we are right in concluding that the same +cause produces both. + +It might be thought that heat is the cause, but the same changes take +place more slowly in the cold, so we can only say that heat accelerates +the action, and hence must conclude that the prime cause is one of the +materials in the emulsion itself. + +Now, besides the silver bromide, we have in the emulsion water, +gelatine, potassium nitrate, and a small excess of potassium bromide; +and in order to find which of these is the cause, we must make different +emulsions, omitting in succession each of these materials. Suppose we +take an emulsion which has just been mixed, and, instead of boiling +it, we precipitate the gelatine and silver bromide with alcohol; on +redissolving the pellicle in the same quantity of water, we have an +emulsion the same as previously, with the exception that the niter and +excess of potassium bromide are absent. If such an emulsion be boiled, +we shall find the remarkable fact that, however long it be boiled, the +silver bromide undergoes no change, neither does the emulsion become +any more sensitive. We therefore conclude, that either the niter or the +small excess of potassium bromide, or both together, produce the change. + +Now take portions of a similarly washed emulsion, and add to one portion +some niter, and to another some potassium bromide; on boiling these +we find that the one containing niter does not change, while that +containing the potassium bromide rapidly undergoes the changes +mentioned. + +Here, then, by a direct appeal to experiment, we prove that to all +appearance comparatively useless excess of potassium bromide is really +one of the most important constituents of the emulsion. + +The following table gives some interesting results respecting this +action of potassium bromide: + + __________________________________________________________ + Excess of potash bromide. | Time to acquire maximum | + | sensitiveness. | + --------------------------+------------------------------+ + 0.2 grain per ounce | no increase after six hours. | + 2.0 " " | about one-half an hour. | + 20.0 " " | seven minutes. | + --------------------------+------------------------------+ + +I must here leave the _rationale_ of the process for the present, and +proceed with the next operation. + +Our emulsion being cold, I add to it, for every 6 ounces of mixed +emulsion, 1 ounce of a saturated cold solution of potassium bichromate; +then, gently swirling the mixture round, a few drops of a dilute (1 to +8) solution of hydrochloric acid, and place it on one side for a minute +or two. + +When hydrochloric acid is added to bichromate of potash, chromic acid is +liberated. Now, chromic acid has the property of precipitating gelatine, +so that what I hope to have done is to have precipitated the gelatine in +this emulsion, and which will carry down the silver bromide as well. You +see here I can pour off the supernatant liquid clear, leaving our silver +and gelatine as a clot at the bottom of the vessel. + +Another action of chromic acid is, that it destroys the action of light +on silver bromide, so that up to this point operations can be carried on +in broad daylight. + +The precipitated emulsion is now taken into the dark room and washed +until the wash water shows no trace of color; if there be a large +quantity, this is best done on a fine muslin filter; if a small +quantity, by decantation. + +Having been thoroughly washed, I dissolve the pellicle in water by +immersing the beaker containing it in the water bath. I then add the +remaining gelatine, and make up the whole with 3 ounces of alcohol and +water to 30 ounces for the quantities given. I pass the emulsion through +a funnel containing a pellet of cotton wool in order to filter it, and +it is ready for coating the plates. + +To coat a plate, I place it on this small block of leveled wood, and +pour on down a glass rod a small quantity of the emulsion, and by means +of the rod held horizontally, spread it over the plate. I then transfer +the plate to this leveled slab of plate glass, in order that the +emulsion on it may set. As soon as set, it is placed in the drying box. + +This process, as here described, does not give plates of the highest +degree of sensitiveness, to attain which a further operation is +necessary; they are, however, of exceedingly good quality, and very +suitable for landscape work.--_Photo. News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +PICTURES ON GLASS. + + +The invention of M. E. Godard, of Paris, has for its object the +reproduction of images and drawings, by means of vitrifiable colors on +glass, wood, stone, on canvas or paper prepared for oil-painting and on +other substances having polished surfaces, e. g., earthenware, copper, +etc. The original drawings or images should be well executed, and drawn +on white, or preferably bluish paper, similar to paper used for ordinary +drawings. In the patterns for glass painting, by this process, the place +to be occupied is marked by the lead, before cutting the glass to suit +the various shades which compose the color of a panel, as is usually +done in this kind of work; the operation changes only when the glass +cutter hands these sheets over to the man who undertakes the painting. +The sheets of glass are cut according to the lines of the drawing, and +after being well cleaned, they are placed on the paper on the places for +which they have been cut out. If the window to be stained is of large +size and consists of several panels, only one panel is proceeded with +at a time. The glass is laid on the reverse side of the paper (the side +opposite to the drawing), the latter having been made transparent by +saturating it with petroleum. This operation also serves to fix the +outlines of the drawing more distinctly, and to give more vigor to the +dark tone of the paper. When the paper is thus prepared, and the sheets +of glass each in its place, they are coated by means of a brush with +a sensitizing solution on the side which comes into contact with the +paper. This coating should be as thin and as uniform as possible on +the surface of the glass. For more perfectly equalizing the coating, a +second brush is used. + +The sensitizing solution which serves to produce the verifiable image is +prepared as follows: Bichromate of ammonia is dissolved in water till +the latter is saturated; five grammes of powdered dextrin or glucose are +then dissolved in 100 grammes of water; to either of these solutions +is added 10 per cent. of the solution of bichromate, and the mixture +filtered. + +The coating of the glass takes place immediately afterward in a dark +room; the coated sheets are then subjected to a heat of 50 deg. or 60 deg. C. +(120 deg. to 140 deg. Fahr.) in a small hot chamber, where they are laid one +after the other on a wire grating situated 35 centimeters above the +bottom. Care should be taken not to introduce the glass under treatment +into the hot chamber before the required degree of heat has been +obtained. A few seconds are sufficient to dry each sheet, and the wire +grating should be large enough to allow of the dried glass being laid in +rows, on one side where the heat is less intense. For the reproduction +of the pictures or images a photographic copying frame of the size of +the original is used. A stained glass window being for greater security +generally divided into different panels, the size of one panel is seldom +more than one square meter. If the picture to be reproduced should be +larger in size than any available copying frame, the prepared glass +sheets are laid between two large sheets of plate-glass, and part after +part is proceeded with, by sliding the original between the two sheets. +A photographic copying frame, however, is always preferable, as it +presses the glass sheets better against the original. The original +drawing is laid fiat on the glass of the frame. The lines where the lead +is to connect the respective sheets of glass are marked on the drawing +with blue or red pencil. The prepared sheets of glass are then placed +one after the other on the original in their respective places, so that +the coated side comes in contact with the original. The frame is then +closed. It should be borne in mind that the latter operations must be +performed in the dark room. The closed frame is now exposed to light. If +the operations are performed outdoors, the frame is laid flat, so that +the light falls directly on it; if indoors, the frame is placed inclined +behind a window, so that it may receive the light in front. The time +necessary for exposing the frame depends upon the light and the +temperature; for instance, if the weather is fine and cloudless and the +temperature from 16 deg. to 18 deg. C. (60 deg. to 64 deg. Fahr.), it will require from +12 to 15 minutes. + +It will be observed that the time of exposure also depends on the +thickness of the paper used for the original. If, however, the weather +is dark, it requires from 30 to 50 minutes for the exposure. It will be +observed that if the temperature is above 25 deg. C. (about 80 deg. Fahr.), the +sheets of glass should be kept very cool and be less dried; otherwise, +when exposed the sheets are instantly metallized, and the reproduction +cannot take place. The same inconvenience takes place if the temperature +is beneath 5 deg. C. (41 deg. Fahr.). In this case the sheets should be kept +warm, and care should be taken not to expose the frame to the open air, +but always behind a glass window at a temperature of from 14 deg. to 18 deg. +C. (about 60 deg. Fahr.). The time necessary for the exposure can be +ascertained by taking out one of the many pieces of glass, applying to +the sensitive surface a vitrifiable color, and observing whether the +color adheres well. If the color adheres but slightly to the dark, shady +portions of the image, the exposure has been too long, and the process +must be recommenced; if, on the contrary, the color adheres too well, +the exposure has not been sufficient, the frames must be closed again, +and the exposure continued. When the frame has been sufficiently +exposed, it is taken into the dark room, the sensitized pieces of glass +laid on a plate of glass or marble with the sensitive surface turned +upward, and the previously prepared vitrifiable color strewed over it by +means of a few light strokes of a brush. This powder does not adhere to +the parts of the picture fully exposed to light, but adheres only to the +more or less shady portions of the picture. This operation develops +on the glass the image as it is on the paper. Thirty to 40 grammes +of nitric acid are added to 1,000 grammes of wood-spirit, such as is +generally used in photography, and the prepared pieces of glass are +dipped into the bath, leaving them afterward to dry. If the bath becomes +of a yellowish color, it must be renewed. This bath has for its object +to remove the coating of bichromate, so as to allow the color to adhere +to the glass, from which it has been separated by the layer of glucose +and bichromate, which would prevent the vitrification. The bath has also +for its object to render the light parts of the picture perfectly +pure and capable of being easily retouched or painted by hand. The +application of variously colored enamels and the heating are then +effected as in ordinary glass painting. The same process may be applied +to marble, wood, stone, lava, canvas prepared for oil painting, +earthenware, pure or enameled iron. The result is the same in all cases, +and the process is the same as with glass, with the difference only that +the above named materials are not dipped into the bath, but the liquid +is poured over the objects after the latter have been placed in an +inclined position. + + * * * * * + + + + +PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN SULPHIDE FROM COAL-GAS. + +By I. TAYLOR, B.A., Science Master at Christ College, Brecon. + + +Hydrogen sulphide may be prepared very easily, and sufficiently pure +for ordinary analytical purposes, by passing coal-gas through boiling +sulphur. Coal-gas contains 40 to 50 per cent, of hydrogen, nearly the +whole of which may, by means of a suitable arrangement, be converted +into sulphureted hydrogen. The other constituents of coal-gas--methane, +carbon monoxide, olefines, etc.--are not affected by passing through +boiling sulphur, and for ordinary laboratory work their removal is quite +unnecessary, as they do not in any way interfere with the precipitation +of metallic sulphides. + +[Illustration: PREPARATION OF HYDROGEN SULPHIDE FROM COAL-GAS.] + +A convenient apparatus for the preparation of hydrogen sulphide from +coal-gas, such as we have at present in use in the Christ College +laboratory, consists of a retort, R, in which sulphur is placed. +Through the tubulure of the retort there passes a bent glass-tube, T E, +perforated near the closed end, F, with a number of small holes. (The +perforations are easily made by piercing the partially softened glass +with a white-hot steel needle; an ordinary crotchet needle, the hook +having been removed and the end sharpened, answers the purpose very +well.) The end, T, of the glass tube is connected by caoutchouc tubing +with the coal-gas supply, the perforated end dipping into the sulphur. +The neck of the retort, inclined slightly upward to allow the condensed +sulpur, as it remelts, to flow back, is connected with awash bottle, B, +to which is attached the flask, F, containing the solution through which +it is required to pass the hydrogen sulphide; F is connected with an +aspirator, A. + +About one pound of sulphur having been introduced into the retort and +heated to the boiling-point, the tap of the aspirator is turned on and +a current of coal-gas drawn through the boiling sulphur; the hydrogen +sulphide formed is washed by the water contained in B, passes on into +F, and finally into the aspirator. The speed of the current may be +regulated by the tap, and as the aspirator itself acts as a receptacle +for excess of gas, very little as a rule escapes into the room, and +consequently unpleasant smells are avoided. + +This method of preparing sulphureted hydrogen will, I think, be found +useful in the laboratory. It is cleanly, much cheaper than the ordinary +method, and very convenient. During laboratory work, a burner is placed +under the retort and the sulphur kept hot, so that its temperature may +be quickly raised to the boiling-point when the gas is required. From +time to time it is necessary to replenish the retort with sulphur and to +remove the condensed portions from the neck.--_Chem. News_. + + * * * * * + +"SETTING" OF GYPSUM.--This setting is the result of two distinct, though +simultaneous, phenomena. On the one hand, portions of anhydrous calcium +sulphate, when moistened with water, dissolve as they are hydrated, +forming a supersaturated solution. On the other hand, this same solution +deposits crystals of the hydrated sulphate, gradually augment in bulk, +and unite together.--_H. Le Chatellier_. + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT No. 383, page 6118.] + + + + +MALARIA. + +By JAMES H. SALISBURY, A.M., M.D. + +PRIZE ESSAY OF THE ALBANY MEDICAL COLLEGE ALUMNI ASSOCIATION, FEB., +1882. + +VII. + + +I have made careful microscopic examinations of the blood in several +cases of Panama fever I have treated, and find in all severe cases many +of the colorless corpuscles filled more or less with spores of ague +vegetation and the serum quite full of the same spores (see Fig. N, +Plate VIII.). + +Mr. John Thomas. Panama fever. Vegetation in blood and colorless +corpuscles. (Fig N, Plate VIII.) Vegetation, spores of, in the colorless +corpuscles of the blood. Spores in serum of blood adhering to fibrin +filaments. + +Mr. Thomas has charge of the bridge building on the Tehuantepec +Railroad. Went there about one year ago. Was taken down with the fever +last October. Returned home in February last, all broken down. Put him +under treatment March 15, 1882. Gained rapidly (after washing him out +with hot water, and getting his urine clear and bowels open every day) +on two grains of quinia every day, two hours, till sixteen doses were +taken. After an interval of seven days, repeated the quinia, and so on. +This fever prevails on all the low lands, as soon as the fresh soil +is exposed to the drying rays of the sun. The vegetation grows on the +drying soil, and the spores rise in the night air, and fall after +sunrise. All who are exposed to the night air, which is loaded with the +spores, suffer with the disease. The natives of the country suffer about +as badly as foreigners. Nearly half of the workmen die of the disease. +The fever is a congestive intermittent of a severe type. + +Henry Thoman. Leucocythaemia. Spleen 11 inches in diameter, two white +globules to one red. German. Thirty-six years of age. Weight, 180 +pounds. Colorless corpuscles very large and varying much in size, as +seen at N. Corpuscles filled--many of them--with the spores of ague +vegetation. Also spores swimming in serum. + +This man has been a gardener back of Hoboken on ague lands, and has had +ague for two years preceding this disease. + +I will now introduce a communication made to me by a medical gentleman +who has followed somewhat my researches for many years, and has taken +great pains of time and expense to see if my researches are correct. + + +REPORT ON THE CAUSE OF AGUE.--BY DR. EPHRAIM CUTTER, TO THE WRITER + +At your request I give the evidence on which I base my opinion that your +plan in relation to ague is true. + +From my very start into the medical profession, I had a natural intense +interest in the causes of disease, which was also fostered by my father, +the late Dr. Cutter, who honored his profession nearly forty years. +Hence, I read your paper on ague with enthusiasm, and wrote to you for +some of the plants of which you spoke. You sent me six boxes containing +soil, which you said was full of the gemiasmas. You gave some drawings, +so that I should know the plants when I saw them, and directed me to +moisten the soil with water and expose to air and sunlight. In the +course of a few days I was to proceed to collect. I faithfully followed +the instructions, but without any success. I could detect no plants +whatever, + +This result would have settled the case ordinarily, and I would have +said that you were mistaken, as the material submitted by yourself +failed as evidence. But I thought that there was too much internal +evidence of the truth of your story, and having been for many years +an observer in natural history, I had learned that it is often very +difficult for one to acquire the art of properly making examinations, +even though the procedures are of the simplest description. So I +distrusted, not you, but myself, and hence, you may remember, I forsook +all and fled many hundred miles to you from my home with the boxes you +had sent me. In three minutes after my arrival you showed me how to +collect the plants in abundance from the very soil in the boxes that had +traveled so far backward and forward, from the very specimens on which I +had failed to do so. + +The trouble was with me--that I went too deep with my needle. You showed +me it was simply necessary to remove the slightest possible amount on +the point of a cambric needle; deposit this in a drop of clean water on +a slide cover with, a covering glass and put it under your elegant 1/5 +inch objective, and there were the gemiasmas just as you had described. + +I have always felt humbled by this teaching, and I at the time rejoiced +that instead of denouncing you as a cheat and fraud (as some did at that +time), I did not do anything as to the formation of an opinion until I +had known more and more accurately about the subject. + +I found all the varieties of the palmellae you described in the boxes, +and I kept them for several years and demonstrated them as I had +opportunity. You also showed me on this visit the following experiments +that I regarded as crucial: + +1st. I saw you scrape from the skin of an ague patient sweat and +epithelium with the spores and the full grown plants of the Gemiasma +verdans. + +2d. I saw you take the sputa of a ague patient and demonstrate the +spores and sporangia of the Gemiasma verdans. + +3d. I saw you take the urine of a female patient suffering from ague +(though from motives of delicacy I did not see the urine voided--still I +believe that she did pass the urine, as I did not think it necessary to +insult the patient), and you demonstrated to me beautiful specimens of +Gemiasma rubra. You said it was not common to find the full development +in the urine of such cases, but only in the urine of the old severe +cases. This was a mild case. + +4th. I saw you take the blood from the forearm of an ague patient, and +under the microscope I saw you demonstrate the gemiasma, white and +bleached in the blood. You said that the coloring matter did not develop +in the blood, that it was a difficult task to demonstrate the plants in +the blood, that it required usually a long and careful search of hours +sometimes, and at other times the plants would be obtained at once. + +When I had fully comprehended the significance of the experiments I was +filled with joy, and like the converts in apostolic times I desired to +go about and promulgate the news to the profession. I did so in many +places, notably in New York city, where I satisfactorily demonstrated +the plants to many eminent physicians at my room at the Fifth Avenue +Hotel; also before a medical society where more than one hundred persons +were present. I did all that I could, but such was the preoccupation of +the medical gentlemen that a respectful hearing was all I got. This is +not to be wondered at, as it was a subject, now, after the lapse of +nearly a decade and a half, quite unstudied and unknown. After this I +studied the plants as I had opportunity, and in 1877 made a special +journey to Long Island, N.Y., for the purpose of studying the plants in +their natural habitat, when they were in a state of maturity. I have +also examined moist soils in localities where ague is occasionally +known, with other localities where it prevails during the warm months. + +Below I give the results, which from convenience I divide into two +parts: 1st. Studies of the ague plants in their natural habitat. 2d. +Studies of the ague plants in their unnatural habitat (parasitic). I +think one should know the first before attempting the second. + +_First_--Studies to find in their natural habitat the palmellae described +as the Gemiasma rubra, Gemiasma verdans, Gemiasma plumba, Gemiasma alba, +Protuberans lamella. + +_Second_--_Outfit_.--Glass slides, covers, needles, toothpicks, bottle +of water, white paper and handkerchief, portable microscope with a good +Tolles one inch eyepiece, and one-quarter inch objective. + +Wherever there was found on low, marshy soil a white incrustation like +dried salt, a very minute portion was removed by needle or toothpick, +deposited on a slide, moistened with a drop of water, rubbed up with a +needle or toothpick into a uniformly diffused cloud in and through the +water. The cover was put on, and the excess of water removed by touching +with a handkerchief the edge of the cover. Then the capillary attraction +held the cover in place, as is well known. The handkerchief or white +paper was spread on the ground at my feet, and the observation conducted +at once after the collection and on the very habitat. It is possible +thus to conduct observations with the microscope besides in boats on +ponds or sea, and adding a good kerosene light in bed or bunk or on +lounge. + +August 11, 1877.--Excursion to College Point, Flushing, Long Island: + +Observation 1. 1:50 P.M. Sun excessively hot. Gathered some of the white +incrustation on sand in a marsh west of Long Island Railroad depot. +Found some Gemiasma verdans, G. rubra; the latter were dry and not good +specimens, but the field swarmed with the automobile spores. The full +developed plant is termed sporangia, and seeds are called spores. + +Observation 2. Another specimen from same locality, not good; that is, +forms were seen but they were not decisive and characteristic. + +Observation 3. Earth from Wallabout, near Naval Hospital, Brooklyn, Rich +in spores (A) with automobile protoplasmic motions, (B) Gemiasma rubra, +(C) G. verdans, very beautiful indeed. Plants very abundant. + +Observation 4. Walking up the track east of L. I. R.R. depot, I took an +incrustation near creek; not much found but dirt and moving spores. + +Observation 5. Seated on long marsh grass I scraped carefully from the +stalks near the roots of the grass where the plants were protected from +the action of the sunlight and wind. Found a great abundance of mature +Gemiasma verdans very beautiful in appearance. + +_Notes_.--The time of my visit was most unfavorable. The best time is +when the morning has just dawned and the dew is on the grass. One then +can find an abundance, while after the sun is up and the air is hot the +plants disappear; probably burst and scatter the spores in billions, +which, as night comes on and passes, develop into the mature plants, +when they may be found in vast numbers. It would seem from this that the +life epoch of a gemiasma is one day under such circumstances, but I have +known them to be present for weeks under a cover on a slide, when the +slide was surrounded with a bandage wet with water, or kept in a culture +box. The plants may be cultivated any time in a glass with a water +joint. A, Goblet inverted over a saucer; B, filled with water; C, D, +specimen of earth with ague plants. + +Observation 6. Some Gemiasma verdaus; good specimens, but scanty. +Innumerable mobile spores. Dried. + +Observation 7. Red dust on gray soil. Innumerable mobile spores. Dried +red sporangia of G. rubra. + +Observation 8. White incrustation. Innumerable mobile spores. No plants. + +Observation 9. White incrustation. Many minute algae, but two sporangia +of a pale pink color; another variety of color of gemiasma. Innumerable +mobile spores. + +Observation 10. Gemiasma verdans and G. rubra in small quantities. +Innumerable mobile spores. + +Observation 11. Specimen taken from under the shade of short marsh +grass. Gemiasma exceedingly rich and beautiful. Innumerable mobile +spores. + +Observation 12. Good specimens of Gemiasma rubra. Innumerable spores +present in all specimens. + +Observation 13. Very good specimens of Protuberans lamella. + +Observation 14. The same. + +Observation 15. Dead Gemiasma verdans and rubra. + +Observation 16. Collection very unpromising by macroscopy, but by +microscopy showed many spores, mature specimens of Gemiasma rubra and +verdans. One empty specimen with double walls. + +Observation 17. Dry land by the side of railroad. Protuberans not +abundant. + +Observation 18. From side of ditch. Filled with mature Geraiasma +verdans. + +Observation 19. Moist earth near a rejected timber of the railroad +bridge. Abundance of Gemiasma verdans, Sphaerotheca Diatoms. + +Observation 20. Scrapings on earth under high grass. Large mature +specimens of Gemiasma rubra and verdans. Many small. + +Observation 21. Same locality. Gemiasma rubra and verdans; good +specimens. + +Observation 22. A dry stem of a last year's annual plant lay in the +ditch not submerged, that appeared as if painted red with iron rust. +This redness evidently made up of Gemiasma rubra dried. + +Observation 23. A twig submerged in a ditch was scraped. Gemiasma +verdans found abundantly with many other things, which if rehearsed +would cloud this story. + +Observation 24. Scrapings from the dirty end of the stick (23) gave +specimens of the beautiful double wall palmellae and some empty G. +verdans. + +Observation 25. Stirred up the littoral margins of the ditch with stick +found in the path, and the drip showed Gemiasma rubra and verdans mixed +in with dirt, debris, other algae, fungi, infusoria, especially diatoms. + +Observation 26. I was myself seized with sneezing and discharge running +from nostrils during these examinations. Some of the contents of +the right nostril were blown on a slide, covered, and examined +morphologically. Several oval bodies, round algae, were found with the +characteristics of G. verdans and rubra. Also some colorless sporangia, +and spores abundantly present. These were in addition to the normal +morphological elements found in the excretions. + +Observation 27. Dried clay on margin of the river showed dry G. verdans. + +Observation 28. Saline dust on earth that had been thrown out during the +setting of a new post in the railroad bridge showed some Gemiasma alba. + +Observation 29. The dry white incrustation found on fresh earth near +railroad track entirely away from water, where it appeared as if +white sugar or sand had been sprinkled over in a fine dust, showed +an abundance of automobile spores and dry sporangia of G. rubra and +verdans. It was not made up of salts from evaporation. + +Observation 30. Some very thick, long, green, matted marsh grass was +carefully separated apart like the parting of thick hair on the head. A +little earth was taken from the crack, and the Protuberans lamella, the +Gemiasma rubra and verdans found were beautiful and well developed. + +Observation 31. Brooklyn Naval Hospital, August 12, 1877, 4 A.M. Called +up by the Quartermaster. With Surgeon C. W. White, U.S.N., took (A) one +five inch glass beaker, bottomless, (B) three clean glass slides, (C) +chloride of calcium solution, [symbol: dra(ch)m] i to [symbol: ounce] i +water. We went, as near as I could judge in the darkness, to about that +portion of the wall that lies west of the hospital, southeast corner +(now all filled up), where on the 10th of August previously I had found +some actively growing specimens of the Gemiasma verdans, rubra, and +protuberans. The chloride of calcium solution was poured into a glass +tumbler, then rubbed over the inside and outside of the beaker. It was +then placed on the ground, the rim of the mouth coming on the soil and +the bottom elevated on an old tin pan, so that the beaker stood inclined +at an angle of about forty-five degrees with the horizon. The slides +were moistened, one was laid on a stone, one on a clod, and a third on +the grass. Returned to bed, not having been gone over ten minutes. + +At 6 A.M. collected and examined for specimens the drops of dew +deposited. Results: In every one of the five instances collected +the automobile spores, and the sporangia of the gemiasmas and the +protuberans on both sides of slides and beaker. There were also spores +and mycelial filaments of fungi, dirt, and zoospores. The drops of dew +were collected with capillary tubes such as were used in Edinburgh for +vaccine virus. The fluid was then preserved and examined in the naval +laboratory. In a few hours the spores disappeared. + +Observation 32. Some of the earth near the site of the exposure referred +to in Observation 31, was examined and found to contain abundantly the +Gemiasma verdans, rubra, Protuberans lamella, confirmed by three more +observations. + +Observation 33. In company with Surgeon F. M. Dearborne, U.S.N., in +charge of Naval Hospital, the same day later explored the wall about +marsh west of hospital. Found the area abundantly supplied with +palmellae, Gemiasma rubra, verdans, and Protuberans lamella, even where +there was no incrustation or green mould. Made very many examinations, +always finding the plants and spores, giving up only when both of us +were overcome with the heat. + +Observation 34. August, 1881. Visited the Wallabout; found it filled up +with earth. August 17. Visited the Flushing district; examined for the +gemiasma the same localities above named, but found only a few dried up +plants and plenty of spores. With sticks dug up the earth in various +places near by. Early in September revisited the same, but found nothing +more; the incrustation, not even so much as before. The weather was +continuously for a long time very dry, so much so that vegetables and +milk were scarce. + +The grass and grounds were all dried up and cracked with fissures. + +There must be some moisture for the development of the plants. Perhaps +if I had been able to visit the spots in the early morning, it would +have been much better, as about the same time I was studying the same +vegetation on 165th Street and 10th Avenue, New York, and found an +abundance of the plants in the morning, but none scarcely in the +afternoon. + +Should any care to repeat these observations, these limits should be +observed and the old adage about "the early bird catching the worm," +etc. Some may object to this directness of report, and say that we +should report all the forms of life seen. To this I would say that +the position I occupy is much different from yours, which is that of +discoverer. When a detective is sent out to catch a rogue, he tumbles +himself but little with people or things that have no resemblance to the +rogue. Suppose he should return with a report as to the houses, plants, +animals, etc., he encountered in his search; the report might be very +interesting as a matter of general information, but rather out of place +for the parties who desire the rogue caught. So in my search I made a +special work of catching the gemiasmas and not caring for anything else. +Still, to remove from your mind any anxiety that I may possibly not have +understood how to conduct my work, I will introduce here a report +of search to find out how many forms of life and substances I could +recognize in the water of a hydrant fed by Croton water (two specimens +only), during the present winter (1881 and 1882) I beg leave to subjoin +the following list of species, not individuals, I was able to recognize. +In this list you will see the Gemiasma verdans distinguished from its +associate objects. I think I can in no other way more clearly show my +right to have my honest opinion respected in relation to the subject in +question. + +[Illustration: MALARIA PLANTS COLLECTED SEPT. 10, 1882, AT WASHINGTON +HEIGHTS, 176TH STREET, NEAR 10TH AVENUE, NEW YORK CITY, ETC. + +PLATE VIII.--A, B, C, Large plants of Gemiasma verdans. A, Mature plant. +B, Mature plant discharging spores and spermatia through a small opening +in the cell wall. C, A plant nearly emptied. D, Gemiasma rubra; mature +plant filled with microspores. E, Ripe plant discharging contents. F, +Ripe plant, contents nearly discharged; a few active spermatia left +behind and escaping. G, nearly empty plant. H, Vegetation in the SWEAT +of ague cases during the paroxysm of sweating. I, Vegetation in the +BLOOD of ague. J, Vegetation in the urine of ague during paroxysm. K, L, +M, Vegetation in the urine of chronic cases of severe congestive type. +N, Vegetation in BLOOD of Panama fever; white corpuscles distended with +spores of Gemiasma. O, Gemiasma alba. P, Gemiasma rubra. Q, Gemiasma +verdans. R, Gemiasma alba. O, P, Q, R, Found June 28,1867, in profusion +between Euclid and Superior Streets, near Hudson, Cleveland, O. S, +Sporangia of Protuberans.] + +List of objects found in the Croton water, winter of 1881 and 1882. The +specimens obtained by filtering about one barrel of water: + + 1. Acineta tuberosa. + 2. Actinophrys sol. + 3. Amoeba proteus. + 4. " radiosa. + 5. " verrucosa. + 6. Anabaina subtularia. + 7. Ankistrodesmus falcatus. + 8. Anurea longispinis. + 9. " monostylus. + 10. Anguillula fluviatilis. + 11. Arcella mitrata. + 12. " vulgaris. + 13. Argulus. + 14. Arthrodesmus convergens. + 15. Arthrodesmus divergens. + 16. Astrionella formosa. + 17. Bacteria. + 18. Bosmina. + 19. Botryiococcus. + 20. Branchippus stagnalis. + 21. Castor. + 22. Centropyxis. + 23. Chetochilis. + 24. Chilomonads. + 25. Chlorococcus. + 26. Chydorus. + 27. Chytridium. + 28. Clatbrocystis aeruginosa. + 29. Closterium lunula. + 30. " didymotocum. + 31. " moniliferum. + 32. Coelastrum sphericum. + 33. Cosmarium binoculatum. + 34. Cyclops quad. + 35. Cyphroderia amp. + 36. Cypris tristriata. + 37. Daphnia pulex. + 38. Diaptomas castor. + 39. " sull. + 40. Diatoma vulgaris. + 41. Difflugia cratera. + 42. " globosa. + 43. Dinobryina sertularia. + 44. Dinocharis pocillum. + 45. Dirt. + 46. Eggs of polyp. + 47. " entomostraca. + 48. " plumatella. + 49. " bryozoa. + 50. Enchylis pupa. + 51. Eosphora aurita. + 52. Epithelia, animal. + 53. " vegetable. + 54. Euastrum. + 55. Euglenia viridis. + 56. Euglypha. + 57. Eurycercus lamellatus. + 58. Exuvia of some insect. + 59. Feather barbs. + 60. Floscularia. + 61. Feathers of butterfly. + 62. Fungu, red water. + 63. Fragillaria. + 64. Gemiasma verdans. + 65. Gomphospheria. + 66. Gonium. + 67. Gromia. + 68. Humus. + 69. Hyalosphenia tinctad. + 70. Hydra viridis. + 71. Leptothrix. + 72. Melosira. + 73. Meresmopedia. + 74. Monactina. + 75. Monads. + 76. Naviculae. + 77. Nitzschia. + 78. Nostoc communis. + 79. OEdogonium. + 80. Oscillatoriaceae. + 81. Ovaries of entomostraca. + 82. Pandorina morum. + 83. Paramecium aurelium. + 84. Pediastrum boryanum. + 85. " incisum. + 86. " perforatum. + 87. " pertusum. + 88. " quadratum. + 89. Pelomyxa. + 90. Penium. + 91. Peredinium candelabrum. + 92. Peredinium cinc. + 93. Pleurosigma angulatum. + 94. Plumatella. + 95. Plagiophrys. + 96. Playtiptera polyarthra. + 97. Polycoccus. + 98. Pollen of pine. + 99. Polyhedra tetraetzica. + 100. " triangularis. + 101. Polyphema. + 102. Protococcus. + 103. Radiophrys alba. + 104. Raphidium duplex. + 105. Rotifer ascus. + 106. " vulgaris. + 107. Silica. + 108. Saprolegnia. + 109. Scenedesmus acutus. + 110. " obliquus. + 111. " obtusum. + 112. " quadricauda. + 113. Sheath of tubelaria. + 114. Sphaerotheca spores. + 115. Spirogyra. + 116. Spicules of sponge. + 117. Starch. + 118. Staurastrum furcigerum. + 119. " gracile. + 120. Staurogenum quadratum. + 121. Surirella. + 122. Synchoeta. + 123. Synhedra. + 124. Tabellaria. + 125. Tetraspore. + 126. Trachelomonas. + 127. Trichodiscus. + 128. Uvella. + 129. Volvox globator. + 130. " sull. + 131. Vorticel. + 132. Worm fluke. + 133. Worm, two tailed. + 134. Yeast. + +More forms were found, but could not be determined by me. This list will +give an idea of the variety of forms to be met with in the hunt for ague +plants; still, they are as well marked in their physical characters as a +potato is among the objects of nature. Although I know you are perfectly +familiar with algae, still, to make my report more complete, in case you +should see fit to have it pass out of your hands to others, allow me +to give a short account of the Order Three of Algae, namely, the +Chlorosporeae or Confervoid Algae, derived from the Micrographic +Dictionary, this being an accessible authority. + +Algae form a class of the thallophytes or cellular plants in which the +physiological functions of the plant are delegated most completely to +the individual cell. That is to say, the marked difference of purpose +seen in the leaves, stamens, seeds, etc., of the phanerogams or +flowering plants is absent here, and the structures carrying on the +operations of nutrition and those of reproduction are so commingled, +conjoined, and in some cases identified, that a knowledge of the +microscopic anatomy is indispensable even to the roughest conception of +the natural history of these plants; besides, we find these plants +so simple that we can see through and through them while living in a +natural condition, and by means of the microscope penetrate to mysteries +of organism, either altogether inaccessible, or only to be attained by +disturbing and destructive dissection, in the so called higher forms of +vegetation. We say "so-called" advisedly, for in the Algae are included +the largest forms of plant life. + +The Macrocystis pyrifera, an Algae, is the largest of all known plants. +It is a sea weed that floats free and unattached in the ocean. Covers +the area of two square miles, and is 300 feet in depth (Reinsch). At the +same time its structure on examination shows it to belong to the same +class of plants as the minute palmellae which we have been studying. +Algae are found everywhere in streams, ditches, ponds, even the smallest +accumulations of water standing for any time in the open air, and +commonly on walls or the ground, in all permanently damp situations. +They are peculiarly interesting in regard to morphological conditions +alone, as their great variety of conditions of organization are all +variations, as it were, on the theme of the simple vegetable cell +produced by change of form, number, and arrangement. + +The Algae comprehend a vast variety of plants, exhibiting a wonderful +multiplicity of forms, colors, sizes, and degrees of complexity of +structure, but algologists consider them to belong to three orders: 1. +Red spored Algae, called Rhodosporeae or florideae. 2. The dark or black +spored Algae, or Melanosporeae or Fucoideae. 3. The green spored Algae, +or Chlorosporeae or Confervoideae. The first two classes embrace the +sea-weeds. The third class, marine and aquatic plants, most of which +when viewed singly are microscopic. Of course some naturalists do not +agree to these views. It is with order three, Confervoideae, that we are +interested. These are plants growing in sea or fresh water, or on damp +surfaces, with a filamentous, or more rarely a leaf-like pulverulent +or gelatinous thallus; the last two forms essentially microscopic. +Consisting frequently of definitely arranged groups of distinct +cells, either of ordinary structure or with their membrane +silicified--Diatomaceae. We note three forms of fructification: 1. +Resting spores produced after fertilization either by conjugation or +impregnation. 2. Spermatozoids. 3. Zeospores; 2, 4, or multiciliated +active automobile cells--gonidia--discharged from the mother cells or +plants without impregnation, and germinating directly. There is also +another increase by cell division. + + +SYNOPSIS OF THE FAMILIES. + +1. _Lemaneae_.--Frond filamentous, inarticulate, cartilaginous, leathery, +hollow, furnished at irregular distances with whorls or warts, or +necklace shaped. Fructification: tufted, simple or branched, necklace +shaped filaments attached to the inner surface of the tubular frond, and +finally breaking up into elliptical spores. Aquatic. + +2. _Batrachospermeae_--Plants filamentous, articulated, invested with +gelatine. Frond composed of aggregated, articulated, longitudinal cells, +whorled at intervals with short, horizontal, cylindrical or beaded, +jointed ramuli. Fructification: ovate spores and tufts of antheridial +cells attached to the lateral ramuli, which consist of minute, +radiating, dichotomous beaded filaments. Aquatic. + +3. _Chaetophoraceae_.--Plants growing in the sea or fresh water, coated +by gelatinous substance; either filiform or a number of filaments being +connected together constituting gelatinous, definitely formed, or +shapeless fronds or masses. Filaments jointed, bearing bristle-like +processes. Fructification: zoospores produced from the cell contents of +the filaments; resting spores formed from the contents of particular +cells after impregnation by ciliated spermatozoids produced in distinct +antheridial cells. Coleochaetae. + +4. _Confervaceae_.--Plants growing in the sea or in fresh water, +filamentous, jointed, without evident gelatine (forming merely a +delicate coat around the separate filaments) Filaments very variable in +appearance, simple or branched; the cells constituting the articulations +of the filaments more or less filled with green, or very rarely brown or +purple granular matter; sometimes arranged in peculiar patterns on the +walls, and convertible into spores or zoospores. Not conjugating. + +5. _Zygnemaceae_.--Aquatic filamentous plants, without evident gelatine, +composed of series of cylindrical cells, straight or curved. Cell +contents often arranged in elegant patterns on the walls. Reproduction +resulting from conjugation, followed by the development of a true spore, +in some genera dividing into four sporules before germinating. + +6. _OEdogoniaceae_.--Simple or branched aquatic filamentous plants +attached without gelatine. Cell contents uniform, dense, cell division +accompanied by circumscissile debiscence of the parent cell, producing +rings on the filaments. Reproduction by zoospores formed of the whole +contents of a cell, with a crown of numerous cilia; resting spores +formed in sporangial cells after fecundation by ciliated spermatozoids +formed in antheridial cells. + +7. _Siphonaceae_--Plants found in the sea, fresh water, or on damp +ground; of a membranous or horny byaline substance, filled with green +or colorless granular matter. Fronds consisting of continuous tubular +filaments, either free or collected into spongy masses of various +shapes. Crustaceous, globular, cylindrical, or flat. Fructification: by +zoospores, either single or very numerous, and by resting spores formed +in sporangial cells after the contents have been impregnated by the +contents of autheridial cells of different forms. + +8 _Oscillatoriaceae_.--Plants growing either in the sea, fresh water, or +on damp ground, of a gelatinous substance and filamentous structure. +Filaments very slender, tubular, continuous, filled with colored, +granular, transversely striated substance; seldom blanched, though often +cohering together so as to appear branched; usually massed together +in broad floating or sessile strata, of a very gelatinous nature; +occasionally erect and tufted, and still more rarely collected into +radiating series bound together by firm gelatine and then forming +globose lobed or flat crustaceous fronds. Fructification: the internal +mass or contents separating into roundish or lenticular gonidia. + +9. _Nostochacae_.--Gelatinous plants growing in fresh water, or in damp +situations among mosses, etc.; of soft or almost leathery substance, +consisting of variously curled or twisted necklace-shaped filaments, +colorless or green, composed of simple, or in some stages double rows +of cells, contained in a gelatinous matrix of definite form, or heaped +together without order in a gelatinous mass. Some of the cells enlarged, +and then forming either vesicular empty cells or densely filled +sporangial cells. Reproduction: by the breaking up of the filaments, and +by resting spores formed singly in the sporanges. + +10. _Ulvaceae_.--Marine or aquatic algae consisting of membranous, flat, +and expanded tubular or saccate fronds composed of polygonal cells +firmly joined together by their sides. + +Reproduced by zoospores formed from the cell contents and breaking +out from the surface, or by motionless spores formed from the whole +contents. + +11. _Palmellaceae_.--Plants forming gelatinous or pulverulent crusts on +damp surfaces of stone, wood, earth, mud, swampy districts, or more +or less regular masses of gelatinous substance or delicate +pseudo-membranous expansion or fronds, of flat, globular, or tubular +form, in fresh water or on damp ground; composed of one or many, +sometimes innumerable, cells, with green, red, or yellowish contents, +spherical or elliptical form, the simplest being isolated cells found in +groups of two, four, eight, etc., in course of multiplication. Others +permanently formed of some multiple of four; the highest forms made up +of compact, numerous, more or less closely joined cells. Reproduction: +by cell division, by the conversion of the cell contents into zoospores, +and by resting spores, formed sometimes after conjugation; in other +cases, probably, by fecundation by spermatozoids. All the unicellular +algae are included under this head. + +12. _Desmidiaceae_.--Microscopic gelatinous plants, of a screen color, +growing in fresh water, composed of cells devoid of a silicious coat, +of peculiar forms such as oval, crescentic, shortly cylindrical, +cylindrical, oblong, etc., with variously formed rays or lobes, giving +a more or less stellate form, presenting a bilateral symmetry, the +junction of the halves being marked by a division of the green contents; +the individual cells being free, or arranged in linear series, collected +into fagot-like bundles or in elegant star like groups which are +embedded in a common gelatinous coat. Reproduced by division and by +resting spores produced in sporangia formed after the conjugation of +two cells and union of their contents, and by zoospores formed in the +vegetative cells or in the germinating resting spores. + +13. _Diatomaceae_.--Microscopic cellular bodies, growing in fresh, +brackish, and sea water: free or attached, single, or embedded in +gelatinous tubes, the individual cells (frustules) with yellowish or +brown contents, and provided with a silicious coat composed of two +usually symmetrical valves variously marked, with a connecting band or +hoop at the suture. Multiplied by division and by the formation of new +larger individuals out of the contents of individual conjugated cells; +perhaps also by spores and zoospores. + +14. _Volvocineae_.--Microscopic cellular fresh water plants, composed of +groups of bodies resembling zoospores connected into a definite form +by their enveloping membranes. The families are formed either of +assemblages of coated zoospores united in a definite form by the +cohesion of their membranes, or assemblages of naked zoospores inclosed +in a common investing membrane. The individual zoospore-like bodies, +with two cilia throughout life, perforating the membranous coats, and by +their conjoined action causing a free co-operative movement of the whole +group. Reproduction by division, or by single cells being converted into +new families; and by resting spores formed from some of the cells after +impregnation by spermatozoids formed from the contents of other cells of +the same family. + +[Illustration: MALARIA PLANTS COLLECTED AT 165TH STREET, EAST OF 10TH +AVENUE, OCT., 1881. + +Plate IX.--Large group of malaria plants, Gemiasma verdans, collected at +165th Street, east of 10th Avenue, New York, in October, 1881, by Dr. +Ephraim Cutter, and projected by him with a solar microscope. Dr. +Cuzner--the artist--outlined the group on the screen and made the +finished drawing from the sketch. He well preserved the grouping and +relative sizes. The pond hole whence they came was drained in the spring +of 1882, and in August was covered with coarse grass and weeds. No +plants were found there in satisfactory quantity, but those figured +on Plate VIII. were found half a mile beyond. This shows how draining +removes the malaria plants.] + +From the description I think you have placed your plants in the right +family. And evidently they come in the genera named, but at present +there is in the authorities at my command so much confusion as to the +genera, as given by the most eminent authorities, like Nageli, Kutzing, +Braun Rabenht, Cohn, etc., that I think it would be quite unwise for +me to settle here, or try to settle here, questions that baffle the +naturalists who are entirely devoted to this specialty. We can safely +leave this to them. Meantime let us look at the matter as physicians +who desire the practical advantages of the discovery you have made. +To illustrate this position let us take a familiar case. A boy going +through the fields picks and eats an inedible mushroom. He is poisoned +and dies. Now, what is the important part of history here from a +physician's point of view? Is it not that the mushroom poisoned the +child? Next comes the nomenclature. What kind of agaricus was it? Or was +it one of the gasteromycetes, the coniomycetes, the hyphomycetes, the +ascomycetes, or one of the physomycetes? Suppose that the fungologists +are at swords' points with each other about the name of the particular +fungus that killed the boy? Would the physicians feel justified to sit +down and wait till the whole crowd of naturalists were satisfied, and +the true name had been settled satisfactorily to all? I trow not; they +would warn the family about eating any more; and if the case had not yet +perished, they would let the nomenclature go and try all the means that +history, research, and instructed common sense would suggest for the +recovery. + +This leads me here to say that physicians trust too much to the simple +dicta of men who may be very eminent in some department of natural +history, and yet ignorant in the very department about which, being +called upon, they have given an opinion. All everywhere have so much +to learn that we should be very careful how we reject new truths, +especially when they come from one of our number educated in our own +medical schools, studied under our own masters. If the subject is +one about which we know nothing, we had better say so when asked our +opinion, and we should receive with respect what is respectfully offered +by a man whom we know to be honest, a hard worker, eminent in his +department by long and tedious labors. If he asks us to look over his +evidence, do so in a kindly spirit, and not open the denunciations of +bar room vocabularies upon the presenter, simply because we don't see +his point. In other words, we should all be receptive, but careful in +our assimilation, remembering that some of the great operations in +surgery, for example, came from laymen in low life, as the operation for +stone, and even the operation of spaying came from a swineherd. + +It is my desire, however, to have this settled as far as can be among +scientists, but for the practical uses of practicing physicians I say +that far more evidence has been adduced by you in support of the cause +of intermittent fever than we have in the etiology of many other +diseases. I take the position that so long as no one presents a better +history of the etiology of intermittent fever by facts and observations, +your theory must stand. This, too, notwithstanding what may be said to +the contrary. + +Certainly you are to be commended for having done as you have in this +matter. It is one of the great rights of the profession, and duties +also, that if a physician has or thinks he has anything that is new and +valuable, to communicate it, and so long as he observes the rules of +good society the profession are to give him a respectful hearing, +even though he may have made a mistake. I do not think you had a fair +hearing, and hence so far as I myself am concerned I indorse your +position, and shall do so till some one comes along and gives a better +demonstration. Allow me also to proceed with more evidence. + +Observation at West Falmouth, Mass., Sept 1, 1877. I made five +observations in like manner about the marshes and bogs of this town, +which is, as it were, situated on the tendo achillis of Cape Cod, Mass. +In only one of these observations did I find any palmellae like the ague +plants, and they were not characteristic. + +Chelsea, Mass., near the Naval Hospital, September 5, 1877. Three sets +of observations. In all spores were found and some sporangia, but +they were not the genuine plants as far as I could judge. They were +Protococcaceae. It is not necessary to add that there are no cases of +intermittent fever regarded as originating on the localities named. +Still, the ancient history of New England contains some accounts of ague +occurring there, but they are not regarded as entirely authentic. + +Observation. Lexington, Mass, September 6, 1877. Observation made in +a meadow. There was no saline incrustation, and no palmellae found. No +local malaria. + +Observation. Cambridge, Mass. Water works on the shore of Fresh Pond. +Found a few palmellae analogous to, but not the ague palmellae. + +Observation. Woburn, Mass, September 27, 1877, with Dr. J. M. Moore. +Found some palmellae, but scanty. Abundance of spores of cryptogams. + +Observation. Stonington, Conn., August 15, 1877. Examined a pond hole +nearly opposite the railroad station on the New York Shore Line. Found +abundantly the white incrustation on the surface of the soil. Here I +found the spores and the sporangias of the gemiasmas verdans and rubra. + +Observation 2. Repetition of the last. + +Observation 3. I examined some of an incrustation that was copiously +deposited in the same locality, which was not white or frosty, but dark +brown and a dirty green. Here the spores were very abundant, and a few +sporangias of the Gemiasma rubra. Ague has of late years been noted in +Connecticut and Rhode Island. + +Observations in Connecticut. Middlefield near Middletown, summer of +1878. Being in this locality, I heard that intermittent fever was +advancing eastward at the rate of ten miles a year. It had been observed +in Middlefield. I was much interested to see if I could find the +gemiasmas there. On examining the dripping of some bog moss, I found a +plenty of them. + +Observations in Connecticut. New Haven. Early in the summer of 1881 I +visited this city. One object of my visit was to ascertain the truth +of the presence of intermittent fever there, which I had understood +prevailed to such an extent that my patient, a consumptive, was afraid +to return to his home in New Haven. At this time I examined the hydrant +water of the city water works, and also the east shore of the West +River, which seemed to be too full of sewage. I found a plenty of the +Oscillatoreaceae, but no Palmellae. + +In September I revisited the city, taking with me a medical gentleman +who, residing in the South, had had a larger experience with the disease +than I. From the macroscopical examination he pronounced a case we +examined to be ague, but I was not able to detect the plants either in +the urine or blood. This might have been that I did not examine long +enough. But a little later I revisited the city and explored the soil +about the Whitney Water Works, whence the city gets its supply of +water, and I had no difficulty in finding a good many of the plants +you describe as found by you in ague cases. At a still later period my +patient, whom I had set to use the microscope and instructed how to +collect the ague plants, set to work himself. One day his mother brought +in a film from off an ash pile that lay in the shade, and this her son +found was made up of an abundance of the ague plants. By simply winding +a wet bandage around the slide, Mr. A. was enabled to keep the plants +in good condition until the time of my next visit, when I examined and +pronounced them to be genuine plants. + +I should here remark that I had in examining the sputa of this patient +sent to me, found some of the ague plants. He said that he had been +riding near the Whitney Pond, and perceived a different odor, and +thought he must have inhaled the miasm. I told him he was correct in his +supposition, as no one could mistake the plants; indeed, Prof. Nunn, of +Savannah, Ga., my pupil recognized it at once. + +This relation, though short, is to me of great importance. So long as I +could not detect the gemiasmas in New Haven, I was very skeptical as to +the presence of malaria in New Haven, as I thought there must be some +mistake, it being a very good cloak to hide under (malaria). There is no +doubt but that the name has covered lesions not belonging to it. But now +the positive demonstrations above so briefly related show to my mind +that the local profession have not been mistaken, and have sustained +their high reputation. + +I should say that I have examined a great deal of sputa, but, with the +exception of cases that were malarious, I have not encountered the +mature plants before. Of course I have found them as you did, in my own +excretions as I was traveling over ague bogs. + +[_To be continued_.] + + * * * * * + + + + +ICHTHYOL. + + +DR. P.G. UNNA, of Hamburg, has lately been experimenting on the dermato +therapeutic uses of a substance called ichthyol, obtained by Herr +Rudolph Schroter by the distillation of bituminous substances and +treatment with condensed sulphuric acid. This body, though tar-like in +appearance, and with a peculiar and disagreeable smell of its own, does +not resemble any known wood or coal tar in its chemical and physical +properties. It has a consistence like vaseline, and its emulsion with +water is easily washed off the skin. It is partly soluble in alcohol, +partly in ether with a changing and lessening of the smell, and totally +dissolves in a mixture of both. It may be mixed with vaseline, lard, +or oil in any proportions. Its chemical constitution is not well +established, but it contains sulphur, oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and also +phosphorus in vanishing proportions, and it may be considered comparable +with a 10 per cent, sulphur salve. Over ordinary sulphur preparations +it has this advantage, that the sulphur is in very intimate and stable +union, so that ichthyol can be united with lead and mercury preparations +without decomposition. Ichthyol when rubbed undiluted on the normal skin +does not set up dermatitis, yet it is a resolvent, and in a high degree +a soother of pain and itching. In psoriasis it is a fairly good remedy, +but inferior to crysarobin in P. inveterata. It is useful also locally +in rheumatic affections as a resolvent and anodyne, in acne, and as a +parasiticide. The most remarkable effects, however, were met with in +eczema, which was cured in a surprisingly short time. From an experience +in the treatment of thirty cases of different kinds--viz., obstinate +circumscribed moist patches on the hands and arms, intensely itching +papular eczema of the flexures and face, infantile moist eczemas, +etc.--he recommends the following procedure. As with sulphur +preparations, he begins with a moderately strong preparation, and as +he proceeds reduces the strength of the application. For moist eczema +weaker preparations (20 to 30 per cent. decreased to 10 per cent.) must +be used than for the papular condition (50 per cent. reduced to 20 per +cent.), and the hand, for example, will require a stronger application +than the face, and children a weaker one than adults; but ichthyol may +be used in any strength from a 5 per cent. to a 40 to 50 per cent. +application or undiluted. For obstinate eczema of the hands the +following formula is given as very efficacious: R. Lithargyri 10.0; +coq.c. aceti, 30.0; ad reman. 20.0; adde olei olivar., adipis, aa 10.0; +ichthyol 10.0, M. ft. ung. Until its internal effects are better known, +caution is advised as to its very widespread application, although +Herr Schroter has taken a gramme with only some apparent increase of +peristalsis and appetite.--_Lancet_. + + * * * * * + + + + +AUTOPSY TABLE. + + +The illustration represents an autopsy table placed in the Coroner's +Department of the New York Hospital, designed by George B. Post and +Frederick C. Merry. + +An amphitheater, fitted up for the convenience of the jury and those +interested when inquests are held, surrounds the table, which is placed +in the center of the floor, thus enabling the subject to be viewed by +the coroner's jury and other officials who may be present. + +The mechanical construction of this table will be readily understood by +the following explanation: + +The top, indicated by letter, A, is made of thick, heavy, cast glass, +concaved in the direction of the strainer, as shown. It is about eight +feet long and two feet and six inches wide, in one piece, an opening +being left in the center to receive the strainer, so as to allow the +fluid matter of the body, as well as the water with which it is washed, +to find its way to the waste pipe below the table, and thus avoid +soiling or staining the floor, + +The strainer is quite large, with a downward draught which passes +through a large flue, as shown by letter, F, connected above the water +seal of the waste trap and trunk of the table to the chimney of the +boiler house, as indicated by the arrows, carrying down all offensive +odors from the body, thereby preventing the permeating of the air in the +room. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED AUTOPSY TABLE.] + +The base of the table, indicated by letter, B, represents a ground +swinging attachment, which enables the turning of the table in any +direction. + +D represents the cold water supply cock and handle, intersecting with +letter, E, which is the hot water cock, below the base, as shown, and +then upward to a swing or ball joint, C, then crossing under the plate +glass top to the right with a hose attachment for the use of the +operator. Here a small hose pipe is secured, for use as may be required +in washing off all matter, to insure the clean exposure of the parts to +be dissected. The ball swing, C, enables the turning of the table in any +direction without disturbing the water connections. This apparatus has +been in operation since the building of the hospital in 1876, and has +met all the requirements in connection with its uses.--_Hydraulic +Plumber_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE EXCITING PROPERTIES OF OATS. + + +Experiments have been recently made by Mr. Sanson with a view to +settling the question whether oats have or have not the excitant +property that has been attributed to them. The nervous and muscular +excitability of horses was carefully observed with the aid of graduated +electrical apparatus before and after they had eaten a given quantity +of oats, or received a little of a certain principle which Mr. Sanson +succeeded in isolating from oats. The chief results of the inquiry are +as follows: The pericarp of the fruit of oats contains a substance +soluble in alcohol and capable of exciting the motor cells of the +nervous system. This substance is not (as some have thought) vanilline +or the odorous principle of vanilla, nor at all like it. It is a +nitrogenized matter which seems to belong to the group of alkaloids; is +uncrystallizable, finely granular, and brown in mass. The author calls +it "avenine." All varieties of cultivated oats seem to elaborate it, but +they do so in very different degrees. The elaborated substance is the +same in all varieties. The differences in quantity depend not only on +the variety of the plant but also on the place of cultivation. Oats of +the white variety have much less than those of the dark, but for some +of the former, in Sweden, the difference is small; while for others, in +Russia, it is considerable. Less than 0.9 of the excitant principle per +cent. of air-dried oats, the dose is insufficient to certainly affect +the excitability of horses, but above this proportion the excitant +action is certain. While some light-colored oats certainly have +considerable excitant power, some dark oats have little. Determination +of the amount of the principle present is the only sure basis of +appreciation, though (as already stated) white oats are likely to +be less exciting than dark. Crushing or grinding the grain weakens +considerably the excitant property, probably by altering the substance +to which it is due; the excitant action is more prompt, but much less +strong and durable. The action, which is immediate and more intense +with the isolated principle, does not appear for some minutes after the +eating of oats; in both cases it increases to a certain point, then +diminishes and disappears. The total duration of the effect is stated to +be an hour per kilogramme of oats ingested. + + * * * * * + + + + +FILARIA DISEASE. + + +The rapid strides which our knowledge has made during the past few years +in the subject of the filaria parasite have been mainly owing to the +diligent researches of Dr. Patrick Manson, who continues to work at the +question. In the last number of the _Medical Reports for China_, Dr. +Manson deals with the phenomenon known as "filarial periodicity," and +with the fate of embryo parasites not removed from the blood. The +intimate pathology of the disease, and the subject of abscess caused +by the death of the parent filaria, also receive further attention. +An endeavor to explain the phenomenon of "filarial periodicity" by an +appeal to the logical "method of concomitant variations" takes Manson +into an interesting excursion which is not productive of any positive +results; nor is any more certain conclusion come to with regard to the +fate of the embryos which disappear from the blood during the day time. +Manson does not incline to the view that there is a diurnal intermittent +reproduction of embryos with a corresponding destruction. An original +and important speculation is made with respect to the intimate pathology +of elephantiasis, chyluria, and lymph scrotum, which is thoroughly +worthy of consideration. Our readers are probably aware that the parent +filaria and the filaria sanguinis hominis may exist in the human body +without entailing any apparent disturbance. The diameter of an +embryo filaria is about the same as that of a red blood disk, one +three-thousandth of an inch. The dimensions of an ovum are one +seven-hundred-and-fiftieth by one five-hundredth of an inch. If we +imagine the parent filaria located in a distal lymphatic vessel to abort +and give birth to ova instead of embryos, it may be understood that the +ova might be unable to pass such narrow passages as the embryo could, +and this is really the hypothesis which Manson has put forward on the +strength of observations made on two cases. The true pathology of the +elephantoid diseases may thus be briefly summarized: A parent filaria in +a distant lymphatic prematurely expels her ova; these act as emboli +to the nearest lymphatic glands, whence ensues stasis of lymph, +regurgitation of lymph, and partial compensation by anastomoses of +lymphatic vessels; this brings about hypertrophy of tissues, and may go +on to lymphorrhoea or chyluria, according to the site of the obstructed +lymphatics. It may be objected that too much is assumed in supposing +that the parent worm is liable to miscarry. But as Manson had sufficient +evidence in two cases that such abortions had happened, he thinks it is +not too much to expect their more frequent occurrence. The explanation +given of the manner in which elephantoid disease is produced applies to +most, if not all, diseases, with one exception, which result from the +presence of the parasite in the human body. The death of the parent +parasite in the afferent lymphatic may give rise to an abscess, and the +frequency with which abscess of the scrotum or thigh is met with in +Chinese practice is, in Manson's opinion, attributable to this. Dr. +Manson's report closes with an account of a case of abscess of the +thigh, with varicose inguinal glands, in which fragments of a mature +worm were discovered in the contents of the abscess.--_Lancet_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SPECTRAL MASDEVALLIA. + +(_M. chimaera_.) + + +Of all orchids no genus we can just now call to mind is more distinct or +is composed of species more widely divergent in size, form, structure, +and color than is this one of Masdevallia. It was founded well nigh a +century ago by Ruiz and Pavon on a species from Mexico, M. uniflora. +which, so far as I know, is nearly if not quite unknown to present day +cultivators. When Lindley wrote his "Genera and Species" in 1836, three +species of Masdevallias only were known to botanists but twenty-five +years later, when he prepared his "Folio Orchidaceae," nearly forty +species were; known in herbaria, and to-day perhaps fully a hundred +kinds are grown in our gardens, while travelers tell us of all the +gorgeous beauties which are known to exist high up on the cloud-swept +sides of the Andes and Cordilleras of the New World. The Masdevallia +is confined to the Western hemisphere alone, and as in bird and animal +distribution, so in the case of many orchids we find that when any genus +is confined to one hemisphere, those who look for another representative +genus in the other are rarely disappointed. Thus hornbills in the East +are represented by toucans in the West, and the humming bird of the West +by the sunbird of the East, and so also in the Malayan archipelago. +Notably in Borneo we find bolbophyls without pseudo bulbs, and with +solitary or few flowered scapes and other traits singularly suggestive +at first sight of the Western Masdevallia. Thus some bolbophyl, for +example, have caudal appendages to their sepals, as in Masdevallias, +and on the other hand some Masdevallias have their labellums hinged +and oscillatory, which is so commonly the case as to be "almost +characteristic" in the genus Bolbophyllum or Sarcopodium. Speaking +generally, Masdevallias, coming as most of them do from high altitudes, +lend themselves to what is now well known as "cool treatment," and +cultivators find it equally necessary to offer them moisture in +abundance both at the root and in the atmosphere, also seeing that when +at home in cloud-land they are often and well nigh continually drenched +by heavy dews and copious showers. + +Of all the cultivated Masdevallias, none are so weirdly strange and +fascinating as is the species M. chimaera, which is so well illustrated +in the accompany engraving. This singular plant was discovered by +Benedict Roezl, and about 1872 or 1873 I remember M. Lucien Linden +calling upon me one day, and among other rarities showing me a dried +flower of this species. I remember I took up a pen and rapidly made a +sketch of the flower, which soon after appeared (1873, p. 3) in _The +Florist_, and was perhaps the first published figure of the plant. It +was named by Professor Reichenbach, who could find for it no better +name than that of the mythical monster Chimaera, than which, as an old +historian tells us, no stranger bogy ever came out of the earth's +inside. Our engraving shows the plant about natural size, and indicates +the form and local coloring pretty accurately. The ground color is +yellowish, blotched with lurid brownish crimson, the long pendent tails +being blood color, and the interior of the sepals are almost shaggy. +The spectral appearance of the flower is considerably heightened by the +smooth, white, slipper-like lip, which contrasts so forcibly in color +and texture with the lurid shagginess around it. Sir J. D. Hooker, in +describing this species in the _Botanical Magazine_, t. 6, 152, says +that the aspect of the curved scape as it bears aloft its buds and hairy +flowers is very suggestive of the head and body of a viper about to +strike. Dr. Haughton, F.R.S., told me long ago that Darlingtonia +californica always reminds him of a cobra when raised and puffed out in +a rage, and certainly the likeness is a close one. + +Grown in shallow teak wood baskets, suspended near the roof in a +partially shaded structure, all the chimaeroid section of Masdevallia +succeed even better than when grown in pots or pans, as they have a +Stanhopea-like habit of pushing out their flowers at all sorts of +deflected angles. A close glance at the engraving will show that for +convenience sake the artist has propped up the flower with a stick, this +much arrangement being a necessity, so as to enable the tails to lie +diagonally across the picture. From tip to tip the flower represented is +9 inches, or not so much by 7 inches as the flower measured in Messrs. +Backhouse's nursery at York.--_The Garden_. + +[Illustration: THE SPECTRAL MASDEVALLIA.--MASDEVALLIA CHIMAERA (Natural +Size)] + + * * * * * + + + + +SURVEY OF THE BLACK CANON. + + +It is rumored again that a survey is soon to be made through the +heaviest portion of the Black Canon of the Gunnison. For a long distance +the walls of syenite rise to the stupendous height of 3,000 feet, and +for 1,800 feet the walls of the canon are arched not many feet from the +bed of the river. If the survey is successful, and the Denver and Rio +Grande is built through the canon, it will undoubtedly be the grandest +piece of engineering on the American continent. The river is very swift, +and it is proposed to build a boat at the western end, and provision +it for a length of time, allowing it to float with the stream, but +controlled by ropes. If the boat goes, the chances are that the baby +road goes, too.--_Gunnison (Colo.) Review_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ANCIENT MISSISSIPPI AND ITS TRIBUTARIES. + +[Footnote: This lecture was delivered in the Chapel of the State +University, at Columbia, as an inaugural address on January 10, 1883, +and illustrated by projections. The author has purposely avoided the +very lengthy details of scientific observation by which the conclusions +have been arrived at relating to the former wonderful condition of +the Mississippi, and the subsequent changes to its present form: as a +consideration of them would not only cause him to go beyond the allotted +time, but might, perhaps, prove tiresome.] + +By J. W. SPENCER, B.A.Sc., Ph.D., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the +State University of Missouri. + + +Physical geology is the science which deals with the past changes of +the earth's crust, and the causes which have produced the present +geographical features, everywhere seen about us. The subject of the +present address must therefore be considered as one of geology rather +than of geography, and I propose to trace for you the early history of +the great Mississippi River, of which we have only a diminished remnant +of the mightiest river that ever flowed over any terrestrial continent. + +By way of introduction, I wish you each to look at the map of our great +river, with its tributaries as we now see it, draining half of the +central portion of the continent, but which formerly drained, in +addition, at least two of our great lakes, and many of the great rivers +at the present time emptying into the colder Arctic Sea. + +Let us go back, in time, to the genesis of our continent. There was once +a time in the history of the earth when all the rocks were in a molten +condition, and the waters of our great oceans in a state of vapor, +surrounding the fiery ball. Space is intensely cold. In course of time +the earth cooled off, and on the cold, solid crust geological agencies +began to work. It is now conceded by the most accomplished physicists +that the location of the great continents and seas was determined by +the original contraction and cooling of the earth's crust; though very +greatly modified by a long succession of changes, produced by the +agencies of "water, air, heat, and cold," through probably a hundred +million of years, until the original rock surface of the earth has been +worked over to a depth of thirty or forty miles. + +Like human history, the events of these long _aeons_ are divided into +periods. The geologist divides the past history of the earth and its +inhabitants into five Great Times; and these, again, into ages, periods, +epochs, and eras. + +At the close of the first Great Time--called Archaean--the continent +south of the region of the great lakes, excepting a few islands, was +still submerged beneath a shallow sea, and therefore no portion of the +Mississippi was yet in existence. At the close of the second great +geological Time--the Palaeozoic--the American continent had emerged +sufficiently from the ocean bed to permit the flow of the Ohio, and of +the Mississippi, above the mouth of the former river, although they were +not yet united. + +Throughout the third great geological Time--the Mesozoic--these rivers +grew in importance, and the lowest portions of the Missouri began to +form a tributary of some size. Still the Ohio had not united with the +Mississippi, and both of these rivers emptied into an arm of the Mexican +Gulf, which then reached to a short distance above what is now their +junction. + +In point of time, the Ohio is probably older than the Mississippi, but +the latter river grew and eventually absorbed the Ohio as a tributary. + +In the early part of the fourth great geological Time--the +Cenozoic--nearly the whole continent was above water. Still the Gulf of +Mexico covered a considerable portion of the extreme Southern States, +and one of its bays extended as far north as the mouth of the Ohio, +which had not yet become a tributary of the Mississippi. The Missouri +throughout its entire length was at this time a flowing river. + +I told you that the earth's crust had been worked over to a depth of +many miles since geological time first commenced. Subsequently, I have +referred to the growth of the continent in different geological periods. +All of our continents are being gradually worn down by the action of +rains, rills, rivulets, and rivers, and being deposited along the sea +margins, just as the Mississippi is gradually stretching out into the +Gulf, by the deposition of the muds of the delta. This encroachment on +the Gulf of Mexico may continue, yea, doubtless will, until that deep +body of water shall have been filled up by the remains of the continent, +borne down by the rivers; for the Mississippi alone carries annually 268 +cubic miles of mud into the Gulf, according to Humphreys and Abbot. This +represents the valley of the Mississippi losing one foot off its whole +surface in 6,000 years. And were this to continue without any elevation +of the land, the continent would all be buried beneath the sea in a +period of about four and a half million years. But though this wasting +is going on, the continent will not disappear, for the relative +positions of the land and water are constantly changing; in some cases +the land is undergoing elevation, in others, subsidence. Prof. Hilgard +has succeeded in measuring known changes of level, in the lower +Mississippi Valley, and records the continent as having been at least +450 feet higher than at present (and if we take the coast survey +soundings, it seems as if we might substitute 3,000 feet as the +elevation), and subsequently at more than 450 feet lower, and then the +change back to the present elevation. + +Let us now study the history of the great river in the last days of the +Cenozoic Time, and early days of the fifth and last great Geological +Time, in which we are now living--the Quaternary, or Age of Man--an +epoch which I have called _the "Great River Age_." + +It is to the condition of the Mississippi during this period and its +subsequent changes to its present form that I wish particularly to call +your attention. During the Great River age we know that the eastern +coast of the continent stood at least 1,200 feet higher than at present. +The region of the Lower Mississippi was also many hundred feet higher +above the sea level than now. Although we have not the figures for +knowing the exact elevation of the Upper Mississippi, yet we have the +data for knowing that it was very much higher than at the present day. + +_The Lower Mississippi_, from the Gulf to the mouth of the Ohio River, +was of enormous size flowing through a valley with an average width of +about fifty miles, though varying from about twenty-five to seventy +miles. + +In magnitude, we can have some idea, when we observe the size of the +lower three or four hundred miles of the Amazon River, which has a width +of about fifty miles. But its depth was great, for the waters not only +filled a channel now buried to a depth of from three to five hundred +feet, but stood at an elevation much higher than the broad bottom lands +which now constitute those fertile alluvial flats of the Mississippi +Valley, so liable to be overflowed. + +From the western side, our great river received three principal +tributaries--the Red River of the South, the Washita, and the Arkansas, +each flowing in valleys from two to ten miles in width, but now +represented only by the depauperated streams meandering from side to +side, over the flat bottom lands, generally bounded by bluffs. + +The Mississippi from the east received no important tributaries south +of the Ohio; such rivers as the Yazoo being purely modern and wandering +about in the ancient filled-up valley as does the modern Mississippi +itself. + +So far we find that the Mississippi below the mouth of the Ohio differed +from the modern river in its enormous magnitude and direct course. + +From the mouth of the Ohio to that of the Minnesota River, at Fort +Snelling, the characteristics of the Mississippi Valley differ entirely +from those of the lower sections. It generally varies from two to ten +miles in width, and is bounded almost everywhere by bluffs, which +vary in height from 150 to 500 feet, cut through by the entrances of +occasional tributaries. + +The bottom of the ancient channel is often 100 feet or more below the +present river, which wanders about, from side to side, over the "bottom +lands" of the old valley, now partly filled with debris, brought down by +the waters themselves, and deposited since the time when the pitch of +the river began to be diminished. There are two places where the river +flows over hard rock. These are at the rapids near the mouth of the Des +Moines River, and a little farther up, at Rock Island. These portions of +the river do not represent the ancient courses, for subsequent to the +Great River Age, according to General Warren, the old channels became +closed, and the modern river, being deflected, was unable to reopen its +old bed. + +The Missouri River is now the only important tributary of this section +of the Mississippi from the west. Like the western tributaries, farther +south, it meanders over broad bottom lands, which in some places reach a +width of ten miles or more, bounded by bluffs. During the period of the +culmination, it probably discharged nearly as much water as the Upper +Mississippi. At that time there were several other tributaries of no +mean size, such as the Des Moines, which filled valleys, one or two +miles wide, but now represented only by shrunken streams. + +The most interesting portion of our study refers to the ancient eastern +tributaries, and the head waters of the great river. + +The greater portion of the Ohio River flows over bottom lands, less +extensive than those of the west, although bounded by high bluffs. +The bed of the ancient valley is now buried to a depth of sometimes a +hundred feet or more. However, at Louisville, Ky., the river flows over +hard rock, the ancient valley having been filled with river deposits on +which that city is built, as shown first by Dr. Newberry, similar to the +closing of the old courses of the Mississippi, at Des Moines Rapids and +Rock Island. However, the most wonderful changes in the course of the +Ohio are further up the river. Mr. Carll, of Pennsylvania, in 1880, +discovered that the Upper Alleghany formerly emptied into Lake Erie, and +the following year I pointed out that not only the Upper Alleghany, but +the whole Upper Ohio, formerly emptied into Lake Erie, by the Beaver and +Mahoning Valleys (reversed), and the Grand River (of Ohio). Therefore, +only that portion of the Ohio River from about the Pennsylvania-Ohio +State line sent its waters to the Mexican Gulf, during the Great River +Age. + +Other important differences in the river geology of our country were +Lake Superior emptying directly into the northern end of Lake Michigan, +and Lake Michigan discharging itself, somewhere east of Chicago, into an +upper tributary of the Illinois River. Even now, by removing rock to a +depth of ten feet, some of the waters of Lake Michigan have been made to +flow into the Illinois, which was formerly a vastly greater river than +at present, for the ancient valley was from two to ten miles wide, and +very deep, though now largely filled with drift. + +_The study of the Upper Ancient Mississippi_ is the most important of +this address. The principal discoveries were made only a few years +since, by General G.K. Warren, of the Corps of Engineers, U.S.A. At Ft. +Snelling, a short distance above St. Paul, the modern Minnesota River +empties into the Mississippi, but the ancient condition was the +converse. At Ft. Snelling, the valleys form one continuous nearly +straight course, about a mile wide, bounded by bluffs 150 feet high. The +valley of the Minnesota is large, but the modern river is small. The +uppermost valley of the Mississippi enters this common valley at nearly +right angles, and is only a quarter of a mile wide and is completely +filled by the river. Though this body of water is now the more +important, yet in former days it was relatively a small tributary. + +The character of the Minnesota Valley is similar to that of the +Mississippi below Ft. Snelling, in being bounded by high bluffs and +having a width of one or two miles, or more, all the way to the height +of land, between Big Stone Lake and Traverse Lake, the former of which +drains to the south, from an elevation of 992 feet above the sea, and +the latter only half a dozen miles distant (and eight feet higher) +empties, by the Red River of the North, into Lake Winnipeg. During +freshets, the swamps between these two lakes discharge waters both ways. +The valley of the Red River is really the bed of an immense dried-up +lake. The lacustrine character of the valley was recognized by early +explorers, but all honor to the name of General Warren, who, in +observing that the ancient enormous Lake Winnipeg formerly sent its +waters southward to the Mexican Gulf, made the most important discovery +in fluviatile geology--a discovery which will cause his name to be +honored in the scientific world long after his professional successes +have been forgotten. + +General Warren considered that the valley of Lake Winnipeg only belonged +to the Mississippi since the "Ice Age," and explained the changes of +drainage of the great north by the theory of the local elevation of the +land. Facts which settle this question have recently been collected in +Minnesota State by Mr. Upham, although differently explained by that +geologist. However, he did not go far enough back in time, for doubtless +the Winnipeg Valley discharged southward before the last days of the +"Ice Age," and the great changes in the river courses were not entirely +produced by local elevation, but also by the filling of the old water +channels with drift deposits and sediments. Throughout the bottom of the +Red River Valley a large number of wells have been sunk to great depths, +and these show the absence of hard rock to levels below that of Lake +Winnipeg; but some portions of the Minnesota River flow over hard rock +at levels somewhat higher. Whether the presence of these somewhat higher +rocks is due entirely to the local elevation, which we know took place, +or to the change in the course of the old river, remains to be seen. + +Mr. Upham has also shown that there is a valley connecting the Minnesota +River, at Great Bend at Mankato, with the head waters of the Des Moines +River, as I predicted to General Warren a few months before his death. +At the time when Lake Winnipeg was swollen to its greatest size, +extending southward into Minnesota, as far as Traverse Lake, it had a +length of more than 600 miles and a breadth of 250 miles. + +Its greatest tributary was the Saskatchewan--a river nearly as large as +the Missouri. It flowed in a deep broad canon now partly filled with +drift deposits, in some places, to two hundred feet or more in depth. + +Another tributary, but of a little less size, was the Assiniboine, now +emptying into the Red River, at the city of Winnipeg. Following up +this river, in a westerly direction, one passes into the Qu'Appelle +Valley--the upper portion of which is now filled with drift, as first +shown by Prof. H. Y. Hind. This portion of the valley is interesting, +for through it, before being filled with drift, the south branch of the +Saskatchewan River formerly flowed, and constituted an enormous river. +But subsequent to the Great River Age, when choked with drift, it sent +its waters to the North Saskatchewan as now seen. There were many other +changes in the course of the ancient rivers to the north, but I cannot +here record them. + +As we have seen, the ancient Mississippi and its tributaries were vastly +larger rivers than their modern representatives. At the close of the +Great River Age, the whole continent subsided to many hundred feet below +its present level, or some portions to even thousands of feet. During +this subsidence, the Mississippi States north of the Ozark Mountains +formed the bed of an immense lake, into the quiet waters of which were +deposited soils washed down by the various rivers from the northwestern +and north central States and the northern territories of Canada. These +sediments, brought here from the north, constitute the bluff formation +of the State, and are the source of the extraordinary fertility of our +lands, on which the future greatness of our State depends. However, time +will not permit me to enter into the application of the facts brought +forward to agricultural interests. But although this address is intended +to be in the realm of pure science, I cannot refrain from saying a word +to our engineering students as to the application of knowledge of river +geology to their future work. The subject of river geology is yet in its +infancy, and I have known of much money being squandered for want of +its knowledge. In one case, I saved a company several thousand dollars, +though I should have been willing to give a good subscription to see the +work carried out from the scientific point of view. + +I will briefly indicate a few interesting points to the engineer. +Sometimes in making railway cuttings it is possible to find an adjacent +buried valley through which excavations can be made without cutting hard +rock. In bridge building especially, in the western country, a knowledge +of the buried valleys is of the utmost importance. Again, in sinking for +coal do not begin your work from the bed of a valley, unless it be of +hard rock, else you may have to go through an indefinite amount of drift +and gravel; and once more, in boring for artesian wells, it sometimes +happens that good water can be obtained in the loose drift filling these +ancient valleys; but when you wish to sink into harder rock, do not +select your site of operations on an old buried valley, for the cost of +sinking through gravel is greater than through ordinary rock. + +In closing, let us consider to what the name Mississippi should be +given. In point of antiquity, the Ohio and Upper Mississippi are of +about the same age, but since the time when ingrowing southward they +united, the latter river has been the larger. The Missouri River, +though longer than the Mississippi, is both smaller and geographically +newer--the upper portion much newer. + +Above Ft. Snelling, the modern Mississippi, though the larger body of +water, should be considered as a tributary to that now called Minnesota, +while the Minnesota Valley is really a portion of the older Mississippi +Valley--both together forming the parent river, which when swollen to +the greatest volume had the Saskatchewan River for a tributary, +and formed the grandest and mightiest river of which we have any +record.--_Kansas City Review_. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50, stitched in +paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers. + +COMBINED RATES--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00. + +A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and canvassers. + +MUNN & CO., PUBLISHERS, + +261 BROADWAY, NEW YORK, N. Y. + + * * * * * + + + + +PATENTS. + + +In connection with the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, Messrs. MUNN & Co. are +Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had 38 years' +experience, and now have the largest establishment in the world. Patents +are obtained on the best terms. + +A special notice is made in the SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN of all Inventions +patented through this Agency, with the name and residence of the +Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, public attention is +directed to the merits of the new patent, and sales or introduction +often easily effected. + +Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain, free +of charge, whether a patent can probably be obtained, by writing to MUNN +& Co. + +We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents, Caveats. +Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured. Address + +MUNN & CO., 261 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. + +Branch Office, cor. P and 7th Sts., Washington, D. C. + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. +384, May 12, 1883, by Various + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 384 *** + +***** This file should be named 8862.txt or 8862.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/8/8/6/8862/ + +Produced by Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles Franks +and the Distributed Proofreaders Team + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. If you +do not charge anything for copies of this eBook, complying with the +rules is very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose +such as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and +research. They may be modified and printed and given away--you may do +practically ANYTHING with public domain eBooks. Redistribution is +subject to the trademark license, especially commercial +redistribution. + + + +*** START: FULL LICENSE *** + +THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE +PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK + +To protect the Project Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting the free +distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work +(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase "Project +Gutenberg"), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full Project +Gutenberg-tm License available with this file or online at + www.gutenberg.org/license. + + +Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic works + +1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to +and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property +(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all +the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or destroy +all copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in your possession. +If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work and you do not agree to be bound by the +terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person or +entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. + +1.B. "Project Gutenberg" is a registered trademark. It may only be +used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who +agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few +things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works +even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See +paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works if you follow the terms of this agreement +and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. See paragraph 1.E below. + +1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation ("the Foundation" +or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection of Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic works. Nearly all the individual works in the +collection are in the public domain in the United States. If an +individual work is in the public domain in the United States and you are +located in the United States, we do not claim a right to prevent you from +copying, distributing, performing, displaying or creating derivative +works based on the work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg +are removed. Of course, we hope that you will support the Project +Gutenberg-tm mission of promoting free access to electronic works by +freely sharing Project Gutenberg-tm works in compliance with the terms of +this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg-tm name associated with +the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this agreement by +keeping this work in the same format with its attached full Project +Gutenberg-tm License when you share it without charge with others. + +1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern +what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are in +a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, check +the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this agreement +before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, distributing or +creating derivative works based on this work or any other Project +Gutenberg-tm work. The Foundation makes no representations concerning +the copyright status of any work in any country outside the United +States. + +1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: + +1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other immediate +access to, the full Project Gutenberg-tm License must appear prominently +whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg-tm work (any work on which the +phrase "Project Gutenberg" appears, or with which the phrase "Project +Gutenberg" is associated) is accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, +copied or distributed: + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + +1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is derived +from the public domain (does not contain a notice indicating that it is +posted with permission of the copyright holder), the work can be copied +and distributed to anyone in the United States without paying any fees +or charges. If you are redistributing or providing access to a work +with the phrase "Project Gutenberg" associated with or appearing on the +work, you must comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 +through 1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the +Project Gutenberg-tm trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or +1.E.9. + +1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg-tm electronic work is posted +with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution +must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any additional +terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms will be linked +to the Project Gutenberg-tm License for all works posted with the +permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning of this work. + +1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this +work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg-tm. + +1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this +electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without +prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with +active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project +Gutenberg-tm License. + +1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, +compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including any +word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access to or +distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg-tm work in a format other than +"Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other format used in the official version +posted on the official Project Gutenberg-tm web site (www.gutenberg.org), +you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense to the user, provide a +copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means of obtaining a copy upon +request, of the work in its original "Plain Vanilla ASCII" or other +form. Any alternate format must include the full Project Gutenberg-tm +License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. + +1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, +performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg-tm works +unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. + +1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing +access to or distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works provided +that + +- You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from + the use of Project Gutenberg-tm works calculated using the method + you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is + owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark, but he + has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the + Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments + must be paid within 60 days following each date on which you + prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your periodic tax + returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked as such and + sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the + address specified in Section 4, "Information about donations to + the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +- You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies + you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he + does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg-tm + License. You must require such a user to return or + destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium + and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of + Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +- You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of any + money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the + electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days + of receipt of the work. + +- You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free + distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm works. + +1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg-tm +electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set +forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from +both the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation and Michael +Hart, the owner of the Project Gutenberg-tm trademark. Contact the +Foundation as set forth in Section 3 below. + +1.F. + +1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable +effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread +public domain works in creating the Project Gutenberg-tm +collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may contain +"Defects," such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other intellectual +property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or other medium, a +computer virus, or computer codes that damage or cannot be read by +your equipment. + +1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the "Right +of Replacement or Refund" described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project +Gutenberg-tm trademark, and any other party distributing a Project +Gutenberg-tm electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal +fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT +LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE +PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE +TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE +LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR +INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH +DAMAGE. + +1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a +defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can +receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a +written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you +received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium with +your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you with +the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in lieu of a +refund. If you received the work electronically, the person or entity +providing it to you may choose to give you a second opportunity to +receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If the second copy +is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing without further +opportunities to fix the problem. + +1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth +in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO +WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. + +1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied +warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages. +If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the +law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be +interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted by +the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any +provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions. + +1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the +trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone +providing copies of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works in accordance +with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the production, +promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works, +harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, including legal fees, +that arise directly or indirectly from any of the following which you do +or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or any Project Gutenberg-tm +work, (b) alteration, modification, or additions or deletions to any +Project Gutenberg-tm work, and (c) any Defect you cause. + + +Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg-tm + +Project Gutenberg-tm is synonymous with the free distribution of +electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of computers +including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It exists +because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations from +people in all walks of life. + +Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the +assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg-tm's +goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg-tm collection will +remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project +Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure +and permanent future for Project Gutenberg-tm and future generations. +To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +and how your efforts and donations can help, see Sections 3 and 4 +and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org + + +Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive +Foundation + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non profit +501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the +state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal +Revenue Service. The Foundation's EIN or federal tax identification +number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent +permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state's laws. + +The Foundation's principal office is located at 4557 Melan Dr. S. +Fairbanks, AK, 99712., but its volunteers and employees are scattered +throughout numerous locations. Its business office is located at 809 +North 1500 West, Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email +contact links and up to date contact information can be found at the +Foundation's web site and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact + +For additional contact information: + Dr. Gregory B. Newby + Chief Executive and Director + gbnewby@pglaf.org + +Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg +Literary Archive Foundation + +Project Gutenberg-tm depends upon and cannot survive without wide +spread public support and donations to carry out its mission of +increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be +freely distributed in machine readable form accessible by the widest +array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations +($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt +status with the IRS. + +The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating +charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United +States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a +considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up +with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations +where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To +SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any +particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate + +While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we +have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition +against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who +approach us with offers to donate. + +International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make +any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from +outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. + +Please check the Project Gutenberg Web pages for current donation +methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other +ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. +To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate + + +Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg-tm electronic +works. + +Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project Gutenberg-tm +concept of a library of electronic works that could be freely shared +with anyone. For forty years, he produced and distributed Project +Gutenberg-tm eBooks with only a loose network of volunteer support. + +Project Gutenberg-tm eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the U.S. +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not necessarily +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +Most people start at our Web site which has the main PG search facility: + + www.gutenberg.org + +This Web site includes information about Project Gutenberg-tm, +including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary +Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to +subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. |