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diff --git a/8718-h/8718-h.htm b/8718-h/8718-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2f7a9e1 --- /dev/null +++ b/8718-h/8718-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5008 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American +Supplement, September 8, 1883</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} +img {border: 0;} +h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;} +.ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} +hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} +.ctr {text-align: center;} +--> +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 401, +September 8, 1883, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 401, September 8, 1883 + +Author: Various + +Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8718] +Release Date: August, 2005 +First Posted: August 3, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 401 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles +Franks and the Distributed Proofreaders Team + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1a.png"><img src= +"images/1a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 401</h1> + +<h2>NEW YORK, SEPTEMBER 8, 1883</h2> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XVI, No. 401.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> + +<hr> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#1">CHEMISTRY.--On the Different Modifications of +Silver Bromide and Silver Chloride.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#2">Analysis of New Zealand Coal.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#3">On the Determination of Manganese in Steel, Cast +Iron, Ferro-manganese, etc.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#4">Manganese and its Uses.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#5">Ozokerite or Earth-wax. By WILLIAM L. LAY. A +valuable and instructive paper read before the New York Academy of +Sciences.--Showing the nature, sources, and applications of this +remarkable product.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#6">On the Constitution of the Natural Fats.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#7">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--Improved Spring wheel +Traction Engine.--With two engravings.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#8">An Improved Iron Frame Gang Saw Mill.--With one +large engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#9">The Heat Regenerative System of Firing Gas +Retorts.--Siemens' principle.--As operated at the Glasgow +Corporation Works.--With two engravings.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#10">A New Gas Heated Baker's Oven.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#11">TECHNOLOGY.--How to Produce Permanent +Photographic Pictures on Terra Cotta, Glass, etc.--With recipes and +full directions.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#12">How to Make Paper Photo Negatives.--Full +directions.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#13">Some of the Uses of Common Alum.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#14">An Improved Cloth Stretching Machine.--With an +engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#15">Purification of Woolen Fabrics by Hydrochloric +Acid Gas.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#16">Apparatus for Preventing the Loss of Carbonic +Acid in Racking Beer.--With an engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#17">ELECTRICITY.--Application of Electricity to the +Bleaching of Vetable Textile Materials.--With figure of +apparatus.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#18">Table Showing the Relative Dimensions, Lengths, +Electrical Resistances, and Weights of Pure Copper Wires.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#19">ASTRONOMY.--The Solar Eclipse of 1883.--An +interesting abstract from a report of C. S. HASTINGS (Johns Hopkins +University), of the American Astronomical Exhibition to the +Caroline Islands.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#20">NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.--Recent Experiments Affecting +the Received Theory of Music.--An interesting paper descriptive of +certain experiments by President Morton, of Stevens +Institute.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#21">The Motions of Camphor upon Water.--With an +engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VII.</td> +<td><a href="#22">ARCHITECTURE.--Suggestions in Village +Architecture.-- Semidetached villas.--Bloomfield crescent.--With an +engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#23">Specimens of Old Knocking Devices for +Doors.--Several figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VIII.</td> +<td><a href="#24">ARCHÆOLOGY.--A Buried City of the +Exodus.--Being an account of the recent excavations and discoveries +of Pithom Succoth, in Egypt.--With an engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#25">The Moabite Manuscripts.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IX.</td> +<td><a href="#26">AGRICULTURE. HORTICULTURE, ETC.--The Queen +Victoria Century Plant.--With an engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#27">Charred Clover.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#28">A New Weathercock.--With one figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">X.</td> +<td><a href="#29">MISCELLANEOUS.--New Monumental Statue and Landing +Place in Honor of Christopher Columbus at Barcelona, Spain.--With +an engraving.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#30">Scenery on the Utah Line of the Denver and Rio +Grande Railway.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#31">Captain Matthew Webb.--Biographical sketch.--With +portrait.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#32">The Dwellings of the Poor In Paris.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#33">Shipment of Ostriches from Cape Town, South +Africa.--With one page of engravings.</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr> +<p><a name="29"></a></p> + +<h2>MONUMENT TO CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, AT BARCELONA, SPAIN.</h2> + +<p>The cultivated and patriotic city of Barcelona is about to erect +a magnificent monument in honor of Columbus, the personage most +distinguished in the historic annals of all nations and all epochs. +The City of Earls does not forget that here the discoverer of +America disembarked on the 3d of April, 1493, to present to the +Catholic monarchs the evidences of the happy termination of his +enterprise. In honoring Columbus they honor and exalt the sons of +Catalonia, who also took part in the discovery and civilization of +the New World, among whom may be named the Treasurer Santangel, +Captain Margarit, Friar Benardo Boyl, first patriarch of the +Indies, and the twelve missionaries of Monserrat, who accompanied +the illustrious admiral on his second voyage.</p> + +<p>In September, 1881, a national competition was opened by the +central executive committee for the monument, and by the unanimous +voice of the committee the premium plans of the architect, Don +Cayetano Buigas Monraba, were adopted. From these plans, which we +find in <i>La Ilustracion Española</i>, we give an +engraving. Richness, grandeur, and expression, worthily combined, +are the characteristics of these plans. The landing structure is +divided into three parts, a central and two laterals, each of which +extends forward, after the manner of a cutwater, in the form of the +bow of a vessel of the fifteenth century, bringing to mind the two +caravels, the Pinta and Niña; two great lights occupy the +advance points on each side; a rich balustrade and four statues of +celebrated persons complete the magnificent frontage. A noble +monument, surmounted by a statue of the discoverer, is seen on the +esplanade.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1b.png"><img src= +"images/1b_th.jpg" alt= +"MONUMENTAL LANDING AND STATUE TO COLUMBUS, AT BARCELONA, SPAIN."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">MONUMENTAL LANDING AND STATUE TO COLUMBUS, AT +BARCELONA, SPAIN.</p> + +<hr> +<p>The commission appointed in France to consider the phylloxera +has not awarded to anybody the prize of three hundred thousand +francs that was offered to the discoverer of a trustworthy remedy +or preventive for the fatal grape disease. There were not less than +182 competitors for the prize; but none had made a discovery that +filled the bill. It is said, however, that a Strasbourg physician +has found in naphthaline an absolutely trustworthy remedy. This +liquid is poured upon the ground about the root of the vine, and it +is said that it kills the parasites without hurting the grape.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="30"></a></p> + +<h2>SCENERY ON THE UTAH LINE OF THE DENVER AND RIO GRANDE.</h2> + +<p>Mr. R.W. Raymond gives the following interesting account of the +remarkable scenery on this recently opened route from Denver to +Salt Lake:</p> + +<p>Having just made the trip from Salt Lake City to this place on +the Denver & Rio Grande line, I cannot write you on any other +subject at present. There is not in the world a railroad journey of +thirty hours so filled with grand and beautiful views. I should +perhaps qualify this statement by deducting the hours of darkness; +yet this is really a fortunate enhancement of the traveler's +enjoyment; it seems providential that there is one part of the way +just long enough and uninteresting enough to permit one to go to +sleep without the fear of missing anything sublime. Leaving Salt +Lake City at noon, we sped through the fertile and populous Jordan +Valley, past the fresh and lovely Utah Lake, and up the Valley of +Spanish Fork. All the way the superb granite walls and summits of +the Wahsatch accompanied us on the east, while westward, across the +wide valley, were the blue outlines of the Oquirrh range. One after +another of the magnificent cañons of the Wahsatch we passed, +their mouths seeming mere gashes in the massive rock, but promising +wild and rugged variety to him who enters--a promise which I have +abundantly tested in other days. Parley's Cañon, the Big and +Little Cottonwood, and most wonderful of all, the cañon of +the American Fork, form a series not inferior to those of Boulder, +Clear Creek, the Platte, and the Arkansas, in the front range of +the Rockies.</p> + +<p>Following Spanish Fork eastward so far as it served our purpose, +we crossed the divide to the head waters of the South Fork of Price +River, a tributary of Green River. It was a regret to me, in +choosing this route, that I should miss the familiar and beloved +scenery of Weber and Echo cañons--the only part of the Union +Pacific road which tempts one to look out of a car window, unless +one may be tempted by the boundless monotony of the plains or the +chance of a prairie dog. Great was my satisfaction, therefore, to +find that this part of the new road, parallel with the Union +Pacific, but a hundred miles farther south, traverses the same belt +of rocks, and exhibits them in forms not less picturesque. Castle +Cañon, on the South Fork of the Price, is the equivalent of +Echo Cañon, and is equal or superior in everything except +color. The brilliant red of the Echo cliffs is wanting. The towers +and walls of Castle Cañon are yellowish-gray. But their +forms are incomparably various and grotesque--in some instances +sublime. The valley of Green River at this point is a cheerless +sage-brush desert, as it is further north. To be sure, this +uninviting stream, a couple of hundred miles further south, having +united with the Grande, and formed the Rio Colorado, does indeed, +by dint of burrowing deeper and deeper into the sunless chasms, +become at last sublime. But here it gives no hint of its future +somber glory. I remained awake till we had crossed Green River, to +make sure that no striking scenery should be missed by sleep. But I +got nothing for my pains except the moonlight on the muddy water; +and next time I shall go to bed comfortably, proving to the +conductor that I am a veteran and not a tender-foot.</p> + +<p>In the morning, we breakfasted at Cimarron, having in the +interval passed the foot-hills of the Roan Mountains, crossed the +Grande, and ascended for some distance the Gunnison, a tributary of +the Grande, the Uncompahgre, a tributary of the Gunnison, and +finally a branch, flowing westward, of the Uncompahgre. A high +divide at the head of the latter was laboriously surmounted; and +then, one of our two engines shooting ahead and piloting us, we +slid speedily down to Cimarron. It is in such descents that the +unaccustomed traveler usually feels alarmed. But the experience of +the Rio Grande Railroad people is, that derailment is likely to +occur on up-grades, and almost never in going down.</p> + +<p>From this point, comparison with the Union Pacific line in the +matter of scenery ceases. As everybody knows, that road crosses the +Rocky Mountains proper in a pass so wide and of such gradual ascent +that the high summits are quite out of sight. If it were not for +the monument to the Ameses, there would be nothing to mark the +highest point. For all the wonderful scenery on the Rio Grande +road, between Cimarron and Pueblo, the Union Pacific in the same +longitudes has nothing to show. From an artistic stand-point, one +road has crossed the ranges at the most tame and uninteresting +point that could be found, and the other at the most +picturesque.</p> + +<p>At Cimarron, the road again strikes the Gunnison, and plunges +into the famous Black Cañon. In length, variety, and certain +elements of beauty, such as forest-ravines and waterfalls, this +cañon surpasses the Royal Gorge of the Arkansas. There is, +however, one spot in the latter (I mean, of course, the point where +the turbulent river fills the whole space between walls 2,800 ft. +high, and the railroad is hung over it) which is superior in +desolate, overwhelming grandeur to anything on the Gunnison. Take +them all in all, it is difficult to say which is the finer. I have +usually found the opinion of travelers to favor the Gunnison +Cañon. But why need the question be solved at all? This one +matchless journey comprises them both; and he who was overwhelmed +in the morning by the one, holds his breath in the afternoon before +the mighty precipices of the other. To excuse myself from even +hinting such folly as a comparison of scenery, I will merely remark +that these two cañons are more capable of a comparison than +different scenes usually are; for they belong to the same +type--deep cuts in crystalline rocks.</p> + +<p>Between them come the Marshall Pass (nearly 11,000 ft. above +sea-level), over the continental divide, and the Poncha Pass, over +the Sangre di Cristo range. This range contains Harvard, Yale, +Princeton, Elbert, Massive (the peak opposite Leadville), and other +summits exceeding the altitude of 14,000 ft. To the east of it is +the valley of the Arkansas, into which and down which we pass, and +so through the Royal Gorge to Cañon City and Pueblo, where +we arrived before dark on the day after leaving Salt Lake.</p> + +<p>Salt Lake, the Jordan Valley, Utah Lake, the Wahsatch, Castle +Cañon, the Black Cañon of the Gunnison, Marshall +Pass, Poncha Pass, the Arkansas Valley, the Royal Gorge--what a +catalogue for so brief a journey! No wonder everybody who has made +it is "wild about it!" If enthusiastic urgency of recommendation +from every passenger has any influence (and I know it has a great +deal), this road will continue to be, as it is at present, crowded +with tourists. It furnishes a delightful route for those who wish +on the overland journey to see Denver (as who does not?) and to +visit Colorado Springs and Manitou. All this can be done <i>en +route</i>, without retracing the steps.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="11"></a></p> + +<h2>PHOTOGRAPHY APPLIED TO TERRA-COTTA AND OPAL GLASS.</h2> + +<p>In the natural course of things it must necessarily have +occurred to practical men to utilize photography in the case of +terra-cotta, as it has already been employed in connection with so +many other wares; but I have not to this day known of its +successful application to terra-cotta. Now this is strange, if one +considers how fashionable <i>plaque</i> and plate painting have +become of late, and the good photographic results that are easily +obtained on these as on sundry articles of this same "burnt earth." +Portraits, animals, landscapes, seascapes, and reproductions are +one and all easily transferred, whether for painting upon or to be +left purely photographic. As a matter of business, too, one fails +to see that it would not be remunerative, but rather the contrary. +It was with something of this feeling that I was led to try and see +what could be done to attain the end in view, and as I knew of no +data to go by, I had to use my own experience, or rather experiment +on my own account.</p> + +<p>Since emulsion was constantly at hand in my establishment, in +the commercial production of my gelatine dry plates, it was but +natural I should first have turned to this as a mode of obtaining +the desired results; but, alas! all attempts in that direction +signally failed--the ware most persistently refused to have +anything to do with emulsion. The bugbear was the fixing agent or +hypo., which not only left indelible marks, but, despite any amount +of washing, the image on a finished plate vanished to nothing at +the end of an hour's exposure in the show window. There was nothing +left but to seek other means for the attainment of my object. I +would not have troubled the reader as to this unsuccessful line of +experiment but that I wished to put him on his guard and save him +useless researches in the same direction. To cut matters short, the +method I found best and most direct was the now old but still +excellent wet collodion transfer. I will now proceed to detail my +system of working to facilitate the matter to the inexperienced in +collodion transfer.</p> + +<h3>TERRA-COTTA PHOTOGRAPHY IN PRACTICE.</h3> + +<p>The first and indispensable operation, in the preparation of the +surface to receive the transfer, is the "sizing of the surface." It +simply consists of a solution of gelatine chrome-alumed, as +follows:</p> + +<pre> + Gelatine. 10 grains. + Water. 1 ounce. + A trace of chrome alum. +</pre> + +<p>Coat with a soft camel's hair brush and let dry. It is needless +to say that numbers of <i>plaques</i>, plates, vases, etc., may be +coated right off, and will then be ready for use at any time.</p> + +<p>Having settled on the subject and carefully dusted the negative, +as well as placed it <i>in situ</i> for reproduction, the next +thing required is a suitable collodion, and the following will be +found all that can be desired:</p> + +<pre> + TRANSFER COLLODION. +<br> + Cotton. 3 drachms. + Iodide of cadmium. 65 grains. + Ammonium iodide. 25 " + Bromide of cadmium. 19 " + Ammonium bromide. 11 " + Alcohol. 15 ounces. + Ether. 15 " +</pre> + +<p>The plate thoroughly cleaned and coated with the collodion is +now transferred to a bath, as follows:</p> + +<p>Nitrate of silver (common) 25 grains to the ounce.</p> + +<p>Made slightly acid with nitric acid.</p> + +<p>After sensitizing, the plate is exposed in the usual way and +taken to the room where pictures are ordinarily developed, and +<i>quantum suff</i>. of the following poured into the developing +cup to bring out the image:</p> + +<pre> + DEVELOPING SOLUTION. +<br> + A Winchester of water, i.e. 80 ounces. + Protosulphate of iron. 240 grains. + Citric acid. 240 " +</pre> + +<p>Or the following may be used:</p> + +<pre> + Pyro 3 grains\ + Citric acid 2 " } per ounce of water. + Glacial acetic acid 30 drops / +</pre> + +<p>After perfect development the picture is well washed and then +fixed in a saturated solution of hypo.; after which it is +thoroughly washed.</p> + +<p>It will now be found that the picture is not altogether +satisfactory; it lacks both vigor and color. To improve matters +recourse is now had to</p> + +<h3>TONING.</h3> + +<pre> + Gold. 1 grain. + Water. 5 ounces. +</pre> + +<p>With this a very fine depth is soon attained, and a nice picture +the result. Leave out the toning, and only a poor, sunken-looking +picture will be the outcome; but directly the toning bath is +employed richness at once comes to the fore. I have, however, known +of instances where the picture needed no toning.</p> + +<h3>OPAL PRODUCTION IN PRACTICE.</h3> + +<p>This is still a secret with some in the profession. A limited +number of workers have succeeded in bringing out good opals, and +their <i>modus operandi</i> is kept from the many. Now this is a +pity, when one considers the great charm attached to a good picture +on opal, with pure whites and rich blacks, and in many localities +the demand that might be created for them. Apart from their beauty, +another charm attaches to opals--their absolute permanence; and +this, it must be allowed, is no trifle. What, in fact, can be more +painful to the worker who values his work, and sets store by it, +than to feel it must ere long fade and pass into oblivion! A +properly executed opal will no more fade than the glass pictures so +common at one time, and which, wherever taken care of, are as +perfect now as they were when first taken.</p> + +<p>Now, excellent pictures are to be made on opals by means of +emulsion; but I propose first taking the transfer method (mainly +applicable to ground opal and canvas) as given above for pottery, +since in practice it is found very ready, easy of manipulation, and +safe. The details are much the same as above, and necessitate +double transfer.</p> + +<p>After the picture had been obtained on the plate (ordinary glass +plate), and after thoroughly fixing, washing, and toning, the +picture (and this, remember, is the case likewise with terra-cotta) +then has to be loosened from its support, and this is done with a +solution of sulphuric acid--one drachm to fifteen ounces of +water--which is made to flow between the image and the glass, after +which perfectly wash and mount. When the image is loosened a piece +of tracing paper is put on the image, evened out, raised (assisted +by some one else to hold the two opposite corners during the +operation), and with the aid of the helper the picture is carefully +centered, gently pressed out or down, and the transfer is so far +effected. But what will happen, and does happen, in the case of +vignettes, is impurity of the whites, when the picture becomes +positively objectionable. Now the way to remedy this lies simply in +the application, to the dirty-looking parts, of a solution of +iodine dissolved in iodide of potassium to sherry color; after +which, well wash and apply a weak solution of cyanide of potassium, +and wash well again. This, by the way, is equally applicable to +paper transfers; and it is to be remembered that the toning comes +last of all. It is a rather difficult matter to clean a ground opal +which has been used two or three times, and acid must then be had +recourse to (nitric acid is as good as any); but by transferring +from the support on the ground surface, all stains are at once +avoided.</p> + +<p>On the flushed glass, or on the pot metal (unground), after well +cleaning the surface it should be covered with a substratum of egg. +Then the picture is taken direct, not transferred; that is, the +plate is exposed direct in the camera, regularly proceeded with, +and, when dried, varnished with a pale negative varnish, or with +dead varnish if intended for chalk or water-color. This, when a +good negative is used, gives a remarkably fine picture, not +requiring a vestige of retouching, and having likewise the +invaluable advantage of being perfectly durable if varnished with +the negative varnish. Moreover, on that, effective pictures may be +made in oil with simply tinting.</p> + +<p>A gentleman, who has a right to be considered a good judge in +all art matters, on looking at one of these pictures transferred on +flushed glass, said it was one of the finest productions of +photography. He urged that negatives <i>ad rem</i> should be taken +most carefully, and that, like the picture I showed him, they +should be full of half-tone and detail, and yet have plenty of +vigor. They should, he said, be robust in the high lights, have +perfectly clear glass in the few points of deep shadows, and thus +have powerful relief. Moreover, the negatives should be retouched +only by a competent hand, and care taken that the likeness shall be +in no way altered, which is so frequently the case now.</p> + +<p>If done as thus suggested there is no doubt that remarkably fine +pictures are to be produced on opal, whether ground or not. Most +artistic results are to be obtained, and, with proper care, +absolute permanency. In this age of keen competition, all have to +think of what may be really recommended to one's +<i>clientèle</i>, and likely to meet with approbation from +strangers and friends when the picture has once been delivered; and +I candidly think that the opal, of all, is the picture most likely +to meet with this general approbation.</p> + +<p>I hope I have left it clearly to be understood that the class of +opal picture to which I have chiefly alluded is one that remains +untouched after the transfer--that is, absolutely unpainted upon. +It is pure photography in every sense of the word, and the +resultant picture one hardly to be surpassed in any way. I have +rather laid a stress on this point, well knowing how pictures are +at times irretrievably ruined by the barbarous hand of would-be +artists, who by far exceed the true artists in number; and the hint +on retouching should not be lost sight of, either, at a period when +the tendency is to stereotype every one in marble-like texture, or +rather lack of texture, as if the face were devoid of all +fleshiness and as hard and rigid as cast-iron. It might be wise to +weigh this point carefully, and act upon it, before the enlightened +public have raised a cry against the pernicious practice and made +photographers smart for their want of applying timely remedial +measures to a decided evil.</p> + +<p>On reading the above again, fearing lest any misconception +should arise in the mind of the reader, I deem it expedient, to +clearly state that for terra-cotta recourse is had to double +transfer; that is, the picture first taken is lifted from the +support on tracing paper, put in the right position on terra-cotta, +and pressed down while wet with blotting-paper, left to dry, and is +then so far ready.</p> + +<p>Respecting the production of pictures by means of emulsion, +ground opal being the best, the system I employ is as follows: +After well cleaning the glass, coat it with emulsion (which had +better not be too thick). When dry it is exposed and developed with +the usual oxalate developer, to which a little bromide of potassium +has been added. The remainder of the operations is as usual. Those +varnished with dead varnish can be tinted and worked up with +colored crayons or black lead pencil and make very pleasing +pictures. It is needless to add that they are also to be finished +in water-colors if thought preferable.--<i>G. W. Martyn, in Br. +Jour. Photo</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="12"></a></p> + +<h2>PAPER NEGATIVES.</h2> + +<p>The process of A.C.A. Thiebaut is as follows: the paper has the +following advantages:</p> + +<p>First. The sensitive coating is regular, and its thickness is +uniform throughout the entire surface of each sheet.</p> + +<p>Second. It can be exposed for a luminous impression in any kind +of slide as usually constructed.</p> + +<p>Third. It can be developed and fixed as easily as a negative on +glass.</p> + +<p>Fourth. The negative obtained dries quite flat on blotting +paper.</p> + +<p>Fifth. The film which constitutes the negative can be detached +or peeled from its support or backing easily and readily by the +hand, without the assistance of any dissolving or other agent. Thus +this invention does away with all sensitive preparations on glass, +which latter is both a brittle and relatively heavy material, thus +diminishing the bulk and weight of amateur and scientific +photographers' luggage when traveling; it produces photographic +negatives as fine and as transparent as those on glass, in so much +that the film does not contain any grain; and, lastly, it admits of +printing from either face of the film, as regards the production of +positives on paper or other material, as well as plates for +phototypy and photo-engraving, which latter processes require a +negative to be reversed.</p> + +<p>For the manufacture of my sensitized film paper:</p> + +<p>First. A gelatinized sheet of paper is properly damped with cold +water, and when evenly saturated it is placed on a glass, to which +it is attached by means of bands of paper pasted partially on the +glass, and partially on the edges of the said sheet; in this state +it is allowed to dry, whereby it is stretched quite flat.</p> + +<p>Secondly. I coat the dry sheet with a solution of ordinary +collodion, containing from one to two per cent. cubic measure of +azotic cotton (1½ per cent. gives very good results) and +from 1½ to 2½ per cent. of castor oil (2 per cent. +gives very good results); this coating is allowed to dry; and,</p> + +<p>Thirdly. The glass, with the prepared paper upward, is leveled, +and then it is coated, in a room from which all rays but red rays +of light are excluded, with a tepid emulsion of bromide of silver +to the extent of about one millimeter thick, and after leaving it +in this position until the gelatine has set (say) about five +minutes, with the film paper still attached, it is placed upright +in a drying-room, where it should remain about twelve hours exposed +to a temperature of from 62 to 66 degrees Fahrenheit; and,</p> + +<p>Fourthly. The film paper is detached from the glass ready for +exposure, development, and fixing in the usual manner. For the +purpose of developing, oxalate of iron or pyrogallic acid answers +equally well; for the purpose of fixing, I have found that a +mixture by weight, water, 1,000, hyposulphite of soda 150, and +powdered alum 60, produces excellent results, after being allowed +to dry.</p> + +<p>Fifthly. The film is peeled off the paper by hand, and can be +immediately used for producing negatives <i>recto</i> or +<i>verso</i> as above mentioned.</p> + +<p>I claim as my invention:</p> + +<p>First. The preparation or formation of gelatino-bromide film +paper for photographic negatives, in the manner and for the +purposes above described; and,</p> + +<p>Secondly. The use for this purpose of castor oil, or any other +analogous oil, more especially with the view of peeling off the +film from the paper backing as above described.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="13"></a></p> + +<h2>SOME OF THE USES OF COMMON ALUM.</h2> + +<p>A substance very much used by photographers of late years--in +fact, so much used that no well-appointed laboratory could be +considered complete without it--is the substance known is common +alum, or potash alum, being a double sulphate of alumina and +potash; but it is interesting to note that much of the commercial +alum met with at the present time is ammonia alum, or the double +sulphate of alum and ammonia. It is quite a matter of indifference +to the photographer whether he uses potash alum or ammonia +alum.</p> + +<p>Besides its great value to the autotype, Woodburytype, and +mechanical printers as an agent for hardening the gelatine films, +it has been recommended for all sorts of ailments photographic. The +silver printer adds a small portion to his sensitizing bath to keep +it in working order, and to prevent blistering of the albumen; +then, again, silver prints are soaked in a dilute solution of alum, +having for its object the thorough elimination of the last traces +of the fixing salt. A very good proportion to use for this latter +purpose is four fluid ounces of a saturated solution, diluted with +one gallon of water, the prints being well agitated during an +immersion of ten minutes.</p> + +<p>Of all the uses to which alum is put, perhaps not in any single +instance can so much satisfaction be derived as when it is used to +arrest frilling of gelatine plates. This it has the power to do +instantaneously, and many of the most careful workers, both amateur +and professional, or at least those who do net care to run any +unnecessary risks with negatives which have cost them a good deal +of anxiety and trouble to secure, but prefer to make assurance +doubly sure--such individuals may be numbered by the hundred--make +it a point in every-day practice to immerse all their plates in a +solution of alum, either before fixing, or immediately afterward. +In fact, some operators have two alum baths in use, one a normal +bath, as above mentioned, for immersing the plates in when of the +ordinary printing intensity; and the other a saturated solution +strongly acidified by means of a vegetable acid (such as citric) or +a mineral acid (such as sulphuric), for use when there is too much +printing density, since it has been found in practice that an acid +solution of alum in contact with sodium thio-sulphate on the +gelatine image (after fixing, but before washing) not only removes +the color or stain caused by the alkaline or pyrogallol, but +perceptibly reduces the strength of the image. Moreover, the color +does not again reappear after washing, as it does sometimes when +the fixing salt has been partially washed away. In cases where +there is great tendency to frill--such, for instance, as when a +soft sample of gelatine has been employed, or old decomposed +emulsion worked in with the fresh emulsion--it will in such cases +be safer to put the plates in the normal-bath for a few minutes +previous to immersing them in the acid bath.</p> + +<p>Potash alum is obtained tolerably pure in commerce in colorless +transparent crystalline masses, having an acid, sweetish, +astringent taste. It is soluble in 18 parts of water at 60° F., +and in its own weight of water at 212° F.; but the excess +crystallizes out upon cooling. The solution reddens litmus paper, +and, when impure, usually contains traces of oxide of iron. Upon +the addition of either caustic soda or potash, a white gelatinous +precipitate is formed (hydrate of alumina), which is soluble in +excess of the reagent employed. The precipitate thus obtained has +much of the character of the opalescent film sometimes observed on +gelatine plates, when dry, which have been soaked in alum, and not +well washed afterward.</p> + +<p>Alkaline carbonates--such as washing soda, for +instance--precipitate hydrate of alumina, which does not dissolve +in an excess of the reagents, and carbon dioxide is evolved.</p> + +<p>Ammonia hydrate produces a precipitate in a much finer state of +divison, which does not dissolve in excess when examined in a +test-tube, it somewhat resembles thin starch paste.</p> + +<p>The presence of traces of iron may be known by adding a few +drops of hydrochloric acid to a small quantity of a saturated +solution of alum in a test-tube, to which add strong liquid +ammonia; should any iron be present, the mixture will have a +reddish-brown tinge when examined over a sheet of white paper. +Other alums exist, such as the double sulphate of alumina and +sodium, and sodium or aluminum and ammonium; but hitherto their +uses have been confined to the experimental portion of the +community rather than the practical.--<i>Photo. News</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="14"></a></p> + +<h2>CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE.</h2> + +<p>As is well known, in the process of bleaching and dyeing, cotton +cloths become considerably contracted in the width, in consequence +of carrying on the operations when the cloth is in the form of a +rope. The effect is that, together with the tension, although +slight, and the drying, the weft partly shrinks and partly curls +up, the latter, however, being scarcely observable to the naked +eye. It may almost be said that as regards the width the shrinkage +is due to a number of minute crumples because the cloth is easily +streatched again by the fingers almost to its gray width. The main +use of a stretching machine, therefore, is not so much to make the +cloth more than it is as to bring it again to its normal or woven +width after operations that tend to shrinkage have been performed +upon it. The stretching operation, therefore, is especially useful +to calico printers, as it enables them to obtain when desired a +white margin of even width, the irregularities due to bleaching +being corrected before printing.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/3a.png"><img src= +"images/3a_th.jpg" alt= +"IMPROVED CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED CLOTH STRETCHING MACHINE.</p> + +<p>The machine now illustrated is one we have recently seen in +operation in a Salford finishing works. It is an improved form of +another stretching machine which had been turned out in +considerable numbers by Mr. Archibald Edmeston, engineer, of +Salford, who makes a specialty of calico printers' and finishers' +machinery. The improvements consist mainly of a simplification of +the working parts and thoroughly substantial construction of the +machine. The principle adopted is a well-known one. The selvages of +the cloth, or more strictly the two edges of the cloth, of a width +of about two inches, are caused to pass over and at the same time +are held by the rims of two diverging pulleys. The rims are further +apart where the cloth leaves them than where they seize it, hence +the stretching is gradually, certainly, and uniformly performed. +The cloth is gripped by the pressure of an endless belt acting +against the lower half of each pulley, the edges being held between +them. In the engraving these stretching pulleys are indicated by +the letters AA; the endless leather band passes over the pulleys, +CC, of which there are a set of four provided for each stretching +pulley. The lower pair of pulleys in each case may be tightened up +by a screw for the purpose of imparting the requisite tension to +the bands. The stretching pulleys are mounted upon and driven by +the same shaft, an ingenious but simple swiveling joint in their +bosses enabling them to be set at any angle to the shaft and yet to +revolve and be driven by it without throwing any undue strain upon +the working parts. The piece, wound upon the ordinary batch shell, +is placed upon the running-off center, D; it is led off over the +rails, EE, and then downward to the nip of the bands and pulleys, +AA. As explained, the selvages are here gripped between the bands +and stretching pulleys, the rims of which are wider apart at the +back than the front, and thus, in being conveyed underneath, the +piece is suitably stretched. Leaving the grip at the back it passes +over leading-off rollers, FF, and the scrimp or opening rail, G, +and thence downward to the winding-on center, which cannot be seen. +The winding-on center is driven by friction. As the batch fills it +and tends to wind faster than the machine delivers the cloth, the +driving slips. In addition to a capability of being set at an angle +to the shaft, the stretching pulleys, AA, may be slided upon, so as +to separate or bring them closer together, to allow for the +treatment of different widths of cloths. This adjustment is +provided for by mounting the stretching pulleys, AA, and the band +pulleys, CC, etc., on frames, BB, the ends of which rest, as shown, +upon rails, at the back and front of the machine. The adjustment +either for width of piece or for the angularity (extent of +stretching) is easily made by the hand-wheel, L. By the bevel +wheels shown, two cross screws having nuts connected to the ends of +frames, BB, are actuated in such a way that as desired the space +between the back and front of the pulleys may be closed in or +opened out, or the two wheels, maintaining the same angularity, may +be separated or closed in, either adjustment being expeditiously +made. The wheels, HHH, are called center stretching wheels, the use +of which is sometimes advantageous. They act in conjunction with a +set of stretching pulleys, of which one, K, may be seen in +illustration. By a proper adjustment at the latter the piece is +bent into a wavy form, where it passes between the whole of them, +the effect of the corrugation being to loosen the center threads +and to allow the piece to be more equally stretched with those near +the selvages and more easily. This part of the machine may be used +or not as required. The production, we observe, was about 120 yards +per minute. The machine is solidly built and well fitted together, +as was obvious to us from an inspection of some in course of +construction at the maker's works. It is also claimed to be of +considerable advantage to bleachers and finishers of white goods, +on account of the uniformity of the stretching causing but small +disturbance to the stiffening.--<i>Textile Manufacturer</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="15"></a></p> + +<h2>WOOLEN FABRICS PURIFIED BY HYDROCHLORIC ACID GAS.</h2> + +<p>All known methods for chemically purifying woolen stuffs from +vegetable fibers depend on the action of acids or substances of +acid reaction. The excessive temperature, hitherto unavoidable in +the operation, acts injuriously on the woolen fibers, especially +during the formation of hydrochloric acid, with which process +especially the development of an injuriously high temperature has +been hitherto unavoidable. The best method of absorbing the heat +developed is in the evaporation of the moisture naturally present +in the wool. The patentees find agitation of the fabric and the use +of an exhauster during the process of material assistance. The +operation maybe successfully performed in two ways--either by +acting on the fabric at the ordinary pressure with constant +agitation, or by saturation without agitation in a vacuum. For the +first method the patentees employ a wooden cylinder with an +aperture at one end for inserting and removing the cloth, and +having apertures all round to allow free access of air. This +cylinder rests on a hollow axle, closed at one end and perforated +with holes, through which the acid gas is passed. By the rotation +of the cylinder the gas is drawn through the material and the +latter exposed to the atmosphere, whereby it gives up a quantity of +aqueous vapor. An average temperature of 30° Cent. is best +suited to the operation, and it can be regulated according to the +supply of gas by opening or shutting a three-way cock between the +gas generator and the revolving cylinder. This process is assisted +by the use of an exhauster of the usual construction. When fully +saturated, the fabric is allowed to remain until the vegetable +fibers are sufficiently friable. The treatment <i>in vacuo</i> is +as follows:</p> + +<p>The hydrochloric acid gas passes into a vessel of suitable +material provided with a perforated false bottom. From under this +false bottom a pipe connects with a second similar vessel connected +itself with a vacuum pump having a let-off pipe. As soon as the +maximum vacuum is attained, the gas is turned on through a +three-way cock at a pressure of 40 mm. mercury. The gas fills the +first vessel and saturates the cloth. The warmth set free (about +500 calories per kilo, gas) is taken up by the combined water in +the wool, as, owing to the low pressure, a quantity of vapor is +formed sufficient to take up the heat. This vapor streams through +the second vessel at a temperature of 35° Cent., penetrates the +material, and passes out through the pump. After saturating the +contents of the first vessel the gas passes into the second. AS +soon as this is one-quarter or one-third saturated the first vessel +is taken out and replaced by a third, which receives the overplus +from No. 2 in like manner, and so on. This plan of working prevents +gas passing through and damaging the pump. Instead of working under +reduced pressure, the desired low temperature can be maintained by +passing alternately with the gas currents of air which absorb heat +in evaporating the moisture of the material. The cloth, after +saturation by these processes, is left from six to twelve hours in +the vessels, after which it is freely exposed to the air until the +vegetable particles are friable. As soon as this occurs, the +fabrics are washed. It is advantageous to add to the wash water +powdered carbonate of baryta, strontia, magnesia, or preferably +lime, and subsequently to rinse in pure water. Phosphate of lime +containing carbonate may also be employed for neutralizing the +acid, and the residue recovered and separated from the organic +residues mixed with it.--"<i>H. J.," Journal of the Society of +Chemical Industry.</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="17"></a></p> + +<h2>APPLICATION OF ELECTRICITY TO THE BLEACHING OF VEGETABLE +TEXTILE MATERIALS.</h2> + +<p>It is a recognized fact that chemical bodies in a nascent state +are characterized by peculiarly energetic affinities, and the +results of numerous experiments permit us to affirm that animal and +vegetable fibers are rapidly bleached when they are placed in +contact with oxides and chlorides which, when submitted to +electrolysis, permit oxygen and chlorine to disengage themselves in +the nascent state.</p> + +<p>The coloring matter that impregnates the majority of vegetable +textile substances, such as cotton, flax, and hemp, to cite only +those most generally known, is in fact completely destroyed only by +the combined action of oxygen and chlorine, which always act in the +same manner, whether the fibers be in a raw or woven state.</p> + +<p>In the application of electrolysis to the bleaching of textile +materials, it is only necessary to have the electrodes of any +sufficiently powerful generator of electricity end in a vessel +containing in aqueous solution such decolorizing agents as the +hypochlorites in general, and chlorides, bromides, and iodides that +are capable of disengaging chlorine, and iodine or an iodide in a +nascent state. These gases perform the role of oxidizing or +decolorizing agents.</p> + +<p>The fibers that are immersed in the solution during the passage +of the electric current must necessarily remain therein for a +greater or less length of time, according to the nature of the +material to be bleached, and must, after this first operation, be +washed, rinsed, and dried.</p> + +<p>The use of an electric current for decomposing the metallic +chlorides and disengaging their elements is not new, and there have +been specially utilized for this purpose, up to the present time, +the alkaline hypochlorites that are obtained by well known +processes.</p> + +<p>In the latter case the metal is brought to the state of oxide in +presence of the water that is necessary for the reaction. But the +results obtained in practicing this method are deceiving, as far as +bleaching is concerned, and it is evidently more rational and +economical to endeavor to compound the hypochlorite directly by +borrowing all its elements from the metallic chloride itself, and +from the water by means of which such transformation is to be +effected. This is a reversal of the problem, and, <i>à +propos</i> thereof, we would call the attention of the reader to an +apparatus invented by Messrs. Naudin & Schneider for effecting +such synthesis in a simple and practical manner.</p> + +<p>If a solution of chloride of sodium or kitchen salt, NaCl, be +submitted to electrolysis in a hermetically closed vessel +containing the material to be bleached, a formation of hypochlorite +of soda is produced in the following way:</p> + +<p>2NaCl + 2 H<sub>2</sub>O = NaCl + NaO, ClO + 4H.</p> + +<p>In operating in this manner we shall have the advantage that +results from the nascent body through the electrical double +decomposition of the chloride of sodium and water, which puts the +chlorine, the metal, the hydrogen, and the oxygen simultaneously in +presence. The chlorine and oxygen will combine their action to +decolorize the textile material.</p> + +<p>While starting from this idea, it will nevertheless be +preferable to adopt Naudin & Schneider's arrangement.</p> + +<p>The apparatus consists of a hermetically closed electrolyzer, A, +into the lower part of which enters the electrodes, E and F, of any +electrical machine whatever. The receptacle, A, is provided with a +safety-tube, T, that issues from its upper part and communicates +with a reservoir, B. A second tube, D, forms a communication +between the electrolyzer and the vessel, C. The liquid contained in +this latter is sucked up by a pump, P, and forced to the lower part +of the vessel, A, by means of the tubes, G and H.</p> + +<p>The apparatus operates as follows:</p> + +<p>The closed vessel, C, in which the material to be bleached is +put, is filled, as is also the electrolyzer, with a solution of +chloride of sodium. This solution is then submitted to the action +of an electric current, when, as a consequence of the chemical +decomposition of the chloride and the water, the elements in a +nascent state form hypochlorite of soda. When the partial or total +conversion of the liquid has been effected (this being ascertained +by chlorometric tests), the pump, P, is set rapidly in operation, +and, as a consequence, draws up the chloride of sodium from the +bottom of the vessel, C, to the lower part of the electrolyzer, A. +The hypochlorite that has formed passes through the tube, D (as a +natural consequence of the elevation of the level of the liquid in +A brought about by the entrance of a new supply of chloride), and +distributes itself throughout the vessel, C, where it acts upon the +textile material.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4a.png" alt=""></p> + +<p class="ctr">APPARATUS FOR BLEACHING TEXTILE FIBERS<br> +BY ELECTRICITY.</p> + +<p>The safety-tube, T, which is attached to the electrolyzer, +permits of the escape of the hydrogen which is produced during the +chemical reaction, and fixes, through an alkaline solution +contained in the reservoir, B, the chloride whose escape might +discommode the operator.</p> + +<p>As may be conceived, the slow transfer of the saline solution +from the receptacle, C, to the electrolyzer, and its rapid +conversion into decolorizing chloride, as well as its prompt +application upon the materials to be bleached, presents important +advantages.</p> + +<p>While, in the present state of the industries that make use of +bleaching chlorides, the chloride of sodium is converted into +hydrochloric acid, which, in order to disengage chlorine, must in +its turn react upon binoxide of manganese, we shall be able, with +this new method, to utilize the chloride of sodium, which is +derived from ordinary salt works, and extract from it the +constituent elements of the hypochlorite by a simple displacement +of molecules produced under the influence of an electric +current.</p> + +<p>Another and very serious advantage of electric bleaching is that +of having constantly at hand a fresh solution of hypochlorite +possessing a uniform decolorizing power, which may be regulated by +the always known intensity of the current.</p> + +<p>We must remark that the hypochlorites require a certain length +of time to permit the chlorine to become disengaged, and that, +besides, all chlorides, bromides, and iodides that are isomorphous +are capable of undergoing an analogous chemical transformation and +of being employed for the same purpose. This is especially the case +with the chlorides of potassium or barium, the bromides of +strontium or calcium, and the iodides of aluminum or magnesium. On +another hand, as sea water contains different chlorides, it results +that it might serve directly as a raw material for bleaching +textile fibers. Then, when the solution of chloride of sodium has +been deprived of its chlorine by electrolysis, there remains a +solution of caustic soda which may be utilized for scouring +fibers.--<i>H. Danzer, in Le Génie Civil</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="7"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE.</h2> + +<p>Messrs. J. & H. McLaren, of the Midland Engine Works, +Hunslet, Leeds, England, for several years past have devoted +considerable attention to the question of mounting traction engines +on springs. The outcome of this is the engine in question, the +front end of which is carried by a pair of Timmis spiral springs, +resting on the center pin of the front axle, which is on Messrs. +McLaren's principle, which enables it to accommodate itself to the +inequalities of the road without throwing any undue strain on the +front carriage. The chief difficulty hitherto has been to mount the +hind end on springs without interfering with the spur gearing, +which must be kept perfectly rigid to prevent breakage of the cogs. +This is entirely provided for by the new arrangement, whereby all +the spring is allowed for in the spokes of the wheel itself, which +will be clearly seen on reference to the illustrations, in which +Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the engine, while Fig. 2 shows a +detail view of the wheel. The rim of the wheel is built up in the +ordinary way of strong T-iron rings, with steel crossplates riveted +on. The nave of the wheel has wrought-iron ribs to which the spokes +are bolted. These spokes are made of the best spring steel, +specially manufactured and rolled for the purpose, 9 inches wide +and ½ inch thick. They are bent in a pear shape, with the +narrow ends fastened to the nave, and the crown resting upon the +rim of the wheel, where they are divided, and held in their places +by means of clip fastened with bolts. When the weight of the engine +comes on these spokes, those nearest the ground are compressed and +those, at the top are elongated a little. In order to avoid any of +the driving strain passing through the springs, a strong arm is +fixed on the differential wheel and attached to the rim as shown in +Fig. 2, so that the springs have really no work to do beyond +carrying the weight of the engine. Messrs. McLaren naturally felt a +certain amount of diffidence in placing their invention before the +public until they had thoroughly tested it in practical work. This, +we are informed, they have done, with the most satisfactory +results, during the last five or six months; and they have a set of +springs which ran during that time between 2,000 and 3,000 miles, +besides which there are several of these spring engines in daily +use.--<i>Iron</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/4b.png"><img src= +"images/4b_th.jpg" alt= +"FIG 1. IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG 1. IMPROVED SPRING TRACTION ENGINE.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4c.png" alt="FIG. 2"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="18"></a></p> + +<h2>TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE DIMENSIONS, LENGTHS, RESISTANCES, +AND WEIGHTS OF PURE COPPER WIRE.</h2> + +<pre> + DIAMETER | AREA + | +B.W.G Inch. Milli- | Circu- Square Square +No. metres | lar inches. Milli- + | Mils. metres. + | +0000 .454 11.5313 | 206116 .161883 10.4435 + 000 .425 10.795 | 180625 .141862 9.152 + 00 .38 9.6518 | 144400 .113411 7.3165 + 0 .34 8.6358 | 115600 .0907922 5.8573 + 1 .3 7.620 | 90000 .070686 4.5602 + 2 .284 7.2134 | 80656 .0633472 4.0867 + 3 .259 6.5784 | 67081 .0526854 3.3989 + 4 .238 6.0451 | 56644 .0444881 2.8701 + 5 .22 5.5879 | 48400 .0380133 2.4523 + 6 .203 5.1561 | 41209 .0323655 2.088 + 7 .18 4.5719 | 32400 .0254469 1.6417 + 8 .165 4.1909 | 27225 .0213825 1.3794 + 9 .148 3.7591 | 21904 .0172034 1.1098 + 10 .134 3.4035 | 17956 .0141026 .9096 + 11 .12 3.0479 | 14400 .0113097 .7296 + 12 .109 2.7701 | 11881 .00933133 .60199 + 13 .095 2.4129 | 9025 .0070882 .4573 + 14 .083 2.1082 | 6889 .00541062 .34906 + 15 .072 1.8288 | 5184 .00407151 .2486 + 16 .065 1.6510 | 4225 .00331831 .21407 + 17 .058 1.4732 | 3364 .0026421 .17045 + 18 .049 1.2446 | 2401 .00188574 .12165 + 19 .042 1.0668 | 1764 .00138544 .0894 + 20 .035 0.8890 | 1225 .000962115 .06207 + 21 .032 0.8128 | 1024 .00080425 .05188 + 22 .028 0.7112 | 784 .000615753 .03972 + 23 .025 0.635 | 625 .00049087 .03167 + 24 .022 0.5588 | 484 .000380133 .02452 + 25 .02 0.508 | 400 .00031416 .02027 +<br> + 26 .018 0.4571 | 324 .000254469 .01642 + 27 .016 0.4064 | 256 .000201062 .01297 + 28 .014 0.3556 | 196 .000153938 .00993 + 29 .013 0.3302 | 169 .000132732 .00856 + 30 .012 0.3048 | 144 .000113097 .007296 +</pre> + +<p>LENGTH AND WEIGHT</p> + +<pre> +B.W.G Pounds Pounds Pounds Pounds Feet Yards 1.000 feet Miles +No. per per per 1.000 per per lb. per lb. per lb. per lb. + foot. Yard ft. mile. +<br> +0000 .623924 1.871772 623.924 3294.32 1.60276 .534253 .00160276 .00303553 + 000 .54676 1.64028 546.76 2886.89 1.82895 .60965 .00182895 .0034639 + 00 .437105 1.311315 437.105 2307.92 2.28777 .76259 .00228777 .004333 + 0 .349928 1.049784 349.928 1847.62 2.85773 .9525766 .00285773 .0054124 + 1 .272435 .817305 272.435 1438.43 3.6706 1.22353 .0036706 .0069519 + 2 .244151 .732453 244.151 1289.11 4.0958 1.365266 .0040958 .0077573 + 3 .203058 .609174 203.058 1072.15 4.9247 1.641566 .0049247 .009327 + 4 .171463 .514395 171.465 905.333 5.8321 1.944033 .0058321 .0110457 + 5 .14651 .43953 146.510 773.56 6.8255 2.275166 .0068255 .012927 + 6 .124742 .374226 124.742 658.638 8.0165 2.672166 .0080165 .015183 + 7 .098076 .294228 98.076 517.844 10.1962 3.39873 .0101962 .019311 + 8 .082411 .247233 82.411 435.135 12.1345 4.04483 .0121345 .022981 + 9 .066305 .198915 66.305 350.089 15.0818 5.027266 .0150818 .028564 + 10 .054354 .163062 54.354 286.99 18.398 6.13266 .018398 .034845 + 11 .04359 .13077 43.590 230.152 22.9413 7.6471 .0229413 .04345 + 12 .035964 .107892 35.964 189.893 27.805 9.2683 .027805 .05266 + 13 .027319 .081957 27.319 144.245 36.6046 12.20153 .0366046 .069326 + 14 .020853 .062559 20.853 110.1088 47.954 15.98466 .047954 .09082 + 15 .015692 .047076 15.692 82.855 63.7267 21.24223 .0637261 .12069 + 16 .012789 .038367 12.789 67.5276 78.1902 26.0634 .0781902 .14809 + 17 .0101828 .0305484 10.1828 53.7665 98.202 32.734 .098203 .18589 + 18 .00726795 .02180388 7.26796 38.3748 137.590 45.8633 .137590 .260587 + 19 .00533972 .01601916 5.33972 28.1937 187.276 62.4253 .187276 .35469 + 20 .00370815 .01112445 3.70815 19.579 269.676 89.892 .2696676 .51075 + 21 .00309972 .00929910 3.09972 16.3665 322.610 107.5366 .322610 .61100 + 22 .00237312 .00711936 2.37312 12.5301 421.384 140.4613 .421334 .798078 + 23 .0018910 .0056757 1.8919 9.9892 528.570 176.190 .528570 .100108 + 24 .0014650 .0043950 1.4650 7.7357 682.55 227.5166 .68255 .129271 + 25 .00121082 .00363246 1.21082 6.39315 825.880 275.2943 .825883 .156417 + 26 .00098077 .00294231 .98077 5.17844 1019.61 339.870 1.01961 .193108 + 27 .00077492 .00232476 .77492 4.0916 1290.44 430.1466 1.29044 .24440 + 28 .0005933 .0017799 .5933 3.13264 1685.48 561.8266 1.68548 .31922 + 29 .000511571 .001534713 .511571 2.7011 1954.76 651.5866 1.95476 .370220 + 30 .0004359 .0013077 .4359 2.30152 2294.13 764.710 2.29413 .434496 +</pre> + +<p>LENGTH AND RESISTANCE</p> + +<pre> +B.W.G Feet Yards 1.000 feet Miles Ohms Ohms Ohms Ohms +No. per Ohm. per Ohm. per Ohm. per Ohm. per foot. per yard. per 1.000 per mile. + foot. +<br> +0000 19966.5 6655.5 19.9665 3.7815 .000050684 .00156252 .050084 .264443 + 000 17497.15 5832.3833 17.49715 3.31385 .0000571522 .0001714566 .0571522 .301763 + 00 13988.64 4662.68 13.98804 2.64925 .000071489 .000214467 .071489 .377465 + 0 11198.17 3732.7333 11.19817 2.12086 .0000893002 .0002679006 .0893002 .471505 + 1 8718.30 2906.10 8.71830 1.6512 .00011470 .0003441 .114701 .60562 + 2 7813.50 2604.50 7.81350 1.47973 .00012799 .00038397 .12799 .67580 + 3 6498.14 2166.0466 6.49814 1.23071 .00015389 .00046167 .15389 .81254 + 4 5487.107 1829.0357 5.487107 1.03923 .000182245 .000546735 .182245 .962256 + 5 4688.51 1562.8366 4.68851 .887975 .000213287 .000639861 .213287 1.12616 + 6 3991.91 1330.6366 3.99191 .756045 .000250506 .000751518 .250506 1.32267 + 7 3138.59 1046.1966 3.13859 .59443 .000318614 .000955842 .318614 1.68228 + 8 2637.29 879.0966 2.63729 .499486 .000379177 .001137531 .379177 2.00206 + 9 2121.84 707.280 2.12184 .401864 .000471289 .001413867 .471289 2.488405 + 10 1739.40 579.80 1.73940 .329432 .000574911 .001724733 .574911 3.03553 + 11 1394.93 464.9766 1.39493 .264191 .000716882 .002150646 .716882 3.78514 + 12 1150.91 383.6366 1.15091 .217976 .000868875 .002606625 .868875 4.58766 + 13 874.252 291.4173 .874252 .165578 .00114383 .00343149 1.14383 6.03945 + 14 667.338 222.446 .667338 .12639 .00149849 .00449547 1.49849 7.91203 + 15 502.175 167.39166 .502175 .095109 .00199134 .00597402 1.99134 10.5142 + 16 409.276 136.42533 .409276 .077514 .00244334 .00733002 2.44334 12.9008 + 17 325.871 108.62366 .325871 .061718 .0030687 .0092061 3.0687 16.20274 + 18 232.585 77.52833 .232585 .04405 .0042995 .0128985 4.2995 22.7014 + 19 170.879 56.95966 .170879 .032363 .0058521 .0175563 5.8521 30.8991 + 20 149.3915 49.797166 .1493915 .022475 .00842703 .02528109 8.42703 44.4947 + 21 99.195 33.065 .099195 .018787 .01008110 .03024348 10.08116 53.2285 + 22 75.9461 25.315366 .0759461 .014384 .0131672 .0395016 13.1672 69.5230 + 23 60.54377 20.181256 .06054377 .011467 .0165170 .0495510 16.5170 87.2096 + 24 46.8851 15.628356 .0468851 .0088798 .02132874 .06398622 21.32874 112.616 + 25 38.748 12.916 .038748 .0073386 .025808 .077424 25.808 136.265 + 26 31.3859 10.461966 .0313859 .0059443 .03186144 .09558432 31.86144 168.229 + 27 24.79873 8.266243 .02479873 .0046967 .0403246 .1209738 40.3246 212.914 + 28 18.98653 6.328843 .01898653 .0035959 .05266892 .15800676 52.66892 278.092 + 29 16.3710 5.4570 .0163710 .0031006 .0610834 .1832502 61.0834 322.521 + 30 13.9493 4.649766 .0139493 .0026419 .07168825 .21506475 71.68825 378.514 +</pre> + +<p>RESISTANCE & WEIGHT</p> + +<pre> +B.W.G Ohms Lbs. +No. per lb. per Ohm. +<br> +0000 .000080272 12457.5 + 000 .000104529 9566.7 + 00 .000163553 6114.24 + 0 .000255196 3918.58 + 1 .00042102 2375.18 + 2 .00052422 1907.59 + 3 .00075786 1319.50 + 4 .0010629 940.844 + 5 .0014558 686.911 + 6 .0020082 497.96 + 7 .00324863 307.822 + 8 .00460101 217.343 + 9 .00710791 140.689 + 10 .0105772 94.543 + 11 .0164462 60.842 + 12 .0241593 41.392 + 13 .0418692 23.8839 + 14 .0718583 13.9163 + 15 .126788 7.8872 + 16 .191045 5.2344 + 17 .301355 3.31835 + 18 .59157 1.6904 + 19 1.09596 .912445 + 20 2.27254 .44003 + 21 3.25229 .30748 + 22 5.54843 .18023 + 23 8.73035 .11454 + 24 14.5579 .068691 + 25 21.3142 .046917 + 26 32.4863 .030782 + 27 52.0367 .019217 + 28 88.7724 .011265 + 29 119.404 .008375 + 30 164.4762 .0060804 +</pre> + +<p>PURE COPPER weighs 555 lbs. per cubic foot. The Resistance of 1 +mil. foot at 60° Fahr. is, according to Dr. Matthiessen, +10.32311 ohms. Upon these data the above Table has been +calculated.</p> + +<p>The <i>Resistance</i> of Copper varies with the temperature +about 0.38 per cent. per degree Centigrade, or 0.21 per cent. per +degree Fahrenheit.</p> + +<p>STRANDED WIRES.--With a conductor of a definite lenght, made of +<i>Stranded</i> Wires, the total <i>weight</i> is <i>greater</i>, +and the <i>Resistance less</i> than is a similar length of +Conductor with Wires <i>not</i> Stranded.</p> + +<pre> + To convert--Inches to Millimetres multiply by 25.3994 + Feet to Metres " .3048 + Yards to Metres " .9144 + Miles to Kilometres " .6214 + Pounds to Kilogrammes " .45359 +</pre> + +<p>PEPARED BY WALTER T. GLOVER & CO., ELECTRICAL WIRE AND CABLE +MAKERS, 25, BOOTH STREET MANCHESTER.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="8"></a></p> + +<h2>IRON FRAME GANG MILLS.</h2> + +<p>The gang mill is regarded as possessing material advantages in +the rapid and economical manufacture of lumber. Among the recent +improvements tending to perfect such mills, those which are shown +in the iron frame stock gang, manufactured by Wickes Bros., East +Saginaw, Mich., are eminently valuable. Our large engraving +represents one of these mills, constructed to be driven by belt, +friction, or direct engine, as may be desired. The important +requisite in this class of mills is such design and proportion of +parts as will insure durability and continued movement at the +highest speed, safely increasing the quantity and improving the +quality of work done at a lesser feed, and admitting the use of +thinner saws than is practical in the slower moving sash. These are +among the advantages gained in the iron frame machine, overcoming +the necessity of an expensive mill frame, saving time and expense +in setting up, and avoiding the liability of decay or change of +position.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/5a.png"><img src= +"images/5a_th.jpg" alt= +"IMPROVED IRON FRAME GANG SAW MILL."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED IRON FRAME GANG SAW MILL.</p> + +<p>Many improvements have been made in the mechanism of +oscillation, and from these the builders of this mill have adopted +what is known as the Wilkin movement, which oscillates the top and +bottom slides. The top slides are pivoted at the top end, and the +bottom ones from the bottom end, both being operated by one rock +shaft from the center. This movement when properly adjusted gives +an easy clearance and the easiest cut yet obtained. It adds no +extra weight to the sash, and avoids the cumbrous rock shaft and +its attendant joints, usually weighing from three hundred to five +hundred pounds, which have been found so objectionable in many +other movements. The feed is continuous, and is made variable from +¼ to 1¼ inch to each stroke, controllable by the +sawyer. Power is applied to the press rolls in the double screw +form with pivot point, also operated by the same hand. A special +feature of this machine is the spreading of the lower frame so that +its base rests upon an independent portion of the foundation from +the main pillow block or crank shaft. The solidity of the whole +structure is thus increased, both by the increased width at the +base and the prevention of connecting vibrations, which necessarily +communicate when resting upon the same part, as in other forms of +such machines heretofore in use.</p> + +<p>The mill shown in the perspective view is one of twenty-six saws +4½ feet long, sash 38 inches wide in the clear, and stroke +20 inches, capable of making 230 strokes per minute. The crank +shaft is nine inches in diameter, of the best forged iron. The main +pillow block has a base 6½ feet long by 21 inches bearing, +weighing 2,800 pounds. The cap is secured by two forged bolts +3½ inches in diameter, and by this arrangement no unequal +strain upon the cap is possible. A disk crank is used with suitable +counterbalance, expressly adapted to the weight and speed of sash; +a hammered steel wrist pin five inches in diameter, and a forged +pitman of the most approved pattern, with best composition boxes. +The iron drive pulley is 4 to 4½ feet in diameter and 24 +inches face; the fly-wheel six feet in diameter, and weighing 4,700 +pounds, turned off at rim. When a wider and heavier sash is +required, a proportionate increase is made in all these parts.</p> + +<p>In the construction of the sash the stiles are made of steel; +the lower girt and upper heads are made in one solid piece, without +rivets, giving the greatest strength possible, with the least +weight. The outfit also includes eight iron rollers for the floor, +8½ inches in diameter, with iron stands, and geared as live +rolls when desired, a full set of Lippencott's steel saw hangings, +and gauges for one-inch lumber. The weight of the machine here +shown is 18½ tons. They are, however, built in larger or +smaller sizes, adapted to any locality, quality or quantity of work +desired.</p> + +<hr> +<p>It is said that the St. Gothard Tunnel is diverting the bulk of +the Italian trade into the hands of the Belgians, Germans, and +Hollanders with startling rapidity. Without breaking bulk, early +fruits are taken from all parts of Italy to Ostend, Antwerp, and +Rotterdam, whence they are carried by fast steamers to London and +other English ports. But, on the other hand, Germany is sending +into Italy large quantities of coal, iron, machinery, copper, and +other articles of which the latter received nothing before. In two +months alone, the Italians imported 1,446 tons of paper.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="9"></a></p> + +<h2>THE HEAT REGENERATIVE SYSTEM OF FIRING GAS RETORTS.</h2> + +<p>The system of heat regeneration in the firing of gas retorts, in +accordance with the principle which Dr. C.W. Siemens has worked out +in such a variety of ways in the industrial arts, has lately been +applied with very marked success at the Dalmarnock Station of the +Glasgow Corporation Gas Works. Notwithstanding the fact that a +period of about twenty years has elapsed since Dr. Siemens +successfully adapted his system to the firing of retorts at the +Paris Gas Works, it seems to have made but little progress up to +the present time; for what reasons it is perhaps difficult to +explain. It is certain, however, that so-called regenerator +furnaces of various forms have, from time to time, been brought +into use at gas works for the purpose in question both on the +Continent and in this country; and in recent years the subject has +received much attention from gas engineers, the general opinion +eventually being that the adoption of such a system of working +would be certain to result in so great an amount of economy as to +put gas as an illuminating agent on a more secure footing to +compete successfully with its modern and somewhat aggressive rival, +the electric light. Of course, it is now admitted that the mode of +adapting the heat regenerative principle at the Paris Gas Works was +attended with a degree of complexity in the structural arrangements +that was so great and so expensive as to place it practically +beyond the reach of gas companies and gas corporations generally, +when the expense as well as the scientific beauty and practical +efficiency of the new mode of applying and utilizing heat had to be +considered. Fortunately, however, Dr. Siemens was enabled two or +three years ago to demonstrate that there was no such thing as +"finality" in that department of invention which he had made almost +exclusively his own. About the time mentioned he placed his most +advanced views on gas producers and on the regeneration and +utilization of heat before the world, and within that period a most +decided step in advance has been made, the structural arrangements +now required for gas producers and regenerator furnaces having been +immensely simplified and cheapened, while their practical utility +has in no way been interfered with.</p> + +<p>Scarcely had Dr. Siemens announced his new form of gas producer +and regenerator than communication was opened with him by Mr. W. +Foulis, the general manager to the Glasgow Corporation Gas Trust, +with the view of entering into arrangements for its adoption on an +experimental scale at one of the stations under his charge. +Encouraged by the hearty co-operation of the gas committee, two or +three of whose members were well known engineers, Mr. Foulis very +soon came to an understanding with Dr. Siemens to have the +regenerative system put to a thorough test at the Dalmarnock Gas +Works, situated in the extreme east end of the city, and the +largest establishment of the kind in Scotland, the total number of +retorts erected being about 750. The system in its most recent +shape was applied to four ovens, each of which had seven retorts, +but which number has since been increased to eight, owing to the +space occupied by the furnace in the ordinary settings being +rendered available for an additional retort in the new or "Siemens" +setting. For each oven or chamber of eight retorts there was +erected a separate gas-producer, so that even one set of eight +retorts might alone be used if thought necessary.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/6a.png"><img src= +"images/6a_th.jpg" alt= +"GAS RETORTS WITH REGENERATIVE FURNACES .--GLASGOW CORPORATION GAS WORKS."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">GAS RETORTS WITH REGENERATIVE FURNACES .--GLASGOW +CORPORATION GAS WORKS.</p> + +<p>In Figs. 1 and 2 of our illustrations, the general arrangement +and the relationship of the gas producer, the regenerators, and the +retorts to each other are clearly shown. It was a sort of <i>sine +qua non</i> of the new method of firing the retorts that the +producer should be in as close proximity as possible to the place +where the gaseous fuel was to be used, and it was concluded that +the most convenient situation would be immediately in front of its +own set of eight retorts, and with its top on a level with the +working floor of the retort house. To place it in such a position +meant a good deal of excavation, which was also required, however, +for the regenerator flues. The excavation was carried down to a +depth of 10 ft. below the level of the retort house floor, and as a +matter of course the operation of underpinning had to be resorted +to for the purpose of carrying down the foundations of the division +walls, which, together with the main arches and the hydraulic main, +were in no way otherwise disturbed. As in most new inventions, a +good deal of difficulty was experienced at first in connection with +these gas producers and heat regenerator furnaces; but by dint of +application and by the adoption of modifications made here and +there in the arrangements from time to time, as also by a +determination not to be beaten, although often disheartened, Mr. +Foulis was ultimately rewarded with complete success. The new +system of firing being made so simple that there was scarcely any +possibility of failure likely to arise in ordinary practice if it +was superintended with but a moderate amount of care.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/6b.png" alt= +"<i>Fig. 3.</i>"></p> + +<p class="ctr"><i>Fig. 3.</i></p> + +<p>The results which were obtained in course of time with four +ovens, or a total of 32 retorts, were so exceedingly promising that +it was forthwith resolved to extend the new mode of firing to the +whole of a double bench of twelve ovens, now containing 96 retorts; +and all the improvements which had suggested themselves during the +working experiments with the four ovens were adopted from the first +in the reconstruction of the remaining eight ovens in the bench. +More recently the regenerator system has been applied to other 22 +ovens, or 176 additional retorts, being the whole of one of the +main divisions of the retort house; and during the very depth of +the present winter, when the demand for gas was at its greatest +height, all the retorts of the converted or "Siemens" settings, +amounting to 272, were in full working activity, in which condition +they still remain. It is intended to make another very considerable +extension of the heat regenerative system of firing during the +ensuing spring and summer. The reconstruction of the present year +will extend to the ovens of seven retorts each, giving in this case +eighty gas fired retorts; and to twenty ovens of five retorts each, +which will become sixteen ovens, each having eight retorts, making +128 retorts in this division, and the total being 208 retorts in +place of 170 in the same amount of space. It is confidently +anticipated, therefore, that by the month of August of the present +year, 480 full sized retorts will be available for working out the +new method at the Dalmarnock Gas Works. Furthermore, the confidence +which has been inspired in the minds of the members of the Glasgow +Corporation Gas Committee and their engineer regarding the +actualities and possibilities of the Siemens system of firing gas +retorts, in its most improved state, is such that arrangements are +being made for starting shortly to apply it throughout at the +Dawsholm Station, which is situated in the suburban burgh of +Maryhill, and some four or five miles distant from the Dalmarnock +Works in a northwestern direction. The station just named, which is +also a very large one, will probably require two years for its +conversion.</p> + +<p>We shall now give some account of the structural arrangements +adopted for producing cheap gaseous fuel, and for turning that fuel +to the greatest advantage in firing the retorts for the purpose of +carbonizing the cannel coal used as the source of the gas.</p> + +<p>The gas producer, which is represented in vertical section in +Fig. 2, is a cylinder of brickwork inclosed in a casing of +malleable iron. It is 7 ft. 6 in. deep, and 3 ft. in diameter, +which becomes reduced to 20 in. above, where it is closed by means +of a cast-iron lid, which is continuous with the floor of the +retort house. There are no firebars at the bottom, so that the fuel +rests on a floor of firebrick. At the bottom of the walls of the +producer there are several holes about 1 ft. in length by 6 in. in +height. By means of these openings any clinker that may form and +the ashes of the spent fuel can readily be withdrawn. They also +allow of the admission of air to maintain the combustion in the +lower portion of the mass of fuel; and at each opening there is a +malleable iron tube for delivering a jet of steam direct from a +steam boiler. We shall subsequently explain the functions performed +by the steam.</p> + +<p>The fuel employed is the coke or char resulting from cannel coal +when it has yielded up its hydrocarbons and other gases during the +process of carbonization in the gas retorts. Being entirely made +from Scotch cannel the coke is very poor in quality, as it contains +a large percentage of mineral matter or ash relatively to its fixed +carbon. The retorts are worked with three-hour charges, but the +producer is only charged once in every six hours For each set of +eight retorts the charge of raw cannel is about 18 cwt., and it is +found in practice that the coke drawn from five of the retorts is +quite sufficient to fill up the producer to the top. Formerly a set +of seven retorts fired in the ordinary way from a furnace +underneath, required from 60 to 75 per cent. of the coke made, but +now, with eight retorts in each oven, the quantity has been reduced +to about 30 per cent., or less than one-half of what it formerly +was. Before the retorts are drawn the lid is removed from the top +of the producer, and any fuel still remaining unconsumed is touched +up a bit by way of leveling it on the surface, and as soon as it +has been filled up to the constricted portion a shovelful of soft +luting is spread over the top of the coke, and the lid is laid upon +it and driven home, thereby making a perfectly air-tight joint. The +contents of the other three retorts, as also the contents of the +whole of the retorts at each alternate drawing, are taken to the +coke heap in the yard. We have already spoken of a charge of cannel +as being about 18 cwt. for each set of eight retorts, but in +connection with that matter we should mention that it was formerly +about 13 cwt. per oven containing seven retorts, and that there is +every prospect of it being increased without increasing the length +of time occupied in carbonizing the cannel of each charge.</p> + +<p>It may be worth while now to notice briefly what takes place +among the mass of coke in the gas producer. The atmospheric air +admitted at the several openings previously spoken of ascends +through the lower layers of the incandescent coke, the carbon of +which burns to carbonic acid gas at the expense of the oxygen of +the air. Among the middle and upper layers of the incandescent coke +the carbonic acid gas takes up a further quantity of the fixed +carbon, and becomes transformed into carbonic oxide gas +(CO<sub>2</sub>+C=2CO), which is an inflammable body, and possesses +considerable calorific power. Unless the carbonic acid gas is very +completely "baffled" in its ascent through the coke in the +producer, a quantity of it passes into the furnace along with the +carbonic oxide, the efficiency of which is diminished in proportion +as the former increases in quantity. Of course, also, the nitrogen +associated with the oxygen in the air admitted to the gas generator +passes on with the carbonic oxide gas, this nitrogen acting as a +dilutant and being of course absolutely useless as a generator of +heat. The steam which we previously spoke of serves two good +purposes. In contact with incandescent coke it suffers +decomposition, its oxygen uniting with some of the fixed carbon to +form carbonic oxide, while the hydrogen which is set free passes +onward, and mixes with the other gases to be subsequently consumed +with them. The admission of the steam thus causes the absorption of +heat in the gas generator where the decomposition takes place, this +heat being again evolved on the subsequent combustion of the +hydrogen. Then, again, as the steam is delivered in among the coke +in a jet, or a series of jets, it has the effect of almost entirely +preventing any clinkering or slagging of the earthy and silicious +materials, which form such a large portion of the substance of the +coke obtained from Scotch cannels, sometimes as much as from 15 to +20 per cent. It is scarcely necessary for the stokers to go down +below to the bottom of the producers to remove the ash above once +in every six hours. Referring to the composition of the gaseous +fuel obtained from cannel coke in one of these gas producers, we +give the following typical analysis on the authority of Dr. William +Wallace, F.R.S.E., gas examiner, and one of the public analysts for +the city of Glasgow:</p> + +<pre> + Per cent. + Hydrogen 8.7 + Carbonic oxide 28.1 + Carbonic acid 3.5 + Oxygen 0.4 + Nitrogen 59.3 + ----- + 100.0 +</pre> + +<p>By again referring to Fig. 2, it will be observed that an +opening is provided for the passage of the gaseous matter as it is +formed into the mass of brickwork, the upper half of which is +occupied by the retorts of the setting and the lower by the +regenerators.</p> + +<p>Before following the gas we may first direct attention to the +arrangements for dealing with it, and with the air that has to be +admitted for the combustion of so much of it as is of a combustible +nature. It will be seen by reference to Fig. 1 that the oven proper +is occupied by eight <img src="images/6c.png" alt=""> +shaped retorts. These are 9 ft. long (set back to back) by 18 in. +by 13 in., and they are placed on arches which are 8 ft. 6 in. +wide. Underneath the level of the retort oven there are two +regenerators or regenerator chambers, which differ very materially +in form from the regenerators formerly applied by Dr. Siemens to +gas retort ovens, and which are still employed for high temperature +furnaces like those used for steel and glass melting. In the case +of these latter the regenerators are on the alternating +system--that is to say, a mass of brickwork is heated by the waste +heat of the effluent gases, and when that is made sufficiently hot, +the current of waste gases is turned into a second mass of +brickwork, while air is admitted to pass through the brickwork +already heated. The system thus briefly described entails a certain +amount of attention on the part of the workmen in the altering of +the valves or dampers to reverse the currents. The regenerator now +adopted consists of an arrangement of six zigzag flues, three on +each side of the setting. These flues run the whole length of the +setting. As indicated by the arrows pointing downward in Fig. 3, +the waste gases on their way to the chimney stack pass to and fro +through the side flues, thus giving up a large portion of their +contained heat by the process of conduction or contact to the +central flue through which the incoming air passes. The air +necessary for combustion is first admitted into a large chamber in +the center, and then it is divided into two currents, which pass +right and left into the central passages of the two regenerators. +As the air flue is at a very bright heat for a considerable +distance before the air leaves it, the temperature of the air must +be equally great, or nearly so. In its most improved form one of +these heat regenerative furnaces provides an amount of heating +surface extending to 234 square ft., which is exposed to the air on +its way to the combustion chamber.</p> + +<p>Passing from the producer through the flue provided for it, the +gas enters the retort setting underneath the side retorts, where it +meets the air coming from the regenerator. It enters the setting, +not by a number of small openings, but by one large opening on each +side, and meets the air entering also by a large opening, the +effect of which is to avoid the localization of intense heat, as +all the retorts of the setting become enveloped in an intensely +heating flame, due to the combustion of the carbonic oxide and +hydrogen gases.</p> + +<p>There are various advantages attending this system of firing gas +retorts. First of all, there is already a saving of fuel to the +extent of one-half, and not unlikely there will soon be a further +very decided increase in the saving of fuel to record, inasmuch as +it has been experimentally determined within the past two or three +weeks that, by increasing its diameter to 3 ft. 4 in., one producer +can be made to provide a sufficient amount of gaseous fuel to fire +two sets of eight retorts. By the arrangement just hinted at the +relative amount of fuel used will be still further reduced. Then, +again, an additional retort can well be placed in each oven, as it +occupies the position of the fire in ordinary settings. In the +third place, by the greater heat which is obtained, the charges can +be more rapidly distilled; or heavier charges can be carbonized in +a given space of time. When all the gains are put together, the +amount of coal carbonized is increased by about 40 per cent. over +any specified time. Of course, in the new or regenerator settings +there is much greater regularity of heat; and as the gaseous fuel +is perfectly free from all solid matter, and burns without any +trace of smoke, there is a total absence of deposit on the outside +of the retorts. From these two circumstances combined it is but +natural to expect that there should be greater durability of the +retorts--which is really the case. Another advantage is that, as +the fuel used in the furnaces is wholly gaseous, choking of the +flues cannot by any possibility arise. It is the confident opinion +of Mr. Foulis that the system in question can be applied with +advantage to all sizes of gas works, and that it is certainly well +adapted for all works where the summer consumption of gas is +sufficiently large to give employment to eight retorts.</p> + +<p>As this is the first instance of the new form of gas producer +and regenerator having been adopted in any gas works, a very great +amount of scientific and practical interest attaches to it. Many +persons have visited the Dalmarnock Gas Works during their +reconstruction, in order to see the system in operation, and +doubtless many more will go and do likewise when they learn of the +numerous advantages which it possesses, and which are likely to +increase rather than diminish.--<i>Engineering</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="10"></a></p> + +<h2>A NEW GAS-HEATED BAKER'S OVEN.</h2> + +<p>During the past few weeks, a highly interesting experiment--and +one, moreover, destined to materially influence the development of +the uses of gas in a fresh field--has been in progress, under the +guidance of Mr. Booer, at a baker's shop in the Blackfriars Road, +London. The experiment in question is nothing less than the +application of gas for heating bakers' ovens, in a manner not +hitherto attempted, and such as to bring the system within the +means of the poorest tradesman in all but the smallest towns. It +will be remembered that the success of the gas-heated muffles for +burning tiles and glass led to the attempted construction of a +model baker's oven, heated by the same fuel, which was shown in +action at the Smoke Abatement Exhibition at South Kensington in the +winter of 1881-82. This model attained considerable success; but +its design demanded either a new structure in every case, or +considerable alteration of any existing oven. In the proposed +system, moreover, the oven was heated wholly from without--a +condition supposed to be necessary to meet the objections of the +bakers. It is evident, however, that there must be considerable +waste of gas in heating a mass of tiles and brickwork, such as go +to the construction of a common baker's oven, from the outside; and +the objection to handicapping such a costly fuel as gas in this +manner becomes more apparent when it is remembered that in the +usual way the oven is always heated by an internal coal fire. When +it is further considered that the coal commonly used by bakers is +of the most ordinary quality, full of dirt that would condemn it in +the estimation of a gas manager, the sentimental objection to +allowing a purified gas flame to burn in a place which this rubbish +is permitted to fill with foul smoke becomes supremely ridiculous. +Consequently, when Mr. Booer, whose work in connection with the gas +muffle is well known in England and America, seriously addressed +himself to construct, upon altogether new lines, a cheap and +practical baker's oven, he wisely put the gas inside.</p> + +<p>There are many other conditions which Mr. Booer, after +consultation with practical bakers and others, set himself to +fulfill, the observance of which lends to the present Blackfriars +experiment much of its interesting character. Thus it was observed +that, while it is not difficult to build an oven in a given spot, +and bake bread in it, this cannot truly be called a <i>baker's</i> +oven. By this term must be understood in particular an oven in an +ordinary bakehouse, set in the usual style and worked by a man with +his living to get by it. Before the problem of extending gas to +bakers' ovens could be considered solved, it had to be attacked +from this aspect. Mr. Booer, to do him full credit, seems to have +early appreciated this fact in all its bearings. He not only saw +that it was necessary to save gas, as much as possible, by putting +it inside the oven; but he was told that, in order to meet with any +general success, the cost of converting an oven to the gas system +must be rigidly kept down to about ten or twelve guineas. The +latter seems a particularly hard condition, when it is remembered +that the only improved baker's oven in practical use at the present +day is the steam oven invented by Mr. Perkins, which costs two or +three hundred pounds to erect. Mr. Booer also had in mind the +necessity that everything possible for a coal oven must likewise be +performed by a gas oven; and in this respect he set himself to +surpass the costly Perkins oven, which will not bake the common +"batch" or household bread, generally the principal article of +sale, more especially in populous and poor neighborhoods. The +peculiar efficacy of the common coal fire in this respect proceeds +from the essential principle of action of a brick oven, which is +found simply in the fact that the work is done entirely by heat +previously imparted to the tile bottom, roof, and sides of the +oven, and thence radiated to the bread. No other kind of heat will +bake batch-bread--i.e., loaves packed in contact with one +another--which requires to be thoroughly soaked by a radiant heat +in a close atmosphere of its own steam. Now, as a coal fire is +eminently qualified to impart, by radiation and otherwise, this +necessary store of heat to the brickwork, it is plainly a +difficulty to effect the same purpose with a fuel which, of itself, +can scarcely radiate heat at all. The system of the gas +cooking-oven--the utilization of the heat of the combustion +products as formed--is clearly inapplicable here; for a different +kind of heat is needed, under conditions that would not sustain +continuous combustion. Therefore, there is nothing for it but to +heat the bottom and sides of the brick oven by the direct contact +of powerful gas-flames; thus supplanting the coal fire, but leaving +the actual work of baking to be done afterward by stored-up heat in +the regular way.</p> + +<p>Having settled the general principles of a system of this kind, +there still remain a number of scarcely less important details, in +the dealing with which lies the difference between practical +success and failure. Thus it is not merely sufficient to heat an +oven for bread baking; it is also necessary to heat it within the +times and according to the habits of work to which the baker has +been accustomed. Work in town bakeries begins at about midnight, or +shortly after, and the condition of the oven must conform to the +requirements of the dough, which vary from day to day and from +season to season. In order to master all these niceties, as far as +a knowledge of them is necessary to his purpose, Mr. Booer has +spent many nights in the bakehouse in the Blackfriars Road; and has +thereby obtained a command over the technicalities of the work +which has served him in good stead, not merely for adjusting his +gas heat, but in answering the innumerable objections always raised +when a revolution in an immemorial trade is threatened. It is with +considerable satisfaction that we are enabled to declare, after +duly weighing all the conditions as to first cost and otherwise +imposed by himself and others, that Mr. Booer has succeeded, upon +these terms, in vindicating the claims of gas to be a cheap, +efficient, and cleanly fuel for heating ovens under the control and +according to the methods of working of the baker himself.</p> + +<p>The oven with which this success has been achieved is one of two +in the bakehouse of Mr. Loeber, of 161 Blackfriars Road. It +measures 7 feet by 6 feet internally; being what is technically +termed a 6 bushel oven. The alterations made by Mr. Booer consist +in the first place in the removal of the flooring tiles, and the +laying down of a new bottom, under which run a number of flues +radiating from the side furnace. The throat of the furnace, where +it enters the angle of the oven, is bricked up, and eight pieces of +¾-inch gun-barrel tubing project above this dwarf wall, and +radiate fan-shaped under the dome of the roof. These are the +gas-burners, which are supplied from a 1½-inch pipe led into +the old furnace. The same pipe supplies the similar burners which +are inserted in the flues under the oven bottom. This is really all +the plant required. It should be remarked that these bottom flues +are carried to different points of the side walls, and the products +of combustion are allowed to rise upward into the oven through gaps +left for the purpose. A supplementary supply of heated air is +provided to help the combustion of the gas in these flues, which +would otherwise be languid. When the gas is turned on from the main +cock in the furnace either to the top or the bottom set of burners, +a long match is used to light them from the same point. This is +effected without risk of firing back, by the adoption of a +specially constructed atmospheric nipple and shield, the pattern of +which is registered. The flame from the top burners unites in a +sheet of fire, which spreads out all over the crown of the oven, at +the same time that the burners below are doing their work, and the +products of combustion flow together through the oven to the +chimney, which is the same that was used for coal. At first, as +might be expected, there was considerable difficulty in finding the +most suitable position of the chimney damper, aggravated in this +case by the fact that the other oven worked with a coal fire into +the same shaft. Finally, however, the two flues were disconnected +with the happiest results. During the past fortnight the oven has +been in regular use, and the bread has been sold over the counter +in the ordinary course of trade. Two and three batches of bread +have been baked in one day in this oven; the economy of its use, of +course, increasing with the number of loaves turned out. As a rule +the gas is lighted for about an hour before the oven is wanted, and +about 250 cubic feet are used. Then the cocks are shut and the oven +is allowed to stand closed up for ten minutes, in which time it +ventilates itself, and the heat spreads over it. Then the batch is +set, and the baking occupies from an hour to an hour and a half, +according to the different classes of loaves. Two batches are baked +with a consumption of about 620 cubic feet of gas; costing, at 2s. +10d. per 1000 cubic feet, just 11d. each batch for fuel. This +cannot be considered costly. But the system possesses many other +advantages. In the first place, it is much more cleanly than coal; +for the oven never requires wiping out, which is usually done with +a bundle of old rope called a "scuffle" and the operation is +attended with a most unpleasant odor. Then there is no smoke--a +great advantage from the point of view of the Smoke Abatement +Institution. More to the purpose of the journeyman baker, however, +is the fact that there is no stoking to be done, and he can +therefore take his repose at night without having to attend to the +furnace. Besides this the master has the satisfaction of knowing +that the oven will always be hot enough if he simply attends to the +time of lighting the gas--a consideration of no small moment. It is +no mean testimony to the reality of Mr. Booer's success that Mr. +Loeber, having seen his difficulties and troubles from the +beginning, and marked how they have been overcome, is content to +acknowledge that even this first example is capable of turning out +bread in a condition to be sold over the counter. There is a good +opening in this direction, for there are 6,000 bakeries in London +alone, to every one of which Mr. Booer's system might be applied +with advantage to the tradesman and his customers. And what may be +done with gas at about 3s. per 1,000 cubic feet may certainly be +done to still greater advantage in many towns where the price is +lower. Mr. Booer has entered upon his work in a proper spirit. He +has begun at the beginning, with the necessities of the baker; and +has gone plodding on quietly, until he has achieved a noteworthy +success. It may be hoped he will receive the reward which his +perseverance merits.--<i>Jour. of Gas Lighting</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="31"></a></p> + +<h2>CAPTAIN MATTHEW WEBB.</h2> + +<p>Who was drowned on July 24 in attempting to swim through the +whirlpool and rapids at the foot of the Falls of Niagara, was born +at Irongate, near Dawley, in Shropshire, January 18, 1848. He was 5 +feet 8 inches in height, measured 43 inches round the chest, and +weighed about 14½ stone. He learnt to swim when about seven +years old, and was trained as a sailor on board the Conway +training-ship in the Mersey, where he saved the life of a fellow +seaman. In 1870 he dived under his ship in the Suez Canal and +cleared a foul hawser; and, on April 23, 1873, when serving on +board the Cunard steamer Russia, he jumped overboard to save the +life of a hand who had fallen from aloft, but failed, and it was an +hour before he was picked up almost exhausted. For this he received +a gold and other medals. He became captain of a merchant ship, but +soon after he relinquished the sea and devoted himself to the sport +of swimming.</p> + +<p>At long distance swimming in salt water he was <i>facile +princeps</i>, but he did not show to such advantage in fresh water. +In June, 1874, he swam from Dover to the North-East Varne Buoy, a +distance of 11 statute miles. On July 3, 1875, he swam from +Blackwall Pier to Gravesend Town Pier, nearly 18 statute miles, in +4 hours 52 minutes. On the 19th of the same month he swam from +Dover to Ramsgate, 19¼ statute miles, in 8 hours 45 minutes. +On August 12, 1875, he tried to cross from England to France, and +although he failed, owing to the heavy sea, he compassed the +distance from Dover to the South Sand Head, 15½ statute +miles, in 6 hours 48 minutes. On the 24th of the same month he made +another attempt, which rendered his name famous all over the +English-speaking world. Starting from Dover, he reached the French +coast at Calais, after being immersed in the water for 21 hours 44 +minutes. He had swum over 39 miles, or, according to another +calculation, 45½ miles, without having touched a boat or +artificial support of any kind. Subsequently he swam at the Lambeth +Baths, and the Westminster Aquarium, and last year, at Boston, +U.S., he remained in a tank nearly 128½ hours. Latterly he +had suffered from congestion of the lungs, and his health had +become much impaired.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/7a.png"><img src= +"images/7a_th.jpg" alt="CAPT. MATTHEW WEBB."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">CAPT. MATTHEW WEBB.</p> + +<p>The story of his final and fatal effort needs here but a brief +description. At two minutes past four, on July 24, Webb dived from +the boat opposite the Maid of the Mist landing, and, amid the +shouts and applause of the crowd, struck the water. He swam +leisurely down the river, but made good progress. He passed along +the rapids at a great pace, and six minutes after making the first +plunge passed under the Suspension Bridge. Immediately below the +bridge the river becomes exceedingly violent, and as the water was +clear every movement of Webb could be seen. At one moment he was +lifted high on the crest of a wave, and the next he sank into the +awful hollow created. As the river became narrower, and still more +impetuous, Webb would sometimes be struck by a wave, and for a few +moments would sink out of sight. He, however, rose to the surface +without apparent effort. But his speed momentarily increased, and +he was hurried along at a frightful pace. At length he was swept +into the neck of the whirlpool. Rising on the crest of the highest +wave, he lifted his hands once, and then was precipitated into the +yawning gulf. For one moment his head appeared above the angry +waters, but he was motionless, and evidently at the mercy of the +waves. He was again drawn under the water, and was seen no more +alive. Some days later his body was found four miles below the +fatal Rapids. It bore tokens of the fearful violence of the +struggle which he had undergone. His bathing drawers were torn to +fragments, and there was a deep wound in his head. An inquest was +held, and the jury returned a verdict of "Found drowned."</p> + +<p>Captain Webb was married about three years ago, and leaves a +widow and two children. It is understood that he risked his life in +this last fatal attempt to obtain money for the support of his +family.--<i>London Graphic</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="22"></a></p> + +<h2>SEMI-DETACHED VILLAS, BROMFIELD CRESCENT, HEADINGLEY.</h2> + +<p>These houses are situated in a pleasant part of Headingley, +which is the favorite residential suburb in the locality of Leeds. +As regards accommodation, the ground-floor of each house comprises +good-sized drawing and dining rooms, each with bay windows; +well-lighted entrance halls, opening upon wooden verandas; kitchen, +pantry, and scullery; on first floor are three good bedrooms, a +bathroom, and other necessary accommodation; on second floor are +two additional bedrooms. The basement contains coal-place and +larder.</p> + +<p>In these houses an attempt has been made to produce +conveniently-planned and well-arranged habitations, combined with a +pleasing and picturesque exterior, without involving a large outlay +of money. The materials used are brick of a deep red color for +facings, red terra-cotta from Messrs. Wilcock & Co., of +Burmantofts, for moulded strings, sills, etc., and a very sparing +use of stone from the Harehills Quarries. The front gables are +constructed of timber in solid scantlings, well framed, and pinned +together with oak pegs, filled in and well backed behind with +brickwork; the panels faced with cement, which, together with the +cored cornice, are finished in vellum color. The whole of the +woodwork of exterior is painted a neutral shade of peacock blue, +forming an admirable contrast with the deep red of the bricks, the +sashes and casements only being finished in cream color. The whole +of the chimneypieces in the interior are carried out from the +architect's special design; those in the drawing-rooms being of +mahogany, finished in rosewood color, and those in dining-rooms of +oak, stained with ammonia and dull wax polished.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/8a.png"><img src= +"images/8a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--SEMI-DETACHED +VILLAS,<br> +BROMFIELD CRESCENT, HEADINGLEY, LEEDS.</p> + +<p>The houses, with outbuildings and boundary walls, which have +been erected for Mr. John Hall Thorp, of Bromfield, Headingley, +have cost £1,450, or thereabouts, this amount not including +the price of land. They have been carried out from the designs and +under the superintendence of Mr. William H. Thorp, A.R.I.B.A., +architect, of St. Andrew's Chambers, Park Row, Leeds.--<i>The +Architect</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="32"></a></p> + +<h2>THE DWELLINGS OF THE POOR IN PARIS.</h2> + +<p>In view of the possible approach of cholera, and the sanitary +precautions that even the most neglectful of authorities are +constrained to take, it is of some interest to us, says the +<i>Building News</i>, to know how the poor are housed in the city +of Paris, which contains, more than any city in the world, the +opposite poles of luxurious magnificence and of sordid, bestial +poverty. The statistics of the Parisian working classes in the way +of lodgings are not of an encouraging nature, and reflect great +discredit on the powers that be, who can be stern enough in the +case of any political question, but are blind to the spectacle of +fellow creatures living the life of beasts under their very eyes. +In 1880, the Prefect of Police gave licenses to 21,219 arrivals in +the city of French origin, and to 7,344 foreigners. In the +succeeding year, the former had increased to 22,061, while the +latter had somewhat diminished, being only 5,493. There was a +census taken in 1881, from which it appeared that Paris contained +677,253 operatives and 255,604 employes and clerks, while out of +every 1,000 inhabitants, 322 only were born in the city, and 565 +came from the departments or the French colonies. The foreign +element in the working classes has increased very rapidly, +numbering 119,349 in 1876, to which by 1881 there was an addition +of 44,689. To every 1,000 inhabitants, Paris now numbers 75 +foreigners, though in 1876 the proportion was only 60. It may not +be amiss to state that the annual increase of the Paris population +is at the rate of 56,043 persons, and that in the five years +1876-81, the city received 280,217 additional mouths. The total +population of the capital is 2,239,928, of whom 1,113,326 are +males.</p> + +<p>Returning to the poorer classes, we find that in 1872 they were +estimated at 100,000; but that in 1873 they had risen to 113,733, +and in 1880 to 123,735. It is unfortunate to be obliged to say that +the majority of these people are housed worse in Paris than in +almost any other great city in the world. There are two classes of +lodgings for the poor--the one where the workman rents one or more +rooms for his family, and, perhaps, owns a little furniture; the +other, a single room tenanted for the night only by the unmarried +man who pays for his bed in the morning and gets his meals anywhere +that he can. Readers will remember how, under the auspices of M. +Haussmann, western Paris was almost pulled down and transformed +into a series of palatial boulevards and avenues. While the work +lasted the Paris workman was well pleased; but he did not like it +quite so much when the demon of restoration and renovation invaded +his own quarters, such as the Butte des Moulins, and all that +densely populated district through which the splendid Avenue de +l'Opera now runs. The effect of all this was to drive the workman +into the already crowded quarters at the barriers, such as La Gare, +St. Lambert, Javel, and Charonne, where, according to the last +statistics of the <i>Annuaire</i>, the increase was at the rate of +415 per 1,000. Of course the ill health that always pervaded these +quarters increased also; and, from the reports of Dr. Brouardel and +M. Muller, the number of deaths from typhoid and diphtheria were +doubled in ten years. Dr. Du Mesnil, in making his returns for 1881 +of convalescents from typhoid, remarked that the most unsanitary +arrondissements were the 4th, 11th, 15th, 18th, and 19th--precisely +those to which the principal migrations of laborers had taken +place. The 18th arrondissement, which in 1876 had only 601 lodging +houses with 8,933 lodgers, had, in 1882, over 850, with 20,816 +inmates. In the 19th arrondissement there were 517 houses in 1876, +with 9,074 lodgers, and 752 in 1882, with 17,662 inhabitants.</p> + +<p>It is not only the crowded condition of the poor quarters that +is such a standing menace to the health of the city, but also the +shocking state of the rooms, which the unhappy lodgers are obliged +to put up with. The owners of the property are, as happens in other +places besides Paris, unscrupulous and grasping to the last degree, +and have not only divided and subdivided the accommodation wherever +possible, but have even raised the rental in nearly all cases. +Whole families are crowded into a small apartment, icy cold in +winter, an oven in summer, the only air and daylight which reaches +the interior coming from a window which looks on to a dirty +staircase or a still fouler court reeking with sewage. There are at +the present time in Paris 3,000 lodgings which have neither stove +nor chimney; over 5,000 lighted only by a skylight; while in 4,282 +rooms there are four children in each below 14 years of age; 7,199 +with three children; and 1,049 with four beds in each. The Parisian +population has augmented only 15 per cent. in seven years; but the +district of poor lodging houses has increased by twenty per cent., +and the number of lodgings by about 80 per cent. It is true that a +law was passed in 1850 to provide for the sanitary supervision of +this class of property; but in Paris the law is a dead letter, and, +although it is now active in the provinces and in places like +Marseilles, Lyons, Bordeaux, and Nantes, it is applied, even there, +in a jerky and intermittent manner.</p> + +<p>Perhaps the worst of the abominable dogkennels called houses was +the group known as the Cité des Kroumirs, in the 13th +arrondissement, which, by a strange irony, was built on land +belonging to the Department of Public Assistance, which was let out +by that body to a rich tenant, who sublet it to these lodging-house +owners. This veritable den of infection and misery has now been +demolished; but there are plenty of others quite as bad. Notably, +there is the Cite Jeanne d'Arc (a poor compliment to have named it +after that sturdy heroine), an enormous barrack of five stories, +which contains 1,200 lodgings and 2,486 lodgers. No wonder that it +was decimated in 1879 by smallpox, which committed terrible ravages +here. The Cité Dore is grimly known by the poor-law doctors +as the "Cemetery Gateway." The Cite Gard, in the Rue de Meaux, is +inhabited by 1,700 lodgers, although it is almost in ruins. The +Cite Philippe is tenanted by 70 chiffonniers, and anybody who knows +what are the contents of the chiffonnier's basket, or <i>hotte</i>, +may easily guess at the effluvia of that particular group of +houses. A large lodging-house in the Rue des Boulangers is tenanted +by 210 Italians, who get their living as models or itinerant +musicians. Both house and tenants are declared to be unapproachable +from the vermin.</p> + +<p>It is some satisfaction to know that these houses have lately +awakened the apathy of some of the public bodies, and that more +than one scheme is being put forward with a view of erecting proper +industrial dwellings. The Municipal Council is negotiating with the +Credit Foncier for the erection of a certain number of cheap +houses, which, for the space of twenty years, will be exempt from +all taxes, such as octroi, highway, door and window tax, etc. There +are also one or two semi-private companies, which are occupying +themselves with the question, and it is to be hoped that the rumors +of the pestilence in Egypt may hasten the much-needed reform.</p> + +<hr> +<p>There can be no doubt, says the <i>Engineer</i>, that the +inventor who could supply in a really portable form a machine or +apparatus that could give out two or three horse power for a day +would reap an enormous fortune. Up to the present time, however, +nothing of the kind has been placed in the market. Gas is laid on +to most houses now, and gas engines are plenty enough, yet they do +not meet the want which a storage battery may be made yet perhaps +to supply.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="20"></a></p> + +<h2>RECENT EXPERIMENTS AFFECTING THE RECEIVED THEORY OF MUSIC.</h2> + +<p>To prove the incorrectness of Helmholtz's statement that beats +do not colesce into musical sounds, but that the ear will +distinguish them as a rumbling noise, even when their number rises +as high as 132 vibrations per second, Rudolph Koenig has +constructed a series of tuning forks, recently presented by +President Morton to the Stevens Institute of Technology. The +following table exhibits the number of vibrations per second of +these forks, the ratios of their vibrations when two are sounded +together, the number of beats produced, and the resultant +sound:</p> + +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">Vibrations per second.</th> +<th colspan="3">Ratio.</th> +<th>Beats.</th> +<th>Sounds.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">3840</td> +<td align="left">:4096</td> +<td align="right">15</td> +<td>:</td> +<td align="left">16</td> +<td>128</td> +<td>Ut<sub>2</sub> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">3904</td> +<td align="left">: "</td> +<td align="right">61</td> +<td>:</td> +<td align="left">64</td> +<td>96</td> +<td>Sol<sub>1</sub> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">3936</td> +<td align="left">: "</td> +<td align="right">123</td> +<td>:</td> +<td align="left">128</td> +<td>80</td> +<td>Mi<sub>1</sub> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">3968</td> +<td align="left">: "</td> +<td align="right">31</td> +<td>:</td> +<td align="left">32</td> +<td>64</td> +<td>Ut<sub>1</sub> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">3976</td> +<td align="left">: "</td> +<td align="right">497</td> +<td>:</td> +<td align="left">512</td> +<td>60</td> +<td>Si<sub>-1</sub> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">3989.3</td> +<td align="left">: "</td> +<td align="right">187</td> +<td>:</td> +<td align="left">192</td> +<td>53.3</td> +<td>La<sub>-1</sub> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">4000</td> +<td align="left">: "</td> +<td align="right">125</td> +<td>:</td> +<td align="left">128</td> +<td>48</td> +<td>Sol<sub>1</sub> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">4010.7</td> +<td align="left">: "</td> +<td align="right">47</td> +<td>:</td> +<td align="left">48</td> +<td>42.7</td> +<td>Fa<sub>-1</sub> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">4016</td> +<td align="left">: "</td> +<td align="right">251</td> +<td>:</td> +<td align="left">256</td> +<td>40</td> +<td>Mi<sub>-1</sub> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">4024</td> +<td align="left">: "</td> +<td align="right">503</td> +<td>:</td> +<td align="left">512</td> +<td>36</td> +<td>Re<sub>-1</sub> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">7936</td> +<td align="left">:8192</td> +<td align="right">31</td> +<td>:</td> +<td align="left">32</td> +<td>128</td> +<td>Ut<sub>2</sub> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">8064</td> +<td align="left">: "</td> +<td align="right">63</td> +<td>:</td> +<td align="left">64</td> +<td>64</td> +<td>Ut<sub>1</sub> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">8096</td> +<td align="left">: "</td> +<td align="right">253</td> +<td>:</td> +<td align="left">256</td> +<td>48</td> +<td>Sol<sub>-1</sub></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">8106.7</td> +<td align="left">: "</td> +<td align="right">95</td> +<td>:</td> +<td align="left">96</td> +<td>42.7</td> +<td>Fa<sub>-1</sub> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">8112</td> +<td align="left">: "</td> +<td align="right">507</td> +<td>:</td> +<td align="left">512</td> +<td>40</td> +<td>Mi<sub>-1</sub> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">8120</td> +<td align="left">: "</td> +<td align="right">1015</td> +<td>:</td> +<td align="left">1024</td> +<td>36</td> +<td>Re<sub>-4</sub> </td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td align="left">8128</td> +<td align="left">: "</td> +<td align="right">127</td> +<td>:</td> +<td align="left">128</td> +<td>32</td> +<td>Ut<sub>-4</sub> </td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>On sounding two forks nearly in unison, the sound heard +corresponds to a number of vibrations equal to the difference of +the numbers of vibrations of the forks.</p> + +<p>On sounding two forks, one of which is nearly the octave of the +other, the ear perceives a sound, which is that given by vibrations +whose number equals the difference in the number of vibrations of +the higher fork and the upper octave of the lower fork.</p> + +<p>Koenig has also found out the laws of the resultant sounds +produced by other intervals than the octave, and has extended his +researces to intervals differing by any number of vibrations, as +may be seen from the above table.</p> + +<p>His conclusion is that beats and resultant sounds are one and +the same phenomenon.</p> + +<p>Thus, for example, the lowest number of vibrations capable of +producing a musical sound is 32 per second; in like manner, a clear +musical sound is produced by two simple notes of sufficient +intensity which produce 32 beats per second.</p> + +<p>Koenig also made a very ingenious modification of the siren for +the purpose of enabling Seebeck to sound simultaneously notes whose +vibrations had any given ratio. It is furnished for this purpose +with eight disks, each of which contains a given number of circles +of holes arranged at different angular distances. A description of +this instrument, which is also the property of the Stevens +Institute, and of Seebeck's experiments is thus given in a letter +by Koenig himself.</p> + +<h3>I.</h3> + +<p><i>Effects produced when the isochronism of the shocks is not +perfect</i>.</p> + +<p>A.</p> + +<p>In order to produce a note, the succession of shocks must not +deviate much from isochronism.</p> + +<p>If the isochronism is but little impaired, we obtain a note +corresponding to the mean interval of the shocks.</p> + +<p>If the intervals between the shocks are alternately t and t', +and if the difference between t and t' is slight, we obtain the two +notes t+t' and (t+t')/2. If the intervals between the shocks are +alternately t, t', and t'', we obtain the two notes t+t'+t'' and +(t+t'+t")/3.</p> + +<p>Disk No. 1 has--</p> + +<pre> + On circle No. 1 12 holes, angular distances t=30° + " " 2 24 " " " 15° + " " 3 36 " " " 10° + " " 4 36 " at irregular distances. + " " 5 36 " distances t= 10½°, t'=l0°,t''=9½° + " " 6 36 " " 11° 10° 9° + " " 7 36 " " 16° 14° + " " 8 36 " " 16½° 13½° +</pre> + +<p>Circle No. 8 produces the two notes of circles 1 and 2; circle +No. 7 the same, but the low note is stronger than in 8.</p> + +<p>Circle 6 produces the notes of circles 1 and 3, and so does +circle 5, but in the latter the low note is stronger than in 6.</p> + +<p>Circle 4 produces a noise approximating only to the note of +circle 3.</p> + +<p>By pulling out one of the buttons of the wind chest, we admit +the air through eleven holes at a time, having an angular distance +of 30° and directing it against the corresponding circle of +holes on the turning disk. If the arrangement of holes is not +repeated identically twelve times on the same circle, we cannot, of +course, make use of the above arrangements of holes of the wind +tube, and we must then employ one of the movable brass tubes, which +communicate with the interior of the wind chest by means of rubber +tubes and stopcocks. The experiment with disk 1, circle 4, for +example, requires the use of one of these two tubes, while the +perforated wind tube of the wind chest may be used with all the +other circles of the same disk.</p> + +<p>B.</p> + +<p>If t is much less than t', while t' is a multiple of t, the note +(t+t')/2 disappears, and the notes t+t' and t are heard.</p> + +<p>Disk No. 2 has--</p> + +<pre> + On circle No. 1 12 holes, distances 30° + " " 2 36 " " 10° + " " 3 48 " " 7½° + " " 4 60 " " 6° + " " 5 24 " " t= 5°, t'=25° + " " 6 24 " 6° 24° + " " 7 24 " 7½° 22½° + " " 8 24 " 10° 20° +</pre> + +<p>Circle 8 produces the notes of circles 1 and 2; circle 7, those +of 1 and 3; circle 6, those of 1 and 4; and circle 5, the note of +circle 1 and of its sixth harmonic.</p> + +<p>C.</p> + +<p>If the same circular arc is divided into m and n equal parts; +that is to say, if mt=nt', we obtain the notes m and n.</p> + +<p>Disk No. 3 has--</p> + +<pre> + Distances. + On circle No. 1 24 holes, distances 15° + " " 2 24 " " 15° & 27 holes, 13-1/3° + " " 3 24 " " 15° " 30 " 12° + " " 4 24 " " 15° " 32 " 11-1/4° + " " 5 24 " " 15° " 36 " 10° + " " 6 24 " " 15° " 40 " 9° + " " 7 24 " " 15° " 45 " 8° + " " 8 24 " " 15° " 30, 36, & 48 holes +</pre> + +<p>Circle 1 produces a single note, circle 2 a second, circle 3 a +third, circle 4 a fourth, 5 a fifth, 6 a sixth, 7 a seventh, and 8 +a perfect chord.</p> + +<h3>II.</h3> + +<p><i>Experiments to prove that the shocks may proceed from two or +several different places to conspire in the formation of a note, +provided that the isochronism of the shocks is sufficiently exact, +and that the shocks are produced in the same direction</i>.</p> + +<p>Disk No. 4 has--</p> + +<pre> + On circle 1 24 holes. + " " 2 36 " + " " 3 23 " + " " 4 12 at an angular distance of 10° from the holes + of circle 3. + " " 5 12 holes at an ang. dist. of 20° from those of circle 3 + " " 6 12 " " " 0° " + " " 7 12 " " " 15° " + " " 8 12 " " " 15° " +</pre> + +<p>1. If from the same side two currents of air at an angular +distance of 15° are directed against circle No. 8 of 12 holes, +we obtain the octave of the note produced by the same circle if +only one current is used.</p> + +<p>The wind-chest is provided with a special arrangement for this +experiment. By pulling out button 8, we give vent to 12 currents of +air spaced like the twelve holes of the disk; on pulling out button +9 we also produce 12 currents, but they are situated just between +the first. Each of these two buttons pulled out alone will produce +the same note corresponding to 12 holes, but drawn together they +produce the octave, or the note of circle 1.</p> + +<p>2. If two currents of air are directed against two similar +circles whose holes are situated on the same radii, we obtain the +same result.</p> + +<p>In this experiment, circles 7 and 8 are sounded by pulling out +buttons 7 and 9.</p> + +<p>3. When two currents of air are directed on the same radius +against two circles of similar holes arranged alternately, these +circles sounded simultaneously will produce the octave of the note +which one of them would give alone.</p> + +<p>This experiment is performed by sounding circles 6 and 7 and +pulling out buttons 6 and 7.</p> + +<p>4. If we direct three currents of air on the same radius against +three similar circles having holes alternating by a third of the +distance between two holes of the same circle, the three circles +together produce the fifth of the octave (Note 3) of a single +circle.</p> + +<p>Circles 3, 4, and 5 sounded together emit the note of circle +2.</p> + +<p>(By sounding only two circles, 3 and 4, or 4 and 5, we make the +same experiment with two circles as disk No. 2 enabled us to make +with circle 8 alone; also, by sounding circle 3 alone, we obtain +the note corresponding to 12 holes; then pulling out button 4, the +notes corresponding to 12 and 36 holes are heard suddenly and very +strongly; but as soon as circle 5 is sounded also, the note of 12 +disappears completely, and we have left only that corresponding to +36 holes.)</p> + +<h3>III.</h3> + +<p><i>Effects of interference produced by shocks in opposite +directions</i>.</p> + +<p>1. If we direct against a circle of holes two currents of air in +opposite directions, the note obtained with a single current is +very much weakened, if the two currents reach the holes +simultaneously. If the impulses are not isochronous, the intensity +of the note is increased.</p> + +<p>2. If the two currents are directed against two circles of the +same number of holes, the effect is the same as for the two +preceding cases.</p> + +<p>3. If two currents of air are directed against two circles, one +of which has twice as many holes as the other, we obtain only the +low note if every shock of one is isochronous with every shock of +the other.</p> + +<p>We obtain the notes of both circles, one of which is the octave +of the other, if there is no isochronism between the shocks.</p> + +<p>Disk No. 5 has three circles of 36, 36, and 72 holes. The air +currents are directed against the circles of holes through the +movable tubes, made so that they can be detached at pleasure. All +these experiments require great precision in the arrangement of +these wind tubes. To make sure that the tubes are simultaneously +before two holes of the disk, it is well to put little rods through +the holes, reaching into the wind tubes, and to remove them only +when the tubes are firmly attached. The experimenter should be +careful also to place the two tubes exactly at the same distance +from the turning disk. It is clear that notwithstanding all these +precautions we never obtain perfect interference, but only the +weakening of notes that ought to disappear entirely if all the +arrangements were made with mathematical exactness, and also if the +ear could have absolutely the same position with regard to impulses +produced in opposite directions.</p> + +<h3>IV.</h3> + +<p><i>Beats</i>.</p> + +<p>Disk No. 6 has--</p> + +<p>8 circles of holes to the number of 1, 2, 23, 24, 25, 47, 48, +49.</p> + +<p>Circles 3 and 4, 4 and 5, 6 and 7, and 7 and 8 ought to produce +as many beats as circle 1 produces simple shocks; and circles 3 and +5, 6 and 8, as many beats as circle 2 produces simple shocks; but +we must content ourselves in these experiments with a much less +perfect result, for the following reasons: The disk never being +rigorously plane, alternately approaches the single wind pipe and +recedes from it. No matter how slight this deviation is, every +sound given by a single circle is heard with periodical intensities +which complicate the phenomenon. This inconvenience could be +avoided by placing several wind-pipes around the circle; but while +we can extend the period of the holes in two circles (whose +difference is 1) around the whole circle by blowing through a +single wind tube, we would be compelled to limit it to the distance +between two wind tubes, and it would become too short; for, when +the disk rotates with a velocity sufficient to produce notes high +enough and intense enough, the beats become too numerous to be +easily perceived.</p> + +<p>Besides these provisions, which sufficiently illustrate the +points to which we desire to call especial attention, Koenig also +furnishes two more disks.</p> + +<p>The seventh contains 8 circles having 48, 54, 60, 64, 72, 80, +90, and 96 holes respectively. The 1st, 3d, 5th, and 8th will +produce a perfect chord when the air is admitted through the 11 +holes in the wind chest; with one wind tube the entire gamut may be +obtained.</p> + +<p>Finally the eighth disk contains 8 circles of holes, whose +numbers are in the ratio of 1:2:3:4, etc., and which may be used to +illustrate harmonics. C. F. K.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="21"></a></p> + +<h2>THE MOTIONS OF CAMPHOR UPON THE SURFACE OF WATER.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Continued from SUPPLEMENT No. 391, page 6240.]</p> + +<p>To have these movements occur in a constant and invariable +manner upon the surface of water, and especially upon mercury, it +is necessary to take precautions in regard to cleanliness, this +being something that we have purposely neglected to mention to our +readers. For we wished, through this voluntary omission, to +stimulate their sagacity by bringing them face to face with +difficulties that they will perhaps have succeeded in overcoming, +with causes of error that they will have perceived, and the +principal one of which is the want of absolute cleanliness in the +water, vessels, and instruments that they may have used for the +experiments.</p> + +<p>Thus, very probably, they will have more than once seen the +camphor remain immovable when placed in vessels in which they had +hoped to be able to see it undergo its gyratory and other motions. +Their astonishment will have been no less than our own was when we +noticed the sudden cessation of the camphor's motions under the +influence of vitreous or metallic objects, such as glass rods or +tubes, pieces of gold, silver, or copper coin, table knives, etc., +dipped into the liquid in which such motions were taking place +before the immersion of the objects under consideration.</p> + +<p>The instantaneously <i>sedative</i> power of the human fingers, +or of a hair, will have, perhaps, reminded them of some sort of +sorcery, or of some diabolic art worthy of the great Albert.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/9a.png" alt=""></p> + +<p class="ctr">APPARATUS FOR THE STUDY OF THE MOTIONS<br> +OF CAMPHOR.</p> + +<p>As for ourself, we confess that, after repeating the curious +experiments of Mr. Dutrochet day after day, and scrupulously +following his directions, we have, in the presence of our results, +that were exactly identical with his, almost been tempted to +believe ourself to be the victim of some occult power, or at least +of some optical illusion, the true cause of which remained a +mystery to us. Finally, after many fruitless attempts to find a key +to the enigma that engaged our attention, the light finally dawned +upon us, and then shone straight in our eyes.</p> + +<p>In comparing the last results of our experiments with those that +we had obtained previously, we saw, for example, that the camphor +moved in the test glasses at a level that was notably higher than +that at which its gyration took place the day before, or the day +before that. And yet we had always used the same vessels, the same +water, and particles detached from the same lump of camphor.</p> + +<p>To what, then, could be due the difference observed between the +two levels at which we had, in the first and last place, seen the +camphor execute its movements? In the absence of any answer that +was satisfactory, we finally suspected that the difference that we +had noticed was ascribable to the fact that, after the numerous +washings that the apparatus had been submitted to in having water +poured into them to repeat the experiments, they had gradually been +freed from impurities of whatever nature they might have been, and +which, unbeknown to us, might have soiled their sides.</p> + +<p>Starting with this idea, which was as yet a hyphothetical one, +we began to wash our hands, glasses, etc., at first with very +dilute sulphuric acid, and then with ammonia. Afterward we rinsed +them with quantities of water and dried them carefully with white +linen rags that had been used for no other purpose; and finally we +plunged them again into very clean water. We thus cut the Gordian +knot, and were on the right track.</p> + +<p>In fact, on again repeating Mr. Dutrochet's experiments, with +that minute care as to cleanliness that we had observed to be +absolutely necessary, we saw crumble away, one after another, all +the pieces of the scaffolding that this master had with so much +trouble built up. The camphor moved in all our vessels, of glass or +metal, and of every form, at all heights. The immersed bodies, such +as glass tubes, table knives, pieces of money, etc., had lost their +pretended "sedative effect" on a pretended "activity of the water," +and on the vessels that contained it. The so-called phenomenon of +habit "transported from physiology into physics," no longer +existed.</p> + +<p>The likening of the apparatus employed to obtain motions of +camphor upon water, with the entirely physiological apparatus by +means of which nature effects a circulation of the liquid contained +in the internodes of <i>Chara vulgaris</i>, had proved a grave +error that was to be erased from the science into which it had been +introduced by its author with entire good faith. The true cause of +<i>life</i> had not then been unveiled, and the new agent +designated as <i>diluo-electricity</i> vanished before the very +simple and authentic fact that camphor moves rapidly upon the +surface of very pure mercury, in which no one would assuredly +suppose that that volatile substance could dissolve.</p> + +<p>Mr. Dutrochet attaches great importance to the manner in which +the water is poured (with or without agitation) into the vessel +with which the experiment is performed. The matter is in fact of +little or no importance, and to prove this, it is only necessary to +employ a test glass (see figure) provided with a lateral tube, A, +that terminates in a lower tubulure, B, above which there is a +contraction, C. Upon pouring water into the lateral tube until the +level reaches D, and placing a particle of camphor on its surface, +the camphor will be seen to continually move about, even when the +liquid has reached the upper edge of the vessel. To reduce the +level to various heights, it is only necessary to revolve the tube +in the cork through which it is fitted to the tubulure. In +proceeding thus, agitation or <i>collision</i> of the water is +avoided; and yet if the test glass is very clean, the camphor will +continue to move at every level of the water.</p> + +<p>But, some one will doubtless say, how do you explain the +stoppage in the motions of the camphor on the surface of water +contained in vessels that are not perfectly clean? Before answering +this question, let us say in the first place that the cause of the +motions under consideration is due to nothing else but the +evaporation of this concrete oil--to effluvia that escape from all +parts and that exert upon the body whence they emanate a recoiling +action exactly like that which manifests itself in an ælopile +mounted upon a brasier, or, better yet, in the explosion of a +sky-rocket. A portion of these camphory vapors, as well as a small +portion of the camphor itself, dissolves in the water and forms +upon its surface an oily layer which is at first very slight, but +the thickness of which may increase in time until it becomes +(especially if the vessel is narrow) a mechanical obstacle to the +gyration of the small fragments of camphor that it imprisons, and +whose evaporation it prevents. Now, as this layer of volatile oil +may and does evaporate, in fact, after a certain length of time, +the camphor then resumes its gyratory motions; but there is not the +least reason in the world for saying on that account that it "has +<i>habituated</i> itself to the cause which had at first influenced +it, and that, too, in modifying itself in such a way as to render +null the influence of a cause that has not ceased to be present" +(Dutrochet, <i>l.c.</i>., p. 50).</p> + +<p>We have been enabled to convince ourself of the existence of +this oily layer of camphor when it was of a certain thickness by +introducing under the water on which it, had formed, a few drops of +sulphuric ether whose sudden evaporation produced sufficient cold +to instantaneously congeal the layer in question and thus render it +perfectly visible to the eye. The slight layer of greasy matter +that habitually lines the sides of vessels from whence no effort +has been made to remove it, produces effects exactly like those of +the oil of camphor, that is to say, that in measure as it becomes +thicker it likewise arrests the motions of the concrete volatile +essence.</p> + +<p>This is precisely what happens in a test-glass in which we see +the camphor in motion become immovable if the level of the water be +raised a few centimeters, and, more especially, if it be raised to +the upper edge of the apparatus. In its slow ascent the liquid +<i>licks</i> up, so to speak, the oily layer that lines the inner +surface of the vessel, and this material spreads over the surface +of the water and forms thereupon a layer which, in spreading over +the bit of camphor itself, prevents its evaporation, and, +consequently, its motions. The existence of the layer under +consideration cannot be doubted, since it is made to disappear by +causing the water to-overflow from the edges of the vessel, and, +more easily still, by spreading a piece of filtering paper over the +liquid in which the camphor is in a state of rest. As soon as the +paper is removed (without the water being touched by the fingers, +it should be understood), the camphor resumes its motions and +afterward continues them at all levels.</p> + +<p>The fingers themselves, provided they are very clean, have no +power to stop the gyration. The following experiment, which is easy +to repeat, is an unquestionable proof of this.</p> + +<p>Wash carefully the middle finger with aqua ammonia, and +afterward with plenty of water, and then dip it into a drinking +glass in which a fragment of camphor is rapidly moving, and the +gyration will not be stopped. But it will be made to stop instantly +if the finger in its natural state (that is, covered with the fatty +substances that ordinarily soil the fingers, especially in summer) +be dipped into this same glass.</p> + +<p><i>Movements of Camphor upon Mercury</i>.--In order to study the +motions of camphor, mercury possesses, as compared with water, a +great advantage, and that is that we can easily assure ourselves of +the degree of cleanliness of this metal by means of the condensed +breath. The vapory-deposits thereon in a uniform manner if the +mercury is perfectly clean, but forms variously shaded and more +persistent spots if it is soiled by foreign bodies But it is +extremely difficult to clean mercury completely. To do so Mr. +Boisgiraud and I take distilled mercury and leave it for a long +time in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid, taking care to +often shake the mixture. Then, after removing the greater part of +the acid, we throw the metal into a vessel containing quick lime in +powder, and finally pass it through a filter containing a few holes +in its lower part.</p> + +<p>Purified by this process, mercury not only permits of the +motions of camphor on its surface, but renders visible the traces +of the vapors that escape from it, and which resemble small +tadpoles with a long tail that are endowed with very great agility. +Nothing is more curious than to see the particle of camphor +successively ascend and descend the strongly pronounced curves +presented by the mercury near the sides of the vessel that contains +it. On raising the temperature of the metal slightly, the motions +of the camphor on its surface are accelerated, and the same effects +occur with water that has been slightly heated.</p> + +<p>The experiments that we have just called attention to show what +importance slight impurities may have upon certain results. "They +prove," says our learned colleague Mr. Daquin, "that there exists +upon polished substances an imperceptible coating of those fatty +matters which serve to-day to explain Moser's images." We find +therein also a manifest proof and a rational explanation of those +grave errors into which the presence of these fatty matters, that +have hitherto been scarcely suspected, led so clever and so +distinguished a scientist as the illustrious discoverer of +endosmosis.--<i>N. Joly, in La Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="16"></a></p> + +<h2>CARBONIC ACID IN BEER.</h2> + +<p>We present a diagram, on exposition at the last Brewers' +Convention in Detroit, of the racking device, devised by J. E. +Siebel in 1872, and used at that time in the brewery of Messrs. +Bartholomae & Roesing, in Chicago. The object of the apparatus +is to retain as much carbonic acid in the beer as possible while +racking the same off into smaller packages from the storage vats. +The importance of this measure is apparent to every one who knows +what pains are taken to preserve the presence of this constituent +in all the former stages of the brewing process. In the method of +racking off which is in present use in most breweries, the beer is +forced through a rubber hose from the cask in the store vault to +the barrels, kegs, and smaller packages in the fill room. Owing to +the excess of pressure in the beer as it enters the keg, it is +evident that a large amount of the carbonic acid gas must escape. +The escape of carbonic acid during the process of racking off is +indeed so large that even a small difference in the pressure of the +atmosphere causes a remarkable difference in this respect. It is, +therefore, evident that if a larger pressure can be maintained +while racking off, a larger amount of carbonic acid gas will remain +in the beer. It is true that the racking off will take a little +longer time if done under pressure, but this inconvenience is +certainly insignificantly small, when compared with the other +labors and troubles daily undergone in a brewery, for the sole +purpose to preserve in the beer the carbonic acid in that form in +which it has been formed during the fermentation, and in which form +it has far more refreshing and other valuable properties than in +any other form in which it may be subsequently introduced into the +beer by artificial means. The apparatus designed in the +accompanying cut is calculated to artificially produce a higher +pressure of the atmosphere, at least within the keg which is to be +filled with beer. For this purpose, the beer from the store cask +running through the pipe, B, enters the keg through a hollow copper +bung, fitting light into the bung hole by means of a rubber washer. +The air contained in the keg, being replaced by the beer, is forced +out by means of the hollow copper bung, taking its course through +the pipe, inscribed "Glass Gauge," until it is allowed to escape in +the standpipe, C, containing a column of water, the height of which +designates the pressure within the keg, and a consequently +increased retention of carbonic acid gas. If the keg or barrel is +filled with beer, the same becomes apparent from the beer showing +itself in the glass gauge; then the faucet, B, is closed, the +copper bung is lifted out of the bung hole, and the beer contained +in the pipe is just sufficient to completely fill the keg, which is +then bunged up, while the apparatus is transferred to the next keg. +Should the attendant carelessly neglect to close the faucet in +proper time, the surplus beer will not necessarily be wasted, but +will be collected in the vessel, D, whence it can be drawn off +through e.--<i>Chemical Review</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/10a.png" alt=""></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="1"></a></p> + +<h2>ON THE DIFFERENT MODIFICATIONS OF SILVER BROMIDE AND SILVER +CHLORIDE.</h2> + +<p>Hermann W. Vogel has made a comparative study of the properties +of silver bromide, obtained by precipitation in an aqueous solution +of gelatin, and those of the same compound prepared by +precipitation in an alcoholic solution of collodion. In 1874 Stas +called attention to six modifications of silver bromide. One of +these, granular bromide of silver, obtained by boiling the +flocculent precipitate for several days with water, he stated, was +the most sensitive to light of all substances known; exposure for +two or three seconds to the pale blue flame of a Bunsen burner +being sufficient to blacken it. Important as this fact was for +photographers it was not applied for years, and it was only in +1878, when, it having been found that silver bromide precipitated +in a gelatine solution and boiled for several hours becomes much +more sensitive to light, that the remarks of Stas was recalled. +Today these observations have become of the greatest importance to +practical photography. They have led to the preparation of the +silver bromide gelatin emulsion and the silver bromide gelatin +plates, which are twenty times more sensitive than the silver +iodide collodion plates, and have become indispensable when +impressions are to be taken in a dim light.</p> + +<p>The extraordinary sensitiveness of silver bromide in gelatin +seemed the more remarkable since it was known that silver bromide +in collodion is only moderately sensitive. The explanation was +sought for in various directions, but as the result of numerous +investigations it appears that the chief cause of the difference is +the presence of different modifications of silver bromide. From a +consideration of the work already done on the subject, Vogel +suspected that silver bromide precipitated in an aqueous colloidal +liquid would have notably different properties from silver bromide +precipitated in an alcoholic colloidal solution. Silver bromide was +prepared in many different ways. Emulsions were made in bromide +solutions containing gelatin or collodion (the former aqueous, the +latter alcoholic), some with the aid of heat, others without. Part +of the emulsion was then poured upon plates kept at a moderate +temperature and dried. The remainder was boiled or treated with +ammonia before being applied to the plates. He also precipitated +silver bromide in dilute gelatin or collodion solutions, allowed it +to settle completely, washed the precipitate, and mixed it with a +new portion of gelatin or collodion before applying it to the +plates. Finally he precipitated pure silver bromide, in the absence +of all colloids, by means of pure aqueous or alcoholic solutions of +bromides and attempted to bring this upon plates, using gelatin or +collodion as a cement. The result of all these experiments is that +there are essentially two modifications of silver bromide, the one +being obtained by precipitation in aqueous, the other in alcoholic +solutions. The first, on account of the position of the maximum of +sensitiveness for the solar spectrum, he calls blue sensitive, the +other, for the same reason, indigo sensitive.</p> + +<p>It is of no consequence whether the aqueous or alcoholic +solution in which the silver bromide is formed contains gelatin or +collodion, or whether the precipitation is effected with excess of +bromide or of silver nitrate. It makes no difference whether the +solution is hot or cold, or whether the silver bromide is treated +with ammonia or whether it is boiled or not. The only necessary +condition is that in precipitating indigo sensitive silver bromide +the solutions must contain at least 96 per cent of alcohol. From +aqueous alcoholic solutions blue sensitive silver bromide is +precipitated.</p> + +<p>Besides the difference of sensitiveness toward the solar +spectrum, these modifications of silver bromide exhibit other +characteristic differences in properties which indicate beyond a +doubt that they are two essentially different modifications of the +same substance. Among these are, 1st. Their unequal divisibility in +gelatin or collodion solutions. The indigo sensitive silver bromide +cannot be distributed through a gelatin solution, while the blue +sensitive modification does so very readily. 2d. Their unequal +reducibility; the blue sensitive silver bromide being reduced with +much greater difficulty than the indigo sensitive variety. 3d. +Their different action toward chemical and physical sensitizers. +4th. Their different action toward photographic developers. 5th. +Their different action under the influence of heat. The blue +sensitive variety if heated under water has its sensitiveness +perceptibly increased, while the other is not changed by such +treatment.</p> + +<p>A direct transformation of one modification into the other has +not yet been accomplished. The effect of the light upon these +substances is incipient reduction, and we might hence suppose that +the more reducible indigo sensitive variety would be the more +sensitive to light. But this is not the case, because it is not +chemical reducibility, but the absorption power for light that is +of the greatest importance. Now the blue sensitive silver bromide +has a greater absorption power than the indigo sensitive variety, +and hence its greater sensitiveness. Silver chloride prepared by +methods similar to those used in making the two forms of bromides +was also found to exist in two modifications. One is designated as +ultra violet sensitive, the other as violet sensitive silver +chloride.--<i>Amer. Chem. Jour</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="2"></a></p> + +<h2>ANALYSIS OF A SAMPLE OF NEW ZEALAND COAL.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Read before the Society of Public Analysts on the +28th June, 1883.]</p> + +<h3>By OTTO HEHNER</h3> + +<p>Some discussion having recently taken place as to the value of +New Zealand coal as a fuel, the following results of a somewhat +full analysis may be worthy of being placed on record.</p> + +<p>The sample to which the results refer consisted of large +brownish black lumps, many of which showed woody structure; the +fractures were conchyloid, the surface shiny and highly reflecting. +It was interspersed with a considerable amount of an amber colored +resin. When powdered it appeared chocolate brown. It burned +readily, the flame being bright and very smoky. Its ash was light +and reddish brown.</p> + +<p>It consisted of--</p> + +<pre> + Water (loss at 212° F.) 20.09 + Organic and volatile matter 75.19 + Ash 4.72 + ------ + 100.00 +</pre> + +<p>The organic and volatile constituents had the following +percentage composition--</p> + +<pre> + Carbon 71.26 + Hydrogen 5.62 + Oxygen 21.58 + Nitrogen 1.06 + Sulphur 0.48 + ------ + 100.00 +<br> +The ash was composed of-- +<br> + Silica 27.26 + Alumina 26.48 + Oxide of iron 12.98 + Lime 20.19 + Magnesia 3.42 + Sulphuric acid 9.47 + Alkalies and loss 0.20 + ------ + 100.00 +</pre> + +<p>From these figures the composition of the coal itself calculates +as under--</p> + +<pre> + Water 20.09 + Carbon 53.58 + Hydrogen 4.23 + Oxygen 16.23 + Nitrogen 0.80 + Sulphur 0.36 + Silica 1.29 + Alumina 1.25 + Oxide of iron 0.61 + Lime 0.95 + Magnesia 0.16 + Sulphuric acid 0.44 + Alkalies 0.01 + ------ + 100.00 +</pre> + +<p>One ton furnished 8,458 cubic feet of gas and 8 cwt. of +coke.</p> + +<p>The very high proportion of water contained in the sample is +very remarkable. It was so loosely combined, that even at ordinary +temperature it gradually escaped, the coal crumbling to small +pieces. The large amount as well as the high percentage of oxygen +characterize the so called coal as a <i>lignite</i>, with which +conclusion the physical characters of the sample are in perfect +harmony.</p> + +<p>The resin to which I have referred has not been further +analyzed. It was found to be insoluble in all ordinary menstrua, +such as alcohol, ether, carbon disulphide, benzene, or chloroform, +and neither attacked by boiling alcoholic potash nor by fusing +alkali. On heating it swells up considerably and undergoes +decomposition, but does not fuse.</p> + +<p>The coal may be valuable as a gas coal and for local +consumption, but the large proportions of water and of oxygen +militate against its use as a steam producer, only 58 per cent. of +it being really combustible.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="3"></a></p> + +<h2>DETERMINING MANGANESE IN STEEL, CAST IRON, FERRO-MANGANESE, +ETC.</h2> + +<h3>By E. RAYMOND.</h3> + +<p>The method in question is recommended as easy, expeditious, and +accurate. It consists in precipitating all the manganese in the +state of peroxide, dissolving it in a ferrous solution so as to +bring back the manganese to the manganous slate, and determining +volumetrically, by means of potassium permanganate, the quantity of +ferrous salt which has been converted into ferric. The method of +rapidly precipitating manganese peroxide is peculiar. If we act +upon cast-iron or steel with nitric acid and potassium chlorate in +certain proportions, and boil the mixture, the manganese is +completely precipitated in the state of peroxide insoluble in +nitric acid, but retaining a small quantity of ferric oxide. +Suppose that we have a sample of steel or manganiferous cast-iron +containing less than 7 per cent of manganese. Three grammes are +treated in a small flask with 40 c. c. of nitric acid, of sp. gr. +1.20, added little by little. The liquid is stirred, and ultimately +heated to complete solution. It is withdrawn from the fire, and 15 +grammes potassium chlorate are added, and then 20 c. c. of nitric +acid at sp. gr. 1.40. It is boiled for about fifteen minutes, until +the escape of chlorine ceases; all the manganese is found thrown +down as peroxide; hot water is added, the mixture is filtered, and +the precipitate washed with boiling water. To dissolve the +manganese peroxide thus obtained we measure exactly 50 c. c. of an +acid solution of ferrous sulphate, made up with 40 grammes ferrous +sulphate to 750 c. c. water and 230 c. c. sulphuric acid (full +strength). The 50 c. c. are poured into the flask in which the +sample has been dissolved, and to which a little peroxide adheres, +and it is then poured upon the precipitate and the filter in a +Berlin-ware capsule. The manganese peroxide dissolves very readily, +transforming its equivalent of ferrous sulphate into ferric +sulphate. The liquid is then diluted to 100 or 150 c. c. for the +next operation. We then take a solution of permanganate formed by +the same proportions as are used in determining iron by the process +of Margueritte (5.65 grammes of the crystalline salt per liter of +water), and determine its standard exactly. By means of this liquid +we determine volumetrically the quantity of ferrous sulphate +remaining in the solution of manganese. We take then 50 c. c. of +the original solution of ferrous sulphate diluted as above, and +determine the total ferrous salt.</p> + +<p>The difference between the two determinations corresponds to the +ferrous salt which has been peroxidized by the manganese peroxide. +The quantity of iron thus peroxidized multiplied by 0.491 gives the +quantity of manganese contained in the portion operated upon. In +the case of a steel or cast iron containing but little manganese it +is convenient to dissolve the peroxide in 25 c. c. only of the +ferrous solution. Small Gay-Lussac burettes may then be used in the +titration of only 0.010 meter internal diameter, and graduated into +one-twentieth c. c., which allows of great exactitude in the +determination. For a spiegeleisen not more than 1 gramme of the +sample should be taken, and for a ferro-manganese 0.3 gramme.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="4"></a></p> + +<h2>MANGANESE AND ITS USES.</h2> + +<p>Manganese is one of the heavy metals of which iron may he taken +as the representative. It is of a grayish white color, presents a +metallic brilliancy, and is capable of a high degree of polish, is +so hard as to scratch glass and steel, is non-magnetic, and is only +fused at a white heat. As it oxidizes rapidly on exposure to the +atmosphere, it should be preserved under naphtha.</p> + +<p>It occurs in small quantity in association with iron in meteoric +stones; with this exception it is not found native. The metal may +be obtained by the reduction of its sesquioxide by carbon at an +extreme heat.</p> + +<p>Manganese forms no less than six different oxides--viz., +protoxide, sesquioxide the red oxide, the binoxide or peroxide, +manganic acid, and permanganic acid. The protoxide occurs as +olive-green powder, and is obtained by igniting carbonate of +manganese in a current of hydrogen. Its salts are colorless, or of +a pale rose color, and have a strong tendency to form double salts +with the salts of ammonia. The carbonate forms the mineral known as +manganese spar. The sulphate is obtained by heating the peroxide +with sulphuric acid till there is faint ignition, dissolving the +residue in water and crystallizing. It is employed largely in +calico printing. The silicate occurs in various minerals.</p> + +<p>The sesquioxide is found crystallized in an anhydrous form in +braunite, and hydrated in manganite. It is obtained artificially as +a black powder by exposing the peroxide to a prolonged heat. When +ignited it loses oxygen, and is converted into red oxide. Its salts +are isomorphous with those of alumina and sesquioxide of iron. It +imparts a violet color to glass, and gives the amethyst its +characteristic tint. Its sulphate is a powerful oxidizing +agent.</p> + +<p>The red oxide corresponds to the black oxide of iron. It occurs +native in hausmannite, and may be obtained artificially by igniting +the sesquioxide or peroxide in the open air. It is a compound of +the two preceding oxides.</p> + +<p>The binoxide, or peroxide, is the black manganese of commerce, +and the pyrolusite of mineralogists, and is by far the most +abundant of the manganese ores. It occurs in a hydrated form in +varvicite and wad. Its commercial value depends upon the proportion +of chlorine which a given weight of it will liberate when it is +heated with hydrochloric acid, the quantity of chlorine being +proportional to the excess of oxygen which this oxide contains over +that contained in the same weight of protoxide. When mixed with +chloride of sodium and sulphuric acid it causes an evolution of +chlorine, the other resulting products being sulphate of soda and +sulphate of protoxide of manganese. When mixed with acids, it is a +valuable oxidizing agent. It is much used for the preparation of +oxygen, either by simply heating it, when it yields 12 per cent. of +gas, or by heating it with sulphuric acid, when it yields 18 per +cent. Besides its many uses in the laboratory, it is employed in +the manufacture of glass, porcelain, and kindred wares.</p> + +<p>Manganic acid is not known in a free state. Manganate of potash +is formed by fusing together hydrated potash and binoxide of +manganese. The black mass which results from this operation is +soluble in water, to which it communicates a green color, due to +the presence of the manganate. From this water the salt is obtained +<i>in vacuo</i> in beautiful green crystals. On allowing the +solution to stand exposed to the air, it rapidly becomes blue, +violet, purple, and finally red, by the gradual conversion of the +manganate into the permanganate of potash; and on account of these +changes of color the black mass has received the name of mineral +chameleon.</p> + +<p>Permanganic acid is only known in solution or in a state of +combination. Its solution is of a splendid red color, but appears +of a dark violet tint when seen by transmitted light. It is +obtained by treating a solution of permanganate of baryta with +sulphuric acid, when sulphate of baryta falls, and the permanganic +acid remains dissolved in the water. Permanganate of potash, which +crystallizes in reddish purple prisms, is the most important of its +salts. It is largely employed in analytical chemistry, and is the +basis of Condy's Disinfectant Fluid.</p> + +<p>Manganese is a constituent of many mineral waters, and is found +in small quantities in the ash of most vegetables and animal +substances. It is always associated with iron.</p> + +<p>Various preparations of manganese have been employed in +medicine. The sulphate of the protoxide in doses of one or two +drachms produces purgative effects, and is supposed to increase the +excretion of bile; and in small doses, both this salt and the +carbonate have been given with the intention of improving the +condition of the blood in cases of anæmia. Manganic acid and +permanganate of potash are of great use when applied in lotions (as +in Condy's Fluid diluted) to foul and fetid ulcers. In connection +with the medicinal applications of manganese it may be mentioned +that manganic acid is the agent employed in Dr. Angus Smith's +celebrated test for the impurity of the air.</p> + +<p>It is the glass maker's soap of glass manufacture, and is used +to correct the green color of glass, which is owing to the presence +of protoxide of iron. This it converts into the comparatively +colorless peroxide.</p> + +<p>It is also used in the Bessemer and similar processes, to +decompose the oxide of iron. Spiegeleisen, an iron which contains a +natural alloy of from 10 to 12 per cent. of manganese, is used for +this purpose when conveniently attainable.--<i>Glassware +Reporter</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="5"></a></p> + +<h2>OZOKERITE, OR EARTH-WAX.</h2> + +<h3>By WILLIAM L. LAY.</h3> + +<h3>ON THE DEPOSITS OF EARTH WAX (OZOKERITE) IN EUROPE AND +AMERICA.</h3> + +<p>[Footnote: Abstract from a paper read before the New York +Academy of Sciences.]</p> + +<p>There exists a large mining and manufacturing industry in +Austria, that of ozokerite, or earth-wax, which has nothing like it +in any other part of the known world, an industry that supplies +Europe with a part of its beeswax, without the aid of the bees. It +may not be generally known that the mining of petroleum was a +profitable industry in Austria long before it was in this country. +In 1852, a druggist near Tarnow distilled the oil and had an +exhibit of it in the first World's Fair in London. In America, the +first borings were made in 1859. Indeed, the use of petroleum as an +illuminator was common at a very early age in the world's history. +In Persia at Baku, in India on the Irawada, also in the Crimea, and +on the river Kuban in Russia, petroleum has been used in lamps for +thousands of years. At Baku the fire worshipers have a +never-ceasing flame, which has burned from time immemorial. The +mines of ozokerite are located in Austrian Poland, now known as +Galicia. Near the city of Drohabich, on the railway line running +from Cracow to Lemberg, is a town of six thousand inhabitants, +called Borislau, which is entirely supported by the ozokerite +industry. It lies at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains. About +the year 1862, a shaft was sunk for petroleum at that place. After +descending about one hundred and eighty feet, the miners found all +the cracks in the clay or rock filled with a brown substance, +resembling beeswax. At first, the layers were not thicker than +writing paper; but they grew thicker gradually below, until at a +depth of three hundred feet they attained a thickness of three or +four inches. Upon examination, it was found that a yellow wax could +be made of a portion of this substance, and at once a substitute +for wax was manufactured.</p> + +<p>The discovery caused an excitement like the oil fever of 1865 in +America. A large number of leases were made. When I saw the wells +of Pennsylvania, in 1879, there were more than two thousand. The +owner of the land received one-fourth of the product, and the +miners three-fourths. In the petroleum region, the leases at first +were whole farms, then they were reduced to 20, then 10, then 5, +and at last to 1 acre, which is a square of 209 feet.</p> + +<p>But in the ozokerite region of Poland, where everything is done +on a small scale, when compared with like enterprises in this +country, the leases were on tracts thirty-two feet square. These +were so small that the surface was not large enough to contain the +earth that had to be raised to sink the shaft; consequently the +earth had to be transported to a distance, and, when I saw it, +there was a mound sixty or seventy feet high. Its weight had become +so great that it caused a sinking of the earth, and endangered the +shafts to such an extent that the government ordered its removal to +a distance and its deposit on ground that was not undermined. The +shafts are four feet square, and the sides are supported by timbers +six inches through, which leaves a shaft three feet square. The +miner digs the well or shaft just as we dig our water wells, and +the dirt and rock are hoisted up in a bucket by a rope and +windlass. But one man can work in the shaft at a time. For many +years no water was found; but, as there is a deposit of petroleum +under the ozokerite, at a depth of six hundred feet from the +surface, the miners were troubled with gas. This is got rid of by +blowing a current of fresh air from a rotary fan through a pipe +extending down the shaft as fast as the curbing of timber is put in +place. The ozokerite is embedded in a very stiff blue clay for a +depth of several hundred feet; below, it is interlaid with rock. +[Specimens of crude and manufactured ozokerite were on exhibition, +through the kindness of Dr. J. S. Newberry.]</p> + +<p>That part of the earth's surface has more miners' shafts to the +acre than any other part of the globe. As wages are very low in +Poland, averaging not more than forty cents a day for men and ten +cents for children, a very small quantity of ozokerite pays for the +working. If thirty or forty pounds a day is obtained, it +remunerates the two men and one or two children required to work +each lease. When the bucket, containing the earth, rock, and wax, +is dumped in the little shed covering the shaft, it is picked over +by the children, who detach the wax from the clay or rock with +knives. The miners use galvanized wire ropes and wooden buckets. +When preparing to descend, they invariably cross themselves and +utter a short prayer. The business is not free from danger, +carelessness on the part of the boy supplying the fresh air, or the +caving in of the unsupported roof, causing a large number of +deaths. One of the government inspectors of the mines informed me +that in one week there had been eight deaths from accidents.</p> + +<p>The ozokerite is taken to a crude furnace, and put into a common +cast iron kettle, and melted. This allows the dirt to sink to the +bottom, and the ozokerite, freed from all other solids, is skimmed +off with a ladle, poured into conical moulds, and allowed to cool, +in which form it is sold to the refiners, for about six cents per +pound. The quantity produced is uncertain, as the miners take care +to understate it, for the reason that the government lays a tax +upon all incomes, and the landowner demands his one-fourth of the +quantity mined. The best authority is Leo Strippelman, who states +the quantity produced in fifteen years at from 375,000,000 to +400,000,000 pounds, worth twenty-four millions of dollars. As the +owners of the land get one-fourth of the sum, they received six +millions. This is at the rate of four hundred thousand a year, a +rather valuable crop from some two hundred acres of land.</p> + +<p>The miners do not support the earth by timber or pillars, as +they should; the result is that the whole plot of about two hundred +acres is gradually sinking, and this will eventually ruin the +industry in that part of the deposit. In another part of the same +field, a French company has purchased forty acres, and it is mining +the whole tract and hoisting through one shaft by steam power. In +that shaft they have sunk to a depth of six hundred feet, and are +troubled with water and petroleum. These they pump out very much +the same way as in coal and other mines, worked in a scientific +manner. The thickest layer of ozokerite found is about eighteen +inches, and this layer or pocket was a great curiosity. When first +removed at the bottom of the shaft, it was found to be so soft that +it was shoveled out like putty. During the night it oozed into the +space that had been emptied the day before; this continued for +weeks, or until the pressure of the gas had become too weak to +force it out.</p> + +<p>I have been occupied in the petroleum region of Pennsylvania +since 1860, have seen all the wonderful development of the oil +wells, and was very much interested in contrasting the Austrian +ozokerite and petroleum industry with the American. It is a good +illustration of the difference between the lower class of Poles and +Jews and the Yankee. Borislau, after twenty years' work, was +unimproved, dirty, squalid, and brutal. It contained one school +house, but no church nor printing office. None of its streets were +paved, and, in the main road through the town, the mud came up to +the hubs of the wagon wheels for over a mile of its length. In +places, plank had to be set up on edge to keep the mud out of the +houses, which were lower than the road. It contained numerous +shops, where potato whisky was sold to men, women, and children. It +depends on a dirty, muddy creek for its supply of water. Its houses +were generally one-story, built of logs and mud.</p> + +<p>On the other hand, Oil City, a town of the same age and size, +contained eight school houses (one a high school building), twelve +churches, and two printing offices. It has paved streets, which, in +1863, were as deep with mud as those in Borislau in 1879. It has no +whisky shops where women and children can drink. Many of its houses +are of brick, two, three, four, and five stories high. Its water +works cost one hundred and fifty thousand dollars. All this has +been done since 1860, when it did not contain forty houses.</p> + +<p>I saw in the market place of Borislau women standing ankle deep +in the mud, selling vegetables. One woman really had to build a +platform of straw, on which to place a bushel of potatoes; if the +straw foundation had not been there, the potatoes would have sunk +out of sight. Borislau is three miles from Drohobich, a city of +thirty thousand inhabitants; between the two places, in wet +weather, the road was impassable. For a third of the way, it was in +the bed of the creek; and I had to wait a day for the water to fall +so as to navigate it in a wagon. On inquiring why they did not +improve the road, I found the same difficulty as the Arkansas +settler encountered with his leaky roof; when it rained he could +not repair it, and when it was dry it did not need repair: so with +the road to Borislau.</p> + +<p>Ozokerite (from the Greek words, "Ozein," to smell, and "Keros," +wax) is found in Turkistan, east of the Caspian Sea; in the +Caucasian Mountains, in Russia; in the Carpathian Mountains, in +Austria; in the Apennines, in Italy; in Texas, California, and in +the Wahsatch Mountains, in the United States. Commercially, it is +not worked anywhere but in Austria; although, I believe, we have in +Utah a larger deposit than in any other place. I made two journeys +to examine the deposits in the Wahsatch Mountains. For a distance +of forty miles, it crops out in many places, and on the Minnie +Maud, a stream emptying into the Colorado, I found a stratum of +sand rock, from ten to twelve feet thick, filled with +ozokerite.</p> + +<p>No systematic effort has been made to ascertain the quantity of +ozokerite in Utah. I saw a drift of some fourteen feet at one +place, and a shaft twenty-three feet deep at another. In this +shaft, the vein was about ten inches wide; and it could be traced +along the slope of the hill, for several hundred feet. The largest +vein of pure ozokerite is seen on Soldiers' Fork of Spanish +Cañon, which enters Salt Lake Valley near the town of Provo. +This vein is very much like the ozokerite of Austria, and contains +between thirty and forty per cent. of white ceresin (which +resembles bleached beeswax), about thirty per cent. of yellow +ceresin (which resembles yellow wax), and twenty per cent. of black +petroleum; the residue is dirt. Dr. J. S. Newberry, of Columbia +College, and Prof. S. B. Newberry, of Cornell University, made +examinations of the ozokerite found in Utah; those who are +interested in the subject will find the papers published in the +<i>Engineering and Mining Journal</i> for the year 1879.</p> + +<p>A deposit of white ozokerite occurs on the top of the Apennine +Mountains, in Italy, of which a specimen is here exhibited. An +interesting story is told of its discovery. A church at Modena was +robbed; among other articles taken was a quantity of wax candles. A +short time afterward, a woman brought to a druggist a quantity of +wax and offered it for sale. The druggist bought it and afterward +suspected it consisted of the stolen candles melted down. Soon +after ward she brought another lot. He had her arrested. When +questioned by the magistrate, she said she found the wax in the +clay on her farm, about twenty miles from the city. This story +confirmed him in the belief that she had stolen the candles, or was +the receiver of the stolen goods; for such a thing as a deposit of +wax in the soil was unheard of. She was therefore remanded to jail. +On three several days, she was brought before the court, and, when +questioned, told the same story. She was a member of the church, +and requested the priest to be sent for. He came, and, after an +interview between them, he said it was easy to disprove her story, +if it was a lie, by sending her home, in company with an officer, +to investigate. The court sent the priest, who was the only one who +believed her. On coming to her house, she took her pick and shovel, +and going to the place at the top of the hill, she dug out of the +clay a quantity of while ozokerite, proved her case, and was at +once set at liberty. She performed the same service for me, and I +saw her dig the specimen and heard her tell the story as I have +told it to you. The hill was composed of loose clay and stones. It +appeared as if it had been forced up by gas or some power from +below the surface. The quantity that could be gathered, by one +person, laboring constantly for a week, was only twenty-five or +thirty pounds. An attempt had been made to sink a shaft; but, at a +depth of fourteen feet, the pressure of the clay was sufficient to +break the boards that held up the sides. The earth caved in, and +the shaft was abandoned.</p> + +<p>It is not necessary here to describe the various processes of +manufacture; it will be sufficient to enumerate some of the forms +of ozokerite, and the uses to which it is put. At Borislau, there +are several refineries, where candles, tapers, and lubricating oils +are made. In Vienna, there are five factories; in one of these, +they make white wax, wax candles, matches, yellow beeswax, black +heel-ball, colored tapers, and crayon pencils. In Europe, large +quantities of the yellow wax are used to wax the floors of the +houses, many of the finer ones being waxed every day. It is a +curious fact that the Catholic Church does not allow the use of +paraffine, sperm, or stearine candles; at the same time nearly all +the candles used in the churches in Europe are made from ozokerite, +which is a natural paraffine, made from petroleum in nature's +laboratory. In the United States, the only uses made of ozokerite, +so far as I know, are chewing gum and the adulteration of beeswax. +In this the Yankee gives another illustration of the ruling passion +strong in money making, which gives us wooden nutmegs, wooden hams, +shoddy cloth, glucose candy, chiccory coffee, oleomargarine butter, +mineral sperm oil made from petroleum, and beeswax made without +bees.</p> + +<p>After this paper was written, the following translation from a +pamphlet, published by the First Hungarian Galician Railway +Company, in 1879, came to my notice. The writer's name is not +published:</p> + +<p>"Mineral wax, in the condition in which it is taken from the +shafts, is not well adapted for exportation, since it occurs with +much earthy matter; and, at any rate, an expensive packing in sacks +would be necessary. It is therefore first freed from all foreign +substances by melting, and cooled in conical cakes of about 25 +kilos. weight, and these cakes are exported. There are now, in +Borislau, 25 melting works, which, in 1877, with 1 steam and 60 +fire kettles, produced 95,000 metric centners (9,500,000 lb.).</p> + +<p>"The melted earth wax is sent from Borislau to almost all +European countries, to be further refined. Outside of +Austro-Hungary, we may specially mention Germany, England, Italy, +France, Belgium, and Russia as large purchasers of this article of +commerce.</p> + +<h3>"PRODUCTS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS.</h3> + +<p>"The products of mineral wax, are:</p> + +<p>"(a.) <i>Ceresine</i>, also called ozocerotine or refined +ozokerite, a product which possesses a striking resemblance to +ordinarily refined beeswax. It replaces this in almost all its +uses, and, by its cheapness, is employed for many purposes for +which beeswax is too dear. It is much used for wax candles, for +waxing floors, and for dressing linen and colored papers. Wax +crayons must be mentioned among these products. The house of +Offenheim & Ziffer, in Elbeteinitz, makes them of many colors. +These crayons are especially adapted to marking wood, stone, and +iron; also, for marking linen and paper, as well as for writing and +drawing. The writings and drawings made with these crayons can be +effaced neither by water, by acids, nor by rubbing.</p> + +<p>"Concerning the technical process for the production of +ceresine, it should be said that, when the industry was new (the +production of ceresine has been known only about eight years, since +1874), it was controlled by patents, which are kept secret. This +much is known, that the color and odor are removed by fuming +sulphuric acid.</p> + +<p>"From mineral wax of good quality about 70 per cent. of white +ceresine is obtained. The yellow ceresine is tinted by the addition +of coloring matter (annatto).</p> + +<p>"(b.) <i>Paraffine</i>, a firm, white, translucent substance, +without odor. It is used, chiefly, in the manufacture of candles, +and also as a protection against the action of acids, and to make +casks and other wooden vessels water-tight, for coating corks, +etc., for air-tight wrappings, and, finally, for the preparation of +tracing paper. There are several methods of obtaining paraffine +from ozokerite (see the Encyclopedic Handbook of Chemistry, by +Benno Karl and F. Strohmann, vol. iv., Brunswick, 1877).</p> + +<p>"The details of the technical process consists, in every case, +in the distillation of the crude material, pressure of the +distillate by hydraulic presses, melting, and treating by sulphuric +acid.</p> + +<p>"In the manufacture of paraffine from ozokerite, there are +produced from 2 to 8 per cent. of benzine, from 15 to 20 per cent. +of naphtha, 36 to 50 per cent. of paraffine, 15 to 20 per cent. of +heavy oil for lubricating, and 10 to 20 per cent. of coke, as a +residue.</p> + +<p>"(c.) <i>Mineral oils</i>, which are obtained at the same time +with paraffine, and are the same as those produced from crude +petroleum, described above. The process consists, as in the natural +rock oils, besides the distillation, in the treatment of the +incidental products with acids and alkalies.</p> + +<p>"Of the products of ozokerite, manufactured in Galicia, the +greater part goes to Russia, Roumania, Turkey, Italy, and Upper +Hungary. The common paraffine candles made in Galicia--which are of +various sizes, from 28 to 160 per kilo--are used by the Jews in all +Galicia, Bukowuina, Roumania, Upper Hungary, and Southern Russia, +and form an important article of commerce. Ceresine is exported to +all the ports of the world. Of late a considerable quantity is said +to have been sent to the East Indies, where it is used in the +printing of cotton."</p> + +<p>The President, Dr. J. S. Newberry, stated that ozokerite was +undoubtedly a product of petroleum. Little was known by the public +concerning its use and value. He exhibited specimens of natural +brown ozokerite, of yellow ozokerite, sold as beeswax, and of a +white purified form, which had been treated by sulphuric acid. +Specimens from Utah had already been shown before the Academy. +There was no mystery as to its genesis in either region, as it had +been shown to be the result of inspissation of a thick and viscid +variety of petroleum. The term "petroleum" includes a great variety +of substances, from a limpid liquid, too light to burn, to one that +is thick and tarry. These differ widely also in chemical +composition: some yielding much asphalt by distillation, resembling +a solution of asphalt in turpentine; some containing so much +paraffine that a considerable quantity can be strained out in cold +weather. The asphalt in its natural form is a solid rock, to which +the term "gum beds" has been applied in Canada. These differences +in constitution have originated in the differences in the +bituminous shales from which the petroleum, ozokerite, etc., have +been derived. In Canada, as excavations are sunk through the +asphalt, this becomes softer and softer, and finally passes into +petroleum. This is also the case in Utah.</p> + +<hr> +<p>[Concluded from SUPPLEMENT No. 400, page 6390.]</p> + +<p>[KANSAS CITY REVIEW.]</p> + +<p><a name="19"></a></p> + +<h2>THE SOLAR ECLIPSE OF MAY 6, 1883.</h2> + +<p>Professor C. S. Hastings, of the Johns Hopkins University, also +includes many interesting details in his account of the trip:</p> + +<p>The voyage from New York to Panama was pleasant with the +exception of a few hot days near Aspinwall. Somewhat further south +the wind changed, obliging them to call their overcoats from the +bottom of their trunks to keep out the cold when crossing the +equator. During a short stop in Lima the party had an opportunity +of studying South American life. The products of this country are +fruits and photographs of the young women. The party enjoyed both +eating the former and bringing the latter home for the admiration +of their friends. The expedition really began at Callao, where the +party embarked on the United States man-of-war Hartford. Few +circumstances contributed more to the enjoyment of the trip than +the lucky chance which threw this vessel in their way. The Hartford +was fitted out last August as flag ship of the South Pacific +squadron. The admiral had not yet removed his flag to the vessel, +but the extra accommodations provided for him and his train +condoned the dignity lost by his absence. On March 22 they weighed +anchor for a sail of more than four thousand miles over the blue +ocean which stretches between Callao and their destination, +Caroline Island. The southeast trade winds favored them, and from +the first day there was actually no necessity for altering the +position of a sail....</p> + +<p>The inhabitants--five men, one woman and two children, according +to the eclipse census--are natives of Tahiti. The houses are one +story structures with clapboard sides, probably cut out in +California and brought out in ships, to be erected on this island. +The island on which they are built is about three-fourths of a mile +in diameter and nearly circular in outline. The edge, which rises +from five to twenty inches from the water, according to the tide's +phase, goes down under the water to an even table of coral running +out many feet into the sea; and is impossible to step on it with +bare feet. At the end of this table the reef goes down +perpendicularly, a sheer precipice, into the unfathomable sea. No +vessel can anchor here, and to make a landing was an exciting +matter. The island was approached in small boats on the side +sheltered from the wind, and here, with the luck which +characterized the trip, was found the only opening in this barrier +of coral. A long cleft, perhaps eight feet wide, at the outer edge +of the reef, ran in, narrowing to a mere crack near the shore. +Watching a favorable chance, the boats were guided through the surf +into a cleft as far as shoal water, when the men jumped on to the +reef and carried baggage and instruments ashore as quickly as +possible. The boats, which were new when they entered the surf, +came out much the worse for wear, and the boat in which Dr. +Hastings landed was stove in. Once on shore, life became a +succession of wonders, rivaling the tales of Gulliver, and needing +the conscientious descriptions of exact scientists to make them +credible.</p> + +<p>The members of the observing party took up their abode in the +larger of the three houses, sleeping in swinging cots slung from +the verandas, which afforded shade on three sides of the building. +The second house was occupied by the sailors, while the third was +left to the natives. These latter were sufficiently conversant with +English to serve as excellent guides. Each day the party bathed in +a lagoon in the center of the island. This lagoon was bordered by a +beach of dazzling white coral sand, and all through its water +extended reefs of living coral of the more delicate and elaborate +kinds. These corals gave the lake a wonderful variety of colors, +forming a picture impossible to paint or describe, and with the +least ripple from a passing breeze the whole scene changed to new +groups of color. The water was very clear, and in some places deep; +in others so filled with coral that a boat could barely skim over +the surface without scraping the keel. After crossing a long reef, +one day, they entered on a sheet of water so deep that their +longest line would not reach the bottom, plainly visible beneath. +Fish swarmed here, and it was characteristic of them that every +species, if not brilliantly colored, was marked in the most +peculiar manner. One variety which frequented the shallow water, +where it was heated to the degree uncomfortable to the touch, was a +pure milky white, with black eyes, fins, and tail.</p> + +<p>The French party arrived two days after the Americans. They had +steamed directly from Panama with the hope of anticipating the +Americans.</p> + +<p>It rained on the morning of the eclipse, but cleared off in good +time, and the definition was particularly good. Photographs +occupied the time of the English and French observers. Professor +Holden and Dr. Dickson searched for intra-mercurial planets; Mr. +Preston took the times of contact; Dr. Hastings and Mr. Rockwell +devoted their attention to spectroscopic observations of the +corona. Dr. Hastings' observations have led to the production of a +new theory of the corona. Briefly stated, the theory is that the +light seen around the sun during a total eclipse is not due to a +material substance enveloping the sun, but is a phenomenon of +diffraction.</p> + +<p>From his observation during the eclipse of 1878, made at Central +City, Dr. Hastings conceived the first idea of this explanation of +the solar corona. Further study served to convince him of the truth +of this theory, but he had no means of proving it. Before the +present eclipse, however, he devised a crucial test of his theory. +This test is based on the following already known phenomena: When +the moon covers the face of the sun, an envelope of light is seen +all round it; the envelope is not visible when the sun is shining, +on account of the sun's greater brightness; this light is called +the corona; it is extremely irregular in outline. According to the +drawing of Mr. J. E. Keeler at the eclipse of 1878, it enveloped +the sun as a hazy glow, extending for a distance of several minutes +of arc from the sun's limb and at two nearly opposite points is +extended out in two long streamers feathering off into space. The +opinion has been that this light was due to an atmosphere extending +millions of miles from the sun. According to Dr. Hastings' view, it +must be light from the sun which has undergone refraction, i.e., +which has been bent from its regular course by the interposition of +an opaque body like the moon.</p> + +<p>In order to make this perfectly plain, suppose the front of a +surface of waves of any sort to be striking an object which resists +them. If an organ of sense is placed in the resisting object, it +will judge the direction of the waves or the direction of the +object producing them by a line at right angles with the wave +front. Now suppose a body is placed between the body producing the +waves and the sensitive organ. The waves must go around this body +and will produce an eddy behind it, so that the wave front will +have a different direction, and the organ of sense will conceive +the origin of the waves to lie in a direction different from that +before the body was interposed. Now consider the waves to be waves +of light, and their origin the sun. The organ of sense is the +retina of the eye. The moon is the opaque body interposed in the +course of the waves, and they, being bent, make the impression on +the eye that the light comes from beyond the edge of the sun. The +moon covers the sun during the eclipse and a little more, so that +it can move for about five minutes and still cover the sun +entirely. This movement is very slight, and if the corona consists +of light from a solar atmosphere, it should not change at all +during this movement of the moon. But if diffraction is the cause +of the light, then the slightest change in the relative positions +of the sun and the moon should change the configuration of the +corona, i.e., the corona should not remain exactly the same during +a total eclipse. The character of the light as shown by a spectrum +analysis should change.</p> + +<p>To determine this point Dr. Hastings invented the following +instrument: Two lozenge-shaped prisms of glass were fastened in the +form of a letter V, and so arranged that all the light falling +within the aperture of the V was lost, and that falling on the ends +of the glass prisms was transmitted by a series of reflections to +the apex of the V, where the prisms touched; here was placed a +refracting prism, so that the light could be analyzed. This +instrument was attached to the eye piece of the telescope, and the +image of the eclipse reduced to such a size that the moon just +fitted into the aperture of the V, while opposite sides of the +corona were reflected through the prisms to the place where they +came together. In this way both sides of the corona were seen +through the eye-piece at the same time. On looking at the eclipse +this is what Dr. Hastings saw: The light of the corona was divided +into its constituents. Prominent among them was a bright green +line, which is designated by the number 1,474; to this line +attention was directed. Its presence in the spectrum has been an +argument in favor of the view that the corona is a solar +atmosphere. If this is the case, the line should remain fixed +during the eclipse; but if the corona is due to diffraction, this +line should change. It should grow shorter in the light from one +side of the corona, and longer on the other. The observation was +now reduced to watching for a change in the relative length of two +green lines.</p> + +<p>At the beginning of totality the line from the west side was +much the longer, but as the eclipse progressed it shortened +notably, while the line from the east side, shorter by about +one-third at the beginning of the eclipse, grew longer. When the +eclipse ended, the proportions of the lines were exactly reversed. +There had been a change equal to two-thirds the length of the +lines, while the sun and moon had only changed their relative +positions by an extremely small amount. The only way in which this +phenomenon can be accounted for is on the diffraction theory. The +material view of the corona will not answer for it. But there are +other discrepancies in the older view which have been known for +some time. The principal ones are: 1. It is known from study of the +sun that the gaseous pressure at the surface must be less than an +inch of mercury, and is probably less than one-tenth of an inch, +but an atmosphere extending to the supposed limits would cause an +enormous pressure at the sun's surface, especially since the force +of gravity on the sun is very much greater than on the earth. 2. +The laws of gravitation would require a solar atmosphere to be +distributed symmetrically around the sun, while the corona is +enormously irregular in form. The sun is irregular in outline, +which would make its diffracted phenomena show the observed +irregularity, but it is symmetrical as regards density. 3. The most +interesting discrepancy of the theory of the solar atmosphere is +the fact that while it is supposed to extend for millions of miles +from the sun, the recent comet passed within two hundred thousand +miles of the sun, and yet its orbit was not affected in the least, +as it would have been if it had plowed its way through a material +substance. In taking photographs of the corona it is seen to be +larger as the time of exposure is longer. This shows that the +corona extends indefinitely, and it decreases in brilliancy in +exact accordance with the mathematical laws of diffraction. These +laws involve very complicated mathematics, but by them alone Dr. +Hastings has proved that there must be diffraction where the corona +is, and that it must follow the same laws as those observed. There +is a small envelope around the sun, but in the opinion of Dr. +Hastings it does not extend beyond what is known as the +chromosphere.</p> + +<hr> +<p>The question seems to be settled, with considerable certainty, +that nothing exists inside of Mercury large enough to be dignified +by the name of planet. There may be, and there probably are, for +the perturbations of Mercury indicate it, multitudes of small +masses circulating around the sun like the planets, being fragments +of comets or condensations of primitive matter, whose combined +luster is seen in the zodiacal light.</p> + +<p>The other results of the work of the Commission, so far as now +known, are connected with the structure of the corona, the solar +appendage which extends out for millions of miles from the sun's +disk. In the photographs of the Egyptian eclipse of last summer +these streamers can be traced back of each other where they cross; +no better proof of their extreme tenuity could be given.</p> + +<p>The duration of an eclipse of the sun depends on three things, +the distance of the sun from the earth, the distance of the moon +from the earth, and the distance of the station from the equator. +All of these were favorable to a long eclipse in the case of the +recent one, and the six minutes of totality gave opportunities for +deliberate work not often enjoyed.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="24"></a></p> + +<h2>A BURIED CITY OF THE EXODUS.</h2> + +<p>The excavations at Tell-el-Maskhutah, of which illustrations are +given, have resulted in some of the most interesting and important +discoveries that have ever rewarded the labors of +archæologists. The idea of founding an English society for +the purpose of exploring the buried cities of the Delta originated +with Miss A. B. Edwards, the well-known authoress of "One Thousand +Miles up the Nile," and was carried into effect mainly by her own +efforts and the energy and zeal of Mr. Reginald Stuart Poole, of +the British Museum, aided by the substantial support of Sir Erasmus +Wilson, without whose munificent donations the work could never +have been accomplished. The "Egypt Exploration Fund," thus founded +and maintained, was fortunate in securing the co-operation of M. +Naville, the distinguished Swiss Egyptologist, who set out for +Egypt in January of this year with the object of conducting the +explorations contemplated by the society. After a consultation with +M. Maspero, the Director of Archæology in Egypt, who has +throughout acted a friendly part toward the society's enterprise, +M. Naville decided to begin his campaign by attacking the mounds at +Tell-el-Maskhutah, on the Freshwater Canal, a few miles from +Ismailia. The mounds of earth here were known to cover some ancient +city, for some sphinxes and statues had already been found; but +what city it could be, archæologists were at a loss to +determine; though some, with Professor Lepsius at their head, +believed it to be none other than the Rameses or "Raamses," which +the Children of Israel built for Pharaoh, and whence they started +on their final Exodus. Any identification, however, of the sites of +the Biblical cities in Egypt was so far merely speculative. +Practically nothing definite was known as to the geography of the +Israelite sojourn, except that the Land of Goshen was undoubtedly +in the eastern part of the Delta, and that Zoan was Tanis, whose +immense mounds are to form the next subject of the society's +operations. The route of the Exodus was as uncertain as everything +else connected with Israel's sojourn in Egypt. What sea they +crossed, and where, and by what direction they journeyed to it, +remained vexed questions, although Dr. Brugsch had set up a +plausible theory, in which the "Serbonian Bog" played an important +part.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/13a.png"><img src= +"images/13a_th.jpg" alt="THE EXCAVATIONS PITHOM-SUCCOTH"> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE EXCAVATIONS PITHOM-SUCCOTH</p> + +<p>Six weeks of steady digging at Tell-el-Maskhutah, under M. +Naville's skillful direction, placed all these speculations in +quite a new light. The city under the mounds proved to be none +other than Pithom, the "store" or "treasure city" which the +Children of Israel "built for Pharaoh" (Exod. i. 11). Its character +as a store place or granary is seen in its construction; for the +greater part of the area is covered with strongly built chambers, +without doors, suitable for the storing of grain, which would be +introduced through trap doors in the floor above, of which the ends +of the beams are still visible. These curious chambers, unique in +their appearance, are constructed of large, well made bricks, +sometimes mixed with straw, sometimes without it, dried in the sun, +and laid with mortar, with great regularity and precision. The +walls are 10 ft. thick, and the thickness of the inclosing wall +which runs round the whole city is more than 20 ft. In one corner +was the temple, dedicated to the god Tum, and hence called Pe-tum +or Pithom, the "Abode of Tum." Only a few statues, groups, and +tablets (some of which have been presented to the British Museum) +remained to testify to its name and purpose; the temple itself was +finally destroyed when the Romans turned Pithom into a camp, as is +shown by the position of the limestone fragments and of the Roman +bricks. The statues, however, and especially a large stele, are +extremely valuable, since they tell the history of the city during +eighteen centuries. From a study of these monuments, M. Naville has +learned that Pithom was its sacred, and Thukut (Succoth) its civil, +name; that it was founded by Rameses II., restored by Shishak and +others of the twenty-second dynasty; was an important place under +the Ptolemies, who set up a great stele to commemorate the founding +of the city of Arsinoë in the neighborhood; was called Hero or +Heroöpolis by the Greeks (a name derived from the hieroglyphic +<i>ara</i>, meaning a "store house"), and Ero Castra by the Romans, +who occupied it at all events as late as A.D. 306. Indications are +also found of the position of Pihahiroth, where the Israelites +encamped before the passage of the "Reedy Sea," and of Clysma. All +these data are directly contradictory to preconceived theories: +Pithom, Succoth, Heroöpolis, Pihahiroth, and Clysma had all +been hypothetically placed in totally different positions. The +identification of Pithom with Succoth gives us the first absolutely +certain point as yet established in the route of the Exodus, and +completely overthrows Dr. Brugsch's theory. It is now certain that +the Israelites passed along the valley of the Freshwater Canal and +not near the Mediterranean and Lake Serbonis. The first definite +geographical fact in connection with the sojourn in the Land of +Egypt has been established by the excavations at Pithom. The +historical identification of Rameses II. with Pharaoh the oppressor +also results from the monumental evidence. One short exploration +has upset a hundred theories and furnished a wonderful illustration +of the historical character of the Book of Exodus. The finding of +Pithom (Succoth) is, however, only the beginning, we hope, of a +series of important discoveries. When enough money has been +collected for the proposed exploration of Zoan (Tanis), results of +the highest interest to students alike of the Bible and of Egyptian +antiquities may, with certainty, be predicted.</p> + +<p>The uppermost view shows a portion of the diggings; a workman is +bringing up a barrow-load of soil from one of the deep store +chambers which the Children of Israel built more than three +thousand years ago. In the foreground lie the fragments of a fallen +granite statue, the head and face of which are intact. The other +illustration is taken from the temple end of the excavations. The +sculptured group of Rameses the Great seated between divinities is +one of a pair that adorned the entrance; its companion and the +sphinxes that guarded the pylon are at Ismailia. Beyond this group, +and a little to the left, is seen the great Stele of Pithom, set up +by Ptolemy Philadelphus and Arsinoë, and containing a mass of +important information in its long hieroglyphic inscriptions. Behind +this, and on either side, the massive brick walls of the store +chambers and the inclosing wall of the temple can be traced; while +on the right hand, in the middle distance, is a heap of limestone +blocks, already collected by Rameses II. for the completion or +enlargement of the temple. The excavations were photographed for M. +Naville, by Herr Emil Brugsch, of the Boulak Museum, and our +illustrations are taken from these photographs, supplemented by +sketches.--<i>S.L.P., in Illustrated London News</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="25"></a></p> + +<h2>THE MOABITE MANUSCRIPTS.</h2> + +<p>The surprises of archæology are magnificent and apparently +inexhaustible. It is continually bringing forth things new and old, +and often it happens that the newest are the oldest of all. Whether +this or the exact converse is the case in regard to the latest +discovery of Biblical archæology is a question not to be +determined offhand; but the interest and importance of the question +can hardly be overrated. There are now deposited in the British +Museum fifteen leather slips, on the forty folds of which are +written portions of the Book of Deuteronomy in a recension entirely +different from that of the received text. The character employed in +the manuscript is similar to that of the famous Moabite stone and +of the Siloam inscription, and, therefore, the mere +palæographical indication should give the probable date of +the slips as the ninth century B. C., or sixteen centuries earlier +than any other clearly authenticated manuscript of any portion of +the Old Testament. The sheepskin slips are literally black with +age, and are impregnated with a faint odor as of funeral spices; +the folds are from 6 to 7 inches long and about 3½ inches +wide, containing each about ten lines, written only on one +side.</p> + +<p>So far as they have yet been deciphered, they exhibit two +distinct handwritings, though the same archaic character is used +throughout. In some cases the same passages of Deuteronomy occur in +duplicate on distinct slips, as though the fragments belonged to +two contemporary transcriptions made by different scribes from the +same original text. At first sight no writing whatever is +perceptible; the surface seems to be covered with an oily or +glutinous substance, which so completely obscures the writing +beneath that a photograph of some of the slips--which we have had +an opportunity of examining side by side with the slips +themselves--exhibits no trace of the text. But when the leather is +moistened with spirits of wine the letters become momentarily +visible beneath the glossy surface.</p> + +<p>These extraordinary fragments were brought to England by Mr. +Shapira, of Jerusalem, a well known bookseller and dealer in +antiquities. Mr. Shapira's name will be remembered in connection +with certain archæological problems which have been solved by +some scholars in a manner not altogether creditable to his +sagacity.</p> + +<p>The Moabite pottery which reached Europe through Mr. Shapira's +agency and is deposited in the Museum at Berlin is now commonly +regarded as a modern forgery; but of this forgery, if it be one, it +is asserted that Mr. Shapira was the dupe and not the accomplice. +The leathern fragments now produced by Mr. Shapira were, as he +alleges, obtained by him from certain Arabs near Dibon, the +neighborhood where the Moabite stone was discovered. The agent +employed by him in their purchase was an Arab "who would steal his +mother-in-law for a few piastres," and who would probably be even +less scrupulous about a few blackened slips of ancient or modern +sheepskin. The value placed by Mr. Shapira on the fragments is, +however, a cool million sterling, and at this price they are +offered to the British Museum, where they have been temporarily +deposited for examination.</p> + +<p>Dr. Ginsburg, the well-known Semitic scholar--whose receipt of a +grant of £500 from the Prime Minister toward the production +of his important work on the "Massorah" we announced with much +satisfaction yesterday--is now busily engaged in deciphering the +contents of the fragments and examining their genuineness. On this +latter question we refrain from pronouncing an opinion. When Dr. +Ginsburg's report appears, we shall be able to judge whether these +extraordinary fragments are really 2,500 years old, or have been +compiled within the last few years.</p> + +<p>No complete account of the contents of the fragments can yet be +given. To decipher them is a work of time and of infinite patience +and skill, as will readily be inferred from the account we have +given above of the appearance and condition of the slips. But +enough has been deciphered to show that the text employed in them +exhibits discrepancies of the most remarkable and important +character as compared with that of the received version of the +Mosaic books.</p> + +<p>In the first verse of the ninth chapter of Deuteronomy, where +the received version reads, "Thou art to pass over Jordan this day, +to go in to possess nations greater and mightier than thyself," the +corresponding passage of the fragments substitutes the plural for +the singular, "Ye" for '"Thou," while for +"<i>g'dôlîm</i>," the word translated "greater," it +reads "<i>rabbîm</i>." But a far more complete idea of the +variations of text and signification may be obtained from a +comparison of the text of the Decalogue as it appears in the +received version in the sixth chapter of Deuteronomy with that +contained in the fragments so far as they have yet been deciphered. +The version of the fragments, literally rendered, runs as +follows:</p> + +<p>"I am God, thy God, which liberated thee from the land of Egypt, +from the house of bondage. Ye shall have no other gods. Ye shall +not make to yourselves any graven image, nor any likeness that is +in heaven above or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the +waters under the earth. Ye shall not bow down to them nor serve +them. I am God, your God. Sanctify ... in six days I have made the +heaven and the earth, and all that is therein, and rested on the +seventh day, therefore rest thou also, thou and thy cattle and all +that thou hast: I am God, thy God. Honor thy father and thy mother +...: I am God, thy God. Thou shall not kill the person of thy +brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not commit adultery with the +wife of thy neighbor: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not steal the +property of thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not swear by +my name falsely, for I visit the iniquity of the fathers upon the +children unto the third and fourth generation of those who take my +name in vain: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not bear false witness +against thy brother: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not covet the +wife ... or his manservant, or his maidservant, or anything that is +his: I am God, thy God. Thou shalt not hate thy brother in thy +heart: I am God, thy God. These ten words (or commandments) God +spake."</p> + +<p>Several points may be noted in this version. The singular +refrain "I am God, thy God"--which does not appear at all in the +received version--occurs ten times, being, as it were, a solemn +ratification of the Divine sanction given at the end of each +separate precept. If this be so, the first two commandments, as +they are commonly reckoned, are here fused into one, and the tenth +place is taken by a commandment which does not appear in the +received version of the Decalogue.</p> + +<p>It will further be observed that the distinctive Jewish name for +the Almighty, "Jehovah," or "the Lord," does not appear at all, the +familiar phrase of the received version, "the Lord thy God," being +replaced throughout by "God, thy God."</p> + +<p>On the many variations in arrangement and detail we need not +dwell; they speak for themselves. But we have quoted enough to show +that these fragments present problems of the utmost importance and +interest both to criticism and exegesis, unless, indeed, they are +to be regarded as the ingenious fabrications of some Oriental +Ireland, who, knowing the interest felt by scholars in variations +of the Sacred Text, has set himself, with infinite pains and skill, +to forestall a growing demand. Until this preliminary question is +resolved to the satisfaction of all competent scholars, no further +questions need be raised. In any case the <i>primá facie</i> +presumption must be held to be enormously against the genuineness +of the fragments. Such a presumption rests on the improbability of +finding manuscripts older by at least sixteen centuries than any +extant manuscripts of the same text, on the comparative ease with +which such fragments can be forged, and on the powerful motives to +such forgery attested by the price placed by Mr. Shapira on his +property.</p> + +<p>All that we know of the <i>provenance</i> of the fragments is +that Mr. Shapira obtained them from an Arab of doubtful character; +and that Arabs of doubtful character have driven a splendid trade +in Moabite antiquities ever since the discovery of the Moabite +stone. On the other hand, the forger, if forgery there be, is +assuredly no clumsy and ignorant bungler, as the makers of the +Moabite pottery were confidently alleged to be by those who +disputed its genuineness. It is, of course, part of his craft, and +not, perhaps, much more than the 'prentice part, to give to the +sheepskins on which the text is inscribed an appearance of +immemorial antiquity. But a good deal more than the skill required +to make a new sheepskin look like an old one has gone to the +production of Mr. Shapira's fragments. If they are forged, the +fabricator must have known what scholars would be likely to expect +in genuine fragments, and have set himself to fulfill their +expectations. In these days of scientific palæography and +minute textual scholarship no forger of ancient manuscripts could +hope to take in scholars unless he were a scholar himself. +Variations of text would be looked for as a matter of course; +palæographical accuracy would be exacted to the minutest turn +of a letter. Now, to vary a text so as to furnish a different +recension without betraying ignorance or solecism requires +scholarship of no mean order, while it is very far from an easy +thing to write currently in an archaic and unfamiliar character in +such a manner as to deceive experts in palæography. But the +fabricator of these fragments, if fabricated they are, has +attempted and accomplished a good deal more than this. He has in +some cases produced two identical texts written in different hands, +both preserving unimpaired the archaic character of the letters. +This implies either the employment of two scribes or else an almost +incredible skill in the single scribe employed, and in either case +it doubles the probability of detection. If, moreover, the supposed +fabricator is also himself the scribe, it is evident that he is not +only a very ingenious artist, but also a very accomplished scholar, +and one can only regret that he has engaged in an industry which +has placed him at the mercy of an Arab who would steal his +mother-in-law for a few piastres, and is likely, therefore, to +enrich no one but Mr. Shapira. We should expect to find, however, +that his extraordinary ingenuity has at some point or another +overreached itself. Familiar as he must be with the labors of +modern Biblical critics--for otherwise he would hardly have +ventured to impose upon them--it would be strange if he were not +betrayed into some more or less suspicious coincidences with them. +In any case, the problem presented by the fragments is one of +profound interest, and the whole world of letters will resound with +the controversy they are certain to excite.--<i>London +Times</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="23"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/14a.png"><img src= +"images/14a_th.jpg" alt= +"SPECIMENS OF OLD KNOCKING DEVICES FOR DOORS.--<i>From the Building News</i>."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">SPECIMENS OF OLD KNOCKING DEVICES FOR +DOORS.--<i>From the Building News</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="33"></a></p> + +<h2>SHIPPING OSTRICHES FROM CAPE TOWN TO AUSTRALIA.</h2> + +<p>Since the failure last August of the Cape Commercial Bank there +has been much depression in South Africa. Ostrich farming, in +common with other enterprises, has suffered. Before the crisis a +pair of breeding ostriches have been sold for 350 l., now they +would not realize 50 l.</p> + +<p>The resolution of the Government of South Australia to encourage +ostrich breeding came in very opportunely for the Cape dealers, and +one or two cargoes of birds have been shipped for Adelaide. The +climate of the two colonies is very similar, and the locality +selected for the imported birds (the Musgrave Ranges) resembles in +dryness and temperature their native <i>habitat</i>.</p> + +<p>The first sketch opposite represents the ostriches bidding +farewell to their South African home. "The dear old farm where we +were reared, good-by!"</p> + +<p>One of the boxes, while being slung from the cart to the hold, +got into a slanting position. This frightened one of the two +inmates, a fine cock. He kicked so hard that he burst open the door +of his cage, which was, of course, instantly lowered on deck. +Fortunately there was there a gentleman who understood how to +handle ostriches. He instantly seized him before he could do +himself or the bystanders any injury, and after a brief struggle +prevailed on him to re-enter his box. When released in the hold he +became quite quiet, and ate his first meal on board ship with a +relish.</p> + +<p>After being taken out of their boxes the birds are allowed to +take a little exercise just to make themselves at home, and are +then arranged in wooden kraals, of which there are two hundred on +board the vessel. The ostriches are induced to move from one place +to another by catching hold of their bodies, and using a little +gentle force.</p> + +<p>The last sketch represents their first meal on board after a +fast of thirty hours. Apple melons were chopped up for them by +their "steward," who was to accompany them to Australia. It was +curious to see a bird swallow a great lump and then to watch the +lump working slowly down the animal's long neck. On the voyage they +would be fed with maize or mealies, onions, apple melons, and +barley. They require very little water; however, there were five +large iron tanks on board in case they would feel thirsty. Our +engravings are from sketches by Mr. Dennis Edwards, of Hoff Street, +Capetown,</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/15a.png"><img src= +"images/15a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">SHIPPING OSTRICHES FROM CAPE TOWN TO AUSTRALIA.<br> +<br> +1. Ostriches on the South African Farm Where They Were +Reared.--2.<br> +Attempted Escape and Recapture of an Ostrich on Board Ship.--3. +Lowering<br> +the Birds Into the Hold.--4.A Queer Dinner Party--Ostriches Eating +Apple Melons.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="28"></a></p> + +<h2>A NEW WEATHERCOCK.</h2> + +<p>An ordinary weathercock provided with datum points may, in the +majority of cases, suffice for the observation of the wind during +the day; but recourse has to be had to different means to obtain an +automatic transmission of the indications of the vane to the inside +of a building. The different systems employed for such a purpose +consist of gearings, or are accompanied by a friction that notably +diminishes the sensitiveness of the apparatus, especially when the +rod has to traverse several stories. Mr. Emile Richard, inspector +of the Versailles waterworks, has just devised an ingenious system +which, while considerably reducing the weight of the movable part, +allows the weathercock to preserve all its sensitiveness. This +apparatus consists of two principal parts--one fixed and the other +movable. The stationary part is designated in the accompanying +figure by the letters A and B and by cross-hatchings. This forms +the rod or support. An iron tube, T, with clamps, P, at its lower +extremity forms the base of the apparatus, and is hidden, after the +mounting of the apparatus, by the ornamental zinc covering, Z. The +upper part of the tube carries a shoulder-piece, upon which rests a +bronze platform, E, and which is slightly inclined outwardly to +prevent the accumulation of water on it. Over the platform there +move three crystal balls, which are held and guided by a horizontal +disk movable around the stationary tube.</p> + +<p>The movable portion, designed to receive the action of the wind +and to indicate its direction, is designated by the letters C D and +coarse lines. It consists of (1) a zinc tube, K, provided at +intervals with copper rings, and entering the rod, A B, which +serves as a guide for it; (2) of a bronze disk covered by an +external ornament, O, fixed to the tube and resting on the balls; +(3) of the vane, G, properly so called; and (4) of the cap, C, +provided with bayonet catch, crowning the tube and covering the +point of attachment of the wire of transmission. This latter +consists of a simple brass or galvanized iron wire, f f, perfectly +taut, and made fast in the top of the tube. After traversing as +many stories as necessary this wire terminates, in the interior of +the room where the observations are made, in a copper rod to which +is fastened a horizontal arrow, F. The wire traverses the floorings +through small zinc tubes; and, in the rooms through which it +passes, it is protected by iron tubes. To the ceiling of the +observing room there is affixed a wind-rose, R, on which the arrow +reproduces all the motions of the vane.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/16a.png" alt= +"RICHARD'S WEATHERCOCK."></p> + +<p class="ctr">RICHARD'S WEATHERCOCK.</p> + +<p>This apparatus is now in operation in the different stations +that the Versailles waterworks has established near the reservoirs +of the plateau of Trappes, and it is also installed in several +primary normal schools, where it is giving very good +results.--<i>La Nature</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="27"></a></p> + +<h2>CHARRED CLOVER.</h2> + +<p>A correspondent of the <i>Ohio Farmer</i> reports an experiment +in curing clover, showing how he just missed breeding fire in his +barn, and illustrating the importance of ventilating hay mows:</p> + +<p>In 1861 I used a horse fork for the first time. The haying +season was not a bright one, and our clover was drawn a little +greener than usual, and went into the mow in large and compact +forkfuls. The result was intense heating, and consequently very +rapid evaporation and sweating of the mow. On a bay holding +ordinarily twenty tons we put at least thirty tons, as every load +at the top seemed to make room for another. The barn was rather +open, which allowed quite free evaporation on all sides as well as +at the top. The result was that I had very bright and excellent hay +at the bottom, top, and sides of that mow, but severals tons in the +center were as completely charred as though burned in a coal pit. +What prevented combustion has always been a mystery to me. Since +that escape from a conflagration, I have not deemed it prudent to +put clover in so green as to cause intense heating, or to fill a +mow too rapidly. If we haul six loads per day to one mow, weighing +thirty hundred each, which will shrink during the sweating process +to one ton each, we have three tons of water to be thrown off by +evaporation.</p> + +<p>If we continue to put on six loads per day until the mow is +full, the principal part of that moisture must rise through the +entire mass. To relieve the hay of moisture, I deem it best to have +several places of storage, and change daily or semi-daily from one +to the other, thus giving time for a share of the moisture to pass +off. To facilitate this evaporation and prevent the hay from +reabsorbing it and becoming musty, the best of ventilation is +necessary. Ventilation above a clover mow is as necessary as it is +above a sugar or fruit evaporator. If there is not open space and +draught sufficient to carry away the moisture, it is returned to +the mow, and mould is the inevitable result. No ordinary amount of +drying will prevent hay from becoming musty if ventilation is shut +off during the sweating process. If a hole is cut through the floor +at the bottom of the mow near the center and under a ventilator in +the roof and a barrel placed over it and drawn up as the hay is +mowed in, thus leaving a hole from bottom to top, evaporation will +be facilitated and the quality of the hay improved. Salt thrown on, +as the clover is put in, to the amount of two or three quarts to +the ton, will make it a relish with stock.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="26"></a></p> + +<h2>THE QUEEN VICTORIA CENTURY PLANT.</h2> + +<h3>(<i>Agave victoriæ-reginæ</i>.)</h3> + +<p>This beautiful Agave is now in blossom in the garden here, and I +am happy to be able to send you photographs of it. This is the +first time it has ever blossomed in cultivation, and it has never +been seen in flower in a wild state. It is a mature native-grown +specimen, dense in habit, and perfectly semi-spherical in form, and +the leaves are arranged in spiral fashion with as much regularity +as those of a screw pine. The circumference of the plant is 5 ft. 1 +in., and it has 268 leaves. Its flower-stem appeared about the +middle of June, grew rather fast till it was 7 ft. high, then +rather slowly till it reached its full development. The scape is +now 10 ft. 4 in. high above the plant, 6½ in. in +circumference at the base, or 5¼ in. at a foot above the +base; from there it tapers very gradually till near the apex. The +flower-spike is exceedingly dense, and 5 ft. 8 in. long; the lower +or naked portion, 4 ft. 8 in. long, is prominently marked by +abortive flower buds, with, near the base, some bristle-like scales +3½ in. to 4 in. long. The flowers are regularly arranged in +parcels of three, all the three being equal in size and opening +together; they are greenish white in color, 1½ in. long, or, +including the stamens, some 2¾ in. to 3 in. long.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/16b.png" alt= +"AGAVE VICTORIÆ-REGINÆ."></p> + +<p class="ctr">AGAVE VICTORIÆ-REGINÆ.</p> + +<p>The first flowers opened on August 3, and they have continued to +open in succession, a belt about 3 in. wide opening each day. They +remain in good condition for two days; on the third day the stamens +wilt and drop down, but the pistil remains erect till the fourth +day. On the first day of opening the pistil is not so long as the +stamens by ¾ in.; on the second it has grown to be as long +as the stamens, but it is not in condition to receive the pollen +till after noon of the second day. Although the flowers on some +eighteen inches of the spike have already blossomed, none of the +ovaries have been fertilized; they are dropping off, but I am +rather sanguine regarding those about the middle of the spike. So +great is the superfluity of nectar contained in the flowers, that +on the afternoon of the second day it often drops from the cups, +and the least shake to the scape brings it down in a shower. The +main beauty of the inflorescence consists in the dense +bottle-brush-like mass of bright yellow anthers. This plant, +together with several smaller ones, was contributed to this garden +by Dr. Edward Palmer, who collected them in their native wilds--the +mountains of Northern Mexico--some three years ago. He found them +growing in a limited and rather inaccessible locality in gravelly +and rocky soil some miles from Monterey. In addition to those he +sent here he also sent a quantity to the garden of the Agricultural +Department at Washington, and some to Dr. Engelmann, the eminent +botanist at St. Louis. To Dr. Engelmann he also sent a piece of an +old flower stem and some dried capsules which he found upon an old +plant, and it was from these specimens in 1880 that the doctor was +enabled to describe for the first time the inflorescence of this +Agave.--<i>The Garden</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="6"></a></p> + +<h2>ON THE CONSTITUTION OF THE NATURAL FATS.</h2> + +<h3>By J. ALFRED WANKLYN and WILLIAM FOX.</h3> + +<p>In the course of an investigation in which we are at present +engaged we have arrived at some results which appear to us to be +very interesting. We find that the generally received view that the +fats are ethers of glycerin is partially correct, and that +instances of a different kind of structure occur among the natural +oils and fats.</p> + +<p>Ethers of iso-glycerin, or of homologues of iso-glycerin, appear +to occur. Iso-glycerin has this structure:</p> + +<p>C(OH)<sub>2</sub><br> + CH<br> + CH<sub>3</sub><br> +</p> + +<p>It exists in its ethers, but cannot be isolated, and should be +resolved into:</p> + +<p>COOH + H<sub>2</sub>O<br> + CH<sub>2</sub><br> + CH<sub>3</sub><br> +</p> + +<p>Ethers of iso-glycerin, or ethers of homologues of iso-glycerin, +yield no glycerin when saponified.--<i>Chemical News</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important +scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be +had gratis at this office.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<p><b>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</b></p> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, +January 1, 1876, can be had. 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