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diff --git a/8717-h/8717-h.htm b/8717-h/8717-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fd82cc3 --- /dev/null +++ b/8717-h/8717-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5114 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American +Supplement, August 5, 1882</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} +img {border: 0;} +h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;} +.ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} +hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} +.ctr {text-align: center;} +--> +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 344, +August 5, 1882, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 344, August 5, 1882 + +Author: Various + +Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8717] +Release Date: August, 2005 +First Posted: August 3, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 344 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles +Franks and the Distributed Proofreaders Team + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1a.png"><img src= +"images/1a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 344</h1> + +<h2>NEW YORK, August 5, 1882</h2> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIV, No. 344.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> + +<hr> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#1">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--The Panama Canal. By +MANUEL EISSLER. I.--Historical notes.--Spanish Discoveries in +Central America.--Early explorations.--Nicaragua projects.--Panama +railway, etc.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#2">Improved Averaging Machine.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#3">Compound Beam Engine. 4 figures.--Borsig's +improved compound beam engine.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#4">Power Hammers with Movable Fulcrum.--By DANIEL +LONGWORTH. 5 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#5">The Bicheroux System of Furnaces Applied to the +Puddling of Iron. 2 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#6">Gessner's Continuous Cloth Pressing Machine. 3 +figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#7">Novelties in Ring Spindles. 4 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#8">Improvements in Woolen Carding Engines.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#9">NATURAL HISTORY.--Metamorphosis of the Deer's +Antlers.--Annual changes. 9 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#10">Monkeys. By A.R. WALLACE.--Comparison of +skeletons of man, orang outang, and chimpanzee.--Other anatomical +resemblances and diversities.--The different kinds of monkeys and +the countries they inhabit.--American monkeys.--Lemurs. +--Distribution, affinities, and zoological rank of +monkeys.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#11">Silk Producing Bombyces and other Lepidoptera +reared in 1881. By ALFRED WAILLY, Member Lauriat de la Societe +d'Acclimatation de France.--An extended and important European, +Asiatic, and American silk worms, and other silk +producers.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#12">MINERALOGY, METALLURGY, ETC.--The Mineralogical +Localities In and Around New York City and the Minerals Occurring +Therein.--By NELSON H. DARTON.--Chances for collecting within one +hour's ride of New York.--Methods of collecting and +testing.--Localities on Bergen Hill.--The Weehawken +Tunnel.--Minerals and modes of +occurrence.--Calcite.--Natrolite.--Pectolite.--Datholite. +--Apopholite.--Phrenite.--Iron and copper pyrites. +--Stilbite.--Laumonite.--Heulandite.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#13">Antiseptics.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#14">Crystallization and its Effects Upon Iron. By +N.B. WOOD.-- Beauty of Crystals.--Nature of +cohesion.--Cleavage.--Growth of crystals.--Some large +crystals.--Cast iron.--Influence of phosphorus and sulphur.--Nature +of steel.--Burnt steel.--Effect of annealing.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#15">ARCHITECTURE, ART, ETC.--The Cathedral of Burgos, +Spain. --Full page illustration from photograph.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#16">Description of Burgos Cathedral.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#17">Photo-Engraving on Zinc and Copper. By LEON +VIDAL.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#18">Meridian Line.--A surveyor's method of finding +the true meridian.--By R.W. MCFARLAND.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#19">ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Electro Mania. By W. MATTIEU +WILLIAMS.--Example of electrical exaggeration and delusion.--Early +scientific attempts at electro-motors, electric lamps, +etc.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#20">Action of Magnets Upon the Voltaic Arc. By TH. DU +MONCEL. 2 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#21">Volckmar's Secondary Batteries.</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr> +<p><a name="9"></a></p> + +<h2>METAMORPHOSIS OF THE DEER'S ANTLERS.</h2> + +<p>Every year in March the deer loses its antlers, and fresh ones +immediately begin to grow, which exceed in size those that have +just been lost. Few persons probably have been able to watch and +observe the habits of the animal after it has lost its antlers. It +will, therefore, be of interest to examine the accompanying +drawings, by Mr. L. Beckmann, one of them showing a deer while +shedding its antlers, and the other as the animal appears after +losing them. In the first illustration the animal has just lost one +of its antlers, and fright and pain cause it to throw its head +upward and become disturbed and uneasy. The remaining antler draws +down one side of the head and is very inconvenient for the animal. +The remaining antler becomes soon detached from its base, and the +deer turns--as if ashamed of having lost its ornament and +weapon--lowers its head, and sorrowfully moves to the adjoining +thicket, where it hides. A friend once observed a deer losing its +antlers, but the circumstances were somewhat different. The animal +was jumping over a ditch, and as soon as it touched the further +bank it jumped high in the air, arched its back, bent its head to +one side in the manner of an animal that has been wounded, and then +sadly approached the nearest thicket, in the same manner as the +artist has represented in the accompanying picture. Both antlers +dropped off and fell into the ditch.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1b.png"><img src= +"images/1b_th.jpg" alt= +"METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--FIRST STAGE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--FIRST STAGE.</p> + +<p>Strong antlers are generally found together, but weak ones are +lost at intervals of two or three days. A few days after this loss +the stumps upon which the antlers rested are covered with a skin, +which grows upward very rapidly, and under which the fresh antlers +are formed, so that by the end of July the bucks have new and +strong antlers, from which they remove the fine hairy covering by +rubbing them against young trees. It is peculiar that the huntsman, +who knows everything in regard to deer, and has seventy-two signs +by which he can tell whether a male or female deer passes through +the woods, does not know at what age the deer gets its first +antlers and how the antlers indicate the age of the animal. Prof. +Altum, in Eberswalde, has given some valuable information in regard +to the relation between the age of the deer and the forms of their +antlers, but in some respects he has not expressed himself very +clearly, and I think that my observations given in addition to his +may be of importance. When the animal is a year old--that is, in +June--the burrs of the antlers begin to form, and in July the +animal has two protuberances of the size of walnuts, from which the +first branches of the antlers rise; these branches having the +length of a finger only, or being even shorter, as shown at 1, in +diagram, on p. 5481. After the second year more branches are +formed, which are considerably longer and much rougher at the lower +ends than the first. The third pair of antlers is different from +its predecessors, inasmuch as it has "roses," that is, annular +ridges around the bases of the horn, which latter are now bent in +the shape of a crescent. Either the antler has a single branch +(Fig. 3, <i>a</i>), or besides the point it has another short end, +which is a most rare shape, and is known as a "fork" (Fig. 3, +<i>b</i>), or it has two forks (Fig. 3, <i>c</i>). In the following +year the antlers take the form shown in Fig. 4, and then follows +the antler shown in Fig. 5, <i>a</i>, which generally has "forks" +in place of points, and is known as forked antler in +contradistinction to the point antler shown in Fig. 5, <i>b</i>, +which retains the shape of the antler, Fig. 4, but has additional +or intermediate prongs or branches. The huntsmen designate the +antlers by the number of ends or points on the two antlers. For +instance, Fig. 4 is a six-ender; Fig. 5 shows an eight-ender, etc.; +and antlers have been known to have as many as twenty-two ends. If +the two antlers do not have the same number of ends the number of +ends on the larger antler is multiplied by two and the word "odd" +is placed before the word designating the number of ends. For +instance, if one antler has three ends and the other four, the +antler would be termed an "odd" eight-ender. The sixth antler shown +in Fig. 6 is a ten-ender, and appears in two different forms, +either with a fork at the upper end, as shown in Fig. 6, <i>a</i>, +or with a crown, as shown in Fig. 6, <i>b</i>. In Fig. 7 an antler +is shown which the animal carries from its seventh year until the +month of March of its eighth year. From that time on the crowns +only increase and change. The increase in the number of points is +not always as regular as I have described it, for in years when +food is scarce and poor the antlers are weak and small, and when +food is plentiful and rich the antlers grow exceedingly large, and +sometimes skip an entire year's growth.--<i>Karl Brandt, in +Leipziger lllustrirte Zeitung</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/3a.png"><img src= +"images/3a_th.jpg" alt= +"METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--SECOND STAGE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">METAMORPHOSIS OF DEER'S ANTLERS.--SECOND STAGE.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/3b.png" alt=""></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="10"></a></p> + +<h2>MONKEYS.</h2> + +<h3>By ALFRED R. WALLACE.</h3> + +<p>If the skeleton of an orang-outang and a chimpanzee be compared +with that of a man, there will be found to be the most wonderful +resemblance, together with a very marked diversity. Bone for bone, +throughout the whole structure, will be found to agree in general +form, position, and function, the only absolute differences being +that the orang has nine wrist bones, whereas man and the chimpanzee +have but eight; and the chimpanzee has thirteen pairs of ribs, +whereas the orang, like man, has but twelve. With these two +exceptions, the differences are those of shape, proportion, and +direction only, though the resulting differences in the external +form and motions are very considerable. The greatest of these are, +that the feet of the anthropoid or man-like apes, as well as those +of all monkeys, are formed like hands, with large opposable thumbs +fitted to grasp the branches of trees, but unsuitable for erect +walking, while the hands have weak, small thumbs, but very long and +powerful fingers, forming a hook, rather than a hand, adapted for +climbing up trees and suspending the whole weight from horizontal +branches. The almost complete identity of the skeleton, however, +and the close similarity of the muscles and of all the internal +organs, have produced that striking and ludicrous resemblance to +man, which every one recognizes in these higher apes, and, in a +less degree, in the whole monkey tribe; the face and features, the +motions, attitudes, and gestures being often a strange caricature +of humanity. Let us, then, examine a little more closely in what +the resemblance consists, and how far, and to what extent, these +animals really differ from us.</p> + +<p>Besides the face, which is often wonderfully human--although the +absence of any protuberant nose gives it often a curiously +infantile aspect, monkeys, and especially apes, resemble us most +closely in the hand and arm. The hand has well-formed fingers, with +nails, and the skin of the palm is lined and furrowed like our own. +The thumb is, however, smaller and weaker than ours, and is not so +much used in taking hold of anything. The monkey's hand is, +therefore, not so well adapted as that of man for a variety of +purposes, and cannot be applied with such precision in holding +small objects, while it is unsuitable for performing delicate +operations, such as tying a knot or writing with a pen. A monkey +does not take hold of a nut with its forefinger and thumb, as we +do, but grasps it between the fingers and the palm in a clumsy way, +just as a baby does before it has acquired the proper use of its +hand. Two groups of monkeys--one in Africa and one in South +America--have no thumbs on their hands, and yet they do not seem to +be in any respect inferior to other kinds which possess it. In most +of the American monkeys the thumb bends in the same direction as +the fingers, and in none is it so perfectly opposed to the fingers +as our thumbs are; and all these circumstances show that the hand +of the monkey is, both structurally and functionally, a very +different and very inferior organ to that of man, since it is not +applied to similar purposes, nor is it capable of being so +applied.</p> + +<p>When we look at the feet of monkeys we find a still greater +difference, for these have much larger and more opposable thumbs, +and are therefore more like our hands; and this is the case with +all monkeys, so that even those which have no thumbs on their +hands, or have them small and weak and parallel to the fingers, +have always large and well-formed thumbs on their feet. It was on +account of this peculiarity that the great French naturalist Cuvier +named the whole group of monkeys Quadrumana, or four-handed +animals, because, besides the two hands on their fore-limbs, they +have also two hands in place of feet on their hind-limbs. Modern +naturalists have given up the use of this term, because they say +that the hind extremities of all monkeys are really feet, only +these feet are shaped like hands; but this is a point of anatomy, +or rather of nomenclature, which we need not here discuss.</p> + +<p>Let us, however, before going further, inquire into the purpose +and use of this peculiarity, and we shall then see that it is +simply an adaptation to the mode of life of the animals which +possess it. Monkeys, as a rule, live in trees, and are especially +abundant in the great tropical forests. They feed chiefly upon +fruits, and occasionally eat insects and birds'-eggs, as well as +young birds, all of which they find in the trees; and, as they have +no occasion to come down to the ground, they travel from tree to +tree by jumping or swinging, and thus pass the greater part of +their lives entirely among the leafy branches of lofty trees. For +such a mode of existence, they require to be able to move with +perfect ease upon large or small branches, and to climb up rapidly +from one bough to another. As they use their hands for gathering +fruit and catching insects or birds, they require some means of +holding on with their feet, otherwise they would be liable to +continual falls, and they are able to do this by means of their +long finger-like toes and large opposable thumbs, which grasp a +branch almost as securely as a bird grasps its perch. The true +hands, on the contrary, are used chiefly to climb with, and to +swing the whole weight of the body from one branch or one tree to +another, and for this purpose the fingers are very long and strong, +and in many species they are further strengthened by being +partially joined together, as if the skin of our fingers grew +together as far as the knuckles. This shows that the separate +action of the fingers, which is so important to us, is little +required by monkeys, whose hand is really an organ for climbing and +seizing food, while their foot is required to support them firmly +in any position on the branches of trees, and for this purpose it +has become modified into a large and powerful grasping hand.</p> + +<p>Another striking difference between monkeys and men is that the +former never walk with ease in an erect posture, but always use +their arms in climbing or in walking on all-fours like most +quadrupeds. The monkeys that we see in the streets dressed up and +walking erect, only do so after much drilling and teaching, just as +dogs may be taught to walk in the same way; and the posture is +almost as unnatural to the one animal as it is to the other. The +largest and most man-like of the apes--the gorilla, chimpanzee, and +orang-outang--also walk usually on all-fours; but in these the arms +are so long and the legs so short that the body appears half erect +when walking; and they have the habit of resting on the knuckles of +the hands, not on the palms like the smaller monkeys, whose arms +and legs are more nearly of an equal length, which tends still +further to give them a semi-erect position. Still they are never +known to walk of their own accord on their hind legs only, though +they can do so for short distances, and the story of their using a +stick and walking erect by its help in the wild state is not true. +Monkeys, then, are both four-handed and four-footed beasts; they +possess four hands formed very much like our hands, and capable of +picking up or holding any small object in the same manner; but they +are also four-footed, because they use all four limbs for the +purpose of walking, running, or climbing; and, being adapted to +this double purpose, the hands want the delicacy of touch and the +freedom as well as the precision of movement which ours possess. +Man alone is so constructed that he walks erect with perfect ease, +and has his hands free for any use to which he wishes to apply +them; and this is the great and essential bodily distinction +between monkeys and men.</p> + +<p>We will now give some account of the different kinds of monkeys +and the countries they inhabit.</p> + +<h3>THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF MONKEYS AND THE COUNTRIES THEY +INHABIT.</h3> + +<p>Monkeys are usually divided into three kinds--apes, monkeys, and +baboons; but these do not include the American monkeys, which are +really more different from all those of the Old World than any of +the latter are from each other. Naturalists, therefore, divide the +whole monkey-tribe into two great families, inhabiting the Old and +the New World respectively; and, if we learn to remember the kind +of differences by which these several groups are distinguished, we +shall be able to understand something of the classification of +animals, and the difference between important and unimportant +characters.</p> + +<p>Taking first the Old World groups, they may be thus defined: +apes have no tails; monkeys have tails, which are usually long; +while baboons have short tails, and their faces, instead of being +round and with a man-like expression as in apes and monkeys, are +long and more dog-like. These differences are, however, by no means +constant, and it is often difficult to tell whether an animal +should be classed as an ape, a monkey, or a baboon. The Gibraltar +ape, for example, though it has no tail, is really a monkey, +because it has callosities, or hard pads of bare skin on which it +sits, and cheek pouches in which it can stow away food; the latter +character being always absent in the true apes, while both are +present in most monkeys and baboons. All these animals, however, +from the largest ape to the smallest monkey, have the same number +of teeth as we have, and they are arranged in a similar manner, +although the tusks or canine teeth of the males are often large, +like those of a dog.</p> + +<p>The American monkeys, on the other hand, with the exception of +the marmosets, have four additional grinding teeth (one in each jaw +on either side), and none of them have callosities, or cheek +pouches. They never have prominent snouts like the baboons; their +nostrils are placed wide apart and open sideways on the face; the +tail, though sometimes short, is never quite absent; and the thumb +bends the same way as the fingers, is generally very short and +weak, and is often quite wanting. We thus see that these American +monkeys differ in a great number of characters from those of the +Eastern hemisphere; and they have this further peculiarity, that +many of them have prehensile or grasping tails, which are never +found in the monkeys of any other country. This curious organ +serves the purpose of a fifth hand. It has so much muscular power +that the animal can hang by it easily with the tip curled round a +branch, while it can also be used to pick up small objects with +almost as much ease and exactness as an elephant's trunk. In those +species which have it most perfectly formed it is very long and +powerful, and the end has the underside covered with bare skin, +exactly resembling that of the finger or palm of the hand and +apparently equally sensitive. One of the common kinds of monkeys +that accompany street organ-players has a prehensile tail, but not +of the most perfect kind; since in this species the tail is +entirely clad with hair to the tip, and seems to be used chiefly to +steady the animal when sitting on a branch by being twisted round +another branch near it. The statement is often erroneously made +that all American monkeys have prehensile tails; but the fact is +that rather less than half the known kinds have them so, the +remainder having this organ either short and bushy, or long and +slender, but entirely without any power of grasping. All +prehensile-tailed monkeys are American, but all American monkeys +are not prehensile-tailed.</p> + +<p>By remembering these characters it is easy, with a little +observation, to tell whether any strange monkey comes from America +or from the Old World. If it has bare seat-pads, or if when eating +it fills its mouth till its cheeks swell out like little bags, we +may be sure it comes from some part of Africa or Asia; while if it +can curl up the end of its tail so as to take hold of anything, it +is certainly American. As all the tailed monkeys of the Old World +have seat-pads (or ischial callosities as they are called in +scientific language), and as all the American monkeys have tails, +but no seat-pads, this is the most constant external character by +which to distinguish them; and having done so we can look for the +other peculiarities of the American monkeys, especially the +distance apart of the nostrils and their lateral position.</p> + +<p>The whole monkey-tribe is especially tropical, only a few kinds +being found in the warmer parts of the temperate zone. One inhabits +the Rock of Gibraltar, and there is one very like it in Japan, and +these are the two monkeys which live furthest from the equator. In +the tropics they become very abundant and increase in numbers and +variety as we approach the equator, where the climate is hot, +moist, and equable, and where flowers, fruits, and insects are to +be found throughout the year. Africa has about 55 different kinds, +Asia and its islands about 60, while America has 114, or almost +exactly the same as Asia and Africa together. Australia and its +islands have no monkeys, nor has the great and luxuriant island of +New Guinea, whose magnificent forests seem so well adapted for +them. We will now give a short account of the different kinds of +monkeys inhabiting each of the tropical continents.</p> + +<p>Africa possesses two of the great man-like apes--the gorilla and +the chimpanzee, the former being the largest ape known, and the one +which, on the whole, perhaps most resembles man, though its +countenance is less human than that of the chimpanzee. Both are +found in West Africa, near the equator, but they also inhabit the +interior wherever there are great forests; and Dr. Schweinfurth +states that the chimpanzee inhabits the country about the sources +of the Shari River in 28° E. long. and 4° N. lat.</p> + +<p>The long-tailed monkeys of Africa are very numerous and varied. +One group has no cheek pouches and no thumb on the hand, and many +of these have long soft fur of varied colors. The most numerous +group are the Guenons, rather small long-tailed monkeys, very +active and lively, and often having their faces curiously marked +with white or black, or ornamented with whiskers or other tufts of +hair; and they all have large cheek pouches and good sized thumbs. +Many of them are called green monkeys, from the greenish yellow +tint of their fur, and most of them are well formed, pleasing +animals. They are found only in tropical Africa.</p> + +<p>The baboons are larger but less numerous. They resemble dogs in +the general form and the length of the face or snout, but they have +hands with well-developed thumbs on both the fore and hind limbs; +and this, with something in the expression of the face and their +habit of sitting up and using their hands in a very human fashion, +at once shows that they belong to the monkey tribe. Many of them +are very ugly, and in their wild state they are the fiercest and +most dangerous of monkeys. Some have the tail very long, others of +medium length, while it is sometimes reduced to a mere stump, and +all have large cheek pouches and bare seat pads. They are found all +over Africa, from Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope; while one +species, called the hamadryas, extends from Abyssinia across the +Red Sea into Arabia, and is the only baboon found out of Africa. +This species was known to the ancients, and it is often represented +in Egyptian sculptures, while mummies of it have been found in the +catacombs. The largest and most remarkable of all the baboons is +the mandrill of West Africa, whose swollen and hog-like face is +ornamented with stripes of vivid blue and scarlet. This animal has +a tail scarcely two inches long, while in size and strength it is +not much inferior to the gorilla. The large baboons go in bands, +and are said to be a match for any other animals in the African +forests, and even to attack and drive away the elephants from the +districts they inhabit.</p> + +<p>Turning now to Asia, we have first one of the best known of the +large man-like apes--the orang-outang, found only in the two large +islands, Borneo and Sumatra. The name is Malay, signifying "man of +the woods," and it should be pronounced órang-óotan, +the accent being on the first syllable of both words. It is a very +curious circumstance that, whereas the gorilla and chimpanzee are +both black, like the negroes of the same country, the orang-outang +is red or reddish brown, closely resembling the color of the Malays +and Dyaks who live in the Bornean forests. Though very large and +powerful, it is a harmless creature, feeding on fruit, and never +attacking any other animal except in self-defense. A full-grown +male orang-outang is rather more than four feet high, but with a +body as large as that of a stout man, and with enormously long and +powerful arms.</p> + +<p>Another group of true apes inhabit Asia and the larger Asiatic +islands, and are in some respects the most remarkable of the whole +family. These are the Gibbons, or long-armed apes, which are +generally of small size and of a gentle disposition, but possessing +the most wonderful agility. In these creatures the arms are as long +as the body and legs together, and are so powerful that a gibbon +will hang for hours suspended from a branch, or swing to and fro +and then throw itself a great distance through the air. The arms, +in fact, completely take the place of the legs for traveling. +Instead of jumping from bough to bough and running on the branches, +like other apes and monkeys, the gibbons move along while hanging +suspended in the air, stretching their arms from bough to bough, +and thus going hand over hand as a very active sailor will climb +along a rope. The strength of their arms is, however, so +prodigious, and their hold so sure, that they often loose one hand +before they have caught a bough with the other, thus seeming almost +to fly through the air by a series of swinging leaps; and they +travel among the network of interlacing boughs a hundred feet above +the earth with as much ease and certainty as we walk or run upon +level ground, and with even greater speed. These little animals +scarcely ever come down to the ground of their own accord; but when +obliged to do so they run along almost erect, with their long arms +swinging round and round, as if trying to find some tree or other +object to climb upon. They are the only apes who naturally walk +without using their hands as well as their feet; but this does not +make them more like men, for it is evident that the attitude is not +an easy one, and is only adopted because the arms are habitually +used to swing by, and are therefore naturally held upward, instead +of downward, as they must be when walking on them.</p> + +<p>The tailed monkeys of Asia consist of two groups, the first of +which have no cheek pouches, but always have very long tails, They +are true forest monkeys, very active and of a shy disposition. The +most remarkable of these is the long-nosed monkey of Borneo, which +is very large, of a pale brown color, and distinguished by +possessing a long, pointed, fleshy nose, totally unlike that of all +other monkeys. Another interesting species is the black and white +entellus monkey of India, called the "Hanuman," by the Hindoos, and +considered sacred by them. These animals are petted and fed, and at +some of the temples numbers of them come every day for the food +which the priests, as well as the people, provide for them.</p> + +<p>The next group of Eastern monkeys are the Macaques, which are +more like baboons, and often run upon the ground. They are more +bold and vicious than the others. All have cheek pouches, and +though some have long tails, in others the tail is short, or +reduced to a mere stump. In some few this stump is so very short +that there appears to be no tail, as in the magot of North Africa +and Gibraltar, and in an allied species that inhabits Japan.</p> + +<h3>AMERICAN MONKEYS.</h3> + +<p>The monkeys which inhabit America form three very distinct +groups: 1st, the Sapajous, which have prehensile or grasping tails; +2nd, the Sagouins, which have ordinary tails, either long or short; +and, 3rd, the Marmosets, very small creatures, with sharp claws, +long tails which are not prehensile, and a smaller number of teeth +than all other American monkeys. Each of these three groups contain +several sub-groups, or <i>genera</i>, which often differ remarkably +from each other, and from all the monkeys of the Old World.</p> + +<p>We will begin with the howling monkeys, which are the largest +found in America, and are celebrated for the loud voice of the +males. Often in the great forests of the Amazon or Oronooko a +tremendous noise is heard in the night or early morning, as if a +great assemblage of wild beasts were all roaring and screaming +together. The noise may be heard for miles, and it is louder and +more piercing than that of any other animals, yet it is all +produced by a single male howler, sitting on the branches of some +lofty tree. They are enabled to make this extraordinary noise by +means of an organ that is possessed by no other animal. The lower +jaw is unusually deep, and this makes room for a hollow bony vessel +about the size of a large walnut, situated under the root of the +tongue, and having an opening into the windpipe by which the animal +can force air into it. This increases the power of its voice, +acting something like the hollow case of a violin, and producing +those marvelous rolling and reverberating sounds which caused the +celebrated traveler Waterton to declare that they were such as +might have had their origin in the infernal regions. The howlers +are large and stout bodied monkeys, with bearded faces, and very +strong and powerfully grasping tails. They inhabit the wildest +forests; they are very shy, and are seldom taken captive, though +they are less active than many other American monkeys.</p> + +<p>Next come the spider monkeys, so called from their slender +bodies and enormously long limbs and tail. In these monkeys the +tail is so long, strong, and perfect, that it completely takes the +place of a fifth hand. By twisting the end of it round a branch the +animal can swing freely in the air with complete safety; and this +gives them a wonderful power of climbing end passing from tree to +tree, because the distance they can stretch is that of the tail, +body, and arm added together, and these are all unusually long. +They can also swing themselves through the air for great distances, +and are thus able to pass rapidly from tree to tree without ever +descending to the ground, just like the gibbons in the Malayan +forests. Although capable of feats of wonderful agility, the spider +monkeys are usually slow and deliberate in their motions, and have +a timid, melancholy expression, very different from that of most +monkeys. Their hands are very long, but have only four fingers, +being adapted for hanging on to branches rather than for getting +hold of small objects. It is said that when they have to cross a +river the trees on the opposite banks of which do not approach near +enough for a leap, several of them form a chain, one hanging by its +tail from a lofty overhanging branch and seizing hold of the tail +of the one below it, then gradually swinging themselves backward +and forward till the lower one is able to seize hold of a branch on +the opposite side. He then climbs up the tree, and, when +sufficiently high, the first one lets go, and the swing either +carries him across to a bough on the opposite side or he climbs up +over his companions.</p> + +<p>Closely allied to the last are the woolly monkeys, which have an +equally well developed prehensile tail, but better proportioned +limbs, and a thick woolly fur of a uniform gray or brownish color. +They have well formed fingers and thumbs, both on the hands and +feet, and are rather deliberate in their motions, and exceedingly +tame and affectionate in captivity. They are great eaters, and are +usually very fat. They are found only in the far interior of the +Amazon valley, and, having a delicate constitution, seldom live +long in Europe. These monkeys are not so fond of swinging +themselves about by their tails as are the spider monkeys, and +offer more opportunities of observing how completely this organ +takes the place of a fifth hand. When walking about a house, or on +the deck of a ship, the partially curled tail is carried in a +horizontal position on the ground, and the moment it touches +anything it twists round it and brings it forward, when, if +eatable, it is at once appropriated; and when fastened up the +animal will obtain any food that may be out of reach of its hands +with the greatest facility, picking up small bits of biscuit, nuts, +etc., much as an elephant does with the tip of his trunk.</p> + +<p>We now come to a group of monkeys whose prehensile tail is of a +less perfect character, since it is covered with hair to the tip, +and is of no use to pick up objects. It can, however, curl round a +branch, and serves to steady the animal while sitting or feeding, +but is never used to hang and swing by in the manner so common with +the spider monkeys and their allies. These are rather small-sized +animals, with round heads and with moderately long tails. They are +very active and intelligent, their limbs are not so long as in the +preceding group, and though they have five fingers on each hand and +foot, the hands have weak and hardly opposable thumbs. Some species +of these monkeys are often carried about by itinerant organ men, +and are taught to walk erect and perform many amusing tricks. They +form the genus <i>Cebus</i> of naturalists.</p> + +<p>The remainder of the American monkeys have non-prehensile tails, +like those of the monkeys of the Eastern hemisphere; but they +consist of several distinct groups, and differ very much in +appearance and habits. First we have the Sakis, which have a bushy +tail and usually very long and thick hair, something like that of a +bear. Sometimes the tail is very short, appearing like a rounded +tuft of hair; many of the species have fine bushy whiskers, which +meet under the chin, and appear as if they had been dressed and +trimmed by a barber, and the head is often covered with thick curly +hair, looking like a wig. Others, again, have the face quite red, +and one has the head nearly bald, a most remarkable peculiarity +among monkeys. This latter species was met with by Mr. Bates on the +Upper Amazon, and he describes the face as being of a vivid +scarlet, the body clothed from neck to tail with very long, +straight, and shining white hair, while the head was nearly bald, +owing to the very short crop of thin gray hairs. As a finish to +their striking physiognomy these monkeys have bushy whiskers of a +sandy color meeting under the chin, and yellowish gray eyes. The +color of the face is so vivid that it looks as if covered with a +thick coat of bright scarlet paint. These creatures are very +delicate, and have never reached Europe alive, although several of +the allied forms have lived some time in our Zoological +Gardens.</p> + +<p>An allied group consists of the elegant squirrel monkeys, with +long, straight, hairy tails, and often adorned with pretty +variegated colors. They are usually small animals; some have the +face marked with black and white, others have curious whiskers, and +their nails are rather sharp and claw like. They have large round +heads, and their fur is more glossy and smooth than in most other +American monkeys, so that they more resemble some of the smaller +monkeys of Africa. These little creatures are very active, running +about the trees like squirrels, and feeding largely on insects as +well as on fruit.</p> + +<p>Closely allied to these are the small group of night monkeys, +which have large eyes, and a round face surrounded by a kind of +ruff of whitish fur, so as to give it an owl like appearance, +whence they are sometimes called owl-faced monkeys. They are +covered with soft gray fur, like that of a rabbit, and sleep all +day long concealed in hollow trees. The face is also marked with +white patches and stripes, giving it a rather carnivorous or cat +like aspect, which, perhaps, serves as a protection, by causing the +defenseless creature to be taken for an arboreal tiger cat or some +such beast of prey.</p> + +<p>This finishes the series of such of the American monkeys as have +a larger number of teeth than those of the Old World. But there is +another group, the Marmosets, which have the same number of teeth +as Eastern monkeys, but differently distributed in the jaws, a +premolar being substituted for a molar tooth. In other particulars +they resemble the rest of the American monkeys. They are very small +and delicate creatures some having the body only seven inches long. +The thumb of the hands is[1] not opposable, and instead of nails +they have sharp compressed claws. These diminutive monkeys have +long, non-prehensile tails, and they have a silky fur often of +varied and beautiful colors. Some are striped with gray and white, +or are of rich brown or golden brown tints, varied by having the +head or shoulders white or black, while in many there are crests, +frills, manes, or long ear tufts, adding greatly to their variety +and beauty. These little animals are timid and restless; their +motions are more like those of a squirrel than a monkey. Their +sharp claws enable them to run quickly along the branches, but they +seldom leap from bough to bough like the larger monkeys. They live +on fruits and insects, but are much afraid of wasps, which they are +said to recognize even in a picture.</p> + +<p>[Transcribers note 1: Changed from '... it not opposable', +...]</p> + +<p>This completes our sketch of the American monkeys, and we see +that, although they possess no such remarkable forms as the gorilla +or the baboons, yet they exhibit a wonderful diversity of external +characters, considering that all seem equally adapted to a purely +arboreal life. In the howlers we have a specially developed voice +organ, which is altogether peculiar; in the spider monkeys we find +the adaptation to active motion among the topmost branches of the +forest trees carried to an extreme point of development; while the +singular nocturnal monkeys, the active squirrel monkeys, and the +exquisite little marmosets, show how distinct are the forms under +which the same general type, may be exhibited, and in how many +varied ways existence may be sustained under almost identical +conditions.</p> + +<h3>LEMURS.</h3> + +<p>In the general term, monkeys, considered as equivalent to the +order Primates, or the Quadrumana of naturalists, we have to +include another sub-type, that of the Lemurs. These animals are of +a lower grade than the true monkeys, from which they differ in so +many points of structure that they are considered to form a +distinct sub-order, or, by some naturalists, even a separate order. +They have usually a much larger head and more pointed muzzle than +monkeys; they vary considerably in the number, form, and +arrangement of the teeth; their thumbs are always well developed, +but their fingers vary much in size and length; their tails are +usually long, but several species have no tail whatever, and they +are clothed with a more or less woolly fur, often prettily +variegated with white and black. They inhabit the deep forests of +Africa, Madagascar, and Southern Asia, and are more sluggish in +their movements than true monkeys, most of them being of nocturnal +and crepuscular habits. They feed largely on insects, eating also +fruits and the eggs or young of birds.</p> + +<p>The most curious species are--the slow lemurs of South India, +small tailless nocturnal animals, somewhat resembling sloths in +appearance, and almost as deliberate in their movements, except +when in the act of seizing their insect prey; the Tarsier, or +specter lemur, of the Malay islands, a small, long tailed nocturnal +lemur, remarkable for the curious development of the hind feet, +which have two of the toes very short, and with sharp claws, while +the others have nails, the third toe being exceedingly long and +slender, though the thumb is very large, giving the feet a very +irregular and <i>outré</i> appearance; and, lastly, the +Aye-aye, of Madagascar, the most remarkable of all. This animal has +very large ears and a squirrel like tail, with long spreading hair. +It has large curved incisor teeth, which add to its squirrel like +appearance, and caused the early naturalists to class it among the +rodents. But its most remarkable character is found in its fore +feet or hands, the fingers of which are all very long and armed +with sharp curved claws, but one of them, the second, is +wonderfully slender, being not half the thickness of the others. +This curious combination of characters shows that the aye-aye is a +very specialized form--that is, one whose organization has been +slowly modified to fit it for a peculiar mode of life. From +information received from its native country, and from a profound +study of its organization, Professor Owen believes that it is +adapted for the one purpose of feeding on small wood-boring +insects. Its large feet and sharp claws enable it to cling firmly +to the branches of trees in almost any position; by means of its +large delicate ears it listens for the sound of the insect gnawing +within the branch, and is thus able to fix its exact position; with +its powerful curved gnawing teeth it rapidly cuts away the bark and +wood till it exposes the burrow of the insect, most probably the +soft larva of some beetle, and then comes into play the +extraordinary long wire-like finger, which enters the small +cylindrical burrow, and with the sharp bent claw hooks out the +grub. Here we have a most complex adaptation of different parts and +organs, all converging to one special end, that end being the same +as is reached by a group of birds, the woodpeckers, in a different +way; and it is a most interesting fact that, although woodpeckers +abound in all the great continents, and are especially common in +the tropical forests of Asia, Africa, and America, they are quite +absent from Madagascar. We may, therefore, consider that the +aye-aye really occupies the same place in nature in the forests of +this tropical island, as do the woodpeckers in other parts of the +world.</p> + +<h3>DISTRIBUTION, AFFINITIES, AND ZOOLOGICAL RANK OF MONKEYS.</h3> + +<p>Having thus sketched an outline of the monkey tribe as regards +their more prominent external characters and habits, we must say a +few words on their general relations as a distinct order of +mammalia. No other group so extensive and so varied as this, is so +exclusively tropical in its distribution, a circumstance no doubt +due to the fact that monkeys depend so largely on fruit and insects +for their subsistence. A very few species extend into the warmer +parts of the temperate zones, their extreme limits in the northern +hemisphere being Gibraltar, the Western Himalayas at 11,000 feet +elevation, East Thibet, and Japan. In America they are found in +Mexico, but do not appear to pass beyond the tropic. In the +Southern hemisphere they are limited by the extent of the forests +in South Brazil, which reach about 30° south latitude. In the +East, owing to their entire absence from Australia, they do not +reach the tropic; but in Africa, some baboons range to the southern +extremity of the continent.</p> + +<p>But this extreme restriction of the order to almost tropical +lands is only recent. Directly we go back to the Pliocene period of +geology, we find the remains of monkeys in France, and even in +England. In the earlier Miocene, several kinds, some of large size, +lived in France, Germany, and Greece, all more or less closely +allied to living forms of Asia and Africa. About the same period +monkeys of the South American type inhabited the United States. In +the remote Eocene period the same temperate lands were inhabited by +lemurs in the East, and by curious animals believed to be +intermediate between lemurs and marmosets in the West. We know from +a variety of other evidence that throughout these vast periods a +mild and almost sub-tropical climate extended over all Central +Europe and parts of North America, while one of a temperate +character prevailed as far north as the Arctic circle. The monkey +tribe then enjoyed a far greater range over the earth, and perhaps +filled a more important place in nature than it does now. Its +restriction to the comparatively narrow limits of the tropics is no +doubt mainly due to the great alteration of climate which occurred +at the close of the Tertiary period, but it may have been aided by +the continuous development of varied forms of mammalian life better +fitted for the contrasted seasons and deciduous vegetation of the +north temperate regions. The more extensive area formerly inhabited +by the monkey tribe, would have favored their development into a +number of divergent forms, in distant regions, and adapted to +distinct modes of life. As these retreated southward and became +concentrated in a more limited area, such as were able to maintain +themselves became mingled together as we now find them, the ancient +and lowly marmosets and lemurs subsisting side by side with the +more recent and more highly developed howlers and anthropoid +apes.</p> + +<p>Throughout the long ages of the Tertiary period monkeys must +have been very abundant and very varied, yet it is but rarely that +their fossil remains are found. This, however, is not difficult to +explain. The deposits in which mammalian remains most abound are +those formed in lakes or in caverns. In the former the bodies of +large numbers of terrestrial animals were annually deposited, owing +to their having been caught by floods in the tributary streams, +swallowed up in marginal bogs or quicksands, or drowned by the +giving way of ice. Caverns were the haunts of hyenas, tigers, +bears, and other beasts of prey, which dragged into them the bodies +of their victims, and left many of their bones to become embedded +in stalagmite or in the muddy deposit left by floods, while +herbivorous animals were often carried into them by these floods, +or by falling down the swallow-holes which often open into caverns +from above. But, owing to their arboreal habits, monkeys were to a +great extent freed from all these dangers. Whether devoured by +beasts or birds of prey, or dying a natural death, their bones +would usually be left on dry land, where they would slowly decay +under atmospheric influences. Only under very exceptional +circumstances would they become embedded in aqueous deposits; and +instead of being surprised at their rarity we should rather wonder +that so many have been discovered in a fossil state.</p> + +<p>Monkeys, as a whole, form a very isolated group, having no near +relations to any other mammalia. This is undoubtedly an indication +of great antiquity. The peculiar type which has since reached so +high a development must have branched off the great mammalian stock +at a very remote epoch, certainly far back in the Secondary period, +since in the Eocene we find lemurs and lemurine monkeys already +specialized. At this remoter period they were probably not +separable from the insectivora, or (perhaps) from the ancestral +marsupials. Even now we have one living form, the curious +Galeopithecus or flying lemur, which has only recently been +separated from the lemurs, with which it was formerly united, to be +classed as one of the insectivora; and it is only among the +Opossums and some other marsupials that we again find hand-like +feet with opposable thumbs, which are such a curious and constant +feature of the monkey tribe.</p> + +<p>This relationship to the lowest of the mammalian tribes seems +inconsistent with the place usually accorded to these animals at +the head of the entire mammalian series, and opens up the question +whether this is a real superiority or whether it depends merely on +the obvious relationship to ourselves. If we could suppose a being +gifted with high intelligence, but with a form totally unlike that +of man, to have visited the earth before man existed in order to +study the various forms of animal life that were found there, we +can hardly think he would have placed the monkey tribe so high as +we do. He would observe that their whole organization was specially +adapted to an arboreal life, and this specialization would be +rather against their claiming the first rank among terrestrial +creatures. Neither in size, nor strength, nor beauty, would they +compare with many other forms, while in intelligence they would not +surpass, even if they equaled, the horse or the beaver. The +carnivora, as a whole, would certainly be held to surpass them in +the exquisite perfection of their physical structure, while the +flexible trunk of the elephant, combined with his vast strength and +admirable sagacity, would probably gain for him the first rank in +the animal creation.</p> + +<p>But if this would have been a true estimate, the mere fact that +the ape is our nearest relation does not necessarily oblige us to +come to any other conclusion. Man is undoubtedly the most perfect +of all animals, but he is so solely in respect of characters in +which he differs from all the monkey tribe--the easily erect +posture, the perfect freedom of the hands from all part in +locomotion, the large size and complete opposability of the thumb, +and the well developed brain, which enables him fully to utilize +these combined physical advantages. The monkeys have none of these; +and without them the amount of resemblance they have to us is no +advantage, and confers no rank. We are biased by the too exclusive +consideration of the man-like apes. If these did not exist the +remaining monkeys could not be thereby deteriorated as to their +organization or lowered in their zoological position, but it is +doubtful if we should then class them so high as we now do. We +might then dwell more on their resemblances to lower types--to +rodents, to insectivora, and to marsupials, and should hardly rank +the hideous baboon above the graceful leopard or stately stag. The +true conclusion appears to be, that the combination of external +characters and internal structure which exists in the monkeys, is +that which, when greatly improved, refined, and beautified, was +best calculated to become the perfect instrument of the human +intellect and to aid in the development of man's higher nature; +while, on the other hand, in the rude, inharmonious, and +undeveloped state which it has reached in the quadrumana, it is by +no means worthy of the highest place, or can be held to exhibit the +most perfect development of existing animal life.--<i>Contemporary +Review</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>[JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY OF ARTS.]</p> + +<p><a name="11"></a></p> + +<h2>SILK-PRODUCING BOMBYCES AND OTHER LEPIDOPTERA REARED IN +1881.</h2> + +<h3>By ALFRED WAILLY, Membre Lauréat de la +Société d'Acclimatation de France.</h3> + +<p>By referring to my reports for the years 1879 and 1880, which +appeared in the <i>Journal of the Society of Arts</i>, February 13 +and March 5, 1880, February 25 and March 4, 1881, it will be seen +that the bad weather prevented the successful rearing in the open +air of most species of silk-producing larvæ. In 1881, the +weather was extremely favorable up to the end of July, but the +incessant and heavy rains of the month of August and beginning of +September, proved fatal to most of the larvæ when they were +in their last stages. However, in spite of my many difficulties, I +had the satisfaction of seeing them to their last stage. +Larvæ of all the silk-producing bombyces were preserved in +their different stages, and can be seen in the Bethnal-green +Museum. In July, when the weather was magnificent, the little trees +in my garden were literally covered with larvæ of more +species than I ever had before, and two or three more weeks of fair +weather would have given me a good crop of cocoons, instead of +which I only obtained a very small number. The sparrows, as usual, +also destroyed a quantity of worms, in spite of wire or +fish-netting placed over some of the trees.</p> + +<p>On the trees were to be seen--<i>Attacus cynthia</i> (the +Ailantus silkworm), the rearing of which was, as usual, most +successful; <i>Samia cecropia</i> and <i>Samia gloveri</i>, from +America; also hybrids of <i>Gloveri cecropia</i> and <i>Cecropia +gloveri</i>; <i>Samia promethea</i> and <i>Telea polyphemus</i>; +<i>Attacus pernyi</i>, and a new hybrid, which I obtained this last +season by the crossing of Pernyi with Royle. For the first time I +reared <i>Actias selene</i>, from India, on a nut-tree in the +garden, and <i>Attacus atlas</i>, on the ailantus. The +<i>Selene</i> larvæ reached their fifth and last stage. The +Atlas larvæ only reached the third stage, and were destroyed +by the heavy rains; only two remained on the tree till about the +8th or 9th of September, when they had to be removed. I shall now +reproduce the notes I took on some of the various species I +reared.</p> + +<p><i>Actias Selene</i>.--With sixty cocoons I only obtained one +pairing. The moths emerged from the beginning of March till the +13th of August, at intervals of some duration, or in batches of +males or females. I obtained a pairing of Selene on the 30toh of +June, 1881, and the worms commenced to hatch on the 13th of July. +The larvæ in first stage are of a fine brown-red, with a +broad black band in the middle of the body. The second stage +commenced on the 20th of July; larvæ, of a lighter reddish +color, without the black band; tubercles black. Third stage +commenced on the 28th of July; larvæ green; the first four +tubercles yellow, with a black ring at the base; other tubercles, +orange yellow. Fourth stage commenced on the 6th of August; +larvæ green; first four tubercles golden-yellow, the others +orange-red. Fifth stage commenced on the 19th of August; first four +tubercles yellow, with a black ring at the base; other tubercles +yellow, slightly tinged with orange-red; lateral band brown and +greenish yellow; head and forelegs dark-brown. As stated before, +the larvæ were reared on a nut-tree in the garden, till the +last stage. Selene feeds on various trees--walnut, wild cherry, +wild pear, etc. In Ceylon (at Kandy), it is found on the wild olive +tree. As far as I am informed by correspondents in Ceylon, this +species is not found--or is seldom found--on the coasts, but +<i>Attacus atlas</i> and Mylitta are commonly found there.</p> + +<p><i>Attacus (antheroea) roylei</i> (with sixty cocoons); three +pairings only were obtained, and this species I found the most +difficult to pair in captivity. Two moths emerged on the 5th of +March, a male and a female, and a pairing was obtained; but the +weather being then too cold, the ova were not fertile, the female +moth, after laying about two hundred eggs, lived till the 22d of +March, which is a very long time; this was owing to the low +temperature. The moths emerged afterward from the 8th of April till +the 25th of June. A pairing took place on the 2d of June, and +another on the 6th of June.</p> + +<p>Roylei (the Himalaya oak silkworm) is very closely allied to +Pernyi, the Chinese oak silkworm; the Roylei moths are of a lighter +color, but the larvæ of both species can hardly be +distinguished from one another. The principal difference between +the two species is in the cocoon. The Roylei cocoon is within a +very large and tough envelope, while that of Pernyi has no outer +envelope at all. The larvæ of Roylei I reared did not thrive, +and the small number I had only went to the fourth stage, owing to +several causes. I bred them under glass, in a green-house. A +certain number of the larvæ were unable to cut the shell of +the egg.</p> + +<p>Here are a few notes I find in my book: Ova of Roylei commenced +to hatch on the 29th of June; second stage commenced on the 9th of +July. The larvæ in the first two stages seemed to me similar +to those of Pernyi, as far as I could see. In second stage, the +tubercles were of a brilliant orange-red; on anal segment, blue dot +on each side. Third stage, four rows of orange-yellow tubercles, +two blue dots on anal segment, brilliant gold metallic spots at the +base of the tubercles on the back, and silver metallic spots at the +base of the tubercles on the sides. No further notes taken.</p> + +<p>One of my correspondents in Vienna (Austria) obtained a +remarkable success in the rearing of Roylei. From the twenty-five +eggs he had twenty-three larvæ hatched, which produced +twenty-three fine cocoons. The same correspondent, with thirty-five +eggs of <i>Samia gloveri</i>, obtained twenty cocoons. My other +correspondents did not obtain any success in rearing these two +species, as far as I know.</p> + +<p><i>Hybrid Roylei-Pernyi</i>.--I have said that it is extremely +difficult to obtain the pairing of Roylei moths in captivity. But +the male Pernyi paired readily with the female Roylei. I obtained +six such pairings, and a large quantity of fertile ova. The +pairings of Roylei (female) with Pernyi (male) took place as +follows: two on the 21st of May, one on the 3d of June, two on the +4th of June, and one on the 6th.</p> + +<p>The larvæ of this new hybrid, <i>Roylei-Pernyi</i>, +contrary to what might have been expected, were much easier to rear +than those of Roylei, and the cocoons obtained are far superior to +those of Roylei, in size, weight, and richness of silk. The cocoon +of my new hybrid has, like Roylei, an envelope, but there is no +space between this envelope and the true cocoon inside. Therefore, +this time, the crossing of two different species (but, it must be +added, two very closely allied species) has produced a hybrid very +superior, at least to one of the types, that of Roylei. The cocoons +of the hybrid <i>Roylei-Pernyi</i> seem to me larger and heavier +than any Pernyi cocoons I have as yet seen.</p> + +<p>The larvæ of this new hybrid have been successfully reared +in France, in Germany, in Austria, and in the United States of +North America. The cocoons obtained by Herr L. Huessman, one of my +German correspondents, are remarkable for their size and beauty. +The silk is silvery white.</p> + +<p>I have seventeen cocoons of this hybrid species, which number +may be sufficient for its reproduction. But the question arises, +"Will the moths obtained from these cocoons be susceptible of +reproduction?"</p> + +<p>In my report on Lepidoptera for the year 1879, I stated, with +respect to hybrids and degeneracy, that hybrids had been obtained +by the crossing of <i>Attacus pernyi</i> and <i>Attacus +yama-maï</i>, but that, although the moths (some of which may +be seen in the Bethnal-green Museum) are large and apparently +perfect in every respect, yet these hybrids could not be +reproduced. It must be stated that these two species differ +essentially in one particular point. <i>Yama-maï</i> +hibernates in the <i>ovum</i> state, while Pernyi hibernates in the +<i>pupa</i> state. The hybrids hibernated in the <i>pupa</i> state. +Roylei, as Pernyi, hibernates in the <i>pupa</i> state.</p> + +<p>In the November number, 1881, of "The Entomologist," Mr. W.F. +Kirby, of the British Museum, wrote an article having for its +title, "Hermaphrodite-hybrid Sphingidæ," in which, referring +to hybrids of <i>Smerinthus ocellatus</i> and <i>populi</i>, he +says that hermaphroditism is the usual character of such +hybrids.</p> + +<p>I extract the following passage from his article: "I was under +the impression that hermaphroditism was the usual character of +these hybrids; and it has suggested itself to my mind as a +possibility, which I have not, at present, sufficient data either +to prove or to disprove, that the sterility of hybrids in general +(still a somewhat obscure subject) may perhaps be partly due to +hybridism having a tendency to produce hermaphroditism."</p> + +<p>Now, will the moths of new hybrid Roylei pernyi (which I expect +will emerge in May or June, 1882) have the same tendency to +hermaphroditism as has been observed with the hybrids obtained by +the crossing of <i>Smerinthus populi</i> with <i>Sm. ocellatus</i>? +I do not think that such will be the case with the moths of the +hybrid Roylei-pernyi, on account of the close relationship of +Roylei with Pernyi, but nothing certain can be known till the moths +have emerged. Here are the few notes taken on the hybrid +Roylei-pernyi: Ova commenced to hatch on the 12th of June; these +were from the pairing which had taken place on the 21st of May. +Larvæ, black, with long white hairs. Second stage commenced +on the 21st of June. Larva, of a beautiful green; tubercles +orange-yellow; head dark brown. Third stage commenced on the 1st of +July; fourth stage on the 7th. Larva of same color in those stages; +tubercles on the back, violet-blue or mauve; tubercles on the +sides, blue. Fifth stage commenced on the 18th of July. Larva, with +tubercles on back and sides, blue, or violet-blue. First cocoon +commenced on the 10th of August. Want of time prevented me from +taking fuller and more accurate notes.</p> + +<p><i>Attacus Atlas</i>.--For the first time, as stated before, I +attempted the rearing of a small number of Atlas larvæ in the +open air on the ailantus tree, but had to remove the last two +remaining larvæ in September; the others had all disappeared +in consequence of the heavy and incessant rains. These larvæ +were from eggs sent to me by one of my German correspondents. The +pairing of the moths had taken place on the 17th of July, and the +eggs had commenced to hatch on the 4th of August.</p> + +<p>I had about eighty cocoons of another and larger race of Atlas +imported from the Province of Kumaon, but only eight moths emerged +at intervals from the 31st of July to the 30th of September. Not +only did the moths emerge too late in the season, but there never +was a chance of obtaining a pairing. In my report on Indian +silkworms, published in the November number of the "Bulletin de la +Societe d'Acclimatation," for the year 1881, compiled from the work +of Mr. J. Geoghegan, I reproduce the first appendix of Captain +Thomas Hutton to Mr. Geoghegan's work, in which are given the names +of all the Indian silkworms known by him up to the year 1871.</p> + +<p>Of <i>Attacus atlas</i>, Captain Hutton says: "It is common at +5,500 feet at Mussoorie, and in the Dehra Doon; it is also found in +some of the deep warm glens of the outer hills. It is also common +at Almorah, where the larva feeds almost exclusively upon the +'Kilmorah' bush or <i>Berberis asiatica</i>; while at Mussoorie it +will not touch that plant, but feeds exclusively upon the large +milky leaves of <i>Falconeria insignis</i>. The worm is, perhaps, +more easily reared than any other of the wild bombycidæ."</p> + +<p>I will now quote from letters received from one of my +correspondents in Ceylon, a gentleman of great experience and +knowledge in sericulture.</p> + +<p>In a letter dated 24th August, 1881, my correspondent says: "The +Atlas moth seems to be a near relation of the Cynthia, and would +probably feed on the Ailantus. Here it feeds on the cinnamon and a +great number of other trees of widely different species; but the +tree on which I have kept it most successfully in a domestic state +is the <i>Milnea roxburghiana</i>, a handsome tree, with dark-green +ternate leaves, which keep fresh long after being detached from the +tree. I do not think the cocoon can ever be reeled, as the thread +usually breaks when it comes to the open end. I have tried to reel +a great many Atlas cocoons, but always found the process too +tedious and troublesome for practical use.</p> + +<p>"The Mylitta (Tusser) is a more hardy species than the Atlas, +and I have had no difficulty in domesticating it. Here it feeds on +the cashew-nut tree, on the so-called almond of this country +(<i>Terminalia catappa</i>), which is a large tree entirely +different from the European almond, and on many other trees. Most +of the trees whose leaves turn red when about to fall seem to suit +it, but it is not confined to these. In the case of the Atlas moth, +I discovered one thing which may be well worth knowing, and that +was, that with cocoons brought to the seaside after the larvæ +had been reared in the Central Provinces, in a temperature ten or +twelve degrees colder, the moths emerged in from ten to twenty days +after the formation of the cocoon. The duration of the <i>pupa</i> +stage in this, and probably in other species, therefore, depends +upon the temperature in which the larvæ have lived, as well +as the degree of heat in which the cocoons are kept; and in +transporting cocoons from India to Europe, I think it will be found +that the moths are less liable to be prematurely forced out by the +heat of the Red Sea when the larvæ have been reared in a warm +climate than when they have been reared in a cold one.</p> + +<p>"I do not agree with the opinion expressed in one of your +reports, that the short duration of the larva stage, caused by a +high temperature, has the effect of diminishing the size of the +cocoons, because the Atlas and Tusser cocoons produced at the +sea-level here are quite as large as those found in the Central +Provinces at elevations of three thousand feet or more. According +to the treatise on the "Silk Manufacture," in "Lardner's +Cyclopedia," the Chinese are of opinion that one drachm of mulberry +silkworms' eggs will produce 25 ounces of silk if the caterpillars +attain maturity within twenty-five days; 20 ounces if the +commencement of the cocoons be delayed until the twenty-eighth day; +and only 10 ounces if it be delayed until between the thirtieth and +fortieth day. If this is correct, a short-lived larva stage must, +instead of causing small cocoons, produce just the contrary +effect."</p> + +<p>In another letter, dated November 25, 1881, my correspondent +says: "I am sorry that you have not had better success in the +rearing of your larvæ, but you should not despair. It is +possible that the choice of an improper food-plant may have as much +to do with failures as the coldness and dampness of the English +climate. I lost many thousands of Atlas caterpillars before I found +out the proper tree to keep them on in a domesticated state; and +when I did attain partial success, I could not keep them for more +than one generation, till I found the <i>Milnea roxburghiana</i> to +be their proper food plant. I do not know the proper food-plant of +the Mylitta (Tusser), but I have succeeded very well with it, as it +is a more hardy species than the Atlas. Though a Bombyx be +polyphagous in a state of nature, yet I think most species have a +tree proper to themselves, on which they are more at home than on +any other plant. I should like, if you could find out from some +your correspondents in India, on what species of tree Mylitta +cocoons are found in the largest numbers, and what is about the +greatest number found on a single tree. The Mylitta is common +enough here, but there does not seem to be any kind of tree here on +which the cocoons are to be found in greater numbers than twos and +threes; and there must be some tree in India on which the cocoons +are to be found in much greater plenty, because they could not +otherwise be collected in sufficient quantity for manufacturing +purposes. The Atlas is here found on twenty or more different kinds +of trees, but a hundred or a hundred and fifty cocoons or +larvæ may be found on a single tree of <i>Milnea +roxburghiana</i>, while they are to be found only singly, or in +twos and threes, on any other tree that I know of. The Atlas and +Mylitta seem to be respectively the Indian relations of the Cynthia +and Pernyi. It is, therefore, probable that the Ailantus would be +the most suitable European tree for the Atlas, and the oak for the +Mylitta."</p> + +<p><i>Attacus mylitta</i> (<i>Antheræa paphia</i>).--I did +not receive a single cocoon of this species for the season 1881. My +stock consisted of seven cocoons, from the lot received from +Calcutta at the end of February, 1880. Five were female, and two +male cocoons; one of the latter died, thus reducing the number to +six. The moths emerged as follows: One female on the 21st of June, +one female on the 26th, one female on the 28th, one female on the +1st of July, and one male on the 3d of August; the latter emerging +thirty-four days too late to be of any use for rearing purposes. +The last female moth emerged, I think, about the end of September. +These cocoons had hibernated twice, as has been the case with other +Indian species. I had Indian cocoons which hibernated even three +times.</p> + +<p><i>Attacus cynthia</i>, from the province of Kumaon.--With the +Atlas cocoons, a large quantity of Cynthia cocoons were collected +in the province of Kumaon. Both species had, no doubt, fed on the +same trees; as the Cynthia, like the Atlas cocoons, were all +inclosed in leaves of the <i>Berberis vulgaris</i>, which shows +that Cynthia is also a polyphagous species. It is already known +that it feeds on several species of trees, besides the ailantus, +such as the laburnum, lilac, cherry, and, I think, also on the +castor-oil plant; the common barberry has, therefore, to be added +to the above food plants.</p> + +<p>These Kumaon Cynthia cocoons were somewhat smaller and much +darker in color than those of the acclimatized Cynthia reared on +the ailantus. The moths of this wild Indian Cynthia were also of a +richer color than those of the cultivated species in Europe.</p> + +<p>During the summer 1881, I saw cocoons of my own Cynthia race +obtained from worms which had been reared on the laburnum tree. +These cocoons were, as far as I can remember, of a yellowish or +saffron color; which I had never seen before. This difference in +the color of the cocoon was very likely produced by the change of +food, although it has been stated, and I think it may be quite +correct, that with many species of native lepidoptera the change of +food-plants does not produce any difference of color in the insects +obtained. With respect to the Cynthia worms reared on the laburnum +instead of the ailantus, it may be that the moths, which will +emerge from the yellow cocoons, will be similar to those obtained +from cocoons spun by worms bred on the ailantus, and that the only +difference will be in the color of the cocoons.</p> + +<p>The Kumaon Cynthia cocoons, as I found it to be the case with +Indian species introduced for the first time into Europe, did not +produce moths at the same time, nor as regularly as the +acclimatized species. The moths emerged as follows: One female on +the 22d of July; one female on the 25th; one male on the 3d August; +one female on the 19th; one male on the 28th of August; one male on +the 2d September; one female on the 3d. A pairing was obtained with +the latter two. Two males emerged on the 4th of September; one male +on the 6th; one male and one female on the 22d; one female on the +23d; and one female on the 25th of September. Five cocoons, which +did not produce any moths, contain pupæ, which are still in +perfect condition; and the moths will no doubt emerge next summer +(1882). As seen in my note, a pairing of this wild Indian Cynthia +took place; this was from the evening of the 4th to the 5th of +September. The eggs laid by the female moth were deposited in a +most curious way, in smaller or larger quantities, but all forming +perfect triangles. These eggs I gave to a florist who has been very +successful in the rearing of silk-producing and other larvæ; +telling him to rear the Cynthia on lilacs grown in pots and placed +in a hot-house, which was done. The worms, which hatched in a few +days, as they were placed in a hot-house, thrived wonderfully well, +and I might say they thrived too well, as they grew so fast and +became so voracious that the growth of the lilac trees could not +keep pace with the growth of the worms. These, at the fourth stage, +became so large that the foliage was entirely devoured, and, of +course, the consequence was that all the worms were starved. I only +heard of the result of that experiment long after the death of the +larvæ; otherwise I should have suggested the use of another +plant after the destruction of the foliage of the lilacs; the +privet (<i>Ligustrum vulgare</i>) might have been tried, and +success obtained with it.</p> + +<p>Of such species as <i>Attacus pyri</i>, of Central Europe, and +<i>Attacus pernyi</i>, the North Chinese oak silkworm, which I have +mentioned in my previous reports, and bred every season for several +years, I shall only say that I never could rear Pyri in the open +air in London, up to the formation of the cocoon. As to Pernyi, I +had, in 1881, an immense quantity of splendid moths, from which I +obtained the largest quantity of ova I ever had of this species. I +had many thousands of fertile ova of Pernyi, which I was unable to +distribute. Many schoolboys reared Pernyi worms, but with what +success I do not yet know. The number of fertile ova obtained from +Pyri moths was also more considerable than in former years, which +was due partly to the good quality of the pupæ, and partly to +the very favorable weather in June, at the time the pairings of the +moths took place.</p> + +<p>Leaving these, I now come to the North American species.</p> + +<p><i>Telea polyphemus</i>.--As I have stated in former years, this +is the best North American silkworm, producing a closed cocoon, +somewhat smaller than that of Pernyi, but the silk seems as good as +that of Pernyi.</p> + +<p>The cocoons of Polyphemus I had in 1881 were smaller and +inferior in quality to those I had before. Those received in 1878 +and 1879 were considerably finer and larger than those which were +sent in 1880 and 1881; besides, they were sent in much larger +quantities. The cocoons received this year (1882) are finer than +those of 1881, but yet they cannot be compared with those of 1878 +and 1879.</p> + +<p>With about sixty cocoons of <i>Telea polyphemus</i> I only +obtained three pairings, which I attribute solely to the weakness +of the moths, as the weather was all that could be desired for the +pairings. The moths emerged from the 1st of June to the 20th of +July. One male moth emerged on the 7th September. This latter was +one from a small number of cocoons received from Alabama; the other +cocoons of the same race had emerged at the same time as the +cocoons from the Northern States. In the Northern States the +species is single-brooded; in the Southern States it is +double-brooded.</p> + +<p>The larvæ of Polyphemus can be bred in the open air in +England, almost as easily as those of Pernyi, and even Cynthia; +they will pass through their five stages and spin their cocoons on +the trees, unless the weather should be unexceptionally cold and +wet, as was the case during the month of August, 1881, when the +larvæ had reached their full size; they were reared this year +on the nut-tree, and some on the oak. The species is extremely +polyphagous, and will feed well on oak, birch, chestnut, beech, +willow, nut, etc.</p> + +<p>The moth of Polyphemus is very beautiful, and, as in some other +species, varies in its shades of color. The larva is of a +transparent green, of extreme beauty; the head is light brown; +without any black dots, as in Pernyi; the spines are pink, and at +the base of each of them there is a brilliant metallic spot. When +the sun shines on them the larvæ seem to be covered with +diamonds. These metallic spots at the base of the spines are also +seen on Pernyi, Yama mai, Mylitta, and other species of the genus +Antheræa, all having a closed cocoon, but none of these have +so many as Polyphemus.</p> + +<p>The cocoons of the species of the genus Actias are closed, but +the larvæ have not the metallic spots of the species of the +genus Antheræa.</p> + +<p><i>Samia Gloveri</i>.--Three North American silk-producing +bombyces, very closely allied, have been mentioned in my previous +reports; they are; <i>Samia ceanothi</i>, from California; <i>Samia +gloveri</i>, from Utah and Arizona; and <i>Samia cecropia</i>, +commonly found in most of the Northern States--the latter is the +best and largest silk producer. Crossings of these species took +places in 1880, and, as I stated before, the ova obtained from a +long pairing between a Ceanothi female with a Gloveri male, were +the only ones which were fertile. The Gloveri cocoons received in +1880 were of a very inferior quality, and produced moths from which +no pairings could be obtained, although some crossings took place. +In 1881, the Gloveri cocoons, on the contrary, produced fine, +healthy moths; yet only five pairings could be obtained, with about +one hundred cocoons. Besides these five pairings, a quantity of +fertile ova were obtained by the crossings of <i>S. gloveri</i> +(female) with <i>S. cecropia</i> (male), and Cecropia (female) with +Gloveri (male). No success, so far as I know, was obtained with the +rearing of the hybrid larvæ; the rearings of the larvæ +of pure Gloveri were also, I think, a failure, only one +correspondent having been successful; but some correspondents have +not yet made the result of their experiments known to me. The +larvæ of <i>Samia cecropia, S. gloveri</i>, and <i>S. +ceanothi</i>, are very much alike; and hardly any difference can be +observed in the first two stages. In the third and fourth stages, +the larvæ of <i>S. cecropia</i> and <i>S. gloveri</i> are +also nearly alike; the principal difference between these two +species and <i>S. cecropia</i> being that the tubercles on the back +are of a uniform color--orange-red, or yellow--while on Cecropia +the first four dorsal tubercles are red, and the rest yellow. The +tubercles on the sides are blue on the three species.</p> + +<p>The larvæ of the hybrids <i>Gloveri-cecropia</i> were, as +far as I could observe, like those of Cecropia, but I noticed some +with six red tubercles on the back instead of four, as on Cecropia. +They were reared on plum, apple, and <i>Salix caprea</i>; in the +open air.</p> + +<p>The larvæ of <i>Samia gloveri</i> were reared, during the +first four stages on a wild plum-tree, then on <i>Salix, +caprea</i>, and I reproduce the notes taken on this species, which +I bred this year (1881) for the first time.</p> + +<p>Gloveri moths emerged from the 15th of May to the end of June; +five pairings took place as follows: 1st, 4th, 9th, 24th, and 26th +of June. First stage--larvæ quite black. Second +stage--larvæ orange, with black spines. Third stage--dorsal +spines, orange-red; spines on sides blue. Fourth stage--dorsal +spines, orange or yellow, spines on the sides blue; body light blue +on the back, and greenish yellow on the sides; head, green; legs, +yellow. Fifth and sixth stage--larvæ nearly the same; +tubercles on the back yellow, the first four having a black ring at +the base; side tubercles ivory-white, with a dark-blue base.</p> + +<p>The above-mentioned American species, like most other +silk-producing bombyces, were bred in the open air; but besides +these, I reared three other species of American bombyces in the +house, under glass, and with the greatest success. These are: +<i>Hyperchiria io</i>, a beautiful species mentioned in my report +for the year 1879; <i>Orgyia leucostigma</i>, from ova received on +December 29, 1880, from Madison, Wis., which hatched on the 27th of +May, 1881.</p> + +<p>The third American species reared under glass is the following +very interesting bombyx: <i>Ceratocampa (Eacles) imperialis</i>. +The pupæ of this species are rough, and armed with small, +sharp points at all the segments; the last segment having a thick, +straight, and bifid tail. The moths, which measure from four to +about six inches in expanse of wings, are bright yellow, with large +patches and round spots of reddish-brown, with a purple gloss; +besides these patches and round spots, the wings are covered with +small dark dots. The male moth is much more blotched than the +female, and although of a smaller size, is much more showy than the +female.</p> + +<p>With twenty-four pupæ of Imperialis I obtained nineteen +moths from the 21st of June to the 19th of July; five pupæ +died. Two pairings took place; the first from the evening of the +13th to the morning of the 14th; the second from the evening of the +15th to the morning of the 16th of July.</p> + +<p>The ova, which are about the size of those of Yama-mai, Pernyi, +or Mylitta, are rather flat and concave on one side, of an +amber-yellow color and transparent, like those of sphingidæ. +When the larvæ have absorbed the yellow liquid in the egg, +and are fully developed; they can be seen through the shell of the +egg, which is white or colorless when the larva has come out.</p> + +<p>The larvæ of Imperialis, which have six stages, commenced +to hatch on the 31st of July; the second stage commenced on the 7th +of August; the third, on the 17th; the fourth, on the 29th of +August; the fifth, on the 18th of September; and the sixth, on the +1st of October. The larvæ commenced to pupate on 13th of +October.</p> + +<p>The larvæ of this curious species vary considerably in +color. Some are of a yellowish color, others are brown and tawny, +others are black or nearly black. My correspondent in Georgia, who +bred this species the same season as I did, in 1881, had some of +the larvæ that were green. In all the stages the larvæ +have five conspicuous spines or horns; two on the third segment, +two on the fourth, and one on the last segment but one; this is +taking the head as the first segment with regard to the first four +spines These spines are rough and covered with sharp points all +round, and their extremities are fork-like. In the first three +stages they are horny; in the last three stages these spines are +fleshy, and much shorter in proportion than they are in the first +three stages. The color of the spines in the last three stages is +coral-red, yellowish, or black. In the fifth and sixth stages the +spine on the last segment but one is very short.</p> + +<p>Here are a few and short notes from my book:</p> + +<p>1st stage. Larvæ, about one-third of an inch; head, brown, +shiny, and globulous.</p> + +<p>2d stage. Larvæ, dark-brown, almost black; spines, white +at the base, and black at the extremities; head shiny and light +brown.</p> + +<p>3d stage. Larve, fine black; head black; white hairs on the +back; spines, whitish, buff, or yellowish at the base, and black at +the extremities; other larvæ of a brown color.</p> + +<p>4th stage. Larvæ, black granulated with white; long white +hairs; horns, brown-orange with white tips; on each segment two +brown spots. Spiracles well marked with outer circle, brown, then +black; white and black dot in the center. Anal segment with brown +ribs, the intervals black with white dots; head shining, black with +two brown bands on the face, forming a triangle. Other larvæ +in fourth stage, velvety black, with coral-red spines; others with +black spines.</p> + +<p>5th stage. Larvæ, entirely black, with showy eye-like +spiracles, polished black head; other larvæ having the head +brown and black. Larvæ covered with long white hair; spines +black or red. No difference noticed between the fifth and sixth +stages.</p> + +<p>One larva on fourth stage was different from all others, and was +described at the British Museum by Mr. W. F. Kirby as follows: +"Larva reddish-brown, sparingly clothed with long slender white +hairs, with four reddish stripes on the face, two rows of red spots +on the back, spiracles surrounded with yellow, black and red rings; +legs red, prolegs black, spotted with red. On segments three and +four are four long coral-red fleshy-branched spines, two on each +segment, below which, on each side, are two rudimentary ones just +behind the head; in front of segment two are four similar +rudimentary orange spines or tubercles; last segment black, +strongly granulated and edges triangularly above and at the sides, +with coral-red; several short rudimentary fleshy spines rising from +the red portion; the last segment but one is reddish above, with a +short red spine in the middle, and the one before it has a long +coral-red spine in the middle similar to those of segments three +and four, but shorter"</p> + +<p>As soon as my Imperialis larvæ had hatched, I gave them +various kinds of foliage, plane-tree, oak, pine, sallow, etc. At +first they did not touch any kind of foliage, or they did not seem +to touch any; and I was afraid I should be unable to rear them; but +on the second or third day of their existence, they made up their +minds and decided upon eating the foliage of some of the European +trees I had offered them. They attacked oak, sallow, and pine, but +did not touch the plane-tree leaves. In America, the larvæ of +Imperialis feed on button-wood, which is the American plane-tree +(<i>Platanus occidentalis</i>), yet they did not take to +<i>Platanus orientalis</i>. After a little time I reduced the +foliage to oak and sallow branches, and ultimately gave them the +sallow (<i>Salix caprea</i>) only, on which they thrived very well. +I was pleased with this success; as I had previously read in a +volume of the "Naturalist's Library" a description of +<i>Ceratocampa imperialis</i>, which ends as follows: "The +caterpillars are not common, and are the most difficult to bring to +perfection in confinement, as they will not eat in that situation; +and, even if they change into a chrysalis, they die afterward."</p> + +<p>Before I finish with <i>C. imperialis</i>, I must mention a +peculiar fact. During the first stage, and, I think, also during +the second, several larvæ disappeared without leaving any +traces. I also saw two smaller larvæ held tight by the hind +claspers of two larger ones. The larvæ thus held and pressed +were perfectly dead when I observed them, and I removed them. My +impression then was that these larvae were carnivorous, not from +this last fact alone, as I had previously observed it with +larvæ of Catocalæ when they are too crowded, but from +the fact that some had disappeared entirely from the glass under +which they were confined. I began to reduce their numbers, and put +six only under each glass, so as to be able to watch them better. +Whether I had made a mistake or not previously to this I do not +exactly know; but from this moment the larvae behaved in a most +exemplary manner, especially when they became larger. They crawled +over each other's backs without the least sign of spite or +animosity, even when they were in sleep, in which case larvæ +are generally very sensitive and irritable, all were of a most +pacific nature. It is, therefore, with the greatest pleasure that, +for want of sufficient evidence, I withdraw this serious charge of +cannibalism which I first intended to bring against them.</p> + +<p>From what has been said respecting the rearing of exotic +silk-producing bombyces, especially tropical species, it must have +been observed that several difficulties, standing in the way of +success, have to be overcome. The moths of North American species +emerge regularly enough during the months of May, June, or July, +but Indian and other tropical species may emerge at any time of the +year, if the weather is mild, as has been the case during this +unusually mild winter of 1881-1882. From the end of December to the +present time (March 14, 1882) moths of four species of Indian +silk-producers, especially <i>Antheræa roylei</i> and +<i>Actias selene</i>, have constantly emerged, but only one or two +at a time. These moths emerged from cocoons received in December +and January last.</p> + +<p>It is only when these tropical species shall have been already +reared in Europe that the emergence of the moths will be regular; +then they will be single-brooded in Northern or Central Europe, and +some will very likely become double-brooded in Southern Europe. But +when just imported the moths of these tropical species will always +be uncertain and irregular in their emergence; hence the importance +of having a sufficient number of cocoons so as to meet this +difficulty, i.e., the loss of the moths that emerge prematurely or +irregularly.</p> + +<p>Before I conclude, I shall repeat what I already stated in a +previous report, that the sending of live cocoons and pupæ +from India and other distant countries to Europe, can easily be +done, so that they will arrive alive and in good condition, if care +be taken that the boxes containing these live cocoons and +pupæ should not be left in the sun or near a fire (which has +been the case before), and that they should at once be put in a +cool place or in the ice-room of the steamer. The cocoons and +pupæ should be sent from October to March or April, according +to distance, and it is most important to write on the cases, +"Living silkworm cocoons or pupæ, the case to be placed in +the ice room."</p> + +<p>By taking this simple precaution, live cocoons and pupæ, +when newly formed, can be safely sent from very distant countries +of Europe.</p> + +<p>To continue these interesting and useful studies, I shall always +be glad to buy any number of live cocoons, or exchange them for +other species, if preferable.</p> + +<p>ALFRED WAILLY.</p> + +<p>110 Clapham Road, London, S.W.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>MOSQUITO OIL.</h2> + +<p>A correspondent from Sheepshead Bay, a place celebrated for the +size of its mosquitoes and the number of its amateur fishermen, +recommends the following as a very good mixture for anointing the +face and hands while fishing:</p> + +<pre> + Oil of tar. 1 ounce. + Olive oil. 1 ounce. + Oil of pennyroyal. ½ ounce. + Spirit of camphor. ½ ounce. + Glycerine. ½ ounce. + Carbolic acid. 2 drachms. +</pre> + +<p>Mix. Shake well before using.--<i>Drug. Circular</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="16"></a><a name="15"></a></p> + +<h2>THE CATHEDRAL OF BURGOS.</h2> + +<p>This most remarkable structure, in the province of the same +name, adorns the city of Burgos, 130 miles north of Madrid. The +corner stone was laid July 20, A.D. 1221, by Fernando III., and his +Queen Beatrice, assisted by Archbishop Mauricio. The world is +indebted to Mauricio for the selection of the site, and for the +general idea and planning of what he intended should be, and in +fact now is, the finest temple of worship in the world. This +immense stone structure, embellished with airy columns, pointed +arches, statues, inscriptions, delicate crestings, and flanked by +two needles or aerial arrows, rises toward the heavens, a sublime +invocation of Christian genius.</p> + +<p>Illuminated by the morning sun it appears, at a certain +distance, as if the pyramids were floating in space; further on is +seen the marvelous dome of the transept, crowned with eight towers +of chiseled lace-work, over the center of the church.</p> + +<p>Pubic worship was held in a portion of the edifice nine years +after the work was begun; from that time onward for three hundred +years, various additional portions were completed. On March 4, +1539, the great transept, built fifty years previous, fell down; +but was soon restored. August 16, 1642, at 6½ o'clock, P.M., +a furious hurricane overthrew the eight little towers that form the +exterior corner of the dome; but in two years they were replaced, +namely July 19, 1644: the same night the great bells sounded an +alarm of fire, the transept having in some way become ignited. The +activity of the populace, however, prevented the loss of the +edifice, which for a time was in great danger.</p> + +<p>The first architect publicly mentioned in the archives of the +edifice was the Master Enrique. He also directed the work of the +Cathedral of Leon. He died July 10, 1277. The second architect was +Juan Perez, who died in 1296, and was buried in the cloister, under +the cathedral. He is believed to have been either the son or +brother of the celebrated Master Pedro Perez, who designed the +Cathedral of Toledo, and who died in 1299. The third architect of +the Cathedral of Burgos was Pedro Sanchez, who directed the work in +1384; after him followed Juan Sanchez de Molina, Martin Fernandez, +the three Colonias, Juan de Vallejo, Diego de Siloe, the elder +Nicolas de Vergara, Matienzo, Pieredonda, Gil, Regines, and others. +It is worthy of note that a number of Moorish architects were +employed on the work during the 14th and 15th centuries, such as +Mohomad, Yunce, the Master Hali, the Master Mahomet de Aranda, the +Master Yunza de Carrion, the Master Carpenter Brahen. Among the +figure sculptors employed were Juan Sanchez de Fromesta, the +Masters Gil and Copin, the famous Felipe de Vigardi, Juan de +Lancre, Anton de Soto, Juan de Villareal, Pedro de Colindres, and +many others. Our engraving is from a recent number of <i>La +Ilustracion Espanola y Americana</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/6a.png"><img src= +"images/6a_th.jpg" alt= +"THE CATHEDRAL OF BURGOS, SPAIN.--PHOTOGRAPH BY DE LAURENT.--DRWAWING BY M. HEBERT."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE CATHEDRAL OF BURGOS, SPAIN.--PHOTOGRAPH BY DE +LAURENT.--DRWAWING BY M. HEBERT.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="1"></a></p> + +<h2>THE PANAMA CANAL.</h2> + +<h3>By MANUEL EISSLER, M.E., of San Francisco, Cal.</h3> + +<h3>I.</h3> + +<h3>HISTORICAL NOTES.</h3> + +<p>When Cortez, in the year 1530, made the observation that the two +great oceans could be seen from the peaks of mountains, he, in +those remote days, preoccupied himself with the question to cut +through the Cordilleras.</p> + +<p>Therefore, the idea of an interoceanic canal is by no means a +modern one, as travelers and navigators observed that there was a +great depression among the hills of the Isthmus of Panama. As +Professor T.E. Nurse, of the U.S.N., says in his memoirs:</p> + +<p>"This problem of interoceanic communication has been justly said +to possess not only practical value, but historical grandeur. It +clearly links itself back to the era of the conquest of Cortez, +three and a half centuries." [1] It is a problem which has been +left for our modern era to solve, but nevertheless its history is +thereby rendered still more interesting, having needed so many +centuries to bring it to an issue.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: From Prof. Nurse's historical essay. See Survey of +Nicaragua Canal, by Com. Lull.]</p> + +<p>Spain, which acquired through her Columbus a new empire, lying +near, as it was supposed, to the riches of Asia, could not be +indifferent, from the moment of her discoveries, to the means of +crossing these lands to yet richer ones beyond.</p> + +<p>India, from the days of Alexander and of the geographers, Mela, +Strabo, and Ptolemy, was the land of promise, the home of the +spices, the inexhaustible fountain of wealth. The old routes of +commerce thither had been closed one by one to the Christians; the +overland trade had fallen into the hands of the Arabs; and at the +fall of Constantinople, 1453, the commerce of the Black Sea and of +the Bosphorus, the last of the old routes to the East, finally +failed the Christian world. Yet even beyond the fame of the East, +which tradition had brought down from Greek and Roman, much more +had the crusaders kindled for Asia (Cathay) and its riches an ardor +not easily suppressed in men's minds.</p> + +<p>The error of the Spanish Admiral in supposing that the eastern +shores of Asia extended 240 degrees east of Spain, or to the +meridian of the modern San Diego, in California--this error, +insisted on in his dispatches and adopted and continued by his +followers, still further animated the earlier Spanish sovereigns +and the men whom they sent into the New World to reach Asia by a +short and easy route.</p> + +<p>Nobody in Europe dreamt that Columbus had discovered a new +continent, and when Balbao, in 1513, discovered the South Sea, then +it was known that Asia lay beyond, and navigators directed their +course there. On his deathbed, in 1506, Columbus still held to his +delusion that he had reached Zipanga, Japan. In 1501 he was +exploring the coast of Veragua, in Central America, still looking +for the Ganges, and announcing his being informed on this coast of +a sea which would bear ships to the mouth of that river, while +about the same time the Cabots, under Henry VII., were taking +possession of Newfoundland, believing it to be part of the island +coast of China.</p> + +<p>Although these were grave blunders in geography and in +navigation, the discoveries really made in the rich tropical zones, +the acquirement of a new world, and the rich products continually +reaching Europe from it, for a time aroused Spain from her +lethargy. The world opened east and west. The new routes poured +their spices, silks, and drugs through new channels into all the +Teutonic countries. The strong purposes of having near access to +the East were deepened and perpetuated doubly strong, by the +certainties before men's eyes of what had been attained.</p> + +<p>Balbao, in 1513, gained from a height on the Isthmus of Panama +the first proof of its separation from Asia; and Magellan enters +the South Sea at the southern extremity of the country, now first +proven to be thus separate and a continent. Men in those days began +to think that creation was doubled, and that such discovered lands +must be separate from India, China, and Japan. And the very +successes of the Portuguese under Vasco da Gama, bringing from +their eastern course the expectancy of Asia's wealth, intensely +excited the Spaniards to renew their western search.</p> + +<p>The Portuguese, led around the Cape of Good Hope, had brought +home vast treasures from the East, while the Spanish discoverers, +as yet, had not reached the countries either of Montezuma or of the +Inca. Their success "troubled the sleep of the Spaniards."</p> + +<p>Everything, then, of personal ambition and national pride, the +thirst for gold, the zeal of religious proselytism, and the cold +calculations of state policy, now concurred in the disposition to +sacrifice what Spain already had of most value on the American +shores in order to seize upon a greater good, the Indies, still +supposed to be near at hand. And since it was now certain that the +new lands were not themselves Asia, the next aim was to find the +secret of the narrow passage across them which must lead thither. +The very configuration of the isthmus strengthened the belief in +the existence of such a passage by the number of its openings, +which seemed to invite entrance in the expectancy that some one of +them must extend across the narrow breadth of land.</p> + +<p>For this the Spanish government, in 1514, gave secret orders to +D'Avilla, Governor of Castila del Oro, and to Juan de Solis, the +navigator, to determine whether Castila del Oro were an island, and +to send to Cuba a chart of the coast, if any strait were possible. +For this, De Solis visited Nicaragua and Honduras; and later, led +far to the south, perished in the La Plata. For this, Magellan +entered the straits, which, strangely enough, he affirmed before +setting out, that he "would enter," since he "had seen them marked +out on the geographer Martin Behaim's globe." For this, Cortez sent +out his expeditions on both coasts, exposing his own life and +treasure, and sending home to the emperor, in his second relation, +a map of the entire Gulf of Mexico (Dispatch from Cortez to Charles +V., October 15, 1524). For this great purpose, and in full +expectancy of success in it, the whole coast of the New World on +each side, from Newfoundland on the northeast, curving westward on +the south, around the whole sweep of the Gulf of Mexico, thence to +Magellan's Straits, and thence through them up the Pacific to the +Straits of Behring, was searched and researched with diligence. +"Men could not get accustomed," says Humboldt, "to the idea that +the continent extended uninterruptedly both so far north and +south." Hence all these large, numerous, and persevering +expeditions by the European powers.</p> + +<p>Among them, by priority of right and by her energy, was Spain. +The great emperor was urgent on the conqueror of Mexico, and on all +in subordinate positions in New Spain, to solve the secret of the +strait. All Spain was awakened to it. "How majestic and fair was +she," says Chevalier, "in the sixteenth century; what daring, what +heroism and perseverance! Never had the world seen such energy, +activity, or good fortune. Hers was a will that regarded no +obstacles. Neither rivers, deserts, nor mountains far higher than +those in Europe, arrested her people. They built grand cities, they +drew their fleets, as in a twinkling of the eye, from the very +forests. A handful of men conquered empires. They seemed a race of +giants or demi-gods. One would have supposed that all the work +necessary to bind together climates and oceans would have been done +at the word of the Spaniards as by enchantment, and since nature +had not left a passage through the center of America, no matter, so +much the better for the glory of the human race; they would make it +up by artificial communication. What, indeed, was that for men like +them? It were done at a word. Nothing else was left for them to +conquer, and the world was becoming too small for them."</p> + +<p>Certainly, had Spain remained what she then was, what had been +in vain sought from nature would have been supplied by man. A canal +or several canals would have been built to take the place of the +long-desired strait. Her men of science urged it. In 1551, Gomara, +the author of the "History of the Indies," proposed the union of +the oceans by three of the very same lines toward which, to this +hour, the eye turns with hope.</p> + +<p>"It is true," said Gomara, "that mountains obstruct these +passes, but if there are mountains there are also hands; let but +the resolve be made, there will be no want of means; the Indies, to +which the passage will be made, will supply them. To a king of +Spain, with the wealth of the Indies at his command, when the +object to be obtained is the spice trade, what is possible is +easy.</p> + +<p>But the sacred fire suddenly burned itself out in Spain. The +peninsula had for its ruler a prince who sought his glory in +smothering free thought among his own people, and in wasting his +immense resources in vain efforts to repress it also outside of his +own dominions through all Europe. From that hour, Spain became +benumbed and estranged from all the advances of science and art, by +means of which other nations, and especially England, developed +their true greatness.</p> + +<p>Even after France had shown, by her canal of the south, that +boats could ascend and pass the mountain crests, it does not appear +that the Spanish government seriously wished to avail itself of a +like means of establishing any communication between her sea of the +Antilles and the South Sea. The mystery enveloping the +deliberations of the council of the Indies has not always remained +so profound that we could not know what was going on in that body. +The Spanish government afterward opened up to Humboldt free access +to its archives, and in these he found several memoirs on the +possibility of a union between the two oceans; but he says that in +no one of them did he find the main point, the height of the +elevations on the isthmus, sufficiently cleared up, and he could +not fail to remark that the memoirs were exclusively French or +English. Spain herself gave it no thought. Since the glorious age +of Balbao among the people, indeed, the project of a canal was in +every one's thoughts. In the very wayside talks, in the inns of +Spain, when a traveler from the New World chanced to pass, after +making him tell of the wonders of Lima and Mexico, of the death of +the Inca, Atahualpa, and the bloody defeat of the Aztecs, and after +asking his opinion of El Dorado, the question was always about the +two oceans, and what great things would happen if they could +succeed in joining them.</p> + +<p>During the whole of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, +Spain had need of the best mode of conveyance for her treasures +across the isthmus. Yet those from Peru came by the miserable route +from Panama to the deadliest of climates. Porto Bello and her +European wares for her colonies toiled up the Chagres river, while +the roughest of communication farther north connected the Chimalapa +and the Guasacoalcos in Mexico, and the trade there was limited +sternly to but one port on each side. As late as Humboldt's visit, +in 1802, when remarking upon the "unnatural modes of communication" +by which, through painful delays, the immense treasures of the New +World passed from Acapulco, Guayaquil, and Lima, to Spain, he says: +"These will soon cease whenever an active government, willing to +protect commerce, shall construct a good road from Panama to Porto +Bello. The aristocratic nonchalance of Spain, and her fear to open +to strangers the way to the countries explored for her own profit, +only kept those countries closed." The court forbade, on pain of +death, the use of plans at different times proposed. They wronged +their own colonies by representing the coasts as dangerous and the +rivers impassable. On the presentation of a memoir for improving +the route through Tehuantepec, by citizens of Oaxaca, as late as +1775, an order was issued forbidding the subject to be mentioned. +The memorialists were censured as intermeddlers, and the viceroy +fell under the sovereign's displeasure for having seemed to favor +the plans.</p> + +<p>The great isthmus was, however, further explored by the Spanish +government for its own purposes; the recesses were traversed, and +the lines of communication which we know to-day were then +noted.</p> + +<p>In addition to the fact that comparatively little was explored +north or south of that which early became the main highway, the +Panama route, there is confirmation here of the truth that Spain +concealed and even falsified much of her generally accurately made +surveys. No stronger proof of this need be asked than that which +Alcedo gives in connection with the proposal by Gogueneche, the +Biscayan pilot, to open communication by the Atrato and the Napipi. +"The Atrato," says the historian, "is navigable for many leagues, +but the navigation of it is prohibited under pain of death, without +the exception of any person whatever."</p> + +<p>The Isthmus of Nicaragua has always invited serious +consideration for a ship canal route by its very marked physical +characteristics, among which is chiefly its great depression +between two nearly parallel ranges of hills, which depression is +the basin of its large lake, a natural and all-sufficient feeder +for such a canal.</p> + +<p>In 1524 a squadron of discovery sent out by Cortez on the coast +of the South Sea, announced the existence of a fresh water sea at +only three leagues from the coast; a sea which, they said, rose and +fell alternately, communicating, it was believed, with the Sea of +the North. Various reconnoissances were therefore made, under the +idea that here the easy transit would be established between Spain +and the spice lands beyond.</p> + +<p>It was even laid down on some of the old maps, that this open +communication by water existed from sea to sea; while later maps +represented a river, under the name of Rio Partido, as giving one +of its branches to the Pacific Ocean and the other to Lake +Nicaragua. An exploration by the engineer, Bautista Antonelli, +under the orders of Philip II., corrected the false idea of an open +strait.</p> + +<p>In the eighteenth century a new cause arose for jealousy of her +neighbors and for keeping her northern part of the isthmus from +their view. In the years 1779 and 1780 the serious purposes of the +English government for the occupancy of Nicaragua, awakened the +solicitudes of the Spanish government for this section. The English +colonels, Hodgson and Lee, had secretly surveyed the lake and +portions of the country, forwarding their plans to London, as the +basis of an armed incursion, to renew such as had already been made +by the superintendent of the Mosquito coast, forty years before, +when, crossing the isthmus, he took possession of Realejo, on the +Pacific, seeking to change its name to Port Edward. In 1780, +Captain, afterward Lord Nelson, under orders from Admiral Sir Peter +Parker, convoyed a force of two thousand men to San Juan de +Nicaragua, for the conquest of the country.</p> + +<p>In his dispatches, Nelson said: "In order to give facility to +the great object of government, I intend to possess the lake of +Nicaragua, which, for the present, may be looked upon as the inland +Gibraltar of Spanish America. As it commands the only water pass +between the oceans, its situation must ever render it a principal +post to insure passage to the Southern Ocean, and by our possession +of it Spanish America is severed into two."</p> + +<p>The passage of San Juan was found to be exceedingly difficult; +for the seamen, although assisted by the Indians from Bluetown, +scarcely forced their boats up the shoals. Nelson bitterly +regretted that the expedition had not arrived in January, in place +of the close of the dry season. It was a disastrous failure, +costing the English the lives of one thousand five hundred men, and +nearly losing to them their Nelson.</p> + +<p>At this period, Charles III., of Spain, sent a commission to +explore the country. These commissioners reported unfavorably as +regarded the route; but fearing further intrusion from England, +forbade all access to the coast; even falsifying and suppressing +its charts and permanently injuring the navigation of the San Juan +and the Colorado by obstructions in their beds.</p> + +<p>It is, however, a relief here to learn that when Humboldt +visited the New World, he could say: "The time is passed when +Spain, through a jealous policy, refused to other nations a +thoroughfare across the possessions of which they kept the whole +world so long in ignorance. Accurate maps of the coasts, and even +minute plans of military positions, are published." It is also true +that the Spanish Cortes, in 1814, decreed the opening of a canal, a +decree deferred and never executed.</p> + +<p>It was reserved for our century to see this great project +carried into execution, and it is but just that as a chronicler of +events I should connect with the Canal of Panama the name of a +family who have done much to bring the scheme, so to say, into +practical execution.</p> + +<p>As early as the year 1836, Mr. Joly de Sabla turned his views +toward the cutting of a canal across the Isthmus of Panama. He +resided at the time on the Island of Guadeloupe, one of the French +West India Islands, where he possessed large estates. Of a high +social position, the representative of one of France's ancient and +noble families, with large means at his disposal and of an +enterprising spirit much in advance of his time, he was well +calculated to carry out such a grand scheme.</p> + +<p>He soon set about procuring from the Government of New Granada +(now Colombia) the necessary grants and concessions, but much time +and many efforts were spent before these could be brought to a +satisfactory condition, and it was not until the year 1841 that he +could again visit the Isthmus, bringing with him this time, on a +vessel chartered by him for the purpose, a corps of engineers and +employes, medical staff, etc., etc. After two years spent in +exploring and surveying a country at that time very imperfectly +known, he returned to Guadeloupe to find his residence and most of +his estates destroyed by the terrible earthquake that visited the +island in February, 1843.</p> + +<p>Undaunted by this unexpected and severe blow, Mr. De Sabla +persisted in his efforts, and in the same year obtained from the +French government the establishment of a Consulate at Panama to +insure protection to the future canal company, and also the sending +of two government engineers of high repute (Messrs. Garella and +Courtines), to verify the surveys already made and complete +them.</p> + +<p>After receiving the respective reports of Garella and Courtines, +Mr. De Sabla decided upon first constructing a railway across the +Isthmus, postponing the cutting of the canal until this +indispensable auxiliary should have rendered it practicable and +profitable. He then presented the scheme in that shape to his +friends in Paris and London, and formed a syndicate of thirteen +members, among whom we may recall the names of the well known +Bankers Caillard of Paris, and Baimbridge of London, of Sir John +Campbell, then Vice President of the Oriental Steamship Company, of +Viscount Chabrol de Chameane, and of Courtines, the exploring +engineer.</p> + +<p>A new contract was then entered upon with New Granada in June, +1847, and early in 1848, the Syndicate was about to forward to the +Isthmus the expedition which was to execute the preliminary works, +while the company was being finally organized in Paris, and its +stock placed.</p> + +<p>The success of the undertaking seemed to be assured beyond +peradventure, when the unexpected breaking out of the French +revolution in February, 1848, dashed all hopes to the ground. +Several of the prominent financiers engaged in the affair, taken by +surprise by the suddenness of the revolution, had to suspend their +payments and of course to withdraw from the Panama Canal and +railroad scheme. Others withdrew from contagious fear and timidity. +Finally the term fixed for carrying out certain obligations of the +contract expired without their fulfillment by the company, and the +concession was forfeited. Another contract was almost immediately +applied for and granted with unseemly haste by the President of New +Granada to Messrs. Aspinwall, Stephens and Chauncey, which resulted +in the construction of the actual Panama Railroad.</p> + +<p>These gentlemen acted fairly in the matter, and in 1849, calling +Mr. De Sabla to New York, offered him to join them in the new +scheme. Unfortunately they had decided upon placing the Atlantic +terminus of the railroad upon the low and swampy mud Island of +Manzanillo, while Mr. De Sabla insisted on having it on the +mainland on the dry and healthy northern shore of the Bay of Limon. +They could not come to an understanding on this point, and Mr. De +Sabla, whose experience and foresight taught him the dangers that +would result to the shipping from the unprotected situation of the +projected part (now Colon--Aspinwall), and who well knew the +insalubrity of the malarial swamp constituting the Island of +Manzanillo, withdrew forever from the undertaking, after having +devoted to it without any benefit to himself, the best years of his +life and a large portion of his private means.</p> + +<p>One of his sons, Mr. Theodore J. de Sabla, after having actively +co-operated with Lieutenant Commander Wyse, in the original scheme +of the present canal company, is now one of Count de Lesseps's +representatives in the City of New York, and a director of the +Panama Railroad Company.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="2"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVED AVERAGING MACHINE.</h2> + +<p>At the recent meeting of the American Society of Civil +Engineers, in this city, a paper on an improved form of the +averaging machine was read by its inventor, Mr. Wm. S. +Auchincloss.</p> + +<p>The ingenious method by which the weight of the platform is +eliminated from the result of the work of the machine was exhibited +and explained. This is accomplished by counterweights sliding +automatically in tubes, so that in any position the unloaded +platform is always in equilibrium. Any combination of +representative weights can then be placed on this platform at the +proper points of the scale. By then drawing the platform to its +balancing point, the location of the center of gravity will at once +be indicated on the scale by the pointer over the central +trunnion.</p> + +<p>The weights may be arranged on a decimal system, with +intermediate weights for closer working, or they may be made so as +to express multiples or factors.</p> + +<p>Each machine is provided with a number of differing scales, +divided suitably for various purposes. When the problem is one of +time, the scale represents months and days; for problems of +proportion, the zero of the scale is at the center of its length; +for problems for the location of center of gravity of a system from +a fixed point, the zero is at the extremity of the scale, etc.</p> + +<p>The machine exhibited has sixty-three transverse grooves, which, +by arrangement of weights, can be made to serve the purposes of two +hundred and fifty-two grooves.</p> + +<p>The machine is 29 inches in length, 9 inches in width, and +weighs about 13 pounds.</p> + +<p>With the machine can be found average dates, as, for instance, +of purchases and of payments extending over irregular periods; also +average prices, as for "futures," in comman use among cotton +brokers. The problem of average haul, so often presented to the +engineer, can be solved with ease and great celerity. Practical +examples of the solution of these and a number of other problems +involving proportions or averages were given by the author.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="3"></a></p> + +<h2>COMPOUND BEAM ENGINE.</h2> + +<p>The engine represented in Figs. 1 to 4 herewith is intended for +a mill, and is of 530 to 800 indicated horse-power, the pressure +being seven atmospheres, and the number of revolutions forty-five +per minute. As will be seen by the drawing each cylinder is placed +in a separate foundation plate, the two connecting rods acting upon +cranks keyed at right angles upon the shaft, W, which carries the +drum, T. The high-pressure cylinder, C, is 760 mm diameter, the low +pressure cylinder being 1,220 mm. diameter, and the piston speed +2.28 m. The drum, which also fulfills the purpose of a fly wheel, +is provided with twenty-eight grooves for ropes of 50 mm. diameter. +With the exception of the cylinders, pistons, valves, and valve +chests, the engines are of the same size, corresponding to the +equal maximum pressures which come into action in each cylinder, +and in this respect alone the engine differs in principle from an +ordinary twin machine.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/8a.png"><img src= +"images/8a_th.jpg" alt= +"BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 1"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 1</p> + +<p>The steam passes from the stop-valve, A, Fig. 4, through the +steam pipe, D, to the high pressure cylinder, C, and having done +its work, goes into the receiver, R, where it is heated. From the +receiver it is led into the low-pressure cylinder, C<sup>1</sup>, +and thence into the condenser. Provision is made for working both +engines independently with direct steam when desired, suitable gear +being provided for supplying steam of the proper pressure to the +condensing engine, so that each engine shall perform exactly the +same amount of work. The starting gear consists of a hand-wheel, H, +which controls the stop valve, A, and of another h, which opens the +valves for the jackets of the cylinders and receiver. The +hand-wheel, h<sup>1</sup> and h<sup>2</sup>, govern the valves, +which turn the steam direct into the two cylinders. There are also +lever, g, which opens the principal injection cock, H<sup>1</sup>, +and the auxiliary injection cock, H<sup>2</sup>, the function of +which is to assist in forming a speedy vacuum, when the engine has +been standing for some time.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/9a.png"><img src= +"images/9a_th.jpg" alt= +"BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 2"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 2</p> + +<p>The drum is 6.08 m. diameter, the breadth being 2.04 m., with a +total weight of 33,000 kilos. The beams are of cast iron with +balance weights cast on. The connecting rods and cross beams are of +wrought iron, and the cranks, crank shaft, piston rods, valve rods, +etc., of steel. The bed-plate for the main shaft bearings are cast +in one piece with the standards for the beam, which are connected +firmly together by the center bearing, M M<sup>1</sup>, which is +cast in one piece, and also by the diagonal bracing piece, N +N<sup>1</sup>. The construction of the cylinder and valve chests is +shown in Fig. 1. The working cylinder is in the form of a liner to +the cylinder, thus forming the steam jacket, with a view to future +renewal. This lining has a flange at the lower part for bolting it +down, being made steam-tight by the intervention of a copper +packing ring. There is a similar ring at the upper part which is +pressed down by the cylinder cover. The latter is cast hollow and +strengthened by ribs. The pistons are provided with cast iron +double self-expanding packing rings. For preventing accidents by +condensed water, spring safety valves, ss and s<sup>1</sup> +s<sup>1</sup>, are connected to the valve chests. The valve gear, +which is arranged in the same manner for both cylinders, is +actuated by shafts, w and w<sup>1</sup>, rotated by toothed wheels +as shown. Motion is communicated from the way-shafts, w and +w<sup>1</sup>, by the eccentrics, and the eccentric rods, +e<sup>1</sup> e<sup>2</sup> e<sup>3</sup> e<sup>4</sup>, and the +levers and rods belonging thereto, to the short steam valve rocking +shafts levers, f<sup>1</sup> f<sup>2</sup> f<sup>3</sup> +f<sup>4</sup>, and the exhaust valve rocking shafts, k<sup>1</sup> +k<sup>2</sup> k<sup>3</sup> k<sup>4</sup>, the bearings of which +are carried on brackets above the valve chests, which, being +furnished with tappet levers, raise and lower the valves.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/9b.png"><img src= +"images/9b_th.jpg" alt= +"BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 3"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 3</p> + +<p>The valves are conical, double-seated, and of cast iron, and the +inlet and outlet valves are placed the one above the other, the +seats being also conically ground and inserted through the cover of +the valve chest. Both inlet and outlet valves are actuated from +above, and are removable upward, an arrangement which admits of the +valves being more easily examined than when the two are actuated +from different sides of the valve chest. To carry out this idea the +inlet valves are furnished with two guides, which, passing upward +through the stuffing-box, are attached to a hard steel cross piece, +which receives the action of a bent catch turning on a pin attached +to the levers, t<sub>1</sub>, t<sub>2</sub>, t<sub>3</sub>, +t<sub>4</sub>. The exhaust valves, on the contrary, have only one +guide each, which passes upward through the seat of the admission +valve, through the valve itself by means of a collar, and through +the stuffing-box. It is furnished with hard steel armatures, +through which the levers, z<sub>1</sub> z<sub>2</sub>, Fig. 3, act +upon the exhaust valves.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/8b.png"><img src= +"images/8b_th.jpg" alt= +"BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 4"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">BORSIG'S IMPROVED COPOUND BEAM ENGINE. FIG. 4</p> + +<p>The governor effects the acceleration or retardation of the +loosening of the catch actuating the steam valve by means of hard +steel projections on the shaft, v<sub>1</sub>, the position of +which, by means of levers, is regulated by the governor, which in +its highest position does not allow the lifting of the inlet valve +at all. The regulation of the expansion by the governor from 0 to +0.45 takes place generally only in the case of the high-pressure +cylinder, while the low-pressure cylinder has a fixed rate of +expansion. Only when the low-pressure cylinder is required to work +with steam direct from the boiler is the governor applied to +regulate the expansion in it. An exact action in the valve guides +and a regular descent is secured by furnishing them with small dash +pot pistons working in cylinders. Into them the air is readily +admitted by a small India-rubber valve, but the passage out again +is controlled at pleasure.--<i>The Engineer</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>TO DETECT ALKALIES IN NITRATE OF SILVER--Stolba recommends the +salt to be dissolved in the smallest quantity of water, and to add +to the filtered solution hydrofluosilicic acid, drop by drop. +Should a turbidity appear an alkaline salt is present. But should +the liquid remain limpid, an equal volume of alcohol is to be +added, which will cause a precipitate in case the slightest trace +of an alkali be present.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="4"></a></p> + +<h2>POWER HAMMERS WITH MOVABLE FULCRUM.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Paper read before the Institution of Mechanical +Engineers.--<i>Engineering</i>.]</p> + +<h3>By DANIEL LONGWORTH, of London.</h3> + +<p>The movable-fulcrum power hammer was designed by the writer +about five and a half years ago, to meet a want in the market for a +power hammer which, while under the complete control of only one +workman, could produce blows of varying forces without alteration +in the rapidity with which they were given. It was also necessary +that the vibration and shock of the hammer head should not be +transmitted to the driving mechanism, and that the latter should be +free from noise and liability to derangement. The various uses to +which the movable fulcrum hammers have been put, and their success +in working[1]--as well as the importance of the general subject +which includes them, namely, the substitution of stored power for +human effort--form the author's excuse for now occupying the time +of the meeting.</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: The hammers have been for some years used by A. +Bamlett, of Thirsk; the American Tool Company, of Antwerp; Messrs. +W.&T. Avery, of Birmingham; Pullar & Sons, of Perth; Salter +& Co., of West Bromwich; Vernon Hope & Co., of Wednesbury, +etc.; and also for stamps by Messrs. Collins & Co., of +Birmingham, etc.]</p> + +<p>Until these hammers were introduced, no satisfactory method had +been devised for altering the force of the blow. The plan generally +adopted was to have either a tightening pulley acting on the +driving belt, a friction driving clutch, or a simple brake on the +driving pulley, put in action by the hand or foot of the workman. +Heavy blows were produced by simply increasing the number of blows +per minute (and therefore the velocity), and light blows by +diminishing it--a plan which was quite contrary to the true +requirements of the case. To prevent the shock of the hammer head +being communicated to the driving gear, an elastic connection was +usually formed between them, consisting of a steel spring or a +cushion of compressed air. With the steel spring, the variation +which could be given in the thickness of the work under the hammer +was very limited, owing to the risk of breaking the spring; but +with the compressed air or pneumatic connection the work might vary +considerably in thickness, say from 0 to 8 in. with a hammer +weighing 400lb. The pneumatic hammers had a crank, with a +connecting rod or a slotted crossbar on the piston-rod, a piston +and a cylinder which formed the hammer-head. The piston-rod was +packed with a cup leather, or with ordinary packing, the latter +required to be adjusted with the greatest nicety, otherwise the +piston struck the hammer before lifting it, or else the force of +the blow was considerably diminished. As the piston moved with the +same velocity during its upward and downward strokes, and, in the +latter, had to overtake and outrun the hammer falling under the +action of gravity, the air was not compressed sufficiently to give +a sharp blow at ordinary working speeds, and a much heavier hammer +was required than if the velocity of the piston had been +accelerated to a greater degree.</p> + +<p>As it is impossible in the limits of this paper to describe all +the forms in which the movable fulcrum hammers have been arranged, +two types only will be selected taken from actual work; namely, a +small planishing hammer, and a medium-sized forging hammer.[1]</p> + +<p>[Footnote 1: To the makers, Messrs. J. Scott Rawlings & Co, +of Birmingham, the author is indebted for the working drawings of +these hammers.]</p> + +<p>The small planishing hammer, Figs. 1 to 3, next page, is used +for copper, tin, electro, and iron plate, for scythes, and other +thin work, for which it is sufficient to adjust the force of the +blow once for all by hand, according to the thickness and quality +of the material before commencing to hammer it. The hammer weighs +15 lb., and has a stroke variable from 2½ in. to 9½ +in., and makes 250 blows per minute. The driving shaft, A, is +fitted with fast and loose belt pulleys, the belt fork being +connected to the pedal, P, which when pressed down by the foot of +the workman, slides the driving belt on to the fast pulley and +starts the hammer; when the foot is taken off the pedal, the weight +on the latter moves the belt quickly on to the loose pulley, and +the hammer is stopped. The flywheel on the shaft, A, is weighted on +one side, so that it causes the hammer to stop at the top of its +stroke after working; thus enabling the material to be placed on +the anvil before starting the hammer. The movable fulcrum, B, +consists of a stud, free to slide in a slot, C, in the framing, and +held in position by a nut and toothed washer. On the fulcrum is +mounted the socket, D, through which passes freely a round bar or +rocking lever, E, attached at one end to the main piston, F, of the +hammer, G, and having at the other extremity a long slide, H, +mounted upon it. This slide is carried on the crank-pin, I, +fastened to the disk, J, attached to the driving shaft, A. The +crank-pin, in revolving, reciprocates the rocking lever, E, and +main piston, F, and through the medium of the pneumatic connection, +the hammer, G. The slide, H, in revolving with the crank-pin, also +moves backward and forward along the rocking lever, approaching the +fulcrum, B, during the down-stroke of the hammer, and receding from +it during the up-stroke. By this means the velocity of the hammer +is considerably accelerated in its downward stroke, causing a sharp +blow to be given while it is gently raised during its upward +stroke.</p> + +<p>To alter the force of the blow, the hammer, G, is made to rise +and fall through a greater or less distance, as may be required, +from the fixed anvil block, K, after the manner of the smith giving +heavy or light blows on his anvil. It is evident that this special +alteration of the stroke could not be obtained by altering the +throw of a simple crank and connecting rod; but by placing the +slot, C, parallel with the direction of the rocking lever, E, when +the latter is in its lowest position, with the hammer resting on +the anvil, and with the crank at the top of its stroke, this lowest +position of the rocking lever and hammer is made constant, no +matter what position the fulcrum, B, may have in the slot, C. To +obtain a short stroke, and consequently a light blow, the fulcrum +is moved in the slot toward the hammer, G; and to produce a long +stroke and heavy blow the fulcrum is moved in the opposite +direction.</p> + +<p>Fig. 3 gives the details of the pneumatic connection between the +main piston and the hammer, in which packing and packing glands are +dispensed with. The hammer, G, is of cast steel, bored out to fit +the main piston, F, the latter being also bored out to receive an +internal piston, L. A pin, M, passing freely through slots in the +main piston, F, connects rigidly the internal piston, L, with the +hammer, G. When the main piston is raised by the rocking lever, the +air in the space, X, between the main and internal pistons, is +compressed, and forms an elastic medium for lifting the hammer; +when the main piston is moved down, the air in the space, Y, is +compressed in its turn, and the hammer forced down to give the +blow. Two holes drilled in the side of the hammer renew the air +automatically in the spaces, X and Y, at each blow of the +hammer.</p> + +<p>Figs. 4 to 6, on the next page, represent the medium size +forging hammer, for making forgings in dies, swaging and tilting +bars, and plating edged tools, etc.</p> + +<p>The hammer weighs 1 cwt., has a stroke variable from 4 in. to +14½ in., and gives 200 blows per minute; the compressed air +space between the main piston and the hammer is sufficiently long +to admit forgings up to 3 in. thick under the hammer.</p> + +<p>To make forgings economically, it is necessary to bring them +into the desired form by a few heavy blows, while the material is +still in a highly plastic condition, and then to finish them by a +succession of lighter blows. The heavy blows should be given at a +slower rate than the lighter ones, to allow time for turning the +work in the dies or on the anvil, and so to avoid the risk of +spoiling it. In forging with the steam hammer the workman requires +an assistant, who, with the lever of the valve motion in hand, +obeys his directions as to starting and stopping, heavy or light +blows, slow or quick blows, etc; the quickest speed attainable +depending on the speed of the arm of the assistant. In the +movable-fulcrum forging hammer the operations of starting and +stopping, and the giving of heavy or light blows, are under the +complete control of one foot of the workman, who requires therefore +no assistant; and by properly proportioning the diameter of the +driving pulley and size of belt to the hammer, the heavy blows are +given at a slower rate than the light ones, owing to the greater +resistance which they offer to the driving belt.</p> + +<p>In this hammer the pneumatic connection, the arrangements for +the starting, stopping, and holding up of the hammer, as well as +those for communicating the motion of the crank-pin to the hammer +by means of a rocking lever and movable fulcrum, are similar to +those in the planishing hammer, differing only in the details, +which provide double guides and bearings for the principal working +parts.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/10a.png"><img src= +"images/10a_th.jpg" alt= +"LONGWORTH'S POWER HAMMER WITH MOVABLE FULCRUM."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">LONGWORTH'S POWER HAMMER WITH MOVABLE FULCRUM.</p> + +<p>The movable fulcrum, B, Figs. 4 and 5, consists of two +adjustable steel pins, attached to the fulcrum lever, Q, and turned +conical where they fit in the socket, D. The fulcrum lever is +pivoted on a pin, R, fixed in the framing of the machine, and is +connected at its lower extremity to the nut, S, in gear with the +regulating screw, T. The to-and-fro movement of the fulcrum lever, +Q, by which heavy or light blows are given by the hammer, is placed +under the control of the foot of the workman, in the following +manner: U is a double-ended forked lever, pivoted in the center, +and having one end embracing the starting pedal, P, and the other +end the small belt which connects the fast pulley on the driving +shaft, A, with the loose pulley, V, or the reversing pulleys, W and +X. These are respectivly connected with the bevel wheels, +W<sub>1</sub>, and X<sub>1</sub>, gearing into and placed at +opposite sides of the bevel wheel, Z, on the regulating screw in +connection with the fulcrum lever. When the workman places his foot +on the pedal, P, to start the hammer, he finds his foot within the +fork of the lever, U; and by slightly turning his foot round on his +heel he can readily move the forked lever to right or left, so +shifting the small belt on to either of the reversing pulleys, W or +X, and causing the regulating screw, T, to revolve in either +direction. The fulcrum lever is thus caused to move forward or +backward, to give light or heavy blows. By moving the forked lever +into mid position, the small belt is shifted into its usual place +on the loose pulley, V, and the fulcrum remains at rest. To fix the +lightest and heaviest blow required for each kind of work, +adjustable stops are provided, and are mounted on a rod, Y, +connected to an arm of the forked lever. When the nut of the +regulating screw comes in contact with either of the stops, the +forked lever is forced into mid position, in spite of the pressure +of the foot of the workman, and thus further movement of the +fulcrum lever, in the direction which it was taking, is prevented. +The movable fulcrum can also be adjusted by hand to any required +blow, when the hammer is stopped, by means of a handle in +connection with the regulating screw.</p> + +<p>In conclusion the author wishes to direct attention to the fact, +that in many of our largest manufactories, particularly in the +midland counties, foot and hand labor for forging and stamping is +still employed to an enormous extent. Hundreds of "Olivers," with +hammers up to 60 lb. in weight, are laboriously put in motion by +the foot of the workman, at a speed averaging fifty blows per +minute; while large numbers of stamps, worked by hand and foot, and +weighing up to 120 lb., are also employed. The low first cost of +the foot hammers and stamps, combined with the system of piece +work, and the desire of manufacturers to keep their methods of +working secret, have no doubt much to do with the small amount of +progress that has been made; although in a few cases competition, +particularly with the United States of America, has forced the +manufacturer to throw the Oliver and hand-stamp aside, and to +employ steam power hammers and stamps. The writer believes that in +connection with forging and stamping processes there is still a +wide and profitable field for the ingenuity and capital of +engineers, who choose to occupy themselves with this minor, but not +the less useful, branch of mechanics.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="5"></a></p> + +<h2>THE BICHEROUX SYSTEM OF FURNACES APPLIED TO THE PUDDLING OF +IRON.</h2> + +<p>Since the year 1872, the large iron works at Ougrée, near +Liege, have applied the Bicheroux system of furnaces to heating, +and, since the year 1877, to puddling. The results that have been +obtained in this last-named application are so satisfactory that it +appears to us to be of interest to speak of the matter in some +detail.</p> + +<p>The apparatus, which is shown in the opposite page, consists of +three distinct parts: (1) a gas generator; (2) a mixing chamber +into which the gases and air are drawn by the natural draught, and +wherein the combustion of the gases begins; and (3) a furnace, or +laboratory (not represented in the figure), wherein the combustion +is nearly finished, and wherein take place the different reactions +of puddling. These three parts are given dimensions that vary +according to the composition of the different coals, and they may +be made to use any sort of coal, even the fine and schistose kinds +which would not be suitable for ordinary puddling. The gases and +the air necessary for the combustion of these being brought +together at different temperatures, and being drawn into the mixing +chamber through the same chimney, it will be seen that the +dimensions of the flues that conduct them should vary with the kind +of coal used; and the manner in which the gases are brought +together is not a matter of indifference.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/11a.png"><img src= +"images/11a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE BICHEROUX SYSTEM OF FURNACE.<br> +<br> +Vertical Section, and Horizontal Section through MNOPQR</p> + +<p>The gas generator consists of a hopper, A, into which drops, +through small apertures a, the coal piled up on the platform, D. +These apertures are closed with coal or bricks. The bottom of the +generator is formed of a small standing grate. The coal, on falling +upon a mass in a state of ignition, distills and becomes +transformed into coke, which gradually slides down over a grate to +produce afterward, through its own combustion, a distillation of +the coal following it. But as these are features found in all +generators we will not dwell upon them.</p> + +<p>The gases that are produced flow through a long horizontal flue, +B, into a vertical conduit, E, into which there debouches at the +upper part a series of small orifices, F, that conduct the air that +has been heated. The gases are inflamed, and traverse the furnace c +(not shown in the cut), from whence they go to the chimney. Before +the air is allowed to reach the intervening chamber it is made to +pass into the sole of the furnace and into the walls of the +chamber, so that to the advantage of having the air heated there is +joined the additional one of having those portions of the furnace +cooled that cannot be heated with impunity.</p> + +<p>The incompletely burned gases that escape from the furnace are +utilized in heating the boilers of the establishment. The +dimensions given these furnaces vary greatly according to the +charge to be used. All the results at Ougrée have been +obtained with 400 kilogramme charges, and the dimensions of the gas +generators have been calculated for Six-Bonniers coal, which does +not yield over 20 per cent. of gas.</p> + +<p>The advantages of this system, which permits of expediting all +the operations of puddling, are as follows:</p> + +<p>1. A notable economy in fuel, both as regards quantity and +quality.</p> + +<p>2. Economy resulting from diminution in the waste of metal, with +a consequent improvement in the quality of the products +obtained.</p> + +<p>3. Diminution in cost of repairs.</p> + +<p>4. Less rapid wear in the grates.</p> + +<p>5. Improvement in the conditions of the work of puddling.</p> + +<p>As regards the first of these advantages, it may be stated that +the puddling of ordinary Ougrée forge iron, which required +with other furnaces 900 to 1,000 kilogrammes of coal, is now +performed with less than 600 kilogrammes per ton of the iron +produced. The puddling of fine grained iron which required 1,300 to +1,500 kilogrammes of coal is now done with 800. So much for +quantity; as for quality the system presents also a very marked +advantage in that it requires no rolling coal--the operation of the +furnace being just as regular with fine coal, even that sifted +through screens of 0.02 meter.</p> + +<p>The second class of advantages naturally results from the almost +complete prevention of access of cold air. The saving in wastage +amounts to 3 or 4 per cent., that is to say, 100 kilogrammes of +iron produced is accompanied by a loss of only 9 to 10 kilogrammes, +instead of 13 to 15 as ordinarily reckoned.</p> + +<p>The diminution in the cost of repairs is due to the fact that +the furnace doors, of which there are two, permit of easy access to +all parts of the sole; moreover, the coal never coming in contact +with the fire-bridges, the latter last much longer than those in +other styles of furnaces, and can be used for several weeks without +the necessity of the least repair. The reduced wear of the grates +results from the low temperature that can be used in the furnace, +and the quantity of clinker that can be left therein without +interfering with its operation, thus permitting of having the +grates always black. These latter in no wise change, and after five +months of work the square bars still preserve their sharpness of +edges.</p> + +<p>As for the improvements in the conditions of the work of +puddling, it may be stated that with a uniform price per 100 +kilogrammes for all the furnaces, the laborers working at the gas +furnaces can earn 25 to 30 per cent. more than those working at +ordinary furnaces.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="6"></a></p> + +<h2>GESSNER'S CONTINUOUS CLOTH-PRESSING MACHINE.</h2> + +<p>It is well known that there are several serious drawbacks in the +usual plan of pressing woolen or worsted cloths and felts with +press plates, press papers, and presses. Three objections of great +weight may be mentioned, and events in Leeds give emphasis to a +fourth. The three objections are--the labor required in setting or +folding the cloth, the expense of the press papers, and the time +required. The fourth objection, about which a dispute has occurred +between the press-setters and the master finishers in Leeds, refers +to the inapplicability of the common system to long lengths. The +men object to these on account of the great labor involved in +shifting the heavy mass of cloth and press plates to and from the +presses. A minor drawback of this system is that it involves the +presence of a fold up the middle of the piece. On account of these +drawbacks it has long been understood to be desirable to expedite +the process, and also to dispense with the press papers. This is +the main purpose of the machine we now illustrate in section, in +which the pressing is done continuously by what may be termed a +species of ironing. The machine consists of a central hollow +cylinder, C, three-quarters of the circumference of which is +covered by the hollow boxes, M, heated by steam through the pipes +shown, and which are mounted upon the levers, BB', whose fulcra are +at bb. By means of the hand-wheel, T, and worm-wheel, n, which +closes or opens the levers, BB', the pressure of the boxes upon the +central roller may be adjusted at will, the spring-bolt, F, +allowing a certain amount of yield. The faces of the press-boxes, +MM, are covered by a curved sheet of German silver attached to the +point, Y. This sheet takes the place of the press papers in the +ordinary process. The course of the cloth through the machine is as +follows, and is shown by the arrows: It is placed on the bottom +board in front, and in its travel it passes over the rails, O, +after which it is operated on by the brush, Z, leaving which it is +conveyed over the rails, V and I, the rollers, K and P, and thence +between the pressing roller, C, and the German silver press plate +covering the heated boxes, M. Leaving these the piece passes over +the roller, P, and is cuttled down in the bottom board by the +cuttling motion, F, or a rolling-up motion may be applied. The +maker states that arrangements for brushing and steaming may also +be attached, so that in one passage through the machine a piece may +be pressed, brushed, and steamed. The speed of the cylinder may be +adjusted according to the quality or requirements of the goods that +are under treatment. At the time of our visit, says the <i>Textile +Manufacturer</i>, printed woolen pieces were being pressed at the +rate of about four yards a minute, but higher speeds are often +obtained. Messrs. Taylor, Wordsworth & Co., who have erected +many of these machines in Leeds, Bradford, and Batley, inform us +that they find they are adapted for the pressing of a wide variety +of cloths, from Bradford goods and thin serges to the heavy pieces +of Dewsbury and Batley. The inventor, Ernst Gessner, of Aue, +Saxony, adopts an ingenious expedient for pressing goods with thick +lists. He provides an arrangement for moving the cylinder endwise, +according to the different widths of the pieces to be treated. One +list is left outside at the end of the cylinder, and the other at +the opposite end of the pressing boxes. The machine we saw was 80 +in. wide on the roller, and it was one the design and construction +of which undoubtedly do credit to Mr. Gessner.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/11b.png"><img src= +"images/11b_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="8"></a></p> + +<h2>IMPROVEMENTS IN WOOLEN CARDING ENGINES.</h2> + +<p>Mr. Bolette, who has made a name for himself in connection with +strap dividers, has experimented in another direction on the +carding engine, and as his ideas contain some points of novelty we +herewith give the necessary illustrations, so that our readers can +judge for themselves as to the merit of these inventions.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/11c.png" alt= +"Fig. 1."></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 1.</p> + +<p>Fig. 1 represents the feeding arrangement. Here the wool is +delivered by the feed rollers, A A, in the usual manner. The longer +fibers are then taken off by a comb, B, and brought forward to the +stripper, E, which transfers them to the roller, H, and thence to +the cylinder. The shorter fibers which are not seized by the comb +fall down, but as they drop they meet a blast of air created by a +fan, which throws the lighter and cleaner parts in a kind of spray +upon the roller, L, whence they pass on to the cylinder, while the +dirt and other heavier parts fall downwards into a box, and are by +this means kept off the cylinder. It is evident that in this +arrangement it is not intended to keep the long and the short +fibers separate, but to utilize them all in the formation of the +yarn. The arrangement shown in Fig. 2 refers to the delivery end. +Instead of the sliver being wound upon the roller in the usual way, +it runs upon a sheet of linen, P¹, as in the case of carding +for felt, with a to-and-fro motion in the direction of the axis of +the rollers. In this way one or more layers of the fleece can be +placed on the sheet, which in that case passes backwards and +forwards from roller S to R, and <i>vice versa</i>. It is, in fact, +the bat arrangement used for felt, only with this difference, that +the bat is at once rolled up instead of going through the bat +frame. In the manufacture of felt it is of course of importance to +have many very thin layers of fleece superposed over each other in +order to equalize it, and if the same is applied to the manufacture +of cloth it will no doubt give satisfactory results, but may be +rather costly.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/11d.png" alt= +"Fig. 2."></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 2.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="7"></a></p> + +<h2>NOVELTIES IN RING SPINDLES.</h2> + +<p>One of the drawbacks of ring spinning is the uneven pull of the +traveler, which is the more difficult to counteract as it is +exerted in jerks at irregular intervals. It is argued that with +spindles and bearings as usually made the spindle is supported +firmly in its bearing, and cannot give in case of such a lateral +pull when exerted through the yarn by the traveler, and the +consequence is either a breakage of the yarn or an uneven thread. +Impressed with this idea, and in order to remedy this defect, an +eminent Swiss firm has hit upon the notion of driving the spindle +by friction, and to make it more or less loose in the bearings, so +that in case of an extra pull by the traveler the spindle can give +way a little, and thus prevent the breakage of the yarn. This idea +has been carried out in four different ways, and as this seems to +be an entirely new departure in ring spinning, we give the +illustrations of their construction in detail.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/11e.png"><img src= +"images/11e_th.jpg" alt="Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. Fig. 4.</p> + +<p>Fig. 1 represents Bourcart's recent arrangement of attaching the +thread guide to the spindle rail and the adjustable spindle. The +spindle is held by the sleeve, g, which latter is screwed into the +spindle rail, S, this being moved by the pinion, a; the collar is +elongated upwards in a cuplike form, c, the better to hold the oil, +and keep it from flying; d is the wharf, which has attached to it +the sleeve, m, and which is situated loosely in the space between +the spindle and the footstep, e. Above the wharf the spindle is +hexagonal in shape, and to this part is attached the friction +plate, a. Between the latter and the upper surface of the wharf a +cloth or felt washer is inserted, to act as a brake. The footstep, +e, is filled with oil, in which run the foot of the spindle and the +sleeve m, the latter turning upon a steel ring situated on the +bottom of the footstep. As, thus, the foot of the spindle is quite +free, the upper part of the spindle can give sideways in the +direction of any sudden pull, and the foot of the spindle can +follow this motion in the opposite direction, the collar forming +the fulcrum for the spindle. By this alteration of the vertical +position of the spindle into an inclined one (though ever so +trifling), the contact of the friction plate, a, and the wharf is +interrupted, and thus the speed of the spindle reduced. This will +cause less yarn to be wound on, and the pull thus to be +neutralized; but as the wharf keeps turning at the same speed, its +centrifugal force will act again upon the friction plate, and thus +bring the spindle back to its vertical position as soon as the +extra drag has been removed.</p> + +<p>In Fig. 2 the footstep, e, has the foot of the spindle more +closely fitting at the bottom, but the upper part of the step opens +out gradually, and forms a conical cavity of a little larger +diameter than the spindle, so that the latter has a considerable +play sideways. The wharf carries in its lower part the sleeve, g, +which runs upon a steel ring as above. The upper surface of the +wharf is arched, and upon this is fitted the correspondingly arched +friction plate, a, which latter is attached to the spindle by a +screw. The position of the spindle is maintained by the collar, m. +This collar is loose in the spindle rail, and only held by the +spring, m'. If now, a lateral drag is exerted upon the upper part +of the spindle, the collar car follows the direction of this drag, +and the spindle thus be brought out of the vertical position, the +friction plate slipping at the same time. The force of the spring +conjointly with the centrifugal force will then bring back the +spindle into its normal position as soon as the drag is again +even.</p> + +<p>Fig. 3 shows a spindle with a very long conical oil vessel, B, +resting upon a disk, e", in cup, e', with a cover, e"'. The wharf, +d, is here situated high up the spindle, has the same sleeve as in +the preceding case, and runs round the bush, g, upon the ring, z. +The friction plate resting upon the wharf is joined to the collar, +a, running out into a cup shape, which is fixed to the spindle, +which here has a hexagonal form. In this case the collar gives with +the spindle, which latter has the necessary play in the long +footstep; and as the collar and friction-plate are one, it is +brought back to its normal place by centrifugal force.</p> + +<p>A peculiar arrangement is shown in Fig. 4. Here the ring and +traveler, f, are placed as usual, but the spindle carries at the +same time an inverted flier, t. The spindle turns loosely in the +footstep, e, the oil chamber being carried up to the middle of its +height. The wharf is placed in the same position as in the previous +case, having also a sleeve running in the oil chamber, c, upon a +steel ring, z. The friction-plate a, on the top of the wharf +carries the flier, and on its upper surface is in contact with the +inverted cup, a, which is attached to the spindle by a pin or +screw. In order to limit at will the lateral motion of the spindle +there is attached to the latter, between the footstep and the +collar, a split ring, i, which can be closed more or less by a +small set screw. The spindle is thus only held in the perpendicular +position by its own velocity, which will facilitate a high degree +of speed, through the entire absence of all friction in the +bearings, this vertical position being assisted by the friction +motion whenever the spindle has been drawn on one side. Although +the notion of mounting spindles so that they can yield in order to +center themselves is not new, it is evident that considerable +ingenuity has been brought to bear upon the arrangement of the +spindles we have described, but we are not in a position to say to +what extent practice has in this case coincided with +theory.--<i>Textile Manufacturer</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="17"></a></p> + +<h2>PHOTO-ENGRAVING ON ZINC OR COPPER.</h2> + +<h3>By LEON VIDAL.</h3> + +<p>This process is similar in many respects to the one which was +some time ago communicated to the Photographic Society of France by +M. Stronbinsky, of St. Petersburg, but in a much improved and +complete form. An account of it was given by M. Gobert, at the +meeting of the same society, on the 2d December, 1882. The +following are the details, as demonstrated by me at the meeting of +the 9th of May last:</p> + +<p>Sheets of zinc or of copper of a convenient size are carefully +planished and polished with powdered pumice stone. The sensitive +mixture is composed of:</p> + +<pre> + The whites of four fresh eggs beaten + to a froth......................... 100 parts + Pure bichromate of ammonia......... 2.50 " + Water.............................. 50 " +</pre> + +<p>After this mixture has been carefully filtered through a paper +filter, a few drops of ammonia are added. It will keep good for +some time if well corked and preserved from exposure to the light. +Even two months after being prepared I have found it to be still +good; but too large a quantity should not be prepared at a time, as +it does not improve with keeping.</p> + +<p>I find that the dry albumen of commerce will answer as well as +the fresh. In that case I employ the following formula:</p> + +<pre> + Dry albumen from eggs.............. 15 to 20 parts + Water.............................. 100 " + Ammonia bichromate................. 2.50 " +</pre> + +<p>Always add some drops of ammonia, and keep this mixture in a +well corked bottle and in a dark place.</p> + +<p>To coat the metal plate, place it on a turning table, to which +it is made fast at the center by a pneumatic holder; to assure the +perfect adhesion of this holder, it is as well to wet the circular +elastic ring of the holder before applying it to the metallic +surface. When this is done, the table may be made to rotate quickly +without fear of detaching the plate by the rapidity of the +movement. The plate is placed in a perfectly horizontal position, +where no dust can settle on it; the mixture is then poured on it, +and distributed by means of a triangular piece of soft paper, so as +to cover equally all the parts of the plate. Care should be taken +not to flow too much liquid over the plate, and when the latter is +everywhere coated, the excess is poured off into a different vessel +from that which contains the filtered mixture, or else into a +filter resting on that vessel. The turning table should now be +inverted so that the sensitive surface may be downwards, and it is +made to rotate at first slowly, afterwards more rapidly, so as to +make the film, which should be very thin, quite smooth and even. +The whole operation should be carried out in a subdued light, as +too strong a light would render insoluble the film of bichromated +albumen.</p> + +<p>When the film is equalized the plate must be detached from the +turning table and placed on a cast iron or tin plate heated to not +more than 40° or 50° C. A gentle heat is quite sufficient +to dry the albumen quickly; a greater heat would spoil it, as it +would produce coagulation. So soon as the film is dry, which will +be seen by the iridescent aspect it assumes, the plate is allowed +to cool to the ordinary temperature, and is then at once exposed +either beneath a positive, or beneath an original drawing the lines +of which have been drawn in opaque ink, so as to completely prevent +the luminous rays from passing through them; the light should only +penetrate through the white or transparent ground of the +drawing.</p> + +<p>I say a <i>positive</i> because I wish to obtain an engraved +plate; if I wanted to have a plate for typographic printing, I +should have to take a <i>negative</i>. After exposure the plate +must be at once developed, which is effected by dissolving in water +those parts of the bichromated gelatine which have been protected +from the action of light by the dark spaces of the cliché; +these parts remain soluble, while the others have been rendered +completely insoluble. If the plate were dipped in clear water it +would be difficult to observe the picture coming out, especially on +copper. To overcome this difficulty the water must be tinged with +some aniline color; aniline red or violet, which are soluble in +water, answers the purpose very well. Enough of the dye must be +dissolved in the water to give it a tolerably deep color. So soon +as the plate is plunged into this liquid the albumen not acted on +by light is dissolved, while the insoluble parts are colored by +absorbing the dye, so that the metal is exposed in the lines +against a red or violet ground, according to the color of the dye +used.</p> + +<p>When the drawing comes out quite perfect, and a complete copy of +the original, the plate with the image on it is allowed to dry +either of its own accord, or by submitting it to a gentle heat. So +soon as it is dry it is etched, and this is done by means of a +solution of perchloride of iron in alcohol. Both alcohol and iron +perchloride will coagulate albumen; their action, therefore, on the +image will not be injurious, since they will harden the remaining +albumen still further. But to get the full benefit of this, the +alcohol and the iron perchloride must both be free from water; it +is therefore advisable to use the salt in crystals which have been +thoroughly dried, and the alcohol of a strength of 95°.</p> + +<p>The following is the formula:</p> + +<pre> + Perchloride of iron, well dried 50 gr. + Alcohol at 95° 100 " +</pre> + +<p>This solution must be carefully filtered so as to get rid of any +deposit which may form, and must be preserved in a well-corked +bottle, when it will keep for a long time. The plate is first +coated with a varnish of bitumen of Judea on the edges (if those +parts are not already covered with albumen) and on the back, so +that the etching liquid can only act on the lines to be engraved. +It is then placed, with the side to be engraved downwards, in a +porcelain basin, into which a sufficient quantity of the solution +of perchloride of iron is poured, and the liquid is kept stirred so +as to renew the portion which touches the plate; but care must be +taken not to touch with the brush the parts where there is albumen +remaining. The length of time that the etching must be continued +depends on the depth required to be given to the engraving; +generally a quarter of an hour will be found to be sufficient. +Should it be thought desirable to extend the action over half an +hour, the lines will be found to have been very deeply engraved. +When the etching is considered to have been pushed far enough, the +plate must be withdrawn from the solution, and washed in plenty of +water; it must then be forcibly rubbed with a cloth so as to remove +all the albumen, and after it has been polished with a little +pumice, the engraving is complete.</p> + +<p>It will be seen that this process may be used with advantage +instead of that of photo-engraving with bitumen, in cases where it +is not advisable to use acids. One of my friends, Mr. Fisch, +suggests the plan--which seems to deserve a careful +investigation--of combining this process with that where bitumen is +employed; it would be done somewhat in the following way. The plate +of metal would be first coated evenly with bitumen of Judea on the +turning table, and when the bitumen is quite dry, it should be +again coated with albumen in the manner as described above. In full +sunlight the exposure need not exceed a minute in length; then the +plate would be laid in colored water, dried, and immersed in +spirits of turpentine. The latter will dissolve the bitumen in all +the parts where it has been exposed by the removal of the albumen +not rendered insoluble by the action of light. But it remains to be +seen whether the albumen will not be undermined in this method; +therefore, before recommending the process, it ought to be +thoroughly studied. The metal is now exposed in all the parts that +have to be etched, while all the other parts are protected by a +layer of bitumen coated with coagulated albumen. Hence we may +employ as mordant water acidulated with 3, 4, or 5 per cent. of +nitric acid, according as it is required to have the plate etched +with greater or less vigor.</p> + +<p>By following the directions above given, any one wishing to +adopt the process cannot fail of obtaining good results, One of its +greatest advantages is that it is within the reach of every one +engaged in printing operations.--<i>Photo News</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="18"></a></p> + +<h2>MERIDIAN LINE.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: From Proceedings of the Association of County +Surveyors of Ohio, Columbus, January, 1882.]</p> + +<p>The following process has been used by the undersigned for many +years. The true meridian can thus be found within one minute of +arc:</p> + +<p><i>Directions</i>.--Nail a slat to the north side of an upper +window--the higher the better. Let it be 25 feet from the ground or +more. Let it project 3 feet. Kear the end suspend a plumb-bob, and +have it swing in a bucket of water. A lamp set in the window will +render the upper part of the string visible. Place a small table or +stand about 20 feet south of the plumb-bob, and on its south edge +stick the small blade of a pocket knife; place the eye close to the +blade, and move the stand so as to bring the blade, string, and +polar star into line. Place the table so that the star shall be +seen very near the slat in the window. Let this be done half an +hour before the greatest elongation of the star. Within four or +five minutes after the first alignment the star will have moved to +the east or west of the string. Slip the table or the knife a +little to one side, and align carefully as before. After a few +alignments the star will move along the string--down, if the +elongation is west; up, if east. On the first of June the eastern +elongation occurs about half-past two in the morning, and as +daylight comes on shortly after the observation is completed, I +prefer that time of year. The time of meridian passage or of the +elongation can be found in almost any work on surveying. Of course +the observer should choose a calm night.</p> + +<p>In the morning the transit can be ranged with the knife blade +and string, and the proper angle turned off to the left, if the +elongation is east; to the right, if west.</p> + +<p>Instead of turning off the angle, as above described, I measure +200 or 300 feet northtward, in the direction of the string, and +compute the offset in feet and inches, set a stake in the ground, +and drive a tack in the usual way.</p> + +<p>Suppose the distance is 250 feet and the angle 1° 40', then +the offset will be 7,271 feet, or 7 feet 3¼ inches. A minute +of arc at the distance of 250 feet is seven-eighths of an inch; and +this is the most accurate way, for the vernier will not mark so +small a space accurately.</p> + +<h3>ANGLE OF ELONGATION.</h3> + +<p>This should be computed by the surveyor for each observation. +The distance between the star and the pole is continually +diminishing, and on January 1, 1882, was 1° 18' 48".</p> + +<p>There is a slight annual variation in the distance. July 1, +1882, it will be 1° 19' 20". If from this latter quantity the +observer will subtract 16" for 1883, and the same quantity for each +succeeding year for the next four or five years, no error so great +as one-quarter of a minute will be made in the position of the +meridian as determined in the summer months. If winter observations +are made, the distance in January should be used. The formula for +computing the angle of elongation is easily made by any one +understanding spherical trigonometry, and is this:</p> + +<pre> + R x sin. Polar dist. + --------------------- = sin. of angle of elongation. + cos. lat. +</pre> + +<p>As an example, suppose the time is July, 1882, and the latitude +40°. Then the computation being made, the angle will be found +to be 1° 43' 34". A difference of six minutes in the latitude +will make less than 10" difference in the angle, as one can see by +trial. Any good State or county map will give the latitude to +within one or two miles--or minutes.</p> + +<p>The facts being as here stated, the absurdity of the Ohio law, +concerning the establishment of county meridians, becomes apparent. +The longitude has nothing at all to do With the meridian; and a +difference of <i>six miles</i> in latitude makes no appreciable +error in the meridian established as here suggested, whereas the +statute requires the latitude within <i>one half a second</i>, +which is <i>fifty feet</i>. There are some other things, besides +the ways of Providence, which may be said to be "past finding out." +It is not probable that a surveyor would err so much as +<i>three</i> miles in his latitude, but should he do so, then the +error in his meridian line, resulting from the mistake, will be +<i>five seconds</i>, and a line <i>one mile</i> long, run on a +course 5" out of the way, will vary but <i>an inch and a half</i> +from the true position. Surveyors well know that no such accuracy +is attainable. R. W. McFARLAND,</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="19"></a></p> + +<h2>ELECTRO-MANIA.</h2> + +<h3>By W. MATTIEU WILLIAMS.</h3> + +<p>A history of electricity, in order to be complete, must include +two distinct and very different subjects: the history of electrical +science, and a history of electrical exaggerations and delusions. +The progress of the first has been followed by a crop of the second +from the time when Kleist, Muschenbroek, and Cuneus endeavored to +bottle the supposed fluid, and in the course of these attempts +stumbled upon the "Leyden jar."</p> + +<p>Dr. Lieberkuhn, of Berlin, describes the startling results which +he obtained, or imagined, "when a nail or a piece of brass wire is +put into a small apothecary's phial and electrified." He says that +"if, while it is electrifying, I put my finger or a piece of gold +which I hold in my hand to the nail, I receive a shock which stuns +my arms and shoulders." At about the same date (the middle of the +last century), Muschenbroek stated, in a letter to Réaumur, +that, on taking a shock from a thin glass bowl, "he felt himself +struck in his arms, shoulders, and breast, so that he lost his +breath, and was two days before he recovered from the effects of +the blow and the terror" and that he "would not take a second shock +for the kingdom of France." From the description Of the apparatus, +it is evident that this dreadful shock was no stronger than many of +us have taken scores of times for fun, and have given to our +school-follows when we became the proud possessors of our first +electrical machine.</p> + +<p>Conjurers, mountebanks, itinerant quacks, and other adventurers +operated throughout Europe, and were found at every country fair +and <i>fete</i> displaying the wonders of the invisible agent by +giving shocks and professing to cure all imaginable ailments.</p> + +<p>Then came the discoveries of Galvani and Volta, followed by the +demonstrations of Galvani's nephew Aldini, whereby dead animals +were made to display the movements of life, not only by the +electricity of the Voltaic pile, but, as Aldini especially showed, +by a transfer of this mysterious agency from one animal to +another.</p> + +<p>According to his experiments (that seem to be forgotten by +modern electricians) the galvanometer of the period, a prepared +frog, could be made to kick by connecting its nerve and muscle with +muscle and nerve of a recently killed ox, with, or without metallic +intervention.</p> + +<p>Thus arose the dogma which still survives in the advertisements +of electrical quacks, that "electricity is life," and the +possibility of reviving the dead was believed by many. Executed +criminals were in active demand; their bodies were expeditiously +transferred from the gallows or scaffold to the operating table, +and their dead limbs were made to struggle and plunge, their +eyeballs to roll, and their features to perpetrate the most +horrible contortions by connecting nerves with one pole, and +muscles with the opposite pole of a battery.</p> + +<p>The heart was made to beat, and many men of eminence supposed +that if this could be combined with artificial respiration, and +kept up for awhile, the victim of the hangman might be restored, +provided the neck was not broken. Curious tales were loudly +whispered concerning gentle hangings and strange doings at Dr. +Brookes's, in Leicester Square, and at the Hunterian Museum, in +Windmill Street, now flourishing as "The Café de l'Etoile." +When a child, I lived about midway between these celebrated schools +of practical anatomy, and well remember the tales of horror that +were recounted concerning them. When Bishop and Williams (no +relation to the writer) were hanged for burking, i.e., murdering +people in order to provide "subjects" for dissection, their bodies +were sent to Windmill Street, and the popular notion was that, +being old and faithful servants of the doctors, they were +galvanized to life, and again set up in their old business.</p> + +<p>It is amusing to read some of the treatises on medical galvanism +that were published at about this period, and contrast their +positive statements of cures effected and results anticipated with +the position now attained by electricity as a curative agent.</p> + +<p>Then came the brilliant discoveries of Faraday, Ampère, +etc., demonstrating the relations between electricity and +magnetism, and immediately following them a multitude of patents +for electro-motors, and wild dreams of superseding steam-engines by +magneto-electric machinery.</p> + +<p>The following, which I copy from the <i>Penny Mechanic</i>, of +June 10, 1837, is curious, and very instructive to those who think +of investing in any of the electric power companies of to-day: "Mr. +Thomas Davenport, a Vermont blacksmith, has discovered a mode of +applying magnetic and electro-magnetic power, which we have good +ground for believing will be of immense importance to the world." +This announcement is followed by reference to Professor Silliman's +<i>American Journal of Science and the Arts</i>, for April, 1837, +and extracts from American papers, of which the following is a +specimen: "1. We saw a small cylindrical battery, about nine inches +in length, three or four in diameter, produce a magnetic power of +about 300 lb., and which, therefore, we could not move with our +utmost strength. 2. We saw a small wheel, five-and-a-half inches in +diameter, performing more than 600 revolutions in a minute, and +lift a weight of 24 lb. one foot per minute, from the power of a +battery of still smaller dimensions. 3. We saw a model of a +locomotive engine traveling on a circular railroad with immense +velocity, and rapidly ascending an inclined plane of far greater +elevation than any hitherto ascended by steam-power. And these and +various other experiments which we saw, convinced us of the truth +of the opinion expressed by Professors Silliman, Renwick, and +others, that the power of machinery may be increased from this +source beyond any assignable limit. It is computed by these learned +men that a circular galvanic battery about three feet in diameter, +with magnets of a proportionable surface, would produce at least a +hundred horse-power; and therefore that two such batteries would be +sufficient to propel ships of the largest class across the +Atlantic. The only materials required to generate and continue this +power for such a voyage would be a few thin sheets of copper and +zinc, and a few gallons of mineral water."</p> + +<p>The Faure accumulator is but a very weak affair compared with +this, Sir William Thomson notwithstanding. To render the date of +the above fully appreciable, I may note that three months later the +magazine from which it is quoted was illustrated with a picture of +the London and Birmingham Railway Station displaying a first-class +passenger with a box seat on the roof of the carriage, and followed +by an account of the trip to Boxmoor, the first installment of the +London and North-Western Railway. It tells us that, "the time of +starting having arrived, the doors of the carriages are closed, +and, by the assistance of the conductors, the train is moved on a +short distance toward the first bridge, where it is met by an +engine, which conducts it up the inclined plane as far as Chalk +Farm. Between the canal and this spot stands the station-house for +the engines; here, also, are fixed the engines which are to be +employed in drawing the carriages up the inclined plane from Euston +Square, by a rope upwards of a mile in length, the cost of which +was upwards of £400." After describing the next change of +engines, in the same matter of course way as the changing of +stage-coach horses, the narrative proceeds to say that "entering +the tunnel from broad daylight to perfect darkness has an +exceedingly novel effect."</p> + +<p>I make these parallel quotations for the benefit of those who +imagine that electricity is making such vastly greater strides than +other sources of power. I well remember making this journey to +Boxmoor, and four or five years later traveling on a circular +electro-magnetic railway. Comparing that electric railway with +those now exhibiting, and comparing the Boxmoor trip with the +present work of the London and North-Western Railway, I have no +hesitation in affirming that the rate of progress in +electro-locomotion during the last forty years has been far smaller +than that of steam.</p> + +<p>The leading fallacy which is urging the electro-maniacs of the +present time to their ruinous investments is the idea that +electro-motors are novelties, and that electric-lighting is in its +infancy; while gas-lighting is regarded as an old, or mature +middle-aged business, and therefore we are to expect a marvelous +growth of the infant and no further progress of the adult.</p> + +<p>These excited speculators do not appear to be aware of the fact +that electric-lighting is older than gas-lighting; that Sir Humphry +Davy exhibited the electric light in Albemarle Street, while London +was still dimly lighted by oil-lamps, and long before gas-lighting +was attempted anywhere. The lamp used by Sir Humphry Davy at the +Royal Institution, at the beginning of the present century, was an +arrangement of two carbon pencils, between which was formed the +"electric arc" by the intensely-vivid incandescence and combustion +of the particles of carbon passing between the solid carbon +electrodes. The light exhibited by Davy was incomparably more +brilliant than anything that has been lately shown either in +London, or Paris, or at Sydenham. His arc was <i>four inches in +length</i>, the carbon pencils were four inches apart, and a broad, +dazzling arch of light bridged the whole space between. The modern +arc lights are but pygmies, mere specks, compared with this; a leap +of 1/3 or 1/4 inch constituting their maximum achievement.</p> + +<p>Comparing the actual progress of gas and electric lighting, the +gas has achieved by far the greater strides; and this is the case +even when we compare very recent progress.</p> + +<p>The improvements connected with gas-making have been steadily +progressive; scarcely a year has passed from the date of Murdoch's +efforts to the present time, without some or many decided steps +having been made. The progress of electric-lighting has been a +series of spasmodic leaps, backward as well as forward.</p> + +<p>As an example of stepping backward, I may refer to what the +newspapers have described as the "discoveries" of Mr. Edison, or +the use of an incandescent wire, or stick, or sheet of platinum, or +platino-iridium; or a thread of carbon, of which the "Swan" and +other modern lights are rival modifications.</p> + +<p>As far back as 1846 I was engaged in making apparatus and +experiments for the purpose of turning to practical account "King's +patent electric light," the actual inventor of which was a young +American, named Starr, who died in 1847, when about 25 years of +age, a victim of overwork and disappointment in his efforts to +perfect this invention and a magneto-electric machine, intended to +supply the power in accordance with some of the "latest +improvements" of 1881 and 1882.</p> + +<p>I had a share in this venture, and was very enthusiastic until +after I had become practically acquainted with the subject. We had +no difficulty in obtaining a splendid and perfectly steady light, +better than any that are shown at the Crystal Palace.</p> + +<p>We used platinum, and alloys of platinum and iridium, abandoned +them as Edison did more than thirty years later, and then tried a +multitude of forms of carbon, including that which constitutes the +last "discovery" of Mr. Edison, viz., burnt cane. Starr tried this +on theoretical grounds, because cane being coated with silica, he +predicted that by charring it we should obtain a more compact stick +or thread, as the fusion of the silica would hold the carbon +particles together. He finally abandoned this and all the rest in +favor of the hard deposit of carbon which lines the inside of +gas-retorts, some specimens of which we found to be so hard that we +required a lapidary's wheel to cut them into the thin sticks.</p> + +<p>Our final wick was a piece of this of square section, and about +1/8 of an inch across each way. It was mounted between two +forceps--one holding each end, and thus leaving a clear half-inch +between. The forceps were soldered to platinum wires, one of which +passed upward through the top of the barometer tube, expanded into +a lamp glass at its upper part. This wire was sealed to the glass +as it passed through. The lower wire passed down the middle of the +tube.</p> + +<p>The tube was filled with mercury and inverted over a cup of +mercury. Being 30 inches long up to the bottom of the expanded +portion, or lamp globe, the mercury fell below this and left a +Torricellian vacuum there. One pole of the battery, or +dynamo-machine, was connected with the mercury in the cup, and the +other with the upper wire. The stick of carbon glowed brilliantly, +and with perfect steadiness.</p> + +<p>I subsequently exhibited this apparatus in the Town-hall of +Birmingham, and many times at the Midland Institute. The only +scientific difficulty connected with this arrangement was that due +to a slight volatilization of the carbon, and its deposition as a +brown film upon the lamp glass; but this difficulty is not +insuperable.--<i>Knowledge</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="20"></a></p> + +<h2>ACTION OF MAGNETS UPON THE VOLTAIC ARC.</h2> + +<p>The action of magnets upon the voltaic arc has been known for a +long time past. Davy even succeeded in influencing the latter +powerfully enough in this way to divide it, and since his time +Messrs. Grove and Quet have studied the effect under different +conditions. In 1859, I myself undertook numerous researches on this +subject, and experimented on the induction spark of the Ruhmkorff +coil, the results of these researches having been published in the +last two editions of my notes on the Ruhmkorff apparatus.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/13a.png" alt="FIG. 1"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1</p> + +<p>These researches were summed up in the journal <i>La +Lumière Electrique</i> for June 15, 1879. Recently, Mr. +Pilleux has addressed to us some new experiments on the same +subject, made on the voltaic arc produced by a De Meritens +alternating current machine. Naturally, he has found the same +phenomena that I had made known; but he thinks that these new +researches are worthy of interest by reason of the nature of the +arc in which he experimented, and which, according to him, is of a +different nature from all those on which, up to the present time, +experiments have been made. Such a distinction as this, however, +merits a discussion.</p> + +<p>With the induction spark, magnets have an action only on the +aureola which accompanies the line of fire of the static discharge; +and this aureola, being only a sort of sheath of heated air +containing many particles of metal derived from the rheophores, +represents exactly the voltaic arc.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/13b.png" alt="FIG. 2"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2</p> + +<p>Moreover, although the induced currents developed in the bobbin +are alternately of opposite direction, the galvanometer shows that +the currents that traverse the break are of the same direction, and +that these are direct ones. The reversed currents are, then, +arrested during their passage; and, in order to collect them, it +becomes necessary to considerably diminish the gaseous pressure of +the aeriform conductor interposed in the discharge; to increase its +conductivity; or to open to the current a very resistant metallic +derivation. By this latter means, I have succeeded in isolating, +one from the other, in two different circuits, the direct induced +currents and the reversed induced ones. As only direct currents +can, in air at a normal pressure, traverse the break through which +the induction spark passes, the aureola that surrounds it may be +considered as being exactly in the same conditions as a voltaic +arc, and, consequently, as representing an extensible conductor +traversed by a current flowing in a definite direction. Such a +conductor is consequently susceptible of being influenced by all +the external reactions that can be exerted upon a current; only, by +reason of its mobility, the conductor may possibly give way to the +action exerted upon the current traversing it, and undergo +deformations that are in relation with the laws of Ampère. +It is in this manner that I have explained the different forms that +the aureola of the induction spark assumes when it is submitted to +the action of a magnet in the direction of its axial line, or in +that of its equatorial line, or perpendicular to these latter, or +upon the magnetic poles themselves.</p> + +<p>Experiments of a very definite kind have not yet been made as to +the nature of the arc produced by induced currents developed in +alternating current machines; but, from the experiments made with +electric candles, we are forced to admit that the current reacts as +if it were alternately reversed through the arc, since the carbons +are used up to an equal degree; and, moreover, Mr. Pilleux's +experiments show that effects analogous to those of induction coils +are produced by the reaction of magnets upon the arc. There is, +then, here a doubtful point that it would be interesting to clear +up; and we believe that it is consequently proper to introduce in +this place Mr. Pilleux's note:</p> + +<p>"Having at my disposal," says he, "a powerful vertical voltaic +arc of 12 centimeters in length, kept up by alternately reversed +currents, and one of the most powerful permanent magnets that Mr. +De Meritens employs for magneto-electric machines, I have been +enabled to make the following experiments:</p> + +<p>"1. When I caused one of the poles of my magnet to slowly +approach the voltaic arc, I ascertained that, at a distance of 10 +centimeters, the arc became flattened so as to assume the +appearance of those gas jets called 'butterfly.' The plane of the +'butterfly' was parallel with the pole that I presented, or, in +other words, with the section of the magnet. At the same time, the +arc began to emit a strident noise, which became deafening when the +pole of the magnet was brought to within a distance of about 2 +millimeters. At this moment, the butterfly form produced by the arc +was <i>greatly spread out, and reduced to the thickness of a sheet +of paper</i>; and then it burst with violence, and projected to a +distance a great number of particles of incandescent carbon.</p> + +<p>"2. The magnet employed being a horseshoe one, when I directed +it laterally so as to present successively, now the north and then +the south pole to the arc, the 'butterfly' pivoted upon itself so +as not to present the same surface to each pole of the magnet."</p> + +<p>By referring to the accompanying figure, which we extract from +our note on the Ruhmkorff apparatus, it will be seen that the +aureola which developed as a circular film from right to left at D, +on the north pole of the magnet, N.S. (Fig. 1), projected itself in +an opposite direction at C, upon the south pole, S, of the same +magnet; but, between the two poles, these two contrary actions +being obliged to unite, they gave rise in doing so to a very +characteristic helicoid spiral whose direction depended upon that +of the current of discharge through the aureola, or upon the +polarity of the magnetic poles. On the contrary, when the discharge +took place in the direction of the equatorial line, as in Fig. 2, +the circular film developed itself in the plane of the neutral line +above or below the line of discharge, according to the direction of +the current and the magnetic polarity of the magnet.</p> + +<p>There is, then, between Mr. Pilleux's experiments and my own so +great an analogy that we might draw the deduction therefrom that +induced currents in alternating machines have, like those of the +Ruhmkorff coil, a definite direction, which would be that of +currents having the greatest tension, that is to say, that of +direct currents. This hypothesis seems to us the more plausible in +that Mr. J. Van Malderem has demonstrated that the attraction of +solenoids with the currents, not straight, of magneto-electric +machines is almost as great as that of the same solenoids with +straight currents; and it is very likely that the difference which +may then exist should be so much the less in proportion as the +induced currents have more tension. We might, then, perhaps explain +the different effects of the wear of the carbons serving as +rheophores, according as the currents are continuous or +alternating, by the different calorific effects produced on these +carbons, and by the effects of electric conveyance which are a +consequence of the passage of the current through the arc.</p> + +<p>We know that with continuous currents the positive carbon +possesses a much higher temperature than the negative, and that its +wear is about twice greater than that of the latter. But such +greater wear of the positive carbon is especially due to the fact +that combustion is greater on it than on the negative, and also to +the fact that the carbonaceous particles carried along by the +current to the positive pole are deposited in part upon the other +pole. Supposing that these polarities of the carbons were being +constantly alternately reversed, the effects might be symmetrical +from all quarters, although the only current traversing the break +were of the same direction; for, admitting that the reverse +currents could not traverse the break, they would exist none the +less for all that, and they might give rise (as has been +demonstrated by Mr. Gaugain with regard to the discharges of the +induction spark intercepted by the insulating plate of a condenser) +to return discharges through the generator, which would then have, +in the metallic part of the circuit, the same direction as the +direct currents succeeding, although they had momentarily brought +about opposite polarities in the electrodes. What might make us +suppose such an interpretation of the phenomenon to have its +<i>raison d'etre</i>, is that with the induced currents of the +Ruhmkorff coil, it is not the positive pole that is the hottest, +but rather the negative; from whence we might draw the deduction +that it is not so much the direction of the current that determines +the calorific effect in the electrodes, as the conditions of such +current with respect to the generator. I should not be surprised, +then, if, in the arc formed by the alternating currents of +magneto-electric machines, there should pass only one current of +the same direction, and which would be the one formed by the +superposition of direct currents, and if the reverse currents +should cause return discharges in the midst of the generating +bobbins at the moment the direct currents were generated.--<i>Th. +Du Moncel</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="21"></a></p> + +<h2>VOLCKMAR'S SECONDARY BATTERIES.</h2> + +<p>The inventive genius of the country is now directed to these +important accessories of electric enterprise, and no wonder, for as +far as can at present be seen, the secret of electric motion lies +in these secondary batteries. Among other contributions of this +kind is the following, by Ernest Volckmar, electrician, Paris:</p> + +<p>The object of this invention is to render unnecessary the use in +secondary batteries of a porous pot which creates useless +resistance to the electric current, and to store in an apparatus of +comparatively small weight and bulk considerable electric force. To +this end two reticulated or perforated plates of lead of similar +proportions are prepared, and their interstices are filled with +granules or filaments of lead, by preference chemically pure. These +plates are then submitted to pressure, and placed together, with +strips of nonconducting material interposed between them, in a +suitable vessel containing a bath of acidulated water. The plates +being connected with wires from an electric generator are brought +for a while under the action of the current, to peroxidize and +reduce the whole of the finely divided lead exposed to the +acidulated water. The secondary battery is then complete. It will +be understood that any number of these pairs of plates may be +combined to form a secondary battery, their number being determined +by the amount of storage required. The perforated plates of lead +may be prepared by drilling, casting, or in other convenient +manner, but the apertures, of whatever form, should be placed as +closely together as possible, and the finely divided lead to be +peroxidized is pressed into the cells or cavities so as to fill +their interiors only.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="12"></a></p> + +<h2>THE MINERALOGICAL LOCALITIES IN AND AROUND NEW YORK CITY, AND +THE MINERALS OCCURRING THEREIN.</h2> + +<h3>By NELSON H. DARTON.</h3> + +<p>There will be many persons in the city of New York and its +suburbs who will not have the time or facilities for leaving town +during the summer, to spend a part of their time enjoying the +country, but would have sufficient time to take occasional +recreation for short periods. I have sought by this paper to show a +pleasurable, and at the same time very instructive use for the time +of this latter class, and that is in mineralogy. In the surrounding +parts of New York are many mineralogical localities, known to no +others than a few professional mineralogists, etc., and from which +an excellent assortment of minerals may be obtained, which would +well grace a cabinet and afford considerable instruction and +entertainment to their owner and friends, besides acting as an +incentive to a further study of this and the other sciences. These +localities which I will discuss are all within an hour's ride from +New York, and the expenses inside of a half dollar, and generally +very much less. I could detail many other places further off, but +will reserve that for another paper.</p> + +<p>The course which I will pursue in my explanations I have +purposely made very simple, avoiding--or when using, +explaining--all technical terms. The apparatus and tests noticed +are of the most rudimentary style consistent with that which is +necessary to attain the simple purpose of distinguishment, and +altogether I have prepared this paper for those having at the +present time little or no knowledge or practice in mineralogy, +while those having it can be led perhaps by the details of the +localities noticed. Another reason why I have written so in detail +of this last subject is, because the experiences of most amateur +mineralogists are generally so very discouraging in their endeavors +to find the minerals, and there is everything in giving a good +start to properly fix the interest on the subject. The reason of +these discouragements is simple, and generally because they do not +know the portion of the locality, say, for instance, a certain +township, in which the minerals occur. And if they do succeed in +finding this, it is seldom that the portion in which the mineral +occurs, which is generally some small inconspicuous vein or +fissure, is found; and even in this it is generally difficult to +recognize and isolate the mineral from the extraneous matter +holding it. As an instance of this I might cite thus: Dana, in his +text book on mineralogy, will mention the locality for a certain +species, as Bergen Hill--say for this instance, dogtooth calespar. +When we consider that Bergen Hill, in the limited sense of the +expression, is ten miles long and fully one mile wide, and as the +rock outcrops nearly all over it, and it is also covered with +quarries, cuttings, etc., it may be seen that this direction is +rather indefinite. To the professional mineralogist it is but an +index, however, and he may consult the authority it is quoted +from--the <i>American Journal of Science</i>, etc.--and thus find +the part referred to, or by consulting other mineralogists who +happen to know. Again, the person having found by inquiry that the +part referred to is the Pennsylvania Railroad, and as this is fully +a mile long and interspersed with various prominent looking, but +veins of a mineral of little value, at any rate not the one in +question, they are few who could suppose that it occurred in that. +Apparently a vein of it would not be noticed at all from the +surrounding rock of gravelly earth, but there it is, and in a vein +of chlorite. This is so throughout the long and more or less +complete stated lists of mineralogical localities. Thus I will, in +describing the mineral, after explaining the conditions under which +it occurs, give almost the exact spot where I have found the same +mineral myself, and have left sufficiently fine specimens to carry +away, and thus no time will be lost in going over fruitless ground, +and further, this paper is written up to the date given at its end, +insuring a necessary presence of them.</p> + +<p>In order that one not familiar with mineral specimens should not +carry off from the various localities a variety of worthless +stones, etc., which are frequently more or less attractive to an +inexperienced eye, the following hints may be salutary.</p> + +<p>There are the varieties of three minerals, which are very +commonly met with in greater or less abundance in mineralogical +trips: they are of calcite, steatite, and quartz. They occur in so +many modifications of form, color, and condition that one might +speedily form a cabinet of these, if they were taken when met with, +and imagine it to be of great value. The first of these is calcite. +It occurs as marble, limestone; calcspar, dogtooth spar, nail head +spar, stalactites, and a number of other forms, which are only +valuable when occurring in perfect crystals or uniquely set upon +the rock holding it. The calcspar is extremely abundant at Bergen +Hill, where it might be mistaken for many of the other minerals +which I describe as occurring there, and even in preference to +them, to one's great chagrin upon arriving home and testing it, to +find that it is nothing but calcite. In order to avoid this and +distinguish this mineral on the field, it should be tested with a +single drop of acid, which on coming in contact with it bubbles up +or effervesces like soda water, seidlitz powder, etc., while it +does not do so with any of the minerals occurring in the same +locality. This acid is prepared for use as follows: about twenty +drops of muriatic acid are procured from a druggist in a half-ounce +bottle, which is then filled up with water and kept tightly corked. +It is applied by taking a drop out on a wisp of broom or a small +minim dropper, which may be obtained at the druggist's also. I do +not say that in every case this mineral should be rejected, because +it is frequently very beautiful and worthy of place in a cabinet, +but should be kept only under the conditions mentioned further on +in this paper, under the head of "Calcite in Weehawken Tunnel."</p> + +<p>The next mineral abundant in so many forms is quartz, and is not +so readily distinguished as calcite. It is found of every color, +shape, etc., possible, and that which is found in any of the +localities I am about to describe, with the exception of fine +crystals on Staten Island, are of no value and may be rejected, +unless answering in detail to the description given under Staten +Island. The method of distinguishing the quartz is by its hardness, +which is generally so great that it cannot be scratched by the +point of a knife, or at least with great difficulty, and a fragment +of it will scratch glass readily; thus it is distinguished from the +other minerals occurring in the localities discussed in this +paper.</p> + +<p>The other minerals so common are the varieties of steatite. This +is especially so at Bergen Hill and Staten Island. They occur in +amorphous masses generally, and may be distinguished by being so +soft as to be readily cut by the finger nail. I will detail further +upon the soapstone forms in discussing the localities on Staten +Island, and the chloritic form under the head of "Weehawken +Tunnel." The surest method of avoiding these and recognizing the +others by their appearance, which is generally the only guide used +by a professional mineralogist, is to copy off the lists of the +various minerals I describe, and, by visiting the American Museum +of Natural History on any week day except Mondays and Tuesdays, one +may see and become familiar with the minerals they are going in +quest of, besides others in the cases. This method is much more +satisfactory than printed descriptions, and saves the labor of many +of the distinguishing manipulations I am about to describe, besides +saving the trouble of bringing inferior specimens of the minerals +home.</p> + +<p>In going forth on a trip one should be provided with a +mineralogical hammer, or one answering its purpose, and a cold +chisel with which to detach or trim the minerals from adhering +rocks, the bottle of acid before referred to, and a three cornered +file for testing hardness, as explained further on. As I noticed +before, the better plan of distinguishing a mineral is by being +familiar with its appearance, but as this is generally +impracticable, I will detail the modes used in lieu of this to be +applied on bringing the minerals home. These distinguishments +depend on difference in specific gravity, hardness, solubility in +hot acids, and the action of high heat. I will explain the +application of each one separately, commencing with--</p> + +<p><i>The Specific Gravity</i>.--In ascertaining the specific +gravity the following apparatus is necessary: a small pair of hand +scales with a set of weights, from one grain to one ounce. These +can be procured from the apparatus maker, the scales for about +fifty cents, and the weights for not much over the same amount. The +scales are prepared for this work by cutting two small holes in one +of the scale pans, near together, with a pointed piece of metal, +and tying a piece of silk thread about eight inches long into +these. In a loop at the end of this thread the mineral to be +examined is suspended. It should be a pure representative of the +mineral it is taken from, should weigh about from one hundred +grains to an ounce, and be quite dry and free from dirt. If the +piece of mineral obtained is very large, this sized portion may be +often taken from it without injury; but it will not do to mar the +beauty of a mineral to ascertain its specific gravity, and it is +generally only applicable when a small piece is at hand. With more +weights, however, a piece of a quarter pound weight may be taken if +necessary. The mineral is tied into the loop and weighed, the +weight being set down in the note book, either in grains or decimal +parts of an ounce. Call this result A. It is then weighed in some +water held in a vessel containing about a quart, taking care while +weighing it that it is entirely immersed, but at the same time does +not touch either the sides or bottom. Both weighings should be +accurate to a grain. This result we call B. The specific gravity is +found by subtracting B from A, and dividing A by the remainder. For +instance, if the mineral weighed eight hundred grains when weighed +in the air, and in the water six hundred, giving us the equation: +800 / (800 - 600) = sp. gr., or 4, which is the specific gravity of +the mineral. If the mineral whose specific gravity is sought is an +incrustation on a rock, or a mixture of a number of minerals, or +would break to pieces in the water, the specific gravity is by this +method of course unattainable, and other data must be used.</p> + +<p><i>The Comparative Hardness</i>.--The next characteristic of the +mineral to be ascertained is the comparative hardness. In +mineralogy there is a scale fixed for comparison, from 1 to 10, 10 +being the hardest, the diamond, and Number 1 the soft soapstone. +These and the intermediate minerals fixed upon the scale are +generally inaccessible to those who may use the contents of this +paper, and I will give some more familiar materials for comparison. +8, 9, and 10 are the topaz, sapphire, and diamond respectively, and +as these and minerals of similar hardness will probably not be +found in any of the localities of which I make mention, we need not +become accustomed to them for the present. 7 is of sufficient +hardness to scratch glass, and is also not to be cut with the file +before mentioned, which is used for these determinations. 6 is of +the hardness of ordinary French glass. 5 is about the hardness of +horse-shoe or similar iron; 4 of the brown stone (sandstone) of +which the fronts of many city buildings, etc., are built; 3 of +marble; 2 of alabaster; and 1 as French chalk, or so soft as to be +readily cut with the finger nail. The method of using and applying +these comparisons is by having the above matters at hand, and +compare them by the relative ease with which they can be cut by +running the edge of the file over their surface. One will soon +become familiar with the scale, and it may of course then be +discarded. As it is one of the most important characteristics of +some of the minerals, it should be carefully executed, and the +result carefully considered. It is of course inapplicable under +those conditions with minerals that are in very small crystals or +in a fibrous condition.</p> + +<p><i>Action of Hot Acids</i>.--This very important test is never, +like the above, applicable upon the field, but applied when home is +reached. From the body of the mineral as pure and clean as possible +a portion is chipped, about the size of a small pea; this is +wrapped in a piece of stiff wrapping paper, and after placing it in +contact with a solid body, crushed finally by a blow from the +hammer. A pinch of the powder so obtained is taken up on the point +of a penknife, and transferred into a test tube. Two or more of +these should be provided, about six inches long. They may be +obtained in the apparatus shop for a trifle. Some hydrochloric, or, +as it is generally called, muriatic acid, is poured upon it to the +depth of about three quarters of an inch; the tube is then placed +in some boiling water heated over a lamp in a tinned or other +vessel, and allowed to boil for from ten to fifteen minutes; the +tube is then removed and its contents allowed to cool, and then +examined. If the powder has all disappeared, we term the mineral +"soluble;" if more or less is dissolved, "partly soluble;" if none, +"insoluble;" and if the contents of the tube are of a solid +transparent mass like jelly, "gelatinous;" while if transparent +gelatinous flakes are left, it is so termed. As this method of +distinguishment is always applicable, it is very important, and its +detail and result should be carefully noticed. Care should be taken +that only a small portion of the mineral is used, and also but +little acid; the action should be observed, and is frequently a +characteristic, in the case with calcspar, which effervesces while +dissolving. The acid used is hydrochloric at first, and then, if +the mineral cannot he recognized, the same treatment may be +repeated using nitric acid. Both of these acids should be at hand +and two ounces are generally sufficient.</p> + +<p><i>Action of Heat</i>.--This is, perhaps, the most important +characteristic, and, when taken with the preceding data, will +identify any of the minerals found in any one locality, which I +will describe, from each other. The heat is applied to the mineral +by means of a candle and blowpipe. A thick wax candle answers well, +and an ordinary japanned tin blowpipe, costing twenty cents, will +serve the purpose. The substance to be examined is held on a loop +of platinum wire about one inch to the left and just below the top +of the wick, which is bent toward it. Here it is steadily held, as +is shown in Fig. 1, and the flame of the candle bent over upon it, +and the heat intensified by blowing a steady and strong current of +air across it by means of the blowpipe held in the mouth and +supported by the right hand, whose elbow is resting upon the table. +The current of air is difficult to keep up by one unaccustomed to +the blowpipe, the skill of using which is readily obtained; it +consists in breathing through the nostrils, while the air is forced +out by pressure on the air held by the inflated cheeks, and not +from the lungs. This can be practiced while not using the +blow-pipe, and may readily be accomplished by one's keeping his +cheeks distended with air and breathing at the same time.</p> + +<p>This heat is steadily applied until the splinter of mineral has +been kept at a high red heat for a sufficient length of time to +convince one of what it may do, as fuse or not, or on the edges. +The first two are evident, as when it fuses it runs into a globule; +the last, by inspecting it before and after the heating with a +magnifying glass; sometimes it froths up when heated, and is then +said to "intumesce;" or, if it flies to fragments, "decrepitates." +Upon the first it is further heated; but in the latter case, a new +splinter of mineral must be broken off from the mass and heated +upon the wire very cautiously until quite hot, when it may then be +readily heated further without fear of loss. For holding the +splinter of mineral, which should well represent the mass and be +quite small, is a three-inch length of platinum wire of the +thickness of a cambric-needle; this may be bought for about ten +cents at the apparatus shop. The ends should be looped, as is shown +in Fig. 2, and the mineral placed in the loop.</p> + +<p>Sometimes a mineral has to be fused with borax, as I mention +further on in my tables. This is done by heating the wire-loop to +redness, and plunging it into some borax; what adheres is fused +upon it by heating. Some more is accumulated in the same manner, +until the loop is filled with a fair-sized globule. A small +quantity of the mineral, which had been crushed as for the acid +test, is caused to adhere to it while it is molten, and then the +heat of the blast directed upon it for some time until either the +small fragments of mineral dissolve, or positively refuse to do so. +After cooling, the aspect of the globule is noticed as to color, +transparency, etc. Care must be taken that too large an amount of +the mineral is not taken, a very minute amount being +sufficient.</p> + +<p>I trust by the use of these distinguishing reactions one will be +able to recognize by the tables to be given the name of the mineral +in hand, especially as they are from certain parts, where all the +minerals occurring therein are known to us; and I have worded the +characteristics so that they will serve to isolate from all that +possibly could be found in that locality.</p> + +<p>The first general locality is Bergen Hill, New Jersey. This +comprises the range of bluffs of trap rock commencing at Bergen +Point and running up behind Jersey City and Hoboken, etc., to the +part opposite about Thirtieth Street, New York, where it comes +close to the river, and from there along the river to the north for +a long distance, known as the Palisades. It is about a mile wide on +an average, and from a few feet to about two hundred feet in +height. The mineralogical localities in and upon it are at the +following parts, commencing at the south: First Pennsylvania +Railroad cuts where the mining operations are just about completed; +then the Erie Tunnel, in which the specimens that first made Bergen +Hill noted as a mineralogical locality, and whose equals have not +since been procured, were found, but which is now inaccessible to +the general public. Further north is the Morris and Essex Tunnel, +in which many fine specimens were secured, and is also +inaccessible; and last, but far from being least, is the Ontario +Tunnel at Weehawken; and, as it is the only practicable part +besides the Pennsylvania Railroad and a number of surface outcrops +which I will mention, I will commence with that.</p> + +<p><i>The Weehawken Tunnel</i>--This tunnel is now being cut +through the trap-rock for the New York, Ontario, and Western +Railroad, and will be completed in a few months, but will, +probably, be available as a mineralogical locality for a year to +come. It is located about half a mile south of the Weehawken Ferry +from Forty-second Street, New York city, and the place where to +climb upon the hill to get to the shafts leading to it is made +prominent by the large body of light-colored rock on the dump, a +few rods north of where the east entrance is to be. The western end +is in the village of New Durham, on the New Jersey Northern +Railroad, and recognized by the immense earth excavations. A pass +is necessary to gain admittance down the shafts, and this can be +procured from the office of the company, between the third and +fourth shafts to the tunnel, in the grocery and provision store +just to the north of the tramway connecting the shafts on the +surface. As it will not be necessary to go down in any of the +shafts besides the first and second in order to fulfill the objects +of this paper, no difficulty need be encountered in procuring the +pass if this is stated.</p> + +<p>These two shafts are about eight hundred feet apart and one +hundred and seventy feet deep. A platform elevator is the mode of +access to the tunneled portion below, and a free shower-bath is +included in the descent; consequently, a rubber-coat and water +tight boots are necessary. A pair of overalls should be worn if one +is to engage in any active exploration below; candles should also +be provided, as the electric lights, at the face of the headings, +give but little light, and remind one very forcibly of a dim flash +light with a foliaged tree in front of it. The electric wires for +supplying these arrangements run along the north side of the tunnel +for those on the east headings, and on the south side for the west. +They are excellent things to keep clear of, as they have sufficient +current passing through them to knock one down; thus their position +can be readily ascertained.</p> + +<p><i>Modes of Occurrence of the Minerals</i>.--In general, the +greater number of the specimens which are to be found in the tunnel +occur in veins generally perpendicular, and with other minerals of +little or no value, as calcite, chlorite, and imperfect crystals of +the same mineral. A few occur in nodules inclosed in the solid body +of rock, and in which condition they are seldom of value. The +greater abundance are in the veins of the dark-green soft chlorite, +and some few in horizontal beds. The minerals are found in the +first condition by examining all the veins running from floor to +ceiling of the tunnel. The ores of calcite first mentioned are very +conspicuous, they being white in the dense black rock. They may be +chipped from, as there are about thirty or forty of them exposed in +each shaft, and the character of the minerals examined to see if +anything but calcite is in it. This is ascertained by a drop of +acid, as explained before, and by the descriptions given further +on. The veins of chlorite are not so conspicuous, being of a +dark-green color; but by probing along the walls with a stick or +hammer, they may be recognized by their softness, or by its dull +glistening appearance. They are comparatively few, but from an inch +to three feet wide; and minerals are found by digging it out with a +stick or a three-foot drill, to be had at the headings. Where the +most minerals occur in the chlorite is when plenty of veins of +calcite are in its vicinity, and its edges near the trap are dry +and crumbly. It is here where the minerals are found in this +crumbly chlorite, and generally in geodes--that is, the faces of +the minerals all point inward, formerly a spherical mass--rough and +uncouth on the outside, and from half an inch to nearly a foot in +diameter. These are valuable finds, and well worth digging for. The +beds of minerals generally are of but one species, and will be +mentioned under the head of the minerals occurring in them. +Besides, in the tunnel there are generally more or less perfect +minerals upon the main dump over the edge of the bluff toward the +river. Here many specimens that have escaped the eyes of the miners +may be found among the loose rock, being constantly strewn out by +the incline of the bed; in fact, this is the only place in which +quite a number of the incident minerals may be found; but I will +not linger longer on this, as I shall refer to it under the +minerals individually.</p> + +<p>The minerals occurring at the tunnel are as follows, with their +descriptions and locations in the order of their greatest +abundance:</p> + +<p><i>Calcite</i>.--This mineral occurs in great abundance in and +about the tunnel, and from all the shafts. There are two forms +occurring there, the most abundant of which is the rhombohedral, +after Fig. 3. It can generally be obtained, however, in excellent +crystals, which, although perfect in form, are opaque, but often +large and beautiful. It is always packed with a thousand or its +multiple of other crystals into veins of a few inches thick; and +crystals are obtained by carefully breaking with edge of the cold +chisel these masses down to the fundamental form shown. As the +masses are never secured by the miners, they can always be picked +from the piles of <i>débris</i> around the shafts and the +dumps, and afford some little instruction as to the manner in which +a mineral is built up by crystallization, and may be subdivided by +cleavage to a crystal of the same shape exactly, but +infinitesimally small. A crystal to be worth preserving should be +about an inch in diameter, and as transparent as is attainable.</p> + +<p>Another form of calcite which is to be sparingly found is what +is called dogtooth spar, having the form shown in Fig. 4. They +occur in clear wine-yellow-colored crystals, from a quarter to half +an inch in length; they occur in the chlorite in geodes of variable +sizes, but generally two and a half inches in diameter, and which, +when carefully broken in half, showed beautiful grottoes of these +crystals. The few of these that I have found were in the four-foot +vein of chlorite down the Shaft No. 1, to the west of the shaft +about one hundred and fifty feet, and on the south wall; it may be +readily found by probing for it, and then the geodes by digging in. +There need be no difficulty in finding this vein if these +conditions are carefully considered, or if one of the miners be +asked as to the soft vein. Both these forms of calcite may be +distinguished from the other minerals by first effervescing on +coming in contact with the acids; second, by glowing with an +intense (almost unbearably so) light when heated with the blowpipe, +but not fusing. Their specific gravity is 2.6, or near it, and +hardness about 3, or equal to ordinary unpolished white marble.</p> + +<p><i>Natrolite</i>.--The finest specimens of this mineral that +have ever been found in Bergen Hill were taken from a bed of it in +this tunnel, having in its original form, before it was cut out by +the tunnel passing through, over one hundred square feet, and from +one-half to two and a half and even three inches in thickness; it +was in all possible shapes and forms--all extremely rare and +beautiful. A large part of one end of this bed still remains, and, +by careful cutting, fine masses may be obtained. This bed may be +readily found; it is nearly horizontal, and in its center about +four feet from the floor of the tunnel, and about half an inch +thick. It is down Shaft No. 2, on the north wall, and commences +about eighty feet from the shaft. It is cut into in some places, +but there is plenty more left, and can be obtained by cutting the +rock above it and easing it out by means of the blade of a knife or +similar instrument. This natrolite is a grouping of very small but +perfect crystals, having the forms shown in Fig. 5; they are from a +quarter to an inch long, and, if not perfectly transparent, are of +a pure white color; they may be readily recognized by their form, +and occurring in this bed. Its hardness, which is seldom to be +ascertained owing to the delicacy of the crystals, is about 5, and +the specific gravity 2.2. This is readily found, but is no +distinction; its reaction before the blowpipe, however, is +characteristic, it readily fusing to a transparent globule, clear +and glassy, and by forming a jelly when heated with acids. The bed +holding the upright crystals is also natrolite in confused matted +masses. This mineral has also been found in other parts of the +shaft, but only in small druses. There is a prospect at present +that another bed will be uncovered soon, and some more fine +specimens to be easily obtained.</p> + +<p><i>Pectolite</i>, or as it is termed by the miners, "silky +spar."--This mineral is quite abundant and in fine masses, not of +the great beauty and size of those taken from the Erie Tunnel, but +still of great uniqueness. The mineral is recognized by its +peculiar appearance, as is shown in Fig. 6, where it may be seen +that it is in groups of fine delicate fibers about an inch long, +diverging from a point into fan-shaped groups. The fibers are very +tightly packed together, as are also the groups; they are very +tough individually, and have a hardness of 4, and a specific +gravity of about 2.5. It gelatinizes on boiling with acid, and a +fragment may be readily fused in the blowpipe flame, yielding a +transparent globule. The appearance is the most striking +characteristic, and at once distinguishes this mineral from any of +the others occurring in this locality. Considerable quantities of +pectolite may generally be found on the dump, but also in Shaft No. +1, and especially No. 2. The veins of it are difficult to +distinguish from the calcite, as they are almost identical in +color, and many of the calcite veins are partly of pectolite--in +fact, every third or fourth vein will contain more or less of it. +There is, however, a very fine vein of pectolite about twenty-five +feet further east from the natrolite bed; it runs from the floor to +ceiling, and is about two inches in thickness; some specimens of +which I took from these were unusually unique in both size and +appearance. It makes a very handsome specimen for the cabinet, and +should be carefully trimmed to show the characteristics of the +mineral.</p> + +<p><i>Datholite</i>.--This mineral has been found very frequently +in the tunnel, it occurring in pockets in the softer trap near the +chlorite, and also in the latter, generally at a depth of one +hundred and fifty feet from the surface, and consequently near the +ceiling of the tunnel. All that has been found of any great beauty +has been in the western end of the Shaft No. 1 and the eastern of +Shaft No. 2, where the trap is quite soft; here it is found nearly +every day in greater or less quantity, and from this some may +generally be found on the dump, or, in the vein of chlorite which I +mentioned as a locality for the dogtooth spar, considerable may be +obtained in it and on its western edge near the ceiling. A ladder +about thirteen feet long is used for attending the lights, and may +generally be borrowed, and access to the remainder of this pocket +thus gained. Datholite is also very characteristic in appearance, +and can only be confounded with some forms of calcite occurring +near it. It occurs in small glassy, nearly globular crystals; they +are generally not over three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, and +generally pure and perfectly transparent, having a hardness of a +little over 5, and specific gravity of 3; as it generally occurs as +a druse upon the trap, or an apopholite, calcite, etc., this is +seldom attainable, however, and we have a very distinctive +characteristic in another test: this is the blowpipe, under which +it at first intumesces and then fuses to a transparent globule, and +the flame, after playing upon it, is of a deep green color. Nitric +acid must be used to boil it up with, and with it it may be readily +gelatinized. This last test will seldom be necessary, however, and +may be dispensed with if the hardness and blowpipe reactions may be +ascertained.</p> + +<p><i>Apopholite</i>.--This beautiful mineral has been found in +fair abundance at times in Shafts No. 1 and 2 in pockets, and +seldom in place, most of it being taken from the loose stone at the +mouth of the shaft, and it may generally be found on the dump. It +is readily mistaken for calcite by the miners and those unskilled +in mineralogy, but a drop of acid will quickly show the difference. +The sizes of the crystals are very various, from an eighth of an +inch long or thick, to, in one case, an inch and a half. The colors +have been varied from white to nearly all tints, including pink, +purple, blue, and green; the white variety is, however, the most +abundant, and makes a handsome cabinet specimen. The crystals are +generally packed together in a mass, but are frequently set apart +as heavy druses of crystals having the form shown in Fig. 7. +Sometimes, as in the former grouping, the crystals are without the +pyramidal terminations, and are then right square prisms. The +fracture being at perfect right angles, distinguishes it from +calcite. Its hardness is generally fully 5, the specific gravity +between 2.4 and 2.5; it is difficult to fuse before the blowpipe, +but is finally fused into an opaque globule. Upon heating with +nitric acid it partly dissolves, and the remainder becomes flaky +and gelatinous. Apopholite, although quite rare, now may be bought +from the men, or at least one of the engineers of Shaft No. 2's +elevator, and generally at low terms.</p> + +<p><i>Phrenite</i>.--This mineral is quite abundant in Shafts No. 1 +and 2, in very small masses, incrustations, and even in small +crystals. It occurs embedded in or incrusting the trap, and also +with calcite and apopholite. The only sure place to find it is at +the southwest side of an opening through the pile of drift rock +under the trestle work of the tramway, between shaft No. 1 and the +dump, and within a few feet of a number of wooden vats sunk into +the ground seen just before descending the hills and near the edge. +Here on a number of blocks of trap it may be found, a greenish +white incrustation about as thick as a knife blade; it also may be +found on the main dump, and is sometimes found in plates one-eighth +of an inch thick, of a darker green color, upon calcite. Its +easiest distinguishment from the other minerals of this locality, +with which it might be confounded, is its great hardness of from 6 +to 7. It is very fragile and brittle, however, and is never +perfectly transparent, but quite opaque; its specific gravity is +2.9, and it is readily fused before the blowpipe after intumescing. +It partly dissolves in acid without gelatinizing, leaving a flaky +residue; it is a beautiful mineral when in masses or crystals of a +dark green color, but the best place in the vicinity to secure +specimens of this kind is, as I will detail hereafter, at Paterson, +N. J.</p> + +<p><i>Iron and Copper Pyrites</i>.--Both of these common but +frequently beautiful minerals occur in the tunnel and adjacent +rocks in great abundance. The crystals are generally about +one-fourth of an inch in diameter, and groups of these may be +frequently obtained on the dump in the shafts, especially No. 1 and +2, and where the rock is being cleared away for the eastern +entrance to the tunnel. They resemble each other very much; the +iron pyrites, however, is in cubical forms and having the great +hardness of from 6 to 7, while the copper pyrites, less abundant +and in forms having triangles for bases, but having sometimes other +forms and a hardness of but 3 to 4. Both are similar in aspect to a +piece of brass, and cannot be mistaken for any other mineral. The +form of the copper pyrites is shown in Fig. 8; the iron is, as +before noted, in cubes, more or less modified.</p> + +<p><i>Stilbite</i>.--Small quantities of this beautiful mineral +have been found in Shaft No. 2, in a small bed of but a few square +feet in area, but quite thick and appearing much like natrolite. +This bed was about one hundred feet east from Shaft No. 2, and in +the center of the heading when it was at that point. It has been +encountered since in small quantities, and it would do well to look +out for it in the fresh tunneled portion after the date appended to +this paper. It generally occurs in the form shown in Fig. 9, +grouped very similarly to natrolite, and being right upon the rock +or a thin bed of itself. The crystals are generally half an inch +long, but often less. The modifications of the above form, which +are frequent in this species, strike one forcibly of the +resemblance they bear to a broad stone spear head on a diminutive +scale, with a blunted edge; their hardness is about 4, specific +gravity 2.2, the color generally a pearly white or grayish. After a +long boiling with nitric acid it gelatinizes, but it foams up and +fuses to a transparent glass before the blowpipe. A little stilbite +may often be found on the dumps.</p> + +<p><i>Laumonite</i> occurs in very small quantities on calcite or +apopholite, and can hardly be expected to be found on the trip; but +as it might be found, I will detail some of its characteristics. +Hardness 4, specific gravity 2.3; it generally occurs in small +crystals, but more frequently in a crumbly, chalky mass, which it +becomes upon exposure to the air. The crystals are generally +transparent and frequently tinged yellow in color. It gelatinizes +by boiling with acid, and after intumescing before the blowpipe, +fuses to a frothy mass. To keep this mineral when in crystals from +crumbling upon exposure it may be dipped in a thin mastic varnish +or in a gum-arabic solution.</p> + +<p><i>Heulandite</i>.--This rare mineral has been found under the +same conditions as laumonite in Shaft No. 2, but it is seldom to be +met with, and then in small crystals. It is of a pure white color, +sometimes transparent. It intumesces and readily fuses before the +blowpipe, and dissolves in acid without gelatinizing. Hardness 4, +specific gravity 2.2.</p> + +<p>The few other minerals occurring in the tunnel are so extremly +rare as not to be met with by any other than an expert, and it is +impossible to detail the localities, as they generally occur as +minute druses or incrustations upon other minerals with which they +may be confounded, and have been removed as soon as discovered. The +minerals referred to are analcime, chabazite, Thompsonite, and +finally, the mineral which I first found in this formation, +Hayesine, which is extremely rare, and of which I only obtained +sufficient to cover a square inch. The particulars in regard to its +locality, etc., maybe found in the <i>American Journal of +Sciences</i> for June, page 458. I will now sum up the +characteristics of these several minerals of this locality in the +table:</p> + +<pre> +------------------------------------------------------------------------------- + | | | | | | + Name. | H. |Sp.|Action of |Action of |Color.|Appearance. + | |Gr.|Blowpipe. |hot acid. | | +----------+-----+---+-----------------+-----------------+------+--------------- + | | | | | | +Calcite | 3 |2.6|Infusible, |Soluble with |White |Like Fig. + | | |but glows |effervescence | |3 and 4. + | | | | | | +Natrolite | 5 |2.2|Readily fused |Forms a jelly | do. |Like Fig 5. + | | |to clear globule | | | + | | | | | | +Pectolite | 4 |2.5| do. | do. do. | do. |Divergent + | | | | | |fibers, Fig. 6. + | | | | | | +Datholite | 5 |3.0|Intumesces, fused|Forms a jelly |Color-|Small, nearly + | | |to clear globule,| |less |spherical, etc. + | | |gives green flame| |white | + | | | | | | +Apopholite| 5 |2.5|Difficult, fused |Partly soluble |Tinted|Like Fig. 7. + | | |to opaque globule|in nitric acid | | + | | | | | | +Phrenite | 6 |2.9|Intomesces, fused|Partly soluble |Green-|In tables and + |to 7 | |to clear globule |in nitric acid, |ish |incrustations. + | | | |leaving flakes | | + | | | | | | +Iron | 6 |5.0|Burns and yields | |Brass |Cubical. +pyrites |to 7 | |a black globule, | | | + | | |decrepitates | | | + | | | | | | +Copper | 3 |4.2| do. do. | | do. |Tetrahedronal. +pyrites |to 4 | | | | | + | | | | | | +Stilbite | 4 |2.2|Intumesces and |Difficult; jelly |White |Like Fig. 8. + | | |fuses readily |on long boiling | | + | | | |with nitric acid.| | + | | | | | | +Laumonite | 4 |2.3|Intumesces and |Readily | do. |Generally + |to 0 | |fuses to frothy |gelatinizes | |chalky. + | | |mass | | | + | | | | | | +Heulandite| 4 |2.2|Intumesces and |Soluble, no | do. |In right + | | |readily fuses |jelly | |rhomboidal + | | | | | |prisms. + | | | | | | +------------------------------------------------------------------------------- +</pre> + +<p><i>To Distinguish the Minerals together the one from the +other</i>.--Calcite by effervescing on placing a drop of acid upon +it. Natrolite resembles stilbite, but may be distinguished by +gelatinizing readily with hydrochloric acid and by not intumescing +when heated before the blowpipe; from the other minerals by the +form of the crystals and their setting, also the locality in the +tunnel in which it was found.</p> + +<p>Pectolite sometimes resembles some of the others, but may be +readily distinguished by its <i>tough</i> long fibers, not brittle +like natrolite. Datholite may generally be distinguished by the +form of its crystals and their glassy appearance, with great +hardness, and by tingeing the flame from the blowpipe of a true +green color. Apopholite is distinguished from calcite, as noticed +under that species, and from the others by its form, difficult +fusibility, and part solubility.</p> + +<p>Phrenite is characterized by its hardness, greenish color, +occurrence, and action of acid. Iron pyrites is always known by its +brassy metallic aspect and great hardness. Copper pyrites, by its +aspect from the other minerals, and from iron pyrites by its +inferior hardness and less gravity.</p> + +<p>Stilbite is characterized by its form, difficult gelatinizing, +and intumescence before the blowpipe; from natrolite as mentioned +under that species.</p> + +<p>Laumonite is known by its generally chalky appearance and a +probable failure in finding it.</p> + +<p>Heulandite is distinguished from stilbite by its crystals and +perfect solubility; from apopholite by form of crystals.</p> + +<p>In the next part of this paper I will commence with Staten +Island.</p> + +<p>July 1, 1882. (<i>To be continued</i>.)</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="13"></a></p> + +<h2>ANTISEPTICS.</h2> + +<p>The author has endeavored to ascertain what agents are able to +destroy the spores of bacilli, how they behave toward the +microphytes most easily destroyed, such as the moulds, ferments, +and micrococci, and if they suffice at least to arrest the +development of these organisms in liquids favorable to their +multiplication. His results with phenol, thymol, and salicylic acid +have been unfavorable. Sulphurous acid and zinc chloride also +failed to destroy all the germs of infection. Chlorine, bromine, +and mercuric chloride gave the best results; solutions of mercuric +chloride, nitrate, or sulphate diluted to 1 part in 1,000 destroy +spores in ten minutes.--<i>R. Koch</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="14"></a></p> + +<h2>CRYSTALLIZATION AND ITS EFFECTS UPON IRON.</h2> + +<h3>By N.B. WOOD, Member of the Civil Engineers' Club, of +Cleveland.</h3> + +<p>[Footnote: Read January 10th. 1882.]</p> + +<p>The question has been asked, "What is the chemically scientific +definition of crystallization?" Now as the study of crystallization +and its effect upon matter, physically as well as chemically, will +be of interest, considering the subject matter for discussion, I +shall not only endeavor to answer the question, as I understand it, +but try to treat it somewhat technologically.</p> + +<p>Having this object in view, I have prepared or brought about the +conditions necessary to the formation of a few crystals of various +chemical substances, which for various reasons, such as lack of +time and bad weather, are not as perfect as could be desired, but +will perhaps subserve the purpose for which they were designed. I +think you will agree with me that they are beautiful, if they are +imperfect, and I can assure you that the pleasure of watching their +formation fully repays one for the trouble, if for no other reason +than the mere gratification of the senses. From the earliest times +and by all races of men, the crystal has been admired and imitated, +or improved by cutting and polishing into faces of various +substances. I have also procured specimens of steel and iron which +show the effect of crystallization, which was produced (perhaps) +under known conditions, so that the conclusions which we arrive at +from their study will have a fair chance of being logical, at +least, and perhaps of some practical value.</p> + +<p>When we examine inanimate nature we find two grand divisions of +matter, <i>fluid</i> and <i>solid</i>. These two divisions may be +subdivided into, the former gaseous and liquid, the latter +amorphous and crystalline; but whether one or the other of these +divisions be considered, their ultimate and common division will be +the ATOM. By the atom we understand that portion of matter which +admits of no further division, which, though as inconceivable for +minuteness as space is for extent, has still definite weight, form, +and volume; which under favorable circumstances, has that power or +force called cohesion, the intensity of which constitutes strength +of material, which every engineer is supposed to understand, but +which lies far beyond the powers of the human mind for +comprehension or analysis. When we apply a magnet to a mass of iron +filings, we observe the particles arrange themselves in regular +order, having considerable strength in one direction, and very +little or none in any other. Now, although we understand very +little about the force which holds these particles in position, we +do know that it is actual force applied from without and maintained +at the expense of some of the known sources of force. But the force +or power or property of cohesion seems to be a quality stored +within the atom itself, in many cases similar to magnetism, having +powerful attraction in some directions and very little or none in +others. A crystal of mica, for instance, or gypsum may be divided +to any degree of thinness, but is very difficult to even break. +This property of crystals is termed cleavage. Cohesion and +crystallization are affected variously by various circumstances, +such as heat or its absence, motion or its absence, etc. In fact, +almost every phenomenon of nature within the range of ordinary +temperatures has effects which may be favorable to the +crystallization of some substances, and at the same time +unfavorable to others; so it will be seen that it is impossible to +lay down any rule for it except for named substances, like +substances requiring like conditions, to bring its atoms into that +state of equilibrium where crystallization can occur. If we examine +crystals carefully we find, not only that nature has here provided +geometric forms of marvelous beauty and exactness, with faces of +polish and quoins of acuteness equal to the work of the most +skillful lapidist, "but that in whatever manner or under whatever +circumstances a crystal may have been formed, whether in the +laboratory of the chemist or the workshop of nature, in the bodies +of animals or the tissues of plants, up in the sky or in the depths +of the earth, whether so rapidly that we may literally see its +growth, or by the slow aggregation of its molecules during perhaps +thousands of years, we always find that the arrangement of the +faces is subject to fixed and definite laws." We find also that a +crystal is always finished and has its form as perfectly developed +when it is the minutest point discernible by the microscope as when +it has attained its ultimate growth. I might add parenthetically +that crystals are sometimes of immense size, one at Milan of quartz +being 3 feet 3 inches long and 5 feet 6 inches in circumference, +and is estimated to weigh over 800 pounds; and a gigantic beryl at +Grafton, N. H., is over 4 feet in length and 32 inches in diameter, +and weighs not less than 5,000 pounds; but the most perfect +specimens are of small size, as some accident is sure to overtake +the larger ones before they acquire their growth, to interfere with +their symmetry or transparency. This you will see abundantly +illustrated by the examples which I have prepared, as also the +constancy of the angles of like faces. Chemically speaking, the +crystal is always a perfect chemical body, and can never be a +mechanical mixture. This fact has been of great value to the +science of chemistry in developing the atomic theory, which has +demonstrated that a body can only exist chemically combined when a +definite number of atoms of each element is present, and that there +is no certainty of such proportions existing except in the crystal. +I hold before you a crystal of common alum. Its chemical symbol +would be +Al<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>,3SO<sub>3</sub>+KO,SO<sub>3</sub>+24H<sub> +2</sub>O. If we knew its weight and wished to know its ultimate +component parts, we could calculate them more readily than we could +acquire that knowledge by any other means. But the elements of this +quantity of uncrystallized alum could not be computed. Then we may +define crystallization to be the operation of nature wherein the +chemical atoms or molecules of a substance have sufficient +polarized force to arrange themselves about a central attracting +point in definite geometrical forms.</p> + +<p>Fresenius defines it thus: "<i>Every operation, or process, +whereby bodies are made to pass from the fluid to the solid state, +and to assume</i> certain fixed, <i>mathematically definable, +regular forms</i>." It would be folly for me to attempt to +criticise Fresenius, but I give you both definitions, and you can +take your choice. The definition of Fresenius, however, will not +suit our present purpose, because the crystallization of wrought +iron occurs, or seems to, <i>after</i> the iron has acquired a +<i>solid state</i>.</p> + +<p>Iron, as you all know, is known to the arts in three forms: cast +or crude, steel, and wrought or malleable. Cast iron varies much in +chemical composition, being a mixture of iron and carbon chiefly, +as constant factors, with which silicium in small quantities (from +1 to 5 per cent.), phosphorus, sulphur, and sometimes manganese +(e.g. spiegeleisen) and various other elements are combined. All of +these have some effect upon the crystalline structure of the mass, +but whatever crystallization takes place occurs at the moment of +solidification, or between that and a red heat, and varies much, +according to the time occupied in cooling, as to its composition. +My own experience leads me to think that a cast iron having about 3 +per cent. of carbon, a small per centage of phosphorus, say about +½ of 1 per cent., and very small quantities of silicium, the +less the better, and traces of manganese (the two latter substances +<i>slagging</i> out almost entirely during the process of remelting +for casting), makes a metal best adapted to the general use of the +founder. Such proportions will make a soft, even grained, dark gray +iron, whose crystals are small and bright, and whose fracture will +be uneven and sharp to the touch. The phosphorus in this instance +gives the metal liquidity at a low temperature, but does not seem +to influence the crystallization to any appreciable extent. The two +elements to be avoided by the founder are silicium and sulphur. +These give to iron a peculiar crystalline appearance easily +recognized by an experienced person. Silicium seems to obliterate +the sparkling brilliancy of the crystalline faces of good iron, and +replace them with very fine dull ones only discernible with a lens, +and the iron breaks more like stoneware than metal, while sulphur +in appreciable quantities gives a striated crystalline texture +similar to chilled iron, and very brittle. Phosphorus in very large +quantities acts similarly. The form of the crystal in cast iron is +the octahedron, so that right angles with sharp corners should be +avoided as much as possible in castings, as the most likely +position for a crystal to take would be with its faces along the +line of the angle. Steel, to be of any value as such, <i>must</i> +be made of the purest material. Phosphorus and sulphur <i>must</i> +not exist, except in the most minute quantities, or the metal is +worthless. If either of these substances be present in a bar of +steel, its structure will be coarse, crystalline and weak. The +reason of this is unknown, but probably their presence reduces the +power of cohesion; and, that being reduced, gives the molecules of +steel greater freedom to arrange themselves in conformity with +their polarity, and this in its turn again weakens the mass by the +tendency of the crystals to cleavage in certain directions. Carbon +is a constant element in steel, as it is in cast iron, but is +frequently replaced by chromium, titanium, etc., or is said to be, +though it is not quite clear to me how it can be so if steel is a +chemical compound. However this may be, we know that a piece of +good soft steel breaks with a fine crystalline fracture, and the +same piece hardened when broken shows either an amorphous structure +or one very finely crystalline, which would indicate that the +crystals had been broken up by the action of heat, and that they +had not had sufficient time to return to their original position on +account of the sudden cooling. The tendency of the molecules of +steel after hardening to assume their natural position when cold +seems to be very great, for we have often seen large pieces of +steel burst asunder after hardening, though lying untouched, and +sometimes with such force as to hurl the fragments to some +distance. If a piece of steel be subjected to a bright yellow or +white heat its nature is entirely changed, and the workman says it +is burnt. Though this is not actually a fact, it does well enough +to express that condition of the metal. Steel cannot be burnt +unless some portion of it has been oxidized. The carbon would of +course be attacked first, its affinity for oxygen being greatest; +but we find nothing wanting in a piece of burnt steel. It can, by +careful heating, hammering and hardening, be returned to its former +excellence. Then what change has taken place? I should say that two +modifications have been made, one physical, the other chemical. The +change chemically is that of a chemical compound to a mixture of +carbon and iron, so that in a chemical sense it resembles cast +iron. The change physically is that of crystallization, being due +partly to chemical change and partly to the effect of heat. I have +procured a specimen of steel showing beautifully the effect of +overheating. The specimen is labeled No. 1, and is a piece of Park +Brothers' steel (one of the best brands made in America). It has +been heated at one end to proper heat for hardening, and at the +other is what is technically called "burnt." It has been broken at +intervals of about 1½ inches, showing the transition from +amorphous or proper hardening to highly crystalline or "burnt." +Malleable or wrought iron is or should be pure iron. Of course in +practice it is seldom such, but generally nearly so, being usually +98, 99, or even more per cent. It is exceedingly prone to +crystallization, the purer varieties being as much subject to it as +others, except those contaminated with phosphorus, which affects it +similarly with steel, and makes it very weak to cross and tensile +strains. I have never estimated the quantity present in any except +one specimen, a bar of 1½ round, which literally fell to +pieces when dropped across a block of iron. It had 1.32 per cent. +of phosphorus and was very crystalline, though the crystals were +not very large. Iron which has been, when first made, quite +fibrous, when subjected to a series of shocks for a greater or less +period, according to their intensity, when subjected to intense +currents of electricity, or when subjected to high temperatures, or +has by mechanical force been pushed together, or, as it is called, +upset, becomes extremely crystalline. Under all of these +circumstances it is subjected to one physical phenomenon, that of +motion. It would seem that if a bar of iron were struck, the blow +would shake the whole mass, and consequently the relative position +of the particles remain unchanged, but this is not the case. When +the blow is struck it takes an appreciable length of time for the +effect to be communicated to the other end so as to be heard, if +the distance is great. This shows that a small force is +communicated from particle to particle independently along the +whole mass, and that each atom actually moves independently of its +neighbor. Then, if there be any attraction at the time tending to +arrange it differently, it will conform to it. So much for theory +with regard to this important matter. It looks well on paper, but +do the facts of the case correspond? If practically demonstrated +and systematically executed, experiments fail to corroborate the +theory, and if, furthermore, we find there is no necessity for the +theory, we naturally conclude that it is all wrong, or, at least, +imperfectly understood. Now there is one other quality imparted to +iron by successive shocks, which, I think, is independent of +crystallization, and this quality is hardness and consequent +brittleness. One noticeable feature about this also is, that as +"absolute cohesion" or tensile strength diminishes, "relative +cohesion" or strength to resist crushing increases. Specimens Nos. +2, 3, and 4 are pieces of Swedish iron, probably from the +celebrated mines of Dannemora. Nos. 2 and 3 are parts of the same +bolt, which, after some months' use on a "heading machine" in a +bolt and nut works, where it was subjected to numerous and violent +shocks, (perhaps 50,000 or 60,000 per day), it broke short off, as +you see in No 2, showing a highly crystalline fracture. To test +whether this structure continued through the bolt, I had it nicked +by a blacksmith's cold chisel and broken. The specimen shows that +it is still stronger at that point than at the point where it is +actually broken, but the resulting fracture shows the same +crystalline appearance. I next had specimen No. 4 cut from a fresh +bar of iron which had never been used for anything. It also shows a +crystalline fracture, indicating that this peculiarity had existed +in the iron of both from the beginning.</p> + +<p>I next took specimen No. 3 and subjected it to a careful +annealing, taking perhaps two hours in the operation. Although it +is a 1-1/8 bolt and has V threads cut upon it we were unable to +break it, although bent cold through an arc of 90°, and +probably would have doubled upon itself if we had had the means to +have forced it. Now what does this show? Have the crystals been +obliterated by the process of annealing, or has only their cleavage +been destroyed, so that when they break, instead of showing +brilliant, sparkling faces, they are drawn into a fibrous looking +mass? The latter seems to be the most plausible theory, to which I +admit objections may be raised. For my own part, I am inclined to +the belief that the crystal exists in all iron which is finished +above a bright red heat, and that between that and black heat they +are formed and have whatever characteristics circumstances may +confer upon them, modified by the action of agencies heretofore +mentioned.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important +scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be +had gratis at this office.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<p><b>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</b></p> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, +January 1, 1876, can be had. 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