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diff --git a/old/8036210.txt b/old/8036210.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..bde987d --- /dev/null +++ b/old/8036210.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4578 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 362, +December 9, 1882, by Various + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 362, December 9, 1882 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: August, 2005 [EBook #8687] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on August 1, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUP. NO. 362 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, +Charles Franks and the DP Team + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 362 + + + + +NEW YORK, DECEMBER 9, 1882 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIV, No. 362. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + + * * * * * + +TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS--Recent Improvements in + Textile Machinery.--Harris's revolving ring spinning frame.-- + New electric stop motion.--New positive motion loom. 6 figures. + + Spinning Without a Mule.--Harris's improvements in ring + spinning. + + New Binding Machines. 3 figures. + + Flumes and their construction. 1 figure. + + Chuwab's Rolling Mill for Dressing and Rounding Bar Iron. + 9 figures. + + Burning of Town Refuse at Leeds. 6 figures.--Sections and + elevations of destructor and carbonizer. + +II. TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.--Friedrich Wohler.--His + labors and discoveries. + + New Gas Burner. 3 figures.--Grimstone's improved gas burner. + + Defty's Improvements in Gas Burners and Heaters. 4 figures. + + The Collotype in Practice. + + Determination of Potassa in Manures.--By M. E. DREYFUS. + +III. HYGIENE, MEDICINE, ETC.--The Air in Relation to Health. + By Prof. C. F. CHANDLER. + + The Plantain as a Styptic. + + Bacteria. + +IV. ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Gustavo Trouvé and his Electrical Inventions. + --Portrait of Gustave Trouvé.--Trouvé's electric boat competing + in the regatta at Troyes. + + Domestic Electricity.--Loiseau's electric naphtha and gas + lighters.--Ranque's new form of lighter with extinguisher. + + Theiler's Telephone Receiver. 2 figures. + + An Electric Power Hammer. By MARCEL DEPRETZ. 1 figure. + + Solignac's New Electric Lamp. 3 figures. + + Mondos's Electric Lamp. 2 figures. + +V. METALLURGY AND MINERALOGY.--Aluminum.--Its properties, + cost, and uses. + + The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. + By J.S. NEWBERRY.--An elaborate and extremely valuable review + of the genesis of carbon minerals, and the modes and conditions + of their occurrence. + + Estimation of Sulphur in Iron and Steel. By GEORGE CRAIG. + 1 figure. + +VI. ARCHITECTURE, ETC.--The Armitage House. + + Suggestions in Architecture.--An English country residence. + +VII. BOTANY, HORTICULTURE, ETC.--The Soy Bean. 1 figure.-- + The Soy bean (_Soja hispida_). + + Erica Cavendishiana. 1 figure. + + Philesia Buxifolia. 1 figure. + + Mahogany. + +VIII. MISCELLANEOUS.--Our Hebrew Population. + + The Mysteries of Lake Baikal. + + Traveling Sand Hills on Lake Ontario. + + Animals in the Arts.--Corals.--The conch shell.--Living beetles, + etc.--Pearls.--Sepia and silk. + + * * * * * + + + + +GUSTAVE TROUVÉ. + + +The accompanying portrait of M. Gustave Trouvé is taken from a small +volume devoted to an account of his labors recently published by M. +Georges Dary. M. Trouvé, who may be said to have had no ancestors from +an electric point of view, was born in 1839 in the little village of +Haye-Descartes. He was sent by his parents to the College of Chinon, +whence he entered the École des Arts et Metiers, and afterward went +to Paris to work in the shop of a clock-maker. This was an excellent +apprenticeship for our future electrician, since it is in small works +that electricity excels; and, if its domain is to be increased, it is +only on condition that the electric mechanician shall never lose sight +of the fact that he should be a clock-maker, and that his fingers, to +use M. Dumas's apt words, should possess at once the strength of those +of the Titans and the delicacy of those of fairies. It was not long ere +Trouvé set up a shop of his own, whither inventors flocked in crowds; +and the work he did for these soon gave up to him the secrets of the art +of creating. The first applications that he attempted related to the use +of electricity in surgery, a wonderfully fecund branch, but one whose +importance was scarcely suspected, notwithstanding the results +already obtained through the application of the insufflation pile to +galvano-cautery. What the surgeon needed was to see plainly into the +cavities of the human body. Trouvé found a means of lighting these +up with lamps whose illuminating power was fitted for that sort of +exploration. This new mode of illumination having been adopted, it was +but natural that it should afterward find an application in dangerous +mines, powder mills, and for a host of different purposes. But the +perfection of this sort of instruments was the wound explorer, by the +aid of which a great surgeon sounded the wounds that Italian balls had +made in Garibaldi's foot. + +[Illustration: GUSTAVE TROUVE.] + +The misfortunes of France afterward directed Trouvé's attention to +military electricity, and led him to devise a perfect system of portable +telegraphy, in which his hermetic pile lends itself perfectly to all +maneuvers and withstands all sorts of moving about. + +The small volume of which we have spoken is devoted more particularly to +electric navigation, for which M. Trouvé specially designed the motor of +his invention, and by the aid of which he performed numerous experiments +on the ocean, on the Seine at Paris, and before Rouen and at Troyes. In +this latter case M. Trouvé gained a medal of honor on the occasion of a +regatta. Our engraving represents him competing with the rowers of whom +he kept ahead with so distinguished success. We could not undertake to +enumerate all the inventions which we owe to M. Trouvé; but we cannot, +however, omit mention of the pendulum escapement that beats the second +or half second without any variation in the length of the balance; of +the electric gyroscope constructed at the request of M. Louis Foucault; +of the electro-medical pocket-case; of the apparatus for determining the +most advantageous inclination to give a helix; of the electric bit for +stopping unruly horses; and of the universal caustic-holder. He has +given the electric polyscope features such that every cavity in the +human body may be explored by its aid. As for his electric motor, he +has given that a form that makes the rotation regular and suppresses +dead-centers--a result that he has obtained by utilizing the +eccentrization of the Siemens bobbin. + +Although devoting himself mainly to improving his motor (which, by +the way, he has applied to the tricycle), M. Trouvé does not disdain +telephony, but has introduced into the manufacture of magnets for the +purpose many valuable improvements.--_Electricité_. + +[Illustration: TROUVE'S ELECTRIC BOAT COMPETING IN THE REGATTA AT +TROYES, AUG. 6, 1882.] + + * * * * * + + + + +FRIEDRICH WÖHLER. + + +At the age of eighty-two years, and full of honor, after a life actively +devoted to scientific work of the highest and most accurate kind, which +has contributed more than that of any other contemporary to establish +the principles on which an exact science like chemistry is founded, the +illustrious Wöhler has gone to his rest. + +After he had worked for some time with Berzelius in Sweden, he taught +chemistry from 1825 to 1831 at the Polytechnic School in Berlin; then +till 1836 he was stationed at the Higher Polytechnic School at Cassel, +and then he became Ordinary Professor of Chemistry in the University of +Göttingen, where he remained till his death. He was born, July 31, 1800, +at Eschersheim, near Frankfort-on-the-Main. + +Until the year 1828 it was believed that organic substances could only +be formed under the influence of the vital force in the bodies of +animals and plants. It was Wöhler who proved by the artificial +preparation of urea from inorganic materials that this view could not be +maintained. This discovery has always been considered as one of the most +important contributions to our scientific knowledge. By showing that +ammonium cyanate can become urea by an internal arrangement of its +atoms, without gaining or losing in weight, Wöhler furnished one of the +first and best examples of isomerism, which helped to demolish the old +view that equality of composition could not coexist in two bodies, A +and B, with differences in their respective physical and chemical +properties. Two years later, in 1830, Wöhler published, jointly with +Liebig, the results of a research on cyanic and cyanuric acid and on +urea. Berzelius, in his report to the Swedish Academy of Sciences, +called it the most important of all researches in physics, chemistry, +and mineralogy published in that year. The results obtained were quite +unexpected, and furnished additional and most important evidence in +favor of the doctrine of isomerism. In the year 1834, Wöhler and Liebig +published an investigation of the oil of bitter almonds. They prove by +their experiments that a group of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms +can behave like an element, take the place of an element, and can be +exchanged for elements in chemical compounds. Thus the foundation was +laid of the doctrine of compound radicals, a doctrine which has had +and has still the most profound influence on the development of +chemistry--so much so that its importance can hardly be exaggerated. +Since the discovery of potassium by Davy, it was assumed that alumina +also, the basis of clay, contained a metal in combination with oxygen. +Davy, Oerstedt, and Berzelius attempted the extraction of this metal, +but could not succeed. Wöhler then worked on the same subject, and +discovered the metal aluminum. To him also is due the isolation of the +elements yttrium, beryllium, and titanium, the observation that silicium +can be obtained in crystals, and that some meteoric stones contain +organic matter. He analyzed a number of meteorites, and for many years +wrote the digest on the literature of meteorites in the _Jahresbericht +der Chemie_; he possessed, perhaps, the best private collection of +meteoric stones and irons existing. Wöhler and Sainte Claire Deville +discovered the crystalline form of boron, and Wöhler and Buff the +hydrogen compounds of silicium and a lower oxide of the same element. +This is by no means a full statement of Wöhler's scientific work; it +even does not mention all the discoveries which have had great influence +on the theory of chemistry. The mere titles of the papers would fill +several closely-printed pages. The journals of every year from 1820 to +1881 contain contributions from his pen, and even his minor publications +are always interesting. As was truly remarked ten years ago, when it was +proposed by a Fellow of the Royal Society that a Copley medal should be +conferred upon him, "for two or three of his researches he deserves the +highest honor a scientific man can obtain, but the sum of his work is +absolutely overwhelming. Had he never lived, the aspect of chemistry +would be very different from that it is now." + +While sojourning at Cassel, Wöhler made, among other chemical +discoveries, one for obtaining the metal nickel in a state of purity, +and with two attached friends he founded a factory there for the +preparation of the metal. + +Among the works which he published were "Grundriss der Anorganischen +Chemie," Berlin, 1830, and the "Grundriss der Organischen Chemie," +Berlin, 1840. Nor must we omit to mention "Praktischen Uebringen der +Chemischen Analyse," Berlin, 1854, and the "Lehrbuch der Chemie," +Dresden, 1825, 4 vols. + +At a sitting of the Academy, held on October 2, 1882, M. Jean Baptiste +Dumas, the permanent secretary, with profound regret, made known +the intelligence of the death of the illustrious foreign associate, +Friedrich Wöhler, professor in the University of Göttingen. He said: "M. +Friedrich Wöhler, the favorite pupil of Berzelius, had followed in the +lines and methods of work of his master. From 1821 till his last year he +has continuously published memoirs or simple notes, always remarkable +for their exactness, and often of such a nature that they took among +contemporaneous production the first rank by their importance, their +novelty, or their fullness. Employed chiefly, during his sojourn in +Sweden, in work on mineral chemistry, he has remained all his life the +undisputed chief in this branch of science in German universities. This +preparation and preoccupation, which one might have thought sufficient +to occupy his time, did not, however, prevent him from taking the chief +part in the development of organic chemistry, and of filling one of the +most elevated positions in it. + +"His contemporaries have not forgotten the unusual sensation produced by +the unexpected discovery by which he was enabled to make artificially, +and by a purely chemical method, urea, the most nitrogenous of animal +substances. Other transformations or combinations giving birth to +substances which, until then, had only been met with in animals or +plants, have since been obtained, but the artificial formation of urea +still remains the neatest and most elegant example of this order of +creation. All chemists know and admire the classical memoir in which +Wöhler and Liebig some time after made known the nature of the benzoic +series, and connected them with the radicals of which we may consider +them as being the derivatives comparable with products of a mineral +nature. Their memoirs on the derivatives of uric acid, a prolific source +of new and remarkable substances, has been an inexhaustible mine in the +hands of their successors. + +"This is not a moment when we should pretend to review the work which M. +Wöhler has done in mineral chemistry. Among the 240 papers which he has +published in scientific journals, there are few which the treatises of +chemistry have not immediately turned to account. We need only confine +ourselves to the discovery of aluminum, to which the energy and +inventive genius of our _confrère_, Henry Deville, soon gave a place +near the noble metals. United by a rivalry which would have divided +less noble minds, these two great chemists carried on together their +researches in chemistry, and joined their forces to clear up points +still obscure in the history of boron, silicium, and the metals of +the platinum group, and remained closely united, which each year only +strengthened. + +"The reader will pardon me a souvenir entirely personal. We were born, +M. Wöhler and I, in 1800. I am his senior by a few days. Our scientific +life began at the same date, and during sixty years everything has +combined to bind more closely the links of brotherhood which has existed +for so long a time." + + * * * * * + + + + +OUR HEBREW POPULATION. + + +The United Jewish Association has made a canvass of the denomination in +this country, finding 278 congregations, and a total Jewish population +of 230,984. New York has the largest number--80,565. Then follows +Pennsylvania, with 20,000; California, with 18,580; Ohio with 14,581; +Illinois, with 12,625, and Maryland, with 10,357. + +The Jewish population in the largest cities is as follows: + + New York 60,000 + San Francisco 16,000 + Brooklyn 14,000 + Philadelphia 13,000 + Chicago 12,000 + Baltimore 10,000 + Cincinnati 8,000 + Boston 7,000 + St. Louis 6,500 + New Orleans 5,000 + Cleveland 3,500 + Newark 3,500 + Milwaukee 3,500 + Louisville 2,500 + Pittsburg 2,000 + Detroit 2,000 + Washington 1,500 + New Haven 1,000 + Rochester 1,000 + +This total Jewish population of 230,984 has six hospitals, eleven +orphan asylums and homes, fourteen free colleges and schools, and 602 +benevolent lodges. Of the free schools maintained by the Hebrews, five +are in New York, four in Philadelphia, and one each in Cincinnati, St. +Louis, Chicago, and San Francisco. Their hospitals are in New York, +Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, New Orleans, and Chicago, while +their orphan asylums, homes, and other benevolent institutions are +scattered all over the country. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE MYSTERIES OF THE BAIKAL. + + +The Angara is cold as ice all the summer through, so cold, indeed, that +to bathe in it is to court inevitable illness, and in winter a sled +drive over its frozen surface is made in a temperature some degrees +lower than that prevailing on the banks. This comes from the fact that +its waters are fresh from the yet unfathomed depths of the Baikal, which +during the five short months of summer has scarcely time to properly +unfreeze. In winter the lake resembles in all respects a miniature +Arctic Ocean, having its great ice hummocks and immense leads, over +which the caravan sleds have to be ferried on large pieces of ice, just +as in the frozen North. In winter, too, the air is so cold in the region +above the lake that birds flying across its icy bosom sometimes drop +down dead on the surface. Some authors say that seals have been caught +in the lake of the same character as those found in the Arctic seas; for +this assertion I have no proof. An immense caravan traffic is carried +across the frozen lake every season between Russia and China. To +accommodate this the Russian postal authorities once established a post +house on the middle of the lake, where horses were kept for travelers. +But this was discontinued after one winter, when an early thaw suddenly +set in, and horses, yemschliks and post house all disappeared beneath +the ice, and were never seen more. In summer the lake is navigated by an +antiquated steamer called the General Korsakoff, which ventures out +in calm weather, but cannot face the violent storms and squalls that +sometimes rise with sudden impetuosity. Irkutskians say, indeed, that it +is only upon Lake Baikal and upon this old hull that a man really learns +to pray from his heart. The lake is held in superstitious reverence by +the natives. It is called by them Svyatoe More, or the Holy Lake, and +they believe that no Christian was ever lost in its waters, for even +when a person is drowned in it the waves always take the trouble to cast +the body on shore. + +Its length is 400 miles, its width an average of 35 miles, covers an +area of 14,000 square miles and has a circumference of nearly 1,200 +miles, being the largest fresh water lake in the Old World, and, next to +the Caspian and the Aral, the largest inland sheet of water in Asia. Its +shores are bold and rugged and very picturesque, in some places 1,000 +feet high. In the surrounding forests are found game of the largest +description, bears, deer, foxes, wolves, elk and these afford capital +sport for the sportsmen of Irkutsk. + +Around the coasts are many mineral springs, hot and cold, which have a +great reputation among the Irkutskians. The hot springs of Yurka, on the +Selenga, 200 versts from Verchore Udevisk and not many miles from the +eastern shore of the Baikal, which have a temperature of 48 degrees +Réaumur and whose waters are strongly impregnated with sulphur, are +a favorite watering place for natives as well as Russians and +Buriats.--_Herald Correspondent with the Jeannette Search Expedition_. + + * * * * * + + + + +TRAVELING SAND HILLS ON LAKE ONTARIO. + + +An interesting example of sand-drift occurs near Wellington Bay, on Lake +Ontario, ten miles from Pictou. The lake shore near the sand banks is +indented with a succession of rock-paved bays, whose gradually shoaling +margins afford rare bathing grounds. East and West Lakes, each five +miles long, and the latter dotted with islands, are separated from +Lake Ontario by narrow strips of beach. Over the two mile-wide isthmus +separating the little lakes, the sand banks, whose glistening heights +are visible miles away, are approached. On near approach they are hidden +by the cedar woods, till the roadway in front is barred by the advancing +bank, to avoid which a roadway through the woods has been constructed +up to the eastern end of the sand range. The sand banks stretch like a +crescent along the shore, the concave side turned to the lake, along +which it leaves a pebbly beach. The length of the crescent is over two +miles, the width 600 to 3,000 or 4,000 feet. + +Clambering up the steep end of the range among trees and grapevines, the +wooded summit is gained, at an elevation of nearly 150 feet. Passing +along the top, the woods soon disappear, and the visitor emerges on a +wild waste of delicately tinted saffron, rising from the slate-colored +beach in gentle undulation, and sleepily falling on the other side down +to green pastures and into the cedar woods. The whole surface of this +gradually undulating mountain desert is ribbed by little wavelets a few +inches apart, but the general aspect is one of perfect smoothness. The +sand is almost as fine as flour, and contains no admixture of dust The +foot sinks only an inch or two in walking over it; children roll about +on it and down its slopes, and, rising, shake themselves till their +clothing loses every trace of sand. Occasionally gusts stream over the +wild waste, raising a dense drift to a height of a foot or two only, and +streaming like a fringe over the steep northern edge. Though the sun is +blazing down on the glistening wilderness there is little sensation of +heat, for the cool lake breeze is ever blowing. On the landward side, +the insidious approach of the devouring sand is well marked. One hundred +and fifty feet below, the foot of this moving mountain is sharply +defined against the vivid green of the pastures, on which the grass +grows luxuriantly to within an inch of the sand wall. The ferns of the +cedar woods almost droop against the sandy slope. The roots of the trees +are bare along the white edge; a foot or two nearer the sand buries the +feet of the cedars: a few yards nearer still the bare trunks disappear; +still nearer only the withered topmast twigs of the submerged forest are +seen, and then far over the tree tops stands the sand range. Perpetual +ice is found under the foot of this steep slope, the sand covering and +consolidating the snows drifted over the hill during the winter months. +There is something awe-inspiring, says the correspondent of the Toronto +Globe, in the slow, quiet, but resistless advance of the mountain front. +Field and forest alike become completely submerged. Ten years ago a +farm-house was swallowed up, not to emerge in light until the huge sand +wave has passed over. + + * * * * * + + + + +RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN TEXTILE MACHINERY. + + +At the recent exhibition at Boston of the New England Institute, several +interesting novelties were shown which have a promise of considerable +economic and industrial value. + +Fig. 1 represents the general plan and pulley connections of the Harris +Revolving-Ring Spinning Frame. The purpose of the improvements which +it embodies is to avoid the uneven draught of the yarn in spinning and +winding incident to the use of a fixed ring. With the non-revolving ring +the strain upon the yarn varies greatly, owing to the difference +in diameter of the full and empty bobbin. At the base of the cone, +especially in spinning weft, or filling, the diameter of the cop is five +or six times that of the quill at the tip. As the yarn is wound upon the +cone, the line of draught upon the traveler varies continually, the pull +being almost direct where the bobbin is full, and nearly at right angles +where it is empty. With the increasing angle the drag upon the traveler +increases, not only causing frequent breakages of the yarn, but also an +unequal stretching of the yarn, so that the yarn perceptibly varies in +fineness. The unequal strain further causes the yarn to be more tightly +wound upon the outside than upon the inside of the bobbin, giving rise +to snarls and wastage. + +[Illustration: RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN TEXTILE MACHINERY.--1, +2.--SPINNING WITHOUT A MULE--THE HARRIS REVOLVING RING SPINNING FRAME. +3, 4, 5.--NEW ELECTRIC STOP MOTION FOR DRAWING FRAMES. 6.--NEW POSITIVE +MOTION LOOM.] + +These difficulties have hitherto prevented the application of ring +spinning to the finer grades of yarn. They are overcome in the new +spinning frame by an ingenious device by which a revolving motion is +given to the ring in the same direction as the motion of the traveler, +thereby reducing its friction upon the ring, the speed of the ring being +variable, and so controlled as to secure a uniform tension upon the yarn +at all stages of the winding. + +The construction of the revolving ring is shown in Fig. 2. C is the +revolving ring; D, the hollow axis support; H, a section of the ring +frame; E, the traveler. + +To give the required variable speed to the revolving ring there is +placed directly over the drum, Fig. 1, A, for driving the spindle a +smaller drum, B, from which bands drive each ring separately. The shaft, +which is attached by cross girts to the ring rail, and moves up and down +with it, is driven by a pair of conical drums from the main cylinder +shaft; and is so arranged with a loose pulley on the large end of the +receiving cone as to remain stationary while the wind is on or near the +base of the bobbin. When the cone of the bobbin diminishes so as to +materially increase the pull on the traveler, the conical drums are +started by a belt shipper attached to the lilt motion. By the movement +of the belt on these drums a continually accelerated motion is given to +the rings, their maximum speed being about one-twentieth the number +of revolutions per minute as the spindle has at the same moment. This +action is reversed when the lift falls. The tension of the wind upon +the bobbin is thus kept uniform, the desired hardness of the wind being +secured by the use of a heavier or lighter traveler according to the +compactness of cop required. + +The model frame shown at the fair did its work admirably well, spinning +yarns as high as No. 400, a fineness hitherto unattainable on ring +frames. It is claimed that this invention can do whatever can be done +with the mule, and without the skilled labor which mule spinning +demands. + +This invention is exhibited by E. & A. W. Harris, Providence, R.I. + + +NEW ELECTRIC STOP MOTION. + +Figs. 3, 4, and 5 illustrate some of the applications of the electric +stop motion in connection with cotton machinery. The merit of this +invention lies in simplifying the means by which machinery may be +stopped automatically the instant, its work, from accident or otherwise, +begins to be improperly done. The use of electricity for this purpose +is made possible by the fact that comparatively dry cotton is a +nonconductor of electricity. In the process of carding, drawing or +spinning, the cotton is made to pass between rollers or other pieces +forming parts of an electric circuit. So long as the machine is properly +fed and in proper working condition, the stopping apparatus rests; +the moment the continuity of the cotton is broken or any irregularity +occurs, electric contact results, completing the circuit and causing an +electro magnet to act upon a lever or other device, and the machine is +stopped. The current is supplied by a small magneto-electric machine +driven by a band from the main driving shaft, and is always available +while the engine is running. + +Fig. 3 shows the general arrangement of the apparatus as applied to a +drawing frame. In the process of drawing down the roll of cotton--the +sliver--four things may happen making it necessary to stop the machine. +A sliver may break on the way from the can to the drawing rollers, +or the supply of cotton may become exhausted; the cotton may lap or +accumulate on the drawing rollers; the sliver may break between the +drawing rollers and the calender rollers; or the front can may overflow. +In each and all of these cases the electric circuit is instantly +completed; the parts between which the cotton flows either come +together, as when breakage occurs, or, if there is lapping, they are +separated so as to make contact above. In any case, the current causes +the electro-magnet, S, against the side of the machine to move its +armature and set the stop motion in play. + +Figs. 4 and 5 represent in detail the manner in which electric +connection is made in two cases requiring the intervention of the stop +motion. In Fig. 4 the upper part of a receiving can is shown. When +the can is full the cotton lifts the tube wheel, J, until it makes an +electrical connection, and the stop motion is brought into instant +action. In Fig. 5, the traction upon the yarn holds the hook borne by +the spring, F, away from G, and the electric circuit is interrupted. A +breakage of the yarn allows this spring to act; contact is made, and the +stop motion operates as before. + +This simple and efficient device is exhibited by Howard & Bullough & +Riley, of Boston. + + +NEW POSITIVE MOTION LOOM. + +Fig. 6 shows the essential features of a positive motion loom, intended +for weaving narrow fabrics, exhibited by Knowles, of Worcester, Mass. +The engraving shows so clearly how, by a right and left movement of the +rack, the shuttle is thrown by the action of the intermediate cogwheels, +that further description is unnecessary. + + * * * * * + + + + +SPINNING WITHOUT A MULE. + + +At the recent semi-annual meeting of the New England Cotton +Manufacturers' Association, held at the Institute of Technology, Boston, +the following paper on the Harris system of revolving ring spinning was +read by Col. Webber for the author: + +It is well known that one of the most serious difficulties in ring +spinning is the variable pull upon the traveler, caused by the +difference in diameter of the full and empty bobbins, and this is +especially noticeable in spinning weft, or filling, when the diameter of +the quill at the tip is not over 3-16 of an inch, while that of the base +of the cone, or full bobbin, is from an inch to an inch and one-eighth. +This variation in diameter causes the line of draught upon the traveler, +which, with the full bobbin, forms nearly a tangent to the interior +circle of the ring, to be nearly radial to it with an empty one, and +this increased drag upon the traveler not only causes frequent breakage +in spinning, but also stretches the yarn, so that it is perceptibly +finer when it is spun on the nose of the bobbin than when it is spun on +the bottom of the cone. + +Endeavors have been made to compensate for this difficulty by making +a less draught at that period of the operation; but we believe the +principle of curing one error by adding another to be wrong, and aim by +our improvement to avoid the cause of the trouble, which we do by giving +a revolving motion to the ring itself in the same direction as that of +the traveler, at a variable speed, so as to aid its slip, and reduce its +friction on the ring. This we accomplish by means of a shaft with whorls +on it, located directly over the drum for driving the spindle, from +which bands drive each ring separately; and attached by cross-girts to +the ring-rail, and moving up and down with it. + +This shaft is driven by a pair of conical drums from the main cylinder +shaft, and is so arranged with a loose pulley on the large end of the +receiving cone as to remain stationary while the wind is on or near the +base of the bobbin, or nearly parallel to the path of the traveler. + +When the cone of the bobbin begins to diminish to such a point as to +materially increase the radial pull on the traveler, these conical drums +are put in operation by a belt shipper attached to the lift motion, +which moves the belt on to the cones, and gives a continually +accelerated motion to the rings, so that when the wind reaches the top +of the bobbin the rings will have their maximum speed of about 300 +revolutions per minute, or about one-twentieth the number of revolutions +of the spindle at this point, if the latter make 6000 revolutions per +minute, and this we find in actual practice to produce results which are +highly satisfactory. + +As the lift falls again, the belt is moved back on the cones, giving a +retarding motion to the rings, until it reaches the point at which it +began to operate, and is then either moved on to the loose pulley, and +the rings remain stationary, or for very fine yarn are kept in motion at +a slow speed. We are often asked if this does not affect the twist, but +answer that it does not in the least, as the relative speeds of the +rolls and spindles remain the same, and the only thing that can be +affected is the hardness of the wind upon the bobbin, and this is +adjustable by the use of a heavier or lighter traveler, according to the +compactness of cop required. + +We claim by means of this improvement the ability to use a much smaller +quill or bobbin, and consequently holding as much yarn in a less outside +diameter, enabling us to use a smaller ring, thus saving power both in +the weight of bobbin to be carried and in the distance to be moved by +the traveler; and we believe the power to be saved in this manner and by +the diminution of the dead pull on the traveler, when the wind is at +the tip of the bobbin, to be more than sufficient to give the necessary +motion to the revolving rings. We are as yet unable to answer this +question of power fully, as we have not yet tested a full size frame, +but we propose to do this in season to answer all questions at the next +meeting of your association. + +The same invention is also applicable to warp spinning, by giving the +ring a continuous accelerating and retarding motion, in which the +maximum speed is given to the ring at the first start of the frame when +the bobbin is empty, sufficient to diminish the strain on the yarn, +and gradually reducing the motion at each traverse of the rail, as the +bobbin is filled; but we claim the great advantage of our invention to +be the capability of spinning any grade of yarn on the ring frame that +can be spun on the hand or self-operating mule, and in proof of this we +call your attention to the model frame now in operation at the fair of +the New England Manufacturers' and Mechanics' Institute, where we are +spinning on a quill only 5-32 inches diameter at top, and where we can +show you samples of yarn from No. 80 to No. 400 spun on this frame from +combed roving from the Conant Thread Company and Willimantic Linen +Company, which we believe has never before been accomplished on any ring +frame. + +We invite you to examine this invention at the fair, and also call your +attention to the adjustable roller beam, by means of which the rolls can +be adjusted at any desirable angle or pitch, so as to throw the twist +more or less directly spinning, and an improvement in the quality of the +yarn from the same cause, which will increase the production from the +loom, and finally eradicate other objectionable features of the labor +question, which so often disturb the peaceful harmony between labor and +capital. + +Mr, Goulding asked if it had been demonstrated whether more or less +power was required for the same numbers than effect of running the +machine a little out of true, and the reply was that the advantage of +the new method over the old would be more apparent in such a case than +with a perfect frame. In regard to speed, the inventor proposed as +a maximum rate, when the wind was at the tip of the bobbin, 300 +revolutions per minute, but from this point the speed would diminish. + +Conant Thread Company and Willimantic Linen Company, which we believe +has never before been accomplished on any ring frame. + +We invite you to examine this invention at the fair, and also call your +attention to the adjustable roller beam, by means of which the rolls can +be adjusted at any desirable angle or pitch, so as to throw the twist +more or less directly into the bite of the rolls, according to the +character of the yarn desired, or the quality of the stock used. + +Finally, we claim, by the use of this invention, to be able to spin any +fibrous material which can be drawn by draught-rolls, of any required +degree of softness of twist, such as can be spun by any mule whatever, +and to do this with the attention only of children of from twelve to +fourteen years of age. + +We also claim an increased production, owing to less breakage of ends, +from the yarn not being overstrained in spinning, and an improvement in +the quality of the yarn from the same cause, which will increase the +production from the loom, and finally eradicate other objectionable +features of the labor question, which so often disturb the peaceful +harmony between labor and capital. + +Mr. Goulding asked if it had been demonstrated whether more or less +power was required for the same numbers than by other methods, and Col. +Webber replied that no more power was required to move the rings than +was saved by friction on the ring and the saving of weight of the +bobbins. He thought it required no more power than the old way. + +_The method of lubricating the ring_.--The inventor, who was present, +stated, in response to a query, that he claimed an advantage for his +ring in spinning all numbers from the very coarsest up, both in quality +and quantity, and especially the former. + +Mr. Garsed inquired of Col Webber what would be the effect of running +the machine a little out of true, and the reply was that the advantage +of the new method over the old would be more apparent in such a case +than with a perfect frame. In regard to speed, the inventor proposed +as a maximum rate, when the wind was at the tip of the bobbin, 300 +revolutions per minute, but from this point the speed would diminish. + +It was suggested by a member that the only advantage of a revolving ring +was to relieve the strain on the traveler just to the extent of the +ring's revolutions. If the ring were making 300 revolutions per minute, +and the traveler 6,000, the strain on the latter would be equal to 5,700 +revolutions on a stationary ring. Col. Webber, however, thought that the +motion of the ring gave the traveler a lift that prevented its stopping +at any particular point, and cited the fact that all numbers up to 400 +could be spun with this ring as proof of its superiority over the old +method. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW GAS BURNER. + + +Speaking at the last meeting of the Gaslight and Coke Company, Mr. +George Livesey said many things with a view to inspire confidence of the +future in the minds of timid gas proprietors. Among others he mentioned +the advances now being made by invention in regard to improved +appliances for developing the illuminating power of coal gas, with +especial reference to a new burner just patented by Mr. Grimston. Mr. +Livesey passed a very high encomium upon the burner, and this expression +of opinion by such an authority is sufficient to arouse deep interest in +the apparatus in question. It is therefore with much pleasure that we +present our readers with the following early account of Mr. Grimston's +burner, for which we are indebted to the inventor and Mr. George Bower, +of St. Neots, in whose manufactory the burners are now being made in all +sizes. It should be premised, to save disappointment, that the invention +is yet so fresh that its ultimate capabilities are unknown. The +accompanying illustration, therefore, represents the bare skeleton of +one of the first models; and the actual performance of only the very +earliest burner, made in great part by Mr. Grimston himself, has been +fully tested. Before proceeding to describe the invention, a brief +history may be interesting of how it happened that Mr. Grimston, an +electric lighting engineer, became a gas burner maker. The story will +undoubtedly help to explain the reasons for many of the characteristics +of the new burner. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED GAS BURNER. FIG. 1.--Sectional Elevation.] + +It appears, then, that Mr. Grimston, who was connected with the +electrical engineering establishment of Siemens Bros. & Co., Limited, +was some months ago shown the construction and working of the Siemens +regenerative gas burner, which is now sufficiently well known to render +a description unnecessary here. In common with most spectators of this +very ingeniously and philosophically designed appliance, Mr. Grimston +was struck with its bulk and the superficial clumsiness of the +arrangement whereby the air and gas supply are heated in it by the +products of combustion. These lamps have, of course, materially improved +of late; but when Mr. Grimston first saw them, perhaps 18 months ago, +they certainly could not be called neat and compact in design. He +at once grasped the idea embodied in these lamps, and set about +constructing an arrangement which should be based on a similar +principle, but at the same time avoid the inconveniences complained of. +It is not too much to say that he has succeeded in both these aims, and +the burner which now bears his name strikes the observer at once by +the brilliant light which it produces by the simplest and most +obvious means. We may now describe, by reference to the accompanying +illustrations, how Mr. Grimston produces the regenerative effect which +is likewise the central idea of the Siemens burner. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED GAS BURNER. FIG. 2.--Section through A B.] + +The light is simply that produced by an arrangement of a kind of Argand +burner turned upside down. The central gas-pipe, _a_ (Figs. 1 and 3), is +connected to a distributing chamber, whence the annular cluster of brass +tubes, _a', a_, (Figs. 1 and 2), are prolonged downward, forming the +burner. The burner is inclosed in an iron or brass annular casing, b, b, +which forms the main framework of the apparatus. The annular space which +it affords is the outlet chimney or flue for the products of combustion +of the burner beneath, and is crossed by a number of thin brass tubes, +c, c, which lead from the outer air into the inner space containing +the burner tubes, a', a', already described. The upper openings of the +annular body, b, are shown at e, e (Fig. 3), which communicate direct +with the chimney proper, e', e'. The burner is lighted by opening the +hinged glass cover, d, which fits practically air-tight on the bottom +of the body, so that the air needed to support combustion must all pass +through the tubes, c, c, the outer ends of which are protected by the +casing, k, k. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED GAS BURNER. FIG. 3.--Section through C D.] + +When the gas is lighted at the burner, and the glass closed, the burner +begins to act at once, although some minutes are necessarily required +to elapse before its full brilliancy is gained. The cold air passes in +through the tubes provided for it, and when these are heated to the +fullest extent on their outside, by the hot fumes from the burner, they +so readily part with their heat to the air that a temperature of 1,000° +to 1,200° Fahr. is easily obtained in the air when it arrives inside, +and commences in turn to heat the burner-tubes. The air-tubes are placed +so as to intercept the hot gases as completely as possible; and also, of +course, obtain heat by conduction from the sides of the annular body. +It is evident that the number and dimensions of these tubes might be +increased so as to abstract almost all the heat from the escaping fumes, +but for the limitations imposed, first, by a consideration of the actual +quantity of air required to support combustion, and, secondly, by the +obligation to let sufficient ascensional power remain in the gases which +are left to pass out through the upper chimney. If the gases are cooled +too much, they will either fall back into the lamp and extinguish the +flame, or will be removable only by the draught of a long chimney. It +will probably be the aim of the inventor to balance these requirements, +and so to produce burners with very short or longer chimneys, according +as appearance is to be consulted or the highest possible effect +produced. The burner is a ring of brass tubes of considerable diameter, +in proportion to the quantity of gas consumed, and thus provides for +the delivery of gas expanded by heat. In connection with this device +an explanation may be found of the failure of the British Association +Committee on Gas Burners to find any advantage from previously heating +the air and gas consumed. The Committee did not make the necessary +provision for the increased bulk of the combustible and its air supply, +caused by their heightened temperature; and the same quantity of gas +measured cold (at the meter) could only be driven through the ordinary +small burner holes at a velocity destructive of good results. Herr +Frederick Siemens perceived this in his early experiments, and not only +increased the orifices of his burners, but provided for the closer +contact of the more rarefied gas and air by the use of notched +deflectors, which are now an essential part of his apparatus. Mr. +Grimston also uses separate tubes of large area for his hot gas, but +dispenses with deflectors, save in so far as the same duty may be +performed by the plain lower edge of the inner cylinder of the lamp +body, and the indentation of the glass beneath, which, as will be +noticed, is made to follow the shape of the flame. It only remains now +to speak of the flame and its qualities. It is, in the first place, a +flame of hot gas, burning at an extremly small velocity of flow, and +wholly exposed to view from the exact point which it is required to +light. In this latter respect it differs materially, and with advantage, +from the Siemens burner, which, while presenting an extremely brilliant +and beautiful ball of flame outside its central tube of porcelain, may +yet be tailing smokily downward inside this opaque screen, and thereby +causing unperceived waste. The flame of the Grimston burner, on the +other hand, is quite exposed, and all its light, from the ends of the +burner-tubes to the point where visible combustion ceases, is made +available for use. As a perfect Argand flame in the usual position has +been likened in form to a tulip flower, so the flame of this burner +presents the appearance of an inverted convolvulus. So far as he has +already gone, Mr. Grimston prefers to keep the tubes of the burner at +such a distance from each other that the several jets part at the point +where they turn upward, so that the convolvulus figure is not maintained +to the edge of the flame. From its peculiar position the light is, of +course, completely shadowless as regards the lamp which affords it; and +this, of itself, is no small recommendation for a pendant. It shows well +for the simplicity and effectiveness of the perfected burners that Mr. +Grimston's experimental example, although necessarily imperfect In many +ways, burns with a remarkably steady light, of great brilliancy, which +is assured by the fact that the products of combustion are robbed of all +their heat to magnify the useful effect, so that the hand may be borne +with ease over the outlet of the chimney. With respect to the endurance +of the apparatus, it will be sufficient to remark that there is nothing +in the gas or air heating arrangements to get out of order, and they are +all easily accessible while the burner is in action. The glass is not +liable to breakage, although it is in close proximity to the flame, as +may be gathered from the testimony of the inventor, who has never broken +one, notwithstanding the severity of some of his experimental studies +upon his first lamp. The consumption of gas in the first working-model +burner made by Mr. Grimston was 10 cubic feet per hour, and its +illuminating power averaged 60 candles. The diameter of this burner was +1¼ inches across the tubes. It is scarcely necessary to state that if +this high duty, which was obtained with the ordinary 16-candle gas of +the Gaslight and Coke Company, can be maintained, to say nothing of +being exceeded, in the commercial article, the Grimston burner, with its +other advantages over all existing methods of obtaining equal results, +has a great future before it. For example, it does not require a +separate air supply under high pressure, or any extra material to render +incandescent, and it may be turned on full immediately upon lighting. It +throws a shadowless light, and lends itself to ventilating arrangements; +and it is not by any means cumbersome, delicate in construction, or +costly in manufacture. One of the greatest advantages to which it lays +claim is, however, the power of yielding almost as good results in a +small burner as in a large one. This is a consideration of great moment, +when it is remembered that the tendency of most of the high power +burners hitherto introduced is to benefit the lighting of streets, +large interiors, and, generally speaking, points of great consumption. +Meanwhile, the private user of burners, consuming from 3 to 5 cubic feet +of gas per hour, has been left to attain as best he might, by the use of +burners excellent of their kind, to the maximum effect of the standard +Argand. Now, however, Mr. Grimston seeks to make the small consumer +partake of the advantages erstwhile reserved for the wholesale user of +large and costly Siemens and other lamps, and he even looks to this +class of patrons with particular care. The example which we now +illustrate, in Fig. 1, is a sectional presentment precisely half the +actual size of a 5-foot burner, which it is intended to prepare for +the market before all others. Another simple form of the burner, with +vertical tubes, will, we understand, be introduced as soon as possible. +It will be readily understood that the principle is capable of being +embodied in many shapes; and it is satisfactory to learn that the +inventor is quite alive to the necessity of producing a cheap as well as +a good burner. + +Gas companies, as Mr. Livesey has expressed it, will be well content +with a slower relative growth of consumption, if their consumers are at +the same time making their gas go as far again as formerly, by the use +of burners which turn nominal 16-candle gas into gas of 30-candle actual +illuminating power. How far Mr. Grimston's invention may succeed in this +work it is not for us to say. It is sufficient for the present that +he has done excellently well in showing how Herr Frederick Siemens' +scientific principles of regenerative gas burner construction may +be carried out yet in another way. There is nothing more common in +industrial annals than for one man to begin a work which another is +destined to bring to greater perfection. Whether this natural process is +to be repeated in the present instance must be left for the future to +decide. In any case, Mr. Grimston's success, if success is to be his +reward, though it will be well merited by his ingenuity and perseverance +in solving a difficult problem, will never cause us to forget the +prior claims of Herr Frederick Siemens, of Dresden, to the palm of the +discoverer. Mr. Grimston may or may not be the happy inventor of the +best gas-burner of the day; but there is the consolation of knowing that +in the same field in which he will find his recompense there is room for +any number and variety of useful improvements of a like character and +object.--_Journal of Gas Lighting_. + + * * * * * + + + + +DEFTY'S IMPROVEMENTS IN GAS BURNERS AND HEATERS. + + +Among other inventors who have turned their attention to gas consumption +is to be found Mr. H. Defty, who has made several forms both of heating +and lighting burners. Mr. Defty has sought in the latter to apply the +principle of heating the air and gas in a simple manner, with the object +of obtaining improved photometrical results. The double-chimney +Argand, as tried many years since by Dr. Frankland and others, makes +a reappearance in one of Mr. Defty's models, illustrated in the +accompanying diagram (Fig. 1). + +[Illustration: Fig. 1.] + +Here we have the double-chimney, a and b, for heating the air supplied +to an ordinary Argand, by causing it to pass downward between the two +chimneys, and inward to the point of combustion through a wire-gauze +screen, c, under the inner chimney; but, in addition thereto, Mr. Defty +hopes to gain an improved result by causing the gas to pass through the +internal tube, s, which rises up in the middle of the flame. The gas, +which enters at e, is made to pass up through the inner tube and down +through the annular space to the burner. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2.] + +A more important form of lantern is the subject of the next diagram +(Fig. 2), which shows a suspended globe lantern in which there is an +attempt made to heat the air by the waste heat of the products of +combustion. It will be perceived by the diagram that a globe lantern is +furnished with a double chimney; the annular space, C, between the +inner and outer chimneys allowing for the access of air in a downward +direction. At the lower of this annular channel are the tubes D, +protected by the graduated mesh, E, and which admit the air to the +burner below. The products of combustion of the flame rise through the +inner chimney, passing around the tubes, and thereby giving up some of +their heat to the incoming air. Farther up, the chimney is partly filled +with the convoluted gas-pipe, A, which also takes up some of the waste +heat, and delivers the gas to the burner at a correspondingly high +temperature. A very simple method of lighting this burner, which in +itself does not present anything remarkable, is arranged at the lower +part of the globe, where a hole is cut and a loose conical glass plug +(which can, of course, be made to partake of the general ornamentation +of the globe) may be pushed up to allow of the passage of the lighting +agent, and is then dropped in its place again. Formal tests of the +performances of these burners are not available; and the same may be +said of the heating burners which are shown in the following diagrams. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3.] + +The first of these (Fig. 3) is called by Mr. Defty a "pyramid heater," +and is designed to heat the mixture of air and gas before ignition, by +conduction from its own flame. The inventor claims to effect a perfect +combustion in this manner with considerable economy of fuel. It is +evident, however, that a good deal of the gas consumed goes to heat the +burner itself. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4.] + +The next and last of Mr. Defty's productions to be at present described +is the so-called "crater burner," shown herewith (Fig. 4). This is an +atmospheric burner which is purposely made to "fire back," as well as +to burn on the top of the apparatus. The body of the burner, like the +pyramid heater just described, is full of fire-clay balls, which become +very hot from the lower flame, and thus, after the burner has been for +some time in action, a pale, lambent blaze crowns the top, apparently +greater in volume than when it is first lighted. Here, again, there is a +lamentable absence of reliable data as to economic results, which will, +perhaps, be afforded when the apparatus in question is ready to be +offered to the public. + +Whether one inventor or another succeeds in distancing his rivals, it is +matter, says _The Journal of Gas Lighting_, for sincere congratulation +among the friends of gas lighting that so much attention is being +concentrated upon the improvement of gas burners for all purposes. This +is an open field which affords scope for more workers than have yet +entered upon it, and there is the certainty of substantial reward to +whoever can realize a worthy advance upon the established practice. + + * * * * * + + + + +NEW BINDING MACHINES. + + +The accompanying cuts represent two new machines for binding together +books and pamphlets. They are the invention of Messrs. Brehmer & Co., +and are now much used in England and Germany. The material used for +binding is galvanized iron wire. + +_Machine Operated by Hand_ (Fig. 1).--This machine serves for fastening +together the pages of pamphlets through the middle of the fold, or for +binding together several sheets to form books up to a thickness of about +half an inch. + +It consists of a small cast-iron frame, with which is articulated a +lever, _i_, maneuvered by a handle, _h_. This lever is provided at its +extremity with a curved slat, in which engages a stud, fixed to the +lower part of a movable arm, _c_, whose extremity, _d_, rises and +descends when the lever handle, _h_, is acted upon. This maneuver can be +likewise performed by the foot, if the handle, _h_, be connected with a +pedal, X, placed at the foot of the table that supports the machine, +as shown in Fig. 2. The lever, _i_, is always drawn back to its first +position, when left to itself, by means of the spring, _z_. + +[Illustration: IMPROVED BINDING MACHINE.] + +The staples for binding have nearly the form of the letter U, and are +placed, to the number of 250 or 300, on small blocks of wood, _m_. To +prepare the machine for work, the catch, _a_, is shoved back, and the +whole upper part of the piece, _b_, is removed. The rod, _e_, with its +spring, is then drawn back until a small hole in _e_ is perceived, +and into this there is introduced the hook, _f_, which then holds the +spring. The block of wood, _m_, filled with staples, is then rested +against a rectangular horizontal rod, and into this latter the staples +are slipped by hand. The upper part of the piece, _b_, is next put in +place and fastened with the catch, _a_. Finally, the spring is freed +from the hook, _f_. When it is desired to bind the pages of a pamphlet, +the latter is placed open on the support, _g_, which, as will be +noticed, is angular above, so that the staple may enter exactly on the +line of the fold. Then the handle, _h_, is shoved down so as to act on +the arm, _c_, and cause the descent of the extremity, _d_, as well as +the vertical piece, _b_, with which it engages. This latter, in its +downward travel, takes up one of the staples, which are continually +thrust forward by the rod and spring, and causes it to penetrate the +paper. At this moment, the handle, _h_, makes the lever, _n_, oscillate, +and this raises, through its other extremity, a vertical slide whose +head bends the two points of the staple toward each other. The handle, +_h_, is afterward lifted, the position of the pamphlet is changed, and +the same operation is repeated. When it is desired to form a book from +a number of sheets, the table, _l_, is mounted on the support, _g_, its +two movable registers are regulated, and the sheets are spread out flat +on it. The machine, in operating, drives the staples in along the edge +of the sheets, and the points are bent over, as above indicated. + +The axis on which the lever, _i_, is articulated is eccentric, and is +provided on the side opposite the lever with a needle, _k_, revolving +on a dial. The object of this arrangement is to regulate the machine +according to the thickness of the book. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.] + +_Machine to be Operated by a Motor_ (Fig. 3).--This machine, although +working on the same principle, is of an entirely different construction. +It is designed for binding books of all dimensions. It consists of a +frame, _a_, in two pieces, connected by cross-pieces, and carries a +table, _u_, designed to receive the sheets before being bound together. +Motion is transmitted by means of a cone, _c_, mounted loose on the +shaft, _b_. To start the machine, the foot is pressed on the pedal, _m_, +which, through the intermedium of links and arms, brings together the +friction plates, _d_, one of which is connected with the shaft, _b_, and +the other with the cone, _c_. When it is desired to stop the machine, +the pedal is left free to itself, while the counterpoise, _s_, ungears +the friction plates. The machine fastens the paper with galvanized iron +wire wound round bobbins placed at the side of the apparatus. This wire +it cuts, and forms into staples. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.] + +The book to be bound is placed on the support, _h_, and the arms, _k_, +that carry the fasteners cause it to move backward and forward. It also +undergoes a second motion--that is, it moves downward according to the +number and thickness of its pages. This motion, which takes place +every time the operator adds a new sheet, is regulated by a cog-wheel +register, _l_, which is divided, and provided with a needle. + +The iron wires pass from the bobbins on a support to the left of the +machine by means of feed rollers, which thrust them through the eight +clips. In the interior of these latter there is a double knife, which, +actuated by one of the cams of the wheel, _e_, cuts the wire and bends +it thus [Inline Illustration]. The extremities of the staples are thrust +through the back of the half opened leaves, and then bent toward each +other thus [Inline Illustration], by the front fastener. This motion is +effected by means of two levers, _p_ (moved by the cams, _e_), whose +extremities at every revolution of the machine seize by the two ends a +link that maneuvers the fasteners. The binding of one sheet finished, +the lower arms of the machine again take their position, the wires move +forward the length necessary to form new staples, a new sheet is laid, +and the same operation is proceeded with. The number of staples and +their distance are changed, according to the size of the book, by +introducing into the machine as much wire as will be necessary for the +staples. To prevent their number from increasing the thickness of the +back of the book (as would happen were they superposed), the support, +_h_, moves laterally at every blow, so as to cause the third staple to +be driven over the first, the second over the fourth, etc. + + * * * * * + + + + +FLUMES AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION. + + +In crossing ravines in this State, flumes or wrought iron pipes are +used. Many miners object to flumes on account of their continual cost +and danger of destruction by fire. Where used and practicable, they +are set on heavier grades than ditches, 30 to 35 ft. per mile, and, +consequently, are proportionately of smaller area than the ditches. In +their construction a straight line is the most desirable. Curves, where +required, should be carefully set, so that the flume may discharge its +maximum quantity. Many ditches in California have miles of fluming. The +annexed sketch, drawn by A. J. Bowie, Jr., will show the ordinary style +of construction. + +[Illustration: SKETCH OF FLUME.] + +The planking ordinarily used is of heart sugar pine, one and a half to +two inches thick, and 12 to 18 inches wide. Where the boards join, pine +battens three inches wide by one and a half thick cover the seam. Sills, +posts, and caps support and strengthen the flume every four feet. The +posts are mortised into the caps and sills. The sills extend about +20 inches beyond the posts, and to them side braces are nailed to +strengthen the structure. This extension of the sill timbers affords a +place for the accumulation of snow and ice, and in the mountains such +accumulations frequently break them off, and occasionally destroy a +flume. + +To avoid damage from slides, snow, and wind storms, the flumes are set +in as close as possible to the bank, and rest, wholly or partially, on +a solid bed, as the general topography and costs will admit. Stringers +running the entire length of the flume are placed beneath the sills just +outside of the posts. They are not absolutely necessary, but in point of +economy are most valuable, as they preserve the timbers. As occasion +may demand, the flume is trestled, the main supports being placed every +eight feet. The scantling and struts used are in accordance with the +requirements of the work.--_Min. and Sci. Press_. + + * * * * * + + + + +CHUWAB'S ROLLING MILL FOR DRESSING AND ROUNDING BAR IRON. + + +This new forge apparatus has been devised for the purpose of finishing +up round irons of all diameters while hot, as they come out of +the ordinary rolling mill, by rendering them perfectly circular, +cylindrical, straight, smooth, and level at the extremities, as if they +had passed through a slide lathe. Such a high degree of external finish +is a very valuable feature in those round irons that are employed in so +great quantity for shafting, cylindrical axles, etc., as well as in the +manufacture of bolts and locks. Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4 of the opposite +engraving will allow it to be seen that this apparatus which is usually +installed at the side of the finishing cylinder is, in part, beneath +the general level of the forge floor. It may be placed parallel with or +perpendicular to the apparatus that it does duty for, this depending +upon the site at disposal or the mode of transmission. + +The apparatus consists essentially of two tempered iron cylinders, A, +0.5 of a meter in diameter by 1.5 meters in length, revolving in the +_same direction_ (contrary to what takes place in ordinary rolling +mills) between two frames, B, that are open on one side to allow of +the entrance of the finishing bar. This latter is held between the +cylinders, A, which roll it so much the faster in proportion as its +diameter is smaller, and by a scraper guide, C, of the same length as +the cylinder table, and which may be regulated at will by bolts, c, +fixed to the frame, B. The bottom cylinder remains always in the same +position, while the axle, D, which carries the intermediate wheels, E, +moves about to gear in all the relative positions of the cylinders. The +displacement of the upper cylinder is effected through the clamping +screws, b, which are actuated by toothed disks that gear with two +endless screws keyed at the extremities of one shaft in common, d, which +is set in motion by hand through the winches, m m. The scraper guards, e +e, take up and throw aside all scales that might become attached to the +cylinders, which are constantly moistened by small streams of water +coming from an ordinary conduit. + +[Illustration: CHUWAB'S DRESSING AND ROUNDING ROLLING MILL. + +Fig. 1--Elevation and Longitudinal Section. + +Fig. 2--Side View. + +Fig. 3--Transvers Section. + +Fig. 4--Plan View. + +Figs. 5 & 6--Saws for Dressing the Extremities of the Bars. + +Fig. 7--Diagram Showing the Motion of the Wheels and Guide. + +Figs. 8 & 9--Apparatus for Shifting tha Bars.] + +As the driving belts are mounted on pulleys, G, of a diameter +proportioned to the velocity of the shafting, the iron pinions, h, in +order to produce 60 revolutions per minute in the first shaft, H, gear +on each side with the intermediate wheels, E, and these actuate the +two bronze pinions, a a, that are mounted on the extremities of the +cylinders, A A. The axle, D, of the intermediate wheels does not revolve +with them, but is capable of rising and descending in the elongated +aperture that traverses the frames, B. The displacement of this axle is +secured through the arms, L L, whose extremities articulate on the one +hand with the cylinders, A A, and on the other with D. The result of +this is that every displacement upward of the top cylinder corresponds +to a different position of the intermediate shaft, and one that is +always equidistant from the centers of the cylinders, A A, thus securing +a constant gearing of the wheels in all the positions of the cylinders, +A A. + +The diagram in Fig. 7 shows the relative displacements of all these +parts, as well as those of the scraper guide, C. The diameter to be +obtained is determined beforehand by the two contact screws, P. + +The whole thus regulated, the bar of iron, still very hot, coming from +the ordinary rollers, is straightened up, if need be, by a few blows of +a hammer, so that it may roll forward over the pavement, N, between the +rounding cylinders, A A; these being held apart sufficiently to allow +of its easy introduction. Next, a few revolutions of the winches that +control the screws suffice to lower the upper cylinder to the exact +position limited by the contact screws, P, and the bar is rolled between +the two cylinder tables with a constant velocity in the generatrices. As +a consequence, the number of revolutions made is so much the greater in +proportion as the diameter of the shaft is smaller with respect to that +of the cylinders. + +It should be remarked that the bar, during its rotation under pressure, +is held by the guide, C, so that its diagrammatic axis (Fig. 7) exceeds +the line, A A, joining the centers of the cylinders just enough to +prevent its escape to the opposite, and so that the pressure upon the +said guide (which performs the role of scraper) is merely sufficient to +detach the scales which form during the operation. + +Under such conditions, and at a velocity of 30 revolutions per minute in +the two cylinders, it will take but a fraction of a minute to finish +a bar the length of the table, that is to say, 1.5 meters. Then, by +loosening the upper cylinder, the bar may be easily shoved along in one +direction or the other, so as to continue the finishing operation +on successive lengths. This moving of the bar forward is further +facilitated by the aid of a clamp with rollers and a movable socket, +V (Figs. 8 and 9). For large diameters (150 millimeters and beyond) +traction is employed by the aid of two small windlasses placed opposite +each other, and at a distance apart twice the greatest length of the +bars to be finished. The chains of these windlasses are attached to the +extremities by clamps that lock by the pulling exerted. + +The details of the arrangement of the saws (Figs. 5 and 6) show that to +make a section of the ends or of any other part of the bar, it is only +necessary to lower the lever of one them. By reason of the contrary +rotation of the bar, the effective stress on the lever will be very +moderate, while the cut produced will be a clean and quickly performed +one. It should be remarked that, as a consequence of the cone on the +projecting extremity of the cylinder journals (Fig. 5), and on the +rollers that control the saws, it is only necessary to move the lever to +the right or left in order to stop the motion of each of the saws. These +latter, to prevent all possibility of accident, are inclosed within +semicircular guards. Finally, the controlling rollers are made of a +material which is quite elastic (compressed cardboard, for example), so +that they may roll smoothly and adhere well. + +From what precedes, it will be seen that round iron bars of any diameter +will come from this apparatus completely finished. It will be seen +also that with cylinders of suitable profile, there might likewise be +finished axles, or pieces that are more or less conical as well as those +provided with shoulders. + +The apparatus may, if preferred, be driven by small special motors +affixed to the frame. Such an arrangement, which is more costly than the +preceding, is, nevertheless, indicated in cases where shafting would be +in the way. + +The weight of the materials entering into the construction of this +machine, proposed by Mr. Chuwab, includes about 15 tons of metal, +of which 5,000 kilogrammes are for the two tempered cylinders; 250 +kilogrammes of iron screws, and 350 of bolts; and 500 kilogrammes of +bronze, 90 of which are for nuts.--_Revue Industrielle_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE BURNING OF TOWN REFUSE AT LEEDS. + +[Footnote: From selected papers of the Institution of Civil Engineers, +London, by Charles Slagg, Assoc. Memb. Inst. C.E.] + + +In large towns it is necessary to adopt some regular system of removal +and disposal of the cinders and ashes of house fires, and of the animal +and vegetable refuse of the houses, and, in short, of everything thrown +away which cannot be admitted into the sewers. In towns where the +excreta are separated by means of water closets, the disposal of the +other refuse presents less difficulty, but still a considerable one, +because the animal and vegetable refuse is not kept separate from the +cinders and ashes, all being thrown together into the ash pit or dust +bin. The contents, therefore, cannot be deposited upon ground which may +afterward be built upon, although that custom obtained generally in +former times. Hence the refuse has been removed to a depot where that +wretched industry is created of picking out the other parts from the +cinders and ashes. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--DESTRUCTOR. + +Elevation. + +Section through feeding-holes of cells. + +Section through air-passages of cells.] + +But in towns unprovided with water closets, or so far as they are not +adopted in any town, where the privies are connected with the ash pits, +and where, consequently, the excreta of the population are added to the +other contents of ash pits, the difficulties of removal and disposal of +the refuse are much increased. + +Where the privy-ashpit system is in use--as it still is to a large +extent--as much of the contents of the ash pits as can be sold at any +price, however small, are collected separately from the drier portions, +and sent out of town as manure; but what remains is still too offensive +to be deposited on ground near the town; and when it is attempted to +collect the excreta separately by the pail system, the process is no +less unsatisfactory. These difficulties led to the adoption, under the +advice of the late Mr. A.W. Morant, M. Inst. C.E., the Borough Engineer +at Leeds, of Fryer's method of destruction by burning--that is, of the +dry ashes and cinders and the animal and vegetable refuse. The +author was Mr. Morant's assistant. The first kiln was constructed at +Burmantofts, 1½ miles from the center of the town in a northeasterly +direction, and has been in use since the beginning of the year 1878. In +1879 another kiln was constructed at Armley Road, a mile from the center +of the town in a west-southwesterly direction, which has been in use +since the beginning of 1880. + +Each destructor kiln has six cells, three in each face of a block of +brick work 22 feet long, 24 feet through from face to face, and 12 feet +high. Each cell is 8 feet long and 5 feet wide, arched over, the height +being 3 feet 4 inches, and both the bottom and arch of the cell slope +down to the furnace doors with an inclination of 1 in 3. The lower end +of each cell has about 26 square feet of wrought-iron firebars, the +hearth being 4½ feet above the ground. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2.--CARBONIZER. + +Section through furnaces. + +Longitudinal section. + +Cross section.] + +There are two floors, one on the ground level, a few feet only above the +outlet for drainage, the other floor, or raised platform, being 15 feet +above it. The refuse is taken in carts up an incline of 1 in 14 on +cast-iron tram plates to the upper floor, and deposited upon and +alongside of the destructor, and is shoveled into a row of hoppers at +the head of the cells. These hoppers are in the middle of the width of +the destructor, and each communicates with a cell on each side of it. +The refuse is always damp, and often wet, and after being put into +the cells is gradually dried by the heat reflected upon it from the +firebrick arch of the cell, before it descends to the furnace. This +distinguishes the system from the common furnace, and enables the wet +material to be burned without other fuel. No fresh fuel is used after +the fires are once lighted. The vapor passes off with the gases of +combustion into a horizontal flue between the two rows of cells, through +an opening at the head of each cell, alongside that through which the +refuse is fed into it, the two openings being separated by a firebrick +wall. The refuse is prevented from falling into the flue by a bridge +wall across the outlet opening, over which the gases pass into the flue. + +Between the destructor and the chimney a multitubular boiler is placed, +which makes steam enough for grinding into sand the clinkers which are +the solid residue of the burnt refuse. At Burmantofts an old chimney was +made use of, which is but 84 feet high; but at Armley Road a new chimney +was built, 6 feet square inside and 120 feet high. It is necessary to +make the horizontal flue large; that at Armley Road is 9 feet high and 4 +feet wide. A large quantity of dust escapes from the cells--about 7 cwt. +a month--and unless the velocity of the air in the flue between the +destructor and the chimney were checked, the dust would be carried up +the chimney and might cause complaints; as, indeed, it has done with the +120-foot chimney, but whether with any substantial grounds is uncertain. +The dust is removed from the horizontal flue or dust chamber once a +month. Experience seems to indicate that there should be some sort of +guard or grating to prevent the entry into the chimney of charred paper +and similar light substances which do not fall to dust, and which are +sometimes carried up with the draught. + +A six-celled destructor kiln burns about 42 tons of refuse in +twenty-four hours, leaving about one-fourth of its bulk of clinkers and +ashes. The clinkers are withdrawn from the furnaces five times each day +and night, or about every two-and-a-half hours, into iron barrows, and +wheeled outside the shed which covers the destructor, and when cold are +wheeled back to the mortar mills, of which there are two at each depot, +each having a revolving pan 8 feet in diameter, with 27-cwt. rollers, +the pan making twenty two revolutions a minute. Forty shovelfuls of +clinkers and twelve of slaked lime make 7 cwt. of mortar in thirty-five +minutes in each pan, which is sold at 5s. 6d. per ton. The engine +driving the two mortar mills has a 14 inch cylinder, 30 inches length +of stroke, and makes sixty revolutions per minute with 45 pounds steam +pressure per square inch in the boiler, when both mortar mills are +running. The boiler is 11 feet long, 8 feet in diameter, and has 132 +tubes 4 inches in external diameter, which, together with the external +flues, are cleaned out once a month. + +At first sight it would probably appear that no good mortar could be +made from such refuse as has been described, but having passed through +the furnace, the clinkers are, of course, perfectly clean, and with good +lime make a really strong and excellent mortar. They are also largely +used for the foundation of roadways. + +The number of men employed is as follows: Two furnace men in the daytime +and two at night. They work from midnight on Sundays to 2 P.M. on +Saturdays, the fires being fully charged and left to burn through the +Sundays. One foreman, who attends also to the running of the engine, and +one mortar man. A watchman attends while the workmen are off. + +In addition to a destructor, there is at the Burmautofts depot a +"carbonizer" kiln, in which the sweepings of the vegetable markets are +burned into charcoal. The carbonizer consists of eight vertical cells, +in two sets or stacks of four, separated by a space containing two +double furnaces, back to back, there being a double furnace also at each +end of the eight cells. Each of the stacks of four cells is 15 feet +6 inches high; the ends and middle parts, forming the tops of the +furnaces, being 6 feet high. The block of brick work containing the +eight cells and furnaces is 26 feet 6 inches long and 12 feet 4 inches +wide at the floor level. Each cell is 3 feet 6 inches by 2 feet, and +about 10 feet deep, with a chamber below about 3 feet deep, into which +the charred material falls and is completely burned. The top of the +cells is level with the upper platform, and they are fed through a loose +cover, which is immediately replaced. Inside the cells cast-iron sloping +shelves are hung upon the walls so that their upper edges touch the +walls, but the lower edges are some inches off, so that the hot air of +the furnaces passes upward behind the shelves round the four sides of +the cell in a spiral manner, and out near the top into a vertical flue, +which conducts it down to the horizontal flue at the bottom, which leads +to the chimney. The charcoal is withdrawn from the bottom of the heating +chamber through a sliding plate 2 feet above the floor, and is wheeled +red hot to the charcoal cooler, which is a revolving cylinder, nearly +horizontal, kept cool by water falling upon it, and delivers the +charcoal in two degrees of fineness at the end. It is worked by a small +attached engine, supplied with steam from the boiler before mentioned. +Each cell of the carbonizer can reduce to charcoal 50 cwt. of vegetable +refuse in twenty four hours, but at Leeds not quite so much is put +through. The quantity of market refuse passed through six cells of the +carbonizer varies from 3 to 10 tons a day, and averages about 4½ tons, +from which 15 cwt. of charcoal is obtained. The fuel for burning the +charcoal is derived from the ash pit refuse, some selected loads being +for that purpose passed over a sloping screen fixed between the upper +platform and the furnace floor, the fine ashes which pass through the +screen being taken away to the manure heaps, and the combustible parts +to the furnaces of the carbonizer. In this way a good deal of the ash +pit refuse is got rid of; it is often one-twelfth part of the whole +quantity. + +The carbonizer and the destructor are set 33 feet apart, to allow room +for drawing the furnaces and for the mortar mills, but the space is +hardly sufficient. One man is employed in attending to the carbonizer. + +Besides the openings at the top of the destructor through which the ash +pit refuse is fed into the cells, there is a larger opening in each +cell, kept covered usually, through which bed mattresses ordered by the +medical sanitary office to be destroyed can be put into the cells. These +openings are midway between the central openings and the furnace doors, +and whatever is put into the cells through these comes into immediate +contact with the fire. Advantage is taken of these openings for the +destruction of dead animals and diseased meat, and as much as 20 tons in +a year have been passed through the destructor. + +The whole works are roofed over. The lower floor is open on two sides, +but the upper one is closed in, with weather boarding at Burmantofts and +with corrugated iron at Armley Road. At the former place the works +were in some measure experimental, and the platform was constructed +of timber, but at Armley Road it is of plate-iron girders, with brick +arching, weight being considered advantageous in reducing the vibration +of carting heavy loads over it. + +The cost of each depot has been £4,500, exclusive of land, of which +about an acre is required for the destructor, carbonizer, inclined road, +weigh office, and space. A supply of water is necessary, a good deal +being required for cooling the clinkers. The population of the two +districts belonging to these works is about 160,000. + +The author has no longer any connection with the works described, and +for the recent experience of their working he is indebted to Mr. +John Newhouse, the superintendent of the sanitary department of the +corporation. + + * * * * * + + + + +GREEN WOOD. + + +The specific volume of the different constituents of green woods has +been estimated by M. Hartig to be as follows, per 1,000 parts: Hard +green wood, fiber stuff, 441; water, 247; air, 312. Soft green wood, +fiber stuff, 279; water, 317, air, 404. Evergreen wood, fiber stuff, +270; water, 335; air, 395. A certain amount of water--7 or 8 per cent in +all--is included with the fiber stuff, showing that about one-third only +of the mass of the wood is solid stuff; the remainder is either water or +air space. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ARMITAGE HOUSE. + + +This house is now in course of erection under the superintendence +of Messrs. Salomons and Ely, in the Claremont road, Pendleton, near +Manchester. The walls are faced in the lower part with red bricks, +and red stone, from the neighborhood of Liverpool, is used for the +window-dressings, etc. The upper part of walls will be faced with +red tiles and half-timber work, and the roof will be covered with +Staffordshire tiles. Lead lights will be largely used in the windows. +Internally, the finish will be almost entirely in real woods, including +walnut for the dining-room and vestibule, pitch-pine for the large hall, +staircase, and billiard-room, ash for the morning-room, and oak for Mr. +Armitage's own room. In all these the ceilings and dados are to be in +wood. The contract for the whole of the above work, amounting to £6,507, +is let to Mr. James Herd, of Manchester.--_Building News_. + +[Illustration: SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--AN ENGLISH COUNTRY +RESIDENCE.] + + * * * * * + + + + +THE COLLOTYPE PROCESS IN PRACTICE. + + +That theory and practice are two very different things holds good in +photography especially, and perhaps in no other branch of our art have +so many theoretical formulæ been promulgated as in the collotype or +Lichtdruck process. As our readers are aware, we have had an opportunity +of seeing collotype printing in operation in several European +establishments of note, and have, from time to time, published in these +columns our experiences. But requests still come to us so frequently +for information on the process that we have deemed it well to make a +practical summary for the benefit of those who are working--or desire to +work--the method. + +The formulæ and manipulations here set down are those of Löwy, Albert, +Allgeyer, and Obernetter, four of the best authorities on the subject, +and we can assure our readers there is nothing described but what is +actually practiced. + +_Glass Plate for the Printing Block_.--Herr Albert, of Munich, uses +patent plate of nearly half an inch in thickness, as most of his work +is printed upon the Schnell press (machine press). Herr Obernetter, of +Vienna, since he only employs the slower and more careful hand +press, prefers plate glass of ordinary thickness as being handier in +manipulation and better adapted to the common printing-frame. + +Herr Löwy, of Vienna, again, uses plate glass a quarter of an inch +thick, as his productions range from the finest to the roughest. + +_Preliminary Coating of the Glass Plate_.--Herr Albert's original plan +was to apply a preliminary coating of bichromated gelatine to the thick +glass plate, the film being exposed to light through the back of the +glass, and thus rendered insoluble and tightly cemented to the surface; +this film serving as a basis for the second sensitive coating, that +was afterward impressed by the negative. This double treatment is now +definitely abandoned in most Lichtdruck establishments, and, instead, a +preliminary coating of soluble silicate and albumen dissolved in water +is used. + +Herr Löwy's method and formula are as follows: The glass plate is +cleaned, and coated with-- + + Soluble glass. 3 parts. + White of egg. 7 " + Water. 9 to 10 " + +The soluble glass must be free from caustic potash. The mixture, which +must be used fresh, is carefully filtered, and spread evenly over the +previously cleaned glass plate. The superfluous liquid is flowed off, +and the film dried either spontaneously or by slightly warming. The film +is generally dry in a few minutes, when it is rinsed with water, and +again dried; at this stage the plate bears an open, porous film, +slightly opalescent--so slight, however, as only to be observed by an +experienced eye. + +_Application of the Sensitive Film_.--We now come to the second stage of +the process, the application of a film of bichromated gelatine to the +plate. + +Herr Löwy's formula is as follows: + + Bichromate of potash. 16 grammes. + Gelatine. 2½ ounces. + Water. 20 to 22 " + +According to the weather, the amount of water must be varied; but in any +case the solution is a very fluid one. An ounce is about 35 grammes, as +most of our readers know. A practical collotypist sees at a glance the +quality of the prepared plate, without any preliminary testing. A good +preliminary film is a glass that is transparent, yet slightly dull; the +film is so thin, you can scarcely believe it is there. The plate is +slightly warmed upon a slate slab, underneath which is a water bath; it +is then flooded with the above mixture of bichromated gelatine, leaving +only sufficient to make a very thin film. When coated, the plate is +placed in the drying chamber. + +_Drying the Sensitive Film_.--Much depends upon the drying. A water +bath with gas burner underneath is used for heating, and a slate slab, +perfectly level, receives the glass plate. The drying chamber is kept at +an even temperature of 50° C. + +The object to be attained is a fine grain throughout the surface of the +gelatine, and unless this grain is satisfactory the finished printing +block never will be. If the gelatine film be too thick, then the grain +will be coarse; or, again, if the temperature in drying be too high, +there will be no grain at all. The drying is complete in two or three +hours, and should not take longer. + +_The Negative to be Printed from_.--The sensitive film being upon the +surface of a thick glass plate, it is necessary that the cliché or +negative employed should be upon patent plate, or not upon glass at all, +so as to insure perfect contact. Best of all, is to employ a stripped +negative, in which case absolute contact is insured in printing. It is +only in these circumstances that the most perfect impression can be +secured. If the negative is otherwise satisfactory, and only requires +stripping, it must be upon a leveling stand, and fluid gelatine of a +tolerable consistence is poured over it. When dry, a pen-knife is run +around the margin, and the film leaves the glass without any trouble. + +Herr Obernetter says that many of the negatives he receives have to be +reproduced before they can be transformed into Lichtdruck plates, and +he employs either the wet collodion process or the graphite method, +according to circumstances. If the copy is desired to be softer than the +original, collodion is employed; if vigor be desired, graphite is used, +and here is his formula: + + Dextrine. 62 grains. + Ordinary white sugar. 77 " + Bichromate of ammonia. 30.8 " + Water. 3.21 ounces. + Glycerine. 2 to 8 drops. + +The film is dried at a temperature of 130° to 140° F. in about ten +minutes, and while still warm is printed under a negative in diffused +light for a period of five to fifteen minutes. In a well-timed print +the image is slightly visible; the plate is again warmed a little above +atmospheric temperature in a darkened room, and then fine levigated +graphite is applied with a fine dusting brush, a sheet of white paper +being held underneath to judge of the effect. Breathing upon the film +renders it more capable of attracting the powder. When the desired vigor +has been attained, the superfluous powder is dusted off, and the plate +coated with normal collodion. Afterward the film is cut through at the +margins of the plate by means of a sharp knife, and put into water. In a +little while--from two to five minutes--the collodion, with the image, +will be detached from the glass; the film is at once turned over in the +water, and brought out upon the glass plate. Under a soft jet of water +any air-bubbles that may exist between the collodion and the glass are +removed, and then a solution of gum arabic (two grammes of gum dissolved +in one hundred grammes of water) is poured over, and the film is allowed +to dry spontaneously. + +_Exposure of the Printing Block under the Negative_.--The exposure +is very rapid. Any one conversant with photolithographic work will +understand this. At any rate, every photographer knows that bichromated +gelatine is much more rapid than the chloride of silver he generally has +to do with. + +There is no other way of measuring the exposure than by the photometer +or personal experience, and the latter is by far the best. + +After leaving the printing frame, the plate is immersed in cold water. +Here it remains at discretion for half an hour, or an hour; the purpose, +of course, being to wash out the soluble bichromate. It is when the +print comes out of this bath that judgment is passed upon it. An +experienced eye tells at once what it is fit for. If it is yellow, the +yellowness must be of the slightest; indeed, Herr Furkl (the manager of +Herr Löwy's Lichtdruck department) will not admit that a good plate is +yellow at all. A yellow tint means that it will take up too much ink +when the roller is passed over it. The plates of Herr Obernetter, +however, are rather more yellow than Herr Löwy's--certainly only a +tinge, but still yellow; and Herr Obernetter's work proves, at any rate, +that the yellowish tinge is by no means inseparable from good results. + +The washed and dried plate should appear like a design of ground and +polished glass. The ground glass appearance is given by the grain. If +there are pure high-lights (almost transparent) and opalescent shadows, +the plate is a good one. + +_Printing from the Block_.--We have now a printing-block ready for the +press. If it is to be printed by machinery--that is to say, upon a +Schnell press--the surface is etched; if it has to be more carefully +handled in a hand press, etching is rarely resorted to; it is moistened +only with glycerine and water. To etch a plate for a Schnell press, it +is placed upon a leveling stand, and the following solution is poured +upon it: + + Glycerine............................. 150 parts. + Ammonia................................ 50 " + Nitrate of potash (saltpeter).......... 5 " + Water.................................. 25 " + +Another equally good formula, recommended by Allgeyer, who managed Herr +Albert's Lichtdruck printing for some years, is: + + Glycerine............................. 500 parts. + Water................................. 500 " + Chloride of sodium (common salt)...... 15 " + +In lieu of common salt, 15 parts of hyposulphite of soda, or other +hygroscopic salt, such as chloride of calcium, may be employed. + +The etching fluid is permitted to remain upon the image for half an +hour. During this time, by gently moving the finger to and fro over the +surface, the swelling or relief of the image can be distinctly felt. The +plate is not washed, but the etching fluid simply poured off, so that +the film remains impregnated with the glycerine and water; at the most, +a piece of bibulous paper is used to absorb any superfluous quantity of +the etching fluid. After etching, the plate is taken straight to the +printing press. The inking up and printing are done very much as +in lithography. If it requires a practiced hand to produce a good +lithographic print, it stands to reason that in dealing with a gelatine +printing block, instead of a stone, skill and practice are more +necessary still. Therefore at this point the photographer should hand +over the work to the lithographer, or rather the Lichtdruck printer. +It is only by coaxing judiciously, with roller and sponge, that a good +printing block can be obtained, and no amount of teaching theoretically +can beget a good printer. To appreciate how skillful a printer must be, +it is only necessary to see the imperfect proofs that first result, and +to watch how these are gradually improved by dint of rolling, rubbing, +etching, cleaning, etc. In all Lichldruck establishments, two kinds of +rollers are used, viz., of leather and glue. In some establishments, +too, they employ two kinds of ink; but Herr Löwy manages to secure +delicacy and vigor at the same time by using one ink, but rolling up +with two kinds of roller. + +Collotype printing is not merely done by hand presses, but is also +done by machinery. At Herr Albert's a gas engine of six-horse power is +employed to drive the machines, and each machine requires the +attention of a skilled mechanic and a girl. The press is very like the +lithographic quick press. Upon a big steel bed lies the little collotype +block. The glass printing block, with its brownish film of gelatine, +moves horizontally to and fro, and, as it does so, passes under half a +dozen rollers, which not only supply ink, but disperse it. Some of the +rollers are of leather and others of glue, and, whenever the printing +block retires from underneath them, an ink slab takes the place of the +block, and imparts more ink to the rollers; sometimes as many as eight +rollers are used, for the difficulty of machine printing is to apply the +ink as delicately and equally as possible. It is necessary at intervals +to damp the block, and when the printer in charge finds this to be the +case, he stops the press, and applies a little glycerine and water +with a cloth or sponge; then a leather roller is passed over to remove +superfluous moisture, and the press is again started. + +Herr Obernetter relies upon the Star or Stern press--a small +lithographic press--one man sufficing to manage it, who turns a wheel +with large spokes, reminding one of the steering wheel of a ship. The +Lichtdruck plate, gelatine film upward, is laid upon a sheet of plate +glass by way of a bed, the plate having first been treated with a +solution of glycerine and water; it is then inked up as previously +described, except that Herr Obernetter uses two kinds of ink--a thick +one and a thin--applied by two rollers of glue. In the first place, a +moist sponge is rubbed over the surface; then a soft roller covered with +wash-leather, and of the appearance of crêpe, is passed over two or +three times to remove surplus moisture; then a roller charged with thick +ink is put on, and then another with thin is applied. It takes fully +five minutes to sponge and roll up a plate, the rolling being done +gently and firmly. A sheet of paper is now laid upon the plate, the +tympan is lowered, and the scraper adjusted with due pressure; a +revolution of the wheel completes the printing, the well-known scraping +action of the lithographic press being used in the operation. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1.--ORDINARY NAPHTHA LIGHTER OF MR. LOISEAU.] + +Some Lichtdruck prints are printed upon thick plate-paper, and are ready +for binding without further ado, these being for book illustrations. +Other pictures, that are to pass muster among silver photographs, are, +on the other hand, printed upon fine thin paper, and then sized by +dipping in a thin solution of gelatine; after drying, they are further +dipped in a solution of shellac and spirit.--_Photo. News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +DOMESTIC ELECTRICITY. + + +Among the most valuable, and, up to the present time, the least +generally appreciated services that electricity can render for domestic +purposes is that of its application in lighters. At the present epoch +of indifferent matches, to have, instantaneously, a light by pulling +a cord, pressing on a button, or turning a cock, is a thing worthy of +being taken into serious consideration; and our own personal experience +permits us to assert that, regarded from this point of view, electricity +is capable of daily rendering inappreciable services. + +According to the nature of the application that is to be made of them, +the places in which they are to be put, and the combustible that they +are to inflame, etc., electric lighters vary greatly in form and +arrangement. + +We shall limit ourselves here to pointing out the simplest and most +practical of the numerous models of such apparatus that have been +constructed up to the present time. All those that we shall describe +are based on the incandescence of a platinum wire. A few have been +constructed based on the induction spark, but they are more complicated +and expensive, and have not entered into practical use. Before +commencing to describe these apparatus, we shall make a remark in regard +to the piles for working them, and that is that we prefer for this +purpose Leclanché elements with agglomerated plates and a large surface +of zinc. In order to bring about combustion in any given substance, it +is necessary to bring near it an incandescent body raised to a certain +temperature, which varies with the nature of the said substance, and +which is quite low for illuminating gas, higher for petroleum, and a +white heat for a wax taper or a candle. We have said that we make use +exclusively of a platinum wire raised momentarily to incandescence by +the passage of an electric current. The temperature of such wire will +depend especially upon the intensity of the current traversing it; +and, if this is too great, the platinum (chosen because of its +inoxidizability and its elevated melting point) will rapidly melt; +while, if the intensity is too little, the temperature reached by the +wire will itself be too low, and no inflammation will be brought about. +Practice soon indicates a means of obviating these two inconveniences, +and teaches how each apparatus may be placed under such conditions that +the wire will hardly ever melt, and that the lighting will always be +effected. For the same intensity of current that traverses the wire, +the temperature of the latter might be made to vary by diminishing or +increasing its diameter. A very fine wire will attain a red heat through +a very weak current, but it would be very brittle, and subject to break +at the least accident. For this reason it becomes necessary to employ +wires a little stronger, and varying generally from one to two-tenths +of a millimeter in diameter. The current then requires to be a little +intenser. The requisite intensity is easily obtained with elements +of large surface, which have a much feebler internal resistance than +porous-cup elements; and since, for a given number of elements, the +intensity of the current decreases in measure as the internal resistance +of the elements increases, it becomes of interest to diminish such +internal resistance as much as possible. The platinum wires are usually +rolled spirally, with the object in view of concentrating the heat into +a small space, in order to raise the temperature of the wire as much as +possible. There is thus need of a less intense current to produce the +inflammation than with a wire simply stretched out. In fact, the same +wire traversed by a current of constant intensity scarcely reaches a +_red_ heat when it is straight, while it attains a _white_ heat when it +is wound spirally, because, in the latter case, the cooling surface is +less. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2--RANQUE'S NEW FORM OF LIGHTER WITH EXTINGUISHER.] + +We shall now proceed to the examination of a few practical forms of +electric lighters. + +In Fig. 1 will be seen quite a convenient spirit or naphtha lighter, +which has been devised more especially for the use of smokers. By +pushing the lamp toward the wall, the wick is brought into proximity +with the spiral, and the lamp, acting on a button behind it, closes +the current. Pressure on the lamp being removed, the latter moves back +slightly, through the pressure of a small spring which thrusts on the +button. Owing to this latter simple arrangement, the spiral never comes +in contact with the flame, and may thus last for a long time. Mr. +Loiseau, the proprietor of this apparatus, employs a very fine platinum +wire, flattened into the form of a ribbon, and it takes only the current +from a _single element_ to effect the inflammation of the wick. The +system is so arranged that any one can easily replace in a moment the +spiral that has accidentally got out of order; and, in order that this +may be done, the maker has placed the spiral on a small, distinct piece +that he styles the "conflagrator." The latter consists of two small, +thin tubes of brass, held parallel and firmly by means of a brass +cross-piece. A small bit of paper wound round each tube in front of the +cross-brace insures insulation. The outer extremity of the two tubes +supports the platinum spiral, which is fixed to them very simply by the +aid of two small brass needles of conical form, which pinch the wire +in the tube and hold it in place. There is nothing easier to do than +replace the wire. All that is necessary is to remove the two little rods +with a pair of pincers; to make a spiral of suitable length by rolling +the wire round a pin; and to fix it into the tubes, as we have just +explained. With two or three extra "conflagrators" on hand, there need +never any trouble occur. + +In Fig. 2 we show a new and simple form of Mr. Ranque's lighter, in +which an electro-magnet concealed in the base brings the spiral and +the wick into juxtaposition. The extinguisher, which is balanced by +a counterpoise, oscillates about a horizontal axis, and its support +carries two small pins, against which act successively two notches in a +piece of oval form, fixed on the side of the movable rods. + +In the position shown in the cut, on the first emission of a current the +upper notch acts so as to depress the extinguisher, but the travel of +the rods that carry the spiral is so limited that the latter does not +strike against the extinguisher. On the next emission, the lower notch +acts so as to raise the extinguisher, while the spiral approaches the +wick and lights it. It is well to actuate these extinguishing-lighters, +which may be located at a distance, not by a contact button, but by some +pulling arrangement, which is always much more easy to find in the dark +without much groping about. There might be used for such a purpose the +very motion of the front door, when opened, for lighting the hall; but +that would offer the inconvenience of operating likewise in the daytime, +and of thus needlessly using up the pile and the naphtha. In all these +spirit or naphtha lighters it is important that the spiral _shall not +touch_ the wick, but that it shall be placed a little above and on the +side, in the mixture of air and combustible vapor. + +Several apparatus have likewise been devised for lighting gas by +electricity, and a few of these we shall describe. + +The simplest form of these is Mr. Barbier's lighter for the use of +smokers, for lighting candles, sealing letters, etc. It consists of a +small gas-burner affixed to a round box, seven to eight centimeters in +diameter, and connected to the gas-pipe by a rubber tube. By maneuvering +the handle, the cock is opened and an electric contact set up of +sufficient duration to raise to a red heat the spiral, and to light the +gas. It is well in this case, for the sake of economizing in wire, to +utilize the lead gas-pipe as a return wire, especially if the pile is +located at some little distance from the lighter. In the arrangement +generally in use the key is provided with a special spring, which tends +to cause it to turn in such a way as to assume a vertical position, and +with a tooth, which, on engaging with a piece moving on a joint, holds +it in a horizontal position as soon as it has been brought thereto. In +order to extinguish the burner, it is only necessary to depress the +lever, and thus allow the key to assume again the vertical position, +that is to say, the position that closes the aperture through which the +gas flows out. In a new arrangement, the notch, spring, and the lever +are done away with, the cock alone taking the two positions open or +closed. + +Another very ingenious system is that of Mr. Loiseau, consisting of an +ordinary gas-burner (fish-tail, bat's-wing, etc.), carrying at its side +a "conflagrator," analogous to that of the spirit-lighter (Fig. 1), but +arranged vertically. One of the rods of the "conflagrator" is connected +with the positive of the pile, and the other with the little horizontal +brass rod which is placed at the bottom of the burner. On turning the +cock so as to open it, a small flow of gas occurs opposite the platinum +spiral, while at the same time a rigid projecting piece affixed to the +cock bears against a small, vertical metallic piece, and brings it in +contact with the brass rod. The circuit is thus closed for an instant, +the spiral is raised to a red heat, and lights the gas, and the flame +rises and finally lights the burner. It goes without saying that on +continuing the motion the contact is broken, so as not uselessly to +waste the pile and so as to stop the escape of gas. + +For gas furnaces, Mr. Loiseau is constructing a _handle-lighter_ which +is connected with the side of the furnace by flexible cords. The contact +button is on the sleeve itself, and the spiral is protected against +shocks by a metallic covering which is cleft at the extremity and the +points bent over at a right angle. All the lighters here described work +well, and are rendering valuable services. They may be considered as the +natural and indispensable auxiliaries of electric call bells, and their +use has most certainly been rendered practical through the Leclanche +pile. + + * * * * * + + + + +THEILER'S TELEPHONE RECEIVER. + + +This telephone receiver differs from its predecessors in dispensing with +an armature, the lateral vibration of the electro-magnet itself being +utilized. In previous systems in which an electro-magnet is used, the +sonorous vibrations are due either to the motion of an iron diaphragm +or armature placed close to the poles of the electro-magnet, or to the +expansion and contraction of the magnet itself. In Theiler's telephone +the electro-magnet may be of the usual U-shape, and may consist either +of soft iron or of hardened steel permanently magnetized, wound with a +suitable number of turns of insulated wire. This electro magnet is fixed +in such a manner that the vibration of either one or of both its limbs +is communicated to a diaphragm or diaphragms The patentees also employ +two or more electro-magnets in the same circuit, and utilize the +vibration of both magnets in the manner described. By attaching a light +disk or disks to the vibrating limbs, the diaphragm may be dispensed +with. Fig. 1 represents one of the telephone receivers provided with two +diaphragms or sounding boards, connected to the two limbs or cores of +the U-shaped electro-magnet by short tongues. These tongues are firmly +inserted in the diaphragms and fixed to the magnet, as shown. The poles +of the electro-magnet are brought very close together by being shaped as +shown, and the middle part of the magnet is firmly screwed to the case +of the instrument. The ends of the helix surrounding the magnet cores +may be attached as usual to two terminals, or soldered to a flexible +conductor communicating with the other parts of the telephone +apparatus. When a vibratory current is sent through the helix of the +electro-magnet, the extremities are rapidly attracted and repelled, and +this vibratory motion of the magnet cores being communicated to the +diaphragms or sounding boards, the latter are set in vibration of +varying amplitude produced by a current of varying strength, as in all +other telephones. Instead of making the electro-magnet of one continuous +piece of iron, as represented in Fig. 1, the patentees find it +more practicable to make it of the form shown in Fig. 2, where the +electro-magnet represented consists of two limbs or cores, a sole piece, +and pole extensions, the whole being screwed together, and practically +constituting one continuous piece of iron carrying the two coils. In +Fig. 2 only one of the limbs or cores of the electro-magnet is attached +to the diaphragm, the other limb being held fixed by a screw. Sometimes +the patentees hinge one of the magnet cores, or both, in the sole piece, +in which case the diaphragms or sounding boards can be made much thicker +than when the cores are rigidly fixed to the sole piece, because +the magnetic attraction of the poles has then only to overcome the +resistance of the diaphragm. Instead of using a diaphragm, they +sometimes fix a stem to one of the cores of the electro-magnet, and +mount thereon a light disk of vulcanite, wood, ivory, gutta-percha, or +any other substance which it is capable of vibrating. When using this +telephone receiver, the disk is pressed to the ear in such a manner +that its surface covers the aperture of the ear. When these telephone +receivers are used on a line of some considerable length, the patentees +prefer to magnetize the electro-magnet by a constant current from +a local battery, and to effect the variation of this constant +magnetization inductively and not directly. The electro-magnet is, +then, not inserted in the line at all, but in the primary circuit of +an induction coil, and connected with a local battery. The line is +connected to the secondry circuit of the induction coil. This device +possesses the advantage that the electro-magnet can be powerfully +magnetized with very little battery power, no matter how long the line +may be, and that steel magnets are entirely dispensed with. It is not +necessary to have a separate battery for this purpose, as the microphone +battery may also be used for the telephone receiver. The shape of the +vibrating electro-magnets is immaterial, as they may be made of a +variety of forms.--_Eng. Mechanic_. + +[Illustration: FIG. 1. FIG. 2] + + * * * * * + + + + +ON AN ELECTRIC POWER HAMMER. + +By MARCEL DEPREZ. + +[Footnote: _La Lumiére Electrique_.] + + +In a lecture delivered by me on the 15th of last June in the +amphitheater of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, on the +application of electricity to the production, transmission, and division +of power, I operated for the first time an electric power hammer that I +shall here describe. Its essential part is a sectional solenoid that +I have likewise made an application of in an electric motor which I +presented in July, 1830, to the Societé de Physique. Let us suppose we +superpose, one on the other, a hundred flat bobbins of a centimeter +in thickness in such a way as to form a single solenoid one meter in +height, and that the incoming and outgoing wires of each of them be +connected with the contiguous bobbins exactly in the same way as they +are in the consecutive sections or a dynamo-electric machine ring. +Finally, let us complete the resemblance by causing each junction of the +wire of one of the bobbins with the wire of its neighbor to end in a +metallic plate set into an insulating piece containing as many plates as +there are bobbins, plus one. Over this species of collector, which maybe +rectilinear or wound around a cylinder, let us pass two brushes fixed to +an insulating piece that may be moved by hand. Now, if we place these +two brushes at a distance such that the number of the plates of the +collector included between them be, for example, equal to ten, and we +give them any degree of displacement whatever, after rendering them +interdependent, the current entering through one of these brushes and +making its exit through the other will always traverse 10 bobbins. +Everything will occur, then, as if we caused the ten-bobbin solenoid to +move instead of the brushes. This granted, and the brushes being in any +position whatever, let us send a current into the apparatus, and place +therein a soft iron cylinder. By virtue of a well known law, such +cylinder will remain suspended in the interior of the solenoid, and its +longitudinal center will place itself at so much the greater distance +from that of the solenoid the more the current increases in intensity. +It would even fall entirely if the current had not an intensity above a +minimum value dependent upon many elements concerning which we have not +now to occupy ourselves. We will suppose the current intense enough to +keep the distance of the two centers much below that which would bring +about a fall of the cylinder. When such a condition is fulfilled, it is +found that if we try to remove the iron cylinder from the equilibrium +that it is in, we must apply a pressure that increases with the amount +of separation, just exactly as if it were suspended from a spring. It +results from this fact that if we displace the brushes a distance equal +to the thickness of one plate of the collector, the active solenoid will +undergo the same displacement, and its longitudinal center will move +away from that of the iron cylinder, and that the attraction exerted +upon the latter will increase. It will not be able to assume its first +value, and equilibrium cannot be re-established unless the cylinder +undergoes a displacement identical with that of the solenoid. Now, +as this latter depends upon the motion communicated to the system +of brushes, we see that, definitively, the cylinder will faithfully +reproduce the motion communicated to the brushes by the hand of +the operator. This apparatus, then, constitutes a genuine electric +servo-motor in which the current is never interrupted nor modified in +quantity or direction, no more indeed than the magnetization developed +in the soft iron cylinder. Everything takes place as if the iron +cylinder were suspended in a solenoid ten centimeters in length that +was caused to rise and fall; with the difference that the weight of the +cylinder exerts no action on the hand of the operator. + +[Illustration: ELECTRIC POWER HAMMER.] + +These explanations being understood, there remain but few things to be +said to cause the operation of the hammer to be thoroughly comprehended. +The elementary sections constituting the electric cylinder, A B, of the +hammer are 80 in number, and form a total length of one meter. Their +ingoing and outcoming wires end in a collector of circular form shown at +F G. The brushes are replaced by two strips, C E and C D, fixed to the +double winch, H C I, which is movable around the fixed center, C. They +can make any angle whatever with each other, so that by trial there +maybe given the active solenoid the most suitable length. When such +angle has been determined, the angle, E C D, is rendered invariable by +means of a set screw, and the apparatus is maneuvered by imparting to +the double winch, H C I, an alternating circular motion. + +The iron cylinder weighs 23 kilogrammes; but, when the current has an +intensity of 43 amperes and traverses 15 sections, the stress developed +may reach 70 kilogrammes; that is to say, three times the weight of the +hammer. So this latter obeys with absolute docility the motions of the +operator's hands, as those who were present at the lecture were enabled +to see. + +I will incidentally add that this power hammer was placed on a circuit +derived from one that served likewise to supply three Hefner-Alteneck +machines (Siemens D{5} model) and a Gramme machine (Breguet model P.L.). +Each of these machines was making 1,500 revolutions per minute and +developing 25 kilogrammeters per second, measured by means of a +Carpentier brake. All these apparatus were operating with absolute +independence, and had for generator the double excitation machine that +figured at the Exhibition of Electricity. + +In an experiment made since then, I have succeeded in developing in each +of these four machines 50 kilogrammeters per second, whatever was the +number of those that were running; and I found it possible to add the +hammer on a derived circuit without notably affecting the operation of +the receivers. + +It results from this that with my system of double excitation machine I +have been enabled to easily run with absolute independence six machines, +each giving a two-third horse-power. The economic performance, e/E, +moreover, slightly exceeded 0.50. + + * * * * * + + + + +SOLIGNAC'S NEW ELECTRIC LAMP. + + +When it becomes a question of practical lighting, it is very certain +that the best electric lamp will be the one that is most simple and +requires the fewest mechanical parts. It is to such simplicity that is +due all the success of the Jablochkoff candle and the Reynier-Werdermann +lamp. Yet, in the former of these lamps, it is to be regretted that the +somewhat great and variable resistance opposed to the current in its +passage through two carbons that keep diminishing in length, in measure +as they burn, proves a cause of loss of light and of variation in it. +And it is also to be regretted that the duration of combustion of the +carbons is not longer; and, finally, it is allowable to believe that the +power employed in volatilizing the insulator placed between the carbons +is prejudicial to the economical use of this system. In order to obviate +this latter inconvenience, an endeavor has been made in the Wilde candle +to do away with the insulator, but the results obtained have scarcely +been encouraging. An endeavor has also been made to render the duration +of the carbons greater by employing quite long ones, and causing these +to move forward successively through the intermedium of a species +of rollers, or of counterpoises, as in the lamps of Mersanne and +Werdermann; but then the system becomes more complicated. Finally, in +order to keep the resistance of the carbons at a minimum and constant, +their contact with the rheophores of the circuit has been established +at a short distance from the arc, and this is one of the principal +advantages possessed by the Reynier-Werdermann system. At a certain +epoch it was thought that the problem might be simply solved by +arranging in front of each other two carbons actuated by a spiral +spring, as in car lamps, and kept at a proper distance apart for forming +the electric arc by two funnel-shaped pieces of calcined magnesia, into +which they entered like a wedge in measure as their conical point were +away through combustion. This was the system of Mr. De Baillehache, +and the trials that were made therewith were very satisfactory. But, +unfortunately, the magnesia was not able to resist very long the +temperature to which it was submitted. The problem found a better +solution in the sun-lamp but has been solved in another manner, and just +as simply, by Mr. Solignac, and the results obtained by him have been +very satisfactory as regarded from the standpoint of steadiness of the +luminous point. + +In this system, a general view of which is given in Fig. 1, and the +arrangement in Figs. 2 and 3, the carbons, F F, which are horizontal and +about fifty centimeters in length, are thrust toward each other by +two barrels, K, K, which wind up two chains, E, E, passing around the +pulleys, D, D, fitted to the extremities of the carbons. These latter +are provided beneath with small glass rods, G, G, whose extremities +toward the arc abut at a short distance from the latter against a nickel +stop, L (Fig. 3), which supports them, moreover, at M, by means of +a tappet whose position is regulated by a screw. The current is +transmitted to the carbons by two friction rollers, I, I, which serve at +the same time as a guide for them, and which give the electric flux a +passage of only one or two centimeters over the front of the carbon +to form the arc. Finally, the whole is held by a support, A, and two +pieces, CB, CB, which at the same time lead the current to the friction +rollers through projections, J. The two systems are made to approach +or recede from each other, in order to form the arc, by means of a +regulating screw, H. + +At present, the lighting of these lamps is effected by means of this +screw, H, but Mr. Solignac is now constructing a model in which the +lighting will be performed automatically by means of a solenoid that +will react upon a carbon lighter, as in several already well known +systems. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +If the preceding description has been well-understood, it will be seen +that the carbons are arrested in their movement toward each other only +by the glass rods, G, abutting against L; but, as the stops, L, are not +far from the arc, and as the heat to which they are exposed is so much +the greater in proportion as the incandescent part of the carbons is +nearer them, it results that for a certain elongation of the arc the +temperature becomes sufficient to soften the glass of the rods, G, G, +so that they bend as shown at O (Fig. 3), and allow the carbons to move +onward until the heat has sufficiently diminished to prevent any further +softening of the glass. In measure as the wearing away progresses, the +preceding effects are reproduced; and, as these are produced in an +imperceptible and continuous manner, there is perceived no jumping nor +inconstancy in the light of the arc. Under such conditions, then, the +regulation of the arc is effected under the very influence of the +effect produced; and not under that of an action of a different nature +(electro-magnetism), as happens in other regulators. It is certain that +this idea is new and original, and the results that we have witnessed +from it have been very satisfactory. There is but one regulation to +perform, and that at the beginning, but this once done the apparatus +operates with certainty, and for a long time. With a Meritens machine of +the first model it has been found possible to light five lamps of this +kind placed in the same circuit. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2] + +According to the inventor, this lamp will give a light of 100 carcels +per one horse-power, and with a three horse-power six lamps may be +lighted; but we have made no experiments to ascertain the correctness of +these figures. + +As for the cost of the glass rods, that amounts to one franc per +two hundred meters length. They can, then, be considered only as an +insignificant expense in the cost of the carbons. We consequently +believe that it will be possible to employ this system advantageously in +practice.--_Th. du Moncel_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 3] + + * * * * * + + + + +MONDOS'S ELECTRIC LAMP. + + +Since the month of May last, the concert at the Champs Elysées has been +lighted by sixteen voltaic arc lamps on a new and very simple system, +which gives excellent results in the installation under consideration. +The sixteen lamps are on the divisible system, and their regulation is +based upon the principle of derivation. They are supplied by a Siemens +alternating current machine and arranged in four circuits, on each of +which are mounted four lamps in series. The accompanying figures will +allow the reader to readily understand the system, which is as simple +as it is ingenious, and which has been combined by Mr. Mondos so as to +obtain a continuous and independent regulation of each lamp. + +In this system the lower carbon is stationary, the luminous point +descending in measure as the carbons wear away through combustion. The +upper carbon descends by its own weight, and imperceptibly, so as to +keep the arc at its normal length. + +The mechanism that controls the motions of the upper rod that supports +the carbon-holder consists of two bobbins of fine wire, E (Fig. 2), +mounted on a derived circuit on the terminals of the lamp; of a lever, +L, articulated at O, and supporting a tube, TT', and the whole movable +part balanced by a counterpoise, P. This lever, P, carries two soft iron +cores, F, which enter the bobbins, E, and become magnetized under the +influence of the current that passes through them. The upper part of +the tube, T, carries a square upon which is articulated at O' a second +lever, L', balanced by a second counterpoise, P', and carrying a flat +armature, _p_, opposite the cores, F', that are fixed to the first +horizontal lever, L. The carbon-holder rod, CC', slides freely in the +tube, TT', and is wedged therein by a small piece, _a m l_, fixed to +the lever, L'. For this reason the tube, TT', is provided with a notch +opposite the piece _a m l_, and the two arms, _a_ and _m_, of the latter +are shaped like a V, as may be seen in part in the plan in Fig. 2. It is +now easy to understand how the system operates; when the current is not +traversing the circuit, the carbons are separated; but, at the moment +the circuit is closed for lighting a series of lamps, it traverses the +electro-magnet, which then becomes very powerful, and draws down the +cores, F, along with the lever, L, the tube, TT', and the carbon-holder, +CC', and brings the carbons in contact. The arc then forms, and the +current divides between the arc and the bobbins, E. Its action upon the +cores, F, becomes weak, and it can no longer balance the counterpoise, +P, which falls back, and raises the system again. The arc thus +becomes _primed_. The cores, F, however, preserve a certain amount of +magnetization; the armature, _p_, is attracted, and the lever, L', +assumes a position of equilibrium such that the piece, _a m l_, wedges +the rod, CC', in the tube, TT', and holds it suspended. When, through +wear of the carbons, the arc elongates, a greater portion of the current +passes into the bobbins, E, the armature, _p_, is attracted with more +force, and the lever, L', swings around the point, O'. The rotation of +L' separates the piece, _a m l_, from the rod, CC', which, being thus +set free, slides by its own weight and shortens the arc. The current +then becomes weak in E, the armature, _p_, is not so strongly attracted, +the lever, L', pivots slightly around O' under the action of the weight, +P', and the brake or wedge enters the notch anew, and stops the descent +of the carbon. In practice, the motions that we have just described are +exceedingly slight; the carbon moves imperceptibly, and the length of +the arc remains invariable. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1--MONDOS'S ELECTRIC LAMP.] + +It will be seen, then, that the lever, L, and the tube, TT', serve +exclusively for _lighting_, and the lever, L', exclusively for +regulating the distance of the carbons. + +This lamp exhibits great elasticity, and can operate, without a +change of any part of its mechanism, with currents of very different +intensities. It suffices for obtaining a proper working of the apparatus +in each case, to regulate the distance from the weight, P', to the point +of suspension, O', and the distance from the armature, _p_, to the +cores, F. At the Champs Elysées concerts the lamps are operating with +alternating currents; but they are capable of operating with continuous +ones also, although the slight tremor of the electro-magnetic system, +due to the use of alternating currents and as a consequence of rapid +changes of magnetization, seems in principle very favorable to systems +in which the descent of the carbon is based upon friction instead of a +clutch. At the Champs Elysées concerts the lamps burn crayons of 9 to +10 millimeters with a current of 9 to 10 amperes and an effective +electro-motive power of 60 volts per lamp. The light is very steady, +and the effect produced is most satisfactory. The dispensing with all +clock-work movement and regulating springs makes this electric lamp +of Mr. Mondos a simple and plain apparatus, capable of numerous +applications in the industries, in wide, open spaces, in all cases where +foci of medium intensity have to be employed, and where it is desired to +arrange several lamps in the same circuit.--_La Nature_. + +[Illustration: Fig. 2--REGULATING MECHANISM.] + + * * * * * + +[AMERICAN POTTERY AND GLASSWARE REPORTER.] + + + + +ALUMINUM--ITS PROPERTIES, COST, AND USES. + + +Aluminum is a shining, white, sonorous metal, having a shade between +silver and platinum. It is a very light metal, being lighter than glass +and only about one-fourth as heavy as silver of the same bulk. It is +very malleable and ductile, and is remarkable for its resistance to +oxidation, being unaffected by moist or dry air, or by hot or cold +water. Sulphureted hydrogen gas, which so readily tarnishes silver, +forming a black film on the surface, has no action on this metal. + +Next to silica, the oxide of aluminum (alumina) forms, in combination, +the most abundant constituent of the crust of the earth (hydrated +silicate of alumina, clay). + +Common alum is sulphate of alumina combined with another sulphate, as +potash, soda, etc. It is much used as a mordant in dyeing and calico +printing, also in tanning. + +Aluminum is of great value in mechanical dentistry, as, in addition +to its lightness and strength, it is not affected by the presence of +sulphur in the food--as by eggs, for instance. + +Dr. Fowler, of Yarmouthport, Mass., obtained patents for its combination +with vulcanite as applied to dentistry and other uses. It resists +sulphur in the process of vulcanization in a manner which renders it an +efficient and economical substitute for platinum or gold. + +Aluminum is derived from the oxide alumina, which is the principal +constituent of common clay. Lavoissier, a celebrated French chemist, +first suggested the existence of the metallic bases of the earths and +alkalies, which fact was demonstrated twenty years thereafter by +Sir Humphry Davy, by eliminating potassium and sodium from their +combinations; and afterward by the discovery of the metallic bases of +baryta, strontium, and lime. The earth alumina resisting the action of +the voltaic pile and the other agents then used to induce decomposition, +twenty years more passed before the chloride was obtained by Oerstadt, +by subjecting alumina to the action of potassium in a crucible heated +over a spirit lamp. The discovery of aluminum was at last made by Wohler +in 1827, who succeeded in 1846 in obtaining minute globules or beads +of this metal by heating a mixture of chloride of alumina and sodium. +Deville afterward conducted some experiments in obtaining this metal at +the expense of Napoleon III., who subscribed £1,500, and was rewarded by +the presentation of two bars of aluminum. The process of manufacture was +afterward so simplified that in 1857 its price at Paris was about two +dollars an ounce. It was at first manufactured from common clay, which +contains about one-fourth its weight of aluminum, but in 1855 Rose +announced to the scientific world that it could be obtained from a +material called "cryolite," found in Greenland in large quantities, +imported into Germany under the name of "mineral soda," and used as a +washing soda and in the manufacture of soap. It consists of a double +fluoride of aluminum, and only requires to be mixed with an excess of +sodium and heated, when the mineral aluminum at once separates. Its cost +of manufacture is given in this estimate for one pound of metal: 16 lb. +of cryolite at 8 cents per pound, $1.28: 2½ lb. metallic sodium at about +26 cents per pound, 70 cents; flux and cost of reduction, $2.02; total, +$4. + +Aluminum is used largely in the manufacture of cheap jewelry by making a +hard, gold-colored alloy with copper, called aluminum bronze, consisting +of 90 per cent. of copper and 10 per cent. of aluminum. Like iron, it +does not amalgamate directly with mercury, nor is it readily alloyed +with lead, but many alloys with other metals, as copper, iron, gold, +etc., have been made with it and found to be valuable combinations. +One part of it to 100 parts of gold gives a hard, malleable alloy of +a greenish gold color, and an alloy of ¾ iron and ¼ aluminum does not +oxidize when exposed to a moist atmosphere. It has also been used to +form a metallic coating upon other metals, as copper, brass, and German +silver, by the electro-galvanic process. Copper has also been deposited, +by the same process, upon aluminum plates to facilitate their being +rolled very thin; for unless the metal be pure, it requires to be +annealed at each passage through the rolls, and it is found that its +flexibility is greatly increased by rolling. To avoid the bluish white +appearance, like zinc, Dr. Stevenson McAdam recommends immersing the +article made from aluminum in a heated solution of potash, which will +give a beautiful white frosted appearance, like that of frosted silver. + +F.W. Gerhard obtained a patent in 1856, in England, for an improved +means of obtaining aluminum metal, and the adaptation thereof to the +manufacture of certain useful articles. Powdered fluoride of aluminum is +placed alone or in combination with other fluorides in a closed furnace, +heated to a red heat, and exposed to the action of hydrogen gas, which +is used as a reagent in the place of sodium. A reverberating furnace is +used by preference. The fluoride of aluminum is placed in shallow trays +or dishes, each dish being surrounded by clean iron filings placed in +suitable receptacles; dry hydrogen gas is forced in, and suitable entry +and exit pipes and stop-cocks are provided. The hydrogen gas, combining +with the fluoride, "forms hydrofluoric acid, which is taken up by the +iron and is thereby converted into fluoride of iron." The resulting +aluminum "remains in a metallic state in the bottom of the trays +containing the fluoride," and may be used for a variety of manufacturing +and ornamental purposes. + +The most important alloy of aluminum is composed of aluminum 10, copper +90. It possesses a pale gold color, a hardness surpassing that of +bronze, and is susceptible of taking a fine polish. This alloy has found +a ready market, and, if less costly, would replace red and yellow brass. +Its hardness and tenacity render it peculiarly adapted for journals and +bearings. Its tensile strength is 100,000 lb., and when drawn into wire, +128,000 lb., and its elasticity is one-half that of wrought iron. + +General Morin believes this alloy to be a perfect chemical combination, +as it exhibits, unlike the gun metal, a most complete homogeneousness, +its preparation being also attended by a great development of heat, not +seen in the manufacture of most other alloys. The specific gravity of +this alloy is 7.7. It is malleable and ductile, may be forged cold as +well as hot, but is not susceptible of rolling; it may, however, be +drawn into tubes. It is extremely tough and fibrous. + +Aluminum bronze, when exposed to the air, tarnishes less quickly than +either silver, brass, or common bronze, and less, of course, than iron +or steel. The contact of fatty matters or the juice of fruits does not +result in the production of any soluble metallic salt, an immunity which +highly recommends it for various articles for table use. + +The uses to which aluminum bronze is applicable are various. Spoons, +forks, knives, candle-sticks, locks, knobs, door-handles, window +fastenings, harness trimmings, and pistols are made from it; also +objects of art, such as busts, statuettes, vases, and groups. In France, +aluminum bronze is used for the eagles or military standards, for armor, +for the works of watches, as also watch chains and ornaments. For +certain parts, such as journals of engines, lathe-head boxes, pinions, +and running gear, it has proved itself superior to all other metals. + +Hulot, director of the Imperial postage stamp manufactory in Paris, uses +it in the construction of a punching machine. It is well known that the +best edges of tempered steel become very generally blunted by paper. +This is even more the case when the paper is coated with a solution of +gum arabic and then dried, as in the instance of postage stamp sheets. +The sheets are punched by a machine the upper part of which moves +vertically and is armed with 300 needles of tempered steel, sharpened in +a right angle. At every blow of the machine they pass through the +holes in the lower fixed piece, which correspond with the needles, and +perforate five sheets at every blow. Hulot now substitutes this piece by +aluminum bronze. Each machine makes daily 120,000 blows, or 180,000,000 +perforations, and it has been found that a cushion of the aluminum alloy +was unaffected after some months' use, while one of brass is useless +after one day. + +Various formulæ are given for the production of alloys of aluminum, but +they are too numerous and intricate to enter into here. + + * * * * * + + + + +DETERMINATION OF POTASSA IN MANURES. + +By M.E. DREYFUS. + + +The method generally adopted for the determination of potassa in +manures, i. e., the direct incineration of the sample, may in certain +cases occasion considerable errors in consequence of the volatilization +of a portion of the potassium products. + +To avoid this inconvenience, the author proposes a preliminary treatment +of the manure with sulphuric acid at 1.845 sp. gr., to convert potassium +nitrate and chloride into the fixed sulphate. The sulphuric acid attacks +the manure energetically, and much facilitates the incineration, which +may be effected at a dark red heat. The ignited portion (10 grms.) is +exhausted with boiling distilled water acidulated with hydrochloric +acid, and the filtrate, when cold, is made up to 500 c. c. Of this +solution 50 c c., representing 1 grm. of the sample, are taken, and, +after being heated until close upon ebullition, baryta-water is added +until a strong alkaline reaction is obtained. The sulphuric and +phosphoric acids, alumina, magnesia, etc, are thus precipitated. The +filtrate is heated to a boil, and mixed with ammonia and ammonium +carbonate, to precipitate the excess of baryta in solution. The last +traces of lime are eliminated by means of a few drops of ammonium +oxalate. The filtrate is evaporated down on the water-bath, and the +ammoniacal salts are expelled by carefully raising the temperature to +dull redness. After having taken up the residue in distilled water it +is treated with platinum chloride, and the potassium chloro-platinate +obtained is reduced with oxalic acid. The quantity of potassa present +in the manure can be calculated from the weight of platinum +obtained.--_Bull. de la Soc. Chim. de Paris_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ORIGIN AND RELATIONS OF THE CARBON MINERALS. + +[Footnote: Read before the New York Academy of Sciences, February 6, +1882.] + +By J.S. NEWBERRY. + + +What are called the carbon minerals--peat, lignite, coal, graphite, +asphalt, petroleum, etc.--are, properly speaking, not minerals at +all, as they are organic substances, and have no definite chemical +composition or crystalline forms. They are, in fact, chiefly the +products or phases of a progressive and inevitable change in +plant-tissue, which, like all organic matter, is an unstable compound +and destined to decomposition. + +In virtue of a mysterious and inscrutable force which resides in the +microscopic embryo of the seed, a tree begins its growth. For a brief +interval, this growth is maintained by the prepared food stored in the +cotyledons, and this suffices to produce and to bring into functional +activity--some root-fibrils below and leaves above, with which +the independent and self-sustained life of the individual begins. +Henceforward, perhaps for a thousand years, this life goes on, active in +summer and dormant in winter, absorbing the sunlight as a motive power +which it controls and guides. Its instruments are the discriminating +cells at the extremities of the root-fibrils, which search for, select, +and absorb the crude aliment adapted to the needs of the plant to which +they belong, and the chlorophyl cells--the lungs and stomach of the +tree--in the leaves. During all the years of the growth of the plant, +these organs are mainly occupied in breaking the strongly riveted bonds +that unite oxygen and carbon in carbonic acid; appropriating the carbon +and driving off most of the oxygen. In the end, if the tree is, e. g., +a _Sequoia_, some hundreds of tons of solid, organized tissue have been +raised into a column hundreds of feet in height, in opposition to the +force of gravitation and to the affinities of inorganic chemistry. + +The time comes, however, sooner or later, when the power which has +created and the life that has pervaded this wonderful structure +abandon it. The affinities of inorganic chemistry immediately reassert +themselves, in ordinary circumstances rapidly tearing down the ephemeral +fabric. + +The disintegration of organic tissue, when deserted by the force which +has animated and preserved it, gives rise to the phenomena which form +the theme of this paper. + +Most animal-tissue decomposes with great rapidity, and plant tissue, +when not protected, soon decays. This decay is essentially oxidation, +since its final result is the restoration to the atmosphere of carbonic +acid, which is broken up in plant-growth by the appropriation of its +carbon. Hence it is a kind of combustion, although this term is more +generally applied to very rapid oxidation, with the evolution of +sensible light and heat. But, whether the process goes on rapidly or +slowly, the same force is evolved that is absorbed in the growth of +plant-tissue; and by accelerating and guiding its evolution, we are able +to utilize this force in the production at will of heat, light, and +their correlatives, chemical affinity, motive power, electricity, and +magnetism. The decomposition of plants may, however, be more or less +retarded, and it then takes the form of a destructive distillation, +the constituents reacting upon each other, and forming temporary +combinations, part of which are evolved, and part remain behind. Water +is the great extinguisher of this as of the more rapid oxidation that we +call combustion; and the decomposition of plant-tissue under water is +extremely slow, from the partial exclusion of oxygen. Buried under thick +and nearly impervious masses of clay, where the exclusion of oxygen is +still more nearly complete, the decomposition is so far retarded that +plant-tissue, which is destroyed by combustion almost instantaneously, +and if exposed to "the elements"--moisture with a free access of +oxygen--decays in a year or two, may be but partially consumed when +millions of years have passed. The final result is, however, inevitable, +and always the same, viz., the oxidation and escape of the organic +mutter, and the concentration of the inorganic matter woven into its +composition--in it, but not of it--forming what we call the ash of the +plant. + +Since the decomposition of organic matter commences the instant it is +abandoned by the creative and conservative vital force, and proceeds +uninterruptedly, whether slowly or rapidly, to the final result, it is +evident that each moment in the progress of this decomposition presents +us with a phase of structure and composition different from that which +preceded and from that which follows it. Hence the succession of these +phases forms a complete sliding scale, which is graphically shown in +the following diagram, where the organic constituents of plant +tissue--carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen--appear gradually +diminishing to extinction, while the ash remains nearly constant, but +relatively increasing, till it is the sole representative of the fabric. + +[Illustration: DIAGRAM SHOWING THE GENETIC RELATIONS OF THE CARBON +MINERALS.] + +We may cut this triangle of residual products where we please, and by +careful analysis determine accurately the chemical composition of a +section at this point, and we may please ourselves with the illusion, as +many chemists have done, that the definite proportions found represent +the formula of a specific compound; but an adjacent section above or +below would show a different composition, and so in the entire triangle +we should find an infinite series of formulae, or rather no constant +formulae at all. We should also find that the slice, taken at any point +while lying in the laboratory or undergoing chemical treatment, would +change in composition, and become a different substance. + +In the same way we can snatch a brand from the fire at any stage of its +decomposition, or analyze a decaying tree trunk during any month of its +existence, and thus manufacture as many chemical formulae as we like, +and give them specific names; but it is evident that this is child's +play, not science. The truth is, the slowly decomposing tissue of the +plants of past ages has given us a series of phases which we have +grouped under distinct names, and we have called one group peat, one +lignite, another coal, another anthracite, and another graphite. We have +spaced off the scale, and called all within certain lines by a common +name; but this does not give us a common composition for all the +material within these lines. Hence we see that any effort to define or +describe coal, lignite, or anthracite accurately must be a failure, +because neither has a fixed composition, neither is a distinct +substance, but simply a conventional group of substances which form part +of an infinite and indivisible series. + +But this sliding scale of solid compounds, which we designate by +the names given above, is not the only product of the natural and +spontaneous distillation of plant tissue. Part of the original organic +mass remains, though constantly wasting, to represent it; another part +escapes, either completely oxidized as carbonic acid and water, or in +a volatile or liquid form, still retaining its organic character, and +destined to future oxidation, known as carbureted hydrogen, olefiant +gas, petroleum, etc. + +Hence, in the decomposition of vegetable tissue, two classes of +resultant compounds are formed, one residual and the other evolved; and +the genesis and relation of the carbon minerals may be accurately shown +by the following diagram: + + PLANT TISSUE + _________________ + | + _Residual Products_ | _Evolved Products_ + | + Peat. } + | } + Lignite. } + | } { Carbonic Acid. + Bitumious Coal. } { Carbonic Oxide. + | } { Carbureted Hydrogen, etc. + Semi-bitumious " } { Water. + | } { {Maltha. + Anthracite. } { { | + | } { {Asphalt etc. +Graphitie Anthracite. } { Petro- { | + | } { leum {Asphaltic Coal. + Graphite. } { | + | } {Asphaltic Anthracite. + Ash. } { | + { " Graphite. + +[NOTE.--In this diagram, the vertical line connecting the names of the +residual products (and of the derivatives of petroleum) indicates that +each succeeding one is produced by further alteration from that which +precedes it, and not independently. Also, the arrangement of the braces +is designed to show that any or all of the evolved products are given +off at each stage of alteration.] + +The theory here proposed has not been evolved from my inner +consciousness, but has grown from careful study, through many years, of +facts in the field. A brief sketch of the evidence in favor of it is all +that we have space for here. + + +RESIDUAL PRODUCTS. + +_Peat_.--Dry plant-tissue consists of about 50 per cent, of carbon, +44 per cent, of oxygen, with a little nitrogen, and 6 per cent. of +hydrogen. In a peat-bog, we find the upper part of the scale represented +above very well shown: plants are growing on the surface with the normal +composition of cellulose. The first stratum of peat consists of browned +and partially decomposed plant-tissue, which is found to have lost +perhaps 20 per cent. of the components of wood, and to have acquired an +increasing percentage of carbon. As we descend in the peat, it becomes +more homogeneous and darker until at the bottom of the marsh ten or +twenty feet from the surface, we have a black, carbonaceous paste, +which, when dried, resembles some varieties of coal, and approaches them +in composition. It has lost half the substance of the original plant, +and shows a marked increase in the relative proportion of carbon. + +_Lignite_.--Each inch in vertical thickness of the peat-bog represents a +phase in the progressive change from wood-tissue to lignite, using +this term with its common signification to indicate, not necessarily +carbonized ligneous tissue, but plant-tissue that belongs to a past +though modern geological age--i.e., Tertiary, Cretaceous, Jurassic, or +Triassic. These lignites or modern coals are only peat beds which have +been buried for a longer or shorter time under clay, sand, or solidified +rock, and have progressed farther or less far on the road to coal. As +with peats, so with lignites, we find that at different geological +levels they exhibit different stages of this distillation--the Tertiary +lignites being usually distinguished without difficulty by the presence +of a larger quantity of combined water and oxygen, and a less quantity +of carbon, than the Cretaceous coals, and these in turn differ in the +same respects from the Triassic. + +All the coals of the Tertiary and Mesozoic ages are grouped under one +name; but it is evident that they are as different from each other as +the new and spongy from the old and well-rotted peat in the peat-bog. + +_Coal_.--By mere convention, we call the peat which accumulated in the +Carboniferous age by the name of bituminous coal; and an examination +of the Carboniferous strata in different countries has shown that the +peat-beds formed in the Carboniferous age, though varying somewhat, like +others, with the kind of vegetation from which they were derived, have a +common character by which they may be distinguished from the more modern +coals; containing less water, less oxygen, and more carbon, and usually +exhibiting the property of coking, which is rare in coals of later date. +Though there is great diversity in the Carboniferous coals, and it would +be absurd to express their composition by a single formula, it may be +said that, over the whole world, these coals have characteristics, as +a group, by which they can be recognized, the result of the slow +decomposition of the tissue of plants which lived in the Carboniferous +age, and which have, by a broad and general change, approximated to +a certain phase in the spontaneous distillation of plant-tissue. An +experienced geologist will not fail to refer to their proper horizon +a group of coals of Carboniferous age any more than those of the +Cretaceous or Tertiary. + +_Anthracite_--In the ages anterior to the Carboniferous, the quantity +of land vegetation was apparently not sufficient to form thick and +extensive beds of peat; but the remains of plant-tissue are contained +in all the older formations, though there only as anthracite or +graphite--the last two groups of residual products. Of these we have +examples in the beds of graphite in the Laurentian rocks of Canada, +and of anthracite of the lower Silurian strata of Upper Church and +Kilnaleck, Ireland. + +From these facts it is apparent that the carbon series is graded +geologically, that is, by the lapse of time during which plant-tissue +has been subjected to this natural and spontaneous distillation. But we +have better evidence than this of the derivation of one from another +of the groups of residual products which have been enumerated. In many +localities, the coals and lignites of different ages have been exposed +to local influences--such as the outbursts of trap-rock, or the +metamorphism of mountain chains--which have hastened the distillation, +and out of known earlier groups have produced the last. For example, +trap outbursts have converted Tertiary lignites in Alaska into good +bituminous coals; on Queen Charlotte's Island, on Anthracite Creek, in +southwestern Colorado, and at the Placer Mountains, near Santa Fe, +New Mexico, Cretaceous lignites into anthracite; those from Queen +Charlotte's Island and southwestern Colorado are as bright, hard, and +valuable as any from Pennsylvania. At a little distance from the focus +of volcanic action, the Cretaceous coals of southwestern Colorado have +been made bituminous and coking, while at the Placer Mountains the same +stratum may be seen in its anthracitic and lignitic stages. + +A still better series, illustrating the derivation of one form of carbon +solids from another, is furnished by the coals of Ohio, Pennsylvania, +and Rhode Island. These are of the same age; in Ohio, presenting the +normal composition and physical characters of bituminous coals, that +is, of plant tissue generally and uniformly descending the scale in +the lapse of time from the Carboniferous age to the present. In the +mountains of Pennsylvania the same coal beds, somewhat affected by the +metamorphism which all the rocks of the Alleghanies have shared, have +reached the stage of _semi-bituminous_ coals, where half the volatile +constituents have been driven off; again, in the anthracite basins of +eastern Pennsylvania, the distillation further effected has formed from +these coals _anthracite_, containing only from three to ten per cent. of +volatile matter; while in the focus of metamorphic action, at Newport, +Rhode Island, the Carboniferous coals have been changed to _graphitic +anthracite_, that is, are half anthracite and half graphite. Here, +traveling from west to east, a progressive change is noted, similar to +that which may be observed in making a vertical section of a peat bog, +or in comparing the coals of Tertiary, Mesozoic, and Carboniferous age, +only the latter is the continuation and natural sequence of the former +series of changes. + +In the Laurentian rocks of Canada are large accumulations of +carbonaceous matter, all of which is graphite, and that which is +universally conceded to be derived from plant-tissue. The oxidation of +graphite is artificially difficult, and in nature's laboratory slow; but +it is inevitable, as we see in the decomposition of its outcrops and the +blanching of exposed surfaces of clouded marbles, where the coloring is +graphite. Thus the end is reached, and by observations in the field, +the origin and relationship of the different carbon solids derived from +organic tissue are demonstrated. + +It only remains to be said, in regard to them, that all the changes +enumerated may be imitated artificially, and that the stages of +decomposition which we have designated by the names graphite, +anthracite, coal, lignite, are not necessary results of the +decomposition of plant-tissue. A fallen tree may slowly consume away, +and all its carbonaceous matter may be oxidized and dissipated without +exhibiting the phases of lignite, coal, etc.; and lignite and coal, +when exposed to air and moisture, are burned away to ashes in the same +manner, simply because in these cases complete oxidation of the carbon +takes place, particle by particle, and the mass is not affected as a +whole in such a way as to assume the intermediate stages referred to. +Chemical analysis, however, proves that the process is essentially the +same, although the physical results are different. + + +EVOLVED PRODUCTS. + +The gradual wasting of plant-tissue in the formation of peat, lignite, +coal, etc., may be estimated as averaging for peat, 20 to 30 per cent.; +lignite, 30 to 50 per cent.; coal, 50 to 70 per cent.; anthracite, 70 +to 80; and graphite, 90 per cent. of the original mass. The evolved +products ultimately represent the entire organic portion of the +wood--the mineral matter, or ash, being the only residuum. These evolved +products include both liquids and gases, and by subsequent changes, +solids are produced from some of them. Carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, +nitrogenous and hydrocarbon gases, water, and petroleum, are mentioned +above as the substances which escape from wood-tissue during its +decomposition. That all these are eliminated in the decay of vegetable +and animal structures is now generally conceded by chemists and +geologists, although there is a wide difference of opinion as to the +nature of the process. + +It has been claimed that the evolved products enumerated above are the +results of the primary decomposition of organic matter, and never of +further changes in the residual products; i.e., that in the breaking-up +of organic tissue, variable quantities of coal, anthracite, petroleum, +marsh gas, etc., are formed, but that these are never derived, the one +from the other. This opinion is, however, certainly erroneous, and the +formation of any or all the evolved products may take place throughout +the entire progress of the decomposition. Marsh gas and carbonic acid +are seen escaping from the surface of pools where recent vegetable +matter is submerged, and they are also eliminated in the further +decomposition of peat, lignite, coal, and carbonaceous shale. Fire damp +and choke-damp, common names for the gases mentioned above, are produced +in large quantities in the mines where Tertiary or Cretaceous lignites, +or Carboniferous coals or anthracites are mined. It has been said that +these gases are simply locked up in the interstices of the carbonaceous +matter and are liberated in its excavation; but all who have worked coal +mines know that such accumulations are not sufficient to supply the +enormous and continuous flow which comes from all parts of the mass +penetrated. We have ample proof, moreover, that coal, when exposed to +the air, undergoes a kind of distillation, in which the evolution +of carbonic acid and hydrocarbon gases is a necessary and prominent +feature. + +The gas makers know that if their coal is permitted to lie for months or +years after being mined, it suffers serious deterioration, yielding a +less and less quantity of illuminating gas with the lapse of time. +So coking coals are rendered dry, non-caking, and valueless for this +purpose by long exposure. + +Carbureted hydrogen, olefiant gas, etc., are constant associates of the +petroleum of springs or wells, and this escape of gas and oil has been +going on in some localities, without apparent diminution, for two or +three thousand years. We can only account for the persistence of this +flow by supposing that it is maintained by the gradual distillation of +the carbonaceous masses with which such evolutions of gas or of liquid +hydro-carbons are always connected. If it were true that carbureted +hydrogen and petroleum are produced only from the primary decomposition +of organic tissue, it would be inevitable that at least the elastic +gases would have escaped long since. + +Oil wells which have been nominally exhausted--that is, from which the +accumulations of centuries in rock reservoirs have been pumped--and +therefore have been abandoned, have in all cases been found to be slowly +replenished by a current and constant secretion, apparently the product +of an unceasing distillation. + +In the valley of the Cumberland, about Burkesville, one of the oil +regions of the country, the gases escaping from the equivalent of the +Utica shale accumulate under the plates of impervious limestone above +until masses of rock and earth, hundreds of tons in weight, are +sometimes thrown out with great violence. Unless these gases had been +produced by comparatively recent distillation, such explosions could not +occur. + +In opening a coal mine on a hillside, the first traces of the coal seam +are found in a dark stain in the superficial clay; then a substance like +rotten wood is reached, from which all the volatile constituents have +escaped. These appear, however, later, and continue to increase as the +mine is deepened, until under water or a heavy covering of rock the coal +attains its normal physical and chemical characters. Here it is evident +that the coal has undergone a long-continued distillation, which must +have resulted in the constant production of carbonic acid and carbureted +hydrogen. + +A line of perennial oil and gas springs marks the outcrop of every +great stratum of carbonaceous matter in the country. Of these, the most +considerable and remarkable are the bituminous shales of the Silurian +(Utica shale), of the Devonian (Hamilton and Huron shales), the +Carboniferous, etc. Here the carbonaceous constituent (10 to 20 per +cent.) is disseminated through a great proportion of inorganic material, +clay and sand, and seems, both from the nature of the materials which +furnished it--cellular plants and minute animal organisms--and its +dissemination, to be specially prone to spontaneous distillation. The +Utica shale is the lowest of these great sheets of carbonaceous matter, +and that supplies the hydro-carbon gases and liquids which issue from +the earth at Collingwood, Canada, and in the valley of the Cumberland. +The next carbonaceous sheet is formed by the great bituminous shale +beds of the upper Devonian, which underlie and supply the oil wells in +western Pennsylvania. In some places the shale is several hundred +feet in thickness, and contains more carbonaceous matter than all the +overlying coal strata. The outcrop of this formation, from central New +York to Tennessee, is conspicuously marked by gas springs, the flow from +which is apparently unfailing. + +Petroleum is scarcely less constant in its connection with these +carbonaceous rocks than carbureted hydrogen, and it only escapes notice +from the little space it occupies. The two substances are so closely +allied that they must have a common origin, and they are, in fact, +generated simultaneously in thousands of localities. + +During the oil excitement of some years since, when the whole country +was hunted over for "oil sign," in many lagoons, from which bubbles of +marsh-gas were constantly escaping, films of genuine petroleum were +found on the surface; and as the underlying strata were barren of oil, +this could only have been derived from the decaying vegetable tissue +below. In the Bay of Marquette, two or three miles north of the town, +where the shore is a peat bog underlain by Archæan rocks, I have seen +bubbles of carbureted hydrogen rising in great numbers attended by drops +of petroleum which spread as iridescent films on the surface. + +The remarks which have been made in regard to the heterogeneous nature +of the solid hydrocarbons apply with scarcely less force to the gaseous +and liquid products of vegetable decomposition. The gases which escape +from marshes contain carbonic acid, a number of hydrocarbon gases (or +the materials out of which they may be composed in the process of +analysis), and finally a larger or smaller volume of nitrogenous gas. +It is possible that the elimination of these gases takes the form of +fractional distillation, and definite compounds may be formed directly +from the wood-tissue or its derivatives, and mingle as they escape. This +is, however, not certain, for the gases, as we find them, are always +mixtures and never pure. In the liquid evolved products, the petroleums, +this is emphatically true, for we combine under this name fluids which +vary greatly in both their physical and chemical characters; some are +light and ethereal, others are thick and tarry; some are transparent, +some opaque; some red, some brown, others green; some have an offensive +and others an agreeable odor; some contain asphalt in large quantity, +others paraffine, etc. Thus they form a heterogeneous assemblage of +liquid hydrocarbons, of which naphtha and maltha may be said to form +the extremes, and which have little in common, except their undefinable +name. The causes of these differences are but imperfectly understood, +but we know that they are in part dependent on the nature of the organic +material that has furnished the petroleums, and in part upon influences +affecting them after their formation. For example, the oil which +saturates the Niagara limestone at Chicago, and--which is undoubtedly +indigenous in this rock, and probably of animal origin, is black and +thick; that from Enniskillen, Canada, is also black, has a vile odor, +probably in virtue of sulphur compounds, and, we have reason to believe, +is derived from animal matter. The oils of northwestern Pennsylvania are +mostly brown, sometimes green by reflected light, and have a pungent and +characteristic odor. These are undoubtedly derived from the Hamilton +shales, which contain ten or twenty per cent, of carbonaceous matter, +apparently produced from the decomposition of sea-weeds, since these are +in places exceedingly abundant, and nearly all other fossils are absent. + +The oils of Italy, though varying much in appearance, have usually an +ethereal odor that is rather agreeable; they are of Tertiary age. The +oils of Japan, differing much among themselves, have as, a common +character an odor quite different from the Pennsylvania oils. So the +petroleums of the Caspian, of India, California, etc., occurring at +different geological horizons, exhibit a diversity of physical and +chemical characters which may be fairly supposed to depend upon the +material from which they have been distilled. The oils in the same +region, however, are found to exhibit a series of differences which are +plainly the result of causes operating upon them after their production. +Near the surface, they are thicker and darker; below, and near the +carbonaceous mass from which they have been generated, they are of +lighter gravity and color. We find, in limited quantity, oils which are +nearly white and may be used in lamps without refining--which have been +refined, in fact, in Nature's laboratory. Others, that are reddish +yellow by transmitted light, sometimes green by reflected light, are +called amber oils; these also occur in small quantity, and, as I am led +to believe, have acquired their characteristics by filtration through +masses of sandstone. Whatever the variety of petroleum may be, +if exposed for a long time to the air it undergoes a spontaneous +distillation, in which gases and vapors, existing or formed, escape, +and solid residues are left. The nature of these solids varies with +the petroleums from which they come, some producing asphaltum, +others paraffine, others ozokerite, and so on through a long list of +substances, which have received distinct names as mineral species, +though rarely, if ever, possessing a definite and invariable +composition. The change of petroleum to asphalt may be witnessed at a +great number of localities. In Canada, the black asphaltic oil forms by +its evaporation great sheets of hard or tarry asphalt, called gum +beds, around the oil-springs. In the far West are numerous springs of +petroleum, which are known to the hunters as "_tar springs_," because +of the accumulations about them of the products of the evaporation and +oxidation of petroleum to tar or asphalt. Certain less common oils yield +ozokerite as a solid, and considerable accumulations of this are known +in Galicia and Utah. + +Natural paraffine is less abundant, and yet in places it occurs in +considerable quantity. Asphalt is the common name for the solid residue +from the evaporation and oxidation of petroleum; and large accumulations +of this substance are known in many parts of the world, perhaps the most +noted of all being that of the "Pitch Lake". of the Island of Trinidad; +there, as everywhere else, the derivation of asphalt from petroleum is +obvious, and traceable in all stages. The asphalts, then, have a common +history in this, that they are produced by the evaporation and oxidation +of petroleum. But it should also be said that they share the diversity +of character of petroleums, and the term asphalt represents a group of +substances of which the physical characters and chemical composition +differ greatly in virtue of their derivation, and also differ from +changes which they are constantly undergoing. Thus at the Pitch Lake in +Trinidad, the central portion is a tarry petroleum, near the sides a +plastic asphalt, and finally that which is of almost rock-like solidity. +Hence we see that the solid residues from petroleum are unstable +compounds like the coals and lignites, and in virtue of their organic +nature are constantly undergoing a series of changes of which the final +term is combustion or oxidation. From these facts we might fairly infer +that asphalts formed in geological ages anterior to the present would +exhibit characters resulting from still further distillation; that they +would be harder and drier, i.e., containing less volatile ingredients +and more fixed carbon. Such is, in fact, the case; and these older +asphalts are represented by _Grahamite, Albertite_, etc., which I have +designated as asphaltic coals. These are found in fissures and cavities +in rocks of various ages, which have been more or less disturbed, and +usually in regions where springs of petroleum now exist. The Albertite +fills fissures in Carboniferous rocks in New Brunswick, on a line of +disturbance and near oil-springs. Precisely the same may be said of the +Grahamite of West Virginia. It fills a vertical fissure, which was +cut through the sandstones and shales of the coal-measures; in the +sandstones it remained open, in the shales it has been closed by the +yielding of the rock. The Grahamite fills the open fissure in the +sandstone, and was plainly introduced when in a liquid state. In the +vicinity are oil springs, and it is on an axis of disturbance. From +near Tampico, Mexico, I have received a hydrocarbon solid--essentially +Grahamite, asphalt, and petroleum. These are described as occurring near +together, and evidently represent phases of different dates in the same +substance. I have collected asphaltic coals, very similar to Grahamite +and Albertite in appearance and chemical composition, in Colorado and +Utah, where they occur with the game associates as at Tampico. I have +found at Canajoharie, New York, in cavities in the lead-veins which rut +the Utica shale, a hydrocarbon solid which must have infiltrated into +these cavities as petroleum, but which, since the remote period when the +fissures were formed, has been distilled until it is now _anthracite_. +Similar anthracitic asphalt or asphaltic anthracite is common in +the Calciferous sand-rock in Herkimer County, New York, where it is +associated with, and often contained in, the beautiful crystals of +quartz for which the locality is famous. Here the same phase of +distillation is reached as in the coke residuum of the petroleum stills. + +Again, in some crystalline limestones, detached scales or crystals of +_graphite_ occur, which are undoubtedly the product of the complete +distillation of liquid hydrocarbons with which the rock was once +impregnated. The remarkable purity of such graphite is the natural +result of its mode of formation, and such cases resemble the occurrence +of graphite in cast iron and basalt. The black clouds and bands which +stain many otherwise white marbles are generally due to specks of +graphite, the residue of hydrocarbons which once saturated the rock. +Some limestones are quite black from the carbonaceous matter they +contain (Lycoming Valley, Pa., Glenn's Falls, N. Y., and Collingwood, +Canada), and these are sold as black marbles, but if exposed to heat, +such limestones are blanched by the expulsion of the contained carbon; +usually a residue of anthracite or graphite is left, forming dark spots +or streaks, as we find in the clouded and banded marbles. + +Finally, the great work going on in Nature's laboratory may be closely +imitated by art; the differences in the results being simply the +consequence of differing conditions in the experiments. Vegetable tissue +has been converted artificially into the equivalents of lignite, coal, +anthracite, and graphite, with the emission of vapors, gases, and oils +closely resembling those evolved in natural processes. So petroleum may +be distilled to form asphalt, and this in turn converted into Albertite +and coke (i.e., anthracite). Grahamite has been artificially produced +from petroleum by Mr. W. P. Jenney. + +In the preceding remarks, no effort has been made even to enumerate +all the so-called carbon minerals which have been described. This was +unnecessary in a discussion of the relations of the more important +groups, and would have extended this article much beyond its prescribed +length. Those who care to gain a fuller knowledge of the different +members of the various groups are referred to the admirable chapter on +the "Hydrocarbon Compounds" in Dana's Mineralogy. + +It will, however, add to the value of this paper, if brief mention be +made of a few carbon minerals of which the genesis and relations are not +generally known, and in regard to which special interest is felt, such +as the diamond, jet, the hydrocarbon jellies, "Dopplerite," etc. + +The diamond is found in the _débris_ of metamorphic rocks in many +countries, and is probably one of the evolved products of the +distillation of organic matter they once contained. Under peculiar +circumstances it has apparently been formed by precipitation from +sulphide of carbon or some other volatile carbon compound by elective +affinity. Laboratory experiments have proved the possibility of +producing it by such a process, but the artificial crystals are +microscopic, perhaps only because a long time is required to build up +those of larger size. + +Jet is a carbonaceous solid which in most cases is a true lignite, and +generally retains more or less of the structure of wood. Masses are +sometimes found that show no structure, and these are probably formed +from bitumen which has separated from the wood of which it once formed +part, and which it generally saturates or invests. In some cases, +however, these masses of jet-like substance are plainly the residuum of +excrementitious matter voided by fishes or reptiles. These latter are +often found in the Triassic fish-beds of Connecticut and New Jersey, and +in the Cretaceous marls of the latter State. + +The discovery of a quantity of hydrocarbon jelly, recently, in a +peat-bed at Scranton, Pa., has caused some wonder, but similar +substances (Dopplerite, etc.) have been met with in the peat-beds of +other countries; and while the history of the formation of this singular +group of hydrocarbons is not yet well understood, and offers an +interesting subject for future research, we have reason to believe that +these jellies have been of common occurrence among the evolved products +of the decomposition of vegetable tissue in all ages. + +The fossil resins--often erroneously called gums--amber, kauri, copal, +etc., though interestingly related to the hydro-carbons enumerated on +the preceding pages, form no essential part of the series, and demand +only the briefest notice here. + +_Amber_ is the resin which exuded from certain coniferous trees that, +in Tertiary times, grew abundantly in northern Europe. The leaves and +trunks of these trees have generally perished; but masses of their +resin, more enduring, buried in the earth on the shores of the Baltic, +have in the lapse of time changed physically and chemically, and have +become fitted for the ornamental purposes for which they have been used +by all civilized nations. + +_Kauri_ is the resin of _Dammara australis_, a living coniferous tree of +New Zealand, and the "gum" is dug from the earth on the sites of forests +which have now disappeared. + +_Copal_ is a commercial name given to the resins of several different +trees, but the most esteemed, and indeed the only true copal, is the +product of _Trachylobium Mozambicense_, a tree which grows along the +Zanzibar coast, and has left its resin buried in the sands of old raised +beaches which it has abandoned. + +The diversity of character which the fossil resins exhibit shows the +complexity of the vital processes in operation in the vegetable kingdom, +and gives probability to the theory that some of the differences we find +in the carbon minerals are due to differences in the plants from which +they have been derived. + +The variations in the physical and chemical characters of different +coals from the same basin, and from different parts of the same stratum, +have been sometimes credited to the same cause; but they are probably +in greater degree due to the differences in the conditions under which +these varieties have been formed. + +Cannel coal, as I have shown elsewhere (_Amer. Jour. Science_, March, +1857), is completely macerated vegetable tissue which was deposited as +carbonaceous mud at the bottom of lagoons in the coal-marshes. + +Caking coals were probably peat, which accumulated under somewhat +uniform conditions, was constantly saturated with moisture, and became +a comparatively homogeneous and partially gelatinous carbonaceous mass; +while the open-burning coals which show a distinctly laminated structure +and consist of layers of pitch-coal, alternating with bands of mineral +charcoal or cannel, seem to have been formed in alternating conditions, +of more or less moisture, and the bituminous portions are inclosed in +cells or are separated by partitions, so that the mass does not melt +down, but more or less perfectly holds its form when exposed to heat. + +The generalities of the origin and relations of the carbon minerals +have now been briefly considered; but a review of the subject would +be incomplete without some reference to the theories which have been +advanced by others, that are in conflict with the views now presented. +There have always been some who denied the organic nature of the mineral +hydrocarbons, but it has been regarded as a sufficient answer to their +theories, that chemists and geologists are generally agreed in saying +that no instances are known of the occurrence in nature of hydrocarbons, +solid, liquid, or gaseous, in which the evidence was not satisfactory +that they had been derived from animal or vegetable tissue. A few +exceptional cases, however, in which chemists and geologists of deserved +distinction have claimed the possibility and even probability of the +production of marsh gas, petroleum, etc., through inorganic agencies, +require notice. + +In a paper published in the _Annales de Chimie et de Physique_, Vol. +IX., p.481, M. Berthelot attempts to show that the formation of +petroleum and carbureted hydrogen from inorganic substances is possible, +if it be true, as suggested by Daubre, that there are vast masses of the +alkaline metals--potassium, sodium, etc.--deeply buried in the earth, +and at a high temperature, to which carbonic acid should gain access; +and he demonstrates that, these premises being granted, the formation of +hydrocarbons would necessarily follow. + +But it should be said that no satisfactory evidence has ever been +offered of the existence of zones or masses of the unoxidized alkaline +metals in the earth, and it is not claimed by Berthelot that there are +any facts in the occurrence of petroleum and carbureted hydrogen in +nature which seem to exemplify the chemical action which he simply +claims is theoretically possible. Berthelot also says that, in most +cases, there can be no doubt of the organic origin of the hydrocarbons. + +Mendeleeff, in the _Revue Scientifique_, 1877, p. 409, discusses at +considerable length the genesis of petroleum, and attempts to sustain +the view that it is of inorganic origin. His arguments and illustrations +are chiefly drawn from the oil wells of Pennsylvania and Canada, and +for the petroleum of these two districts he claims an inorganic origin, +because, as he says, there are no accumulations of organic matter below +the horizons at which the oils and gases occur. He then goes into a +lengthy discussion of the possible and probable source of petroleum, +where, as in the instances cited, an organic origin "is not possible." +It is a sufficient answer to M. Mendeleeff to say, that beneath the oil +bearing strata of western Pennsylvania are sheets of bituminous shale, +from one hundred to five hundred feet in thickness, which afford an +adequate, and it may be proved the true source, of the petroleum, and +that no petroleum has been found below these shales; also that the +oil-fields of Canada are all underlain by the Collingwood shales, the +equivalent of the Utica carbonaceous shales of New York, and that from +the out-crops of these shales petroleum and hydrocarbon gases are +constantly escaping. With a better knowledge of the geology of the +districts he refers to, he would have seen that the facts in the +cases he cites afford the strongest evidence of the organic origin of +petroleum. + +Among those who are agreed as to the organic origin of the hydrocarbons, +there is yet some diversity of opinion in regard to the nature of the +process by which they have been produced. + +Prof. J. P. Lesley has at various times advocated the theory that +petroleum is indigenous in the sand-rocks which hold it, and has been +derived from plants buried in them. ("Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc.," Vol. +X., pp. 33, 187, etc.) + +My own observations do not sanction this view, as the limited number of +plants buried in the sandstones which are now reservoirs of petroleum +must always have borne a small proportion in volume to the mass of +inorganic matter; and some of those which are saturated with petroleum +are almost completely destitute of the impressions of plants. + +In all cases where sandstones contain petroleum in quantity, I think it +will be found that there are sheets of carbonaceous matter below, from +which carbureted hydrogen and petroleum are constantly issuing. A more +probable explanation of the occurrence of petrolem in the sandstones is +that they have, from their porosity, become convenient receptacles for +that which flowed from some organic stratum below. + +Dr. T. Sterry Hunt has regarded limestones, and especially the Niagara +and corniferous, as the principal sources of our petroleum; but, as I +have elsewhere suggested, no considerable flow of petroleum has ever +been obtained from the Niagara limestone, though at Chicago and Niagara +Falls it contains a large quantity of bituminous matter; also, that the +corniferous limestone which Dr. Hunt has regarded as the source of the +oil of Canada and Pennsylvania is too thin, and too barren of petroleum, +or the material out of which it is made, to justify the inference. + +The corniferous limestone is never more than fifty or sixty feet thick, +and does not contain even one per cent. of hydrocarbons; and in southern +Kentucky, where oil is produced in large quantity, this limestone does +not exist. + +That many limestones are more or less charged with petroleum is well +known; and in addition to those mentioned above, the Silurian limestone +at Collingwood, Canada, may be cited as an example. As I have elsewhere +shown, we have reason to believe that the petroleum here is indigenous, +and has been derived, in part, at least, from animal organisms; but the +limestones are generally compact, and if cellular, their cavities are +closed, and the amount of petroleum which, under any circumstances, +flows from or can be extracted from limestone rock is small. On the +other hand, the bituminous shales which underlie the different oil +regions afford an abundant source of supply, holding the proper +relations with the reservoirs that contain the oil, and are +spontaneously and constantly evolving gas and oil, as may be observed +in a great number of localities. For this reason, while confessing +the occurrence of petroleum and asphaltum in many limestones, I am +thoroughly convinced that little or none of the petroleum of commerce is +derived from them. + +Prof. S.F. Peckham, who has studied the petroleum field of southern +California, attributes the abundant hydrocarbon emanations in that +locality to microscopic animals. It is quite possible that this is +true in this and other localities, but the bituminous shales which are +evidently the sources of the petroleum of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, +etc., generally contain abundant impressions of sea weeds, and indeed +these are almost the only organisms which have left any traces in them. +I am inclined, therefore, now, as in my report on the rock oils of Ohio, +published in 1860, to ascribe the carbonaceous matter of the bituminous +shales of Pennsylvania and Ohio, and hence the petroleum derived from +them, to the easily decomposed cellular tissue of algæ which have +in their decomposition contributed a large percentage of diffused +carbonaceous matter to the sediments accumulating at the bottom of the +water where they grew. In a recent communication to the National Academy +of Sciences, Dr. T. Sterry Hunt has proposed the theory that anthracite +is the result of the decomposition of vegetable tissue when buried in +porous strata like sandstone; but an examination of even a few of the +important deposits of anthracite in the world will show that no such +relationship as he suggests obtains. + +Anthracite may and does occur in sedimentary rocks of varied character, +but, so far as my observation has extended, never in quantity in +sandstone. In the Lower Silurian rocks anthracite occurs, both in the +Old World and in the New, where no metamorphism has affected it, and +where it is simply the normal result of the long continued distillation +of plant tissue; but the anthracite beds which are known and mined in so +many countries are the results of the metamorphism of coal-beds of one +or another age, by local outbursts of trap, or the steaming and baking +of the disturbed strata in mountain chains, numerous instances of which +are given on a preceding page. + +M. Mendeleeff, in his article already referred to, misled by a want of +knowledge of the geology of our oil-fields, and ascribing the petroleum +to an inorganic cause, connects the production of oil in Pennsylvania +and Caucasia with the neighboring mountain chains of the Alleghanies and +the Caucasus; but in these localities a sufficient amount of organic +matter can be found to supply a source for the petroleum, while the +upheaval and loosening of the strata along lines parallel with the axes +of elevation has favored the decomposition (spontaneous distillation) of +the carbonaceous strata. It should be distinctly stated, also, that no +igneous rocks are found in the vicinity of productive oil-wells, here or +elsewhere, and there are no facts to sustain the view that petroleum is +a volcanic product. + +In the valley of the Mississippi, in Ohio, Illinois, and Kentucky, are +great deposits of petroleum, far removed from any mountain chain or +volcanic vent, and the cases which have been cited of the limited +production of hydrocarbons in the vicinity of, and probably in +connection with, volcanic centers may be explained by supposing that +in these cases the petroleum is distilled from sedimentary strata +containing organic matter by the proximity of melted rock, or steam. + +Everything indicates that the distillation which has produced +the greatest quantities of petroleum known was effected at a low +temperature, and the constant escape of petroleum and carbureted +hydrogen from the outcrops of bituminous shales, as well as the result +of weathering on the shales, depriving them of all their carbon, shows +that the distillation and complete elimination of the organic matter +they contain may take place at the ordinary temperature. + + * * * * * + + + + +ESTIMATION OF SULPHUR IN IRON AND STEEL. + +By GEORGE CRAIG. + + +For wellnigh two years I have been estimating sulphur in iron and steel +by a modification of the evolution process, which consists in passing +the evolved gases through an ammoniacal solution of peroxide of +hydrogen, which oxidizes the sulphureted hydrogen to sulphuric acid, +which latter is estimated as usual. The _modus operandi_ is as follows: + +[Illustration] + +100 grains of the iron or steel are placed in the 10 oz. flask, a, along +with ½ oz. water; 1½ oz. hydrochloric acid are added from the stoppered +funnel, b, in such quantities at a time as to produce a moderate +evolution of gas through the nitrogen bulb, c, which contains 1/8 oz. +(20 vols.) peroxide of hydrogen and ½ oz. ammonia. The tube, d, is to +condense the bulk of the hydrochloric acid which distills over during +the operation. When all the acid has been added and the evolution of gas +becomes sluggish, heat is applied and the liquid boiled till all action +ceases. Air is blown through the aparatus for a few minutes and the +contents of c and d washed into a small beaker and acidified with +hydrochloric acid, boiled, barium chloride added, and the barium +sulphate filtered off after standing a short time. A blank experiment +must be done with each new lot of peroxide of hydrogen obtained, which +always gives under 0.1 barium sulphate with me. + +The whole operation is finished within two hours, the usual oxidation +process occupying nearly two days; and the results obtained are +invariably slightly higher than by the oxidation processes. + +Until lately I have always added excess of chlorate of potash to the +residue left in a, evaporated it nearly to dryness, diluted, filtered, +and added chloride of barium to the diluted filtrate, but only once +have I obtained a trace of precipitate after standing 48 hours, and the +pig-iron in that case contained 8 per cent. of silicon, so that all +the sulphur is evolved during the process. It has been objected to the +evolution process that when the iron contains copper all the sulphur is +not evolved, but theoretically it ought to be evolved whether copper is +present or not; and to test the point I fused 3 lb. of ordinary Scotch +pig-iron with some copper for half an hour in a Fletcher's gas furnace. +No copper could be detected in the iron by mere observation with a +microscope, but it gave on analysis 0.225 per cent. of copper, and on +estimating the sulphur in it by the above process and by oxidation with +chlorate of potash and hydrochloric acid, using 100 grains in each case, +and performing blank experiments, I found: + + By peroxide of hydrogen process 0.0357 per cent. + By oxidation (KClO_{3} and HCl) process, 0.0302 " + +so that even in highly cupriferous pig-iron all the sulphur is evolved +on treatment with strong hydrochloric acid.--_Chem. News_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE AIR IN RELATION TO HEALTH. + +[Footnote: Abstract of a lecture before the Master Plumbers' +Association, New York, Nov. 2. 1882.] + +By Prof. C. F. CHANDLER. + + +It is only about one hundred years since the first important facts were +discovered which threw light upon the chemistry of atmosphere. It was in +1774 that Dr. Priestley, in London, and Scheele, in Sweden, discovered +the vital constituents of the atmosphere--the oxygen gas which supports +life. The inert gas, nitrogen, had been discovered a year or two before. +When we examine our atmosphere, we find it is composed of oxygen and +nitrogen. The nitrogen constitutes no less than 80 per cent, of the +atmosphere; the remaining 20 percent, consists of oxygen, so that the +atmosphere consists almost entirely of these two gases, odorless and +colorless and invisible. The atmosphere is, however, never free from +moisture; a certain amount of aqueous vapor is always present. The +quantity can hardly be stated, as it varies from day to day and month +to month; it depends upon the temperature and other conditions. Then +we have the gas commonly called carbonic acid in extremely minute +quantities, about one part in 2,500, or four one-hundredths of one per +cent. A small quantity of ammonia and a small quantity of ozone are also +present. + +Besides these gases which have been enumerated, and which play an +important part in supporting life in both the kingdoms of nature, we +find a great many solids. Every housewife knows how dust settles upon +everything about the house. This dust has recently been the subject of +most active study, and it proves to be quite as important as the vital +oxygen that actually supports life. When we examine this dust--and it +falls everywhere, not only in the city streets, but upon the tops of +mountains, upon the deck of the ocean steamer, and the Arctic snow--we +find some of it does not belong to the earth, and, as it is not +terrestrial, we call it cosmical. And when it falls in large pieces we +call it a meteorite or shooting star. When the Challenger crossed the +Atlantic, and soundings were made in the deep sea, in the mud that was +brought up and examined there were found various little particles that +were not terrestrial. They were dust particles that were dropped into +the atmosphere of the earth from outer space. Then we have terrestrial +dust, and we divide that into mineral and organic. The mineral consists +chiefly of clay, sand, and, near the ocean, salt. Then we have organic +matter. Some of this is dead leaves which have been ground to powder. +Animal matter has also become dry and reduced to powder, and we actually +find the remains of animals and plants floating upon the atmosphere, +especially in the city. Examinations of the dust which had collected +upon the basement and higher windows of a Fifth avenue residence showed +that the dust upon the basement floor was chiefly composed of sand. +And the higher up I went, the smaller proportion of sand and a larger +proportion of animal matter, so that the dust that blows into our faces +is largely decomposing animal substance. + +But we have a living matter in the atmosphere. We often notice in the +summer, after a rain, that the ground is yellow. On gathering up the +yellow powder and examining it under the microscope, we find that it +consists of pollen. The pollen of rag weed and other plants is supposed +to be the cause of hay fever. But we also have something far more +important in the germs of certain classes of vegetation. The effects +are familiar. If food is put away, it becomes mouldy. This mould is a +peculiar kind of vegetation which is called a fungus, and the plants +fungi. In order for this mould to develop a certain temperature and a +certain degree of moisture are necessary. Our food, we say, decays. +Now, what we call decay is really the growth of these fungi. Animal and +vegetable substances which these fungi seize upon are destroyed. All +ordinary fermentations and putrefactions are due to mould fungi, yeast +plants, or bacteria, and liquids undergoing these processes carry these +fungi and their germs wherever they go. The refuse of the city pollutes +the air. You have only to pass along any street to find more or less +rubbish. That furnishes the nidus for the growth and development of +these germs, and until we adopt better methods of getting rid of that +refuse, we never shall have the air of this city in the condition that +it should be. + +One of the most constant sources of the pollution of the air in +inhabited localities is the decomposition that takes place in the +ground. Refuse of every kind gets into it. Our sewers are leaky, and +putrefaction is constantly going on. The soil down to the limit of +the ground water contains a large amount of air. This air, when the +atmospheric pressure in the house is diminished, is drawn in with such +organic impurities as it contains. A cement floor in the cellar is not +a protection against this entrance of the ground air, for the cement is +porous to the passage of air, but a remedy may be found by laying on the +cement a covering of coal tar pitch, in which bricks are set on edge, +the spaces between the bricks are filled with the melted pitch, and the +bricks then covered with coal tar pitch. When the house is building, the +foundation walls should also be similarly coated, outside as well as +inside. Such a cellar floor was considered to be absolutely impervious +to ground air and moisture. The lecturer had recently laid this floor in +his own house with the greatest success. The atmosphere of the entire +house is improved, and the expense is very moderate. Another source of +the contamination of the air of houses is the heating apparatus. +Stoves and furnaces, however well constructed at first, will, from the +contraction and expansion of the metal, soon allow the escape of coal +gas, and this danger is greatly increased by the use of dampers in +the stove-pipe. When, to regulate the fire, the damper in the pipe is +closed, the gases, having their passage to the chimney cut off, will +escape through any cracks or openings in the stove into the room. +Prof. Chandler, having kept a record of accidents from this cause, had +accumulated a formidable list of suffocations due to the use of the +damper. The danger was now somewhat lessened by providing dampers with +perforations in the center, which allowed the gases to escape when the +damper was closed. As regards the maintenance of pure air in houses, +the preference was given to the open fire-place. The hot-air furnace +deriving a supply of pure air from out of doors was, when properly +constructed, a very satisfactory method of heating, but in city houses +the mistake was often made of carrying the cold air duct of the furnace +to the front of the house, where it was exposed to the dust of the +streets. It should be taken from the rear end of the house, and carried +some distance above the surface of the yard. It was an excellent +expedient to insert in the cold air duct a wire screen to hold a layer +of cotton to retain the floating impurities which might enter the +air-box. This could be removed from time to time, and the cotton +replaced. Steam heating has been objected to by many for reasons in +no wise due to the apparatus, but to neglect in the use of it. The +complaint of closeness where steam is used is due to the fact that a +room containing a steam radiator can be heated with every door and +window closed, and no fresh air admitted, while with stoves and open +fire-places a certain quantity of fresh air must be admitted to maintain +the fire. Where radiators are used, the ventilation of the rooms should, +therefore, be looked after. Again, the complaint that steam apparatus +has an unpleasant odor is due to the fact that the radiators are allowed +to become covered with dust, which is cooked, and gives rise to the +smells complained of. The radiator should be from time to time +cleaned. When these precautions are taken, no means of heating is more +satisfactory than steam. + +Sewer gas is another source of contamination; this is a very indefinite +term, to which formerly many false and exaggerated properties of causing +specific diseases were attributed. It is now, however, recognized to +mean simply the air of sewers, generally not differing very greatly from +common air, containing a certain proportion of marsh gas, carbonic +acid, and sulphureted hydrogen, etc. No one of these gases, however, +is capable of producing the diseases attributed to sewer gas. Careful +research has shown that it is the sewage itself, containing germs of +specific disease, which is added to the air in the sewer by the breaking +of bubbles of gas on its surface, which is the cause of the diseases +associated with sewers. + +An intimate connection is believed to exist between the germs of sewer +air and diphtheria, and probably also between sewer air and scarlet +fever. This sewer gas is to be excluded from our houses by proper +systems of plumbing, and to such an extent have these now been +perfected, that there is no objection to having plumbing fixtures in +all parts of the house. This opinion has lately been objected to in the +_Popular Science Monthly_, as it was at a meeting of the Academy of +Medicine last spring, but on wholly insufficient grounds. + +The objectors all insist that a trap will allow sewer gas to pass +through it, and the experiments made at the Academy of Medicine showed +that sulphureted hydrogen gas, etc., would so pass. The advocates of the +trap have never denied that the water seal would absorb gases on one +side and give them off on the other, but they do deny that, in the +conditions existing in good plumbing, such gases will be given off in +quantities to do any damage, and they confidently assert that the germ +which is the dangerous element will not pass the seal at all. Pumpelly +investigated the matter for the National Board of Health, and in no +instance was he able to make the germ pass the seal of the trap. It is +now proposed to set up against the weight of this scientific testimony +the results of an investigator in Chicago, whose work was at once +appropriated as an advertisement by stock jobbing disinfectant companies +in a manner which raises a suspicion that the investigation was made in +their interest. He described tersely the essentials of good plumbing, +the necessity of a trap on the house drain, the ventilation of the +soil-pipe, and the ventilation of the trap against siphonage. Of the +first, he said that it offered protection to each householder against +the entrance into his house of the germs of a contagious disease which +passed into the common sewer from the house of a neighbor. Were the trap +dispensed with, the contagion in the sewer would have free entrance into +the houses connecting with it. + +Prof. Chandler, in conclusion, alluded to the cordial relations now +existing between the Board of Health and the majority of the master +plumbers of the city. He said that for himself his opinion of the craft +had greatly risen during his intimate connection with plumbers the last +two years. He thought the majority of the jobs now done in the city are +well executed. He believed that the Board of Health had not been obliged +to proceed against more than eight master plumbers since the new law +went into force. He called upon the Association to adopt a "code of +ethics," which should define what an honest plumber can do and cannot +do, and he illustrated his meaning by citing an extraordinary case of +fraudulent workmanship which had been recently reported to him. His +remarks on this point were greeted with frequent outbursts of applause. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE PLANTAIN AS A STYPTIC. + + +The following abstract of a paper read by Dr. Quinlan at the recent +British Pharmaceutical Congress, may prove of interest to medical +readers in this country, where the plant mentioned is a common weed: + +"About a year ago Dr. Quinlan had seen the chewed leaves of the +_Plantago lanceolata_ successfully used to stop a dangerous hemorrhage +from leech bites in a situation where pressure could not be employed. He +had searched out the literature of the subject, and found that, although +this herb is highly spoken of by Culpepper and other old writers as +a styptic, and alluded to as such in the plays of Shakespeare, its +employment seems to have died out. Professor Quinlan described the +suitable varieties of plantain, and exhibited preparations which had +been made for him by Dr. J. Evans, of Dublin, State apothecary. They +dried leaves and powdered leaves, conserved with glycerine, for external +use; the juice preserved by alcohol, as also by glycerine, for internal +use; and a green extract. He gave an account of the chemistry of the +juice, from which it appeared that it was not a member of the tannin +series; and also described its physiological effect in causing a +tendency to stasia in the capillaries of the tail of a goldfish, +examined with a microscopic power of 400 X. He regarded its styptic +power as partly mechanical and partly physiological. The juice, in large +doses, he had found useful in internal hemorrhages. The knowledge of +the properties of this plant he thought would be useful in cases of +emergency, because it could be obtained in any field and by the most +uninstructed persons." + + * * * * * + + + + +BACTERIA. + + +Bacteria, whether significant of disease or decline of health, are found +more or less numerous in everything we eat and drink. The germs or +spores of many kinds, known as _termo_, _lineola_, tenue, spirillum, +vibriones, etc, exist in almost infinite numbers; some of the smallest +are too small to be seen by the highest powers, which, being lodged in +all vegetable and animal substances, spring into life and develop very +rapidly under favorable circumstances. They develop most rapidly when +decomposition commences, and seem to indicate the degree or activity +of that decomposition, also hastening the same. They are found most +numerous in the feces, and usually fully developed in the fresh +evacuations of persons of all ages. They may be seen plainly under +a thin glass with high powers with strong or clear light, when the +material is much diluted with water. + +These bacteria appear almost as numerously, yet more slowly, in urine, +either upon exposure to air or when freshly evacuated, when the general +health of the individual is declining, or any tendency to decomposition. +A diagnosis can be aided very greatly by a study of these bacteria, +as they indicate or determine the vitality, vigor, and purity of the +system, whether more or less subject to disease, even before any signs +of disease appear. They seem to preindicate the hold of the life force +on the material, and always appear when that force is broken. Their +relative quantity found in feces is as a barometric indication of the +general health or some particular disturbance, and it is surprising +how very fast they multiply while simply passing the intestines under +circumstances favorable for their growth. These forms, so small, are +important, because so very numerous, and their study has been, perhaps, +avoided by many; yet they certainly mean something and effect something, +even the non-malignant varieties as mentioned above, and it is certainly +worth while to continue to study their meaning, even beyond what has +already been written by others on the subject.--_J.M. Adams, in The +Microscope_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SOY BEAN + +(_Soja hispida_.) + + +A good deal of attention has lately been directed to this plant in +consequence of the enormous extent to which it is cultivated in China +for the sake of the small seeds which it produces, and which are known +as soy beans. These vary considerably in size, shape, and color, +according to the variety of the plant which produces them. They are for +the most part about the size and shape of an ordinary field pea, and, +like the pea, are of a yellow color; some, however, are of a greenish +tint. These seeds contain a large quantity of oil, which is expressed +from them in China and used for a variety of purposes. The residue is +moulded with a considerable amount of pressure into large circular +cakes, two feet or more across, and six inches or eight inches thick. +This cake is used either for feeding cattle or for manuring the land; +indeed, a very large trade is done in China with bean cake (as it is +always called) for these purposes. The well-known sauce called soy is +also prepared from seeds of this bean. The plant generally known as Soja +hispida is by modern botanists referred to Glycine soja. It is an +erect, hairy, herbaceous plant. The leaves are three-parted and the +papilionaceous flowers are born in axillary racemes. It is too tender +for outdoor cultivation in this country, but, has been recommended for +extended growth in our colonies as a commercial plant. The plants are +readily used from seed.--_J.R.F., in The Garden_. + +[Illustration: THE SOY BEAN. _(Soja Lispida)_] + + * * * * * + + + + +ERICA CAVENDISHIANA. + + +The plant of which the illustration is given is one of those fine +specimens which has made the collection of J. Lawless, Esq., The +Cottage, Exeter, famous all over the south and west of England. It is +only one specimen among a considerable collection of hard-wooded plants +which are cultivated and trained in first rate style by Mr. George Cole, +the gardener, one of the most successful plant growers of the day. The +plant was in the winning collection of Mr. Cole exhibited at the late +spring show held at Plymouth.--_The Gardeners' Chronicle_. + +[Illustration: ERICA CAVENDISHIANA.] + + * * * * * + + + + +PHILESIA BUXIFOLIA. + + +We figure this plant, not as a novelty, but for the purpose of showing +what a fine thing it is when grown under propitious circumstances. +Generally, we see it more or less starved in the greenhouse, and even +when planted out in the winter garden its flowers lack the size and +richness of color they attain out-of-doors. It comes from the extreme +south of South America, which accounts for its hardihood, and is a near +ally of the Lapageria: the latter is remarkable for withstanding even +the noxious fumes of the copper smelting works in Chili, and as the +Philesia has similar tough leaves, it is probable that it would support +the vitiated atmosphere of a town better than most evergreens. In any +case, there is no reasonable doubt but that, if cultivators would take +the necessary pains, they might select perfectly hardy varieties both +of the Lapageria and of the Philesia. As it is, we can only call the +Philesea half-hardy north of the Thames, while the Lapageria is not even +that. The curious Philageria, raised in Messrs. Veitch's nursery and +described and figured in our columns in 1872, p. 358, is a hybrid raised +between the two genera. For the specimen of Philesia figured we are +indebted to Mr. Dartnall.--_The Gardeners' Chronicle_. + +[Illustration: PHILESIA BUXIFOLIA--HARDY SHRUB--FLOWERS, ROSE PINK.] + + * * * * * + + + + +MAHOGANY. + + +The mahogany tree, says the _Lumber World_, is a native of the West +Indies, the Bahamas, and that portion of Central America that lies +adjacent to the Bay of Honduras, and has also been found in Florida. It +is stated to be of moderately rapid growth, reaching its full maturity +in about two hundred years. Full grown, it is one of the monarchs of +tropical America. Its trunk, which often exceeds forty feet in length +and six in diameter, and massive arms, rising to a lofty height, +and spreading with graceful sweep over immense spaces, covered with +beautiful foliage, bright, glossy, light, and airy, clinging so long to +the spray as to make it almost an evergreen, present a rare combination +of loveliness and grandeur. The leaves are small, delicate, and polished +like those of the laurel. The flowers are small and white, or greenish +yellow. The fruit is a hard, woody capsule, oval, not unlike the head of +a turkey in size and shape, and contains five cells, in each of which +are inclosed about fifteen seeds. + +The mahogany tree was not discovered till the end of the sixteenth +century, and was not brought into European use till nearly a century +later. The first mention of it is that it was used in the repair of +some of Sir Walter Raleigh's ships, at Trinidad, in 1597. Its finely +variegated tints were admired, but in that age the dream of El Dorado +caused matters of more value to be neglected. The first that was brought +to England was about 1724, a few planks having been sent to Dr. Gibbons, +of London, by a brother who was a West Indian captain. The doctor was +erecting a house, and gave the planks to the workmen, who rejected them +as being too hard. The doctor then had a candle-box made of the wood, +his cabinet-maker also complaining of the hardness of the timber. +But, when finished, the box became an object of general curiosity and +admiration. He had one bureau, and her Grace of Buckingham had another, +made of this beautiful wood, and the despised mahogany now became a +prominent article of luxury, and at the same time raised the fortunes +of the cabinet-maker by whom it had been so little regarded. Since that +lime it has taken a leading rank among the ornamental woods, having come +to be considered indispensable where luxury is intended to be indicated. + +A few facts will furnish a tolerably distinct idea of the size of this +splendid tree. The mahogany lumbermen, having selected a tree, surround +it with a platform about twelve feet above the ground, and cut it above +the platform. Some twelve or fifteen feet of the largest part of the +trunk are thus lost. Yet a single log not unfrequently weighs from six +or seven to fifteen tons, and sometimes measures as much as seventeen +feet in length and four and a half to five and a half feet in diameter, +one tree furnishing two, three, or four such logs. Some trees have +yielded 12,000 superficial feet, and at average price pieces have sold +for $15,000. Messrs. Broadwood London, pianoforte manufacturers, paid +£3,000 for three logs, all cut from one tree, and each about fifteen +feet long and more than three feet square. The tree is cut at two +seasons of the year--in the autumn and about Christmas time. The trunk, +of course, furnishes timber of the largest dimensions, but that from the +branches is preferred for ornamental purposes, owing to its closer grain +and more variegated color. + +In low and damp soil its growth is rapid; but the most valuable trees +grow slowly among rocks on sterile soil, and seem to gather compactness +and beauty from the very struggle which they make for an existence. +In the Bahamas, in the most desolate regions, once flourished that +curiously veined and much esteemed variety once known in Europe as +"Madeira wood," but which has long since been exterminated. Jamaica, +also, which used to be a fruitful source of mahogany, and whence in 1753 +not less than 521,000 feet were shipped, is now almost depleted. That +which is now furnished from there is very inferior, pale, and porous, +and is less esteemed than that of Cuba, San Domingo, or Honduras. + +In a dry state mahogany Is very durable, and not liable to the attack of +worms, but, when exposed to the weather it does not last long. It would +therefore make excellent material for floors, roofs, etc., but its +costliness limits its utility in this direction, and it is chiefly +employed for furniture, doors, and a few other articles of joinery, for +which it is among the best materials known. It has been used for sashes +and window frames, but is not desirable for this purpose on account of +the ease with which it is affected by the weather. It has also been used +in England to some extent for the framing of machinery in cotton-mills. +Its color is a reddish brown of different shades and luster, sometimes +becoming a yellowish brown, and often much veined and mottled with +darker shades of the same color. Its texture is uniform, and the rings +indicating its annual growth are not very distinct. The larger medullary +rays are absent, but the smaller ones are often very distinct, with +pores between them. In the Jamaica woods these pores are often filled +with a white substance, but in that brought from Central America they +are generally empty. It has neither taste nor odor, shrinks very +slightly, and warps, it is said, less than any other wood. + +The variety called Spanish mahogany comes from the West Indies, and is +in smaller logs than the Honduras mahogany, being generally about two +feet square and ten feet long. It is close grained and hard, generally +darker than the Honduras, free from black specks, and sometimes strongly +marked; the pores appear as though chalk had been rubbed into them. + +The Honduras mahogany comes in logs from two to four feet square and +twelve to fourteen long; planks have been obtained seven feet wide. Its +grain is very open and often irregular, with black or gray specks. The +veins and figures are often very distinct and handsome, and that of a +fine golden color and free from gray specks is considered the best. It +holds the glue better than any other wood. The weight of a cubic foot of +mahogany varies from thirty-five to fifty-three pounds. Its strength +is between sixty-seven and ninety-six, stiffness seventy-three to +ninety-three, and toughness sixty-one to ninety-nine--oak being +considered as one hundred in each case. + +There are three other species of the genus _Swietania_ besides the +mahogany tree, two of them natives of the East Indies. One is a very +large tree, growing in the mountainous parts of central Hindostan, and +rises to a great height, throwing out many branches toward the top. The +head is spreading and the leaves bear some resemblance to those of the +American species. The wood is a dull red, not so beautiful as that known +to commerce, but harder, heavier, and more durable. The natives of India +consider it the most durable timber which their forests afford, and +consequently use it, when it can be procured, wherever strength and +durability are particularly desired. The other East Indian species is +found in the mountains of Sircars, which run parallel to the Bay of +Bengal. The tree is not so large as any of the other species described, +and the wood is of much different appearance, being of a deep yellow, +considerably resembling box. The grain is close, and the wood both heavy +and durable. The third species, known as African mahogany, is brought +from Sierra Leone. It is hard and durable, and used for purposes +requiring these properties in an eminent degree. If, however, the heart +of the tree be exposed or crossed in cutting or trimming the timber, it +is very liable to premature and rapid decay. + + * * * * * + + + + +ANIMALS AND THE ARTS. + + +In many of the museums efforts are made to perfect economic collections +of animals, so as to show how they can be applied to advantage in the +arts and sciences. The collection and preparation of the corals, for +example, form an important industry. The fossil corals are richly +polished and set in studs and sleeve-buttons, forming rich and +ornamental objects. The fossil coral that resembles a delicate chain has +been often copied by designers, while the red and black corals have long +been used. The best fisheries are along the coasts of Tunis, Algeria, +and Morocco, from 2 to 10 miles from shore, in from 30 to 150 fathoms. +Good coral is also common at Naples, near Leghorn and Genoa, and on +various parts of the sea, as Sardinia, Corsica, Catalonia, Provence, +etc. It ranges in color from pure white through all the shades of +pink, red, and crimson. The rose pink is most valued. For a long time +Marseilles was the market, but now Italy is the great center of the +trade, the greater number of boats hailing from Torre del Greco, +while outside persons are forced to pay a heavy tax. The vessels are +schooners, lateen-rigged, from three to fourteen tons. Large nets are +used, which, during the months between March and October, are dragged, +dredge-like, over the rocks. A large crew will haul in a season from 600 +to 900 pounds. To prevent the destruction of the industry, the reef is +divided into ten parts, only one being worked a year, and by the time +the tenth is reached the first is overgrown again with a new growth. In +1873 the Algerian fisheries alone, employing 3,150 men, realized half a +million of dollars. The choice grades are always valuable, the finest +tints bringing over $5 per ounce, while the small pieces, used for +necklaces, and called collette, are worth only $1.50 per ounce. The +large oval pieces are sent to China, where they are used as buttons of +office by the mandarins. + + +THE CONCH-SHELL. + +Somewhat similar in appearance to coral is the conch jewelry, sets of +which have been sold for $300. The tint is exquisite, but liable to fade +when exposed to the sun. It is made from the great conch, common in +Southern Florida and the West Indies. The shells are imported into +Europe by thousands, and cut up into studs, sleeve-buttons, and various +articles of ornament. These conches are supposed to be the producers of +pink pearls, but I have opened hundreds of them and failed to find a +single pearl. The conch shell is used by the cameo cutter. Rome and +Paris are the principal seats of the trade, and immense numbers of +shell cameos are imported by England and America, and mounted in rings, +brooches, etc. The one showing a pale salmon-color upon an orange ground +is much used. In 1847, 300 persons worked upon these shells in Paris +alone, the number of shells used being immense. In Paris 300,000 +helmet-shells were used in one year, valued at $40,000 of the bull's +mouth, 80,000, averaging a little over a shilling apiece, equal to +$34,000. Eight thousand black helmets were used, valued at $9,000. The +value of the large cameos produced in Paris in the year 1847 was about +$160,000, and the small ones $40,000. In the Wolfe collection of shells +at the Museum of Natural History, Central Park, is a fine specimen of +the queen conch from the Florida reef, with a fine head cut into the +outer surface, showing how it is done. The tools of the worker in cameos +are of the most delicate description. Fine files, knitting-needle like +implements, triangular-shaped steel cutters, are arranged in a seemingly +endless confusion before the worker. The shell or piece of shell to be +cut is either lashed or glued to a heavy block or held in the hand, and +the face, animal, or other object outlined first with a delicate lead; +having thus laid the foundation, the lines are gone over with a delicate +needle first, then various kinds, the work gradually growing before the +eye, reminding one of the work of the engraver on wood. + + +LIVING BEETLES, ETC. + +Insects have always been used more or less in decoration, especially in +Brazil, where the richly-colored beetles of the country are affected as +articles of personal adornment. Recently in a Union Square jewelry store +a monster beetle was on exhibition, having been sent there for repairs. +It was alive, and about its body was a delicate gold band, locked with +a minute padlock; a gold chain attached it to the shawl of the owner. +Sometimes they are worn upon the headgear, their slow, cumbersome +movements preventing them from attracting great attention. They are +valued at from $50 to $100 apiece. Snakes, the rich green variety so +common in New England, are worn by some ladies as bracelets, while the +gorgeous reptiles are often imitated in gold and silver, with eyes of +diamonds, rubies, or black pearls. Gold bears are the proper thing now +for pins. In the East the chameleon is often worn as a head ornament, +the animal rarely moving, and forming at least a picturesque decoration, +with its odd shape and sculptured outlines. Various other reptiles, as +small turtles, alligators, etc., are pressed into service. The curious +soldier-crab has been used as a pin. Placed in a box with a rich pearly +shell prepared for the purpose, it will change houses, and then, secured +by a gold or silver chain, roams about the wearer, waving its red and +blue claws in a warlike manner. Birds are, perhaps, more commonly used +as natural ornaments than any other, and a cloak of the skins of humming +birds is one of the most magnificent objects to be imagined. One, of a +rare species, was once sold in Europe for $5,000. Single birds are often +worth $700 or $800. A cloak of the skin of the great auk would bring +$8,000 or $10,000. Some of the most beautiful pheasants are extremely +valuable--worth their weight in gold. Tiger claws are used in the +decoration of hats, and are extremely valuable and hard to obtain. + +Within ten years the alligator has become an important factor to the +artistic manufacturer. The hide, by a new process, is tanned to an +agreeable softness and used in innumerable ways. The most costly bags +and trunks are made from it; pocket-books, card-cases, dining-room +chairs are covered with it, and it has been used as a dado on the +library wall of a well-known naturalist. It makes an excellent binding +for certain books. Among fishes the shark provides a skin used in a +variety of ways. The shagreen of the shark's ray is of great value. +Canes are made of the shark's backbone, the interstices being filled +with silver or shell plates. Shark's teeth are used to decorate the +weapons of various nations. The magnificent scales, nearly four inches +across and tipped with seemingly solid silver, of the giant herring, +are used, while scales of many of the tribe have long been used in the +manufacture of artificial pearls. + + +PEARLS. + +The latter are perhaps the most valuable of all the offerings of animate +nature, and are the results of the efforts of the bivalve to protect +itself from injury. A parasite bores into the shell of the pearl bearer, +and when felt by the animal it immediately fortifies itself by covering +up the spot with its pearly secretion; the parasite pushes on, the +oyster piling up until an imperfect pearl attached to the shell is the +result. The clear oval pearls are formed in a similar way, only in this +case a bit of sand has become lodged in the folds of the creature, and +in its efforts to protect itself from the sharp edges, the bit becomes +covered, layer by layer, and assumes naturally an oval shape. This +growth of the pearl, as it is incorrectly termed, can be seen by +breaking open a $500 gem, when the nacre will be seen in layers, +resembling the section of an onion. The Romans were particularly fond of +pearls, and, according to Pliny, the wife of Caius Caligula possessed +a collection valued at over $8,000,000 of our money. Julius Caesar +presented a jewel to the mother of Brutus valued at $250,000, while +the pearl drank by Cleopatra was estimated at $400,000. Tavernier, the +famous traveler, sold a pearl to the Shah of Persia for $550,000. A +twenty-thousand-dollar pearl was taken from American waters in the +time of Philip II. It was pear-shaped, and as large as a pigeon's egg. +Another, taken from the same locality, is now owned by a lady in Madrid +who values it at $30,000. + +Fresh water pearls are often of great value. The streams of St. Clair +County. Ill., and Rutherford County, Tenn., produce large quantities, +but the largest one was found near Salem, N. J. It was about an inch +across, and brought $2,000 in Paris. The pearls from the Tay, Doon, and +Isla rivers, in Scotland, are preferred by many to the Oriental, and in +one summer $50,000 worth of pearls have been taken from these localities +by men and children. Mother-of-pearl used in the arts is sold by the +ton, from $50 to $700 being average prices. The last year's pearl +fisheries in Ceylon alone realized $80,000, to obtain which more than +7,000,000 pearl oysters were brought up. + + +SEPIA AND SILK. + +The sepia of the artist comes from a mollusk, and is the fossil or +extant ink-bag of a cephalopod or squid, while the cuttle-fish bone is +used for a variety of purposes. In the islands of the Pacific the young +of the pearly nautilus are strung upon strings and sold for $25 and $20 +as necklaces. The tritons are in fair demand, and many tons of cowries +are sent to Europe yearly, while the shipment of a thick-lipped strombus +in one year to Liverpool amounted to 300,000. The rich coloring of the +haliotis is used for inlaying art furniture. From the pinna, silk of a +peculiar quality is obtained. It is the byssus or cable of the animal. +The threads are extremely fine, and equal in diameter throughout their +entire length. It is first cleaned with soap and water, and dried by +rubbing through the hands, and finally passed through combs of bone, +iron, or wood, of different sizes, so that a pound of the material in +the rough gives only about three ounces of pure thread. It is mixed with +a third of real silk and spun into gloves, stockings, etc., having a +beautiful yellow hue. The articles made from it are, however, not in +general use. A pair of gloves from pinna silk would cost $1.50, and +stockings about $3. Fine specimens of such work can be seen in the +British Museum. + +Though not of animal origin, amber is one of the choicest vegetable +productions used in the arts. It is the fossil gum of pines. Great beds +of it occur at various points in Europe. On the Prussian seaboard it is +mined, and often washes ashore. In 1576 a piece of amber was found +that weighed thirteen pounds, and for which $5,000 was refused. In the +cabinet of the Berlin Museum there is a piece weighing eighteen pounds. +Ambergris, from which perfumery is made, is a secretion taken from the +intestines of the whale, and a piece purchased from the King of Tydore +by the East India Company is reported to have cost $18,000. Whales' +teeth, the tusks of elephants, and those of the walrus and narwhal, are +all used. Elephants' feet are cut off at a convenient length, richly +upholstered, and used as seats; the great toe-nails, when finely +polished, giving the novel article of furniture an attractive and unique +appearance. + +It is probably not generally known that the web of certain spiders has +been used. Over 150 years ago, Le Bon, of France, succeeded in weaving +the web material into delicate gloves. Prof. B.G. Wilder investigated +the question thoroughly, and was a firm believer that the web of the +spider had a commercial value, but as yet this has not been realized. +It would be difficult to find an animal that does not in some way +contribute to the useful or decorative arts.--_C.F.H., in N.Y. Post_. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific +papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this +office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any foreign +country. + +All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, January +1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each. + +All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. Two +volumes are issued yearly. 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