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| author | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:32:02 -0700 |
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| committer | Roger Frank <rfrank@pglaf.org> | 2025-10-15 05:32:02 -0700 |
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diff --git a/8687-h/8687-h.htm b/8687-h/8687-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..8ef3036 --- /dev/null +++ b/8687-h/8687-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,5025 @@ +<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN"> +<html> +<head> +<meta name="generator" content="HTML Tidy, see www.w3.org"> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content= +"text/html; charset=ISO-8859-1"> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Scientific American +Supplement, December 9, 1882</title> +<style type="text/css"> +<!-- +body {margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; background-color: white} +img {border: 0;} +h1,h2,h3 {text-align: center;} +.ind {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} +hr {text-align: center; width: 50%;} +.ctr {text-align: center;} +--> +</style> +</head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Scientific American Supplement, No. 362, +December 9, 1882, by Various + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement, No. 362, December 9, 1882 + +Author: Various + +Posting Date: October 10, 2012 [EBook #8687] +Release Date: August, 2005 +First Posted: August 1, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPL., NO. 362 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, Charles +Franks and the Distributed Proofreaders Team + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1a.png"><img src= +"images/1a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<h1>SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 362</h1> + +<h2>NEW YORK, DECEMBER 9, 1882</h2> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XIV, No. 362.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American established 1845</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year.</h4> + +<h4>Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year.</h4> + +<hr> +<table summary="Contents" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<th colspan="2">TABLE OF CONTENTS.</th> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">I.</td> +<td><a href="#1">ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS--Recent Improvements in +Textile Machinery.--Harris's revolving ring spinning frame.-- New +electric stop motion.--New positive motion loom. 6 +figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#2">Spinning Without a Mule.--Harris's improvements in +ring spinning.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#3">New Binding Machines. 3 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#4">Flumes and their construction. 1 figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#5">Chuwab's Rolling Mill for Dressing and Rounding +Bar Iron. 9 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#6">Burning of Town Refuse at Leeds. 6 +figures.--Sections and elevations of destructor and +carbonizer.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">II.</td> +<td><a href="#7">TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.--Friedrich Wohler.--His +labors and discoveries.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#8">New Gas Burner. 3 figures.--Grimstone's improved +gas burner.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#9">Defty's Improvements in Gas Burners and Heaters. 4 +figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#10">The Collotype in Practice.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#11">Determination of Potassa in Manures.--By M. E. +DREYFUS.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">III.</td> +<td><a href="#12">HYGIENE, MEDICINE, ETC.--The Air in Relation to +Health. By Prof. C. F. CHANDLER.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#13">The Plantain as a Styptic.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#14">Bacteria.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">IV.</td> +<td><a href="#15">ELECTRICITY, ETC.--Gustavo Trouvé and his +Electrical Inventions. --Portrait of Gustave +Trouvé.--Trouvé's electric boat competing in the +regatta at Troyes.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#16">Domestic Electricity.--Loiseau's electric naphtha +and gas lighters.--Ranque's new form of lighter with +extinguisher.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#17">Theiler's Telephone Receiver. 2 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#18">An Electric Power Hammer. By MARCEL DEPRETZ. 1 +figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#19">Solignac's New Electric Lamp. 3 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#20">Mondos's Electric Lamp. 2 figures.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">V.</td> +<td><a href="#21">METALLURGY AND MINERALOGY.--Aluminum.--Its +properties, cost, and uses.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#22">The Origin and Relations of the Carbon Minerals. +By J.S. NEWBERRY.--An elaborate and extremely valuable review of +the genesis of carbon minerals, and the modes and conditions of +their occurrence.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#23">Estimation of Sulphur in Iron and Steel. By +GEORGE CRAIG. 1 figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VI.</td> +<td><a href="#24">ARCHITECTURE, ETC.--The Armitage House.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#25">Suggestions in Architecture.--An English country +residence.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VII.</td> +<td><a href="#26">BOTANY, HORTICULTURE, ETC.--The Soy Bean. 1 +figure.-- The Soy bean (<i>Soja hispida</i>).</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#27">Erica Cavendishiana. 1 figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#28">Philesia Buxifolia. 1 figure.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#29">Mahogany.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td valign="top">VIII.</td> +<td><a href="#30">MISCELLANEOUS.--Our Hebrew Population.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#31">The Mysteries of Lake Baikal.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#32">Traveling Sand Hills on Lake Ontario.</a></td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td></td> +<td><a href="#33">Animals in the Arts.--Corals.--The conch +shell.--Living beetles, etc.--Pearls.--Sepia and silk.</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + +<hr> +<p><a name="15"></a></p> + +<h2>GUSTAVE TROUVÉ.</h2> + +<p>The accompanying portrait of M. Gustave Trouvé is taken +from a small volume devoted to an account of his labors recently +published by M. Georges Dary. M. Trouvé, who may be said to +have had no ancestors from an electric point of view, was born in +1839 in the little village of Haye-Descartes. He was sent by his +parents to the College of Chinon, whence he entered the +École des Arts et Metiers, and afterward went to Paris to +work in the shop of a clock-maker. This was an excellent +apprenticeship for our future electrician, since it is in small +works that electricity excels; and, if its domain is to be +increased, it is only on condition that the electric mechanician +shall never lose sight of the fact that he should be a clock-maker, +and that his fingers, to use M. Dumas's apt words, should possess +at once the strength of those of the Titans and the delicacy of +those of fairies. It was not long ere Trouvé set up a shop +of his own, whither inventors flocked in crowds; and the work he +did for these soon gave up to him the secrets of the art of +creating. The first applications that he attempted related to the +use of electricity in surgery, a wonderfully fecund branch, but one +whose importance was scarcely suspected, notwithstanding the +results already obtained through the application of the +insufflation pile to galvano-cautery. What the surgeon needed was +to see plainly into the cavities of the human body. Trouvé +found a means of lighting these up with lamps whose illuminating +power was fitted for that sort of exploration. This new mode of +illumination having been adopted, it was but natural that it should +afterward find an application in dangerous mines, powder mills, and +for a host of different purposes. But the perfection of this sort +of instruments was the wound explorer, by the aid of which a great +surgeon sounded the wounds that Italian balls had made in +Garibaldi's foot.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1b.png"><img src= +"images/1b_th.jpg" alt="GUSTAVE TROUVE."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">GUSTAVE TROUVE.</p> + +<p>The misfortunes of France afterward directed Trouvé's +attention to military electricity, and led him to devise a perfect +system of portable telegraphy, in which his hermetic pile lends +itself perfectly to all maneuvers and withstands all sorts of +moving about.</p> + +<p>The small volume of which we have spoken is devoted more +particularly to electric navigation, for which M. Trouvé +specially designed the motor of his invention, and by the aid of +which he performed numerous experiments on the ocean, on the Seine +at Paris, and before Rouen and at Troyes. In this latter case M. +Trouvé gained a medal of honor on the occasion of a regatta. +Our engraving represents him competing with the rowers of whom he +kept ahead with so distinguished success. We could not undertake to +enumerate all the inventions which we owe to M. Trouvé; but +we cannot, however, omit mention of the pendulum escapement that +beats the second or half second without any variation in the length +of the balance; of the electric gyroscope constructed at the +request of M. Louis Foucault; of the electro-medical pocket-case; +of the apparatus for determining the most advantageous inclination +to give a helix; of the electric bit for stopping unruly horses; +and of the universal caustic-holder. He has given the electric +polyscope features such that every cavity in the human body may be +explored by its aid. As for his electric motor, he has given that a +form that makes the rotation regular and suppresses dead-centers--a +result that he has obtained by utilizing the eccentrization of the +Siemens bobbin.</p> + +<p>Although devoting himself mainly to improving his motor (which, +by the way, he has applied to the tricycle), M. Trouvé does +not disdain telephony, but has introduced into the manufacture of +magnets for the purpose many valuable +improvements.--<i>Electricité</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/1c.png"><img src= +"images/1c_th.jpg" alt= +"TROUVE'S ELECTRIC BOAT COMPETING IN THE REGATTA AT TROYES, AUG. 6, 1882."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">TROUVE'S ELECTRIC BOAT COMPETING IN THE REGATTA AT +TROYES, AUG. 6, 1882.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="7"></a></p> + +<h2>FRIEDRICH WÖHLER.</h2> + +<p>At the age of eighty-two years, and full of honor, after a life +actively devoted to scientific work of the highest and most +accurate kind, which has contributed more than that of any other +contemporary to establish the principles on which an exact science +like chemistry is founded, the illustrious Wöhler has gone to +his rest.</p> + +<p>After he had worked for some time with Berzelius in Sweden, he +taught chemistry from 1825 to 1831 at the Polytechnic School in +Berlin; then till 1836 he was stationed at the Higher Polytechnic +School at Cassel, and then he became Ordinary Professor of +Chemistry in the University of Göttingen, where he remained +till his death. He was born, July 31, 1800, at Eschersheim, near +Frankfort-on-the-Main.</p> + +<p>Until the year 1828 it was believed that organic substances +could only be formed under the influence of the vital force in the +bodies of animals and plants. It was Wöhler who proved by the +artificial preparation of urea from inorganic materials that this +view could not be maintained. This discovery has always been +considered as one of the most important contributions to our +scientific knowledge. By showing that ammonium cyanate can become +urea by an internal arrangement of its atoms, without gaining or +losing in weight, Wöhler furnished one of the first and best +examples of isomerism, which helped to demolish the old view that +equality of composition could not coexist in two bodies, A and B, +with differences in their respective physical and chemical +properties. Two years later, in 1830, Wöhler published, +jointly with Liebig, the results of a research on cyanic and +cyanuric acid and on urea. Berzelius, in his report to the Swedish +Academy of Sciences, called it the most important of all researches +in physics, chemistry, and mineralogy published in that year. The +results obtained were quite unexpected, and furnished additional +and most important evidence in favor of the doctrine of isomerism. +In the year 1834, Wöhler and Liebig published an investigation +of the oil of bitter almonds. They prove by their experiments that +a group of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms can behave like an +element, take the place of an element, and can be exchanged for +elements in chemical compounds. Thus the foundation was laid of the +doctrine of compound radicals, a doctrine which has had and has +still the most profound influence on the development of +chemistry--so much so that its importance can hardly be +exaggerated. Since the discovery of potassium by Davy, it was +assumed that alumina also, the basis of clay, contained a metal in +combination with oxygen. Davy, Oerstedt, and Berzelius attempted +the extraction of this metal, but could not succeed. Wöhler +then worked on the same subject, and discovered the metal aluminum. +To him also is due the isolation of the elements yttrium, +beryllium, and titanium, the observation that silicium can be +obtained in crystals, and that some meteoric stones contain organic +matter. He analyzed a number of meteorites, and for many years +wrote the digest on the literature of meteorites in the +<i>Jahresbericht der Chemie</i>; he possessed, perhaps, the best +private collection of meteoric stones and irons existing. +Wöhler and Sainte Claire Deville discovered the crystalline +form of boron, and Wöhler and Buff the hydrogen compounds of +silicium and a lower oxide of the same element. This is by no means +a full statement of Wöhler's scientific work; it even does not +mention all the discoveries which have had great influence on the +theory of chemistry. The mere titles of the papers would fill +several closely-printed pages. The journals of every year from 1820 +to 1881 contain contributions from his pen, and even his minor +publications are always interesting. As was truly remarked ten +years ago, when it was proposed by a Fellow of the Royal Society +that a Copley medal should be conferred upon him, "for two or three +of his researches he deserves the highest honor a scientific man +can obtain, but the sum of his work is absolutely overwhelming. Had +he never lived, the aspect of chemistry would be very different +from that it is now."</p> + +<p>While sojourning at Cassel, Wöhler made, among other +chemical discoveries, one for obtaining the metal nickel in a state +of purity, and with two attached friends he founded a factory there +for the preparation of the metal.</p> + +<p>Among the works which he published were "Grundriss der +Anorganischen Chemie," Berlin, 1830, and the "Grundriss der +Organischen Chemie," Berlin, 1840. Nor must we omit to mention +"Praktischen Uebringen der Chemischen Analyse," Berlin, 1854, and +the "Lehrbuch der Chemie," Dresden, 1825, 4 vols.</p> + +<p>At a sitting of the Academy, held on October 2, 1882, M. Jean +Baptiste Dumas, the permanent secretary, with profound regret, made +known the intelligence of the death of the illustrious foreign +associate, Friedrich Wöhler, professor in the University of +Göttingen. He said: "M. Friedrich Wöhler, the favorite +pupil of Berzelius, had followed in the lines and methods of work +of his master. From 1821 till his last year he has continuously +published memoirs or simple notes, always remarkable for their +exactness, and often of such a nature that they took among +contemporaneous production the first rank by their importance, +their novelty, or their fullness. Employed chiefly, during his +sojourn in Sweden, in work on mineral chemistry, he has remained +all his life the undisputed chief in this branch of science in +German universities. This preparation and preoccupation, which one +might have thought sufficient to occupy his time, did not, however, +prevent him from taking the chief part in the development of +organic chemistry, and of filling one of the most elevated +positions in it.</p> + +<p>"His contemporaries have not forgotten the unusual sensation +produced by the unexpected discovery by which he was enabled to +make artificially, and by a purely chemical method, urea, the most +nitrogenous of animal substances. Other transformations or +combinations giving birth to substances which, until then, had only +been met with in animals or plants, have since been obtained, but +the artificial formation of urea still remains the neatest and most +elegant example of this order of creation. All chemists know and +admire the classical memoir in which Wöhler and Liebig some +time after made known the nature of the benzoic series, and +connected them with the radicals of which we may consider them as +being the derivatives comparable with products of a mineral nature. +Their memoirs on the derivatives of uric acid, a prolific source of +new and remarkable substances, has been an inexhaustible mine in +the hands of their successors.</p> + +<p>"This is not a moment when we should pretend to review the work +which M. Wöhler has done in mineral chemistry. Among the 240 +papers which he has published in scientific journals, there are few +which the treatises of chemistry have not immediately turned to +account. We need only confine ourselves to the discovery of +aluminum, to which the energy and inventive genius of our +<i>confrère</i>, Henry Deville, soon gave a place near the +noble metals. United by a rivalry which would have divided less +noble minds, these two great chemists carried on together their +researches in chemistry, and joined their forces to clear up points +still obscure in the history of boron, silicium, and the metals of +the platinum group, and remained closely united, which each year +only strengthened.</p> + +<p>"The reader will pardon me a souvenir entirely personal. We were +born, M. Wöhler and I, in 1800. I am his senior by a few days. +Our scientific life began at the same date, and during sixty years +everything has combined to bind more closely the links of +brotherhood which has existed for so long a time."</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="30"></a></p> + +<h2>OUR HEBREW POPULATION.</h2> + +<p>The United Jewish Association has made a canvass of the +denomination in this country, finding 278 congregations, and a +total Jewish population of 230,984. New York has the largest +number--80,565. Then follows Pennsylvania, with 20,000; California, +with 18,580; Ohio with 14,581; Illinois, with 12,625, and Maryland, +with 10,357.</p> + +<p>The Jewish population in the largest cities is as follows:</p> + +<pre> + New York 60,000 + San Francisco 16,000 + Brooklyn 14,000 + Philadelphia 13,000 + Chicago 12,000 + Baltimore 10,000 + Cincinnati 8,000 + Boston 7,000 + St. Louis 6,500 + New Orleans 5,000 + Cleveland 3,500 + Newark 3,500 + Milwaukee 3,500 + Louisville 2,500 + Pittsburg 2,000 + Detroit 2,000 + Washington 1,500 + New Haven 1,000 + Rochester 1,000 +</pre> + +<p>This total Jewish population of 230,984 has six hospitals, +eleven orphan asylums and homes, fourteen free colleges and +schools, and 602 benevolent lodges. Of the free schools maintained +by the Hebrews, five are in New York, four in Philadelphia, and one +each in Cincinnati, St. Louis, Chicago, and San Francisco. Their +hospitals are in New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Cincinnati, New +Orleans, and Chicago, while their orphan asylums, homes, and other +benevolent institutions are scattered all over the country.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="31"></a></p> + +<h2>THE MYSTERIES OF THE BAIKAL.</h2> + +<p>The Angara is cold as ice all the summer through, so cold, +indeed, that to bathe in it is to court inevitable illness, and in +winter a sled drive over its frozen surface is made in a +temperature some degrees lower than that prevailing on the banks. +This comes from the fact that its waters are fresh from the yet +unfathomed depths of the Baikal, which during the five short months +of summer has scarcely time to properly unfreeze. In winter the +lake resembles in all respects a miniature Arctic Ocean, having its +great ice hummocks and immense leads, over which the caravan sleds +have to be ferried on large pieces of ice, just as in the frozen +North. In winter, too, the air is so cold in the region above the +lake that birds flying across its icy bosom sometimes drop down +dead on the surface. Some authors say that seals have been caught +in the lake of the same character as those found in the Arctic +seas; for this assertion I have no proof. An immense caravan +traffic is carried across the frozen lake every season between +Russia and China. To accommodate this the Russian postal +authorities once established a post house on the middle of the +lake, where horses were kept for travelers. But this was +discontinued after one winter, when an early thaw suddenly set in, +and horses, yemschliks and post house all disappeared beneath the +ice, and were never seen more. In summer the lake is navigated by +an antiquated steamer called the General Korsakoff, which ventures +out in calm weather, but cannot face the violent storms and squalls +that sometimes rise with sudden impetuosity. Irkutskians say, +indeed, that it is only upon Lake Baikal and upon this old hull +that a man really learns to pray from his heart. The lake is held +in superstitious reverence by the natives. It is called by them +Svyatoe More, or the Holy Lake, and they believe that no Christian +was ever lost in its waters, for even when a person is drowned in +it the waves always take the trouble to cast the body on shore.</p> + +<p>Its length is 400 miles, its width an average of 35 miles, +covers an area of 14,000 square miles and has a circumference of +nearly 1,200 miles, being the largest fresh water lake in the Old +World, and, next to the Caspian and the Aral, the largest inland +sheet of water in Asia. Its shores are bold and rugged and very +picturesque, in some places 1,000 feet high. In the surrounding +forests are found game of the largest description, bears, deer, +foxes, wolves, elk and these afford capital sport for the sportsmen +of Irkutsk.</p> + +<p>Around the coasts are many mineral springs, hot and cold, which +have a great reputation among the Irkutskians. The hot springs of +Yurka, on the Selenga, 200 versts from Verchore Udevisk and not +many miles from the eastern shore of the Baikal, which have a +temperature of 48 degrees Réaumur and whose waters are +strongly impregnated with sulphur, are a favorite watering place +for natives as well as Russians and Buriats.--<i>Herald +Correspondent with the Jeannette Search Expedition</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="32"></a></p> + +<h2>TRAVELING SAND HILLS ON LAKE ONTARIO.</h2> + +<p>An interesting example of sand-drift occurs near Wellington Bay, +on Lake Ontario, ten miles from Pictou. The lake shore near the +sand banks is indented with a succession of rock-paved bays, whose +gradually shoaling margins afford rare bathing grounds. East and +West Lakes, each five miles long, and the latter dotted with +islands, are separated from Lake Ontario by narrow strips of beach. +Over the two mile-wide isthmus separating the little lakes, the +sand banks, whose glistening heights are visible miles away, are +approached. On near approach they are hidden by the cedar woods, +till the roadway in front is barred by the advancing bank, to avoid +which a roadway through the woods has been constructed up to the +eastern end of the sand range. The sand banks stretch like a +crescent along the shore, the concave side turned to the lake, +along which it leaves a pebbly beach. The length of the crescent is +over two miles, the width 600 to 3,000 or 4,000 feet.</p> + +<p>Clambering up the steep end of the range among trees and +grapevines, the wooded summit is gained, at an elevation of nearly +150 feet. Passing along the top, the woods soon disappear, and the +visitor emerges on a wild waste of delicately tinted saffron, +rising from the slate-colored beach in gentle undulation, and +sleepily falling on the other side down to green pastures and into +the cedar woods. The whole surface of this gradually undulating +mountain desert is ribbed by little wavelets a few inches apart, +but the general aspect is one of perfect smoothness. The sand is +almost as fine as flour, and contains no admixture of dust The foot +sinks only an inch or two in walking over it; children roll about +on it and down its slopes, and, rising, shake themselves till their +clothing loses every trace of sand. Occasionally gusts stream over +the wild waste, raising a dense drift to a height of a foot or two +only, and streaming like a fringe over the steep northern edge. +Though the sun is blazing down on the glistening wilderness there +is little sensation of heat, for the cool lake breeze is ever +blowing. On the landward side, the insidious approach of the +devouring sand is well marked. One hundred and fifty feet below, +the foot of this moving mountain is sharply defined against the +vivid green of the pastures, on which the grass grows luxuriantly +to within an inch of the sand wall. The ferns of the cedar woods +almost droop against the sandy slope. The roots of the trees are +bare along the white edge; a foot or two nearer the sand buries the +feet of the cedars: a few yards nearer still the bare trunks +disappear; still nearer only the withered topmast twigs of the +submerged forest are seen, and then far over the tree tops stands +the sand range. Perpetual ice is found under the foot of this steep +slope, the sand covering and consolidating the snows drifted over +the hill during the winter months. There is something +awe-inspiring, says the correspondent of the Toronto Globe, in the +slow, quiet, but resistless advance of the mountain front. Field +and forest alike become completely submerged. Ten years ago a +farm-house was swallowed up, not to emerge in light until the huge +sand wave has passed over.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="1"></a></p> + +<h2>RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN TEXTILE MACHINERY.</h2> + +<p>At the recent exhibition at Boston of the New England Institute, +several interesting novelties were shown which have a promise of +considerable economic and industrial value.</p> + +<p>Fig. 1 represents the general plan and pulley connections of the +Harris Revolving-Ring Spinning Frame. The purpose of the +improvements which it embodies is to avoid the uneven draught of +the yarn in spinning and winding incident to the use of a fixed +ring. With the non-revolving ring the strain upon the yarn varies +greatly, owing to the difference in diameter of the full and empty +bobbin. At the base of the cone, especially in spinning weft, or +filling, the diameter of the cop is five or six times that of the +quill at the tip. As the yarn is wound upon the cone, the line of +draught upon the traveler varies continually, the pull being almost +direct where the bobbin is full, and nearly at right angles where +it is empty. With the increasing angle the drag upon the traveler +increases, not only causing frequent breakages of the yarn, but +also an unequal stretching of the yarn, so that the yarn +perceptibly varies in fineness. The unequal strain further causes +the yarn to be more tightly wound upon the outside than upon the +inside of the bobbin, giving rise to snarls and wastage.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/3a.png"><img src= +"images/3a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">RECENT IMPROVEMENTS IN TEXTILE MACHINERY.--1, +2.--SPINNING<br> +WITHOUT A MULE--THE HARRIS REVOLVING RING SPINNING FRAME.<br> +3, 4, 5.--NEW ELECTRIC STOP MOTION FOR DRAWING FRAMES.<br> +6.--NEW POSITIVE MOTION LOOM.</p> + +<p>These difficulties have hitherto prevented the application of +ring spinning to the finer grades of yarn. They are overcome in the +new spinning frame by an ingenious device by which a revolving +motion is given to the ring in the same direction as the motion of +the traveler, thereby reducing its friction upon the ring, the +speed of the ring being variable, and so controlled as to secure a +uniform tension upon the yarn at all stages of the winding.</p> + +<p>The construction of the revolving ring is shown in Fig. 2. C is +the revolving ring; D, the hollow axis support; H, a section of the +ring frame; E, the traveler.</p> + +<p>To give the required variable speed to the revolving ring there +is placed directly over the drum, Fig. 1, A, for driving the +spindle a smaller drum, B, from which bands drive each ring +separately. The shaft, which is attached by cross girts to the ring +rail, and moves up and down with it, is driven by a pair of conical +drums from the main cylinder shaft; and is so arranged with a loose +pulley on the large end of the receiving cone as to remain +stationary while the wind is on or near the base of the bobbin. +When the cone of the bobbin diminishes so as to materially increase +the pull on the traveler, the conical drums are started by a belt +shipper attached to the lilt motion. By the movement of the belt on +these drums a continually accelerated motion is given to the rings, +their maximum speed being about one-twentieth the number of +revolutions per minute as the spindle has at the same moment. This +action is reversed when the lift falls. The tension of the wind +upon the bobbin is thus kept uniform, the desired hardness of the +wind being secured by the use of a heavier or lighter traveler +according to the compactness of cop required.</p> + +<p>The model frame shown at the fair did its work admirably well, +spinning yarns as high as No. 400, a fineness hitherto unattainable +on ring frames. It is claimed that this invention can do whatever +can be done with the mule, and without the skilled labor which mule +spinning demands.</p> + +<p>This invention is exhibited by E. & A. W. Harris, +Providence, R.I.</p> + +<h3>NEW ELECTRIC STOP MOTION.</h3> + +<p>Figs. 3, 4, and 5 illustrate some of the applications of the +electric stop motion in connection with cotton machinery. The merit +of this invention lies in simplifying the means by which machinery +may be stopped automatically the instant, its work, from accident +or otherwise, begins to be improperly done. The use of electricity +for this purpose is made possible by the fact that comparatively +dry cotton is a nonconductor of electricity. In the process of +carding, drawing or spinning, the cotton is made to pass between +rollers or other pieces forming parts of an electric circuit. So +long as the machine is properly fed and in proper working +condition, the stopping apparatus rests; the moment the continuity +of the cotton is broken or any irregularity occurs, electric +contact results, completing the circuit and causing an electro +magnet to act upon a lever or other device, and the machine is +stopped. The current is supplied by a small magneto-electric +machine driven by a band from the main driving shaft, and is always +available while the engine is running.</p> + +<p>Fig. 3 shows the general arrangement of the apparatus as applied +to a drawing frame. In the process of drawing down the roll of +cotton--the sliver--four things may happen making it necessary to +stop the machine. A sliver may break on the way from the can to the +drawing rollers, or the supply of cotton may become exhausted; the +cotton may lap or accumulate on the drawing rollers; the sliver may +break between the drawing rollers and the calender rollers; or the +front can may overflow. In each and all of these cases the electric +circuit is instantly completed; the parts between which the cotton +flows either come together, as when breakage occurs, or, if there +is lapping, they are separated so as to make contact above. In any +case, the current causes the electro-magnet, S, against the side of +the machine to move its armature and set the stop motion in +play.</p> + +<p>Figs. 4 and 5 represent in detail the manner in which electric +connection is made in two cases requiring the intervention of the +stop motion. In Fig. 4 the upper part of a receiving can is shown. +When the can is full the cotton lifts the tube wheel, J, until it +makes an electrical connection, and the stop motion is brought into +instant action. In Fig. 5, the traction upon the yarn holds the +hook borne by the spring, F, away from G, and the electric circuit +is interrupted. A breakage of the yarn allows this spring to act; +contact is made, and the stop motion operates as before.</p> + +<p>This simple and efficient device is exhibited by Howard & +Bullough & Riley, of Boston.</p> + +<h3>NEW POSITIVE MOTION LOOM.</h3> + +<p>Fig. 6 shows the essential features of a positive motion loom, +intended for weaving narrow fabrics, exhibited by Knowles, of +Worcester, Mass. The engraving shows so clearly how, by a right and +left movement of the rack, the shuttle is thrown by the action of +the intermediate cogwheels, that further description is +unnecessary.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="2"></a></p> + +<h2>SPINNING WITHOUT A MULE.</h2> + +<p>At the recent semi-annual meeting of the New England Cotton +Manufacturers' Association, held at the Institute of Technology, +Boston, the following paper on the Harris system of revolving ring +spinning was read by Col. Webber for the author:</p> + +<p>It is well known that one of the most serious difficulties in +ring spinning is the variable pull upon the traveler, caused by the +difference in diameter of the full and empty bobbins, and this is +especially noticeable in spinning weft, or filling, when the +diameter of the quill at the tip is not over 3-16 of an inch, while +that of the base of the cone, or full bobbin, is from an inch to an +inch and one-eighth. This variation in diameter causes the line of +draught upon the traveler, which, with the full bobbin, forms +nearly a tangent to the interior circle of the ring, to be nearly +radial to it with an empty one, and this increased drag upon the +traveler not only causes frequent breakage in spinning, but also +stretches the yarn, so that it is perceptibly finer when it is spun +on the nose of the bobbin than when it is spun on the bottom of the +cone.</p> + +<p>Endeavors have been made to compensate for this difficulty by +making a less draught at that period of the operation; but we +believe the principle of curing one error by adding another to be +wrong, and aim by our improvement to avoid the cause of the +trouble, which we do by giving a revolving motion to the ring +itself in the same direction as that of the traveler, at a variable +speed, so as to aid its slip, and reduce its friction on the ring. +This we accomplish by means of a shaft with whorls on it, located +directly over the drum for driving the spindle, from which bands +drive each ring separately; and attached by cross-girts to the +ring-rail, and moving up and down with it.</p> + +<p>This shaft is driven by a pair of conical drums from the main +cylinder shaft, and is so arranged with a loose pulley on the large +end of the receiving cone as to remain stationary while the wind is +on or near the base of the bobbin, or nearly parallel to the path +of the traveler.</p> + +<p>When the cone of the bobbin begins to diminish to such a point +as to materially increase the radial pull on the traveler, these +conical drums are put in operation by a belt shipper attached to +the lift motion, which moves the belt on to the cones, and gives a +continually accelerated motion to the rings, so that when the wind +reaches the top of the bobbin the rings will have their maximum +speed of about 300 revolutions per minute, or about one-twentieth +the number of revolutions of the spindle at this point, if the +latter make 6000 revolutions per minute, and this we find in actual +practice to produce results which are highly satisfactory.</p> + +<p>As the lift falls again, the belt is moved back on the cones, +giving a retarding motion to the rings, until it reaches the point +at which it began to operate, and is then either moved on to the +loose pulley, and the rings remain stationary, or for very fine +yarn are kept in motion at a slow speed. We are often asked if this +does not affect the twist, but answer that it does not in the +least, as the relative speeds of the rolls and spindles remain the +same, and the only thing that can be affected is the hardness of +the wind upon the bobbin, and this is adjustable by the use of a +heavier or lighter traveler, according to the compactness of cop +required.</p> + +<p>We claim by means of this improvement the ability to use a much +smaller quill or bobbin, and consequently holding as much yarn in a +less outside diameter, enabling us to use a smaller ring, thus +saving power both in the weight of bobbin to be carried and in the +distance to be moved by the traveler; and we believe the power to +be saved in this manner and by the diminution of the dead pull on +the traveler, when the wind is at the tip of the bobbin, to be more +than sufficient to give the necessary motion to the revolving +rings. We are as yet unable to answer this question of power fully, +as we have not yet tested a full size frame, but we propose to do +this in season to answer all questions at the next meeting of your +association.</p> + +<p>The same invention is also applicable to warp spinning, by +giving the ring a continuous accelerating and retarding motion, in +which the maximum speed is given to the ring at the first start of +the frame when the bobbin is empty, sufficient to diminish the +strain on the yarn, and gradually reducing the motion at each +traverse of the rail, as the bobbin is filled; but we claim the +great advantage of our invention to be the capability of spinning +any grade of yarn on the ring frame that can be spun on the hand or +self-operating mule, and in proof of this we call your attention to +the model frame now in operation at the fair of the New England +Manufacturers' and Mechanics' Institute, where we are spinning on a +quill only 5-32 inches diameter at top, and where we can show you +samples of yarn from No. 80 to No. 400 spun on this frame from +combed roving from the Conant Thread Company and Willimantic Linen +Company, which we believe has never before been accomplished on any +ring frame.</p> + +<p>We invite you to examine this invention at the fair, and also +call your attention to the adjustable roller beam, by means of +which the rolls can be adjusted at any desirable angle or pitch, so +as to throw the twist more or less directly spinning, and an +improvement in the quality of the yarn from the same cause, which +will increase the production from the loom, and finally eradicate +other objectionable features of the labor question, which so often +disturb the peaceful harmony between labor and capital.</p> + +<p>Mr, Goulding asked if it had been demonstrated whether more or +less power was required for the same numbers than effect of running +the machine a little out of true, and the reply was that the +advantage of the new method over the old would be more apparent in +such a case than with a perfect frame. In regard to speed, the +inventor proposed as a maximum rate, when the wind was at the tip +of the bobbin, 300 revolutions per minute, but from this point the +speed would diminish.</p> + +<p>Conant Thread Company and Willimantic Linen Company, which we +believe has never before been accomplished on any ring frame.</p> + +<p>We invite you to examine this invention at the fair, and also +call your attention to the adjustable roller beam, by means of +which the rolls can be adjusted at any desirable angle or pitch, so +as to throw the twist more or less directly into the bite of the +rolls, according to the character of the yarn desired, or the +quality of the stock used.</p> + +<p>Finally, we claim, by the use of this invention, to be able to +spin any fibrous material which can be drawn by draught-rolls, of +any required degree of softness of twist, such as can be spun by +any mule whatever, and to do this with the attention only of +children of from twelve to fourteen years of age.</p> + +<p>We also claim an increased production, owing to less breakage of +ends, from the yarn not being overstrained in spinning, and an +improvement in the quality of the yarn from the same cause, which +will increase the production from the loom, and finally eradicate +other objectionable features of the labor question, which so often +disturb the peaceful harmony between labor and capital.</p> + +<p>Mr. Goulding asked if it had been demonstrated whether more or +less power was required for the same numbers than by other methods, +and Col. Webber replied that no more power was required to move the +rings than was saved by friction on the ring and the saving of +weight of the bobbins. He thought it required no more power than +the old way.</p> + +<p><i>The method of lubricating the ring</i>.--The inventor, who +was present, stated, in response to a query, that he claimed an +advantage for his ring in spinning all numbers from the very +coarsest up, both in quality and quantity, and especially the +former.</p> + +<p>Mr. Garsed inquired of Col Webber what would be the effect of +running the machine a little out of true, and the reply was that +the advantage of the new method over the old would be more apparent +in such a case than with a perfect frame. In regard to speed, the +inventor proposed as a maximum rate, when the wind was at the tip +of the bobbin, 300 revolutions per minute, but from this point the +speed would diminish.</p> + +<p>It was suggested by a member that the only advantage of a +revolving ring was to relieve the strain on the traveler just to +the extent of the ring's revolutions. If the ring were making 300 +revolutions per minute, and the traveler 6,000, the strain on the +latter would be equal to 5,700 revolutions on a stationary ring. +Col. Webber, however, thought that the motion of the ring gave the +traveler a lift that prevented its stopping at any particular +point, and cited the fact that all numbers up to 400 could be spun +with this ring as proof of its superiority over the old method.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="8"></a></p> + +<h2>NEW GAS BURNER.</h2> + +<p>Speaking at the last meeting of the Gaslight and Coke Company, +Mr. George Livesey said many things with a view to inspire +confidence of the future in the minds of timid gas proprietors. +Among others he mentioned the advances now being made by invention +in regard to improved appliances for developing the illuminating +power of coal gas, with especial reference to a new burner just +patented by Mr. Grimston. Mr. Livesey passed a very high encomium +upon the burner, and this expression of opinion by such an +authority is sufficient to arouse deep interest in the apparatus in +question. It is therefore with much pleasure that we present our +readers with the following early account of Mr. Grimston's burner, +for which we are indebted to the inventor and Mr. George Bower, of +St. Neots, in whose manufactory the burners are now being made in +all sizes. It should be premised, to save disappointment, that the +invention is yet so fresh that its ultimate capabilities are +unknown. The accompanying illustration, therefore, represents the +bare skeleton of one of the first models; and the actual +performance of only the very earliest burner, made in great part by +Mr. Grimston himself, has been fully tested. Before proceeding to +describe the invention, a brief history may be interesting of how +it happened that Mr. Grimston, an electric lighting engineer, +became a gas burner maker. The story will undoubtedly help to +explain the reasons for many of the characteristics of the new +burner.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/4a.png"><img src= +"images/4a_th.jpg" alt= +"IMPROVED GAS BURNER. FIG. 1.--Sectional Elevation."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED GAS BURNER. FIG. 1.--Sectional +Elevation.</p> + +<p>It appears, then, that Mr. Grimston, who was connected with the +electrical engineering establishment of Siemens Bros. & Co., +Limited, was some months ago shown the construction and working of +the Siemens regenerative gas burner, which is now sufficiently well +known to render a description unnecessary here. In common with most +spectators of this very ingeniously and philosophically designed +appliance, Mr. Grimston was struck with its bulk and the +superficial clumsiness of the arrangement whereby the air and gas +supply are heated in it by the products of combustion. These lamps +have, of course, materially improved of late; but when Mr. Grimston +first saw them, perhaps 18 months ago, they certainly could not be +called neat and compact in design. He at once grasped the idea +embodied in these lamps, and set about constructing an arrangement +which should be based on a similar principle, but at the same time +avoid the inconveniences complained of. It is not too much to say +that he has succeeded in both these aims, and the burner which now +bears his name strikes the observer at once by the brilliant light +which it produces by the simplest and most obvious means. We may +now describe, by reference to the accompanying illustrations, how +Mr. Grimston produces the regenerative effect which is likewise the +central idea of the Siemens burner.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4b.png" alt= +"IMPROVED GAS BURNER. FIG. 2.--Section through A B."></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED GAS BURNER. FIG. 2.--Section through A +B.</p> + +<p>The light is simply that produced by an arrangement of a kind of +Argand burner turned upside down. The central gas-pipe, <i>a</i> +(Figs. 1 and 3), is connected to a distributing chamber, whence the +annular cluster of brass tubes, <i>a', a</i>, (Figs. 1 and 2), are +prolonged downward, forming the burner. The burner is inclosed in +an iron or brass annular casing, b, b, which forms the main +framework of the apparatus. The annular space which it affords is +the outlet chimney or flue for the products of combustion of the +burner beneath, and is crossed by a number of thin brass tubes, c, +c, which lead from the outer air into the inner space containing +the burner tubes, a', a', already described. The upper openings of +the annular body, b, are shown at e, e (Fig. 3), which communicate +direct with the chimney proper, e', e'. The burner is lighted by +opening the hinged glass cover, d, which fits practically air-tight +on the bottom of the body, so that the air needed to support +combustion must all pass through the tubes, c, c, the outer ends of +which are protected by the casing, k, k.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4c.png" alt= +"IMPROVED GAS BURNER. FIG. 3.--Section through C D."></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED GAS BURNER. FIG. 3.--Section through C +D.</p> + +<p>When the gas is lighted at the burner, and the glass closed, the +burner begins to act at once, although some minutes are necessarily +required to elapse before its full brilliancy is gained. The cold +air passes in through the tubes provided for it, and when these are +heated to the fullest extent on their outside, by the hot fumes +from the burner, they so readily part with their heat to the air +that a temperature of 1,000° to 1,200° Fahr. is easily +obtained in the air when it arrives inside, and commences in turn +to heat the burner-tubes. The air-tubes are placed so as to +intercept the hot gases as completely as possible; and also, of +course, obtain heat by conduction from the sides of the annular +body. It is evident that the number and dimensions of these tubes +might be increased so as to abstract almost all the heat from the +escaping fumes, but for the limitations imposed, first, by a +consideration of the actual quantity of air required to support +combustion, and, secondly, by the obligation to let sufficient +ascensional power remain in the gases which are left to pass out +through the upper chimney. If the gases are cooled too much, they +will either fall back into the lamp and extinguish the flame, or +will be removable only by the draught of a long chimney. It will +probably be the aim of the inventor to balance these requirements, +and so to produce burners with very short or longer chimneys, +according as appearance is to be consulted or the highest possible +effect produced. The burner is a ring of brass tubes of +considerable diameter, in proportion to the quantity of gas +consumed, and thus provides for the delivery of gas expanded by +heat. In connection with this device an explanation may be found of +the failure of the British Association Committee on Gas Burners to +find any advantage from previously heating the air and gas +consumed. The Committee did not make the necessary provision for +the increased bulk of the combustible and its air supply, caused by +their heightened temperature; and the same quantity of gas measured +cold (at the meter) could only be driven through the ordinary small +burner holes at a velocity destructive of good results. Herr +Frederick Siemens perceived this in his early experiments, and not +only increased the orifices of his burners, but provided for the +closer contact of the more rarefied gas and air by the use of +notched deflectors, which are now an essential part of his +apparatus. Mr. Grimston also uses separate tubes of large area for +his hot gas, but dispenses with deflectors, save in so far as the +same duty may be performed by the plain lower edge of the inner +cylinder of the lamp body, and the indentation of the glass +beneath, which, as will be noticed, is made to follow the shape of +the flame. It only remains now to speak of the flame and its +qualities. It is, in the first place, a flame of hot gas, burning +at an extremly small velocity of flow, and wholly exposed to view +from the exact point which it is required to light. In this latter +respect it differs materially, and with advantage, from the Siemens +burner, which, while presenting an extremely brilliant and +beautiful ball of flame outside its central tube of porcelain, may +yet be tailing smokily downward inside this opaque screen, and +thereby causing unperceived waste. The flame of the Grimston +burner, on the other hand, is quite exposed, and all its light, +from the ends of the burner-tubes to the point where visible +combustion ceases, is made available for use. As a perfect Argand +flame in the usual position has been likened in form to a tulip +flower, so the flame of this burner presents the appearance of an +inverted convolvulus. So far as he has already gone, Mr. Grimston +prefers to keep the tubes of the burner at such a distance from +each other that the several jets part at the point where they turn +upward, so that the convolvulus figure is not maintained to the +edge of the flame. From its peculiar position the light is, of +course, completely shadowless as regards the lamp which affords it; +and this, of itself, is no small recommendation for a pendant. It +shows well for the simplicity and effectiveness of the perfected +burners that Mr. Grimston's experimental example, although +necessarily imperfect In many ways, burns with a remarkably steady +light, of great brilliancy, which is assured by the fact that the +products of combustion are robbed of all their heat to magnify the +useful effect, so that the hand may be borne with ease over the +outlet of the chimney. With respect to the endurance of the +apparatus, it will be sufficient to remark that there is nothing in +the gas or air heating arrangements to get out of order, and they +are all easily accessible while the burner is in action. The glass +is not liable to breakage, although it is in close proximity to the +flame, as may be gathered from the testimony of the inventor, who +has never broken one, notwithstanding the severity of some of his +experimental studies upon his first lamp. The consumption of gas in +the first working-model burner made by Mr. Grimston was 10 cubic +feet per hour, and its illuminating power averaged 60 candles. The +diameter of this burner was 1¼ inches across the tubes. It +is scarcely necessary to state that if this high duty, which was +obtained with the ordinary 16-candle gas of the Gaslight and Coke +Company, can be maintained, to say nothing of being exceeded, in +the commercial article, the Grimston burner, with its other +advantages over all existing methods of obtaining equal results, +has a great future before it. For example, it does not require a +separate air supply under high pressure, or any extra material to +render incandescent, and it may be turned on full immediately upon +lighting. It throws a shadowless light, and lends itself to +ventilating arrangements; and it is not by any means cumbersome, +delicate in construction, or costly in manufacture. One of the +greatest advantages to which it lays claim is, however, the power +of yielding almost as good results in a small burner as in a large +one. This is a consideration of great moment, when it is remembered +that the tendency of most of the high power burners hitherto +introduced is to benefit the lighting of streets, large interiors, +and, generally speaking, points of great consumption. Meanwhile, +the private user of burners, consuming from 3 to 5 cubic feet of +gas per hour, has been left to attain as best he might, by the use +of burners excellent of their kind, to the maximum effect of the +standard Argand. Now, however, Mr. Grimston seeks to make the small +consumer partake of the advantages erstwhile reserved for the +wholesale user of large and costly Siemens and other lamps, and he +even looks to this class of patrons with particular care. The +example which we now illustrate, in Fig. 1, is a sectional +presentment precisely half the actual size of a 5-foot burner, +which it is intended to prepare for the market before all others. +Another simple form of the burner, with vertical tubes, will, we +understand, be introduced as soon as possible. It will be readily +understood that the principle is capable of being embodied in many +shapes; and it is satisfactory to learn that the inventor is quite +alive to the necessity of producing a cheap as well as a good +burner.</p> + +<p>Gas companies, as Mr. Livesey has expressed it, will be well +content with a slower relative growth of consumption, if their +consumers are at the same time making their gas go as far again as +formerly, by the use of burners which turn nominal 16-candle gas +into gas of 30-candle actual illuminating power. How far Mr. +Grimston's invention may succeed in this work it is not for us to +say. It is sufficient for the present that he has done excellently +well in showing how Herr Frederick Siemens' scientific principles +of regenerative gas burner construction may be carried out yet in +another way. There is nothing more common in industrial annals than +for one man to begin a work which another is destined to bring to +greater perfection. Whether this natural process is to be repeated +in the present instance must be left for the future to decide. In +any case, Mr. Grimston's success, if success is to be his reward, +though it will be well merited by his ingenuity and perseverance in +solving a difficult problem, will never cause us to forget the +prior claims of Herr Frederick Siemens, of Dresden, to the palm of +the discoverer. Mr. Grimston may or may not be the happy inventor +of the best gas-burner of the day; but there is the consolation of +knowing that in the same field in which he will find his recompense +there is room for any number and variety of useful improvements of +a like character and object.--<i>Journal of Gas Lighting</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="9"></a></p> + +<h2>DEFTY'S IMPROVEMENTS IN GAS BURNERS AND HEATERS.</h2> + +<p>Among other inventors who have turned their attention to gas +consumption is to be found Mr. H. Defty, who has made several forms +both of heating and lighting burners. Mr. Defty has sought in the +latter to apply the principle of heating the air and gas in a +simple manner, with the object of obtaining improved photometrical +results. The double-chimney Argand, as tried many years since by +Dr. Frankland and others, makes a reappearance in one of Mr. +Defty's models, illustrated in the accompanying diagram (Fig. +1).</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4d.png" alt="Fig. 1."></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 1.</p> + +<p>Here we have the double-chimney, a and b, for heating the air +supplied to an ordinary Argand, by causing it to pass downward +between the two chimneys, and inward to the point of combustion +through a wire-gauze screen, c, under the inner chimney; but, in +addition thereto, Mr. Defty hopes to gain an improved result by +causing the gas to pass through the internal tube, s, which rises +up in the middle of the flame. The gas, which enters at e, is made +to pass up through the inner tube and down through the annular +space to the burner.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/4e.png" alt="Fig. 2."></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 2.</p> + +<p>A more important form of lantern is the subject of the next +diagram (Fig. 2), which shows a suspended globe lantern in which +there is an attempt made to heat the air by the waste heat of the +products of combustion. It will be perceived by the diagram that a +globe lantern is furnished with a double chimney; the annular +space, C, between the inner and outer chimneys allowing for the +access of air in a downward direction. At the lower of this annular +channel are the tubes D, protected by the graduated mesh, E, and +which admit the air to the burner below. The products of combustion +of the flame rise through the inner chimney, passing around the +tubes, and thereby giving up some of their heat to the incoming +air. Farther up, the chimney is partly filled with the convoluted +gas-pipe, A, which also takes up some of the waste heat, and +delivers the gas to the burner at a correspondingly high +temperature. A very simple method of lighting this burner, which in +itself does not present anything remarkable, is arranged at the +lower part of the globe, where a hole is cut and a loose conical +glass plug (which can, of course, be made to partake of the general +ornamentation of the globe) may be pushed up to allow of the +passage of the lighting agent, and is then dropped in its place +again. Formal tests of the performances of these burners are not +available; and the same may be said of the heating burners which +are shown in the following diagrams.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/5a.png" alt="FIG. 3."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 3.</p> + +<p>The first of these (Fig. 3) is called by Mr. Defty a "pyramid +heater," and is designed to heat the mixture of air and gas before +ignition, by conduction from its own flame. The inventor claims to +effect a perfect combustion in this manner with considerable +economy of fuel. It is evident, however, that a good deal of the +gas consumed goes to heat the burner itself.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/5b.png" alt="FIG. 4."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 4.</p> + +<p>The next and last of Mr. Defty's productions to be at present +described is the so-called "crater burner," shown herewith (Fig. +4). This is an atmospheric burner which is purposely made to "fire +back," as well as to burn on the top of the apparatus. The body of +the burner, like the pyramid heater just described, is full of +fire-clay balls, which become very hot from the lower flame, and +thus, after the burner has been for some time in action, a pale, +lambent blaze crowns the top, apparently greater in volume than +when it is first lighted. Here, again, there is a lamentable +absence of reliable data as to economic results, which will, +perhaps, be afforded when the apparatus in question is ready to be +offered to the public.</p> + +<p>Whether one inventor or another succeeds in distancing his +rivals, it is matter, says <i>The Journal of Gas Lighting</i>, for +sincere congratulation among the friends of gas lighting that so +much attention is being concentrated upon the improvement of gas +burners for all purposes. This is an open field which affords scope +for more workers than have yet entered upon it, and there is the +certainty of substantial reward to whoever can realize a worthy +advance upon the established practice.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="3"></a></p> + +<h2>NEW BINDING MACHINES.</h2> + +<p>The accompanying cuts represent two new machines for binding +together books and pamphlets. They are the invention of Messrs. +Brehmer & Co., and are now much used in England and Germany. +The material used for binding is galvanized iron wire.</p> + +<p><i>Machine Operated by Hand</i> (Fig. 1).--This machine serves +for fastening together the pages of pamphlets through the middle of +the fold, or for binding together several sheets to form books up +to a thickness of about half an inch.</p> + +<p>It consists of a small cast-iron frame, with which is +articulated a lever, <i>i</i>, maneuvered by a handle, <i>h</i>. +This lever is provided at its extremity with a curved slat, in +which engages a stud, fixed to the lower part of a movable arm, +<i>c</i>, whose extremity, <i>d</i>, rises and descends when the +lever handle, <i>h</i>, is acted upon. This maneuver can be +likewise performed by the foot, if the handle, <i>h</i>, be +connected with a pedal, X, placed at the foot of the table that +supports the machine, as shown in Fig. 2. The lever, <i>i</i>, is +always drawn back to its first position, when left to itself, by +means of the spring, <i>z</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/5c.png"><img src= +"images/5c_th.jpg" alt="IMPROVED BINDING MACHINE."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">IMPROVED BINDING MACHINE.</p> + +<p>The staples for binding have nearly the form of the letter U, +and are placed, to the number of 250 or 300, on small blocks of +wood, <i>m</i>. To prepare the machine for work, the catch, +<i>a</i>, is shoved back, and the whole upper part of the piece, +<i>b</i>, is removed. The rod, <i>e</i>, with its spring, is then +drawn back until a small hole in <i>e</i> is perceived, and into +this there is introduced the hook, <i>f</i>, which then holds the +spring. The block of wood, <i>m</i>, filled with staples, is then +rested against a rectangular horizontal rod, and into this latter +the staples are slipped by hand. The upper part of the piece, +<i>b</i>, is next put in place and fastened with the catch, +<i>a</i>. Finally, the spring is freed from the hook, <i>f</i>. +When it is desired to bind the pages of a pamphlet, the latter is +placed open on the support, <i>g</i>, which, as will be noticed, is +angular above, so that the staple may enter exactly on the line of +the fold. Then the handle, <i>h</i>, is shoved down so as to act on +the arm, <i>c</i>, and cause the descent of the extremity, +<i>d</i>, as well as the vertical piece, <i>b</i>, with which it +engages. This latter, in its downward travel, takes up one of the +staples, which are continually thrust forward by the rod and +spring, and causes it to penetrate the paper. At this moment, the +handle, <i>h</i>, makes the lever, <i>n</i>, oscillate, and this +raises, through its other extremity, a vertical slide whose head +bends the two points of the staple toward each other. The handle, +<i>h</i>, is afterward lifted, the position of the pamphlet is +changed, and the same operation is repeated. When it is desired to +form a book from a number of sheets, the table, <i>l</i>, is +mounted on the support, <i>g</i>, its two movable registers are +regulated, and the sheets are spread out flat on it. The machine, +in operating, drives the staples in along the edge of the sheets, +and the points are bent over, as above indicated.</p> + +<p>The axis on which the lever, <i>i</i>, is articulated is +eccentric, and is provided on the side opposite the lever with a +needle, <i>k</i>, revolving on a dial. The object of this +arrangement is to regulate the machine according to the thickness +of the book.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/5d.png"><img src= +"images/5d_th.jpg" alt="FIG. 1."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.</p> + +<p><i>Machine to be Operated by a Motor</i> (Fig. 3).--This +machine, although working on the same principle, is of an entirely +different construction. It is designed for binding books of all +dimensions. It consists of a frame, <i>a</i>, in two pieces, +connected by cross-pieces, and carries a table, <i>u</i>, designed +to receive the sheets before being bound together. Motion is +transmitted by means of a cone, <i>c</i>, mounted loose on the +shaft, <i>b</i>. To start the machine, the foot is pressed on the +pedal, <i>m</i>, which, through the intermedium of links and arms, +brings together the friction plates, <i>d</i>, one of which is +connected with the shaft, <i>b</i>, and the other with the cone, +<i>c</i>. When it is desired to stop the machine, the pedal is left +free to itself, while the counterpoise, <i>s</i>, ungears the +friction plates. The machine fastens the paper with galvanized iron +wire wound round bobbins placed at the side of the apparatus. This +wire it cuts, and forms into staples.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/5e.png" alt="FIG. 2."></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.</p> + +<p>The book to be bound is placed on the support, <i>h</i>, and the +arms, <i>k</i>, that carry the fasteners cause it to move backward +and forward. It also undergoes a second motion--that is, it moves +downward according to the number and thickness of its pages. This +motion, which takes place every time the operator adds a new sheet, +is regulated by a cog-wheel register, <i>l</i>, which is divided, +and provided with a needle.</p> + +<p>The iron wires pass from the bobbins on a support to the left of +the machine by means of feed rollers, which thrust them through the +eight clips. In the interior of these latter there is a double +knife, which, actuated by one of the cams of the wheel, <i>e</i>, +cuts the wire and bends it thus <img src="images/5m1.png" +align="middle" alt="">. The extremities of the staples are thrust +through the back of the half opened leaves, and then bent toward +each other thus <img src="images/5m2.png" align="middle" +alt="">, by the front fastener. This motion is effected by means of +two levers, <i>p</i> (moved by the cams, <i>e</i>), whose +extremities at every revolution of the machine seize by the two +ends a link that maneuvers the fasteners. The binding of one sheet +finished, the lower arms of the machine again take their position, +the wires move forward the length necessary to form new staples, a +new sheet is laid, and the same operation is proceeded with. The +number of staples and their distance are changed, according to the +size of the book, by introducing into the machine as much wire as +will be necessary for the staples. To prevent their number from +increasing the thickness of the back of the book (as would happen +were they superposed), the support, <i>h</i>, moves laterally at +every blow, so as to cause the third staple to be driven over the +first, the second over the fourth, etc.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="4"></a></p> + +<h2>FLUMES AND THEIR CONSTRUCTION.</h2> + +<p>In crossing ravines in this State, flumes or wrought iron pipes +are used. Many miners object to flumes on account of their +continual cost and danger of destruction by fire. Where used and +practicable, they are set on heavier grades than ditches, 30 to 35 +ft. per mile, and, consequently, are proportionately of smaller +area than the ditches. In their construction a straight line is the +most desirable. Curves, where required, should be carefully set, so +that the flume may discharge its maximum quantity. Many ditches in +California have miles of fluming. The annexed sketch, drawn by A. +J. Bowie, Jr., will show the ordinary style of construction.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/5f.png" alt= +"SKETCH OF FLUME."></p> + +<p class="ctr">SKETCH OF FLUME.</p> + +<p>The planking ordinarily used is of heart sugar pine, one and a +half to two inches thick, and 12 to 18 inches wide. Where the +boards join, pine battens three inches wide by one and a half thick +cover the seam. Sills, posts, and caps support and strengthen the +flume every four feet. The posts are mortised into the caps and +sills. The sills extend about 20 inches beyond the posts, and to +them side braces are nailed to strengthen the structure. This +extension of the sill timbers affords a place for the accumulation +of snow and ice, and in the mountains such accumulations frequently +break them off, and occasionally destroy a flume.</p> + +<p>To avoid damage from slides, snow, and wind storms, the flumes +are set in as close as possible to the bank, and rest, wholly or +partially, on a solid bed, as the general topography and costs will +admit. Stringers running the entire length of the flume are placed +beneath the sills just outside of the posts. They are not +absolutely necessary, but in point of economy are most valuable, as +they preserve the timbers. As occasion may demand, the flume is +trestled, the main supports being placed every eight feet. The +scantling and struts used are in accordance with the requirements +of the work.--<i>Min. and Sci. Press</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="5"></a></p> + +<h2>CHUWAB'S ROLLING MILL FOR DRESSING AND ROUNDING BAR IRON.</h2> + +<p>This new forge apparatus has been devised for the purpose of +finishing up round irons of all diameters while hot, as they come +out of the ordinary rolling mill, by rendering them perfectly +circular, cylindrical, straight, smooth, and level at the +extremities, as if they had passed through a slide lathe. Such a +high degree of external finish is a very valuable feature in those +round irons that are employed in so great quantity for shafting, +cylindrical axles, etc., as well as in the manufacture of bolts and +locks. Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4 of the opposite engraving will allow it +to be seen that this apparatus which is usually installed at the +side of the finishing cylinder is, in part, beneath the general +level of the forge floor. It may be placed parallel with or +perpendicular to the apparatus that it does duty for, this +depending upon the site at disposal or the mode of +transmission.</p> + +<p>The apparatus consists essentially of two tempered iron +cylinders, A, 0.5 of a meter in diameter by 1.5 meters in length, +revolving in the <i>same direction</i> (contrary to what takes +place in ordinary rolling mills) between two frames, B, that are +open on one side to allow of the entrance of the finishing bar. +This latter is held between the cylinders, A, which roll it so much +the faster in proportion as its diameter is smaller, and by a +scraper guide, C, of the same length as the cylinder table, and +which may be regulated at will by bolts, c, fixed to the frame, B. +The bottom cylinder remains always in the same position, while the +axle, D, which carries the intermediate wheels, E, moves about to +gear in all the relative positions of the cylinders. The +displacement of the upper cylinder is effected through the clamping +screws, b, which are actuated by toothed disks that gear with two +endless screws keyed at the extremities of one shaft in common, d, +which is set in motion by hand through the winches, m m. The +scraper guards, e e, take up and throw aside all scales that might +become attached to the cylinders, which are constantly moistened by +small streams of water coming from an ordinary conduit.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/6a.png"><img src= +"images/6a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">CHUWAB'S DRESSING AND ROUNDING ROLLING MILL.<br> +<br> +Fig. 1--Elevation and Longitudinal Section.<br> +<br> +Fig. 2--Side View.<br> +<br> +Fig. 3--Transvers Section.<br> +<br> +Fig. 4--Plan View.<br> +<br> +Figs. 5 & 6--Saws for Dressing the Extremities of the Bars.<br> +<br> +Fig. 7--Diagram Showing the Motion of the Wheels and Guide.<br> +<br> +Figs. 8 & 9--Apparatus for Shifting tha Bars.</p> + +<p>As the driving belts are mounted on pulleys, G, of a diameter +proportioned to the velocity of the shafting, the iron pinions, h, +in order to produce 60 revolutions per minute in the first shaft, +H, gear on each side with the intermediate wheels, E, and these +actuate the two bronze pinions, a a, that are mounted on the +extremities of the cylinders, A A. The axle, D, of the intermediate +wheels does not revolve with them, but is capable of rising and +descending in the elongated aperture that traverses the frames, B. +The displacement of this axle is secured through the arms, L L, +whose extremities articulate on the one hand with the cylinders, A +A, and on the other with D. The result of this is that every +displacement upward of the top cylinder corresponds to a different +position of the intermediate shaft, and one that is always +equidistant from the centers of the cylinders, A A, thus securing a +constant gearing of the wheels in all the positions of the +cylinders, A A.</p> + +<p>The diagram in Fig. 7 shows the relative displacements of all +these parts, as well as those of the scraper guide, C. The diameter +to be obtained is determined beforehand by the two contact screws, +P.</p> + +<p>The whole thus regulated, the bar of iron, still very hot, +coming from the ordinary rollers, is straightened up, if need be, +by a few blows of a hammer, so that it may roll forward over the +pavement, N, between the rounding cylinders, A A; these being held +apart sufficiently to allow of its easy introduction. Next, a few +revolutions of the winches that control the screws suffice to lower +the upper cylinder to the exact position limited by the contact +screws, P, and the bar is rolled between the two cylinder tables +with a constant velocity in the generatrices. As a consequence, the +number of revolutions made is so much the greater in proportion as +the diameter of the shaft is smaller with respect to that of the +cylinders.</p> + +<p>It should be remarked that the bar, during its rotation under +pressure, is held by the guide, C, so that its diagrammatic axis +(Fig. 7) exceeds the line, A A, joining the centers of the +cylinders just enough to prevent its escape to the opposite, and so +that the pressure upon the said guide (which performs the role of +scraper) is merely sufficient to detach the scales which form +during the operation.</p> + +<p>Under such conditions, and at a velocity of 30 revolutions per +minute in the two cylinders, it will take but a fraction of a +minute to finish a bar the length of the table, that is to say, 1.5 +meters. Then, by loosening the upper cylinder, the bar may be +easily shoved along in one direction or the other, so as to +continue the finishing operation on successive lengths. This moving +of the bar forward is further facilitated by the aid of a clamp +with rollers and a movable socket, V (Figs. 8 and 9). For large +diameters (150 millimeters and beyond) traction is employed by the +aid of two small windlasses placed opposite each other, and at a +distance apart twice the greatest length of the bars to be +finished. The chains of these windlasses are attached to the +extremities by clamps that lock by the pulling exerted.</p> + +<p>The details of the arrangement of the saws (Figs. 5 and 6) show +that to make a section of the ends or of any other part of the bar, +it is only necessary to lower the lever of one them. By reason of +the contrary rotation of the bar, the effective stress on the lever +will be very moderate, while the cut produced will be a clean and +quickly performed one. It should be remarked that, as a consequence +of the cone on the projecting extremity of the cylinder journals +(Fig. 5), and on the rollers that control the saws, it is only +necessary to move the lever to the right or left in order to stop +the motion of each of the saws. These latter, to prevent all +possibility of accident, are inclosed within semicircular guards. +Finally, the controlling rollers are made of a material which is +quite elastic (compressed cardboard, for example), so that they may +roll smoothly and adhere well.</p> + +<p>From what precedes, it will be seen that round iron bars of any +diameter will come from this apparatus completely finished. It will +be seen also that with cylinders of suitable profile, there might +likewise be finished axles, or pieces that are more or less conical +as well as those provided with shoulders.</p> + +<p>The apparatus may, if preferred, be driven by small special +motors affixed to the frame. Such an arrangement, which is more +costly than the preceding, is, nevertheless, indicated in cases +where shafting would be in the way.</p> + +<p>The weight of the materials entering into the construction of +this machine, proposed by Mr. Chuwab, includes about 15 tons of +metal, of which 5,000 kilogrammes are for the two tempered +cylinders; 250 kilogrammes of iron screws, and 350 of bolts; and +500 kilogrammes of bronze, 90 of which are for nuts.--<i>Revue +Industrielle</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="6"></a></p> + +<h2>THE BURNING OF TOWN REFUSE AT LEEDS.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: From selected papers of the Institution of Civil +Engineers, London, by Charles Slagg, Assoc. Memb. Inst. C.E.]</p> + +<p>In large towns it is necessary to adopt some regular system of +removal and disposal of the cinders and ashes of house fires, and +of the animal and vegetable refuse of the houses, and, in short, of +everything thrown away which cannot be admitted into the sewers. In +towns where the excreta are separated by means of water closets, +the disposal of the other refuse presents less difficulty, but +still a considerable one, because the animal and vegetable refuse +is not kept separate from the cinders and ashes, all being thrown +together into the ash pit or dust bin. The contents, therefore, +cannot be deposited upon ground which may afterward be built upon, +although that custom obtained generally in former times. Hence the +refuse has been removed to a depot where that wretched industry is +created of picking out the other parts from the cinders and +ashes.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/7a.png" alt=""></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.--DESTRUCTOR.<br> +<br> +Elevation.<br> +<br> +Section through feeding-holes of cells.<br> +<br> +Section through air-passages of cells.</p> + +<p>But in towns unprovided with water closets, or so far as they +are not adopted in any town, where the privies are connected with +the ash pits, and where, consequently, the excreta of the +population are added to the other contents of ash pits, the +difficulties of removal and disposal of the refuse are much +increased.</p> + +<p>Where the privy-ashpit system is in use--as it still is to a +large extent--as much of the contents of the ash pits as can be +sold at any price, however small, are collected separately from the +drier portions, and sent out of town as manure; but what remains is +still too offensive to be deposited on ground near the town; and +when it is attempted to collect the excreta separately by the pail +system, the process is no less unsatisfactory. These difficulties +led to the adoption, under the advice of the late Mr. A.W. Morant, +M. Inst. C.E., the Borough Engineer at Leeds, of Fryer's method of +destruction by burning--that is, of the dry ashes and cinders and +the animal and vegetable refuse. The author was Mr. Morant's +assistant. The first kiln was constructed at Burmantofts, 1½ +miles from the center of the town in a northeasterly direction, and +has been in use since the beginning of the year 1878. In 1879 +another kiln was constructed at Armley Road, a mile from the center +of the town in a west-southwesterly direction, which has been in +use since the beginning of 1880.</p> + +<p>Each destructor kiln has six cells, three in each face of a +block of brick work 22 feet long, 24 feet through from face to +face, and 12 feet high. Each cell is 8 feet long and 5 feet wide, +arched over, the height being 3 feet 4 inches, and both the bottom +and arch of the cell slope down to the furnace doors with an +inclination of 1 in 3. The lower end of each cell has about 26 +square feet of wrought-iron firebars, the hearth being 4½ +feet above the ground.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/7b.png" alt=""></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2.--CARBONIZER.<br> +<br> +Section through furnaces.<br> +<br> +Longitudinal section.<br> +<br> +Cross section.</p> + +<p>There are two floors, one on the ground level, a few feet only +above the outlet for drainage, the other floor, or raised platform, +being 15 feet above it. The refuse is taken in carts up an incline +of 1 in 14 on cast-iron tram plates to the upper floor, and +deposited upon and alongside of the destructor, and is shoveled +into a row of hoppers at the head of the cells. These hoppers are +in the middle of the width of the destructor, and each communicates +with a cell on each side of it. The refuse is always damp, and +often wet, and after being put into the cells is gradually dried by +the heat reflected upon it from the firebrick arch of the cell, +before it descends to the furnace. This distinguishes the system +from the common furnace, and enables the wet material to be burned +without other fuel. No fresh fuel is used after the fires are once +lighted. The vapor passes off with the gases of combustion into a +horizontal flue between the two rows of cells, through an opening +at the head of each cell, alongside that through which the refuse +is fed into it, the two openings being separated by a firebrick +wall. The refuse is prevented from falling into the flue by a +bridge wall across the outlet opening, over which the gases pass +into the flue.</p> + +<p>Between the destructor and the chimney a multitubular boiler is +placed, which makes steam enough for grinding into sand the +clinkers which are the solid residue of the burnt refuse. At +Burmantofts an old chimney was made use of, which is but 84 feet +high; but at Armley Road a new chimney was built, 6 feet square +inside and 120 feet high. It is necessary to make the horizontal +flue large; that at Armley Road is 9 feet high and 4 feet wide. A +large quantity of dust escapes from the cells--about 7 cwt. a +month--and unless the velocity of the air in the flue between the +destructor and the chimney were checked, the dust would be carried +up the chimney and might cause complaints; as, indeed, it has done +with the 120-foot chimney, but whether with any substantial grounds +is uncertain. The dust is removed from the horizontal flue or dust +chamber once a month. Experience seems to indicate that there +should be some sort of guard or grating to prevent the entry into +the chimney of charred paper and similar light substances which do +not fall to dust, and which are sometimes carried up with the +draught.</p> + +<p>A six-celled destructor kiln burns about 42 tons of refuse in +twenty-four hours, leaving about one-fourth of its bulk of clinkers +and ashes. The clinkers are withdrawn from the furnaces five times +each day and night, or about every two-and-a-half hours, into iron +barrows, and wheeled outside the shed which covers the destructor, +and when cold are wheeled back to the mortar mills, of which there +are two at each depot, each having a revolving pan 8 feet in +diameter, with 27-cwt. rollers, the pan making twenty two +revolutions a minute. Forty shovelfuls of clinkers and twelve of +slaked lime make 7 cwt. of mortar in thirty-five minutes in each +pan, which is sold at 5s. 6d. per ton. The engine driving the two +mortar mills has a 14 inch cylinder, 30 inches length of stroke, +and makes sixty revolutions per minute with 45 pounds steam +pressure per square inch in the boiler, when both mortar mills are +running. The boiler is 11 feet long, 8 feet in diameter, and has +132 tubes 4 inches in external diameter, which, together with the +external flues, are cleaned out once a month.</p> + +<p>At first sight it would probably appear that no good mortar +could be made from such refuse as has been described, but having +passed through the furnace, the clinkers are, of course, perfectly +clean, and with good lime make a really strong and excellent +mortar. They are also largely used for the foundation of +roadways.</p> + +<p>The number of men employed is as follows: Two furnace men in the +daytime and two at night. They work from midnight on Sundays to 2 +P.M. on Saturdays, the fires being fully charged and left to burn +through the Sundays. One foreman, who attends also to the running +of the engine, and one mortar man. A watchman attends while the +workmen are off.</p> + +<p>In addition to a destructor, there is at the Burmautofts depot a +"carbonizer" kiln, in which the sweepings of the vegetable markets +are burned into charcoal. The carbonizer consists of eight vertical +cells, in two sets or stacks of four, separated by a space +containing two double furnaces, back to back, there being a double +furnace also at each end of the eight cells. Each of the stacks of +four cells is 15 feet 6 inches high; the ends and middle parts, +forming the tops of the furnaces, being 6 feet high. The block of +brick work containing the eight cells and furnaces is 26 feet 6 +inches long and 12 feet 4 inches wide at the floor level. Each cell +is 3 feet 6 inches by 2 feet, and about 10 feet deep, with a +chamber below about 3 feet deep, into which the charred material +falls and is completely burned. The top of the cells is level with +the upper platform, and they are fed through a loose cover, which +is immediately replaced. Inside the cells cast-iron sloping shelves +are hung upon the walls so that their upper edges touch the walls, +but the lower edges are some inches off, so that the hot air of the +furnaces passes upward behind the shelves round the four sides of +the cell in a spiral manner, and out near the top into a vertical +flue, which conducts it down to the horizontal flue at the bottom, +which leads to the chimney. The charcoal is withdrawn from the +bottom of the heating chamber through a sliding plate 2 feet above +the floor, and is wheeled red hot to the charcoal cooler, which is +a revolving cylinder, nearly horizontal, kept cool by water falling +upon it, and delivers the charcoal in two degrees of fineness at +the end. It is worked by a small attached engine, supplied with +steam from the boiler before mentioned. Each cell of the carbonizer +can reduce to charcoal 50 cwt. of vegetable refuse in twenty four +hours, but at Leeds not quite so much is put through. The quantity +of market refuse passed through six cells of the carbonizer varies +from 3 to 10 tons a day, and averages about 4½ tons, from +which 15 cwt. of charcoal is obtained. The fuel for burning the +charcoal is derived from the ash pit refuse, some selected loads +being for that purpose passed over a sloping screen fixed between +the upper platform and the furnace floor, the fine ashes which pass +through the screen being taken away to the manure heaps, and the +combustible parts to the furnaces of the carbonizer. In this way a +good deal of the ash pit refuse is got rid of; it is often +one-twelfth part of the whole quantity.</p> + +<p>The carbonizer and the destructor are set 33 feet apart, to +allow room for drawing the furnaces and for the mortar mills, but +the space is hardly sufficient. One man is employed in attending to +the carbonizer.</p> + +<p>Besides the openings at the top of the destructor through which +the ash pit refuse is fed into the cells, there is a larger opening +in each cell, kept covered usually, through which bed mattresses +ordered by the medical sanitary office to be destroyed can be put +into the cells. These openings are midway between the central +openings and the furnace doors, and whatever is put into the cells +through these comes into immediate contact with the fire. Advantage +is taken of these openings for the destruction of dead animals and +diseased meat, and as much as 20 tons in a year have been passed +through the destructor.</p> + +<p>The whole works are roofed over. The lower floor is open on two +sides, but the upper one is closed in, with weather boarding at +Burmantofts and with corrugated iron at Armley Road. At the former +place the works were in some measure experimental, and the platform +was constructed of timber, but at Armley Road it is of plate-iron +girders, with brick arching, weight being considered advantageous +in reducing the vibration of carting heavy loads over it.</p> + +<p>The cost of each depot has been £4,500, exclusive of land, +of which about an acre is required for the destructor, carbonizer, +inclined road, weigh office, and space. A supply of water is +necessary, a good deal being required for cooling the clinkers. The +population of the two districts belonging to these works is about +160,000.</p> + +<p>The author has no longer any connection with the works +described, and for the recent experience of their working he is +indebted to Mr. John Newhouse, the superintendent of the sanitary +department of the corporation.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>GREEN WOOD.</h2> + +<p>The specific volume of the different constituents of green woods +has been estimated by M. Hartig to be as follows, per 1,000 parts: +Hard green wood, fiber stuff, 441; water, 247; air, 312. Soft green +wood, fiber stuff, 279; water, 317, air, 404. Evergreen wood, fiber +stuff, 270; water, 335; air, 395. A certain amount of water--7 or 8 +per cent in all--is included with the fiber stuff, showing that +about one-third only of the mass of the wood is solid stuff; the +remainder is either water or air space.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="24"></a></p> + +<h2>THE ARMITAGE HOUSE.</h2> + +<p>This house is now in course of erection under the +superintendence of Messrs. Salomons and Ely, in the Claremont road, +Pendleton, near Manchester. The walls are faced in the lower part +with red bricks, and red stone, from the neighborhood of Liverpool, +is used for the window-dressings, etc. The upper part of walls will +be faced with red tiles and half-timber work, and the roof will be +covered with Staffordshire tiles. Lead lights will be largely used +in the windows. Internally, the finish will be almost entirely in +real woods, including walnut for the dining-room and vestibule, +pitch-pine for the large hall, staircase, and billiard-room, ash +for the morning-room, and oak for Mr. Armitage's own room. In all +these the ceilings and dados are to be in wood. The contract for +the whole of the above work, amounting to £6,507, is let to +Mr. James Herd, of Manchester.--<i>Building News</i>.</p> + +<p><a name="25"></a></p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/8a.png"><img src= +"images/8a_th.jpg" alt= +"SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--AN ENGLISH COUNTRY RESIDENCE."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">SUGGESTIONS IN ARCHITECTURE.--AN ENGLISH COUNTRY +RESIDENCE.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="10"></a></p> + +<h2>THE COLLOTYPE PROCESS IN PRACTICE.</h2> + +<p>That theory and practice are two very different things holds +good in photography especially, and perhaps in no other branch of +our art have so many theoretical formulæ been promulgated as +in the collotype or Lichtdruck process. As our readers are aware, +we have had an opportunity of seeing collotype printing in +operation in several European establishments of note, and have, +from time to time, published in these columns our experiences. But +requests still come to us so frequently for information on the +process that we have deemed it well to make a practical summary for +the benefit of those who are working--or desire to work--the +method.</p> + +<p>The formulæ and manipulations here set down are those of +Löwy, Albert, Allgeyer, and Obernetter, four of the best +authorities on the subject, and we can assure our readers there is +nothing described but what is actually practiced.</p> + +<p><i>Glass Plate for the Printing Block</i>.--Herr Albert, of +Munich, uses patent plate of nearly half an inch in thickness, as +most of his work is printed upon the Schnell press (machine press). +Herr Obernetter, of Vienna, since he only employs the slower and +more careful hand press, prefers plate glass of ordinary thickness +as being handier in manipulation and better adapted to the common +printing-frame.</p> + +<p>Herr Löwy, of Vienna, again, uses plate glass a quarter of +an inch thick, as his productions range from the finest to the +roughest.</p> + +<p><i>Preliminary Coating of the Glass Plate</i>.--Herr Albert's +original plan was to apply a preliminary coating of bichromated +gelatine to the thick glass plate, the film being exposed to light +through the back of the glass, and thus rendered insoluble and +tightly cemented to the surface; this film serving as a basis for +the second sensitive coating, that was afterward impressed by the +negative. This double treatment is now definitely abandoned in most +Lichtdruck establishments, and, instead, a preliminary coating of +soluble silicate and albumen dissolved in water is used.</p> + +<p>Herr Löwy's method and formula are as follows: The glass +plate is cleaned, and coated with--</p> + +<pre> + Soluble glass. 3 parts. + White of egg. 7 " + Water. 9 to 10 " +</pre> + +<p>The soluble glass must be free from caustic potash. The mixture, +which must be used fresh, is carefully filtered, and spread evenly +over the previously cleaned glass plate. The superfluous liquid is +flowed off, and the film dried either spontaneously or by slightly +warming. The film is generally dry in a few minutes, when it is +rinsed with water, and again dried; at this stage the plate bears +an open, porous film, slightly opalescent--so slight, however, as +only to be observed by an experienced eye.</p> + +<p><i>Application of the Sensitive Film</i>.--We now come to the +second stage of the process, the application of a film of +bichromated gelatine to the plate.</p> + +<p>Herr Löwy's formula is as follows:</p> + +<pre> + Bichromate of potash. 16 grammes. + Gelatine. 2½ ounces. + Water. 20 to 22 " +</pre> + +<p>According to the weather, the amount of water must be varied; +but in any case the solution is a very fluid one. An ounce is about +35 grammes, as most of our readers know. A practical collotypist +sees at a glance the quality of the prepared plate, without any +preliminary testing. A good preliminary film is a glass that is +transparent, yet slightly dull; the film is so thin, you can +scarcely believe it is there. The plate is slightly warmed upon a +slate slab, underneath which is a water bath; it is then flooded +with the above mixture of bichromated gelatine, leaving only +sufficient to make a very thin film. When coated, the plate is +placed in the drying chamber.</p> + +<p><i>Drying the Sensitive Film</i>.--Much depends upon the drying. +A water bath with gas burner underneath is used for heating, and a +slate slab, perfectly level, receives the glass plate. The drying +chamber is kept at an even temperature of 50° C.</p> + +<p>The object to be attained is a fine grain throughout the surface +of the gelatine, and unless this grain is satisfactory the finished +printing block never will be. If the gelatine film be too thick, +then the grain will be coarse; or, again, if the temperature in +drying be too high, there will be no grain at all. The drying is +complete in two or three hours, and should not take longer.</p> + +<p><i>The Negative to be Printed from</i>.--The sensitive film +being upon the surface of a thick glass plate, it is necessary that +the cliché or negative employed should be upon patent plate, +or not upon glass at all, so as to insure perfect contact. Best of +all, is to employ a stripped negative, in which case absolute +contact is insured in printing. It is only in these circumstances +that the most perfect impression can be secured. If the negative is +otherwise satisfactory, and only requires stripping, it must be +upon a leveling stand, and fluid gelatine of a tolerable +consistence is poured over it. When dry, a pen-knife is run around +the margin, and the film leaves the glass without any trouble.</p> + +<p>Herr Obernetter says that many of the negatives he receives have +to be reproduced before they can be transformed into Lichtdruck +plates, and he employs either the wet collodion process or the +graphite method, according to circumstances. If the copy is desired +to be softer than the original, collodion is employed; if vigor be +desired, graphite is used, and here is his formula:</p> + +<pre> + Dextrine. 62 grains. + Ordinary white sugar. 77 " + Bichromate of ammonia. 30.8 " + Water. 3.21 ounces. + Glycerine. 2 to 8 drops. +</pre> + +<p>The film is dried at a temperature of 130° to 140° F. in +about ten minutes, and while still warm is printed under a negative +in diffused light for a period of five to fifteen minutes. In a +well-timed print the image is slightly visible; the plate is again +warmed a little above atmospheric temperature in a darkened room, +and then fine levigated graphite is applied with a fine dusting +brush, a sheet of white paper being held underneath to judge of the +effect. Breathing upon the film renders it more capable of +attracting the powder. When the desired vigor has been attained, +the superfluous powder is dusted off, and the plate coated with +normal collodion. Afterward the film is cut through at the margins +of the plate by means of a sharp knife, and put into water. In a +little while--from two to five minutes--the collodion, with the +image, will be detached from the glass; the film is at once turned +over in the water, and brought out upon the glass plate. Under a +soft jet of water any air-bubbles that may exist between the +collodion and the glass are removed, and then a solution of gum +arabic (two grammes of gum dissolved in one hundred grammes of +water) is poured over, and the film is allowed to dry +spontaneously.</p> + +<p><i>Exposure of the Printing Block under the Negative</i>.--The +exposure is very rapid. Any one conversant with photolithographic +work will understand this. At any rate, every photographer knows +that bichromated gelatine is much more rapid than the chloride of +silver he generally has to do with.</p> + +<p>There is no other way of measuring the exposure than by the +photometer or personal experience, and the latter is by far the +best.</p> + +<p>After leaving the printing frame, the plate is immersed in cold +water. Here it remains at discretion for half an hour, or an hour; +the purpose, of course, being to wash out the soluble bichromate. +It is when the print comes out of this bath that judgment is passed +upon it. An experienced eye tells at once what it is fit for. If it +is yellow, the yellowness must be of the slightest; indeed, Herr +Furkl (the manager of Herr Löwy's Lichtdruck department) will +not admit that a good plate is yellow at all. A yellow tint means +that it will take up too much ink when the roller is passed over +it. The plates of Herr Obernetter, however, are rather more yellow +than Herr Löwy's--certainly only a tinge, but still yellow; +and Herr Obernetter's work proves, at any rate, that the yellowish +tinge is by no means inseparable from good results.</p> + +<p>The washed and dried plate should appear like a design of ground +and polished glass. The ground glass appearance is given by the +grain. If there are pure high-lights (almost transparent) and +opalescent shadows, the plate is a good one.</p> + +<p><i>Printing from the Block</i>.--We have now a printing-block +ready for the press. If it is to be printed by machinery--that is +to say, upon a Schnell press--the surface is etched; if it has to +be more carefully handled in a hand press, etching is rarely +resorted to; it is moistened only with glycerine and water. To etch +a plate for a Schnell press, it is placed upon a leveling stand, +and the following solution is poured upon it:</p> + +<pre> + Glycerine............................. 150 parts. + Ammonia................................ 50 " + Nitrate of potash (saltpeter).......... 5 " + Water.................................. 25 " +</pre> + +<p>Another equally good formula, recommended by Allgeyer, who +managed Herr Albert's Lichtdruck printing for some years, is:</p> + +<pre> + Glycerine............................. 500 parts. + Water................................. 500 " + Chloride of sodium (common salt)...... 15 " +</pre> + +<p>In lieu of common salt, 15 parts of hyposulphite of soda, or +other hygroscopic salt, such as chloride of calcium, may be +employed.</p> + +<p>The etching fluid is permitted to remain upon the image for half +an hour. During this time, by gently moving the finger to and fro +over the surface, the swelling or relief of the image can be +distinctly felt. The plate is not washed, but the etching fluid +simply poured off, so that the film remains impregnated with the +glycerine and water; at the most, a piece of bibulous paper is used +to absorb any superfluous quantity of the etching fluid. After +etching, the plate is taken straight to the printing press. The +inking up and printing are done very much as in lithography. If it +requires a practiced hand to produce a good lithographic print, it +stands to reason that in dealing with a gelatine printing block, +instead of a stone, skill and practice are more necessary still. +Therefore at this point the photographer should hand over the work +to the lithographer, or rather the Lichtdruck printer. It is only +by coaxing judiciously, with roller and sponge, that a good +printing block can be obtained, and no amount of teaching +theoretically can beget a good printer. To appreciate how skillful +a printer must be, it is only necessary to see the imperfect proofs +that first result, and to watch how these are gradually improved by +dint of rolling, rubbing, etching, cleaning, etc. In all Lichldruck +establishments, two kinds of rollers are used, viz., of leather and +glue. In some establishments, too, they employ two kinds of ink; +but Herr Löwy manages to secure delicacy and vigor at the same +time by using one ink, but rolling up with two kinds of roller.</p> + +<p>Collotype printing is not merely done by hand presses, but is +also done by machinery. At Herr Albert's a gas engine of six-horse +power is employed to drive the machines, and each machine requires +the attention of a skilled mechanic and a girl. The press is very +like the lithographic quick press. Upon a big steel bed lies the +little collotype block. The glass printing block, with its brownish +film of gelatine, moves horizontally to and fro, and, as it does +so, passes under half a dozen rollers, which not only supply ink, +but disperse it. Some of the rollers are of leather and others of +glue, and, whenever the printing block retires from underneath +them, an ink slab takes the place of the block, and imparts more +ink to the rollers; sometimes as many as eight rollers are used, +for the difficulty of machine printing is to apply the ink as +delicately and equally as possible. It is necessary at intervals to +damp the block, and when the printer in charge finds this to be the +case, he stops the press, and applies a little glycerine and water +with a cloth or sponge; then a leather roller is passed over to +remove superfluous moisture, and the press is again started.</p> + +<p>Herr Obernetter relies upon the Star or Stern press--a small +lithographic press--one man sufficing to manage it, who turns a +wheel with large spokes, reminding one of the steering wheel of a +ship. The Lichtdruck plate, gelatine film upward, is laid upon a +sheet of plate glass by way of a bed, the plate having first been +treated with a solution of glycerine and water; it is then inked up +as previously described, except that Herr Obernetter uses two kinds +of ink--a thick one and a thin--applied by two rollers of glue. In +the first place, a moist sponge is rubbed over the surface; then a +soft roller covered with wash-leather, and of the appearance of +crêpe, is passed over two or three times to remove surplus +moisture; then a roller charged with thick ink is put on, and then +another with thin is applied. It takes fully five minutes to sponge +and roll up a plate, the rolling being done gently and firmly. A +sheet of paper is now laid upon the plate, the tympan is lowered, +and the scraper adjusted with due pressure; a revolution of the +wheel completes the printing, the well-known scraping action of the +lithographic press being used in the operation.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/9a.png"><img src= +"images/9a_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1.--ORDINARY NAPHTHA LIGHTER OF<br> +MR. LOISEAU.</p> + +<p>Some Lichtdruck prints are printed upon thick plate-paper, and +are ready for binding without further ado, these being for book +illustrations. Other pictures, that are to pass muster among silver +photographs, are, on the other hand, printed upon fine thin paper, +and then sized by dipping in a thin solution of gelatine; after +drying, they are further dipped in a solution of shellac and +spirit.--<i>Photo. News</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="16"></a></p> + +<h2>DOMESTIC ELECTRICITY.</h2> + +<p>Among the most valuable, and, up to the present time, the least +generally appreciated services that electricity can render for +domestic purposes is that of its application in lighters. At the +present epoch of indifferent matches, to have, instantaneously, a +light by pulling a cord, pressing on a button, or turning a cock, +is a thing worthy of being taken into serious consideration; and +our own personal experience permits us to assert that, regarded +from this point of view, electricity is capable of daily rendering +inappreciable services.</p> + +<p>According to the nature of the application that is to be made of +them, the places in which they are to be put, and the combustible +that they are to inflame, etc., electric lighters vary greatly in +form and arrangement.</p> + +<p>We shall limit ourselves here to pointing out the simplest and +most practical of the numerous models of such apparatus that have +been constructed up to the present time. All those that we shall +describe are based on the incandescence of a platinum wire. A few +have been constructed based on the induction spark, but they are +more complicated and expensive, and have not entered into practical +use. Before commencing to describe these apparatus, we shall make a +remark in regard to the piles for working them, and that is that we +prefer for this purpose Leclanché elements with agglomerated +plates and a large surface of zinc. In order to bring about +combustion in any given substance, it is necessary to bring near it +an incandescent body raised to a certain temperature, which varies +with the nature of the said substance, and which is quite low for +illuminating gas, higher for petroleum, and a white heat for a wax +taper or a candle. We have said that we make use exclusively of a +platinum wire raised momentarily to incandescence by the passage of +an electric current. The temperature of such wire will depend +especially upon the intensity of the current traversing it; and, if +this is too great, the platinum (chosen because of its +inoxidizability and its elevated melting point) will rapidly melt; +while, if the intensity is too little, the temperature reached by +the wire will itself be too low, and no inflammation will be +brought about. Practice soon indicates a means of obviating these +two inconveniences, and teaches how each apparatus may be placed +under such conditions that the wire will hardly ever melt, and that +the lighting will always be effected. For the same intensity of +current that traverses the wire, the temperature of the latter +might be made to vary by diminishing or increasing its diameter. A +very fine wire will attain a red heat through a very weak current, +but it would be very brittle, and subject to break at the least +accident. For this reason it becomes necessary to employ wires a +little stronger, and varying generally from one to two-tenths of a +millimeter in diameter. The current then requires to be a little +intenser. The requisite intensity is easily obtained with elements +of large surface, which have a much feebler internal resistance +than porous-cup elements; and since, for a given number of +elements, the intensity of the current decreases in measure as the +internal resistance of the elements increases, it becomes of +interest to diminish such internal resistance as much as possible. +The platinum wires are usually rolled spirally, with the object in +view of concentrating the heat into a small space, in order to +raise the temperature of the wire as much as possible. There is +thus need of a less intense current to produce the inflammation +than with a wire simply stretched out. In fact, the same wire +traversed by a current of constant intensity scarcely reaches a +<i>red</i> heat when it is straight, while it attains a +<i>white</i> heat when it is wound spirally, because, in the latter +case, the cooling surface is less.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/9b.png"><img src= +"images/9b_th.jpg" alt=""></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 2--RANQUE'S NEW FORM OF LIGHTER<br> +WITH EXTINGUISHER.</p> + +<p>We shall now proceed to the examination of a few practical forms +of electric lighters.</p> + +<p>In Fig. 1 will be seen quite a convenient spirit or naphtha +lighter, which has been devised more especially for the use of +smokers. By pushing the lamp toward the wall, the wick is brought +into proximity with the spiral, and the lamp, acting on a button +behind it, closes the current. Pressure on the lamp being removed, +the latter moves back slightly, through the pressure of a small +spring which thrusts on the button. Owing to this latter simple +arrangement, the spiral never comes in contact with the flame, and +may thus last for a long time. Mr. Loiseau, the proprietor of this +apparatus, employs a very fine platinum wire, flattened into the +form of a ribbon, and it takes only the current from a <i>single +element</i> to effect the inflammation of the wick. The system is +so arranged that any one can easily replace in a moment the spiral +that has accidentally got out of order; and, in order that this may +be done, the maker has placed the spiral on a small, distinct piece +that he styles the "conflagrator." The latter consists of two +small, thin tubes of brass, held parallel and firmly by means of a +brass cross-piece. A small bit of paper wound round each tube in +front of the cross-brace insures insulation. The outer extremity of +the two tubes supports the platinum spiral, which is fixed to them +very simply by the aid of two small brass needles of conical form, +which pinch the wire in the tube and hold it in place. There is +nothing easier to do than replace the wire. All that is necessary +is to remove the two little rods with a pair of pincers; to make a +spiral of suitable length by rolling the wire round a pin; and to +fix it into the tubes, as we have just explained. With two or three +extra "conflagrators" on hand, there need never any trouble +occur.</p> + +<p>In Fig. 2 we show a new and simple form of Mr. Ranque's lighter, +in which an electro-magnet concealed in the base brings the spiral +and the wick into juxtaposition. The extinguisher, which is +balanced by a counterpoise, oscillates about a horizontal axis, and +its support carries two small pins, against which act successively +two notches in a piece of oval form, fixed on the side of the +movable rods.</p> + +<p>In the position shown in the cut, on the first emission of a +current the upper notch acts so as to depress the extinguisher, but +the travel of the rods that carry the spiral is so limited that the +latter does not strike against the extinguisher. On the next +emission, the lower notch acts so as to raise the extinguisher, +while the spiral approaches the wick and lights it. It is well to +actuate these extinguishing-lighters, which may be located at a +distance, not by a contact button, but by some pulling arrangement, +which is always much more easy to find in the dark without much +groping about. There might be used for such a purpose the very +motion of the front door, when opened, for lighting the hall; but +that would offer the inconvenience of operating likewise in the +daytime, and of thus needlessly using up the pile and the naphtha. +In all these spirit or naphtha lighters it is important that the +spiral <i>shall not touch</i> the wick, but that it shall be placed +a little above and on the side, in the mixture of air and +combustible vapor.</p> + +<p>Several apparatus have likewise been devised for lighting gas by +electricity, and a few of these we shall describe.</p> + +<p>The simplest form of these is Mr. Barbier's lighter for the use +of smokers, for lighting candles, sealing letters, etc. It consists +of a small gas-burner affixed to a round box, seven to eight +centimeters in diameter, and connected to the gas-pipe by a rubber +tube. By maneuvering the handle, the cock is opened and an electric +contact set up of sufficient duration to raise to a red heat the +spiral, and to light the gas. It is well in this case, for the sake +of economizing in wire, to utilize the lead gas-pipe as a return +wire, especially if the pile is located at some little distance +from the lighter. In the arrangement generally in use the key is +provided with a special spring, which tends to cause it to turn in +such a way as to assume a vertical position, and with a tooth, +which, on engaging with a piece moving on a joint, holds it in a +horizontal position as soon as it has been brought thereto. In +order to extinguish the burner, it is only necessary to depress the +lever, and thus allow the key to assume again the vertical +position, that is to say, the position that closes the aperture +through which the gas flows out. In a new arrangement, the notch, +spring, and the lever are done away with, the cock alone taking the +two positions open or closed.</p> + +<p>Another very ingenious system is that of Mr. Loiseau, consisting +of an ordinary gas-burner (fish-tail, bat's-wing, etc.), carrying +at its side a "conflagrator," analogous to that of the +spirit-lighter (Fig. 1), but arranged vertically. One of the rods +of the "conflagrator" is connected with the positive of the pile, +and the other with the little horizontal brass rod which is placed +at the bottom of the burner. On turning the cock so as to open it, +a small flow of gas occurs opposite the platinum spiral, while at +the same time a rigid projecting piece affixed to the cock bears +against a small, vertical metallic piece, and brings it in contact +with the brass rod. The circuit is thus closed for an instant, the +spiral is raised to a red heat, and lights the gas, and the flame +rises and finally lights the burner. It goes without saying that on +continuing the motion the contact is broken, so as not uselessly to +waste the pile and so as to stop the escape of gas.</p> + +<p>For gas furnaces, Mr. Loiseau is constructing a +<i>handle-lighter</i> which is connected with the side of the +furnace by flexible cords. The contact button is on the sleeve +itself, and the spiral is protected against shocks by a metallic +covering which is cleft at the extremity and the points bent over +at a right angle. All the lighters here described work well, and +are rendering valuable services. They may be considered as the +natural and indispensable auxiliaries of electric call bells, and +their use has most certainly been rendered practical through the +Leclanche pile.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="17"></a></p> + +<h2>THEILER'S TELEPHONE RECEIVER.</h2> + +<p>This telephone receiver differs from its predecessors in +dispensing with an armature, the lateral vibration of the +electro-magnet itself being utilized. In previous systems in which +an electro-magnet is used, the sonorous vibrations are due either +to the motion of an iron diaphragm or armature placed close to the +poles of the electro-magnet, or to the expansion and contraction of +the magnet itself. In Theiler's telephone the electro-magnet may be +of the usual U-shape, and may consist either of soft iron or of +hardened steel permanently magnetized, wound with a suitable number +of turns of insulated wire. This electro magnet is fixed in such a +manner that the vibration of either one or of both its limbs is +communicated to a diaphragm or diaphragms The patentees also employ +two or more electro-magnets in the same circuit, and utilize the +vibration of both magnets in the manner described. By attaching a +light disk or disks to the vibrating limbs, the diaphragm may be +dispensed with. Fig. 1 represents one of the telephone receivers +provided with two diaphragms or sounding boards, connected to the +two limbs or cores of the U-shaped electro-magnet by short tongues. +These tongues are firmly inserted in the diaphragms and fixed to +the magnet, as shown. The poles of the electro-magnet are brought +very close together by being shaped as shown, and the middle part +of the magnet is firmly screwed to the case of the instrument. The +ends of the helix surrounding the magnet cores may be attached as +usual to two terminals, or soldered to a flexible conductor +communicating with the other parts of the telephone apparatus. When +a vibratory current is sent through the helix of the +electro-magnet, the extremities are rapidly attracted and repelled, +and this vibratory motion of the magnet cores being communicated to +the diaphragms or sounding boards, the latter are set in vibration +of varying amplitude produced by a current of varying strength, as +in all other telephones. Instead of making the electro-magnet of +one continuous piece of iron, as represented in Fig. 1, the +patentees find it more practicable to make it of the form shown in +Fig. 2, where the electro-magnet represented consists of two limbs +or cores, a sole piece, and pole extensions, the whole being +screwed together, and practically constituting one continuous piece +of iron carrying the two coils. In Fig. 2 only one of the limbs or +cores of the electro-magnet is attached to the diaphragm, the other +limb being held fixed by a screw. Sometimes the patentees hinge one +of the magnet cores, or both, in the sole piece, in which case the +diaphragms or sounding boards can be made much thicker than when +the cores are rigidly fixed to the sole piece, because the magnetic +attraction of the poles has then only to overcome the resistance of +the diaphragm. Instead of using a diaphragm, they sometimes fix a +stem to one of the cores of the electro-magnet, and mount thereon a +light disk of vulcanite, wood, ivory, gutta-percha, or any other +substance which it is capable of vibrating. When using this +telephone receiver, the disk is pressed to the ear in such a manner +that its surface covers the aperture of the ear. When these +telephone receivers are used on a line of some considerable length, +the patentees prefer to magnetize the electro-magnet by a constant +current from a local battery, and to effect the variation of this +constant magnetization inductively and not directly. The +electro-magnet is, then, not inserted in the line at all, but in +the primary circuit of an induction coil, and connected with a +local battery. The line is connected to the secondry circuit of the +induction coil. This device possesses the advantage that the +electro-magnet can be powerfully magnetized with very little +battery power, no matter how long the line may be, and that steel +magnets are entirely dispensed with. It is not necessary to have a +separate battery for this purpose, as the microphone battery may +also be used for the telephone receiver. The shape of the vibrating +electro-magnets is immaterial, as they may be made of a variety of +forms.--<i>Eng. Mechanic</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/9c.png" alt= +"FIG. 1. FIG. 2"></p> + +<p class="ctr">FIG. 1. FIG. 2</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="18"></a></p> + +<h2>ON AN ELECTRIC POWER HAMMER.</h2> + +<h3>By MARCEL DEPREZ.</h3> + +<p>[Footnote: <i>La Lumiére Electrique</i>.]</p> + +<p>In a lecture delivered by me on the 15th of last June in the +amphitheater of the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers, on the +application of electricity to the production, transmission, and +division of power, I operated for the first time an electric power +hammer that I shall here describe. Its essential part is a +sectional solenoid that I have likewise made an application of in +an electric motor which I presented in July, 1830, to the +Societé de Physique. Let us suppose we superpose, one on the +other, a hundred flat bobbins of a centimeter in thickness in such +a way as to form a single solenoid one meter in height, and that +the incoming and outgoing wires of each of them be connected with +the contiguous bobbins exactly in the same way as they are in the +consecutive sections or a dynamo-electric machine ring. Finally, +let us complete the resemblance by causing each junction of the +wire of one of the bobbins with the wire of its neighbor to end in +a metallic plate set into an insulating piece containing as many +plates as there are bobbins, plus one. Over this species of +collector, which maybe rectilinear or wound around a cylinder, let +us pass two brushes fixed to an insulating piece that may be moved +by hand. Now, if we place these two brushes at a distance such that +the number of the plates of the collector included between them be, +for example, equal to ten, and we give them any degree of +displacement whatever, after rendering them interdependent, the +current entering through one of these brushes and making its exit +through the other will always traverse 10 bobbins. Everything will +occur, then, as if we caused the ten-bobbin solenoid to move +instead of the brushes. This granted, and the brushes being in any +position whatever, let us send a current into the apparatus, and +place therein a soft iron cylinder. By virtue of a well known law, +such cylinder will remain suspended in the interior of the +solenoid, and its longitudinal center will place itself at so much +the greater distance from that of the solenoid the more the current +increases in intensity. It would even fall entirely if the current +had not an intensity above a minimum value dependent upon many +elements concerning which we have not now to occupy ourselves. We +will suppose the current intense enough to keep the distance of the +two centers much below that which would bring about a fall of the +cylinder. When such a condition is fulfilled, it is found that if +we try to remove the iron cylinder from the equilibrium that it is +in, we must apply a pressure that increases with the amount of +separation, just exactly as if it were suspended from a spring. It +results from this fact that if we displace the brushes a distance +equal to the thickness of one plate of the collector, the active +solenoid will undergo the same displacement, and its longitudinal +center will move away from that of the iron cylinder, and that the +attraction exerted upon the latter will increase. It will not be +able to assume its first value, and equilibrium cannot be +re-established unless the cylinder undergoes a displacement +identical with that of the solenoid. Now, as this latter depends +upon the motion communicated to the system of brushes, we see that, +definitively, the cylinder will faithfully reproduce the motion +communicated to the brushes by the hand of the operator. This +apparatus, then, constitutes a genuine electric servo-motor in +which the current is never interrupted nor modified in quantity or +direction, no more indeed than the magnetization developed in the +soft iron cylinder. Everything takes place as if the iron cylinder +were suspended in a solenoid ten centimeters in length that was +caused to rise and fall; with the difference that the weight of the +cylinder exerts no action on the hand of the operator.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/10a.png"><img src= +"images/10a_th.jpg" alt="ELECTRIC POWER HAMMER."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">ELECTRIC POWER HAMMER.</p> + +<p>These explanations being understood, there remain but few things +to be said to cause the operation of the hammer to be thoroughly +comprehended. The elementary sections constituting the electric +cylinder, A B, of the hammer are 80 in number, and form a total +length of one meter. Their ingoing and outcoming wires end in a +collector of circular form shown at F G. The brushes are replaced +by two strips, C E and C D, fixed to the double winch, H C I, which +is movable around the fixed center, C. They can make any angle +whatever with each other, so that by trial there maybe given the +active solenoid the most suitable length. When such angle has been +determined, the angle, E C D, is rendered invariable by means of a +set screw, and the apparatus is maneuvered by imparting to the +double winch, H C I, an alternating circular motion.</p> + +<p>The iron cylinder weighs 23 kilogrammes; but, when the current +has an intensity of 43 amperes and traverses 15 sections, the +stress developed may reach 70 kilogrammes; that is to say, three +times the weight of the hammer. So this latter obeys with absolute +docility the motions of the operator's hands, as those who were +present at the lecture were enabled to see.</p> + +<p>I will incidentally add that this power hammer was placed on a +circuit derived from one that served likewise to supply three +Hefner-Alteneck machines (Siemens D<sub>5</sub> model) and a Gramme +machine (Breguet model P.L.). Each of these machines was making +1,500 revolutions per minute and developing 25 kilogrammeters per +second, measured by means of a Carpentier brake. All these +apparatus were operating with absolute independence, and had for +generator the double excitation machine that figured at the +Exhibition of Electricity.</p> + +<p>In an experiment made since then, I have succeeded in developing +in each of these four machines 50 kilogrammeters per second, +whatever was the number of those that were running; and I found it +possible to add the hammer on a derived circuit without notably +affecting the operation of the receivers.</p> + +<p>It results from this that with my system of double excitation +machine I have been enabled to easily run with absolute +independence six machines, each giving a two-third horse-power. The +economic performance, e/E, moreover, slightly exceeded 0.50.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="19"></a></p> + +<h2>SOLIGNAC'S NEW ELECTRIC LAMP.</h2> + +<p>When it becomes a question of practical lighting, it is very +certain that the best electric lamp will be the one that is most +simple and requires the fewest mechanical parts. It is to such +simplicity that is due all the success of the Jablochkoff candle +and the Reynier-Werdermann lamp. Yet, in the former of these lamps, +it is to be regretted that the somewhat great and variable +resistance opposed to the current in its passage through two +carbons that keep diminishing in length, in measure as they burn, +proves a cause of loss of light and of variation in it. And it is +also to be regretted that the duration of combustion of the carbons +is not longer; and, finally, it is allowable to believe that the +power employed in volatilizing the insulator placed between the +carbons is prejudicial to the economical use of this system. In +order to obviate this latter inconvenience, an endeavor has been +made in the Wilde candle to do away with the insulator, but the +results obtained have scarcely been encouraging. An endeavor has +also been made to render the duration of the carbons greater by +employing quite long ones, and causing these to move forward +successively through the intermedium of a species of rollers, or of +counterpoises, as in the lamps of Mersanne and Werdermann; but then +the system becomes more complicated. Finally, in order to keep the +resistance of the carbons at a minimum and constant, their contact +with the rheophores of the circuit has been established at a short +distance from the arc, and this is one of the principal advantages +possessed by the Reynier-Werdermann system. At a certain epoch it +was thought that the problem might be simply solved by arranging in +front of each other two carbons actuated by a spiral spring, as in +car lamps, and kept at a proper distance apart for forming the +electric arc by two funnel-shaped pieces of calcined magnesia, into +which they entered like a wedge in measure as their conical point +were away through combustion. This was the system of Mr. De +Baillehache, and the trials that were made therewith were very +satisfactory. But, unfortunately, the magnesia was not able to +resist very long the temperature to which it was submitted. The +problem found a better solution in the sun-lamp but has been solved +in another manner, and just as simply, by Mr. Solignac, and the +results obtained by him have been very satisfactory as regarded +from the standpoint of steadiness of the luminous point.</p> + +<p>In this system, a general view of which is given in Fig. 1, and +the arrangement in Figs. 2 and 3, the carbons, F F, which are +horizontal and about fifty centimeters in length, are thrust toward +each other by two barrels, K, K, which wind up two chains, E, E, +passing around the pulleys, D, D, fitted to the extremities of the +carbons. These latter are provided beneath with small glass rods, +G, G, whose extremities toward the arc abut at a short distance +from the latter against a nickel stop, L (Fig. 3), which supports +them, moreover, at M, by means of a tappet whose position is +regulated by a screw. The current is transmitted to the carbons by +two friction rollers, I, I, which serve at the same time as a guide +for them, and which give the electric flux a passage of only one or +two centimeters over the front of the carbon to form the arc. +Finally, the whole is held by a support, A, and two pieces, CB, CB, +which at the same time lead the current to the friction rollers +through projections, J. The two systems are made to approach or +recede from each other, in order to form the arc, by means of a +regulating screw, H.</p> + +<p>At present, the lighting of these lamps is effected by means of +this screw, H, but Mr. Solignac is now constructing a model in +which the lighting will be performed automatically by means of a +solenoid that will react upon a carbon lighter, as in several +already well known systems.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/10b.png" alt="Fig. 1"></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 1</p> + +<p>If the preceding description has been well-understood, it will +be seen that the carbons are arrested in their movement toward each +other only by the glass rods, G, abutting against L; but, as the +stops, L, are not far from the arc, and as the heat to which they +are exposed is so much the greater in proportion as the +incandescent part of the carbons is nearer them, it results that +for a certain elongation of the arc the temperature becomes +sufficient to soften the glass of the rods, G, G, so that they bend +as shown at O (Fig. 3), and allow the carbons to move onward until +the heat has sufficiently diminished to prevent any further +softening of the glass. In measure as the wearing away progresses, +the preceding effects are reproduced; and, as these are produced in +an imperceptible and continuous manner, there is perceived no +jumping nor inconstancy in the light of the arc. Under such +conditions, then, the regulation of the arc is effected under the +very influence of the effect produced; and not under that of an +action of a different nature (electro-magnetism), as happens in +other regulators. It is certain that this idea is new and original, +and the results that we have witnessed from it have been very +satisfactory. There is but one regulation to perform, and that at +the beginning, but this once done the apparatus operates with +certainty, and for a long time. With a Meritens machine of the +first model it has been found possible to light five lamps of this +kind placed in the same circuit.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/10c.png" alt="Fig. 2"></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 2</p> + +<p>According to the inventor, this lamp will give a light of 100 +carcels per one horse-power, and with a three horse-power six lamps +may be lighted; but we have made no experiments to ascertain the +correctness of these figures.</p> + +<p>As for the cost of the glass rods, that amounts to one franc per +two hundred meters length. They can, then, be considered only as an +insignificant expense in the cost of the carbons. We consequently +believe that it will be possible to employ this system +advantageously in practice.--<i>Th. du Moncel</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/10d.png" alt="Fig. 3"></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 3</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="20"></a></p> + +<h2>MONDOS'S ELECTRIC LAMP.</h2> + +<p>Since the month of May last, the concert at the Champs +Elysées has been lighted by sixteen voltaic arc lamps on a +new and very simple system, which gives excellent results in the +installation under consideration. The sixteen lamps are on the +divisible system, and their regulation is based upon the principle +of derivation. They are supplied by a Siemens alternating current +machine and arranged in four circuits, on each of which are mounted +four lamps in series. The accompanying figures will allow the +reader to readily understand the system, which is as simple as it +is ingenious, and which has been combined by Mr. Mondos so as to +obtain a continuous and independent regulation of each lamp.</p> + +<p>In this system the lower carbon is stationary, the luminous +point descending in measure as the carbons wear away through +combustion. The upper carbon descends by its own weight, and +imperceptibly, so as to keep the arc at its normal length.</p> + +<p>The mechanism that controls the motions of the upper rod that +supports the carbon-holder consists of two bobbins of fine wire, E +(Fig. 2), mounted on a derived circuit on the terminals of the +lamp; of a lever, L, articulated at O, and supporting a tube, TT', +and the whole movable part balanced by a counterpoise, P. This +lever, P, carries two soft iron cores, F, which enter the bobbins, +E, and become magnetized under the influence of the current that +passes through them. The upper part of the tube, T, carries a +square upon which is articulated at O' a second lever, L', balanced +by a second counterpoise, P', and carrying a flat armature, +<i>p</i>, opposite the cores, F', that are fixed to the first +horizontal lever, L. The carbon-holder rod, CC', slides freely in +the tube, TT', and is wedged therein by a small piece, <i>a m +l</i>, fixed to the lever, L'. For this reason the tube, TT', is +provided with a notch opposite the piece <i>a m l</i>, and the two +arms, <i>a</i> and <i>m</i>, of the latter are shaped like a V, as +may be seen in part in the plan in Fig. 2. It is now easy to +understand how the system operates; when the current is not +traversing the circuit, the carbons are separated; but, at the +moment the circuit is closed for lighting a series of lamps, it +traverses the electro-magnet, which then becomes very powerful, and +draws down the cores, F, along with the lever, L, the tube, TT', +and the carbon-holder, CC', and brings the carbons in contact. The +arc then forms, and the current divides between the arc and the +bobbins, E. Its action upon the cores, F, becomes weak, and it can +no longer balance the counterpoise, P, which falls back, and raises +the system again. The arc thus becomes <i>primed</i>. The cores, F, +however, preserve a certain amount of magnetization; the armature, +<i>p</i>, is attracted, and the lever, L', assumes a position of +equilibrium such that the piece, <i>a m l</i>, wedges the rod, CC', +in the tube, TT', and holds it suspended. When, through wear of the +carbons, the arc elongates, a greater portion of the current passes +into the bobbins, E, the armature, <i>p</i>, is attracted with more +force, and the lever, L', swings around the point, O'. The rotation +of L' separates the piece, <i>a m l</i>, from the rod, CC', which, +being thus set free, slides by its own weight and shortens the arc. +The current then becomes weak in E, the armature, <i>p</i>, is not +so strongly attracted, the lever, L', pivots slightly around O' +under the action of the weight, P', and the brake or wedge enters +the notch anew, and stops the descent of the carbon. In practice, +the motions that we have just described are exceedingly slight; the +carbon moves imperceptibly, and the length of the arc remains +invariable.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/11a.png"><img src= +"images/11a_th.jpg" alt="Fig. 1--MONDOS'S ELECTRIC LAMP."> +</a></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 1--MONDOS'S ELECTRIC LAMP.</p> + +<p>It will be seen, then, that the lever, L, and the tube, TT', +serve exclusively for <i>lighting</i>, and the lever, L', +exclusively for regulating the distance of the carbons.</p> + +<p>This lamp exhibits great elasticity, and can operate, without a +change of any part of its mechanism, with currents of very +different intensities. It suffices for obtaining a proper working +of the apparatus in each case, to regulate the distance from the +weight, P', to the point of suspension, O', and the distance from +the armature, <i>p</i>, to the cores, F. At the Champs +Elysées concerts the lamps are operating with alternating +currents; but they are capable of operating with continuous ones +also, although the slight tremor of the electro-magnetic system, +due to the use of alternating currents and as a consequence of +rapid changes of magnetization, seems in principle very favorable +to systems in which the descent of the carbon is based upon +friction instead of a clutch. At the Champs Elysées concerts +the lamps burn crayons of 9 to 10 millimeters with a current of 9 +to 10 amperes and an effective electro-motive power of 60 volts per +lamp. The light is very steady, and the effect produced is most +satisfactory. The dispensing with all clock-work movement and +regulating springs makes this electric lamp of Mr. Mondos a simple +and plain apparatus, capable of numerous applications in the +industries, in wide, open spaces, in all cases where foci of medium +intensity have to be employed, and where it is desired to arrange +several lamps in the same circuit.--<i>La Nature</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/11b.png" alt= +"Fig. 2--REGULATING MECHANISM."></p> + +<p class="ctr">Fig. 2--REGULATING MECHANISM.</p> + +<hr> +<p>[AMERICAN POTTERY AND GLASSWARE REPORTER.]</p> + +<p><a name="21"></a></p> + +<h2>ALUMINUM--ITS PROPERTIES, COST, AND USES.</h2> + +<p>Aluminum is a shining, white, sonorous metal, having a shade +between silver and platinum. It is a very light metal, being +lighter than glass and only about one-fourth as heavy as silver of +the same bulk. It is very malleable and ductile, and is remarkable +for its resistance to oxidation, being unaffected by moist or dry +air, or by hot or cold water. Sulphureted hydrogen gas, which so +readily tarnishes silver, forming a black film on the surface, has +no action on this metal.</p> + +<p>Next to silica, the oxide of aluminum (alumina) forms, in +combination, the most abundant constituent of the crust of the +earth (hydrated silicate of alumina, clay).</p> + +<p>Common alum is sulphate of alumina combined with another +sulphate, as potash, soda, etc. It is much used as a mordant in +dyeing and calico printing, also in tanning.</p> + +<p>Aluminum is of great value in mechanical dentistry, as, in +addition to its lightness and strength, it is not affected by the +presence of sulphur in the food--as by eggs, for instance.</p> + +<p>Dr. Fowler, of Yarmouthport, Mass., obtained patents for its +combination with vulcanite as applied to dentistry and other uses. +It resists sulphur in the process of vulcanization in a manner +which renders it an efficient and economical substitute for +platinum or gold.</p> + +<p>Aluminum is derived from the oxide alumina, which is the +principal constituent of common clay. Lavoissier, a celebrated +French chemist, first suggested the existence of the metallic bases +of the earths and alkalies, which fact was demonstrated twenty +years thereafter by Sir Humphry Davy, by eliminating potassium and +sodium from their combinations; and afterward by the discovery of +the metallic bases of baryta, strontium, and lime. The earth +alumina resisting the action of the voltaic pile and the other +agents then used to induce decomposition, twenty years more passed +before the chloride was obtained by Oerstadt, by subjecting alumina +to the action of potassium in a crucible heated over a spirit lamp. +The discovery of aluminum was at last made by Wohler in 1827, who +succeeded in 1846 in obtaining minute globules or beads of this +metal by heating a mixture of chloride of alumina and sodium. +Deville afterward conducted some experiments in obtaining this +metal at the expense of Napoleon III., who subscribed £1,500, +and was rewarded by the presentation of two bars of aluminum. The +process of manufacture was afterward so simplified that in 1857 its +price at Paris was about two dollars an ounce. It was at first +manufactured from common clay, which contains about one-fourth its +weight of aluminum, but in 1855 Rose announced to the scientific +world that it could be obtained from a material called "cryolite," +found in Greenland in large quantities, imported into Germany under +the name of "mineral soda," and used as a washing soda and in the +manufacture of soap. It consists of a double fluoride of aluminum, +and only requires to be mixed with an excess of sodium and heated, +when the mineral aluminum at once separates. Its cost of +manufacture is given in this estimate for one pound of metal: 16 +lb. of cryolite at 8 cents per pound, $1.28: 2½ lb. metallic +sodium at about 26 cents per pound, 70 cents; flux and cost of +reduction, $2.02; total, $4.</p> + +<p>Aluminum is used largely in the manufacture of cheap jewelry by +making a hard, gold-colored alloy with copper, called aluminum +bronze, consisting of 90 per cent. of copper and 10 per cent. of +aluminum. Like iron, it does not amalgamate directly with mercury, +nor is it readily alloyed with lead, but many alloys with other +metals, as copper, iron, gold, etc., have been made with it and +found to be valuable combinations. One part of it to 100 parts of +gold gives a hard, malleable alloy of a greenish gold color, and an +alloy of ¾ iron and ¼ aluminum does not oxidize when +exposed to a moist atmosphere. It has also been used to form a +metallic coating upon other metals, as copper, brass, and German +silver, by the electro-galvanic process. Copper has also been +deposited, by the same process, upon aluminum plates to facilitate +their being rolled very thin; for unless the metal be pure, it +requires to be annealed at each passage through the rolls, and it +is found that its flexibility is greatly increased by rolling. To +avoid the bluish white appearance, like zinc, Dr. Stevenson McAdam +recommends immersing the article made from aluminum in a heated +solution of potash, which will give a beautiful white frosted +appearance, like that of frosted silver.</p> + +<p>F.W. Gerhard obtained a patent in 1856, in England, for an +improved means of obtaining aluminum metal, and the adaptation +thereof to the manufacture of certain useful articles. Powdered +fluoride of aluminum is placed alone or in combination with other +fluorides in a closed furnace, heated to a red heat, and exposed to +the action of hydrogen gas, which is used as a reagent in the place +of sodium. A reverberating furnace is used by preference. The +fluoride of aluminum is placed in shallow trays or dishes, each +dish being surrounded by clean iron filings placed in suitable +receptacles; dry hydrogen gas is forced in, and suitable entry and +exit pipes and stop-cocks are provided. The hydrogen gas, combining +with the fluoride, "forms hydrofluoric acid, which is taken up by +the iron and is thereby converted into fluoride of iron." The +resulting aluminum "remains in a metallic state in the bottom of +the trays containing the fluoride," and may be used for a variety +of manufacturing and ornamental purposes.</p> + +<p>The most important alloy of aluminum is composed of aluminum 10, +copper 90. It possesses a pale gold color, a hardness surpassing +that of bronze, and is susceptible of taking a fine polish. This +alloy has found a ready market, and, if less costly, would replace +red and yellow brass. Its hardness and tenacity render it +peculiarly adapted for journals and bearings. Its tensile strength +is 100,000 lb., and when drawn into wire, 128,000 lb., and its +elasticity is one-half that of wrought iron.</p> + +<p>General Morin believes this alloy to be a perfect chemical +combination, as it exhibits, unlike the gun metal, a most complete +homogeneousness, its preparation being also attended by a great +development of heat, not seen in the manufacture of most other +alloys. The specific gravity of this alloy is 7.7. It is malleable +and ductile, may be forged cold as well as hot, but is not +susceptible of rolling; it may, however, be drawn into tubes. It is +extremely tough and fibrous.</p> + +<p>Aluminum bronze, when exposed to the air, tarnishes less quickly +than either silver, brass, or common bronze, and less, of course, +than iron or steel. The contact of fatty matters or the juice of +fruits does not result in the production of any soluble metallic +salt, an immunity which highly recommends it for various articles +for table use.</p> + +<p>The uses to which aluminum bronze is applicable are various. +Spoons, forks, knives, candle-sticks, locks, knobs, door-handles, +window fastenings, harness trimmings, and pistols are made from it; +also objects of art, such as busts, statuettes, vases, and groups. +In France, aluminum bronze is used for the eagles or military +standards, for armor, for the works of watches, as also watch +chains and ornaments. For certain parts, such as journals of +engines, lathe-head boxes, pinions, and running gear, it has proved +itself superior to all other metals.</p> + +<p>Hulot, director of the Imperial postage stamp manufactory in +Paris, uses it in the construction of a punching machine. It is +well known that the best edges of tempered steel become very +generally blunted by paper. This is even more the case when the +paper is coated with a solution of gum arabic and then dried, as in +the instance of postage stamp sheets. The sheets are punched by a +machine the upper part of which moves vertically and is armed with +300 needles of tempered steel, sharpened in a right angle. At every +blow of the machine they pass through the holes in the lower fixed +piece, which correspond with the needles, and perforate five sheets +at every blow. Hulot now substitutes this piece by aluminum bronze. +Each machine makes daily 120,000 blows, or 180,000,000 +perforations, and it has been found that a cushion of the aluminum +alloy was unaffected after some months' use, while one of brass is +useless after one day.</p> + +<p>Various formulæ are given for the production of alloys of +aluminum, but they are too numerous and intricate to enter into +here.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="11"></a></p> + +<h2>DETERMINATION OF POTASSA IN MANURES.</h2> + +<h3>By M.E. DREYFUS.</h3> + +<p>The method generally adopted for the determination of potassa in +manures, i. e., the direct incineration of the sample, may in +certain cases occasion considerable errors in consequence of the +volatilization of a portion of the potassium products.</p> + +<p>To avoid this inconvenience, the author proposes a preliminary +treatment of the manure with sulphuric acid at 1.845 sp. gr., to +convert potassium nitrate and chloride into the fixed sulphate. The +sulphuric acid attacks the manure energetically, and much +facilitates the incineration, which may be effected at a dark red +heat. The ignited portion (10 grms.) is exhausted with boiling +distilled water acidulated with hydrochloric acid, and the +filtrate, when cold, is made up to 500 c. c. Of this solution 50 c +c., representing 1 grm. of the sample, are taken, and, after being +heated until close upon ebullition, baryta-water is added until a +strong alkaline reaction is obtained. The sulphuric and phosphoric +acids, alumina, magnesia, etc, are thus precipitated. The filtrate +is heated to a boil, and mixed with ammonia and ammonium carbonate, +to precipitate the excess of baryta in solution. The last traces of +lime are eliminated by means of a few drops of ammonium oxalate. +The filtrate is evaporated down on the water-bath, and the +ammoniacal salts are expelled by carefully raising the temperature +to dull redness. After having taken up the residue in distilled +water it is treated with platinum chloride, and the potassium +chloro-platinate obtained is reduced with oxalic acid. The quantity +of potassa present in the manure can be calculated from the weight +of platinum obtained.--<i>Bull. de la Soc. Chim. de Paris</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="22"></a></p> + +<h2>THE ORIGIN AND RELATIONS OF THE CARBON MINERALS.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Read before the New York Academy of Sciences, +February 6, 1882.]</p> + +<h3>By J.S. NEWBERRY.</h3> + +<p>What are called the carbon minerals--peat, lignite, coal, +graphite, asphalt, petroleum, etc.--are, properly speaking, not +minerals at all, as they are organic substances, and have no +definite chemical composition or crystalline forms. They are, in +fact, chiefly the products or phases of a progressive and +inevitable change in plant-tissue, which, like all organic matter, +is an unstable compound and destined to decomposition.</p> + +<p>In virtue of a mysterious and inscrutable force which resides in +the microscopic embryo of the seed, a tree begins its growth. For a +brief interval, this growth is maintained by the prepared food +stored in the cotyledons, and this suffices to produce and to bring +into functional activity--some root-fibrils below and leaves above, +with which the independent and self-sustained life of the +individual begins. Henceforward, perhaps for a thousand years, this +life goes on, active in summer and dormant in winter, absorbing the +sunlight as a motive power which it controls and guides. Its +instruments are the discriminating cells at the extremities of the +root-fibrils, which search for, select, and absorb the crude +aliment adapted to the needs of the plant to which they belong, and +the chlorophyl cells--the lungs and stomach of the tree--in the +leaves. During all the years of the growth of the plant, these +organs are mainly occupied in breaking the strongly riveted bonds +that unite oxygen and carbon in carbonic acid; appropriating the +carbon and driving off most of the oxygen. In the end, if the tree +is, e. g., a <i>Sequoia</i>, some hundreds of tons of solid, +organized tissue have been raised into a column hundreds of feet in +height, in opposition to the force of gravitation and to the +affinities of inorganic chemistry.</p> + +<p>The time comes, however, sooner or later, when the power which +has created and the life that has pervaded this wonderful structure +abandon it. The affinities of inorganic chemistry immediately +reassert themselves, in ordinary circumstances rapidly tearing down +the ephemeral fabric.</p> + +<p>The disintegration of organic tissue, when deserted by the force +which has animated and preserved it, gives rise to the phenomena +which form the theme of this paper.</p> + +<p>Most animal-tissue decomposes with great rapidity, and plant +tissue, when not protected, soon decays. This decay is essentially +oxidation, since its final result is the restoration to the +atmosphere of carbonic acid, which is broken up in plant-growth by +the appropriation of its carbon. Hence it is a kind of combustion, +although this term is more generally applied to very rapid +oxidation, with the evolution of sensible light and heat. But, +whether the process goes on rapidly or slowly, the same force is +evolved that is absorbed in the growth of plant-tissue; and by +accelerating and guiding its evolution, we are able to utilize this +force in the production at will of heat, light, and their +correlatives, chemical affinity, motive power, electricity, and +magnetism. The decomposition of plants may, however, be more or +less retarded, and it then takes the form of a destructive +distillation, the constituents reacting upon each other, and +forming temporary combinations, part of which are evolved, and part +remain behind. Water is the great extinguisher of this as of the +more rapid oxidation that we call combustion; and the decomposition +of plant-tissue under water is extremely slow, from the partial +exclusion of oxygen. Buried under thick and nearly impervious +masses of clay, where the exclusion of oxygen is still more nearly +complete, the decomposition is so far retarded that plant-tissue, +which is destroyed by combustion almost instantaneously, and if +exposed to "the elements"--moisture with a free access of +oxygen--decays in a year or two, may be but partially consumed when +millions of years have passed. The final result is, however, +inevitable, and always the same, viz., the oxidation and escape of +the organic mutter, and the concentration of the inorganic matter +woven into its composition--in it, but not of it--forming what we +call the ash of the plant.</p> + +<p>Since the decomposition of organic matter commences the instant +it is abandoned by the creative and conservative vital force, and +proceeds uninterruptedly, whether slowly or rapidly, to the final +result, it is evident that each moment in the progress of this +decomposition presents us with a phase of structure and composition +different from that which preceded and from that which follows it. +Hence the succession of these phases forms a complete sliding +scale, which is graphically shown in the following diagram, where +the organic constituents of plant tissue--carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, +and nitrogen--appear gradually diminishing to extinction, while the +ash remains nearly constant, but relatively increasing, till it is +the sole representative of the fabric.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/12a.png" alt=""></p> + +<p class="ctr">DIAGRAM SHOWING THE GENETIC RELATIONS OF THE +CARBON<br> +MINERALS.</p> + +<p>We may cut this triangle of residual products where we please, +and by careful analysis determine accurately the chemical +composition of a section at this point, and we may please ourselves +with the illusion, as many chemists have done, that the definite +proportions found represent the formula of a specific compound; but +an adjacent section above or below would show a different +composition, and so in the entire triangle we should find an +infinite series of formulae, or rather no constant formulae at all. +We should also find that the slice, taken at any point while lying +in the laboratory or undergoing chemical treatment, would change in +composition, and become a different substance.</p> + +<p>In the same way we can snatch a brand from the fire at any stage +of its decomposition, or analyze a decaying tree trunk during any +month of its existence, and thus manufacture as many chemical +formulae as we like, and give them specific names; but it is +evident that this is child's play, not science. The truth is, the +slowly decomposing tissue of the plants of past ages has given us a +series of phases which we have grouped under distinct names, and we +have called one group peat, one lignite, another coal, another +anthracite, and another graphite. We have spaced off the scale, and +called all within certain lines by a common name; but this does not +give us a common composition for all the material within these +lines. Hence we see that any effort to define or describe coal, +lignite, or anthracite accurately must be a failure, because +neither has a fixed composition, neither is a distinct substance, +but simply a conventional group of substances which form part of an +infinite and indivisible series.</p> + +<p>But this sliding scale of solid compounds, which we designate by +the names given above, is not the only product of the natural and +spontaneous distillation of plant tissue. Part of the original +organic mass remains, though constantly wasting, to represent it; +another part escapes, either completely oxidized as carbonic acid +and water, or in a volatile or liquid form, still retaining its +organic character, and destined to future oxidation, known as +carbureted hydrogen, olefiant gas, petroleum, etc.</p> + +<p>Hence, in the decomposition of vegetable tissue, two classes of +resultant compounds are formed, one residual and the other evolved; +and the genesis and relation of the carbon minerals may be +accurately shown by the following diagram:</p> + +<pre> + PLANT TISSUE + _________________ + | + _Residual Products_ | _Evolved Products_ + | + Peat. } + | } + Lignite. } + | } { Carbonic Acid. + Bitumious Coal. } { Carbonic Oxide. + | } { Carbureted Hydrogen, etc. + Semi-bitumious " } { Water. + | } { {Maltha. + Anthracite. } { { | + | } { {Asphalt etc. +Graphitie Anthracite. } { Petro- { | + | } { leum {Asphaltic Coal. + Graphite. } { | + | } {Asphaltic Anthracite. + Ash. } { | + { " Graphite. +</pre> + +<p>[NOTE.--In this diagram, the vertical line connecting the names +of the residual products (and of the derivatives of petroleum) +indicates that each succeeding one is produced by further +alteration from that which precedes it, and not independently. +Also, the arrangement of the braces is designed to show that any or +all of the evolved products are given off at each stage of +alteration.]</p> + +<p>The theory here proposed has not been evolved from my inner +consciousness, but has grown from careful study, through many +years, of facts in the field. A brief sketch of the evidence in +favor of it is all that we have space for here.</p> + +<h3>RESIDUAL PRODUCTS.</h3> + +<p><i>Peat</i>.--Dry plant-tissue consists of about 50 per cent, of +carbon, 44 per cent, of oxygen, with a little nitrogen, and 6 per +cent. of hydrogen. In a peat-bog, we find the upper part of the +scale represented above very well shown: plants are growing on the +surface with the normal composition of cellulose. The first stratum +of peat consists of browned and partially decomposed plant-tissue, +which is found to have lost perhaps 20 per cent. of the components +of wood, and to have acquired an increasing percentage of carbon. +As we descend in the peat, it becomes more homogeneous and darker +until at the bottom of the marsh ten or twenty feet from the +surface, we have a black, carbonaceous paste, which, when dried, +resembles some varieties of coal, and approaches them in +composition. It has lost half the substance of the original plant, +and shows a marked increase in the relative proportion of +carbon.</p> + +<p><i>Lignite</i>.--Each inch in vertical thickness of the peat-bog +represents a phase in the progressive change from wood-tissue to +lignite, using this term with its common signification to indicate, +not necessarily carbonized ligneous tissue, but plant-tissue that +belongs to a past though modern geological age--i.e., Tertiary, +Cretaceous, Jurassic, or Triassic. These lignites or modern coals +are only peat beds which have been buried for a longer or shorter +time under clay, sand, or solidified rock, and have progressed +farther or less far on the road to coal. As with peats, so with +lignites, we find that at different geological levels they exhibit +different stages of this distillation--the Tertiary lignites being +usually distinguished without difficulty by the presence of a +larger quantity of combined water and oxygen, and a less quantity +of carbon, than the Cretaceous coals, and these in turn differ in +the same respects from the Triassic.</p> + +<p>All the coals of the Tertiary and Mesozoic ages are grouped +under one name; but it is evident that they are as different from +each other as the new and spongy from the old and well-rotted peat +in the peat-bog.</p> + +<p><i>Coal</i>.--By mere convention, we call the peat which +accumulated in the Carboniferous age by the name of bituminous +coal; and an examination of the Carboniferous strata in different +countries has shown that the peat-beds formed in the Carboniferous +age, though varying somewhat, like others, with the kind of +vegetation from which they were derived, have a common character by +which they may be distinguished from the more modern coals; +containing less water, less oxygen, and more carbon, and usually +exhibiting the property of coking, which is rare in coals of later +date. Though there is great diversity in the Carboniferous coals, +and it would be absurd to express their composition by a single +formula, it may be said that, over the whole world, these coals +have characteristics, as a group, by which they can be recognized, +the result of the slow decomposition of the tissue of plants which +lived in the Carboniferous age, and which have, by a broad and +general change, approximated to a certain phase in the spontaneous +distillation of plant-tissue. An experienced geologist will not +fail to refer to their proper horizon a group of coals of +Carboniferous age any more than those of the Cretaceous or +Tertiary.</p> + +<p><i>Anthracite</i>--In the ages anterior to the Carboniferous, +the quantity of land vegetation was apparently not sufficient to +form thick and extensive beds of peat; but the remains of +plant-tissue are contained in all the older formations, though +there only as anthracite or graphite--the last two groups of +residual products. Of these we have examples in the beds of +graphite in the Laurentian rocks of Canada, and of anthracite of +the lower Silurian strata of Upper Church and Kilnaleck, +Ireland.</p> + +<p>From these facts it is apparent that the carbon series is graded +geologically, that is, by the lapse of time during which +plant-tissue has been subjected to this natural and spontaneous +distillation. But we have better evidence than this of the +derivation of one from another of the groups of residual products +which have been enumerated. In many localities, the coals and +lignites of different ages have been exposed to local +influences--such as the outbursts of trap-rock, or the metamorphism +of mountain chains--which have hastened the distillation, and out +of known earlier groups have produced the last. For example, trap +outbursts have converted Tertiary lignites in Alaska into good +bituminous coals; on Queen Charlotte's Island, on Anthracite Creek, +in southwestern Colorado, and at the Placer Mountains, near Santa +Fe, New Mexico, Cretaceous lignites into anthracite; those from +Queen Charlotte's Island and southwestern Colorado are as bright, +hard, and valuable as any from Pennsylvania. At a little distance +from the focus of volcanic action, the Cretaceous coals of +southwestern Colorado have been made bituminous and coking, while +at the Placer Mountains the same stratum may be seen in its +anthracitic and lignitic stages.</p> + +<p>A still better series, illustrating the derivation of one form +of carbon solids from another, is furnished by the coals of Ohio, +Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island. These are of the same age; in Ohio, +presenting the normal composition and physical characters of +bituminous coals, that is, of plant tissue generally and uniformly +descending the scale in the lapse of time from the Carboniferous +age to the present. In the mountains of Pennsylvania the same coal +beds, somewhat affected by the metamorphism which all the rocks of +the Alleghanies have shared, have reached the stage of +<i>semi-bituminous</i> coals, where half the volatile constituents +have been driven off; again, in the anthracite basins of eastern +Pennsylvania, the distillation further effected has formed from +these coals <i>anthracite</i>, containing only from three to ten +per cent. of volatile matter; while in the focus of metamorphic +action, at Newport, Rhode Island, the Carboniferous coals have been +changed to <i>graphitic anthracite</i>, that is, are half +anthracite and half graphite. Here, traveling from west to east, a +progressive change is noted, similar to that which may be observed +in making a vertical section of a peat bog, or in comparing the +coals of Tertiary, Mesozoic, and Carboniferous age, only the latter +is the continuation and natural sequence of the former series of +changes.</p> + +<p>In the Laurentian rocks of Canada are large accumulations of +carbonaceous matter, all of which is graphite, and that which is +universally conceded to be derived from plant-tissue. The oxidation +of graphite is artificially difficult, and in nature's laboratory +slow; but it is inevitable, as we see in the decomposition of its +outcrops and the blanching of exposed surfaces of clouded marbles, +where the coloring is graphite. Thus the end is reached, and by +observations in the field, the origin and relationship of the +different carbon solids derived from organic tissue are +demonstrated.</p> + +<p>It only remains to be said, in regard to them, that all the +changes enumerated may be imitated artificially, and that the +stages of decomposition which we have designated by the names +graphite, anthracite, coal, lignite, are not necessary results of +the decomposition of plant-tissue. A fallen tree may slowly consume +away, and all its carbonaceous matter may be oxidized and +dissipated without exhibiting the phases of lignite, coal, etc.; +and lignite and coal, when exposed to air and moisture, are burned +away to ashes in the same manner, simply because in these cases +complete oxidation of the carbon takes place, particle by particle, +and the mass is not affected as a whole in such a way as to assume +the intermediate stages referred to. Chemical analysis, however, +proves that the process is essentially the same, although the +physical results are different.</p> + +<h3>EVOLVED PRODUCTS.</h3> + +<p>The gradual wasting of plant-tissue in the formation of peat, +lignite, coal, etc., may be estimated as averaging for peat, 20 to +30 per cent.; lignite, 30 to 50 per cent.; coal, 50 to 70 per +cent.; anthracite, 70 to 80; and graphite, 90 per cent. of the +original mass. The evolved products ultimately represent the entire +organic portion of the wood--the mineral matter, or ash, being the +only residuum. These evolved products include both liquids and +gases, and by subsequent changes, solids are produced from some of +them. Carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, nitrogenous and hydrocarbon +gases, water, and petroleum, are mentioned above as the substances +which escape from wood-tissue during its decomposition. That all +these are eliminated in the decay of vegetable and animal +structures is now generally conceded by chemists and geologists, +although there is a wide difference of opinion as to the nature of +the process.</p> + +<p>It has been claimed that the evolved products enumerated above +are the results of the primary decomposition of organic matter, and +never of further changes in the residual products; i.e., that in +the breaking-up of organic tissue, variable quantities of coal, +anthracite, petroleum, marsh gas, etc., are formed, but that these +are never derived, the one from the other. This opinion is, +however, certainly erroneous, and the formation of any or all the +evolved products may take place throughout the entire progress of +the decomposition. Marsh gas and carbonic acid are seen escaping +from the surface of pools where recent vegetable matter is +submerged, and they are also eliminated in the further +decomposition of peat, lignite, coal, and carbonaceous shale. Fire +damp and choke-damp, common names for the gases mentioned above, +are produced in large quantities in the mines where Tertiary or +Cretaceous lignites, or Carboniferous coals or anthracites are +mined. It has been said that these gases are simply locked up in +the interstices of the carbonaceous matter and are liberated in its +excavation; but all who have worked coal mines know that such +accumulations are not sufficient to supply the enormous and +continuous flow which comes from all parts of the mass penetrated. +We have ample proof, moreover, that coal, when exposed to the air, +undergoes a kind of distillation, in which the evolution of +carbonic acid and hydrocarbon gases is a necessary and prominent +feature.</p> + +<p>The gas makers know that if their coal is permitted to lie for +months or years after being mined, it suffers serious +deterioration, yielding a less and less quantity of illuminating +gas with the lapse of time. So coking coals are rendered dry, +non-caking, and valueless for this purpose by long exposure.</p> + +<p>Carbureted hydrogen, olefiant gas, etc., are constant associates +of the petroleum of springs or wells, and this escape of gas and +oil has been going on in some localities, without apparent +diminution, for two or three thousand years. We can only account +for the persistence of this flow by supposing that it is maintained +by the gradual distillation of the carbonaceous masses with which +such evolutions of gas or of liquid hydro-carbons are always +connected. If it were true that carbureted hydrogen and petroleum +are produced only from the primary decomposition of organic tissue, +it would be inevitable that at least the elastic gases would have +escaped long since.</p> + +<p>Oil wells which have been nominally exhausted--that is, from +which the accumulations of centuries in rock reservoirs have been +pumped--and therefore have been abandoned, have in all cases been +found to be slowly replenished by a current and constant secretion, +apparently the product of an unceasing distillation.</p> + +<p>In the valley of the Cumberland, about Burkesville, one of the +oil regions of the country, the gases escaping from the equivalent +of the Utica shale accumulate under the plates of impervious +limestone above until masses of rock and earth, hundreds of tons in +weight, are sometimes thrown out with great violence. Unless these +gases had been produced by comparatively recent distillation, such +explosions could not occur.</p> + +<p>In opening a coal mine on a hillside, the first traces of the +coal seam are found in a dark stain in the superficial clay; then a +substance like rotten wood is reached, from which all the volatile +constituents have escaped. These appear, however, later, and +continue to increase as the mine is deepened, until under water or +a heavy covering of rock the coal attains its normal physical and +chemical characters. Here it is evident that the coal has undergone +a long-continued distillation, which must have resulted in the +constant production of carbonic acid and carbureted hydrogen.</p> + +<p>A line of perennial oil and gas springs marks the outcrop of +every great stratum of carbonaceous matter in the country. Of +these, the most considerable and remarkable are the bituminous +shales of the Silurian (Utica shale), of the Devonian (Hamilton and +Huron shales), the Carboniferous, etc. Here the carbonaceous +constituent (10 to 20 per cent.) is disseminated through a great +proportion of inorganic material, clay and sand, and seems, both +from the nature of the materials which furnished it--cellular +plants and minute animal organisms--and its dissemination, to be +specially prone to spontaneous distillation. The Utica shale is the +lowest of these great sheets of carbonaceous matter, and that +supplies the hydro-carbon gases and liquids which issue from the +earth at Collingwood, Canada, and in the valley of the Cumberland. +The next carbonaceous sheet is formed by the great bituminous shale +beds of the upper Devonian, which underlie and supply the oil wells +in western Pennsylvania. In some places the shale is several +hundred feet in thickness, and contains more carbonaceous matter +than all the overlying coal strata. The outcrop of this formation, +from central New York to Tennessee, is conspicuously marked by gas +springs, the flow from which is apparently unfailing.</p> + +<p>Petroleum is scarcely less constant in its connection with these +carbonaceous rocks than carbureted hydrogen, and it only escapes +notice from the little space it occupies. The two substances are so +closely allied that they must have a common origin, and they are, +in fact, generated simultaneously in thousands of localities.</p> + +<p>During the oil excitement of some years since, when the whole +country was hunted over for "oil sign," in many lagoons, from which +bubbles of marsh-gas were constantly escaping, films of genuine +petroleum were found on the surface; and as the underlying strata +were barren of oil, this could only have been derived from the +decaying vegetable tissue below. In the Bay of Marquette, two or +three miles north of the town, where the shore is a peat bog +underlain by Archæan rocks, I have seen bubbles of carbureted +hydrogen rising in great numbers attended by drops of petroleum +which spread as iridescent films on the surface.</p> + +<p>The remarks which have been made in regard to the heterogeneous +nature of the solid hydrocarbons apply with scarcely less force to +the gaseous and liquid products of vegetable decomposition. The +gases which escape from marshes contain carbonic acid, a number of +hydrocarbon gases (or the materials out of which they may be +composed in the process of analysis), and finally a larger or +smaller volume of nitrogenous gas. It is possible that the +elimination of these gases takes the form of fractional +distillation, and definite compounds may be formed directly from +the wood-tissue or its derivatives, and mingle as they escape. This +is, however, not certain, for the gases, as we find them, are +always mixtures and never pure. In the liquid evolved products, the +petroleums, this is emphatically true, for we combine under this +name fluids which vary greatly in both their physical and chemical +characters; some are light and ethereal, others are thick and +tarry; some are transparent, some opaque; some red, some brown, +others green; some have an offensive and others an agreeable odor; +some contain asphalt in large quantity, others paraffine, etc. Thus +they form a heterogeneous assemblage of liquid hydrocarbons, of +which naphtha and maltha may be said to form the extremes, and +which have little in common, except their undefinable name. The +causes of these differences are but imperfectly understood, but we +know that they are in part dependent on the nature of the organic +material that has furnished the petroleums, and in part upon +influences affecting them after their formation. For example, the +oil which saturates the Niagara limestone at Chicago, and--which is +undoubtedly indigenous in this rock, and probably of animal origin, +is black and thick; that from Enniskillen, Canada, is also black, +has a vile odor, probably in virtue of sulphur compounds, and, we +have reason to believe, is derived from animal matter. The oils of +northwestern Pennsylvania are mostly brown, sometimes green by +reflected light, and have a pungent and characteristic odor. These +are undoubtedly derived from the Hamilton shales, which contain ten +or twenty per cent, of carbonaceous matter, apparently produced +from the decomposition of sea-weeds, since these are in places +exceedingly abundant, and nearly all other fossils are absent.</p> + +<p>The oils of Italy, though varying much in appearance, have +usually an ethereal odor that is rather agreeable; they are of +Tertiary age. The oils of Japan, differing much among themselves, +have as, a common character an odor quite different from the +Pennsylvania oils. So the petroleums of the Caspian, of India, +California, etc., occurring at different geological horizons, +exhibit a diversity of physical and chemical characters which may +be fairly supposed to depend upon the material from which they have +been distilled. The oils in the same region, however, are found to +exhibit a series of differences which are plainly the result of +causes operating upon them after their production. Near the +surface, they are thicker and darker; below, and near the +carbonaceous mass from which they have been generated, they are of +lighter gravity and color. We find, in limited quantity, oils which +are nearly white and may be used in lamps without refining--which +have been refined, in fact, in Nature's laboratory. Others, that +are reddish yellow by transmitted light, sometimes green by +reflected light, are called amber oils; these also occur in small +quantity, and, as I am led to believe, have acquired their +characteristics by filtration through masses of sandstone. Whatever +the variety of petroleum may be, if exposed for a long time to the +air it undergoes a spontaneous distillation, in which gases and +vapors, existing or formed, escape, and solid residues are left. +The nature of these solids varies with the petroleums from which +they come, some producing asphaltum, others paraffine, others +ozokerite, and so on through a long list of substances, which have +received distinct names as mineral species, though rarely, if ever, +possessing a definite and invariable composition. The change of +petroleum to asphalt may be witnessed at a great number of +localities. In Canada, the black asphaltic oil forms by its +evaporation great sheets of hard or tarry asphalt, called gum beds, +around the oil-springs. In the far West are numerous springs of +petroleum, which are known to the hunters as "<i>tar springs</i>," +because of the accumulations about them of the products of the +evaporation and oxidation of petroleum to tar or asphalt. Certain +less common oils yield ozokerite as a solid, and considerable +accumulations of this are known in Galicia and Utah.</p> + +<p>Natural paraffine is less abundant, and yet in places it occurs +in considerable quantity. Asphalt is the common name for the solid +residue from the evaporation and oxidation of petroleum; and large +accumulations of this substance are known in many parts of the +world, perhaps the most noted of all being that of the "Pitch +Lake". of the Island of Trinidad; there, as everywhere else, the +derivation of asphalt from petroleum is obvious, and traceable in +all stages. The asphalts, then, have a common history in this, that +they are produced by the evaporation and oxidation of petroleum. +But it should also be said that they share the diversity of +character of petroleums, and the term asphalt represents a group of +substances of which the physical characters and chemical +composition differ greatly in virtue of their derivation, and also +differ from changes which they are constantly undergoing. Thus at +the Pitch Lake in Trinidad, the central portion is a tarry +petroleum, near the sides a plastic asphalt, and finally that which +is of almost rock-like solidity. Hence we see that the solid +residues from petroleum are unstable compounds like the coals and +lignites, and in virtue of their organic nature are constantly +undergoing a series of changes of which the final term is +combustion or oxidation. From these facts we might fairly infer +that asphalts formed in geological ages anterior to the present +would exhibit characters resulting from still further distillation; +that they would be harder and drier, i.e., containing less volatile +ingredients and more fixed carbon. Such is, in fact, the case; and +these older asphalts are represented by <i>Grahamite, +Albertite</i>, etc., which I have designated as asphaltic coals. +These are found in fissures and cavities in rocks of various ages, +which have been more or less disturbed, and usually in regions +where springs of petroleum now exist. The Albertite fills fissures +in Carboniferous rocks in New Brunswick, on a line of disturbance +and near oil-springs. Precisely the same may be said of the +Grahamite of West Virginia. It fills a vertical fissure, which was +cut through the sandstones and shales of the coal-measures; in the +sandstones it remained open, in the shales it has been closed by +the yielding of the rock. The Grahamite fills the open fissure in +the sandstone, and was plainly introduced when in a liquid state. +In the vicinity are oil springs, and it is on an axis of +disturbance. From near Tampico, Mexico, I have received a +hydrocarbon solid--essentially Grahamite, asphalt, and petroleum. +These are described as occurring near together, and evidently +represent phases of different dates in the same substance. I have +collected asphaltic coals, very similar to Grahamite and Albertite +in appearance and chemical composition, in Colorado and Utah, where +they occur with the game associates as at Tampico. I have found at +Canajoharie, New York, in cavities in the lead-veins which rut the +Utica shale, a hydrocarbon solid which must have infiltrated into +these cavities as petroleum, but which, since the remote period +when the fissures were formed, has been distilled until it is now +<i>anthracite</i>. Similar anthracitic asphalt or asphaltic +anthracite is common in the Calciferous sand-rock in Herkimer +County, New York, where it is associated with, and often contained +in, the beautiful crystals of quartz for which the locality is +famous. Here the same phase of distillation is reached as in the +coke residuum of the petroleum stills.</p> + +<p>Again, in some crystalline limestones, detached scales or +crystals of <i>graphite</i> occur, which are undoubtedly the +product of the complete distillation of liquid hydrocarbons with +which the rock was once impregnated. The remarkable purity of such +graphite is the natural result of its mode of formation, and such +cases resemble the occurrence of graphite in cast iron and basalt. +The black clouds and bands which stain many otherwise white marbles +are generally due to specks of graphite, the residue of +hydrocarbons which once saturated the rock. Some limestones are +quite black from the carbonaceous matter they contain (Lycoming +Valley, Pa., Glenn's Falls, N. Y., and Collingwood, Canada), and +these are sold as black marbles, but if exposed to heat, such +limestones are blanched by the expulsion of the contained carbon; +usually a residue of anthracite or graphite is left, forming dark +spots or streaks, as we find in the clouded and banded marbles.</p> + +<p>Finally, the great work going on in Nature's laboratory may be +closely imitated by art; the differences in the results being +simply the consequence of differing conditions in the experiments. +Vegetable tissue has been converted artificially into the +equivalents of lignite, coal, anthracite, and graphite, with the +emission of vapors, gases, and oils closely resembling those +evolved in natural processes. So petroleum may be distilled to form +asphalt, and this in turn converted into Albertite and coke (i.e., +anthracite). Grahamite has been artificially produced from +petroleum by Mr. W. P. Jenney.</p> + +<p>In the preceding remarks, no effort has been made even to +enumerate all the so-called carbon minerals which have been +described. This was unnecessary in a discussion of the relations of +the more important groups, and would have extended this article +much beyond its prescribed length. Those who care to gain a fuller +knowledge of the different members of the various groups are +referred to the admirable chapter on the "Hydrocarbon Compounds" in +Dana's Mineralogy.</p> + +<p>It will, however, add to the value of this paper, if brief +mention be made of a few carbon minerals of which the genesis and +relations are not generally known, and in regard to which special +interest is felt, such as the diamond, jet, the hydrocarbon +jellies, "Dopplerite," etc.</p> + +<p>The diamond is found in the <i>débris</i> of metamorphic +rocks in many countries, and is probably one of the evolved +products of the distillation of organic matter they once contained. +Under peculiar circumstances it has apparently been formed by +precipitation from sulphide of carbon or some other volatile carbon +compound by elective affinity. Laboratory experiments have proved +the possibility of producing it by such a process, but the +artificial crystals are microscopic, perhaps only because a long +time is required to build up those of larger size.</p> + +<p>Jet is a carbonaceous solid which in most cases is a true +lignite, and generally retains more or less of the structure of +wood. Masses are sometimes found that show no structure, and these +are probably formed from bitumen which has separated from the wood +of which it once formed part, and which it generally saturates or +invests. In some cases, however, these masses of jet-like substance +are plainly the residuum of excrementitious matter voided by fishes +or reptiles. These latter are often found in the Triassic fish-beds +of Connecticut and New Jersey, and in the Cretaceous marls of the +latter State.</p> + +<p>The discovery of a quantity of hydrocarbon jelly, recently, in a +peat-bed at Scranton, Pa., has caused some wonder, but similar +substances (Dopplerite, etc.) have been met with in the peat-beds +of other countries; and while the history of the formation of this +singular group of hydrocarbons is not yet well understood, and +offers an interesting subject for future research, we have reason +to believe that these jellies have been of common occurrence among +the evolved products of the decomposition of vegetable tissue in +all ages.</p> + +<p>The fossil resins--often erroneously called gums--amber, kauri, +copal, etc., though interestingly related to the hydro-carbons +enumerated on the preceding pages, form no essential part of the +series, and demand only the briefest notice here.</p> + +<p><i>Amber</i> is the resin which exuded from certain coniferous +trees that, in Tertiary times, grew abundantly in northern Europe. +The leaves and trunks of these trees have generally perished; but +masses of their resin, more enduring, buried in the earth on the +shores of the Baltic, have in the lapse of time changed physically +and chemically, and have become fitted for the ornamental purposes +for which they have been used by all civilized nations.</p> + +<p><i>Kauri</i> is the resin of <i>Dammara australis</i>, a living +coniferous tree of New Zealand, and the "gum" is dug from the earth +on the sites of forests which have now disappeared.</p> + +<p><i>Copal</i> is a commercial name given to the resins of several +different trees, but the most esteemed, and indeed the only true +copal, is the product of <i>Trachylobium Mozambicense</i>, a tree +which grows along the Zanzibar coast, and has left its resin buried +in the sands of old raised beaches which it has abandoned.</p> + +<p>The diversity of character which the fossil resins exhibit shows +the complexity of the vital processes in operation in the vegetable +kingdom, and gives probability to the theory that some of the +differences we find in the carbon minerals are due to differences +in the plants from which they have been derived.</p> + +<p>The variations in the physical and chemical characters of +different coals from the same basin, and from different parts of +the same stratum, have been sometimes credited to the same cause; +but they are probably in greater degree due to the differences in +the conditions under which these varieties have been formed.</p> + +<p>Cannel coal, as I have shown elsewhere (<i>Amer. Jour. +Science</i>, March, 1857), is completely macerated vegetable tissue +which was deposited as carbonaceous mud at the bottom of lagoons in +the coal-marshes.</p> + +<p>Caking coals were probably peat, which accumulated under +somewhat uniform conditions, was constantly saturated with +moisture, and became a comparatively homogeneous and partially +gelatinous carbonaceous mass; while the open-burning coals which +show a distinctly laminated structure and consist of layers of +pitch-coal, alternating with bands of mineral charcoal or cannel, +seem to have been formed in alternating conditions, of more or less +moisture, and the bituminous portions are inclosed in cells or are +separated by partitions, so that the mass does not melt down, but +more or less perfectly holds its form when exposed to heat.</p> + +<p>The generalities of the origin and relations of the carbon +minerals have now been briefly considered; but a review of the +subject would be incomplete without some reference to the theories +which have been advanced by others, that are in conflict with the +views now presented. There have always been some who denied the +organic nature of the mineral hydrocarbons, but it has been +regarded as a sufficient answer to their theories, that chemists +and geologists are generally agreed in saying that no instances are +known of the occurrence in nature of hydrocarbons, solid, liquid, +or gaseous, in which the evidence was not satisfactory that they +had been derived from animal or vegetable tissue. A few exceptional +cases, however, in which chemists and geologists of deserved +distinction have claimed the possibility and even probability of +the production of marsh gas, petroleum, etc., through inorganic +agencies, require notice.</p> + +<p>In a paper published in the <i>Annales de Chimie et de +Physique</i>, Vol. IX., p.481, M. Berthelot attempts to show that +the formation of petroleum and carbureted hydrogen from inorganic +substances is possible, if it be true, as suggested by Daubre, that +there are vast masses of the alkaline metals--potassium, sodium, +etc.--deeply buried in the earth, and at a high temperature, to +which carbonic acid should gain access; and he demonstrates that, +these premises being granted, the formation of hydrocarbons would +necessarily follow.</p> + +<p>But it should be said that no satisfactory evidence has ever +been offered of the existence of zones or masses of the unoxidized +alkaline metals in the earth, and it is not claimed by Berthelot +that there are any facts in the occurrence of petroleum and +carbureted hydrogen in nature which seem to exemplify the chemical +action which he simply claims is theoretically possible. Berthelot +also says that, in most cases, there can be no doubt of the organic +origin of the hydrocarbons.</p> + +<p>Mendeleeff, in the <i>Revue Scientifique</i>, 1877, p. 409, +discusses at considerable length the genesis of petroleum, and +attempts to sustain the view that it is of inorganic origin. His +arguments and illustrations are chiefly drawn from the oil wells of +Pennsylvania and Canada, and for the petroleum of these two +districts he claims an inorganic origin, because, as he says, there +are no accumulations of organic matter below the horizons at which +the oils and gases occur. He then goes into a lengthy discussion of +the possible and probable source of petroleum, where, as in the +instances cited, an organic origin "is not possible." It is a +sufficient answer to M. Mendeleeff to say, that beneath the oil +bearing strata of western Pennsylvania are sheets of bituminous +shale, from one hundred to five hundred feet in thickness, which +afford an adequate, and it may be proved the true source, of the +petroleum, and that no petroleum has been found below these shales; +also that the oil-fields of Canada are all underlain by the +Collingwood shales, the equivalent of the Utica carbonaceous shales +of New York, and that from the out-crops of these shales petroleum +and hydrocarbon gases are constantly escaping. With a better +knowledge of the geology of the districts he refers to, he would +have seen that the facts in the cases he cites afford the strongest +evidence of the organic origin of petroleum.</p> + +<p>Among those who are agreed as to the organic origin of the +hydrocarbons, there is yet some diversity of opinion in regard to +the nature of the process by which they have been produced.</p> + +<p>Prof. J. P. Lesley has at various times advocated the theory +that petroleum is indigenous in the sand-rocks which hold it, and +has been derived from plants buried in them. ("Proc. Amer. Philos. +Soc.," Vol. X., pp. 33, 187, etc.)</p> + +<p>My own observations do not sanction this view, as the limited +number of plants buried in the sandstones which are now reservoirs +of petroleum must always have borne a small proportion in volume to +the mass of inorganic matter; and some of those which are saturated +with petroleum are almost completely destitute of the impressions +of plants.</p> + +<p>In all cases where sandstones contain petroleum in quantity, I +think it will be found that there are sheets of carbonaceous matter +below, from which carbureted hydrogen and petroleum are constantly +issuing. A more probable explanation of the occurrence of petrolem +in the sandstones is that they have, from their porosity, become +convenient receptacles for that which flowed from some organic +stratum below.</p> + +<p>Dr. T. Sterry Hunt has regarded limestones, and especially the +Niagara and corniferous, as the principal sources of our petroleum; +but, as I have elsewhere suggested, no considerable flow of +petroleum has ever been obtained from the Niagara limestone, though +at Chicago and Niagara Falls it contains a large quantity of +bituminous matter; also, that the corniferous limestone which Dr. +Hunt has regarded as the source of the oil of Canada and +Pennsylvania is too thin, and too barren of petroleum, or the +material out of which it is made, to justify the inference.</p> + +<p>The corniferous limestone is never more than fifty or sixty feet +thick, and does not contain even one per cent. of hydrocarbons; and +in southern Kentucky, where oil is produced in large quantity, this +limestone does not exist.</p> + +<p>That many limestones are more or less charged with petroleum is +well known; and in addition to those mentioned above, the Silurian +limestone at Collingwood, Canada, may be cited as an example. As I +have elsewhere shown, we have reason to believe that the petroleum +here is indigenous, and has been derived, in part, at least, from +animal organisms; but the limestones are generally compact, and if +cellular, their cavities are closed, and the amount of petroleum +which, under any circumstances, flows from or can be extracted from +limestone rock is small. On the other hand, the bituminous shales +which underlie the different oil regions afford an abundant source +of supply, holding the proper relations with the reservoirs that +contain the oil, and are spontaneously and constantly evolving gas +and oil, as may be observed in a great number of localities. For +this reason, while confessing the occurrence of petroleum and +asphaltum in many limestones, I am thoroughly convinced that little +or none of the petroleum of commerce is derived from them.</p> + +<p>Prof. S.F. Peckham, who has studied the petroleum field of +southern California, attributes the abundant hydrocarbon emanations +in that locality to microscopic animals. It is quite possible that +this is true in this and other localities, but the bituminous +shales which are evidently the sources of the petroleum of +Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, etc., generally contain abundant +impressions of sea weeds, and indeed these are almost the only +organisms which have left any traces in them. I am inclined, +therefore, now, as in my report on the rock oils of Ohio, published +in 1860, to ascribe the carbonaceous matter of the bituminous +shales of Pennsylvania and Ohio, and hence the petroleum derived +from them, to the easily decomposed cellular tissue of algæ +which have in their decomposition contributed a large percentage of +diffused carbonaceous matter to the sediments accumulating at the +bottom of the water where they grew. In a recent communication to +the National Academy of Sciences, Dr. T. Sterry Hunt has proposed +the theory that anthracite is the result of the decomposition of +vegetable tissue when buried in porous strata like sandstone; but +an examination of even a few of the important deposits of +anthracite in the world will show that no such relationship as he +suggests obtains.</p> + +<p>Anthracite may and does occur in sedimentary rocks of varied +character, but, so far as my observation has extended, never in +quantity in sandstone. In the Lower Silurian rocks anthracite +occurs, both in the Old World and in the New, where no metamorphism +has affected it, and where it is simply the normal result of the +long continued distillation of plant tissue; but the anthracite +beds which are known and mined in so many countries are the results +of the metamorphism of coal-beds of one or another age, by local +outbursts of trap, or the steaming and baking of the disturbed +strata in mountain chains, numerous instances of which are given on +a preceding page.</p> + +<p>M. Mendeleeff, in his article already referred to, misled by a +want of knowledge of the geology of our oil-fields, and ascribing +the petroleum to an inorganic cause, connects the production of oil +in Pennsylvania and Caucasia with the neighboring mountain chains +of the Alleghanies and the Caucasus; but in these localities a +sufficient amount of organic matter can be found to supply a source +for the petroleum, while the upheaval and loosening of the strata +along lines parallel with the axes of elevation has favored the +decomposition (spontaneous distillation) of the carbonaceous +strata. It should be distinctly stated, also, that no igneous rocks +are found in the vicinity of productive oil-wells, here or +elsewhere, and there are no facts to sustain the view that +petroleum is a volcanic product.</p> + +<p>In the valley of the Mississippi, in Ohio, Illinois, and +Kentucky, are great deposits of petroleum, far removed from any +mountain chain or volcanic vent, and the cases which have been +cited of the limited production of hydrocarbons in the vicinity of, +and probably in connection with, volcanic centers may be explained +by supposing that in these cases the petroleum is distilled from +sedimentary strata containing organic matter by the proximity of +melted rock, or steam.</p> + +<p>Everything indicates that the distillation which has produced +the greatest quantities of petroleum known was effected at a low +temperature, and the constant escape of petroleum and carbureted +hydrogen from the outcrops of bituminous shales, as well as the +result of weathering on the shales, depriving them of all their +carbon, shows that the distillation and complete elimination of the +organic matter they contain may take place at the ordinary +temperature.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="23"></a></p> + +<h2>ESTIMATION OF SULPHUR IN IRON AND STEEL.</h2> + +<h3>By GEORGE CRAIG.</h3> + +<p>For wellnigh two years I have been estimating sulphur in iron +and steel by a modification of the evolution process, which +consists in passing the evolved gases through an ammoniacal +solution of peroxide of hydrogen, which oxidizes the sulphureted +hydrogen to sulphuric acid, which latter is estimated as usual. The +<i>modus operandi</i> is as follows:</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/14a.png" alt=""></p> + +<p>100 grains of the iron or steel are placed in the 10 oz. flask, +a, along with ½ oz. water; 1½ oz. hydrochloric acid +are added from the stoppered funnel, b, in such quantities at a +time as to produce a moderate evolution of gas through the nitrogen +bulb, c, which contains 1/8 oz. (20 vols.) peroxide of hydrogen and +½ oz. ammonia. The tube, d, is to condense the bulk of the +hydrochloric acid which distills over during the operation. When +all the acid has been added and the evolution of gas becomes +sluggish, heat is applied and the liquid boiled till all action +ceases. Air is blown through the aparatus for a few minutes and the +contents of c and d washed into a small beaker and acidified with +hydrochloric acid, boiled, barium chloride added, and the barium +sulphate filtered off after standing a short time. A blank +experiment must be done with each new lot of peroxide of hydrogen +obtained, which always gives under 0.1 barium sulphate with me.</p> + +<p>The whole operation is finished within two hours, the usual +oxidation process occupying nearly two days; and the results +obtained are invariably slightly higher than by the oxidation +processes.</p> + +<p>Until lately I have always added excess of chlorate of potash to +the residue left in a, evaporated it nearly to dryness, diluted, +filtered, and added chloride of barium to the diluted filtrate, but +only once have I obtained a trace of precipitate after standing 48 +hours, and the pig-iron in that case contained 8 per cent. of +silicon, so that all the sulphur is evolved during the process. It +has been objected to the evolution process that when the iron +contains copper all the sulphur is not evolved, but theoretically +it ought to be evolved whether copper is present or not; and to +test the point I fused 3 lb. of ordinary Scotch pig-iron with some +copper for half an hour in a Fletcher's gas furnace. No copper +could be detected in the iron by mere observation with a +microscope, but it gave on analysis 0.225 per cent. of copper, and +on estimating the sulphur in it by the above process and by +oxidation with chlorate of potash and hydrochloric acid, using 100 +grains in each case, and performing blank experiments, I found:</p> + +<table summary="" border="0" cellspacing="5"> +<tr> +<td>By peroxide of hydrogen process</td> +<td>0.0357 per cent.</td> +</tr> + +<tr> +<td>By oxidation (KClO<sub>3</sub> and HCl) process,</td> +<td>0.0302 per cent.</td> +</tr> +</table> + +so that even in highly cupriferous pig-iron all the sulphur is +evolved on treatment with strong hydrochloric acid.--<i>Chem. +News</i>. + +<hr> +<p><a name="12"></a></p> + +<h2>THE AIR IN RELATION TO HEALTH.</h2> + +<p>[Footnote: Abstract of a lecture before the Master Plumbers' +Association, New York, Nov. 2. 1882.]</p> + +<h3>By Prof. C. F. CHANDLER.</h3> + +<p>It is only about one hundred years since the first important +facts were discovered which threw light upon the chemistry of +atmosphere. It was in 1774 that Dr. Priestley, in London, and +Scheele, in Sweden, discovered the vital constituents of the +atmosphere--the oxygen gas which supports life. The inert gas, +nitrogen, had been discovered a year or two before. When we examine +our atmosphere, we find it is composed of oxygen and nitrogen. The +nitrogen constitutes no less than 80 per cent, of the atmosphere; +the remaining 20 percent, consists of oxygen, so that the +atmosphere consists almost entirely of these two gases, odorless +and colorless and invisible. The atmosphere is, however, never free +from moisture; a certain amount of aqueous vapor is always present. +The quantity can hardly be stated, as it varies from day to day and +month to month; it depends upon the temperature and other +conditions. Then we have the gas commonly called carbonic acid in +extremely minute quantities, about one part in 2,500, or four +one-hundredths of one per cent. A small quantity of ammonia and a +small quantity of ozone are also present.</p> + +<p>Besides these gases which have been enumerated, and which play +an important part in supporting life in both the kingdoms of +nature, we find a great many solids. Every housewife knows how dust +settles upon everything about the house. This dust has recently +been the subject of most active study, and it proves to be quite as +important as the vital oxygen that actually supports life. When we +examine this dust--and it falls everywhere, not only in the city +streets, but upon the tops of mountains, upon the deck of the ocean +steamer, and the Arctic snow--we find some of it does not belong to +the earth, and, as it is not terrestrial, we call it cosmical. And +when it falls in large pieces we call it a meteorite or shooting +star. When the Challenger crossed the Atlantic, and soundings were +made in the deep sea, in the mud that was brought up and examined +there were found various little particles that were not +terrestrial. They were dust particles that were dropped into the +atmosphere of the earth from outer space. Then we have terrestrial +dust, and we divide that into mineral and organic. The mineral +consists chiefly of clay, sand, and, near the ocean, salt. Then we +have organic matter. Some of this is dead leaves which have been +ground to powder. Animal matter has also become dry and reduced to +powder, and we actually find the remains of animals and plants +floating upon the atmosphere, especially in the city. Examinations +of the dust which had collected upon the basement and higher +windows of a Fifth avenue residence showed that the dust upon the +basement floor was chiefly composed of sand. And the higher up I +went, the smaller proportion of sand and a larger proportion of +animal matter, so that the dust that blows into our faces is +largely decomposing animal substance.</p> + +<p>But we have a living matter in the atmosphere. We often notice +in the summer, after a rain, that the ground is yellow. On +gathering up the yellow powder and examining it under the +microscope, we find that it consists of pollen. The pollen of rag +weed and other plants is supposed to be the cause of hay fever. But +we also have something far more important in the germs of certain +classes of vegetation. The effects are familiar. If food is put +away, it becomes mouldy. This mould is a peculiar kind of +vegetation which is called a fungus, and the plants fungi. In order +for this mould to develop a certain temperature and a certain +degree of moisture are necessary. Our food, we say, decays. Now, +what we call decay is really the growth of these fungi. Animal and +vegetable substances which these fungi seize upon are destroyed. +All ordinary fermentations and putrefactions are due to mould +fungi, yeast plants, or bacteria, and liquids undergoing these +processes carry these fungi and their germs wherever they go. The +refuse of the city pollutes the air. You have only to pass along +any street to find more or less rubbish. That furnishes the nidus +for the growth and development of these germs, and until we adopt +better methods of getting rid of that refuse, we never shall have +the air of this city in the condition that it should be.</p> + +<p>One of the most constant sources of the pollution of the air in +inhabited localities is the decomposition that takes place in the +ground. Refuse of every kind gets into it. Our sewers are leaky, +and putrefaction is constantly going on. The soil down to the limit +of the ground water contains a large amount of air. This air, when +the atmospheric pressure in the house is diminished, is drawn in +with such organic impurities as it contains. A cement floor in the +cellar is not a protection against this entrance of the ground air, +for the cement is porous to the passage of air, but a remedy may be +found by laying on the cement a covering of coal tar pitch, in +which bricks are set on edge, the spaces between the bricks are +filled with the melted pitch, and the bricks then covered with coal +tar pitch. When the house is building, the foundation walls should +also be similarly coated, outside as well as inside. Such a cellar +floor was considered to be absolutely impervious to ground air and +moisture. The lecturer had recently laid this floor in his own +house with the greatest success. The atmosphere of the entire house +is improved, and the expense is very moderate. Another source of +the contamination of the air of houses is the heating apparatus. +Stoves and furnaces, however well constructed at first, will, from +the contraction and expansion of the metal, soon allow the escape +of coal gas, and this danger is greatly increased by the use of +dampers in the stove-pipe. When, to regulate the fire, the damper +in the pipe is closed, the gases, having their passage to the +chimney cut off, will escape through any cracks or openings in the +stove into the room. Prof. Chandler, having kept a record of +accidents from this cause, had accumulated a formidable list of +suffocations due to the use of the damper. The danger was now +somewhat lessened by providing dampers with perforations in the +center, which allowed the gases to escape when the damper was +closed. As regards the maintenance of pure air in houses, the +preference was given to the open fire-place. The hot-air furnace +deriving a supply of pure air from out of doors was, when properly +constructed, a very satisfactory method of heating, but in city +houses the mistake was often made of carrying the cold air duct of +the furnace to the front of the house, where it was exposed to the +dust of the streets. It should be taken from the rear end of the +house, and carried some distance above the surface of the yard. It +was an excellent expedient to insert in the cold air duct a wire +screen to hold a layer of cotton to retain the floating impurities +which might enter the air-box. This could be removed from time to +time, and the cotton replaced. Steam heating has been objected to +by many for reasons in no wise due to the apparatus, but to neglect +in the use of it. The complaint of closeness where steam is used is +due to the fact that a room containing a steam radiator can be +heated with every door and window closed, and no fresh air +admitted, while with stoves and open fire-places a certain quantity +of fresh air must be admitted to maintain the fire. Where radiators +are used, the ventilation of the rooms should, therefore, be looked +after. Again, the complaint that steam apparatus has an unpleasant +odor is due to the fact that the radiators are allowed to become +covered with dust, which is cooked, and gives rise to the smells +complained of. The radiator should be from time to time cleaned. +When these precautions are taken, no means of heating is more +satisfactory than steam.</p> + +<p>Sewer gas is another source of contamination; this is a very +indefinite term, to which formerly many false and exaggerated +properties of causing specific diseases were attributed. It is now, +however, recognized to mean simply the air of sewers, generally not +differing very greatly from common air, containing a certain +proportion of marsh gas, carbonic acid, and sulphureted hydrogen, +etc. No one of these gases, however, is capable of producing the +diseases attributed to sewer gas. Careful research has shown that +it is the sewage itself, containing germs of specific disease, +which is added to the air in the sewer by the breaking of bubbles +of gas on its surface, which is the cause of the diseases +associated with sewers.</p> + +<p>An intimate connection is believed to exist between the germs of +sewer air and diphtheria, and probably also between sewer air and +scarlet fever. This sewer gas is to be excluded from our houses by +proper systems of plumbing, and to such an extent have these now +been perfected, that there is no objection to having plumbing +fixtures in all parts of the house. This opinion has lately been +objected to in the <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, as it was at a +meeting of the Academy of Medicine last spring, but on wholly +insufficient grounds.</p> + +<p>The objectors all insist that a trap will allow sewer gas to +pass through it, and the experiments made at the Academy of +Medicine showed that sulphureted hydrogen gas, etc., would so pass. +The advocates of the trap have never denied that the water seal +would absorb gases on one side and give them off on the other, but +they do deny that, in the conditions existing in good plumbing, +such gases will be given off in quantities to do any damage, and +they confidently assert that the germ which is the dangerous +element will not pass the seal at all. Pumpelly investigated the +matter for the National Board of Health, and in no instance was he +able to make the germ pass the seal of the trap. It is now proposed +to set up against the weight of this scientific testimony the +results of an investigator in Chicago, whose work was at once +appropriated as an advertisement by stock jobbing disinfectant +companies in a manner which raises a suspicion that the +investigation was made in their interest. He described tersely the +essentials of good plumbing, the necessity of a trap on the house +drain, the ventilation of the soil-pipe, and the ventilation of the +trap against siphonage. Of the first, he said that it offered +protection to each householder against the entrance into his house +of the germs of a contagious disease which passed into the common +sewer from the house of a neighbor. Were the trap dispensed with, +the contagion in the sewer would have free entrance into the houses +connecting with it.</p> + +<p>Prof. Chandler, in conclusion, alluded to the cordial relations +now existing between the Board of Health and the majority of the +master plumbers of the city. He said that for himself his opinion +of the craft had greatly risen during his intimate connection with +plumbers the last two years. He thought the majority of the jobs +now done in the city are well executed. He believed that the Board +of Health had not been obliged to proceed against more than eight +master plumbers since the new law went into force. He called upon +the Association to adopt a "code of ethics," which should define +what an honest plumber can do and cannot do, and he illustrated his +meaning by citing an extraordinary case of fraudulent workmanship +which had been recently reported to him. His remarks on this point +were greeted with frequent outbursts of applause.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="13"></a></p> + +<h2>THE PLANTAIN AS A STYPTIC.</h2> + +<p>The following abstract of a paper read by Dr. Quinlan at the +recent British Pharmaceutical Congress, may prove of interest to +medical readers in this country, where the plant mentioned is a +common weed:</p> + +<p>"About a year ago Dr. Quinlan had seen the chewed leaves of the +<i>Plantago lanceolata</i> successfully used to stop a dangerous +hemorrhage from leech bites in a situation where pressure could not +be employed. He had searched out the literature of the subject, and +found that, although this herb is highly spoken of by Culpepper and +other old writers as a styptic, and alluded to as such in the plays +of Shakespeare, its employment seems to have died out. Professor +Quinlan described the suitable varieties of plantain, and exhibited +preparations which had been made for him by Dr. J. Evans, of +Dublin, State apothecary. They dried leaves and powdered leaves, +conserved with glycerine, for external use; the juice preserved by +alcohol, as also by glycerine, for internal use; and a green +extract. He gave an account of the chemistry of the juice, from +which it appeared that it was not a member of the tannin series; +and also described its physiological effect in causing a tendency +to stasia in the capillaries of the tail of a goldfish, examined +with a microscopic power of 400 X. He regarded its styptic power as +partly mechanical and partly physiological. The juice, in large +doses, he had found useful in internal hemorrhages. The knowledge +of the properties of this plant he thought would be useful in cases +of emergency, because it could be obtained in any field and by the +most uninstructed persons."</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="14"></a></p> + +<h2>BACTERIA.</h2> + +<p>Bacteria, whether significant of disease or decline of health, +are found more or less numerous in everything we eat and drink. The +germs or spores of many kinds, known as <i>termo</i>, +<i>lineola</i>, tenue, spirillum, vibriones, etc, exist in almost +infinite numbers; some of the smallest are too small to be seen by +the highest powers, which, being lodged in all vegetable and animal +substances, spring into life and develop very rapidly under +favorable circumstances. They develop most rapidly when +decomposition commences, and seem to indicate the degree or +activity of that decomposition, also hastening the same. They are +found most numerous in the feces, and usually fully developed in +the fresh evacuations of persons of all ages. They may be seen +plainly under a thin glass with high powers with strong or clear +light, when the material is much diluted with water.</p> + +<p>These bacteria appear almost as numerously, yet more slowly, in +urine, either upon exposure to air or when freshly evacuated, when +the general health of the individual is declining, or any tendency +to decomposition. A diagnosis can be aided very greatly by a study +of these bacteria, as they indicate or determine the vitality, +vigor, and purity of the system, whether more or less subject to +disease, even before any signs of disease appear. They seem to +preindicate the hold of the life force on the material, and always +appear when that force is broken. Their relative quantity found in +feces is as a barometric indication of the general health or some +particular disturbance, and it is surprising how very fast they +multiply while simply passing the intestines under circumstances +favorable for their growth. These forms, so small, are important, +because so very numerous, and their study has been, perhaps, +avoided by many; yet they certainly mean something and effect +something, even the non-malignant varieties as mentioned above, and +it is certainly worth while to continue to study their meaning, +even beyond what has already been written by others on the +subject.--<i>J.M. Adams, in The Microscope</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="26"></a></p> + +<h2>THE SOY BEAN</h2> + +<h3>(<i>Soja hispida</i>.)</h3> + +<p>A good deal of attention has lately been directed to this plant +in consequence of the enormous extent to which it is cultivated in +China for the sake of the small seeds which it produces, and which +are known as soy beans. These vary considerably in size, shape, and +color, according to the variety of the plant which produces them. +They are for the most part about the size and shape of an ordinary +field pea, and, like the pea, are of a yellow color; some, however, +are of a greenish tint. These seeds contain a large quantity of +oil, which is expressed from them in China and used for a variety +of purposes. The residue is moulded with a considerable amount of +pressure into large circular cakes, two feet or more across, and +six inches or eight inches thick. This cake is used either for +feeding cattle or for manuring the land; indeed, a very large trade +is done in China with bean cake (as it is always called) for these +purposes. The well-known sauce called soy is also prepared from +seeds of this bean. The plant generally known as Soja hispida is by +modern botanists referred to Glycine soja. It is an erect, hairy, +herbaceous plant. The leaves are three-parted and the +papilionaceous flowers are born in axillary racemes. It is too +tender for outdoor cultivation in this country, but, has been +recommended for extended growth in our colonies as a commercial +plant. The plants are readily used from seed.--<i>J.R.F., in The +Garden</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><img src="images/15a.png" alt= +"THE SOY BEAN. <i>(Soja Lispida)</i>"></p> + +<p class="ctr">THE SOY BEAN. <i>(Soja Lispida)</i></p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="27"></a></p> + +<h2>ERICA CAVENDISHIANA.</h2> + +<p>The plant of which the illustration is given is one of those +fine specimens which has made the collection of J. Lawless, Esq., +The Cottage, Exeter, famous all over the south and west of England. +It is only one specimen among a considerable collection of +hard-wooded plants which are cultivated and trained in first rate +style by Mr. George Cole, the gardener, one of the most successful +plant growers of the day. The plant was in the winning collection +of Mr. Cole exhibited at the late spring show held at +Plymouth.--<i>The Gardeners' Chronicle</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/15b.png"><img src= +"images/15b_th.jpg" alt="ERICA CAVENDISHIANA."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">ERICA CAVENDISHIANA.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="28"></a></p> + +<h2>PHILESIA BUXIFOLIA.</h2> + +<p>We figure this plant, not as a novelty, but for the purpose of +showing what a fine thing it is when grown under propitious +circumstances. Generally, we see it more or less starved in the +greenhouse, and even when planted out in the winter garden its +flowers lack the size and richness of color they attain +out-of-doors. It comes from the extreme south of South America, +which accounts for its hardihood, and is a near ally of the +Lapageria: the latter is remarkable for withstanding even the +noxious fumes of the copper smelting works in Chili, and as the +Philesia has similar tough leaves, it is probable that it would +support the vitiated atmosphere of a town better than most +evergreens. In any case, there is no reasonable doubt but that, if +cultivators would take the necessary pains, they might select +perfectly hardy varieties both of the Lapageria and of the +Philesia. As it is, we can only call the Philesea half-hardy north +of the Thames, while the Lapageria is not even that. The curious +Philageria, raised in Messrs. Veitch's nursery and described and +figured in our columns in 1872, p. 358, is a hybrid raised between +the two genera. For the specimen of Philesia figured we are +indebted to Mr. Dartnall.--<i>The Gardeners' Chronicle</i>.</p> + +<p class="ctr"><a href="images/15c.png"><img src= +"images/15c_th.jpg" alt= +"PHILESIA BUXIFOLIA--HARDY SHRUB--FLOWERS, ROSE PINK."></a></p> + +<p class="ctr">PHILESIA BUXIFOLIA--HARDY SHRUB--FLOWERS, ROSE +PINK.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="29"></a></p> + +<h2>MAHOGANY.</h2> + +<p>The mahogany tree, says the <i>Lumber World</i>, is a native of +the West Indies, the Bahamas, and that portion of Central America +that lies adjacent to the Bay of Honduras, and has also been found +in Florida. It is stated to be of moderately rapid growth, reaching +its full maturity in about two hundred years. Full grown, it is one +of the monarchs of tropical America. Its trunk, which often exceeds +forty feet in length and six in diameter, and massive arms, rising +to a lofty height, and spreading with graceful sweep over immense +spaces, covered with beautiful foliage, bright, glossy, light, and +airy, clinging so long to the spray as to make it almost an +evergreen, present a rare combination of loveliness and grandeur. +The leaves are small, delicate, and polished like those of the +laurel. The flowers are small and white, or greenish yellow. The +fruit is a hard, woody capsule, oval, not unlike the head of a +turkey in size and shape, and contains five cells, in each of which +are inclosed about fifteen seeds.</p> + +<p>The mahogany tree was not discovered till the end of the +sixteenth century, and was not brought into European use till +nearly a century later. The first mention of it is that it was used +in the repair of some of Sir Walter Raleigh's ships, at Trinidad, +in 1597. Its finely variegated tints were admired, but in that age +the dream of El Dorado caused matters of more value to be +neglected. The first that was brought to England was about 1724, a +few planks having been sent to Dr. Gibbons, of London, by a brother +who was a West Indian captain. The doctor was erecting a house, and +gave the planks to the workmen, who rejected them as being too +hard. The doctor then had a candle-box made of the wood, his +cabinet-maker also complaining of the hardness of the timber. But, +when finished, the box became an object of general curiosity and +admiration. He had one bureau, and her Grace of Buckingham had +another, made of this beautiful wood, and the despised mahogany now +became a prominent article of luxury, and at the same time raised +the fortunes of the cabinet-maker by whom it had been so little +regarded. Since that lime it has taken a leading rank among the +ornamental woods, having come to be considered indispensable where +luxury is intended to be indicated.</p> + +<p>A few facts will furnish a tolerably distinct idea of the size +of this splendid tree. The mahogany lumbermen, having selected a +tree, surround it with a platform about twelve feet above the +ground, and cut it above the platform. Some twelve or fifteen feet +of the largest part of the trunk are thus lost. Yet a single log +not unfrequently weighs from six or seven to fifteen tons, and +sometimes measures as much as seventeen feet in length and four and +a half to five and a half feet in diameter, one tree furnishing +two, three, or four such logs. Some trees have yielded 12,000 +superficial feet, and at average price pieces have sold for +$15,000. Messrs. Broadwood London, pianoforte manufacturers, paid +£3,000 for three logs, all cut from one tree, and each about +fifteen feet long and more than three feet square. The tree is cut +at two seasons of the year--in the autumn and about Christmas time. +The trunk, of course, furnishes timber of the largest dimensions, +but that from the branches is preferred for ornamental purposes, +owing to its closer grain and more variegated color.</p> + +<p>In low and damp soil its growth is rapid; but the most valuable +trees grow slowly among rocks on sterile soil, and seem to gather +compactness and beauty from the very struggle which they make for +an existence. In the Bahamas, in the most desolate regions, once +flourished that curiously veined and much esteemed variety once +known in Europe as "Madeira wood," but which has long since been +exterminated. Jamaica, also, which used to be a fruitful source of +mahogany, and whence in 1753 not less than 521,000 feet were +shipped, is now almost depleted. That which is now furnished from +there is very inferior, pale, and porous, and is less esteemed than +that of Cuba, San Domingo, or Honduras.</p> + +<p>In a dry state mahogany Is very durable, and not liable to the +attack of worms, but, when exposed to the weather it does not last +long. It would therefore make excellent material for floors, roofs, +etc., but its costliness limits its utility in this direction, and +it is chiefly employed for furniture, doors, and a few other +articles of joinery, for which it is among the best materials +known. It has been used for sashes and window frames, but is not +desirable for this purpose on account of the ease with which it is +affected by the weather. It has also been used in England to some +extent for the framing of machinery in cotton-mills. Its color is a +reddish brown of different shades and luster, sometimes becoming a +yellowish brown, and often much veined and mottled with darker +shades of the same color. Its texture is uniform, and the rings +indicating its annual growth are not very distinct. The larger +medullary rays are absent, but the smaller ones are often very +distinct, with pores between them. In the Jamaica woods these pores +are often filled with a white substance, but in that brought from +Central America they are generally empty. It has neither taste nor +odor, shrinks very slightly, and warps, it is said, less than any +other wood.</p> + +<p>The variety called Spanish mahogany comes from the West Indies, +and is in smaller logs than the Honduras mahogany, being generally +about two feet square and ten feet long. It is close grained and +hard, generally darker than the Honduras, free from black specks, +and sometimes strongly marked; the pores appear as though chalk had +been rubbed into them.</p> + +<p>The Honduras mahogany comes in logs from two to four feet square +and twelve to fourteen long; planks have been obtained seven feet +wide. Its grain is very open and often irregular, with black or +gray specks. The veins and figures are often very distinct and +handsome, and that of a fine golden color and free from gray specks +is considered the best. It holds the glue better than any other +wood. The weight of a cubic foot of mahogany varies from +thirty-five to fifty-three pounds. Its strength is between +sixty-seven and ninety-six, stiffness seventy-three to +ninety-three, and toughness sixty-one to ninety-nine--oak being +considered as one hundred in each case.</p> + +<p>There are three other species of the genus <i>Swietania</i> +besides the mahogany tree, two of them natives of the East Indies. +One is a very large tree, growing in the mountainous parts of +central Hindostan, and rises to a great height, throwing out many +branches toward the top. The head is spreading and the leaves bear +some resemblance to those of the American species. The wood is a +dull red, not so beautiful as that known to commerce, but harder, +heavier, and more durable. The natives of India consider it the +most durable timber which their forests afford, and consequently +use it, when it can be procured, wherever strength and durability +are particularly desired. The other East Indian species is found in +the mountains of Sircars, which run parallel to the Bay of Bengal. +The tree is not so large as any of the other species described, and +the wood is of much different appearance, being of a deep yellow, +considerably resembling box. The grain is close, and the wood both +heavy and durable. The third species, known as African mahogany, is +brought from Sierra Leone. It is hard and durable, and used for +purposes requiring these properties in an eminent degree. If, +however, the heart of the tree be exposed or crossed in cutting or +trimming the timber, it is very liable to premature and rapid +decay.</p> + +<hr> +<p><a name="33"></a></p> + +<h2>ANIMALS AND THE ARTS.</h2> + +<p>In many of the museums efforts are made to perfect economic +collections of animals, so as to show how they can be applied to +advantage in the arts and sciences. The collection and preparation +of the corals, for example, form an important industry. The fossil +corals are richly polished and set in studs and sleeve-buttons, +forming rich and ornamental objects. The fossil coral that +resembles a delicate chain has been often copied by designers, +while the red and black corals have long been used. The best +fisheries are along the coasts of Tunis, Algeria, and Morocco, from +2 to 10 miles from shore, in from 30 to 150 fathoms. Good coral is +also common at Naples, near Leghorn and Genoa, and on various parts +of the sea, as Sardinia, Corsica, Catalonia, Provence, etc. It +ranges in color from pure white through all the shades of pink, +red, and crimson. The rose pink is most valued. For a long time +Marseilles was the market, but now Italy is the great center of the +trade, the greater number of boats hailing from Torre del Greco, +while outside persons are forced to pay a heavy tax. The vessels +are schooners, lateen-rigged, from three to fourteen tons. Large +nets are used, which, during the months between March and October, +are dragged, dredge-like, over the rocks. A large crew will haul in +a season from 600 to 900 pounds. To prevent the destruction of the +industry, the reef is divided into ten parts, only one being worked +a year, and by the time the tenth is reached the first is overgrown +again with a new growth. In 1873 the Algerian fisheries alone, +employing 3,150 men, realized half a million of dollars. The choice +grades are always valuable, the finest tints bringing over $5 per +ounce, while the small pieces, used for necklaces, and called +collette, are worth only $1.50 per ounce. The large oval pieces are +sent to China, where they are used as buttons of office by the +mandarins.</p> + +<h3>THE CONCH-SHELL.</h3> + +<p>Somewhat similar in appearance to coral is the conch jewelry, +sets of which have been sold for $300. The tint is exquisite, but +liable to fade when exposed to the sun. It is made from the great +conch, common in Southern Florida and the West Indies. The shells +are imported into Europe by thousands, and cut up into studs, +sleeve-buttons, and various articles of ornament. These conches are +supposed to be the producers of pink pearls, but I have opened +hundreds of them and failed to find a single pearl. The conch shell +is used by the cameo cutter. Rome and Paris are the principal seats +of the trade, and immense numbers of shell cameos are imported by +England and America, and mounted in rings, brooches, etc. The one +showing a pale salmon-color upon an orange ground is much used. In +1847, 300 persons worked upon these shells in Paris alone, the +number of shells used being immense. In Paris 300,000 helmet-shells +were used in one year, valued at $40,000 of the bull's mouth, +80,000, averaging a little over a shilling apiece, equal to +$34,000. Eight thousand black helmets were used, valued at $9,000. +The value of the large cameos produced in Paris in the year 1847 +was about $160,000, and the small ones $40,000. In the Wolfe +collection of shells at the Museum of Natural History, Central +Park, is a fine specimen of the queen conch from the Florida reef, +with a fine head cut into the outer surface, showing how it is +done. The tools of the worker in cameos are of the most delicate +description. Fine files, knitting-needle like implements, +triangular-shaped steel cutters, are arranged in a seemingly +endless confusion before the worker. The shell or piece of shell to +be cut is either lashed or glued to a heavy block or held in the +hand, and the face, animal, or other object outlined first with a +delicate lead; having thus laid the foundation, the lines are gone +over with a delicate needle first, then various kinds, the work +gradually growing before the eye, reminding one of the work of the +engraver on wood.</p> + +<h3>LIVING BEETLES, ETC.</h3> + +<p>Insects have always been used more or less in decoration, +especially in Brazil, where the richly-colored beetles of the +country are affected as articles of personal adornment. Recently in +a Union Square jewelry store a monster beetle was on exhibition, +having been sent there for repairs. It was alive, and about its +body was a delicate gold band, locked with a minute padlock; a gold +chain attached it to the shawl of the owner. Sometimes they are +worn upon the headgear, their slow, cumbersome movements preventing +them from attracting great attention. They are valued at from $50 +to $100 apiece. Snakes, the rich green variety so common in New +England, are worn by some ladies as bracelets, while the gorgeous +reptiles are often imitated in gold and silver, with eyes of +diamonds, rubies, or black pearls. Gold bears are the proper thing +now for pins. In the East the chameleon is often worn as a head +ornament, the animal rarely moving, and forming at least a +picturesque decoration, with its odd shape and sculptured outlines. +Various other reptiles, as small turtles, alligators, etc., are +pressed into service. The curious soldier-crab has been used as a +pin. Placed in a box with a rich pearly shell prepared for the +purpose, it will change houses, and then, secured by a gold or +silver chain, roams about the wearer, waving its red and blue claws +in a warlike manner. Birds are, perhaps, more commonly used as +natural ornaments than any other, and a cloak of the skins of +humming birds is one of the most magnificent objects to be +imagined. One, of a rare species, was once sold in Europe for +$5,000. Single birds are often worth $700 or $800. A cloak of the +skin of the great auk would bring $8,000 or $10,000. Some of the +most beautiful pheasants are extremely valuable--worth their weight +in gold. Tiger claws are used in the decoration of hats, and are +extremely valuable and hard to obtain.</p> + +<p>Within ten years the alligator has become an important factor to +the artistic manufacturer. The hide, by a new process, is tanned to +an agreeable softness and used in innumerable ways. The most costly +bags and trunks are made from it; pocket-books, card-cases, +dining-room chairs are covered with it, and it has been used as a +dado on the library wall of a well-known naturalist. It makes an +excellent binding for certain books. Among fishes the shark +provides a skin used in a variety of ways. The shagreen of the +shark's ray is of great value. Canes are made of the shark's +backbone, the interstices being filled with silver or shell plates. +Shark's teeth are used to decorate the weapons of various nations. +The magnificent scales, nearly four inches across and tipped with +seemingly solid silver, of the giant herring, are used, while +scales of many of the tribe have long been used in the manufacture +of artificial pearls.</p> + +<h3>PEARLS.</h3> + +<p>The latter are perhaps the most valuable of all the offerings of +animate nature, and are the results of the efforts of the bivalve +to protect itself from injury. A parasite bores into the shell of +the pearl bearer, and when felt by the animal it immediately +fortifies itself by covering up the spot with its pearly secretion; +the parasite pushes on, the oyster piling up until an imperfect +pearl attached to the shell is the result. The clear oval pearls +are formed in a similar way, only in this case a bit of sand has +become lodged in the folds of the creature, and in its efforts to +protect itself from the sharp edges, the bit becomes covered, layer +by layer, and assumes naturally an oval shape. This growth of the +pearl, as it is incorrectly termed, can be seen by breaking open a +$500 gem, when the nacre will be seen in layers, resembling the +section of an onion. The Romans were particularly fond of pearls, +and, according to Pliny, the wife of Caius Caligula possessed a +collection valued at over $8,000,000 of our money. Julius Caesar +presented a jewel to the mother of Brutus valued at $250,000, while +the pearl drank by Cleopatra was estimated at $400,000. Tavernier, +the famous traveler, sold a pearl to the Shah of Persia for +$550,000. A twenty-thousand-dollar pearl was taken from American +waters in the time of Philip II. It was pear-shaped, and as large +as a pigeon's egg. Another, taken from the same locality, is now +owned by a lady in Madrid who values it at $30,000.</p> + +<p>Fresh water pearls are often of great value. The streams of St. +Clair County. Ill., and Rutherford County, Tenn., produce large +quantities, but the largest one was found near Salem, N. J. It was +about an inch across, and brought $2,000 in Paris. The pearls from +the Tay, Doon, and Isla rivers, in Scotland, are preferred by many +to the Oriental, and in one summer $50,000 worth of pearls have +been taken from these localities by men and children. +Mother-of-pearl used in the arts is sold by the ton, from $50 to +$700 being average prices. The last year's pearl fisheries in +Ceylon alone realized $80,000, to obtain which more than 7,000,000 +pearl oysters were brought up.</p> + +<h3>SEPIA AND SILK.</h3> + +<p>The sepia of the artist comes from a mollusk, and is the fossil +or extant ink-bag of a cephalopod or squid, while the cuttle-fish +bone is used for a variety of purposes. In the islands of the +Pacific the young of the pearly nautilus are strung upon strings +and sold for $25 and $20 as necklaces. The tritons are in fair +demand, and many tons of cowries are sent to Europe yearly, while +the shipment of a thick-lipped strombus in one year to Liverpool +amounted to 300,000. The rich coloring of the haliotis is used for +inlaying art furniture. From the pinna, silk of a peculiar quality +is obtained. It is the byssus or cable of the animal. The threads +are extremely fine, and equal in diameter throughout their entire +length. It is first cleaned with soap and water, and dried by +rubbing through the hands, and finally passed through combs of +bone, iron, or wood, of different sizes, so that a pound of the +material in the rough gives only about three ounces of pure thread. +It is mixed with a third of real silk and spun into gloves, +stockings, etc., having a beautiful yellow hue. The articles made +from it are, however, not in general use. A pair of gloves from +pinna silk would cost $1.50, and stockings about $3. Fine specimens +of such work can be seen in the British Museum.</p> + +<p>Though not of animal origin, amber is one of the choicest +vegetable productions used in the arts. It is the fossil gum of +pines. Great beds of it occur at various points in Europe. On the +Prussian seaboard it is mined, and often washes ashore. In 1576 a +piece of amber was found that weighed thirteen pounds, and for +which $5,000 was refused. In the cabinet of the Berlin Museum there +is a piece weighing eighteen pounds. Ambergris, from which +perfumery is made, is a secretion taken from the intestines of the +whale, and a piece purchased from the King of Tydore by the East +India Company is reported to have cost $18,000. Whales' teeth, the +tusks of elephants, and those of the walrus and narwhal, are all +used. Elephants' feet are cut off at a convenient length, richly +upholstered, and used as seats; the great toe-nails, when finely +polished, giving the novel article of furniture an attractive and +unique appearance.</p> + +<p>It is probably not generally known that the web of certain +spiders has been used. Over 150 years ago, Le Bon, of France, +succeeded in weaving the web material into delicate gloves. Prof. +B.G. Wilder investigated the question thoroughly, and was a firm +believer that the web of the spider had a commercial value, but as +yet this has not been realized. It would be difficult to find an +animal that does not in some way contribute to the useful or +decorative arts.--<i>C.F.H., in N.Y. Post</i>.</p> + +<hr> +<p>A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important +scientific papers heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be +had gratis at this office.</p> + +<hr> +<h2>THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT.</h2> + +<h3>PUBLISHED WEEKLY.</h3> + +<p><b>Terms of Subscription, $5 a Year.</b></p> + +<p>Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the +United States or Canada. Six dollars a year, sent, prepaid, to any +foreign country.</p> + +<p>All the back numbers of THE SUPPLEMENT, from the commencement, +January 1, 1876, can be had. Price, 10 cents each.</p> + +<p>All the back volumes of THE SUPPLEMENT can likewise be supplied. +Two volumes are issued yearly. Price of each volume, $2.50, +stitched in paper, or $3.50, bound in stiff covers.</p> + +<p>COMBINED RATES--One copy of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN and one copy of +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT, one year, postpaid, $7.00.</p> + +<p>A liberal discount to booksellers, news agents, and +canvassers.</p> + +<p><b>MUNN & CO., Publishers,</b></p> + +<p><b>261 Broadway, New York, N. Y.</b></p> + +<hr> +<h2><b>PATENTS.</b></h2> + +<p>In connection with the <b>Scientific American</b>, Messrs. MUNN +& Co. are Solicitors of American and Foreign Patents, have had +35 years' experience, and now have the largest establishment in the +world. Patents are obtained on the best terms.</p> + +<p>A special notice is made in the <b>Scientific American</b> of +all Inventions patented through this Agency, with the name and +residence of the Patentee. By the immense circulation thus given, +public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent, and +sales or introduction often easily effected.</p> + +<p>Any person who has made a new discovery or invention can +ascertain, free of charge, whether a patent can probably be +obtained, by writing to MUNN & Co.</p> + +<p>We also send free our Hand Book about the Patent Laws, Patents, +Caveats. Trade Marks, their costs, and how procured, with hints for +procuring advances on inventions. Address</p> + +<p><b>MUNN & CO., 261 Broadway, New York.</b></p> + +<p>Branch Office, cor. F and 7th Sts., Washington, D. 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