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+The Project Gutenberg Etext of The Dominion of the Air:
+The Story of Aerial Navigation by J. M. Bacon 
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+The Dominion of the Air
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+by J. M. Bacon
+
+March, 1997  [Etext #861]
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+The Project Gutenberg Etext of The Dominion of the Air:
+The Story of Aerial Navigation by Rev. J. M. Bacon 
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+
+The Dominion of the Air: The Story of Aerial Navigation
+by Rev. J. M. Bacon
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.  THE DAWN OF AERONAUTICS.
+
+
+"He that would learn to fly must be brought up to the constant
+practice of it from his youth, trying first only to use his
+wings as a tame goose will do, so by degrees learning to rise
+higher till he attain unto skill and confidence."
+
+So wrote Wilkins, Bishop of Chester, who was reckoned a man of
+genius and learning in the days of the Commonwealth.  But so
+soon as we come to inquire into the matter we find that this
+good Bishop was borrowing from the ideas of others who had gone
+before him; and, look back as far as we will, mankind is
+discovered to have entertained persistent and often plausible
+ideas of human flight.  And those ideas had in some sort of
+way, for good or ill, taken practical shape.  Thus, as long ago
+as the days when Xenophon was leading back his warriors to the
+shores of the Black Sea, and ere the Gauls had first burned
+Rome, there was a philosopher, Archytas, who invented a pigeon
+which could fly, partly by means of mechanism, and partly also,
+it is said, by aid of an aura or spirit.  And here arises a
+question.  Was this aura a gas, or did men use it as
+spiritualists do today, as merely a word to conjure with?
+
+Four centuries later, in the days of Nero, there was a man in
+Rome who flew so well and high as to lose his life thereby. 
+Here, at any rate, was an honest man, or the story would not
+have ended thus; but of the rest--and there are many who in
+early ages aspired to the attainment of flight--we have no more
+reason to credit their claims than those of charlatans who
+flourish in every age.
+
+In medieval times we are seriously told by a saintly writer
+(St. Remigius) of folks who created clouds which rose to heaven
+by means of "an earthen pot in which a little imp had been
+enclosed."  We need no more.  That was an age of flying saints,
+as also of flying dragons.  Flying in those days of yore may
+have been real enough to the multitude, but it was at best
+delusion.  In the good old times it did not need the genius of
+a Maskelyne to do a "levitation" trick.  We can picture the
+scene at a "flying seance."  On the one side the decidedly
+professional showman possessed of sufficient low cunning; on
+the other the ignorant and highly superstitious audience, eager
+to hear or see some new thing--the same audience that, deceived
+by a simple trick of schoolboy science, would listen to
+supernatural voices in their groves, or oracular utterances in
+their temples, or watch the urns of Bacchus fill themselves
+with wine.  Surely for their eyes it would need no more than
+the simplest phantasmagoria, or maybe only a little black
+thread, to make a pigeon rise and fly.
+
+It is interesting to note, however, that in the case last cited
+there is unquestionably an allusion to some crude form of
+firework, and what more likely or better calculated to impress
+the ignorant!  Our firework makers still manufacture a "little
+Devil."  Pyrotechnic is as old as history itself; we have an
+excellent description of a rocket in a document at least as
+ancient as the ninth century.  And that a species of pyrotechny
+was resorted to by those who sought to imitate flight we have
+proof in the following recipe for a flying body given by a
+Doctor, eke a Friar, in Paris in the days of our King John:--
+
+"Take one pound of sulphur, two pounds of willowcarbon, six
+pounds of rock salt ground very fine in a marble mortar. 
+Place, when you please, in a covering made of flying papyrus to
+produce thunder.  The covering in order to ascend and float
+away should be long, graceful, well filled with this fine
+powder; but to produce thunder the covering should be short,
+thick, and half full."
+
+Nor does this recipe stand alone.  Take another sample, of
+which chapter and verse are to be found in the MSS. of a
+Jesuit, Gaspard Schott, of Palermo and Rome, born three hundred
+years ago:--
+
+"The shells of hen-eggs, if properly filled and well secured
+against the penetration of the air, and exposed to solar rays,
+will ascend to the skies and sometimes suffer a natural change. 
+And if the eggs of the larger description of swans, or leather
+balls stitched with fine thongs, be filled with nitre, the
+purest
+sulphur quicksilver, or kindred materials which rarify by
+their caloric energy, and if they externally resemble pigeons,
+they will easily be mistaken for flying animals."
+
+Thus it would seem that, hunting back in history, there were
+three main ideas on which would-be aeronauts of old exercised
+their ingenuity.  There was the last-mentioned method, which,
+by the way, Jules Verne partly relies on when he takes his
+heroes to the moon, and which in its highest practical
+development may be seen annually on the night of "Brock's
+Benefit" at the Crystal Palace.  There is, again, the "tame
+goose" method, to which we must return presently; and, lastly,
+there is a third method, to which, as also to the brilliant
+genius who conceived it, we must without further delay be
+introduced.  This may be called the method of "a hollow globe."
+
+Roger Bacon, Melchisedeck-fashion, came into existence at
+Ilchester in 1214 of parentage that is hard to trace.  He was,
+however, a born philosopher, and possessed of intellect and
+penetration that placed him incalculably ahead of his
+generation.  A man of marvellous insight and research, he
+grasped, and as far as possible carried out, ideas which dawned
+on other men only after centuries.  Thus, many of his utterances
+have been prophetic.  It is probable that among his chemical
+discoveries he re-invented gunpowder.  It is certain that he
+divined the properties of a lens, and diving deep into
+experimental and mechanical sciences, actually foresaw the time
+when, in his own words, "men would construct engines to traverse
+land and water with great speed and carry with them persons and
+merchandise."  Clearly in his dreams Bacon saw the Atlantic not
+merely explored, but on its bosom the White Star liners breaking
+records, contemptuous of its angriest seas.  He saw, too, a
+future Dumont circling in the air, and not only in a dead calm,
+but holding his own with the feathered race.  He tells his
+dream thus:  "There may be made some flying instrument so that
+a man sitting in the middle of the instrument and turning some
+mechanism may put in motion some artificial wings which may
+beat the air like a bird flying."
+
+But he lived too long before his time.  His ruin lay not only
+in his superior genius, but also in his fearless outspokenness. 
+He presently fell under the ban of the Church, through which he
+lost alike his liberty and the means of pursuing investigation. 
+Had it been otherwise we may fairly believe that the "admirable
+Doctor," as he was called, would have been the first to show
+mankind how to navigate the air.  His ideas are perfectly easy
+to grasp.  He conceived that the air was a true fluid, and as
+such must have an upper limit, and it would be on this upper
+surface, he supposed, as on the bosom of the ocean, that man
+would sail his air-ship.  A fine, bold guess truly.  He would
+watch the cirrus clouds sailing grandly ten miles above him on
+some stream that never approached nearer.  Up there, in his
+imagination, would be tossing the waves of our ocean of air. 
+Wait for some little better cylinders of oxygen and an improved
+foot-warmer, and a future Coxwell will go aloft and see; but as
+to an upper sea, it is truly there, and we may visit and view
+its sun-lit tossing billows stretching out to a limitless
+horizon at such times as the nether world is shrouded in densest
+gloom.  Bacon's method of reaching such an upper sea as he
+postulated was, as we have said, by a hollow globe.
+
+"The machine must be a large hollow globe, of copper or other
+suitable metal, wrought extremely thin so as to have it as
+light as possible," and "it must be filled with ethereal air or
+liquid fire."  This was written in the thirteenth century, and
+it is scarcely edifying to find four hundred years after this
+the Jesuit Father Lana, who contrived to make his name live in
+history as a theoriser in aeronautics, arrogating to himself
+the bold conception of the English Friar, with certain
+unfortunate differences, however, which in fairness we must
+here clearly point out.  Lana proclaimed his speculations
+standing on a giant's shoulders.  Torricelli, with his closed
+bent tube, had just shown the world how heavily the air lies
+above us.  It then required little mathematical skill to
+calculate what would be the lifting power of any vessel void of
+air on the earth's surface.  Thus Lana proposed the
+construction of an air ship which possibly because of its  
+picturesquesness has won him notoriety.  But it was a fraud.  We
+have but to conceive a dainty boat in which the aeronaut would
+sit at ease handling a little rudder and a simple sail.  These,
+though a schoolboy would have known better, he thought would
+guide his vessel when in the air.
+
+So much has been claimed for Father Lana and his mathematical
+and other attainments that it seems only right to insist on the
+weakness of his reasoning.  An air ship simply drifting with the
+wind is incapable of altering its course in the slightest
+degree by either sail or rudder.  It is simply like a log borne
+along in a torrent; but to compare such a log properly with the
+air ship we must conceive it WHOLLY submerged in the water and
+having no sail or other appendage projecting into the air,
+which would, of course, introduce other conditions.  If,
+however, a man were to sit astride of the log and begin to
+propel it so that it travels either faster or slower than the
+stream, then in that case, either by paddle or rudder, the log
+could be guided, and the same might be said of Lana's air boat
+if only he had thought of some adequate paddle, fan, or other
+propeller.  But he did not.  One further explanatory sentence
+may here be needed; for we hear of balloons which are capable
+of being guided to a small extent by sail and rudder.  In these
+cases, however, the rudder is a guide rope trailing on earth or
+sea, so introducing a fresh element and fresh conditions which
+are easy to explain.
+
+Suppose a free balloon drifting down the wind to have a sail
+suddenly hoisted on one side, what happens?  The balloon will
+simply swing till this sail is in front, and thus continue its
+straightforward course.  Suppose, however, that as soon as the
+side sail is hoisted a trail rope is also dropped aft from a
+spar in the rigging.  The tendency of the sail to fly round in
+front is now checked by the dragging rope, and it is
+constrained to remain slanting at an angle on one side; at the
+same time the rate of the balloon is reduced by the dragging
+rope, so that it travels slower than the wind, which, now
+acting on its slant sail, imparts a certain sidelong motion
+much as it does in the case of a sailing boat.
+
+Lana having in imagination built his ship, proceeds to make it
+float up into space, for which purpose he proposes four thin
+copper globes exhausted of air.  Had this last been his own
+idea we might have pardoned him.  We have, however, pointed out
+that it was not, and we must further point out that in copying
+his great predecessor he fails to see that he would lose
+enormous advantage by using four globes instead of one.  But,
+beyond all, he failed to see what the master genius of Bacon
+saw clearly--that his thin globes when exhausted must
+infallibly collapse by virtue of that very pressure of the air
+which he sought to make use of.
+
+It cannot be too strongly insisted on that if the too much
+belauded speculations of Lana have any value at all it is that
+they throw into stronger contrast the wonderful insight of the
+philosopher who so long preceded him.  By sheer genius Bacon had
+foreseen that the emptied globe must be filled with SOMETHING,
+and for this something he suggests "ethereal air" or "liquid
+fire," neither of which, we contend, were empty terms.  With
+Bacon's knowledge of experimental chemistry it is a question,
+and a most interesting one, whether he had not in his mind those
+two actual principles respectively of gas and air rarefied by
+heat on which we launch our balloons into space to-day.
+
+Early progress in any art or science is commonly intermittent. 
+It was so in the story of aeronautics.  Advance was like that
+of the incoming tide, throwing an occasional wave far in front
+of its rising flood.  It was a phenomenal wave that bore Roger
+Bacon and left his mark on the sand where none other approached
+for centuries.  In those centuries men were either too
+priest-ridden to lend an ear to Science, or, like children,
+followed only the Will-o'-the-Wisp floating above the quagmire
+which held them fast.  They ran after the stone that was to
+turn all to gold, or the elixir that should conquer death, or
+the signs in the heavens that should foretell their destinies;
+and the taint of this may be traced even when the dark period
+that followed was clearing away.  Four hundred years after
+Roger's death, his illustrious namesake, Francis Bacon, was
+formulating his Inductive Philosophy, and with complete
+cock-sureness was teaching mankind all about everything.  Let
+us look at some of his utterances which may help to throw light
+on the way he regarded the problem we are dealing with.
+
+"It is reported," Francis Bacon writes, "that the Leucacians in
+ancient time did use to precipitate a man from a high cliffe
+into the sea; tying about him, with strings, at some distance,
+many great fowles; and fixing unto his body divers feathers,
+spread, to breake the fall.  Certainly many birds of good wing
+(as Kites and the like) would beare up a good weight as they
+flie.  And spreading of feathers, thin and close, and in great
+breadth, will likewise beare up a great weight, being even laid
+without tilting upon the sides.  The further extension of this
+experiment of flying may be thought upon."
+
+To say the least, this is hardly mechanical.  But let us next
+follow the philosopher into the domain of Physics.  Referring
+to a strange assertion, that "salt water will dissolve salt put
+into it in less time than fresh water will dissolve it," he is
+at once ready with an explanation to fit the case.  "The salt,"
+he says, "in the precedent water doth by similitude of
+substance draw the salt new put in unto it."  Again, in his
+finding, well water is warmer in winter than summer, and "the
+cause is the subterranean heat which shut close in (as in
+winter) is the more, but if it perspire (as it doth in summer)
+it is the less."  This was Bacon the Lord.  What a falling
+off--from the experimentalist's point of view--from Bacon the
+Friar!  We can fancy him watching a falcon poised motionless in
+the sky, and reflecting on that problem which to this day
+fairly puzzles our ablest scientists, settling the matter in a
+sentence:  "The cause is that feathers doe possess upward
+attractions."  During four hundred years preceding Lord Verulam
+philosophers would have flown by aid of a broomstick.  Bacon
+himself would have merely parried the problem with a platitude!
+
+At any rate, physicists, even in the brilliant seventeenth
+century, made no material progress towards the navigation of
+the air, and thus presently let the simple mechanic step in
+before them.  Ere that century had closed something in the
+nature of flight had been accomplished.  It is exceedingly hard
+to arrive at actual fact, but it seems pretty clear that more
+than one individual, by starting from some eminence, could let
+himself fall into space and waft himself away for some distance
+with fair success and safety, It is stated that an English
+Monk, Elmerus, flew the space of a furlong from a tower in
+Spain, a feat of the same kind having been accomplished by
+another adventurer from the top of St. Mark's at Venice.
+
+In these attempts it would seem that the principle of the
+parachute was to some extent at least brought into play.  If
+also circumstantial accounts can be credited, it would appear
+that a working model of a flying machine was publicly exhibited
+by one John Muller before the Emperor Charles V. at Nuremberg. 
+Whatever exaggeration or embellishment history may be guilty of
+it is pretty clear that some genuine attempts of a practical
+and not unsuccessful nature had been made here and there, and
+these prompted the flowery and visionary Bishop Wilkins already
+quoted to predict confidently that the day was approaching when
+it "would be as common for a man to call for his wings as for
+boots and spurs."
+
+We have now to return to the "tame goose" method, which found
+its best and boldest exponent in a humble craftsman, by name
+Besnier, living at Sable, about the year 1678.  This mechanical
+genius was by trade a locksmith, and must have been possessed
+of sufficient skill to construct an efficient apparatus out of
+such materials as came to his hand, of the simplest possible
+design.  It may be compared to the earliest type of bicycle,
+the ancient "bone shaker," now almost forgotten save by those
+who, like the writer, had experience of it on its first
+appearance.  Besnier's wings, as it would appear, were
+essentially a pair of double-bladed paddles and nothing more,
+roughly resembling the double-paddle of an old-fashioned canoe,
+only the blades were large, roughly rectangular, and curved or
+hollowed.  The operator would commence by standing erect and
+balancing these paddles, one on each shoulder, so that the
+hollows of the blades should be towards the ground.  The
+forward part of each paddle was then grasped by the hands,
+while the hinder part of each was connected to the
+corresponding leg.  This, presumably, would be effected after
+the arms had been raised vertically, the leg attachment being
+contrived in some way which experience would dictate.
+
+The flyer was now fully equipped, and nothing remained for him
+save to mount some eminence and, throwing himself forward into
+space and assuming the position of a flying bird, to commence
+flapping and beating the air with a reciprocal motion.  First,
+he would buffet the air downwards with the left arm and right
+leg simultaneously, and while these recovered their position
+would strike with the right hand and left leg, and so on
+alternately.  With this crude method the enterprising inventor
+succeeded in raising himself by short stages from one height to
+another, reaching thus the top of a house, whence he could pass
+over others, or cross a river or the like.
+
+The perfecting of his system became then simply a question of
+practice and experience, and had young athletes only been
+trained from early years to the new art it seems reasonable to
+suppose that some crude approach to human flight would have
+been effected.  Modifications and improvements in construction
+would soon have suggested themselves, as was the case with the
+bicycle, which in its latest developments can scarcely be
+recognised as springing from the primitive "bone-shaker" of
+thirty-three years ago.  We would suggest the idea to the
+modern inventor.  He will in these days, of course, find
+lighter materials to hand.  Then he will adopt some link motion
+for the legs in place of leather thongs, and will hinge the
+paddle blades so that they open out with the forward stroke,
+but collapse with the return.  Then look on another
+thirty-three years--a fresh generation--and our youth of both
+sexes may find a popular recreation in graceful aerial
+exercise.  The pace is not likely to be excessive, and
+molestations from disguised policemen--not physically adapted,
+by the way, to rapid flight--need not be apprehended.
+
+One of the best tests of Besnier's measure of success is
+supplied by the fact that he had pupils as well as imitators.
+First on this list must be mentioned a Mr. Baldwin, a name
+which, curiously enough, twice over in modern times comes into
+the records of bold aerial exploits.  This individual, it
+appears, purchased a flying outfit of Besnier himself, and
+surpassed his master in achievement.  A little later one Dante
+contrived some modification of the same apparatus, with which
+he pursued the new mode of progress till he met with a
+fractured thigh.
+
+But whatever the imitators of Besnier may have accomplished, to
+the honest smith must be accorded the full credit of their
+success, and with his simple, but brilliant, record left at
+flood mark, the tide of progress ebbed back again, while
+mankind ruminated over the great problem in apparent
+inactivity.  But not for long.  The air-pump about this period
+was given to the world, and chemists were already busy
+investigating the nature of gases.  Cavallo was experimenting on
+kindred lines, while in our own land the rival geniuses of
+Priestley and Cavendish were clearing the way to make with
+respect to the atmosphere the most important discovery yet
+dreamed of.  In recording this dawn of a new era, however, we
+should certainly not forget how, across the Atlantic, had arisen
+a Rumford and a Franklin, whose labours were destined to throw
+an all-important sidelight on the pages of progress which we
+have now to chronicle.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II. THE INVENTION OF THE BALLOON.
+
+
+It was a November night of the year 1782, in the little town of
+Annonay, near Lyons.  Two young men, Stephen and Joseph
+Montgolfier, the representatives of a firm of paper makers,
+were sitting together over their parlour fire.  While watching
+the smoke curling up the chimney one propounded an idea by way
+of a sudden inspiration:  "Why shouldn't smoke be made to raise
+bodies into the air?"
+
+The world was waiting for this utterance, which, it would seem,
+was on the tip of the tongue with many others. Cavendish had
+already discovered what he designated "inflammable air," though
+no one had as yet given it its later title of hydrogen gas. 
+Moreover, in treating of this gas--Dr. Black of Edinburgh, as
+much as fifteen years before the date we have now arrived at,
+had suggested that it should be made capable of raising a thin
+bladder in the air.  With a shade more of good fortune, or
+maybe with a modicum more of leisure, the learned Doctor would
+have won the invention of the balloon for his own country. 
+Cavallo came almost nearer, and actually putting the same idea
+into practice, had succeeded in the spring of 1782 in making
+soap bubbles blown with hydrogen gas float upwards.  But he had
+accomplished no more when, as related, in the autumn of the
+same year the brothers Montgolfier conceived the notion of
+making bodies "levitate" by the simpler expedient of filling
+them with smoke.
+
+This was the crude idea, the application of which in their
+hands was soon marked with notable success.  Their own trade
+supplied ready and suitable materials for a first experiment,
+and, making an oblong bag of thin paper a few feet in length,
+they proceeded to introduce a cloud of smoke into it by holding
+crumpled paper kindled in a chafing dish beneath the open
+mouth.  What a subject is there here for an imaginative
+painter!  As the smoky cloud formed within, the bag distended
+itself, became buoyant, and presently floated to the ceiling. 
+The simple trial proved a complete success, due, as it appeared
+to them, to the ascensive power of a cloud of smoke.
+
+An interesting and more detailed version of the story is
+extant.  While the experiment was in progress a neighbour, the
+widow of a tradesman who had been connected in business with
+the firm, seeing smoke escaping into the room, entered and
+stood watching the proceedings, which were not unattended with
+difficulties.  The bag, half inflated, was not easy to hold in
+position over the chafing dish, and rapidly cooled and
+collapsed on being removed from it.  The widow noting this, as
+also the perplexity of the young men, suggested that they
+should try the result of tying the dish on at the bottom of the
+bag.  This was the one thing wanted to secure success, and that
+good lady, whose very name is unhappily lost, deserves an
+honoured place in history.  It was unquestionably the adoption
+of her idea which launched the first balloon into space.
+
+The same experiment repeated in the open air proving a yet more
+pronounced success, more elaborate trials were quickly
+developed, and the infant balloon grew fast.  One worthy of the
+name, spherical in shape and of some 600 cubic feet capacity,
+was now made and treated as before, with the result that ere it
+was fully inflated it broke the strings that held it and sailed
+away hundreds of feet into the air.  The infant was fast
+becoming a prodigy.  Encouraged by their fresh success, the
+inventors at once set about preparations for the construction
+of a much larger balloon some thirty-five feet diameter (that
+is, of about 23,000 cubic feet capacity), to be made of linen
+lined with paper and this machine, launched on a favourable day
+in the following spring, rose with great swiftness to fully a
+thousand feet, and travelled nearly a mile from its starting
+ground.
+
+Enough; the time was already ripe for a public demonstration of
+the new invention, and accordingly the 5th of the following
+June witnessed the ascent of the same balloon with due ceremony
+and advertisement.  Special pains were taken with the
+inflation, which was conducted over a pit above which the
+balloon envelope was slung; and in accordance with the view
+that smoke was the chief lifting power, the fuel was composed
+of straw largely mixed with wool.  It is recorded that the
+management of the furnace needed the attention of two men only,
+while eight men could hardly hold the impatient balloon in
+restraint.  The inflation, in spite of the fact that the fuel
+chosen was scarcely the best for the purpose, was conducted
+remarkable expedition, and on being released, the  craft
+travelled one and a half miles into the air, attaining a height
+estimated at over 6,000 feet.
+
+From this time the tide of events in the aeronautical world
+rolls on in full flood, almost every half-year marking a fresh
+epoch, until a new departure in the infant art of ballooning was
+already on the point of being reached.  It had been erroneously
+supposed that the ascent of the Montgolfier balloon had been
+due, not to the rarefaction of the air within it--which was its
+true cause--but to the evolution of some light gas disengaged by
+the nature of the fuel used.  It followed, therefore, almost as
+a matter of course, that chemists, who, as stated in the last
+chapter, were already acquainted with so-called "inflammable
+air," or hydrogen gas, grasped the fact that this gas would
+serve better than any other for the purposes of a balloon.  And
+no sooner had the news of the Montgolfiers' success reached
+Paris than a subscription was raised, and M. Charles, Professor
+of Experimental Philosophy, was appointed, with the assistance
+of M. Roberts, to superintend the construction of a suitable
+balloon and its inflation by the proposed new method.
+
+The task was one of considerable difficulty, owing partly to
+the necessity of procuring some material which would prevent
+the escape of the lightest and most subtle gas known, and no
+less by reason of the difficulty of preparing under pressure a
+sufficient quantity of gas itself.  The experiment, sound
+enough in theory, was eventually carried through after several
+instructive failures.  A suitable material was found in
+"lustring," a glossy silk cloth varnished with a solution of
+caoutchouc, and this being formed into a balloon only thirteen
+feet in diameter and fitted without other aperture than a
+stopcock, was after several attempts filled with hydrogen gas
+prepared in the usual way by the action of dilute sulphuric
+acid on scrap iron.
+
+The preparations completed, one last and all-important mistake
+was made by closing the stop-cock before the balloon was
+dismissed, the disastrous and unavoidable result of this being
+at the time overlooked.
+
+On August 25, 1783, the balloon was liberated on the Champ de
+Mars before an enormous concourse, and in less than two minutes
+had reached an elevation of half a mile, when it was temporarily
+lost in cloud, through which, however, it penetrated, climbing
+into yet higher cloud, when, disappearing from sight, it
+presently burst and descended to earth after remaining in the
+air some three-quarters of an hour.
+
+The bursting of this little craft taught the future balloonist
+his first great lesson, namely, that on leaving earth he must
+open the neck of his balloon; and the reason of this is obvious. 
+While yet on earth the imprisoned gas of a properly filled
+balloon distends the silk by virtue of its expansive force, and
+in spite of the enormous outside pressure which the weight of
+air exerts upon it.  Then, as the balloon rises high in the air
+and the outside pressure grows less, the struggling gas within,
+if allowed no vent, stretches the balloon more and more until
+the slender fabric bursts under the strain.
+
+At the risk of being tedious, we have dwelt at some length on
+the initial experiments which in less than a single year had led
+to the discovery and development of two distinct methods--still
+employed and in competition with each other--of dismissing
+balloons into the heavens.  We are now prepared to enter fully
+into the romantic history of our subject which from this point
+rapidly unfolds itself.
+
+Some eleven months only after the two Montgolfiers were
+discovered toying with their inflated paper bag, the younger of
+the two brothers was engaged to make an exhibition of his new
+art before the King at Versailles, and this was destined to be
+the first occasion when a balloon was to carry a living freight
+into the sky.  The stately structure, which was gorgeously
+decorated, towered some seventy feet into the air, and was
+furnished with a wicker car in which the passengers were duly
+installed.  These were three in number, a sheep, a cock, and a
+duck, and amid the acclamations of the multitude, rose a few
+hundred feet and descended half a mile away.  The cock was
+found to have sustained an unexplained mishap:  its leg was
+broken; but the sheep was feeding complacently, and the duck
+was quacking with much apparent satisfaction.
+
+Now, who among mortals will come forward and win the honour of
+being the first to sail the skies?  M. Pilitre de Rozier at
+once volunteered, and by the month of November a new air ship
+was built, 74 feet high, 48 feet in largest diameter, and 15
+feet across the neck, outside which a wicker gallery was
+constructed, while an iron brazier was slung below all.  But to
+trim the boat properly two passengers were needed, and de
+Rozier found a ready colleague in the Marquis d'Arlandes.  By
+way of precaution, de Rozier made a few preliminary ascents
+with the balloon held captive, and then the two intrepid
+Frenchmen took their stand on opposite sides of the gallery,
+each furnished with bundles of fuel to feed the furnace, each
+also carrying a large wet sponge with which to extinguish the
+flames whenever the machine might catch fire.  On casting off
+the balloon rose readily, and reaching 3,000 feet, drifted away
+on an upper current.
+
+The rest of the narrative, much condensed from a letter of the
+Marquis, written a week later, runs somewhat thus:  "Our
+departure was at fifty-four minutes past one, and occasioned
+little stir among the spectators.  Thinking they might be
+frightened and stand in need of encouragement, I waved my arm. 
+M. de Rozier cried, 'You are doing nothing, and we are not
+rising!'  I stirred the fire, and then began to scan the river,
+but Pilitre cried again, 'See the river; we are dropping into
+it!'  We again urged the fire, but still clung to the river bed. 
+Presently I heard a noise in the upper part of the balloon,
+which gave a shock as though it had burst.  I called to my
+companion, 'Are you dancing?'  The balloon by now had many holes
+burned in it, and using my sponge I cried that we must descend. 
+My companion, however, explained that we were over Paris, and
+must now cross it.  Therefore, raising the fire once more, we
+turned south till we passed the Luxemburg, when, extinguishing
+the flame, the balloon came down spent and empty."
+
+Daring as was this ascent, it was in achievement eclipsed two
+months later at Lyons, when a mammoth balloon, 130 feet in
+height and lifting 18 tons, was inflated in seventeen minutes,
+and ascended with no less than seven passengers.  When more than
+half a mile aloft this machine, which was made of too slender
+material for its huge size, suddenly developed a rent of half
+its length, causing it to descend with immense velocity; but
+without the smallest injury to any of the passengers.  This was
+a memorable performance, and the account, sensational as it may
+read, is by no means unworthy of credit; for, as will be seen
+hereafter, a balloon even when burst or badly torn in midair
+may, on the principle of the parachute, effect its own
+salvation.
+
+In the meanwhile, the rival balloon of hydrogen gas--the
+Charliere, as it has been called--had had its first innings. 
+Before the close of the year MM. Roberts and Charles
+constructed and inflated a hydrogen balloon, this time fitted
+with a practicable valve, and in partnership accomplished an
+ascent beating all previous records.  The day, December 17, was
+one of winter temperature; yet the aeronauts quickly reached
+6,000 feet, and when, after remaining aloft for one and a half
+hours, they descended, Roberts got out, leaving Charles in sole
+possession.  Left to himself, this young recruit seems to have
+met with experiences which are certainly unusual, and which
+must be attributed largely to the novelty of his situation.  He
+declared that at 9,000 feet, or less than two miles, all
+objects on the earth had disappeared from view, a statement
+which can only be taken to mean that he had entered cloud. 
+Further, at this moderate elevation he not only became benumbed
+with cold, but felt severe pain in his right ear and jaw.  He
+held on, however, ascending till 10,500 feet were reached, when
+he descended, having made a journey of thirty miles from the
+start.
+
+Ascents, all on the Continent, now followed one another in rapid
+succession, and shortly the MM. Roberts essayed a venture on new
+lines.  They attempted the guidance of a balloon by means of
+oars, and though they failed in this they were fortunate in
+making a fresh record.  They also encountered a thunderstorm,
+and by adopting a perfectly scientific method--of which more
+hereafter--succeeded in eluding it.  The storm broke around them
+when they were 14,000 feet high, and at this altitude, noting
+that there were diverse currents aloft, they managed to
+manoeuvre their balloon higher or lower at will and to suit
+their purpose, and by this stratagem drew away from the storm
+centre.  After six and a half hours their voyage ended, but not
+until 150 miles had been covered.
+
+It must be freely granted that prodigious progress had been
+made in an art that as yet was little more than a year old; but
+assuredly not enough to justify the absurdly inflated ideas
+that the Continental public now began to indulge in.  Men lost
+their mental balance, allowing their imagination to run riot,
+and speculation became extravagant in the extreme.  There was
+to be no limit henceforward to the attainment of fresh
+knowledge, nor any bounds placed to where man might roam.  The
+universe was open to him:  he might voyage if he willed to the
+moon or elsewhere:  Paris was to be the starting point for other
+worlds:  Heaven itself had been taken by storm.
+
+Moderation had to be learned ere long by the discipline of more
+than one stern lesson.  Hitherto a marvellous--call it a
+Providential--good fortune had attended the first aerial
+travellers; and even when mishaps presently came to be reckoned
+with, it may fairly be questioned whether so many lives were
+sacrificed among those who sought to voyage through the sky as
+were lost among such as first attempted to navigate the sea.
+
+It is in such ventures as we are now regarding that fortune
+seems readiest to favour the daring, and if I may digress
+briefly to adduce experiences coming within my own knowledge, I
+would say that it is to his very impulsiveness that the
+enthusiast often owes the safety of his neck.  It is the timid,
+not the bold rider, that comes to grief at the fence.  It is
+the man who draws back who is knocked over by a tramcar.  Sheer
+impetus, moral or physical, often carries you through, as in
+the case of a fall from horse-back.  To tumble off when your
+horse is standing still and receive a dead blow from the ground
+might easily break a limb.  But at full gallop immunity often
+lies in the fact that you strike the earth at an angle, and
+being carried forward, impact is less abrupt.  I can only say
+that I have on more than one occasion found the greatest safety
+in a balloon venture involving the element of risk to lie in
+complete abandonment to circumstances, and in the increased
+life and activity which the delirium of excitement calls forth. 
+In comparing, however, man's first ventures by sky with those
+by sea, we must remember what far greater demand the former
+must have made upon the spirit of enterprise and daring.
+
+We can picture the earliest sea voyager taking his first lesson
+astride of a log with one foot on the bottom, and thus
+proceeding by sure stages till he had built his coracle and
+learned to paddle it in shoal water.  But the case was wholly
+different when the first frail air ship stood at her moorings
+with straining gear and fiercely burning furnace, and when the
+sky sailor knew that no course was left him but to dive boldly
+up into an element whence there was no stepping back, and
+separated from earth by a gulf which man instinctively dreads
+to look down upon.
+
+Taking events in their due sequence, we have now to record a
+voyage which the terrors of sky and sea together combined to
+make memorable.  Winter had come--early January of 1785--when,
+in spite of short dark days and frosty air, M. Blanchard,
+accompanied by an American, Dr. Jeffries, determined on an
+attempt to cross the Channel.  They chose the English side, and
+inflating their balloon with hydrogen at Dover, boldly cast
+off, and immediately drifted out to sea.  Probably they had not
+paid due thought to the effect of low sun and chilly
+atmosphere, for their balloon rose sluggishly and began
+settling down ere little more than a quarter of their course
+was run.  Thereupon they parted with a large portion of their
+ballast, with  the result that they crept on as far as mid-
+Channel, when they began descending again, and cast out the
+residue of their sand, together with some books, and this, too,
+with the uncomfortable feeling that even these measures would
+not suffice to secure their safety.
+
+This was in reality the first time that a sea passage had been
+made by sky, and the gravity of their situation must not be
+under-estimated.  We are so accustomed in a sea passage to the
+constant passing of other vessels that we allow ourselves to
+imagine that a frequented portion of the ocean, such as the
+Channel, is thickly dotted over with shipping of some sort.  But
+in entertaining this idea we are forgetful of the fact that we
+are all the while on a steamer track.  The truth, however, is
+that anywhere outside such a track, even from the commanding
+point of view of a high-flying balloon, the ocean is seen to be
+more vast than we suppose, and bears exceedingly little but the
+restless waves upon its surface.  Once fairly in the water with
+a fallen balloon, there is clearly no rising again, and the life
+of the balloon in this its wrong element is not likely to be a
+long one.  The globe of gas may under favourable circumstances
+continue to float for some while, but the open wicker car is the
+worst possible boat for the luckless voyagers, while to leave it
+and cling to the rigging is but a forlorn hope, owing to the
+massof netting which surrounds the silk, and which would prove a
+death-trap in the water.  There are many instances of lives
+having been lost in such a dilemma, even when help was near at
+hand.
+
+Our voyagers, whom we left in mid-air and stream, were soon 
+descending again, and this time they threw out their
+tackle--anchor, ropes, and other gear, still without adequately
+mending matters.  Then their case grew desperate.  The French
+coast was, indeed, well in sight, but there seemed but slender
+chance of reaching it, when they began divesting themselves
+of clothing as a last resort.  The upshot of this was
+remarkable, and deserves a moment's consideration.  When a
+balloon has been lightened almost to the utmost the discharge
+of a small weight sometimes has a magical effect, as is not
+difficult to understand.  Throwing out ten pounds at an early
+stage, when there may be five hundred pounds more of
+superfluous weight, will tell but little, but when those five
+hundred pounds are expended then an extra ten pounds scraped
+together from somewhere and cast overboard may cause a balloon
+to make a giant stride into space by way of final effort; and
+it was so with M. Blanchard.  His expiring balloon shot up and
+over the approaching land, and came safely to earth near the
+Forest of Guiennes.  A magnificent feast was held at Calais to
+celebrate the above event.  M. Blanchard was presented with the
+freedom of the city in a gold box, and application was made to
+the Ministry to have the balloon purchased and deposited as a
+memorial in the church.  On the testimony of the grandson of
+Dr. Jeffries the car of this balloon is now in the museum of
+the same city.
+
+A very noteworthy example of how a balloon may be made to take
+a fresh lease of life is supplied by a voyage of M. Testu about
+this date, which must find brief mention in these pages.  In
+one aspect it is laughable, in another it is sublime.  From
+every point of view it is romantic.
+
+It was four o'clock on a threatening day in June when the
+solitary aeronaut took flight from Paris in a small hydrogen
+balloon only partially filled, but rigged with somencontrivance
+of wings which were designed to render it self-propelling. 
+Discovering, however, that this device was inoperative, M.
+Testu, after about an hour and a half, allowed the balloon to
+descend to earth in a corn field, when, without quitting hold of
+the car, he commenced collecting stones for ballast.  But as yet
+he knew not the ways of churlish proprietors of land, and in
+consequence was presently surprised by a troublesome crowd, who
+proceeded, as they supposed, to take him prisoner till he should
+pay heavy compensation, dragging him off to the nearest village
+by the trail rope of his balloon.
+
+M. Testu now had leisure to consider his situation, and
+presently hit on a stratagem the like of which has often since
+been adopted by aeronauts in like predicament.  Representing to
+his captors that without his wings he would be powerless, he
+suffered them to remove these weighty appendages, when also
+dropping a heavy cloak, he suddenly cut the cord by which he was
+being dragged, and, regaining freedom, soared away into the sky. 
+He was quickly high aloft, and heard thunder below him, soon
+after which, the chill of evening beginning to bring him
+earthward, he descried a hunt in full cry, and succeeded in
+coming down near the huntsmen, some of whom galloped up to him,
+and for their benefit he ascended again, passing this time into
+dense cloud with thunder and lightning.  He saw the sun go down
+and the lightning gather round, yet with admirable courage he
+lived the night out aloft till the storms were spent and the
+midsummer sun rose once more.  With daylight restored, his
+journey ended at a spot over sixty miles from Paris.
+
+We have, of course, recounted only a few of the more noteworthy
+early ballooning ventures.  In reality there had up to the
+present time been scores of ascents made in different
+localities and in all conditions of wind and weather, yet not a
+life had been lost.  We have now, however, to record a casualty
+which cost the first and boldest aeronaut his life, and which
+is all the more regrettable as being due to circumstances that
+should never have occurred.
+
+M. Pilatre de Rosier, accompanied by M. Romain, determined on
+crossing the Channel from the French side; and, thinking to add
+to their buoyancy and avoid the risk of falling in the sea, hit
+on the extraordinary idea of using a fire balloon beneath
+another filled with hydrogen gas!  With this deadly compound
+machine they actually ascended from Boulogne, and had not left
+the land when the inevitable catastrophe took place.
+
+The balloons caught fire and blew up at a height of 3,000 feet,
+while the unfortunate voyagers were dashed to atoms.  
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III. THE FIRST BALLOON ASCENT IN ENGLAND.
+
+
+As may be supposed, it was not long before the balloon was
+introduced into England.  Indeed, the first successful ascent
+on record made in our own country took place in the summer of
+1784, ten months previous to the fatal venture narrated at the
+close of the last chapter.  Now, it is a remarkable and equally
+regrettable circumstance that though the first ascent on
+British soil was undoubtedly made by one of our own countrymen,
+the fact is almost universally forgotten, or ignored, and the
+credit is accorded to a foreigner.
+
+Let us in strict honesty examine into the case.  Vincent
+Lunardi, an Italian, Secretary to the Neapolitan Ambassador,
+Prince Caramanico, being in England in the year 1784,
+determined on organising and personally executing an ascent
+from London; and his splendid enterprise, which was presently
+carried to a successful issue, will form the principal subject
+of the present chapter.  It will be seen that remarkable
+success crowned his efforts, and that his first and ever
+memorable voyage was carried through on September 15th of that
+year.
+
+More than a month previously, however, attention had been
+called to the fact that a Mr. Tytler was preparing to make an
+ascent from Edinburgh in a hot air balloon, and in the London
+Chronicle of August 27th occurs the following circumstantial
+and remarkable letter from a correspondent to that journal:Ä
+
+"Edinburgh, Aug.  27, 1784.
+
+"Mr. Tytler has made several improvements upon his fire balloon.
+The reason of its failure formerly was its being made of porous
+linen, through which the air made its escape.  To remedy this
+defect, Mr. Tytler has got it covered with a varnish to retain
+the inflammable air after the balloon is filled.
+
+"Early this morning this bold adventurer took his first aerial
+flight.  The balloon being filled at Comely Garden, he seated
+himself in the basket, and the ropes being cut he ascended very
+high and descended quite gradually on the road to Restalrig,
+about half a mile from the place where he rose, to the great
+satisfaction of those spectators who were present.  Mr. Tytler
+went up without the furnace this morning; when that is added he
+will be able to feed the balloon with inflammable air, and
+continue his aerial excursions as long as he chooses.
+
+"Mr. Tytler is now in high spirits, and in his turn laughs at
+those infidels who ridiculed his scheme as visionary and
+impracticable.  Mr. Tytler is the first person in Great Britain
+who has navigated the air."
+
+Referring to this exploit, Tytler, in a laudatory epistle
+addressed to Lunardi, tells of the difficulties he had had to
+contend with, and artlessly reveals the cool, confident courage
+he must have displayed.  No shelter being available for the
+inflation, and a strong wind blowing, his first misfortune was
+the setting fire to his wicker gallery.  The next was the
+capsizing and damaging of his balloon, which he had lined with
+paper.  He now substituted a coat of varnish for the paper, and
+his gallery being destroyed, so that he could no longer attempt
+to take up a stove, he resolved to ascend without one.  In the
+end the balloon was successfully inflated, when he had the
+hardihood to entrust himself to a small basket (used for
+carrying earthenware) slung below, and thus to launch himself
+into the sky.  He did so under the conviction that the risk he
+ran was greater than it really was, for he argued that his
+craft was now only like a projectile, and "must undoubtedly
+come to the ground with the same velocity with which it
+ascended."  On this occasion the crowd tried for some time to
+hold him near the ground by one of the restraining ropes, so
+that his flight was curtailed.  In a second experiment,
+however, he succeeded in rising some hundreds of feet, and came
+to earth without mishap.
+
+But little further information respecting Mr. Tytler is
+apparently forthcoming, and therefore beyond recording the fact
+that he was the first British aeronaut, and also that he was
+the first to achieve a balloon ascent in Great Britain, we are
+unable to make further mention of him in this history.
+
+Of his illustrious contemporary already mentioned there is, on
+the contrary, much to record, and we would desire to give full
+credit to his admirable courage and perseverance.  It was with
+a certain national and pardonable pride that the young Italian
+planned his bold exploit, feeling with a sense of self-
+satisfaction, which he is at no pains to hide, that he aimed
+at winning honour for his country as well as for himself.  In a
+letter which he wrote to his guardian, Chevalier Gherardo
+Compagni, he alludes to the stolid indifference of the English
+people and philosophers to the brilliant achievements in
+aeronautics which had been made and so much belauded on the
+Continent.  He proclaims the rivalry as regards science and art
+existing between France and England, attributing to the latter
+an attitude of sullen jealousy.  At the same time he is fully
+alive to the necessity of gaining English patronage, and sets
+about securing this with tactful diplomacy.  First he casts
+about for a suitable spot where his enterprise would not fail
+to enlist general attention and perhaps powerful patrons, and
+here he is struck by the attractions and facilities offered by
+Chelsea Hospital.  He therefore applies to Sir George Howard,
+the Governor, asking for the use of the famous hospital, to
+which, on the occasion of his experiments, he desires that
+admittance should only be granted to subscribers, while any
+profits should be devoted to the pensioners of the hospital. 
+His application having been granted, he assures his guardian
+that he "still maintains his mental balance, and his sleep is
+not banished by the magnitude of his enterprise, which is
+destined to lead him through the path of danger to glory."
+
+This letter was dated the 15th of July, and by the beginning of
+August his advertisement was already before the public,
+inviting subscribers and announcing a private view of his
+balloon at the Lyceum, where it was m course of construction,
+and was being fitted with contrivances of his own in the shape
+of oars and sails.  He had by this time not only enlisted the
+interest of Sir George Howard, and of Sir Joseph Banks, but had
+secured the direct patronage of the King.
+
+But within a fortnight a most unforeseen mishap had occurred,
+which threatened to overwhelm Lunardi in disappointment and
+ruin.  A Frenchman of the name of Moret, designing to turn to
+his own advertisement the attention attracted by Lunardi's
+approaching trials, attempted to forestall the event by an
+enterprise of his own, announcing that he would make an ascent
+with a hot air balloon in some gardens near Chelsea Hospital,
+and at a date previous to that fixed upon by Lunardi.  In
+attempting, however, to carry out this unworthy project the
+adventurer met with the discomfiture he deserved.  He failed to
+effect his inflation, and when after fruitless attempts
+continued for three hours, his balloon refused to rise, a large
+crowd, estimated at 60,000, assembled outside, broke into the
+enclosure, committing havoc on all sides, not unattended with
+acts of violence and robbery.
+
+The whole neighbourhood became alarmed, and it followed as a
+matter of course that Lunardi was peremptorily ordered to
+discontinue his preparations, and to announce in the public
+press that his ascent from Chelsea Hospital was forbidden. 
+Failure and ruin now stared the young enthusiast in the face,
+and it was simply the generous feeling of the British public,
+and the desire to see fair play, that gave him another chance. 
+As it was, he became the hero of the hour; thousands flocked to
+the show rooms at the Lyceum, and he shortly obtained fresh
+grounds, together with needful protection for his project, at
+the hands of the Hon.Artillery Company.  By the 15th of
+September all incidental difficulties, the mere enumeration of
+which would unduly swell these pages, had been overcome by sheer
+persistence, and Lunardi stood in the inenclosure allotted him,
+his preparations in due order, with 150,000 souls, who had
+formed for hours a dense mass of spectators, watching intently
+and now confidently the issue of his bold endeavour.
+
+But his anxieties were as yet far from over, for a London crowd
+had never yet witnessed a balloon ascent, while but a month ago
+they had seen and wreaked their wrath upon the failure of an
+adventurer.  They were not likely to be more tolerant now.  And
+when the advertised hour for departure had arrived, and the
+balloon remained inadequately inflated, matters began to take a
+more serious turn.  Half an hour later they approached a
+crisis, when it began to be known that the balloon still lacked
+buoyancy, and that the supply of gas was manifestly
+insufficient.  The impatience of the mob indeed was kept in
+restraint by one man alone.  This man was the Prince of Wales
+who, refusing to join the company within the building and
+careless of the attitude of the crowd, remained near the
+balloon to check disorder and unfair treatment.
+
+But an hour after time the balloon still rested inert and then,
+with fine resolution, Lunardi tried one last expedient.  He
+bade his colleague, Mr. Biggen, who was to have ascended with
+him, remain behind, and quietly substituting a smaller and
+lighter wicker car, or rather gallery, took his place within
+and severed the cords just as the last gun fired.  The Prince
+of Wales raised his hat, imitated at once by all the
+bystanders, and the first balloon that ever quitted English
+soil rose into the air amid the extravagant enthusiasm of the
+multitude.  The intrepid aeronaut, pardonably excited, and
+fearful lest he should not be seen within the gallery, made
+frantic efforts to attract attention by waving his flag, and
+worked his oars so vigorously that one of them broke and fell. 
+A pigeon also gained its freedom and escaped.  The voyager,
+however, still retained companions in his venture--a dog and a
+cat.
+
+Following his own account, Lunardi's first act on finding
+himself fairly above the town was to fortify himself with some
+glasses of wine, and to devour the leg of a chicken.  He
+describes the city as a vast beehive, St. Paul's and other
+churches standing out prominently; the streets shrunk to lines,
+and all humanity apparently transfixed and watching him.  A
+little later he is equally struck with the view of the open
+country, and his ecstasy is pardonable in a novice.  The
+verdant pastures eclipsed the visions of his own lands.  The
+precision of boundaries impressed him with a sense of law and
+order, and of good administration in the country where he was
+a sojourner.
+
+By this time he found his balloon, which had been only
+two-thirds full at starting, to be so distended that he was
+obliged to untie the mouth to release the strain.  He also
+found that the condensed moisture round the neck had frozen. 
+These two statements point to his having reached a considerable
+altitude, which is intelligible enough.  It is, however,
+difficult to believe his further assertion that by the use of
+his single oar he succeeded in working himself down to within a
+few hundred feet of the earth.  The descent of the balloon
+must, in point of fact, have been due to a copious outrush of
+gas at his former altitude.  Had his oar really been effective
+in working the balloon down it would not have needed the
+discharge of ballast presently spoken of to cause it to
+reascend.  Anyhow, he found himself sufficiently near the earth
+to land a passenger who was anxious to get out.  His cat had not
+been comfortable in the cold upper regions, and now at its
+urgent appeal was deposited in a corn field, which was the point
+of first contact with the earth.  It was carefully received by a
+country-woman, who promptly sold it to a gentleman on the other
+side of the hedge, who had been pursuing the balloon.
+
+The first ascent of a balloon in England was deserving of some
+record, and an account alike circumstantial and picturesque is
+forthcoming.  The novel and astonishing sight was witnessed by
+a Hertfordshire farmer, whose testimony, published by Lunardi
+in the same year, runs as follows:--
+
+This deponent on his oath sayeth that, being on Wednesday, the
+15th day of September instant, between the hours of three and
+four in the afternoon, in a certain field called Etna, in the
+parish of North Mimms aforesaid, he perceived a large machine
+sailing in the air, near the place where he was on horseback;
+that the machine continuing to approach the earth, the part of
+it in which this deponent perceived a gentleman standing came
+to the ground and dragged a short way on the ground in a
+slanting direction; that the time when this machine thus
+touched the earth was, as near as this deponent could judge,
+about a quarter before four in the afternoon.  That this
+deponent being on horseback, and his horse restive, he could not
+approach nearer to the machine than about four poles, but that
+he could plainly perceive therein gentleman dressed in light
+coloured cloaths, holding in his hand a trumpet, which had the
+appearance of silver or bright tin.  That by this time several
+harvest men coming up from the other part of the field, to the
+number of twelve men and thirteen women, this deponent called
+to them to endeavour to stop the machine, which the men
+attempted, but the gentleman in the machine desiring them to
+desist, and the machine moving with considerable rapidity, and
+clearing the earth, went off in a north direction and continued
+in sight at a very great height for near an hour afterwards. 
+And this deponent further saith that the part of the machine in
+the which the gentleman stood did not actually touch the ground
+for more than half a minute, during which time the gentleman
+threw out a parcel of what appeared to this deponent as dry
+sand.  That after the machine had ascended again from the earth
+this deponent perceived a grapple with four hooks, which hung
+from the bottom of the machine, dragging along the ground,
+which carried up with it into the air a small parcel of loose
+oats, which the women were raking in the field.  And this
+deponent further on his oath sayeth that when the machine had
+risen clear from the ground about twenty yards the gentleman
+spoke to this deponent and to the rest of the people with his
+trumpet, wishing them goodbye and saying that he should soon go
+out of sight.  And this deponent further on his oath sayeth
+that the machine in which the gentleman came down to earth
+appeared to consist of two distinct parts connected together by
+ropes, namely that in which the gentleman appeared to be, a
+stage boarded at the bottom, and covered with netting and ropes
+on the sides about four feet and a half high, and the other
+part of the machine appeared in the shape of an urn, about
+thirty feet high and of about the same diameter, made of canvas
+like oil skin, with green, red, and yellow stripes.
+
+NATHANIEL WHITBREAD.
+
+Sworn before me this twentieth day of September, 1784, WILLIAM
+BAKER.
+
+It was a curious fact, pointed out to the brave Italian by a
+resident, that the field in which the temporary descent had
+been made was called indifferently Etna or Italy, "from the
+circumstance which attended the late enclosure of a large
+quantity of roots, rubbish, etc., having been collected there,
+and having continued burning for many days.  The common people
+having heard of a burning mountain in Italy gave the field that
+name."
+
+But the voyage did not end at Etna.  The, as yet, inexperienced
+aeronaut now cast out all available ballast in the shape of
+sand, as also his provisions, and rising with great speed, soon
+reached a greater altitude than before, which he sought to
+still farther increase by throwing down his plates, knives, and
+forks.  In this somewhat reckless expenditure he thought
+himself justified by the reliance he placed on his oar, and it
+is not surprising that in the end he owns that he owed his
+safety in his final descent to his good fortune.  The narrative
+condensed concludes thus:--
+
+"At twenty minutes past four I descended in a meadow near Ware. 
+Some labourers were at work in it.  I requested their
+assistance, but they exclaimed they would have nothing to do
+with one who came on the Devil's Horse, and no entreaties could
+prevail on them to approach me.  I at last owed my deliverance
+to a young woman in the field who took hold of a cord I had
+thrown out, and, calling to the men, they yielded that
+assistance at her request which they had refused to mine."
+
+As may be supposed, Lunardi's return to London resembled a
+royal progress.  Indeed, he was welcomed as a conqueror to whom
+the whole town sought to do honour, and perhaps his greatest
+gratification came by way of the accounts he gathered of
+incidents which occurred during his eventful voyage.  At a
+dinner at which he was being entertained by the Lord Mayor and
+judges he learned that a lady seeing his falling oar, and
+fancying that he himself was dashed to pieces, received a shock
+thereby which caused her death.  Commenting on this, one of the
+judges bade him be reassured, inasmuch as he had, as if by
+compensation, saved the life of a young man who might live to
+be reformed.  The young man was a criminal whose condemnation
+was regarded as certain at the hands of the jury before whom he
+was being arraigned, when tidings reached the court that
+Lunardi's balloon was in the air.  On this so much confusion
+arose that the jury were unable to give due deliberation to the
+case, and, fearing to miss the great sight, actually agreed to
+acquit the prisoner, that they themselves might be free to
+leave the court!
+
+But he was flattered by a compliment of a yet higher order.  He
+was told that while he hovered over London the King was in
+conference with his principal Ministers, and his Majesty,
+learning that he was in the sky, is reported to have said to
+his councillors, "We may resume our own deliberations at
+pleasure, but we may never see poor Lunardi again!"  On this,
+it is further stated that the conference broke up, and the
+King, attended by Mr. Pitt and other chief officers of State,
+continued to view Lunardi through telescopes as long as he
+remained in the horizon.
+
+The public Press, notably the Morning Post of September 16,
+paid a worthy tribute to the hero of the hour, and one last act
+of an exceptional character was carried out in his honour, and
+remains in evidence to this hour.  In a meadow in the parish of
+Standon, near Ware, there stands a rough hewn stone, now
+protected by an iron rail.  It marks the spot where Lunardi
+landed, and on it is cut a legend which runs thus:
+
+Let Posterity know
+And knowing be astonished
+that
+On the 15th day of September 1784
+Vincent Lunardi of Lusca in Tuscany
+The first aerial traveller in Britain
+Mounting from the Artillery Ground
+In London
+And Traversing the Regions of the Air
+For Two Hours and Fifteen Minutes
+In this Spot Revisited the Earth.
+On this rude monument
+For ages be recorded
+That Wondrous Enterprise
+Successfully atchieved
+By the Powers of Chemistry
+And the Fortitude of Man
+That Improvement in Science
+Which
+The Great Author of all Knowledge
+Patronyzing by His Providence
+The Invention of Mankind
+Hath graciously permitted
+To Their Benefit
+And
+His own Eternal Glory.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF BALLOON PHILOSOPHY.
+
+
+In less than two years not only had the science of ballooning
+reached almost its highest development, but the balloon itself,
+as an aerostatic machine, had been brought to a state of
+perfection which has been but little improved upon up to the
+present t hour.  Better or cheaper methods of inflation were
+yet to be discovered, lighter and more suitable material
+remained to be manufactured; but the navigation of the air,
+which hitherto through all time had been beyond man's grasp,
+had been attained, as it were, at a bound, and at the hands of
+many different and independent experimentalists was being
+pursued with almost the same degree of success and safety as
+to-day.
+
+Nor was this all.  There was yet another triumph of the
+aeronautical art which, within the same brief period, had been
+to all intents and purposes achieved, even if it had not been
+brought to the same state of perfection as at the present hour. 
+This was the Parachute.  This fact is one which for a
+sufficient reason is not generally known.  It is very commonly
+supposed that the parachute, in anything like its present form,
+is a very modern device, and that the art of successfully using
+it had not been introduced to the world even so lately as
+thirty years ago.  Thus, we find it stated in works of that
+date dealing with the subject that disastrous consequences
+almost necessarily attended the use of the parachute, "the
+defects of which had been attempted to be remedied in various
+ways, but up to this time without success."  A more correct
+statement, however, would have been that the art of
+constructing and using a practicable parachute had through many
+years been lost or forgotten.  In actual fact, it had been
+adopted with every assurance of complete success by the year
+1785, when Blanchard by its means lowered dogs and other
+animals with safety from a balloon.  A few years later he
+descended himself in a like apparatus from Basle, meeting,
+however, with the misadventure of a broken leg.
+
+But we must go much further back for the actual conception of
+the parachute, which, we might suppose, may originally have
+been suggested by the easy floating motion with which certain
+seeds or leaves will descend from lofty trees, or by the mode
+adopted by birds of dropping softly to earth with out-stretched
+wings.  M. de la Loubere, in his historical account of Siam,
+which he visited in 1687-88, speaks of an ingenious athlete who
+exceedingly diverted the King and his court by leaping from a
+height and supporting himself in the air by two umbrellas, the
+handles of which were affixed to his girdle.  In 1783, that is,
+the same year as that in which the balloon was invented, M. le
+Normand experimented with a like umbrella-shaped contrivance,
+with a view to its adoption as a fire escape, and he
+demonstrated the soundness of the principle by descending
+himself from the windows of a lofty house at Lyons.
+
+It was, however, reserved for M. Jacques Garnerin in 1797 to
+make the first parachute descent that attracted general
+attention.  Garnerin had previously been detained as a State
+prisoner in the fortress of Bade, in Hungary, after the battle
+of Marchiennes in 1793, and during his confinement had pondered
+on the possibility of effecting his escape by a parachute.  His
+solitary cogitations and calculations resulted, after his
+release, in the invention and construction of an apparatus
+which he put to a practical test at Paris before the court of
+France on October 22nd, 1797.  Ascending in a hydrogen balloon
+to the height of about 2,000 feet, he unhesitatingly cut
+himself adrift, when for some distance he dropped like a stone. 
+The folds of his apparatus, however, opening suddenly, his fall
+became instantly checked.  The remainder of his descent, though
+leisurely, occupying, in fact, some twelve minutes, appeared to
+the spectators to be attended with uncertainty, owing to a
+swinging motion set up in the car to which he was clinging. 
+But the fact remains that he reached the earth with only slight
+impact, and entirely without injury.
+
+It appears that Garnerin subsequently made many equally
+successful parachute descents in France, and during the short
+peace of 1802 visited London, where he gave an exhibition of
+his art.  From the most reliable accounts of his exploit it
+would seem that his drop was from a very great height, and that
+a strong ground wind was blowing at the time, the result of
+which was that wild, wide oscillations were set up in the car,
+which narrowly escaped bringing him in contact with the house
+tops in St. Pancreas, and eventually swung him down into a
+field, not without some unpleasant scratches.
+
+Nor was Garnerin the only successful parachutist at this
+period.  A Polish aeronaut, Jordaki Kuparento, ascended from
+Warsaw on the 24th of July, 1804 in a hot air balloon, taking
+up, as was the custom, an attached furnace, which caused the
+balloon to take fire when at a great height.  Kuparento,
+however, who was alone, had as a precaution provided himself
+with a parachute, and with this he seems to have found no
+difficulty in effecting a safe descent to earth.
+
+It was many years after this that fresh experimentalists,
+introducing parachutes on new lines and faulty in construction,
+met with death or disaster.  Enough, however, has already been
+said to show that in the early years we are now traversing in
+this history a perfectly practicable parachute had become an
+accomplished fact.  The early form is well described by Mr.
+Monck Mason in a letter to the Morning Herald in 1837, written
+on the eve of an unrehearsed and fatal experiment made by Mr.
+Cocking, which must receive notice in due course.  "The
+principle," writes Mr. Monck Mason, "upon which all these
+parachutes were constructed is the same, and consists simply of
+a flattened dome of silk or linen from 24 feet to 28 feet in
+diameter.  From the outer margin all around at stated intervals
+proceed a large number of cords, in length about the diameter
+of the dome itself, which, being collected together in one
+point and made fast to another of superior dimensions attached
+to the apex of the machine, serve to maintain it in its form
+when expanded in the progress of the descent.  To this centre
+cord likewise, at a distance below the point of junction,
+varying according to the fancy of the aeronaut, is fixed the
+car or basket in which he is seated, and the whole suspended
+from the network of the balloon in such a manner as to be
+capable of being detached in an instant at the will of the
+individual by cutting the rope by which it is made fast above."
+
+It followed almost as a matter of course that so soon as the
+balloon had been made subject to something like due control,
+and thus had become recognised as a new machine fairly reduced
+to the service of man, it began to be regarded as an instrument
+which should be made capable of being devoted to scientific
+research.  Indeed, it may be claimed that, among the very
+earliest aeronauts, those who had sailed away into the skies
+and brought back intelligent observations or impressions of the
+realm of cloud-land, or who had only described their own
+sensations at lofty altitudes, had already contributed facts of
+value to science.  It is time then, taking events in their due
+sequence, that mention should be made of the endeavours of
+various savants, who began about the commencement of the
+nineteenth century to gather fresh knowledge from the
+exploration of the air by balloon ascents organised with
+fitting equipment.  The time had now come for promoting the
+balloon to higher purposes than those of mere exhibition or
+amusement.  In point of fact, it had already in one way been
+turned to serious practical account.  It had been used by the
+French during military operations in the revolutionary war as a
+mode of reconnoitring, and not without success, so that when
+after due trial the war balloon was judged of value a number of
+similar balloons were constructed for the use of the various
+divisions of the French army, and, as will be told in its
+proper place, one, at least, of these was put to a positive
+test before the battle of Fleurus.
+
+But, returning to more strictly scientific ascents, which began
+to be mooted at this period, we are at once impressed with the
+widespread influence which the balloon was exercising on
+thinking minds.  We note this from the fact that what must be
+claimed to be the first genuine ascent for scientific
+observation was made in altogether fresh ground, and at so
+distant a spot as St. Petersburg.
+
+It was now the year 1804, and the Russian Academy had
+determined on attempting an examination of the physical
+condition of the higher atmosphere by means of the balloon. 
+The idea had probably been suggested by scientific observations
+which had already been made on mountain heights by such
+explorers as De Luc, Saussure, Humboldt, and others.  And now it
+was determined that their results should be tested alongside
+such observations as could be gathered in the free heaven far
+removed from any disturbing effects that might be caused by
+contiguity to earth.  The lines of enquiry to which special
+attention was required were such as would be naturally
+suggested by the scientific knowledge of the hour, though they
+may read somewhat quaintly to-day.  Would there be any change
+in the intensity of the magnetic force?  Any change in the
+inclination of the magnetised needle?  Would evaporation find a
+new law?  Would solar rays increase in power?  What amount of
+electric matter would be found?  What change in the colours
+produced by the prism?  What would be the constitution of the
+higher and more attenuated air?  What physical effect would it
+have on human and bird life?
+
+The ascent was made at 7.15 on a summer evening by M. Robertson
+and the Academician, M. Sacharof, to whom we are indebted for
+the following resume of notes, which have a special value as
+being the first of their class.  Rising slowly, a difference of
+atmosphere over the Neva gave the balloon a downward motion,
+necessitating the discharge of ballast.  As late as 8.45 p.m. 
+a fine view was obtained of the Newski Islands, and the whole
+course of the neighbouring river.  At 9.20 p.m., when the
+barometer had fallen from 30 inches to 23 inches, a canary and
+a dove were dismissed, the former falling precipitately, while
+the latter sailed down to a village below.  All available
+ballast was now thrown out, including a spare great coat and
+the remains of supper, with the result that at 9.30 the
+barometer had fallen to 22 inches, and at this height they
+caught sight of the upper rim of the sun.  The action of heart
+and lungs remained normal.  No stars were seen, though the sky
+was mainly clear, such clouds as were visible appearing white
+and at a great height.  The echo of a speaking trumpet was
+heard after an interval of ten seconds.  This was substantially
+the outcome of the experiments.  The practical difficulties of
+carrying out prearranged observations amid the inconvenience of
+balloon travel were much felt.  Their instruments were
+seriously damaged, and their results, despite most painstaking
+and praiseworthy efforts, must be regarded as somewhat
+disappointing.
+
+But ere the autumn of the same year two other scientific
+ascents, admirably schemed and financed at the public expense,
+had been successfully carried out at Paris in a war balloon
+which, as will be told, had at this time been returned from
+military operations in Egypt.  In the first of these, Gay
+Lussac ascended in company with M. Biot, with very complete
+equipment.  Choosing ten o'clock in the morning for their hour
+of departure, they quickly entered a region of thin, but wet
+fog, after which they shot up into denser cloud, which they
+completely surmounted at a height of 6,500 feet, when they
+described the upper surface as bearing the resemblance,
+familiar enough to aeronauts and mountaineers, as of a white
+sea broken up into gently swelling billows, or of an extended
+plain covered with snow.
+
+A series of simple experiments now embarked upon showed the
+behaviour of magnetised iron, as also of a galvanic pile or
+battery, to remain unaltered.  As their altitude increased
+their pulses quickened, though beyond feeling keenly the
+contrast of a colder air and of scorching rays of the sun they
+experienced no physical discomfort.  At 11,000 feet a linnet
+which they liberated fell to the earth almost helplessly, while
+a pigeon with difficulty maintained an irregular and
+precipitate flight.  A carefully compiled record was made of
+variations of temperature and humidity, and they succeeded in
+determining that the upper air was charged with negative
+electricity.  In all this these two accomplished physicists may
+be said to have carried out a brilliant achievement, even
+though their actual results may seem somewhat meagre.  They not
+only were their own aeronauts, but succeeded in arranging and
+carrying out continuous and systematic observations throughout
+the period of their remaining in the sky.
+
+This voyage was regarded as such a pronounced success that
+three weeks later, in mid-September, Gay Lussac was induced to
+ascend again, this time alone, and under circumstances that
+should enable him to reach an exceptionally high altitude. 
+Experience had taught the advisability of certain modifications
+in his equipment.  A magnet was ingeniously slung with a view
+of testing its oscillation even in spite of accidental
+gyrations in the balloon.  Thermometers and hygrometers were
+carefully sheltered from the direct action of the sun, and
+exhausted flasks were supplied with the object of bringing down
+samples of upper air for subsequent analysis.
+
+Again it was an early morning ascent, with a barometer on the
+ground standing at 30.6 inches, and a slightly misty air. 
+Lussac appears to have accomplished the exceedingly difficult
+task of counting the oscillations of his magnet with
+satisfaction to himself.  At 10,000 feet twenty vibrations
+occupied 83 seconds, as compared with 84.33 seconds at the
+earth's surface.  The variation of the compass remained
+unaltered, as also the behaviour of magnetised iron at all
+altitudes.  Keeping his balloon under perfect control, and
+maintaining a uniform and steady ascent, he at the same time
+succeeded in compiling an accurate table of readings recording
+atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity, and it is
+interesting to find that he was confronted with an apparent
+anomaly which will commonly present itself to the aeronaut
+observer.  Up to 12,000 feet the temperature had decreased
+consistently from 82 degrees to 47 degrees, after which it
+increased 6 degrees in the next 2,000 feet.  This by no means
+uncommon experience shall be presently discussed.  The balloon
+was now steadily manoeuvred up to 18,636 feet, at which height
+freezing point was practically reached.  Then with a further
+climb 20,000 feet is recorded, at which altitude the ardent
+philosopher could still attend to his magnetic observations,
+nor is his arduous and unassisted task abandoned here, but with
+marvellous pertinacity he yet struggled upwards till a height
+of no less than 23,000 feet is recorded, and the thermometer
+had sunk to 14 degrees F.  Four miles and a quarter above the
+level of the sea, reached by a solitary aerial explorer, whose
+legitimate training lay apart from aeronautics, and whose main
+care was the observation of the philosophical instruments he
+carried!  The achievement of this French savant makes a
+brilliant record in the early pages of our history.
+
+It is not surprising that Lussac should own to having felt no
+inconsiderable personal discomfort before his venture was over. 
+In spite of warm clothing he suffered greatly from cold and
+benumbed fingers, not less also from laboured breathing and a
+quickened pulse; headache supervened, and his throat became
+parched and unable to swallow food.  In spite of all, he
+conducted the descent with the utmost skill, climbing down
+quietly and gradually till he alighted with gentle ease at St. 
+Gourgen, near Rouen.  It may be mentioned here that the
+analysis of the samples of air which he had brought down proved
+them to contain the normal proportion of oxygen, and to be
+essentially identical, as tested in the laboratory, with the
+free air secured at the surface of the earth.
+
+The sudden and apparently unaccountable variation in
+temperature recorded by Lussac is a striking revelation to an
+aerial observer, and becomes yet more marked when more
+sensitive instruments are used than those which were taken up
+on the occasion just related.  It will be recorded in a future
+chapter how more suitable instruments came in course of time to
+be devised.  It is only necessary to point out at this stage
+that instruments which lack due sensibility will unavoidably
+read too high in ascents, and too low in descents where,
+according to the general law, the air is found to grow
+constantly colder with elevation above the earth's surface.  It
+is strong evidence of considerable efficiency in the
+instruments, and of careful attention on the part of the
+observer, that Lussac was able to record the temporary
+inversion of the law of change of temperature above-mentioned. 
+Had he possessed modern instrumental equipment he would have
+brought down a yet more remarkable account of the upper regions
+which he visited, and learned that the variations of heat and
+cold were considerably more striking than he supposed.
+
+With a specially devised instrument used with special
+precautions, the writer, as will be shown hereafter, has been
+able to prove that the temperature of the air, as traversed in
+the wayward course of a balloon, is probably far more variable
+and complex than has been recorded by most observers.
+
+The exceptional height claimed to have been reached by Gay
+Lassac need not for a moment be questioned, and the fact that
+he did not experience the same personal inconvenience as has
+been complained of by mountain climbers at far less altitudes
+admits of ready explanation.  The physical exertion demanded of
+the mountaineer is entirely absent in the case of an aeronaut
+who is sailing at perfect ease in a free balloon.  Moreover, it
+must be remembered that--a most important consideration--the
+aerial voyager, necessarily travelling with the wind, is
+unconscious, save at exceptional moments, of any breeze
+whatever, and it is a well-established fact that a degree of
+cold which might be insupportable when a breeze is stirring may
+be but little felt in dead calm.  It should also be remembered,
+in duly regarding Gay Lussac's remarkable record, that this was
+not his first experience of high altitudes, and it is an
+acknowledged truth that an aeronaut, especially if he be an
+enthusiast, quickly becomes acclimatised to his new element,
+and sufficiently inured to its occasional rigours.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V. SOME FAMOUS EARLY VOYAGERS.
+
+
+During certain years which now follow it will possibly be
+thought that our history, so far as incidents of special
+interest are concerned, somewhat languishes.  Yet it may be
+wrong to regard this period as one of stagnation or
+retrogression.
+
+Before passing on to later annals, however, we must duly
+chronicle certain exceptional achievements and endeavours as
+yet unmentioned, which stand out prominently in the period we
+have been regarding as also in the advancing years of the new
+century Among these must in justice be included those which
+come into the remarkable, if somewhat pathetic subsequent
+career of the brilliant, intrepid Lunardi.
+
+Compelling everywhere unbounded admiration he readily secured
+the means necessary for carrying out further exploits wherever
+he desired while at the same time he met with a measure of good
+fortune in freedom from misadventure such as has generally been
+denied to less bold adventurers.  Within a few months of the
+time when we left him, the popular hero and happy recipient of
+civic and royal favours, we find him in Scotland attempting
+feats which a knowledge of practical difficulties bids us
+regard as extraordinary.
+
+To begin with, nothing appears more remarkable than the ease,
+expedition, and certainty with which in days when necessary
+facilities must have been far harder to come by than now, he
+could always fill his balloon by the usually tedious and
+troublesome mode attending hydrogen inflation.  We see him at
+his first Scottish ascent, completing the operation in little
+more than two hours.  It is the same later at Glasgow, where,
+commencing with only a portion of his apparatus, he finds the
+inflation actually to proceed too rapidly for his purpose, and
+has to hold the powers at his command strongly in check. 
+Later, in December weather, having still further improved his
+apparatus, he makes his balloon support itself after  the
+inflation of only ten minutes.  Then, as if assured of
+impunity, he treats recognised risks with a species of
+contempt.  At Kelso he hails almost with joy the fact that the
+wind must carry him rapidly towards the sea, which in the end
+he narrowly escapes.  At Glasgow the chances of safe landing
+are still more against him, yet he has no hesitation in
+starting, and at last the catastrophe he seemed to court
+actually overtook him, and he plumped into the sea near
+Berwick, where no sail was even in sight, and a winter's night
+coming on.  From this predicament he was rescued by a special
+providence which once before had not deserted him, when in a
+tumult of violent and contrary currents, and at a great height
+to boot, his gallery was almost completely carried away, and he
+had to cling on to the hoop desperately with both hands.
+
+Then we lose sight of the dauntless, light-hearted Italian for
+one-and-twenty years, when in the Gentleman's Magazine of July
+31, 1806, appears the brief line, "Died in the convent of
+Barbadinas, of a decline, Mr. Vincent Lunardi, the celebrated
+aeronaut."
+
+Garnerin, of whom mention has already been made, accomplished
+in the summer of 1802 two aerial voyages marked by extreme
+velocity in the rate of travel.  The first of these is also
+remarkable as having been the first to fairly cross the heart
+of London.  Captain Snowdon, R.N., accompanied the aeronaut. 
+The ascent took place from Chelsea Gardens, and proved so great
+an attraction that the crowd overflowed into the neighbouring
+parts of the town, choking up the thoroughfares with vehicles,
+and covering the river with boats.  On being liberated, the
+balloon sped rapidly away, taking a course midway between the
+river and the main highway of the Strand, Fleet Street, and
+Cheapside, and so passed from view of the multitude.  Such a
+departure could hardly fail to lead to subsequent adventures,
+and this is pithily told in a letter written by Garnerin
+himself:  "I take the earliest opportunity of informing you
+that after a very pleasant journey, but after the most
+dangerous descent I ever made, on account of the boisterous
+weather and the vicinity of the sea, we alighted at the
+distance of four miles from this place and sixty from Ranelagh. 
+We were only three-quarters of an hour on the way.  To-night I
+intend to be in London with the balloon, which is torn to
+pieces.  We ourselves are all over bruises."
+
+Only a week after the same aeronaut ascended again from
+Marylebone, when he attained almost the same velocity, reaching
+Chingford, a distance of seventeen miles, in fifteen minutes.
+
+The chief danger attending a balloon journey in a high wind,
+supposing no injury has been sustained in filling and
+launching, results not so much from impact with the ground on
+alighting as from the subsequent almost inevitable dragging
+along the ground.  The grapnels, spurning the open, will often
+obtain no grip save in a hedge or tree, and even then large
+boughs will be broken through or dragged away, releasing the
+balloon on a fresh career which may, for a while, increase in
+mad impetuosity as the emptying silk offers a deeper hollow for
+the wind to catch.
+
+The element of risk is of another nature in the case of a night
+ascent, when the actual alighting ground cannot be duly chosen
+or foreseen.  Among many record night ascents may here,
+somewhat by anticipation of events, be mentioned two embarked
+upon by the hero of our last adventure.  M. Garnerin was
+engaged to make a spectacular ascent from Tivoli at Paris,
+leaving the grounds at night with attached lamps illuminating
+his balloon.  His first essay was on a night of ear]y August,
+when he ascended at 11 p.m., reaching a height of nearly three
+miles.  Remaining aloft through the hours of darkness, he
+witnessed the sun rise at half-past two in the morning, and
+eventually came to earth after a journey of some seven hours,
+during which time he had covered considerably more than a
+hundred miles.  A like bold adventure carried out from the same
+grounds the following month was attended with graver peril.  A
+heavy thunderstorm appearing imminent, Garnerin elected to
+ascend with great rapidity, with the result that his balloon,
+under the diminished pressure, quickly became distended to an
+alarming degree, and he was reduced to the necessity of
+piercing a hole in the silk, while for safety's sake he
+endeavoured to extinguish all lamps within reach.  He now lost
+all control over his balloon, which became unmanageable in the
+conflict of the storm.  Having exhausted his ballast, he
+presently was rudely brought to earth and then borne against a
+mountain side, finally losing consciousness until the balloon
+had found anchorage three hundred miles away from Paris.
+
+A night ascent, which reads as yet more sensational and
+extraordinary, is reported to have been made a year or two
+previously, and when it is considered that the balloon used was
+of the Montgolfier type the account as it is handed down will
+be allowed to be without parallel.  It runs thus:  Count
+Zambeccari, Dr. Grassati of Rome, and M. Pascal Andreoli of
+Antona ascended on a November night from Bologna, allowing
+their balloon to rise with excessive velocity.  In consequence
+of this rapid transition to an extreme altitude the Count and
+the Doctor became insensible, leaving Andreoli alone in
+possession of his faculties.  At two o'clock in the morning
+they found themselves descending over the Adriatic, at which
+time a lantern which they carried expired and was with
+difficulty re-lighted.  Continuing to descend, they presently
+pitched in to the sea and became drenched with salt water.  It
+may seem surprising that the balloon, which could not be
+prevented falling in the water, is yet enabled to ascend from
+the grip of the waves by the mere discharge of ballast.  (It
+would be interesting to inquire what meanwhile happened to the
+fire which they presumably carried with them.)  They now rose
+into regions of cloud, where they became covered with hoar
+frost and also stone deaf.  At 3 a.m. they were off the coast
+of Istria, once more battling with the waves till picked up by
+a shore boat.  The balloon, relieved of their weight, then flew
+away into Turkey.
+
+However overdrawn this narrative may appear, it must be read in
+the light of another account, the bare, hard facts of which can
+admit of no question.  It is five years later, and once again
+Count Zambeccari is ascending from Bologna, this time in
+company with Signor Bonagna.  Again it is a Montgolfier or fire
+balloon, and on nearing earth it becomes entangled in a tree
+and catches fire.  The aeronauts jump for their lives, and the
+Count is killed on the spot.  Certainly, when every allowance
+is made for pardonable or unintentional exaggeration, it must
+be conceded that there were giants in those days.  Giants in
+the conception and accomplishment of deeds of lofty daring. 
+Men who came scathless through supreme danger by virtue of the
+calmness and courage with which they withstood it.
+
+Among other appalling disasters we have an example of a
+terrific descent from a vast height in which the adventurers
+yet escape with their lives.  It was the summer of 1808, and
+the aeronauts, MM. Andreoli and Brioschi, ascending from Padua,
+reach a height at which a barometer sinks to eight inches,
+indicating upwards of 30,000 feet.  At this point the balloon
+bursts, and falls precipitately near Petrarch's tomb. 
+Commenting on this, Mr. Glaisher, the value of whose opinion is
+second to none, is not disposed to question the general truth
+of the narrative.  In regard to Zambeccari's escape from the
+sea related above, it should be stated that in the case of a
+gas-inflated balloon which has no more than dipped its car or
+gallery in the waves, it is generally perfectly possible to
+raise it again from the water, provided there is on board a
+store of ballast, the discharge of which will sufficiently
+lighten the balloon.  A case in point occurred in a most
+romantic and perilous voyage accomplished by Mr. Sadler on the
+1st of October, 1812.
+
+His adventure is one of extraordinary interest, and of no
+little value to the practical aeronaut.  The following account
+is condensed from Mr. Sadler's own narrative.  He started from
+the grounds of Belvedere House, Dublin, with the expressed
+intention of endeavouring to cross over the Irish Channel to
+Liverpool. There appear to have been two principal air drifts,
+an upper and a lower, by means of which he entertained fair
+hopes of steering his desired course.  But from the outset he
+was menaced with dangers and difficulties.  Ere he had left the
+land he discovered a rent in his silk which, occasioned by some
+accident before leaving, showed signs of extending.  To reach
+this, it was necessary to extemporise by means of a rope a
+species of ratlins by which he could climb the rigging.  He
+then contrived to close the rent with his neckcloth.  He was,
+by this time, over the sea, and, manoeuvring his craft by aid
+of the two currents at his disposal, he was carried to the
+south shore of the Isle of Man, whence he was confident of
+being able, had he desired it, of landing in Cumberland.  This,
+however, being contrary to his intention, he entrusted himself
+to the higher current, and by it was carried to the north-west
+of Holyhead.  Here he dropped once again to the lower current,
+drifting south of the Skerry Lighthouse across the Isle of
+Anglesea, and at 4.30 p.m. found himself abreast of the Great
+Orme's Head.  Evening now approaching, he had determined to
+seek a landing, but at this critical juncture the wind shifted
+to the southward, and he became blown out to sea.  Then, for an
+hour, he appears to have tried high and low for a more
+favourable current, but without success; and, feeling the
+danger of his situation, and, moreover, sighting no less than
+five vessels beating down the Channel, he boldly descended in
+the sea about a mile astern of them.  He must for certain have
+been observed by these vessels; but each and all held on their
+course, and, thus deserted, the aeronaut had no choice but to
+discharge ballast, and, quitting the waves, to regain his
+legitimate element.  His experiences at this period of his
+extraordinary voyage are best told in his own words.  "At the
+time I descended the sun was near setting Already the shadows
+of evening had cast a dusky hue over the face of the ocean, and
+a crimson glow purpled the tops of the waves as, heaving in the
+evening breeze, they died away in distance, or broke in foam
+against the sides of the vessels, and before I rose from the
+sea the orb had sunk below the horizon, leaving only the
+twilight glimmer to light the vast expanse around me.  How
+great, therefore, was my astonishment, and how incapable is
+expression to convey an adequate idea of my feelings when,
+rising to the upper region of the air, the sun, whose parting
+beams I had already witnessed, again burst on my view, and
+encompassed me with the full blaze of day.  Beneath me hung the
+shadows of even, whilst the clear beams of the sun glittered on
+the floating vehicle which bore me along rapidly before the
+wind."
+
+After a while he sights three more vessels, which signify their
+willingness to stand by, whereupon he promptly descends,
+dropping beneath the two rear-most of them.  From this point
+the narrative of the sinking man, and the gallant attempt at
+rescue, will rival any like tale of the sea.  For the wind, now
+fast rising, caught the half empty balloon so soon as the car
+touched the sea, and the vessel astern, though in full pursuit,
+was wholly unable to come up.  Observing this, Mr. Sadler,
+trusting more to the vessel ahead, dropped his grappling iron
+by way of drag, and shortly afterwards tried the further
+expedient of taking off his clothes and attaching them to the
+iron.  The vessels, despite these endeavours, failing to
+overhaul him, he at last, though with reasonable reluctance,
+determined to further cripple the craft that bore him so
+rapidly by liberating a large quantity of gas, a desperate,
+though necessary, expedient which nearly cost him his life.
+
+For the car now instantly sank, and the unfortunate man,
+clutching at the hoop, found he could not even so keep himself
+above the water, and was reduced to clinging, as a last hope,
+to the netting.  The result of this could be foreseen, for he
+was frequently plunged under water by the mere rolling of the
+balloon.  Cold and exertion soon told on him, as he clung
+frantically to the valve rope, and when his strength failed him
+he actually risked the expedient of passing his head through
+the meshes of the net.  It was obvious that for avail help must
+soon come; yet the pursuing vessel, now close, appeared to hold
+off, fearing to become entangled in the net, and in this
+desperate extremity, fainting from exhaustion and scarcely able
+to cry aloud, Mr. Sadler himself seems to have divined the
+chance yet left; for, summoning his failing strength, he
+shouted to the sailors to run their bowsprit through his
+balloon.  This was done, and the drowning man was hauled on
+board with the life scarcely in him.
+
+A fitting sequel to the above adventure followed five years
+afterwards.  The Irish Sea remained unconquered.  No balloonist
+had as yet ever crossed its waters. Who would attempt the feat
+once more?  Who more worthy than the hero's own son, Mr.
+Windham Sadler?
+
+This aspiring aeronaut, emulating his father's enterprising
+spirit, chose the same starting ground at Dublin, and on the
+longest day of 1817, when winds seemed favourable, left the
+Porto Bello barracks at 1.20 p.m.  His endeavour was to "tack"
+his course by such currents as he should find, in the manner
+attempted by his father, and at starting the ground current
+blew favourably from the W.S.W.  He, however, allowed his
+balloon to rise to too high an altitude, where he must have
+been taken aback by a contrary drift; for, on descending again
+through a shower of snow, he found himself no further than Ben
+Howth, as yet only ten miles on his long journey.  Profiting by
+his mistake, he thenceforward, by skilful regulation, kept his
+balloon within due limits, and successfully maintained a direct
+course across the sea, reaching a spot in Wales not far from
+Holyhead an hour and a half before sundown.  The course taken
+was absolutely the shortest possible, being little more than
+seventy miles, which he traversed in five hours.
+
+From this period of our story, noteworthy events in
+aeronautical history grow few and far between.  As a mere
+exhibition the novelty of a balloon ascent had much worn off. 
+No experimentalist was ready with any new departure in the art. 
+No fresh adventure presented itself to the minds of the more
+enterprising spirits; and, whereas a few years previously
+ballooning exploits crowded into every summer season and were
+not neglected even in winter months, there is now for a while
+little to chronicle, either abroad or in our own country.  A
+certain revival of the sensational element in ballooning was
+occasionally witnessed, and not without mishap, as in the case
+of Madame Blanchard, who, in the summer of 1819, ascending at
+night with fireworks from the Tivoli Gardens, Paris, managed to
+set fire to her balloon and lost her life in her terrific fall. 
+Half a dozen years later a Mr., as also Mrs., Graham figure
+before the public in some bold spectacular ascents.
+
+But the fame of any aeronaut of that date must inevitably pale
+before the dawning light shed by two stars of the first
+magnitude that were arising in two opposite parts of the
+world--Mr. John Wise in America, and Mr. Charles Green in our
+own country.  The latter of these, who has been well styled the
+"Father of English Aeronautics," now entered on a long and
+honoured career of so great importance and success that we must
+reserve for him a separate and special chapter.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI. CHARLES GREEN AND THE NASSAU BALLOON.
+
+
+The balloon, which had gradually been dropping out of favour,
+had now been virtually laid aside, and, to all appearance,
+might have continued so, when, as if by chance concurrence of
+events, there arrived both the hour and the man to restore it
+to the world, and to invest it with a new practicability and
+importance.  The coronation of George the Fourth was at hand,
+and this became a befitting occasion for the rare genius
+mentioned at the end of the last chapter, and now in his
+thirty-sixth year, to put in practice a new method of balloon
+management and inflation, the entire credit of which must be
+accorded to him alone.
+
+From its very introduction and inception the gas balloon, an
+expensive and fragile structure in itself, had proved at all
+times exceedingly costly in actual use.  Indeed, we find that
+at the date at which we have now arrived the estimate for
+filling a balloon of 70,000 cubic feet--no extraordinary
+capacity--with hydrogen gas was about L250.  When, then, to
+this great outlay was added the difficulty and delay of
+producing a sufficient supply by what was at best a clumsy
+process, as also the positive failure and consequent
+disappointment which not infrequently ensued, it is easy to
+understand how through many years balloon ascents, no longer a
+novelty, had begun to be regarded with distrust, and the
+profession of a balloonist was doomed to become unremunerative. 
+A simpler and cheaper mode of inflation was not only a
+desideratum, but an absolute necessity.  The full truth of this
+may be gathered from the fact that we find there were not
+seldom instances where two or three days of continuous and
+anxious labour were expended in generating and passing hydrogen
+into a balloon, through the fabric of which the subtle gas
+would escape almost as fast as it was produced.
+
+It was at this juncture, then, that Charles Green conceived the
+happy idea of substituting for hydrogen gas the ordinary
+household gas, which at this time was to be found ready to hand
+and in sufficient quantity in all towns of any consequence; and
+by the day of the coronation all was in readiness for a public
+exhibition of this method of inflation, which was carried out
+with complete success, though not altogether without unrehearsed
+and amusing incident, as must be told.
+
+The day, July 18, was one of summer heat, and Green at the
+conclusion of his preparations, fatigued with anxious labour
+and oppressed by the crowding of the populace, took refuge
+within the car of his balloon, which was by that time already
+inflated, and only awaiting the gun signal that was to announce
+the moment for its departure.  To allow of his gaining the
+refreshment of somewhat purer air he begged his friends who
+were holding the car of his balloon in restraint to keep it
+suspended at a few feet from the earth, while he rested himself
+within, and, this being done, it would appear that he fell into
+a doze, from which he did not awake till he found that the
+balloon, which had slipped from his friends' hold, was already
+high above the crowd and requiring his prompt attention.  This
+was, however, by no means an untoward accident, and Green's
+triumph was complete.  By this one venture alone the success of
+the new method was entirely assured.  The cost of the inflation
+had been reduced ten-fold, the labour and uncertainty a
+hundred-fold, and, over and above all, the confidence of the
+public was restored.  It is little wonder, then, that in the
+years that now follow we find the balloon returning to all the
+favour it had enjoyed in its palmiest days.  But Green proved
+himself something more than a practical balloonist of the first
+rank.  He brought to the aid of his profession ideas which were
+matured by due thought and scientifically sound.  It is true he
+still clung for a while to the antiquated notion that
+mechanical means could, with advantage, be used to cause a
+balloon to ascend or descend, or to alter its direction in a
+tranquil atmosphere.  But he saw clearly that the true method
+of navigating a balloon should be by a study of upper currents,
+and this he was able to put to practical proof on a memorable
+occasion, and in a striking manner, as we shall presently
+relate.
+
+He learned the lesson early in his career while acquiring facts
+and experience, unassisted, in a number of solitary voyages
+made from different parts of the country.  Among these he is
+careful to record an occasion when, making a day-light ascent
+from Boston, Lincolnshire, he maintained a lofty course, which
+promised to take him direct to Grantham; but, presently
+descending to a lower level, and his balloon diverging at an
+angle of some 45 degrees, he now headed for Newark.  This
+experience he stored away.
+
+A month later we find him making a night voyage from Vauxhall
+Gardens, destined to be the scene of many memorable ascents in
+the near future; and on this occasion he gave proof of his
+capability as a close and intelligent observer.  It was a July
+night, near 11 p.m., moonless and cloudy, yet the earth was
+visible, and under these circumstances his simple narrative
+becomes of scientific value.  He accurately distinguished the
+reflective properties of the face of the diversified country he
+traversed.  Over Battersea and Wandsworth--this was in
+1826--there were white sheets spread over the land, which proved
+to be corn crops ready for the sickle.  Where crops were not the
+ground was darker, with, here and there, objects absolutely
+black--in other words, trees and houses.  Then he mentions the
+river in a memorandum, which reads strangely to the aeronaut who
+has made the same night voyage in these latter days.  The stream
+was crossed in places with rows of lamps apparently resting on
+the water.  These were the lighted bridges; but, here and there,
+were dark planks, and these too were bridges--at Battersea and
+Putney--but without a light upon them!
+
+In these and many other simple, but graphic, narratives Green
+draws his own pictures of Nature in her quieter moods.  But he
+was not without early experience of her horse play, a highly
+instructive record of which should not be omitted here, and
+which, as coming from so careful and conscientious an observer,
+is best gathered from his own words.  The ascent was from
+Newbury, and it can have been no mean feat to fill, under
+ordinary circumstances, a balloon carrying two passengers and a
+considerable weight of ballast at the small gas-holder which
+served the town eighty-five years ago.  But the circumstances
+were not ordinary, for the wind was extremely squally; a
+tremendous hail and thunderstorm blew up, and a hurricane swept
+the balloon with such force that two tons weight of iron and a
+hundred men scarce sufficed to hold it in check.
+
+Green on this occasion had indeed a companion, whose usefulness
+however at a pinch may be doubted when we learn that he was
+both deaf and dumb.  The rest of the narrative runs thus: 
+"Between 4 and 5 p.m. the clouds dispersed, but the wind
+continued to rage with unabated fury the whole of the evening. 
+At 6 p.m. I stepped into the car with Mr. Simmons and gave the
+word 'Away!'  The moment the machine was disencumbered of its
+weights it was torn by the violence of the wind from the
+assistants, bounded off with the velocity of lightning in a
+southeasterly direction, and in a very short space of time
+attained an elevation of two miles.  At this altitude we
+perceived two immense bodies of clouds operated on by contrary
+currents of air until at length they became united, and at that
+moment my ears were assailed by the most awful and longest
+continued peal of thunder I have ever heard.  These clouds were
+a full mile beneath us, but perceiving other strata floating at
+the same elevation at which we were sailing, which from their
+appearance I judged to be highly charged with electricity, I
+considered it prudent to discharge twenty pounds of ballast,
+and we rose half a mile above our former elevation, where I
+considered we were perfectly safe and beyond their influence. 
+I observed, amongst other phenomena, that at every discharge of
+thunder all the detached pillars of clouds within the distance
+of a mile around became attracted and appeared to concentrate
+their force towards the first body of clouds alluded to,
+leaving the atmosphere clear and calm beneath and around us.
+
+"With very trifling variations we continued the same course
+until 7.15 p.m., when we descended to within 500 feet of the
+earth; but, perceiving from the disturbed surface of the rivers
+and lakes that a strong wind existed near the earth, we again
+ascended and continued our course till 7.30 p.m., when a final
+descent was safely effected in a meadow field in the parish of
+Crawley in Surrey, situated between Guildford and Horsham, and
+fifty-eight miles from Newbury.  This stormy voyage was
+performed in one hour and a half."
+
+It was after Green had followed his profession for fifteen
+years that he was called upon to undertake the management of an
+aerial venture, which, all things considered, has never been
+surpassed in genuine enterprise and daring.  The conception of
+the project was due to Mr. Robert Hollond, and it took shape in
+this way.  This gentleman, fresh from Cambridge, possessed of
+all the ardour of early manhood, as also of adequate means, had
+begun to devote himself with the true zeal of the enthusiast to
+the pursuit of ballooning, finding due opportunity for this in
+his friendship with Mr. Green, who enjoyed the management of
+the fine balloon made for ascents at the then popular Vauxhall
+Gardens.  In the autumn of 1836 the proprietors of this balloon,
+contemplating making an exhibition of an ascent from Paris, and
+requiring their somewhat fragile property to be conveyed to
+that city, Mr. Hollond boldly came forward and offered to
+transfer it thither, and, as nearly as this might be possible,
+by passage through the sky.  The proposal was accepted, and Mr.
+Holland, in conjunction with Green, set about the needful
+preparations.  These, as will appear, were on an extraordinary
+scale, and no blame is to be imputed on that account, as a
+little consideration will show.  For the venture proposed was
+not to be that of merely crossing the Channel, which, as we
+have seen, had been successfully effected no less than fifty
+years before.  The voyage in contemplation was to be from
+London; it was, moreover, to be pursued through a long,
+moonless winter's night, and under conditions of which no
+living aeronaut had had actual experience.
+
+Calculation, based on a sufficient knowledge of fast upper
+currents, told that their course, ere finished, might be one of
+almost indefinite length, and it is not too much to say that no
+one, with the knowledge of that day, could predict within a
+thousand miles where the dawn of the next day might find them.
+The equipment, therefore, was commensurate with the possible
+task before them.  To begin with, they limited their number to
+three in all--Mr. Hollond, as chief and keeper of the log; Mr.
+Green, as aeronaut; and an enthusiastic colleague, Mr. Monck
+Mason, as the chronicler of the party.  Next, they provided
+themselves with passports to all parts of the Continent; and
+then came the fitting out and victualling of the aerial craft
+itself, calculated to carry some 90,000 cubic feet of gas, and
+a counterpoise of a ton of ballast, which took the form partly
+of actual provisions in large quantity, partly of gear and
+apparatus, and for the rest of sand and also lime, of which
+more anon.  Across the middle of the car was fixed a bench to
+serve as table, and also as a stage for the winding in and out
+of an enormous trail rope a thousand feet long, designed by Mr.
+Green to meet the special emergencies of the voyage.  At the
+bottom of the car was spread a large cushion to serve the
+purposes of rest.  When all was in readiness unfitness of
+weather baulked the travellers for some days, but Monday, the
+7th of November, was judged a favourable day, so that the
+inflation was rapidly proceeded with, and at 1.30 p.m. the
+"Monstre Balloon," as it was entitled in the "Ingoldsby
+Legends," left the earth on her eventful and ever memorable
+voyage.  The weather was fine and promising, and, rising with a
+moderate breeze from the N.W., they began to traverse the
+northern parts of Kent, while light, drifting upper clouds gave
+indication of other possible currents.  Mr. Hollond was precise
+in the determination of times and of all readings and we learn
+that at exactly 2.48 p.m. they were crossing the Medway, six
+miles west of Rochester, while at 4.5 p.m. the lofty towers of
+Canterbury were well in view, two miles to the east, and here a
+little function was well carried out.  Green had twice ascended
+from this city under patronage of the authorities, and the idea
+occurred to the party that it would be a graceful compliment to
+drop a message to the Mayor as they passed.  A suitable note,
+therefore, quickly written, was dismissed in a parachute, and it
+may be mentioned that this, as also a similar missive addressed
+later to the Mayor of Dover, were duly received and
+acknowledged.
+
+At a quarter past four they sighted the sea, and here, the air
+beginning to grow chill, the balloon dropped earthward, and for
+some miles they skimmed the ground, disturbing the partridges,
+scattering the rooks, and keeping up a running conversation the
+while with labourers and passers below.  In this there was
+exercise of perfectly proper aerial seamanship, such as
+moreover presently led to an exhibition of true science.  To
+save ballast is, with a balloon, to prolong life, and this may
+often best be done by flying low, which doubtless was Green's
+present intention.  But soon his trained eye saw that the
+ground current which now carried them was leading them astray. 
+They were trending to the northward, and so far out of their
+course that they would soon make the North Foreland, and so be
+carried out over the North Sea far from their desired
+direction.  Thereupon Green attempted to put in practice his
+theory, already spoken of, of steering by upper currents, and
+the event proved his judgment peculiarly correct.  "Nothing,"
+wrote Mr. Monck Mason, "could exceed the beauty of the
+manoeuvre, to which the balloon at once responded, regaining her
+due course, and, in a matter of a few minutes only, bearing the
+voyagers almost vertically over the castle of Dover in the exact
+line for crossing the straits between that town and Calais."
+
+So far all was well, and success had been extraordinary; but
+from this moment they became faced with new conditions, and with
+the grave trouble of uncertainty.  Light was failing, the sea
+was before them, and--what else thenceforth?  4.48 p.m. was
+recorded as the moment when the first line of breaking waves was
+seen directly below them, and then the English coast line began
+rapidly to fade out from their view.  But, ahead, the obscurity
+was yet more intense, for clouds, banked up like a solid wall,
+crowned along its frowning heights, with "parapets and turrets
+and batteries and bastions," and, plunging into this opposing
+barrier, they were quickly buried in blackness, losing at the
+same time over the sea all sound from earth soever.  So for a
+short hour's space, when the sound of waves once again broke in
+upon them, and immediately afterwards emerging from the dense
+cloud (a sea-fog merely) they found themselves immediately over
+the brilliantly lighted town of Calais.  Seeing this, the
+travellers attempted to signal by igniting and lowering a Bengal
+Light, which was directly followed by the beating of drums from
+below.
+
+It adds a touch of reality, as well as cheerfulness, to the
+narrative to read that at this period of their long journey the
+travellers apply themselves to a fair, square meal, the first
+for twelve hours, despite the day's excitement and toil.  We
+have an entry among the stores of the balloon of wine bottles
+and spirit flasks, but there is no mention of these being
+requisitioned at this period.  The demand seems rather to have
+been for coffee--coffee hot; and this by a novel device was
+soon prepared.  It goes without saying that a fire or flame of
+any kind, except with special precautions, is inadmissable in a
+balloon; but a cooking heat, sufficient for the present purpose,
+was supplied from the store of lime, a portion of which, being
+placed in a suitably contrived vessel and slaked quickly,
+procured the desired beverage.
+
+This meal now indulged in seems to have been heartily and
+happily enjoyed; and from this point, for a while, the
+narrative becomes that of enthusiastic and delighted
+travellers. In the gloom below, for leagues around, they
+regarded the scattered fires of a watchful population, with
+here and there the lights of larger towns, and the
+contemplation begot romantic reveries.  "Were they not amid the
+vast solitudes of the skies, in the dead of night, unknown and
+unnoticed, secretly and silently reviewing kingdoms, exploring
+territories, and surveying cities all clothed in the dark mantle
+of mystery?"  Presently they identified the blazing city of
+Liege, with the lurid lights of extensive outlying iron works,
+and this was the last visible sign they caught of earth that
+night; save, at least, when occasional glimpses of lightning
+momentarily and dimly outlined the world in the abyss below.
+
+Ere long, they met with their first discomfort, which they seem
+to have regarded as a most serious one, namely, the accidental
+dropping overboard of their cherished coffee-boiling apparatus. 
+With its loss their store of lime became useless, save as
+ballast, and for this it was forthwith utilised until nothing
+remained but the empty lime barrel itself, which, being
+regarded as an objectionable encumbrance, it was desirable to
+get rid of, were it not for the risk involved in rudely
+dropping it to earth.  But the difficulty was met.  They
+possessed a suitable small parachute, and, attached to this, the
+barrel was allowed to float earthward.
+
+As hours advanced, the blackness of night increased, and their
+impressions appear somewhat strange to anyone familiar with
+ordinary night travel in the sky.  Mr. Monck Mason compares
+their progress through the darkness to "cleaving their way
+through an interminable mass of black marble."  Then,
+presently, an unaccountable object puzzles and absorbs the
+attention of all the party for a long period.  They were gazing
+open-mouthed at a long narrow avenue of feeble light, which,
+though apparently belonging to earth, was too long and regular
+for a river, and too broad for a canal or road, and it was only
+after many futile imaginings that they discovered they were
+simply looking at a stay rope of the balloon hanging far out
+over the side.
+
+Somewhat later still, there was a more serious claim upon the
+imagination.  It was half-past three in the morning, and the
+balloon, which, to escape from too low an altitude, had been
+liberally lightened, had now at high speed mounted to a vast
+height.  And then, amid the black darkness and dead silence of
+that appalling region, suddenly overhead came the sound of an
+explosion, followed by the violent rustling of the silk, while
+the car jerked violently, as though suddenly detached from its
+hold.  This was the idea, leading to the belief that the
+balloon had suddenly exploded, and that they were falling
+headlong to earth.  Their suspense, however, cannot have been
+long, and the incident was intelligible enough, being due to
+the sudden yielding of stiffened net and silk under rapid
+expansion caused by their speedy and lofty ascent.
+
+The chief incidents of the night were now over, until the dawn
+arrived and began to reveal a strange land, with large tracts
+of snow, giving place, as the light strengthened, to vast
+forests.  To their minds these suggested the plains of Poland,
+if not the steppes of Russia, and, fearing that the country
+further forward might prove more inhospitable, they decided to
+come to earth as speedily as possible.  This, in spite of
+difficult landing, they effected about the hour that the waking
+population were moving abroad, and then, and not till then,
+they learned the land of their haven--the heart of the German
+forests.  Five hundred miles had been covered in eighteen hours
+from start to finish!
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII. CHARLES GREEN--FURTHER ADVENTURES.
+
+
+All history is liable to repeat itself, and that of aeronautics
+forms no exception to the rule.  The second year after the
+invention of the balloon the famous M. Blanchard, ascending
+from Frankfort, landed near Weilburg, and, in commemoration of
+the event, the flag he bore was deposited among the archives in
+the ducal palace of that town.  Fifty-one years passed by when,
+outside the same city, a yet more famous balloon effected its
+landing, and with due ceremony its flag is presently laid
+beside that of Blanchard in the same ducal palace.  The balloon
+of the "Immortal Three," whose splendid voyage has just been
+recounted, will ever be known by the title of the Great Nassau
+Balloon, but the neighbourhood of its landing was that of the
+town of Weilburg, in the Duchy of Nassau, whither the party
+betook themselves, and where, during many days, they were
+entertained with extravagant hospitality and honour until
+business recalled Mr. Hollond home.
+
+Green had now made upwards of two hundred ascents, and, though
+he lived to make a thousand, it was impossible that he could
+ever eclipse this last record.  It is true that the same Nassau
+balloon, under his guidance, made many other most memorable
+voyages, some of which it will be necessary to dwell on.  But,
+to preserve a better chronology, we must first, without further
+digression, approach an event which fills a dark page in our
+annals; and, in so doing, we have to transfer our attention
+from the balloon itself to its accessory, the parachute.
+
+Twenty-three years before our present date, that is to say in
+1814, Mr. Cocking delivered his views as to the proper form of
+the parachute before the Society of Arts, who, as a mark of
+approval, awarded him a medal.  This parachute, however, having
+never taken practical shape, and only existing, figuratively
+speaking, in the clouds, seemed unlikely to find its way there
+in reality until the success of the Nassau adventure stirred
+its inventor to strenuous efforts to give it an actual trial. 
+Thus it came about that he obtained Mr. Green's co-operation in
+the attempt he now undertook, and, though this ended
+disastrously, for Mr. Cocking, the great professional aeronaut
+can in no way soever be blamed for the tragic event.
+
+The date of the trial was in July, 1837.  Mr. Cocking's
+parachute was totally different in principle from that form
+which, as we have seen, had met with a fair measure of success
+at the hands of early experimenters; and on the eve of its
+trial it was strongly denounced and condemned in the London
+Press by the critic whom we have recently so freely quoted, Mr.
+Monck Mason.
+
+This able reasoner and aeronaut pointed out that the
+contrivance about to be tested aimed at obviating two principal
+drawbacks which the parachute had up to that time presented,
+namely (1) the length of time which elapses before it becomes
+sufficiently expanded, and (2) the oscillatory movement which
+accompanies the descent.  In this new endeavour the inventor
+caused his machine to be fixed rigidly open, and to assume the
+shape of an inverted cone.  In other words, instead of its
+being like an umbrella opened, it rather resembled an umbrella
+blown inside out.  Taking, then, the shape and dimensions of
+Mr. Cocking's structure as a basis for mathematical
+calculation, as also its weight, which for required strength he
+put at 500 lbs.  Mr. Monck Mason estimated that the adventurer
+and his machine must attain in falling a velocity of some
+twelve miles an hour.  In fact, his positive prediction was
+that one of two events must inevitably take place.  "Either the
+parachute would come to the ground with a force incompatible
+with the safety of the individual, or should it be attempted to
+make it sufficiently light to resist this conclusion, it must
+give way beneath the forces which will develop in the descent."
+
+This emphatic word of warning was neglected, and the result of
+the terrible experiment can best be gathered from two principal
+sources.  First, that of a special reporter writing from
+terra-firma, and, secondly, that of Mr. Green himself, who
+gives his own observations as made from the balloon in which he
+took the unfortunate man and his invention into the sky.
+
+The journalist, who first speaks of the enormous concourse that
+gathered to see the ascent, not only within Vauxhall Gardens,
+but on every vantage ground without, proceeds to tell of his
+interview with Mr. Cocking himself, who, when questioned as to
+the danger involved, remarked that none existed for him, and
+that the greatest peril, if any, would attend the balloon when
+suddenly relieved of his weight.  The proprietors of the
+Gardens, as the hour approached, did their best to dissuade the
+over-confident inventor, offering, themselves, to take the
+consequences of any public disappointment.  This was again
+without avail, and so, towards 6 p.m., Mr. Green, accompanied
+by Mr. Spencer, a solicitor of whom this history will have more
+to tell, entered the balloon, which was then let up about 40
+feet that the parachute might be affixed below.  A little
+later, Mr. Cocking, casting aside his heavy coat and tossing
+off a glass of wine, entered his car and, amid deafening
+acclamations, with the band playing the National Anthem, the
+balloon and aeronauts above, and he himself in his parachute
+swinging below, mounted into the heavens, passing presently, in
+the gathering dusk, out of view of the Gardens.
+
+The sequel should be gathered from Mr. Green's own narrative. 
+Previous to starting, 650 lbs. of ballast had to be discarded
+to gain buoyancy sufficient to raise the massive machine. 
+This, together with another 100 lbs., which was also required
+to be ejected owing to the cooling of the air, was passed out
+through a canvas tube leading downwards through a hole in the
+parachute, an ingenious contrivance which would prevent the
+sand thrown out from the balloon falling on the slender
+structure itself.  On quitting the earth, however, this latter
+set up such violent oscillations that the canvas tube was torn
+away, and then it became the troublesome task of the aeronauts
+to make up their ballast into little parcels, and, as occasion
+required, to throw these into space clear of the swinging
+parachute below.
+
+Despite all efforts, however, it was soon evident that the
+cumbersome nature of the huge parachute would prevent its being
+carried up quite so high as the inventor desired.  Mr. Cocking
+had stipulated for an elevation of 7,000 feet, and, as things
+were, only 5,000 feet could be reached, at any rate, before
+darkness set in.  This fact was communicated to Mr. Cocking,
+who promptly intimated his intention of leaving, only
+requesting to know whereabouts he was, to which query Mr.
+Spencer replied that they were on a level with Greenwich.  The
+brief colloquy that ensued is thus given by Mr. Green:--
+
+"I asked him if he felt quite comfortable, and if the practical
+trial bore out his calculation.  Mr. Cocking replied, 'Yes, I
+never felt more comfortable or more delighted in my life,'
+presently adding, 'Well, now I think I shall leave you.'  I
+answered, 'I wish you a very "Good Night!" and a safe descent
+if you are determined to make it and not use the tackle' (a
+contrivance for enabling him to retreat up into the balloon if
+he desired).  Mr. Cocking's only reply was, 'Good-night,
+Spencer; Good-night, Green!'  Mr. Cocking then pulled the rope
+that was to liberate himself, but too feebly, and a moment
+afterwards more violently, and in an instant the balloon shot
+upwards with the velocity of a sky rocket.  The effect upon us
+at this moment was almost beyond description.  The immense
+machine which suspended us between heaven and earth, whilst it
+appeared to be forced upwards with terrific violence and
+rapidity through unknown and untravelled regions amidst the
+howlings of a fearful hurricane, rolled about as though
+revelling in a freedom for which it had long struggled, but of
+which until that moment it had been kept in utter ignorance. 
+It, at length, as if somewhat fatigued by its exertions,
+gradually assumed the motions of a snake working its way with
+extraordinary speed towards a given object.  During this
+frightful operation the gas was rushing in torrents from the
+upper and lower valve, but more particularly from the latter,
+as the density of the atmosphere through which we were forcing
+our progress pressed so heavily on the valve at the top of the
+balloon as to admit of but a comparatively small escape by this
+aperture.  At this juncture, had it not been for the application
+to our mouths of two pipes leading into an air bag, with which
+we had furnished ourselves previous to starting, we must within
+a minute have been suffocated, and so, but by different means,
+have shared the melancholy fate of our friend.  This bag was
+formed of silk, sufficiently capacious to contain 100 gallons of
+atmospheric air.  Prior to our ascent, the bag was inflated with
+the assistance of a pair of bellows with fifty gallons of air,
+so allowing for any expansion which might be produced in the
+upper regions.  Into the end of this bag were introduced two
+flexible tubes, and the moment we felt ourselves to be going up
+in the manner just described, Mr. Spencer, as well as myself,
+placed either of them in our mouths.  By this simple contrivance
+we preserved ourselves from instantaneous suffocation, a result
+which must have ensued from the apparently endless volume of gas
+with which the car was enveloped.  The gas, notwithstanding all
+our precautions, from the violence of its operation on the human
+frame, almost immediately deprived us of sight, and we were
+both, as far as our visionary powers were concerned, in a state
+of total darkness for four or five minutes."
+
+Messrs. Green and Spencer eventually reached earth in safety
+near Maidstone, knowing nothing of the fate of their late
+companion.  But of this we are sufficiently informed through a
+Mr. R. Underwood, who was on horseback near Blackheath and
+watching the aeronauts at the moment when the parachute was
+separated from the balloon.  He noticed that the former
+descended with the utmost rapidity, at the same time swaying
+fearfully from side to side, until the basket and its occupant,
+actually parting from the parachute, fell together to earth
+through several hundred feet and were dashed to pieces.
+
+It would appear that the liberation of the parachute from below
+the balloon had been carried out without hitch; indeed, all so
+far had worked well, and the wind at the time was but a gentle
+breeze.  The misadventure, therefore, must be entirely
+attributed to the faulty manner in which the parachute was
+constructed.  There could, of course, be only one issue to the
+sheer drop from such a height, which became the unfortunate Mr.
+Cocking's fate, but the very interesting question will have to
+be discussed as to the chances in favour of the aeronaut who,
+within his wicker car, while still duly attached to the
+balloon, may meet with a precipitate descent.  
+
+We may here fitly mention an early perilous experience of Mr.
+Green, due simply to the malice of someone never discovered. 
+It appears that while Green's balloon, previous to an ascent,
+was on the ground, the cords attaching the car had been partly
+severed in such a way as to escape detection.  So that as soon
+as the balloon rose the car commenced breaking away, and its
+occupants, Mr. Green and Mr. Griffiths, had to clutch at the
+ring, to which with difficulty they continued to cling. 
+Meanwhile, the car remaining suspended by one cord only, the
+balloon was caused to hang awry, with the result that its upper
+netting began giving way, allowing the balloon proper gradually
+to escape through the bursting meshes, thus threatening the
+distracted voyagers with terrible disaster.  The disaster, in
+fact, actually came to pass ere the party completed their
+descent, "the balloon, rushing through the opening in the
+net-work with a tremendous explosion, and the two passengers
+clinging to the rest of the gear, falling through a height said
+to be near a hundred feet.  Both, though only with much time
+and difficulty, recovered from the shock."
+
+In 1840, three years after the tragic adventure connected with
+Mr. Cocking's parachute trial, we find Charles Green giving his
+views as to the practicability of carrying out a ballooning
+enterprise which should far excel all others that had hitherto
+been attempted.  This was nothing less than the crossing of the
+Atlantic from America to England.  There is no shadow of doubt
+that the adventurous aeronaut was wholly in earnest in the
+readiness he expressed to embark on the undertaking should
+adequate funds be forthcoming; and he discusses the
+possibilities with singular clearness and candour.  He
+maintains that the actual difficulties resolve themselves into
+two only:  first, the maintenance of the balloon in the sky for
+the requisite period of time; and, secondly, the adequate
+control of its direction in space.  With respect to the first
+difficulty, he points out the fact to which we have already
+referred, namely, that it is impossible to avoid the
+fluctuations of level in a balloon's course, "by which it
+constantly becomes alternately subjected to escape of gas by
+expansion, and consequent loss of ballast, to furnish an
+equivalent diminution of weight."  Taking his own balloon of
+80,000 cubic feet by way of example, he shows that this, fully
+inflated on the earth, would lose 8,000 cubic feet of gas by
+expansion in ascending only 3,000 feet.  Moreover, the approach
+of night or passage through cloud or falling rain would
+occasion chilling of the gas or accumulation of moisture on the
+silk, in either case necessitating the loss of ballast, the
+store of which is always the true measure of the balloon's
+life.
+
+To combat the above difficulty Green sanguinely relies on his
+favourite device of a trail or guide rope, whose function,
+being that of relieving the balloon of a material weight as it
+approaches the earth, could, he supposed, be made to act yet
+more efficiently when over the sea in the following manner. 
+Its length, suspended from the ring, being not less than 2,000
+feet, it should have attached at its lower end at certain
+intervals a number of small, stout waterproof canvas bags, the
+apertures of which should be contrived to admit water, but to
+oppose its return.  Between these bags were to be conical
+floats, to support any length of the rope that might descend on
+the sea.  Now, should the balloon commence descending, it would
+simply deposit a certain portion of rope on the water until it
+regained equilibrium at no great decrease of altitude, and
+would thus continue its course until alteration of conditions
+should cause it to recommence rising, when the weight of water
+now collected in the bags would play its part in preventing the
+balloon from soaring up into space.  With such a contrivance
+Green allowed himself to imagine that he could keep a properly
+made balloon at practically the same altitude for a period of
+three months if required.
+
+The difficulty of maintaining a due course was next discussed,
+and somewhat speedily disposed of.  Here Green relied on the
+results of his own observation, gathered during 275 ascents,
+and stated his conviction that there prevails a uniformity of
+upper wind currents that would enable him to carry out his bold
+projects successfully.  His contention is best given in his own
+words:Ä
+
+"Under whatever circumstances," he says, "I made my ascent,
+however contrary the direction of the winds below, I uniformly
+found that at a certain elevation, varying occasionally, but
+always within 10,000 feet of the earth, a current from the west
+or rather from the north of west, invariably travailed, nor do
+I recollect a single instance in which a different result
+ensued."  Green's complete scheme is now sufficiently evident. 
+He was to cross the Atlantic practically by the sole assistance
+of upper currents and his guide rope, but on this latter
+expedient, should adverse conditions prevail, he yet further
+relied, for he conceived that the rope could have attached to
+its floating end a water drag, which would hold the balloon in
+check until favouring gales returned.
+
+Funds, apparently, were not forthcoming to allow of Mr. Green's
+putting his bold method to the test; but we find him still
+adhering with so much zeal to his project that, five years
+later, he made, though again unsuccessfully, a second proposal
+to cross the Atlantic by balloon.  He still continued to make
+many and most enterprising ascents, and one of a specially
+sensational nature must be briefly mentioned before we pass on
+to regard the exploits of other aeronauts.
+
+It was in 1841 on the occasion of a fete at Cremorne House,
+when Mr. Green, using his famous Nassau balloon, ascended with
+a Mr. Macdonnell.  The wind was blowing with such extreme
+violence that Rainham, in Essex, about twenty miles distant,
+was reached in little more than a quarter of an hour, and here,
+on nearing the earth, the grapnel, finding good hold, gave a
+wrench to the balloon that broke the ring and jerked the car
+completely upside down, the aeronauts only escaping
+precipitation by holding hard to the ropes.  A terrific
+steeplechase ensued, in which the travellers were dragged
+through stout fencing and other obstacles till the balloon,
+fairly emptied of gas, finally came to rest, but not until some
+severe injuries had been received.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII. JOHN WISE--THE AMERICAN AERONAUT.
+
+
+By this period the domination of the air was being pursued in a
+fresh part of the world.  England and her Continental
+neighbours had vied with each in adding to the roll of
+conquests, and it could hardly other be supposed that America
+would stand by without taking part in the campaign which was
+now being revived with so much fresh energy in the skies.
+
+The American champion who stepped forward was Mr. John Wise, of
+Lancaster, Pa., whose career, commencing in the year 1835, we
+must now for a while follow.  Few attempts at ballooning of any
+kind had up to that time been made in all America.  There is a
+record that in December, 1783, Messrs. Rittenhouse and Hopkins,
+Members of the Philosophical Academy of Philadelphia,
+instituted experiments with an aerial machine consisting of a
+cage to which forty-seven small balloons were harnessed.  In
+this strange craft a carpenter, by name Wilcox, was induced to
+ascend, which, it is said, he did successfully, remaining in
+the air for ten minutes, when, finding himself near a river, he
+sought to come to earth again by opening several of his
+balloons.  This brought about an awkward descent, attended,
+however, by no more serious accident than a dislocated wrist. 
+Mr. Wise, on the other hand, states that Blanchard had won the
+distinction of making the first ascent in the New World in 1793
+in Philadelphia on which occasion Washington was a spectator;
+and a few years afterwards other Frenchmen gave ex hibitions,
+which, however, led to no real development of the new art on
+this, the further side of the Atlantic.  Thus the endeavours we
+are about to describe were those of an independent and, at the
+same time, highly, practical experimentalist, and on this
+account have a special value of their own.
+
+The records that Wise has left of his investigations begin at
+the earliest stage, and possess the charm of an obvious and
+somewhat quaint reality.  They commence with certain crude
+calculations which would seem to place no limit to the
+capabilities of a balloon.  Thus, he points out that one of
+"the very moderate size of 400 feet diameter" would convey
+13,000 men.  "No wonder, then," he continues, "the citizens of
+London became alarmed during the French War, when they mistook
+the appearance of a vast flock of birds coming towards the
+Metropolis for Napoleon's army apparently coming down upon them
+with this new contrivance."
+
+Proceeding to practical measures, Wise's first care was to
+procure some proper material of which to build an experimental
+balloon of sufficient size to lift and convey himself alone. 
+For this he chose ordinary long-cloth, rendered gas-tight by
+coats of suitable varnish, the preparation of which became with
+him, as, indeed, it remains to this day, a problem of chief
+importance and difficulty.  Perhaps it hardly needs pointing
+out that the varnish of a balloon must not only be sufficiently
+elastic not to crack or scale off with folding or unavoidable
+rough usage, but it must also be of a nature to resist the
+common tendency of such substances to become adherent or
+"tacky."  Wise determined on bird lime thinned with linseed oil
+and ordinary driers.  With this preparation he coated his
+material several times both before and after the making up, and
+having procured a net, of which he speaks with pride, and a
+primitive sort of car, of which he bitterly complains, he
+thought himself sufficiently equipped to embark on an actual
+ascent, which he found a task of much greater practical
+difficulty than the mere manufacture of his air ship.  For the
+inflation by hydrogen of so small a balloon as his was he made
+more than ample provision in procuring no less than fifteen
+casks of 130 gallons capacity each.  He also duly secured a
+suitable filling ground at the corner of Ninth and Green
+Streets, Philadelphia, but he made a miscalculation as to the
+time the inflation would demand, and this led to unforeseen
+complications, for as yet he knew not the way of a crowd which
+comes to witness a balloon ascent.
+
+Having all things in readiness, and prudently waiting for fair
+weather, he embarked on his grand experiment on the 2nd of May,
+1835, announcing 4 p.m. as the hour of departure.  But by that
+time the inflation, having only proceeded for three hours, the
+balloon was but half full, and then the populace began to
+behave as in such circumstances they always will.  They were
+incredulous, and presently grew troublesome.  In vain the
+harnessing of the car was proceeded with as though all were
+well.  For all was not well, and when the aeronaut stepped into
+his car with only fifteen pounds of sand and a few instruments
+he must have done so with much misgiving.  Still, he had friends
+around who might have been useful had they been less eager to
+help.  But these simply crowded round him, giving him no elbow
+room, nor opportunity for trying the "lift" of his
+all-too-empty globe.  Moreover, some would endeavour to throw
+the machine upward, while others as strenuously strove to keep
+it down, and at last the former party prevailed, and the
+balloon, being fairly cast into the air, grazed a neighbouring
+chimney and then plunged into an adjacent plot, not, however,
+before the distracted traveller had flung away all his little
+stock of sand.  There now was brief opportunity for free
+action, and to the first bystander who came running up Wise
+gave the task of holding the car in check.  To the next he
+handed out his instruments, his coat, and also his boots,
+hoping thus to get away; but his chance had not yet come, for
+once again the crowd swarmed round him, keeping him prisoner
+with good-natured but mistaken interference, and drowning his
+voice with excited shouting.  Somehow, by word and gesture, he
+gave his persecutors to understand that he wished to speak, and
+then he begged them only to give him a chance, whereupon the
+crowd fell back, forming a ring, and leaving only one man
+holding the car.  It was a moment of suspense, for Wise
+calculated that he had only parted with some eighteen pounds
+since his first ineffectual start from the filling ground; but
+it was enough, and in another moment he was sailing up clear
+above the crowd.  So great, as has been already shewn, is often
+the effect of parting with the last few pounds of dead weight
+in a well-balanced balloon.
+
+Such was the first "send off" of the future great balloonist,
+destined to become the pioneer in aeronautics on the far side
+of the Atlantic.  The balloon ascended to upwards of a mile,
+floating gradually away, but at its highest point it reached a
+conflict of currents, causing eddies from which Wise escaped by
+a slight decrease of weight, effected by merely cutting away
+the wreaths of flowers that were tied about his car.  A further
+small substitute for ballast he extemporised in the metal tube
+inserted in the neck of his fabric, and this he cast out when
+over the breadth of the Delaware, and he describes it as
+falling with a rustling sound, and striking the water with a
+splash plainly heard at more than a mile in the sky.  After an
+hour and a quarter the balloon spontaneously and steadily
+settled to earth.
+
+An ascent carried out later in the same summer led to a mishap,
+which taught the young aeronaut an all-important lesson.  Using
+the same balloon and the same mode of inflation, he got safely
+and satisfactorily away from his station in the town of
+Lebanon, Pa., and soon found himself over a toll gate in the
+open country, where the gate keeper in banter called up to him
+for his due.  To this summons Wise, with heedless alacrity,
+responded in a manner which might well have cost him dear.  He
+threw out a bag of sand to represent his toll, and, though he
+estimated this at only six pounds, it so greatly accelerated
+his ascent that he shortly found himself at a greater altitude
+than he ever after attained.  He passed through mist into upper
+sunshine, where he experienced extreme cold and ear-ache, at
+which time, seeking the natural escape from such trouble, he
+found to his dismay that the valve rope was out of reach.  Thus
+he was compelled to allow the balloon to ascend yet higher, at
+its own will; and then a terrible event happened.
+
+By mischance the neck of his balloon, which should have been
+open, was out of reach and folded inwards in such a way as to
+prevent the free escape of the gas, which, at this great
+altitude, struggled for egress with a loud humming noise,
+giving him apprehensions of an accident which very shortly
+occurred, namely, the bursting of the lower part of his balloon
+with a loud report.  It happened, however, that no extreme loss
+of gas ensued, and he commenced descending with a speed which,
+though considerable, was not very excessive.  Still, he was
+eager to alight in safety, until a chance occurrence made him a
+second time that afternoon guilty of an act of boyish
+impetuosity.  A party of volunteers firing a salute in his
+honour as he neared the ground, he instantly flung out papers,
+ballast, anything he could lay his hands on, and once again
+soared to a great height with his damaged balloon.  He could
+then do no more, and presently subsiding to earth again, he
+acquired the welcome knowledge that even in such precarious
+circumstances a balloon may make a long fall with safety to its
+freight.
+
+Mr. Wise's zeal and indomitable spirit of enterprise led to
+speedy developments of the art which he had espoused; the road
+to success being frequently pointed out by failure or mishap. 
+He quickly discarded the linen balloon for one of silk on which
+he tried a new varnish composed of linseed oil and
+india-rubber, and, dressing several gores with this, he rolled
+them up and left them through a night in a drying loft, with
+the result that the next day they were disintegrated and on the
+point of bursting into flame by spontaneous combustion.  Fresh
+silk and other varnish were then tried, but with indifferent
+success.  Next he endeavoured to dispense with sewing, and
+united the gores of yet another balloon by the mere
+adhesiveness of the varnish and application of a hot iron. 
+This led to a gaping seam developing at the moment of an
+ascent, and then there followed a hasty and hazardous descent
+on a house-top and an exciting rescue by a gentleman who
+appeared opportunely at a third storey window.  Further,
+another balloon had been destroyed, and Wise badly burned, at a
+descent, owing to a naked light having been brought near the
+escaping gas.  It is then without wonder that we find him after
+this temporarily bankrupt, and resorting to his skill in
+instrument-making to recover his fortunes.  Only, however, for
+a few months, after which he is before the public once more as
+a professional aeronaut.  He now adopts coal gas for inflation,
+and incidents of an impressive nature crowd into his career,
+forcing important facts upon him.  The special characteristics
+of his own country present peculiar difficulties; broad rivers
+and vast forests become serious obstacles.  He is caught in the
+embrace of a whirlwind; he narrowly escapes falling into a
+forest fire; he is precipitated, but harmlessly, into a pine
+wood.  Among other experiments, he makes a small copy of Mr.
+Cocking's parachute, and drops it to earth with a cat as
+passenger, proving thereby that that unfortunate gentleman's
+principle was really less in fault than the actual slenderness
+of the material used in his machine.
+
+We now approach one of Wise's boldest, and at the same time
+most valuable, experiments.  It was the summer of 1839, and
+once again the old trouble of spontaneous combustion had
+destroyed a silk balloon which was to have ascended at Easton,
+Pa.  Undeterred, however, Wise resolutely advertised a fresh
+attempt, and, with only a clear month before the engagement,
+determined on hastily rigging up a cambric muslin balloon,
+soaking it in linseed oil and essaying the best exhibition that
+this improvised experiment could afford.  It was intended to
+become a memorable one, inasmuch as, should he meet with no
+hindrance, his determination was nothing less than that of
+bursting this balloon at a great height, having firmly
+convinced himself that the machine in these circumstances would
+form itself into a natural parachute, and bring him to earth
+with every chance in favour of safety.  In his own words,
+"Scientific calculations were on his side with a certainty as
+great and principles as comprehensive as that a
+pocket-handkerchief will not fall as rapidly to the ground when
+thrown out of a third storey window as will a brick."
+
+His balloon was specially contrived for the experiment in hand,
+having cords sewn to the upper parts of its seams, and then led
+down through the neck, where they were secured within reach,
+their office being that of rending the whole head of the
+balloon should this be desired.  On this occasion a cat and a
+dog were taken up, one of these being let fall from a height of
+2,000 feet in a Cocking's parachute, and landing in safety, the
+other being similarly dismissed at an altitude of 4,000 feet in
+an oiled silk balloon made in the form of a collapsed balloon,
+which, after falling a little distance, expanded sufficiently
+to allow of its descending with a safe though somewhat
+vibratory motion.  Its behaviour, at any rate, fully determined
+Wise on carrying out his own experiment.
+
+Being constructed entirely for the main object in view, the
+balloon had no true opening in the neck beyond an orifice of
+about an inch, and by the time a height of 13,000 feet had been
+reached the gas was streaming violently through this small
+hole, the entire globe being expanded nearly to bursting point,
+and the cords designed for rending the balloon very tense.  At
+this critical period Wise owns to having experienced
+considerable nervous excitement, and observing far down a
+thunderstorm in progress he began to waver in his mind, and
+inclined towards relieving the balloon of its strain, and so
+abandoning his experiment, at least for the present.  He
+remembers pulling out his watch to make a note of the hour,
+and, while thus occupied, the straining cords, growing tenser
+every moment, suddenly took charge of the experiment and burst
+the balloon of their own accord.  The gas now rushed from the
+huge rent above tumultuously and in some ten seconds had
+entirely escaped, causing the balloon to descend rapidly, until
+the lower part of the muslin, doubling in upwards, formed a
+species of parachute after the manner intended.  The balloon
+now came down with zig-zag descent, and finally the car,
+striking the earth obliquely, tossed its occupant out into a
+field unharmed.  Shortly after this Wise experimented with
+further success with an exploded balloon.
+
+It is not a little remarkable that this pioneer of aeronautics
+in American--a contemporary of Charles Green in England, but
+working and investigating single-handed on perfectly
+independent lines--should have arrived at the same conclusions
+as did Green himself as to the possibility, which, in his
+opinion, amounted to a certainty, of being able to cross the
+Atlantic by balloon if only adequate funds were forth-coming. 
+So intent was he on his bold scheme that, in the summer of
+1843, he handed to the Lancaster Intelligencer a proclamation,
+which he desired might be conveyed to all publishers of
+newspapers on the globe.  It contained, among other clauses,
+the following:--
+
+"Having from a long experience in aeronautics been convinced
+that a constant and regular current of air is blowing at all
+times from west to east, with a velocity of from twenty to
+forty and even sixty miles per hour, according to its height
+from the earth, and having discovered a composition which
+renders silk or muslin impervious to hydrogen gas, so that a
+balloon may be kept afloat for many weeks, I feel confident
+with these advantages that a trip across the Atlantic will not
+be attended with as much real danger as by the common mode of
+transition.  The balloon is to be 100 feet in diameter, giving
+it a net ascending power of 25,000 lbs."  It was further stated
+that the crew would consist of three persons, including a sea
+navigator, and a scientific landsman.  The specifications for
+the transatlantic vessel were also to include a seaworthy boat
+in place of the ordinary car.  The sum requisite for this
+enterprise was, at the time, not realised; but it should be
+mentioned that several years later a sufficient sum of money
+was actually subscribed.  In the summer of 1873 the proprietors
+of the New York Daily Graphic provided for the construction of
+a balloon of no less than 400,000 cubic feet capacity, and
+calculated to lift 14,000 lbs.  It was, however, made of bad
+material; and, becoming torn in inflation, Wise condemned and
+declined to use it.  A few months later, when it had been
+repaired, one Donaldson and two other adventurers, attempting a
+voyage with this ill-formed monster, ascended from New York,
+and were fortunate in coming down safely, though not without
+peril, somewhere in Connecticut.
+
+Failing in his grand endeavour, Wise continued to follow the
+career of a professional aeronaut for some years longer, of
+which he has left a full record, terminating with the spring of
+1848.  His ascents were always marked by carefulness of detail,
+and a coolness and courage in trying circumstances that secured
+him uniform success and universal regard.  He was, moreover,
+always a close and intelligent observer, and many of his
+memoranda are of scientific value.
+
+His description of an encounter with a storm-cloud in the June
+of 1843 has an interest of its own, and may not be considered
+overdrawn.  It was an ascent from Carlisle, Pa., to celebrate
+the anniversary of Bunker's Hill, and Wise was anxious to
+gratify the large concourse of people assembled, and thus was
+tempted, soon after leaving the ground, to dive up into a huge
+black cloud of peculiarly forbidding aspect.  This cloud
+appeared to remain stationary while he swept beneath it, and,
+having reached its central position, he observed that its under
+surface was concave towards the earth, and at that moment he
+became swept upwards in a vortex that set his balloon spinning
+and swinging violently, while he himself was afflicted with
+violent nausea and a feeling of suffocation.  The cold
+experienced now became intense, and the cordage became glazed
+with ice, yet this had no effect in checking the upward
+whirling of the balloon.  Sunshine was beyond the upper limits
+of the cloud; but this was no sooner reached than the balloon,
+escaping from the uprush, plunged down several hundred feet,
+only to be whirled up again, and this reciprocal motion was
+repeated eight or ten times during an interval of twenty
+minutes, in all of which time no expenditure of gas or
+discharge of ballast enabled the aeronaut to regain any control
+over his vessel.
+
+Statements concerning a thunderstorm witnessed at short range
+by Wise will compare with other accounts.  The thunder
+"rattled" without any reverberations, and when the storm was
+passing, and some dense clouds moving in the upper currents,
+the "surface of the lower stratum swelled up suddenly like a
+boiling cauldron, which was immediately followed by the most
+brilliant ebullition of sparkling coruscations."  Green, in his
+stormy ascent from Newbury, England, witnessed a thunderstorm
+below him, as will be remembered, while an upper cloud stratum
+lay at his own level.  It was then that Green observed that "at
+every discharge of thunder all the detached pillars of clouds
+within the distance of a mile around became attracted."
+
+The author will have occasion, in due place, to give personal
+experiences of an encounter with a thunderstorm which will
+compare with the foregoing description.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX. EARLY METHODS AND IDEAS.
+
+
+Before proceeding to introduce the chief actors and their
+achievements in the period next before us, it will be
+instructive to glance at some of the principal ideas and
+methods in favour with aeronauts up to the date now reached. 
+It will be seen that Wise in America, contrary to the practice
+of Green in our own country, had a strong attachment to the
+antique mode of inflation with hydrogen prepared by the
+vitriolic process; and his balloons were specially made and
+varnished for the use of this gas.  The advantage which he thus
+bought at the expense of much trouble and the providing of
+cumbersome equipment was obvious enough, and may be well
+expressed by a formula which holds good to-day, namely, that
+whereas 1,000 cubic feet of hydrogen is capable of lifting 7
+lbs., the same quantity of coal gas of ordinary quality will
+raise but 35 lbs.  The lighter gas came into all Wise's
+calculations for bolder schemes.  Thus, when he discusses the
+possibility of using a metal balloon, his figures work out as
+follows:  If a balloon of 200 feet diameter were constructed
+out of copper, weighing one pound to the square foot; if,
+moreover, some six tons were allowed for the weight of car and
+fastenings, an available lifting power would remain capable of
+raising 45 tons to an altitude of two miles.  This calculation
+may appear somewhat startling, yet it is not only substantially
+correct, but Wise entertained no doubt as to the practicability
+of such a machine.  For its inflation he suggests inserting a
+muslin balloon filled with air within the copper globe, and
+then passing hydrogen gas between the muslin and copper
+surfaces, which would exclude the inner balloon as the copper
+one filled up.
+
+His method of preparing hydrogen was practically that still
+adopted in the field, and seems in his hands to have been
+seldom attended with difficulty.  With eight common 130-gallon
+rum puncheons he could reckon on evolving 5,000 cubic feet of
+gas in an hour, using his elements in the following
+proportions:  water, 560 lbs.; sulphuric acid (sp. g. 1.85),
+144 lbs.; iron turnings, 125 lbs.  The gas, as given off, was
+cooled and purified by being passed through a head of water
+kept cool and containing lime in solution.  Contrasted with
+this, we find it estimated, according to the practice of this
+time, that a ton of good bituminous coal should yield 10,000
+cubic feet of carburetted hydrogen fit for lighting purposes,
+and a further quantity which, though useless as an illuminant,
+is still of excellent quality for the aeronaut.
+
+It would even seem from a statement of Mr. Monck Mason that the
+value of coke in his day largely compensated for the cost of
+producing coal gas, so that in a large number of Green's
+ascents no charge whatever was made for gas by the companies
+that supplied him.
+
+Some, at least, of the methods formerly recommended for the
+management of free balloons must in these days be modified. 
+Green, as we have seen, was in favour of a trail rope of
+inordinate length, which he recommended both as an aid to
+steering and for a saving of ballast.  In special
+circumstances, and more particularly over the sea, this may be
+reckoned a serviceable adjunct, but over land its use, in this
+country at least, would be open to serious objection.  The
+writer has seen the consternation, not to say havoc, that a
+trail rope may occasion when crossing a town, or even private
+grounds, and the actual damage done to a garden of hops, or to
+telegraph or telephone wires, may be very serious indeed. 
+Moreover, the statement made by some early practitioners that a
+trail rope will not catch so as to hold fast in a wood or the
+like, is not to be relied on, for an instance could be
+mentioned coming under the writer's knowledge where such a rope
+was the source of so much trouble in a high wind that it had to
+be cut away.
+
+The trouble arose in this way.  The rope dragged harmlessly
+enough along the open ground.  It would, likewise, negotiate
+exceedingly well a single tree or a whole plantation, catching
+and releasing itself with only such moderate tugs at the car as
+were not disturbing; but, presently, its end, which had been
+caught and again released by one tree, swung free in air
+through a considerable gap to another tree, where, striking a
+horizontal bough, it coiled itself several times around, and
+thus held the balloon fast, which now, with the strength of the
+wind, was borne to the earth again and again, rebounding high
+in air after each impact, until freedom was gained only by the
+sacrifice of a portion of the rope.
+
+Wise recommends a pendant line of 600 or 800 feet, capable of
+bearing a strain of 100 lbs., and with  characteristic
+ingenuity suggests a special use which can be made of it,
+namely, that of having light ribbons tied on at every hundred
+feet, by means of which the drifts of lower currents may be
+detected.  In this suggestion there is, indeed, a great deal of
+sound sense; for there is, as will be shown hereafter, very
+much value to be attached to a knowledge of those air rivers
+that are flowing, often wholly unsuspected, at various heights. 
+Small parachutes, crumpled paper, and other such-like bodies as
+are commonly thrown out and relied on to declare the lower
+drifts, are not wholly trustworthy, for this reason--that
+air-streams are often very slender, mere filaments, as they are
+sometimes called, and these, though setting in some definite
+direction, and capable of entrapping and wafting away some
+small body which may come within their influence, may not
+affect the travel of so big an object as a balloon, which can
+only partake of some more general air movement.
+
+Wise, by his expedient of tying ribbons at different points to
+his trail rope, would obtain much more correct and constant
+information respecting those general streams through which the
+pendant rope was moving.  A similar expedient adopted by the
+same ingenious aeronaut is worthy of imitation, namely, that of
+tying ribbons on to a rod projecting laterally from the car. 
+These form a handy and constant telltale as to the flight of
+the balloon, for should they be fluttering upwards the sky
+sailor at once knows that his craft is descending, and that he
+must act accordingly.
+
+The material, pure silk, which was universally adopted up to
+and after the period we are now regarding, is not on every
+account to be reckoned the most desirable.  In the first place,
+its cost alone is prohibitive, and next, although lighter than
+any kind of linen, strength for strength, it requires a greater
+weight of varnish, which, moreover, it does not take so kindly
+as does fabric made of vegetable tissue.  Further, paradoxical
+as it may appear,its great strength is not entirely an
+advantage.  There are occasions which must come into the
+experience of every zealous aeronaut when his balloon has
+descended in a rough wind, and in awkward country.  This may,
+indeed, happen even when the ascent has been made in calm. 
+Squalls of wind may spring up at short notice, or after
+traversing only two or three counties a strong gale may be
+found on the earth, though such was absent in the starting
+ground.  This is more particularly the case when the landing
+chances to be on high ground in the neighbourhood of the sea. 
+In these circumstances, the careful balloonist, who will
+generally be forewarned by the ruffle on any water he may pass,
+or by the drift of smoke, the tossing of trees, or by their
+very rustling or "singing" wafted upwards to him, will, if
+possible, seek for his landing place the lee of a wood or some
+other sheltered spot.  But, even with all his care, he will
+sometimes find himself, on reaching earth, being dragged
+violently across country on a mad course which the anchor
+cannot check.  Now, the country through which he is making an
+unwilling steeplechase may be difficult, or even dangerous. 
+Rivers, railway cuttings, or other undesirable obstacles may
+lie ahead, or, worse yet, such a death trap as in such
+circumstances almost any part of Derbyshire affords, with its
+stone walls, its precipitous cliffs, and deep rocky dells.  To
+be dragged at the speed of an express train through territory
+of this description will presently mean damage to something,
+perhaps to telegraph poles, to roofs, or crops, and if not,
+then to the balloon itself.  Something appertaining to it must
+be victimised, and it is in all ways best that this should be
+the fabric of the balloon itself.  If made of some form, or at
+least some proportion of linen, this will probably rend ere
+long, and, allowing the gas to escape, will soon bring itself
+to rest.  On the other hand, if the balloon proper is a silk
+one, with sound net and in good condition, it is probable that
+something else will give way first, and that something may
+prove to be the hapless passenger or passengers.
+
+And here be it laid down as one first and all-important
+principle, that in any such awkward predicament as that just
+described, if there be more than one passenger aboard, let none
+attempt to get out.  In the first place, he may very probably
+break a limb in so doing, inasmuch as the tangle of the ropes
+will not allow of his getting cut readily; or, when actually on
+the ground, he may be caught and impaled by the anchor charging
+and leaping behind.  But, worse than all, he may, in any case,
+jeopardise the lives of his companions, who stand in need of
+all the available weight and help that the car contains up to
+the moment Of coming to final rest.
+
+We have already touched on the early notions as to the means of
+steering a balloon.  Oars had been tested without satisfactory
+result, and the conception of a rotary screw found favour among
+theorists at this time, the principle being actually tried with
+success in working models, which, by mechanical means, could be
+made to flit about in the still air of the lecture room; but
+the only feasible method advocated was that already alluded to,
+which depended on the undesirable action of a trail rope
+dragging over the ground or through water.  The idea was, of
+course, perfectly practical, and was simply analogous to the
+method adopted by sailors, who, when floating with the stream
+but without wind, are desirous of gaining "steerage way." 
+While simply drifting with the flood, they are unable to guide
+their vessel in any way, and this, in practice, is commonly
+effected by simply propelling the vessel faster than the
+stream, in which case the rudder at once becomes available. 
+But the same result is equally well obtained by slowing the
+vessel, and this is easily accomplished by a cable, with a
+small anchor or other weight attached, dragging below the
+vessel.  This cable is essentially the same as the guide-rope
+of the older aeronauts.
+
+It is when we come to consider the impressions and sensations
+described by sky voyagers of bygone times that we find them
+curiously at variance with our own.  As an instance, we may
+state that the earth, as seen from a highflying balloon, used
+to be almost always described as appearing concave, or like a
+huge basin, and ingenious attempts were made to prove
+mathematically that this must be so.  The laws of refraction
+are brought in to prove the fact; or, again, the case is stated
+thus:  Supposing the extreme horizon to be seen when the
+balloon is little more than a mile high, the range of view on
+all sides will then be, roughly, some eighty miles.  If, then,
+a line were drawn from the aerial observer to this remote
+distance, that line would be almost horizontal; so nearly so
+that he cannot persuade himself that his horizon is otherwise
+than still on a level with his eye; yet the earth below him
+lies, as it seems, at the bottom of a huge gulf.  Thus the
+whole visible earth appears as a vast bowl or basin.  This is
+extremely ingenious reasoning, and not to be disregarded; but
+the fact remains that in the experience of the writer and of
+many others whom he has consulted, there is no such optical
+illusion as I have just discussed, and to their vision it is
+impossible to regard the earth as anything but uniformly flat.
+
+Another impression invariably insisted on by early balloonists
+is that the earth, on quitting it, appears to drop away into an
+abyss, leaving the voyagers motionless, and this illusion must,
+indeed, be probably universal.  It is the same illusion as the
+apparent gliding backwards of objects to a traveller in a
+railway carriage; only in this latter case the rattling and
+shaking of the carriage helps the mind to grasp the real fact
+that the motion belongs to the train itself; whereas it is
+otherwise with a balloon, whose motion is so perfectly smooth
+as to be quite imperceptible.
+
+Old ideas, formed upon insufficient observations, even if
+erroneous, were slow to die.  Thus it used to be stated that an
+upper cloud floor adapted itself to the contour of the land
+over which it rested, giving what Mr. Monck Mason has called a
+"phrenological estimate" of the character of the earth below;
+the clouds, "even when under the influence of rapid motion,
+seeming to accommodate themselves to all variations of form in
+the surface of the subjacent soil, rising with its prominences
+and sinking with its depressions."  Probably few aeronauts of
+the present time will accept the statement.
+
+It used commonly to be asserted, and is so often to this day,
+that a feeling as of sea-sickness is experienced in balloon
+travel, and the notion has undoubtedly arisen from the
+circumstances attending an ascent in a captive balloon.  It
+were well, now that ballooning bids fair to become popular, to
+disabuse the public mind of such a wholly false idea.  The
+truth is that a balloon let up with a lengthy rope and held
+captive will, with a fitful breeze, pitch and sway in a manner
+which may induce all the unpleasant feelings attending a rough
+passage at sea.  It may do worse, and even be borne to earth
+with a puff of wind which may come unexpectedly, and
+considerably unsettle the nerves of any holiday passenger.  I
+could tell of a "captive" that had been behaving itself
+creditably on a not very settled day suddenly swooping over a
+roadway and down into public gardens, where it lay
+incontinently along the ground, and then, before the astonished
+passengers could attempt to alight, it was seized with another
+mood, and, mounting once again majestically skyward, submitted
+to be hauled down with all becoming grace and ease.  It is
+owing to their vagaries and want of manageability that, as will
+be shown, "captives" are of uncertain use in war.  On the other
+hand, a free balloon is exempt from such disadvantages, and at
+moderate heights not the smallest feeling of nausea is ever
+experienced.  The only unpleasant sensation, and that not of
+any gravity, ever complained of, is a peculiar tension in the
+ears experienced in a rapid ascent, or more often, perhaps, in
+a descent.  The cause, which is trivial and easily removed,
+should be properly understood, and cannot be given in clearer
+language than that used by Professor Tyndall:--"Behind the
+tympanic membrane exists a cavity--the drum of the ear--in part
+crossed by a series of bones, and in part occupied by air. 
+This cavity communicates with the mouth by means of a duct
+called the Eustachian tube.  This tube is generally closed, the
+air space behind the tympanic membrane being thus cut off from
+the external air.  If, under these circumstances, the external
+air becomes denser, it will press the tympanic membrane
+inwards; if, on the other hand, the air on the other side
+becomes rarer, while the Eustachian tube becomes closed, the
+membrane will be pressed outwards.  Pain is felt in both cases,
+and partial deafness is experienced.... By the act of swallowing
+the Eustachian tube is opened, and thus equilibrium is
+established between the external and internal pressure."
+
+Founded on physical facts more or less correct in themselves,
+come a number of tales of olden days, which are at least more
+marvellous than credible, the following serving as an example. 
+The scientific truth underlying the story is the well-known
+expedient of placing a shrivelled apple under the receiver of
+an air pump.  As the air becomes rarefied the apple swells,
+smooths itself out, and presently becomes round and rosy as it
+was in the summer time.  It is recorded that on one occasion a
+man of mature years made an ascent, accompanied by his son,
+and, after reaching some height, the youth remarked on how
+young his father was looking.  They still continued to ascend,
+and the same remark was repeated more than once.  And at last,
+having now reached attenuated regions, the son cried in
+astonishment, "Why, dad, you ought to be at school!"  The cause
+of this remark was that in the rarefied air all the wrinkles
+had come out of the old man's face, and his cheeks were as
+chubby as his son's.
+
+This discussion of old ideas should not be closed without
+mention of a plausible plea for the balloon made by Wise and
+others on the score of its value to health.  Lofty ascents have
+proved a strain on even robust constitutions--the heart may
+begin to suffer, or ills akin to mountain sickness may
+intervene before a height equal to that of our loftiest
+mountain is reached.  But many have spoken of an exhilaration
+of spirits not inferior to that of the mountaineer, which is
+experienced, and without fatigue, in sky voyages reasonably
+indulged in--of a light-heartedness, a glow of health, a
+sharpened appetite, and the keen enjoyment of mere existence. 
+Nay, it has been seriously affirmed that "more good may be got
+by the invalid in an hour or two while two miles up on a fine
+summer's day than is to be gained in an entire voyage from New
+York to Madeira by sea."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X. THE COMMENCEMENT OF A NEW ERA.
+
+
+Resuming the roll of progressive aeronauts in England whose
+labours were devoted to the practical conquest of the air, and
+whose methods and mechanical achievements mark the road of
+advance by which the successes of to-day have been obtained,
+there stand out prominently two individuals, of whom one has
+already received mention in these pages.
+
+The period of a single life is seldom sufficient to allow within
+its span the full development of any new departure in art or
+science, and it cannot, therefore, be wondered at if Charles
+Green, though reviving and re-modelling the art of ballooning in
+our own country, even after an exceptionally long and successful
+career, left that pursuit to which he had given new birth
+virtually still in its infancy.
+
+The year following that in which Green conducted the famous
+Nassau voyage we find him experimenting in the same balloon
+with his chosen friend and colleague, Edward Spencer,
+solicitor, of Barnsbury, who, only nine years later, compiles
+memoranda of thirty-four  ascents, made under every variety of
+circumstance,  many being of a highly enterprising nature.  We
+find him writing enthusiastically of the raptures he
+experienced when sailing over London in night hours, of lofty
+ascents and extremely low temperatures, of speeding
+twenty-eight miles in twenty minutes, of grapnel ropes
+breaking, and of a cross-country race of four miles through
+woods and hedges.  Such was Mr. Spencer the elder, and if
+further evidence were needed of his practical acquaintance
+with, as well as personal devotion to, his adopted profession
+of aeronautics, we have it in the store of working calculations
+and other minutiae of the craft, most carefully compiled in
+manuscript by his own hand; these memoranda being to this day
+constantly consulted by his grandsons, the present eminent
+aeronauts, Messrs. Spencer Brothers, as supplying a manual of
+reliable data for the execution of much of the most important
+parts of their work.
+
+In the terrific ordeal and risk entailed by the daring and
+fatal parachute descent of Cocking, Green required an assistant
+of exceptional nerve and reliability, and, as has been
+recorded, his choice at once fell on Edward Spencer.  In this
+choice it has already been shown that he was well justified,
+and in the trying circumstances that ensued Green frankly owns
+that it was his competent companion who was the first to
+recover himself.  A few years later, when a distinguished
+company, among whom were Albert Smith and Shirley Brooks, made
+a memorable ascent from Cremorne, Edward Spencer is one of the
+select party.
+
+Some account of this voyage should be given, and it need not be
+said that no more graphic account is to be found than that
+given by the facile pen of Albert Smith himself.  His personal
+narrative also forms an instructive contrast to another which
+he had occasion to give to the world shortly afterwards, and
+which shall be duly noticed.  The enthusiastic writer first
+describes, with apparent pride, the company that ascended with
+him.  Besides Mr. Shirley Brooks, there were Messrs. Davidson,
+of the Garrick Club; Mr. John Lee, well known in theatrical
+circles; Mr. P.  Thompson, of Guy's Hospital, and others--ten
+in all, including Charles Green as skipper, and Edward Spencer,
+who, sitting in the rigging, was entrusted with the
+all-important management of the valve rope.
+
+"The first sensation experienced," Albert Smith continues, "was
+not that we were rising, but that the balloon remained fixed,
+whilst all the world below was rapidly falling away; while the
+cheers with which they greeted our departure grew fainter, and
+the cheerers themselves began to look like the inmates of many
+sixpenny Noah's Arks grouped upon a billiard table.... Our
+hats would have held millions.... And most strange is the roar
+of the city as it comes surging into the welkin as though the
+whole metropolis cheered you with one voice.... Yet none
+beyond the ordinary passengers are to be seen.  The noise is as
+inexplicable as the murmur in the air at hot summer noontide."
+
+The significance of this last remark will be insisted on when
+the writer has to tell his own experiences aloft over London,
+as also a note to the effect that there were seen "large
+enclosed fields and gardens and pleasure grounds where none
+were supposed to exist by ordinary passengers."  Another
+interesting note, having reference to a once familiar feature
+on the river, now disappearing, related to the paddle boats of
+those days, the steamers making a very beautiful effect,
+"leaving two long wings of foam behind them similar to the
+train of a table rocket."  Highly suggestive, too, of the
+experiences of railway travellers in the year 1847 is the
+account of the alighting, which, by the way, was obviously of
+no very rude nature.  "Every time," says the writer, "the
+grapnel catches in the ground the balloon is pulled up suddenly
+with a shock that would soon send anybody from his seat, a jerk
+like that which occurs when fresh carriages are brought up to a
+railway train."  But the concluding paragraph in this rosy
+narrative affords another and a very notable contrast to the
+story which that same writer had occasion to put on record
+before that same year had passed.
+
+"We counsel everybody to go up in a balloon... In spite of the
+apparent frightful fragility of cane and network nothing can in
+reality be more secure... The stories of pressure on the ears,
+intense cold, and the danger of coming down are all
+fictions.... Indeed, we almost wanted a few perils to give a
+little excitement to the trip, and have some notion, if
+possible, of going up the next time at midnight with fireworks
+in a thunderstorm, throwing away all the ballast, fastening
+down the valve, and seeing where the wind will send us."
+
+The fireworks, the thunderstorm, and the throwing away of
+ballast, all came off on the 15th of the following October,
+when Albert Smith made his second ascent, this time from
+Vauxhall Gardens, under the guidance of Mr. Gypson, and
+accompanied by two fellow-passengers.  Fireworks, which were to
+be displayed when aloft, were suspended on a framework forty
+feet below the car.  Lightning was also playing around as they
+cast off.  The description which Albert Smith gives of London
+by night as seen from an estimated elevation of 4,000 feet,
+should be compared with other descriptions that will be given
+in these pages:--
+
+"In the obscurity all traces of houses and enclosures are lost
+sight of.  I can compare it to nothing else than floating over
+dark blue and boundless sea spangled with hundreds of thousands
+of stars. These stars were the lamps.  We could see them
+stretching over the river at the bridges, edging its banks,
+forming squares and long parallel lines of light in the streets
+and solitary parks.  Further and further apart until they were
+altogether lost in the suburbs.  The effect was bewildering."
+
+At 7,000 feet, one of the passengers, sitting in the ring,
+remarked that the balloon was getting very tense, and the order
+was given to "ease her" by opening the top valve.  The valve
+line was accordingly pulled, "and immediately afterwards we
+heard a noise similar to the escape of steam in a locomotive,
+and the lower part of the balloon collapsed rapidly, and
+appeared to fly up into the upper portion.  At the same instant
+the balloon began to fall with appalling velocity, the immense
+mass of loose silk surging and rustling frightfully over our
+heads.... retreating up away from us more and more into the
+head of the balloon.  The suggestion was made to throw
+everything over that might lighten the balloon.  I had two
+sandbags in my lap, which were cast away directly.... There
+were several large bags of ballast, and some bottles of wine,
+and these were instantly thrown away, but no effect was
+perceptible.  The wind still appeared to be rushing up past us
+at a fearful rate, and, to add to the horror, we came among the
+still expiring discharge of the fireworks which floated in the
+air, so that little bits of exploded cases and touch-paper,
+still incandescent, attached themselves to the cordage of the
+balloon and were blown into sparks.... I presume we must have
+been upwards of a mile from the earth.... How long we were
+descending I have not the slightest idea, but two minutes must
+have been the outside.... We now saw the houses, the roofs of
+which appeared advancing to meet us, and the next instant, as
+we dashed by their summits, the words, 'Hold hard!' burst
+simultaneously from all the party.... We were all directly
+thrown out of the car along the ground, and, incomprehensible
+as it now appears to me, nobody was seriously hurt."
+
+But "not so incomprehensible, after all," will be the verdict
+of all who compare the above narrative with the ascents given
+in a foregoing account of how Wise had fared more than once
+when his balloon had burst.  For, as will be readily guessed,
+the balloon had in this case also burst, owing to the release
+of the upper valve being delayed too long, and the balloon had
+in the natural way transformed itself into a true parachute. 
+Moreover, the fall, which, by Albert Smith's own showing, was
+that of about a mile in two minutes, was not more excessive
+than one which will presently be recorded of Mr. Glaisher, who
+escaped with no material injury beyond a few bruises.
+
+One fact has till now been omitted with regard to the above
+sensational voyage, namely, the name of the passenger who,
+sitting in the ring, was the first to point out the imminent
+danger of the balloon.  This individual was none other than Mr.
+Henry Coxwell, the second, indeed, of the two who were
+mentioned in the opening paragraph of this chapter as marking
+the road of progress which it is the scope of these pages to
+trace, and to whom we must now formally introduce our readers.
+
+This justly famous sky pilot, whose practical acquaintance with
+ballooning extends over more than forty years, was the son of a
+naval officer residing near Chatham, and in his autobiography
+he describes enthusiastically how, a lad of nine years old, he
+watched through a sea telescope a balloon, piloted by Charles
+Green, ascend from Rochester and, crossing the Thames,
+disappear in distance over the Essex flats.  He goes on to
+describe how the incident started him in those early days on
+boyish endeavours to construct fire balloons and paper
+parachutes.  Some years later his home, on the death of his
+father, being transferred to Eltham, he came within frequent
+view of such balloons as, starting from the neighbourhood of
+London, will through the summer drift with the prevailing winds
+over that part of Kent.  And it was here that, ere long, he
+came in at the death of another balloon of which Green was in
+charge.
+
+And from this time onwards the schoolboy with the strange hobby
+was constantly able to witness the flights and even the
+inflations of those ships of the air, which, his family
+associations notwithstanding took precedence of all boyish
+diversions.
+
+His elder brother, now a naval officer, entirely failed to
+divert his aspirations into other channels, and it was when the
+boy had completed sixteen summers that an aeronautic enterprise
+attracted not only his own, but public attention also.  It was
+the building of a mammoth balloon at Vauxhall under the
+superintendence of Mr. Green.  The launching of this huge craft
+when completed was regarded as so great an occasion that the
+young Coxwell, who had by this time obtained a commercial
+opening abroad, was allowed, at his earnest entreaty, to stay
+till the event had come off, and fifty years after the hardened
+sky sailor is found describing with a boyish enthusiasm how
+thirty-six policemen were needed round that balloon; how
+enormous weights were attached to the cordage, only to be
+lifted feet above the ground; while the police were compelled
+to pass their staves through the meshes to prevent the cords
+cutting their hands.  At this ascent Mr. Hollond was a
+passenger, and by the middle of the following November all
+Europe was ringing with the great Nassau venture.
+
+Commercial business did not suit the young Coxwell, and at the
+age of one-and-twenty we find him trying his hand at the
+profession of surgeon-dentist, not, however, with any prospect
+of its keeping him from the longing of his soul, which grew
+stronger and stronger upon him.  It was not till the summer of
+1844 that Mr. Hampton, giving an exhibition from the White
+Conduit Gardens, Pentonville, offered the young man, then
+twenty-five years old, his first ascent.
+
+In after years Coxwell referred to his first sensations in
+characteristic language, contrasting them with the experiences
+of the mountaineer.  "In Alpine travels," he says, "the process
+is so slow, and contact with the crust of the earth so
+palpable, that the traveller is gradually prepared for each
+successive phase of view as it presents itself.  But in the
+balloon survey, cities, villages, and vast tracts for
+observation spring almost magically before the eye, and change
+in aspect and size so pleasingly that bewilderment first and
+then unbounded admiration is sure to follow."
+
+The ice was now fairly broken, and, not suffering professional
+duties to be any hindrance, Coxwell began to make a series of
+ascents under the leadership of two rival balloonists, Gale and
+Gypson.  One voyage made with the latter he describes as
+leading to the most perilous descent in the annals of
+aerostation.  This was the occasion, given above, on which
+Albert Smith was a passenger, and which that talented writer
+describes in his own fashion.  He does not, however, add the
+fact, worthy of being chronicled, that exactly a week after the
+appalling adventure Gypson and Coxwell, accompanied by a
+Captain whose name does not transpire, and loaded with twice
+the previous weight of fireworks, made a perfectly successful
+night ascent and descent in the same balloon.
+
+It is very shortly after this that we find Coxwell seduced into
+undertaking for its owners the actual management of a balloon,
+the property of Gale, and now to be known as the "Sylph."  With
+this craft he practically began his career as a professional
+balloonist, and after a few preliminary ascents made in
+England, was told off to carry on engagements in Belgium.
+
+A long series of ascents was now made on the Continent, and in
+the troubled state of affairs some stirring scenes were
+visited, not without some real adventure.  One occasion
+attended with imminent risk occurred at Berlin in 1851. 
+Coxwell relates that a Prussian labourer whom he had dismissed
+for bad conduct, and who almost too manifestly harboured
+revenge, nevertheless begged hard for a re-engagement, which,
+as the man was a handy fellow, Coxwell at length assented to. 
+He took up three passengers beside himself, and at an elevation
+of some 3,000 feet found it necessary to open the valve, when,
+on pulling the cord, one of the top shutters broke and remained
+open, leaving a free aperture of 26 inches by 12 inches, and
+occasioning such a copious discharge of gas that nothing short
+of a providential landing could save disaster.  But the
+providential landing came, the party falling into the embrace
+of a fruit tree in an orchard.  It transpired afterwards that
+the labourer had been seen to tamper with the valve, the
+connecting lines of which he had partially severed.
+
+Returning to England in 1852 Coxwell, through the accidents
+inseparable from his profession, found himself virtually in
+possession of the field.  Green, now advanced in years, was
+retiring from the public life in which he had won so much fame
+and honour.  Gale was dead, killed in an ascent at Bordeaux. 
+Only one aspirant contested the place of public aeronaut--one
+Goulston, who had been Gale's patron.  Before many months,
+however, he too met with a balloonist's death, being dashed
+against some stone walls when ascending near Manchester.
+
+It will not be difficult to form an estimate of how entirely
+the popularity of the balloon was now reestablished in England,
+from the mere fact that before the expiration of the year
+Coxwell had been called upon to make thirty-six voyages.  Some
+of these were from Glasgow, and here a certain coincidence took
+place which is too curious to be omitted.  A descent effected
+near Milngavie took place in the same field in which Sadler,
+twenty-nine years before, had also descended, and the same man
+who caught the rope of Mr. Sadler's balloon performed the same
+service once again for a fresh visitor from the skies.
+
+The following autumn Coxwell, in fulfilling one out of many
+engagements, found himself in a dilemma which bore resemblance
+in a slight degree to a far more serious predicament in which
+the writer became involved, and which must be told in due
+place.  The preparations for the ascent, which was from the
+Mile End Road, had been hurried, and after finally getting away
+at a late hour in the evening, it was found that the valve line
+had got caught in a fold of the silk, and could not be
+operated.  In consequence, the balloon was, of necessity, left
+to take its own chance through the night, and, after rising to
+a considerable height, it slowly lost buoyancy during the
+chilly hours, and, gradually settling, came to earth near
+Basingstoke, where the voyager, failing to get help or shelter,
+made his bed within his own car, lying in an open field, as
+other aeronauts have had to do in like circumstances.
+
+Coxwell tells of a striking phenomenon seen during that voyage. 
+"A splendid meteor was below the car, and apparently about 600
+feet distant.  It was blue and yellow, moving rapidly in a N.E.
+direction, and became extinguished without noise or sparks."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI. THE BALLOON IN THE SERVICE OF SCIENCE.
+
+
+At this point we must, for a brief while, drop the history of
+the famous aeronaut whose early career we have been briefly
+sketching in the last chapter, and turn our attention to a new
+feature of English ballooning.  We have, at last, to record
+some genuinely scientific ascents, which our country now, all
+too tardily, instituted.  It was the British Association that
+took the initiative, and the two men they chose for their
+purpose were both exceptionally qualified for the task they had
+in hand.  The practical balloonist was none other than the
+veteran Charles Green, now in his sixty-seventh year, but
+destined yet to enjoy nearly twenty years more of life.  The
+scientific expert was Mr. John Welsh, well fitted for the
+projected work by long training at Kew Observatory.  The
+balloon which they used is itself worthy of mention, being the
+great Nassau Balloon of olden fame.
+
+Welsh was quick to realise more clearly than any former
+experimentalist that on account of the absence of breeze in a
+free balloon, as also on account of great solar radiation, the
+indications of thermometers would, without special precautions,
+be falsified.  He therefore invented a form of aspirating
+thermometer, the earliest to be met with, and far in advance of
+any that were subsequently used by other scientists.  It
+consisted of a polished tube, in which thermometers were
+enclosed, and through which a stream of air was forced by
+bellows.
+
+The difficulty of obtaining really accurate readings where
+thermometers are being quickly transported through varying
+temperatures is generally not duly appreciated.  In the case of
+instruments carried m a balloon it should be remembered that
+the balloon itself conveys, clinging about it, no
+inconsiderable quantity of air, brought from other levels,
+while the temperature of its own mass will be liable to affect
+any thermometer in close neighbourhood.  Moreover, any ordinary
+form of thermometer is necessarily sluggish in action, as may
+be readily noticed.  If, for example, one be carried from a
+warm room to a cold passage, or vice versa it will be seen that
+the column moves very deliberately, and quite a long interval
+will elapse before it reaches its final position, the cause
+being that the entire instrument, with any stand or mounting
+that it may have, will have to adapt itself to the change of
+temperature before a true record will be obtained.  This
+difficulty applies unavoidably to all thermometers in some
+degree, and the skill of instrument makers has been taxed to
+reduce the errors to a minimum.  It is necessary, in any case,
+that a constant stream of surrounding air should play upon the
+instrument, and though this is most readily effected when
+instruments are carried aloft by kites, yet even thus it is
+thought that an interval of some minutes has to elapse before
+any form of thermometer will faithfully record any definite
+change of temperature.  It is on this account that some
+allowance must be made for observations which will, in due
+place, be recorded of scientific explorers; the point to be
+borne in mind being that, as was mentioned in a former chapter,
+such observations will have to be regarded as giving readings
+which are somewhat too high in ascents and too low in descents. 
+Two forms of thermometers at extremely simple construction, yet
+possessed of great sensibility, will be discussed in later
+chapters.
+
+The thermometers that Welsh used were undoubtedIy far superior
+to any that were devised before his time and it is much to be
+regretted that they were allowed to fall into disuse.  Perhaps
+the most important stricture on the observations that will have
+to be recorded is that the observers were not provided with a
+base station, on which account the value of results was
+impaired.  It was not realised that it was necessary to make
+observations on the ground to compare with those that were
+being made at high altitudes.
+
+Welsh made, in all, four ascents in the summer and autumn of
+1852 and in his report he is careful to give the highest praise
+to his colleague, Green, whose control over his balloon he
+describes as "so complete that none who accompanied him can be
+otherwise than relieved from all apprehension, and free to
+devote attention calmly to the work before him."
+
+The first ascent was made at 3.49 p.m. on August the 17th, under
+a south wind and with clouds covering some three-quarters of the
+sky.  Welsh's first remark significant, and will be appreciated
+by anyone who has attempted observational work in a balloon.  He
+states naively that "a short time was lost at first in an
+attempt to put the instruments into more convenient order, and
+also from the novelty of the situation."  Then he mentions an
+observation which, in the experience of the writer, is a
+common one.  The lowest clouds, which were about 2,500 feet
+high and not near the balloon, were passed without being
+noticed; other clouds were passed at different heights; and,
+finally, a few star-shaped crystals of snow; but the sun shone
+almost constantly.  Little variation occurred in the direction
+of travel, which averaged thirty-eight miles an hour, and the
+descent took place at 5.20 p.m. at Swavesey, near Cambridge.
+
+The second ascent took place at 4.43 p.m. on August 26th, under
+a gentle east wind and a partially obscured sky.  The clouds
+were again passed without being perceived.  This was at the
+height of 3,000 feet, beyond which was very clear sky of deep
+blue.  The air currents up to the limits of 12,000 feet set
+from varying directions.  The descent occurred near Chesham at
+7.45 p.m.
+
+The third ascent, at 2.35 p.m. on October the 21st was made
+into a sky covered with dense cloud masses lying within 3,000
+and 3,700 feet.  The sun was then seen shining through cirrus
+far up.  The shadow of the balloon was also seen on the cloud,
+fringed with a glory, and about this time there was seen
+"stretching for a considerable length in a serpentine course,
+over the surface of the cloud, a well-defined belt, having the
+appearance of a broad road."
+
+Being now at 12,000 feet, Green thought it prudent to
+reconnoitre his position, and, finding they were near the sea,
+descended at 4.20 p.m. at Rayleigh, in Essex.  Some important
+notes on the polarisation of the clouds were made.
+
+The fourth and final voyage was made in a fast wind averaging
+fifty knots from the north-east.  Thin scud was met at 1,900
+feet, and an upper stratum at 4,500 feet, beyond which was
+bright sun.  The main shift of wind took place just as the
+upper surface of the first stratum was reached.  In this ascent
+Welsh reached his greatest elevation, 22,930 feet, when both
+Green and himself experienced considerable difficulty in
+respiration and much fatigue.  The sea being now perceived
+rapidly approaching, a hasty descent was made, and many of the
+instruments were broken.
+
+In summarising his results Welsh states that "the temperature
+of the air decreases uniformly with height above the earth's
+surface until at a certain elevation, varying on different
+days, decrease is arrested, and for the space of 2,000 or 3,000
+feet the temperature remains nearly constant, or even
+increases, the regular diminution being again resumed and
+generally maintained at a rate slightly less rapid than in the
+lower part of the atmosphere, and commencing from a higher
+temperature than would have existed but for the interruption
+noticed."  The analysis of the upper air showed the proportion
+of oxygen and nitrogen to vary scarcely more than at different
+spots on the earth.
+
+As it is necessary at this point to take leave of the veteran
+Green as a practical aeronaut, we may here refer to one or two
+noteworthy facts and incidents relating to his eventful career. 
+In 1850 M. Poitevin is said to have attracted 140,000 people to
+Paris to look at an exhibition of himself ascending in a
+balloon seated on horseback, after which Madame Poitevin
+ascended from Cremorne Gardens in the same manner, the
+exhibition being intended as a representation of "Europa on a
+Bull."  This, however, was discountenanced by the authorities
+and withdrawn.  The feats were, in reality, merely the
+repetitions of one that had been conceived and extremely well
+carried out by Green many years before--as long ago, in fact,
+as 1828, when he arranged to make an ascent from the Eagle
+Tavern, City Road, seated on a pony.  To carry out his
+intention, he discarded the ordinary car, replacing it with a
+small platform, which was provided with places to receive the
+pony's feet; while straps attached to the hoop were passed
+under the animal's body, preventing it from lying down or from
+making any violent movement.  This the creature seemed in no
+way disposed to attempt, and when all had been successfully
+carried out and an easy descent effected at Beckenham, the pony
+was discovered eating a meal of beans with which it had been
+supplied.
+
+Several interesting observations have been recorded by Green on
+different occasions, some of which are highly instructive from
+a practical or scientific point of view.  On an ascent from
+Vauxhall, in which he was accompanied by his friend Spencer and
+Mr. Rush, he recorded how, as he constantly and somewhat
+rapidly rose, the wind changed its direction from N.W. through
+N. to N.E., while he remained over the metropolis, the balloon
+all the while rotating on its axis.  This continual swinging or
+revolving of the balloon Green considers an accompaniment of
+either a rapid ascent or descent, but it may be questioned
+whether it is not merely a consequence of changing currents,
+or, sometimes, of an initial spin given inadvertently to the
+balloon at the moment of its being liberated.  The phenomenon
+of marked change which he describes in the upper currents is
+highly interesting, and tallies with what the writer has
+frequently experienced over London proper.  Such higher
+currents may be due to natural environment, and to conditions
+necessarily prevailing over so vast and varied a city, and they
+may be able to play an all-important part in the dispersal of
+London smoke or fog.  This point will be touched on later.  In
+this particular voyage Green records that as he was rising at
+the moment when his barometer reached 19 inches, the
+thermometer he carried registered 46 degrees, while on coming
+down, when the barometer again marked 19 inches, the same
+thermometer recorded only 22 degrees.  It will not fail to be
+recognised that there is doubtless here an example of the
+errors alluded to above, inseparable from readings taken in
+ascent and descent.
+
+A calculation made by Green in his earlier years has a certain
+value.  By the time he had accomplished 200 ascents he was at
+pains to compute that he had travelled across country some
+6,000 miles, which had been traversed in 240 hours.  From this
+it would follow that the mean rate of travel in aerial voyages
+will be about twenty-five miles per hour.  Towards the end of
+his career we find it stated by Lieutenant G. Grover, R.E.,
+that "the Messrs. Green, Father and Son, have made between them
+some 930 ascents, in none of which have they met with any
+material accident or failure."  This is wonderful testimony,
+indeed, and we may here add the fact that the father took up
+his own father, then at the age of eighty-three, in a balloon
+ascent of 1845, without any serious consequences.  But it is
+time that some account should be given of a particular occasion
+which at least provided the famous aeronaut with an adventure
+spiced with no small amount of risk.  It was on the 5th of
+July, 1850, that Green ascended, with Rush as his companion,
+from Vauxhall, at the somewhat late hour of 7.50 p.m., using,
+as always, the great Nassau balloon.  The rate of rise must
+have been very considerable, and they presently record an
+altitude of no less than 20,000 feet, and a temperature of 12
+degrees below freezing.  They were now above the clouds, where
+all view of earth was lost, and, not venturing to remain long
+in this situation, they commenced a rapid descent, and on
+emerging below found themselves sailing down Sea Reach in the
+direction of Nore Sands, when they observed a vessel.  Their
+chance of making land was, to say the least, uncertain, and
+Green, considering that his safety lay in bespeaking the
+vessel's assistance, opened the valve and brought the car down
+in the water some two miles north of Sheerness, the hour being
+8.45, and only fifty-five minutes since the start.  The wind
+was blowing stiffly, and, catching the hollow of the
+half-inflated balloon, carried the voyagers rapidly down the
+river, too fast, indeed, to allow of the vessel's overtaking
+them.  This being soon apparent, Green cast out his anchor, and
+not without result, for it shortly became entangled in a sunken
+wreck, and the balloon was promptly "brought up," though
+struggling and tossing in the broken water.  A neighbouring
+barge at once put off a boat to the rescue, and other boats were
+despatched by H.M. cutter Fly, under Commander Gurling.  Green
+and Rush were speedily rescued, but the balloon itself was too
+restive and dangerous an object to approach with safety.  At
+Green's suggestion, therefore, a volley of musketry was fired
+into the silk' after which it became possible to pass a rope
+around it and expel the gas.  Green subsequently relates how it
+took a fortnight to restore the damage, consisting of sixty-two
+bullet rents and nineteen torn gores.
+
+Green's name will always be famous, if only for the fact that
+it was he who first adopted the use of coal gas in his calling. 
+This, it will be remembered, was in 1821, and it should be
+borne in mind that at that time household gas had only recently
+been introduced.  In point of fact, it first lighted Pall Mall
+in 1805, and it was not used for the general lighting of London
+till 1814.
+
+We are not surprised to find that the great aeronaut at one
+time turned his attention to the construction of models, and
+this with no inconsiderable success.  A model of his was
+exhibited in 1840 at the Polytechnic Institution, and is
+described in the Times as consisting of a miniature balloon of
+three feet diameter, inflated with coal gas.  It was acted on
+by fans, which were operated by mechanism placed in the car.  A
+series of three experiments was exhibited.  First, the balloon
+being weighted so as to remain poised in the still air of the
+building, the mechanism was started, and the machine rose
+steadily to the ceiling.  The fans were then reversed, when the
+model, equally gracefully, descended to the floor.  Lastly, the
+balloon, with a weighted trail rope, being once more balanced
+in mid-air, the fans were applied laterally, when the machine
+would take a horizontal flight, pulling the trail rope after
+it, with an attached weight dragging along the floor until the
+mechanism had run down, when it again remained stationary.  The
+correspondent of the Times continues, "Mr. Green states that by
+these simple means a voyage across the Atlantic may be
+performed in three or four days, as easily as from Vauxhall
+Gardens to Nassau."
+
+We can hardly attribute this statement seriously to one who
+knew as well as did Green how fickle are the winds, and how
+utterly different are the conditions between the still air of a
+room and those of the open sky.  His insight into the
+difficulties of the problem cannot have been less than that of
+his successor, Coxwell, who, as the result of his own equally
+wide experience, states positively, "I could never imagine a
+motive power of sufficient force to direct and guide a balloon,
+much less to enable a man or a machine to fly."  Even when
+modern invention had produced a motive power undreamed of in
+the days we are now considering, Coxwell declares his
+conviction that inherent difficulties would not be overcome
+"unless the air should invariably remain in a calm state."
+
+It would be tedious and scarcely instructive to inquire into
+the various forms of flying machines that were elaborated at
+this period; but one that was designed in America by Mr.
+Henson, and with which it was seriously contemplated to attempt
+to cross the Atlantic, may be briefly described.  In theory it
+was supposed to be capable of being sustained in the air by
+virtue of the speed mechanically imparted to it, and of the
+angle at which its advancing under surface would meet the air. 
+The inventor claimed to have produced a steam engine of extreme
+lightness as well as efficiency, and for the rest his machine
+consisted of a huge aero-plane propelled by fans with oblique
+vanes, while a tail somewhat resembling that of a bird was
+added, as also a rudder, the functions of which were to direct
+the craft vertically and horizontally respectively.  Be it here
+recorded that the machine did not cross the Atlantic.
+
+One word as to the instruments used up to this time for
+determining altitudes.  These were, in general, ordinary
+mercurial barometers, protected in various ways.  Green encased
+his instrument in a simple metal tube, which admitted of the
+column of mercury being easily read.  This instrument, which is
+generally to be seen held in his hand in Green's old portraits,
+might be mistaken for a mariner's telescope.  It is now in the
+possession of the family of Spencers, the grandchildren of his
+old aeronautical friend and colleague, and it is stated that
+with all his care the glass was not infrequently broken in a
+descent.
+
+Wise, with characteristic ingenuity, devised a rough-and-ready
+height instrument, which he claims to have answered well.  It
+consisted simply of a common porter bottle, to the neck of
+which was joined a bladder of the same capacity.  The bottle
+being filled with air of the density of that on the ground, and
+the bladder tied on in a collapsed state, the expansion of the
+air in the bottle would gradually fill the bladder as it rose
+into the rarer regions of the atmosphere.  Experience would
+then be trusted to enable the aeronaut to judge his height from
+the amount of inflation noticeable in the bladder.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII. HENRY COXWELL AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES.
+
+
+Mention should be made in these pages of a night sail of a
+hundred miles, boldly carried out in 1849 by M. Arban, which
+took the voyager from Marseilles to Turin fairly over the Alps. 
+The main summit was reached at 11 p.m., when the "snow,
+cascades, and rivers were all sparkling under the moon, and the
+ravines and rocks produced masses of darkness which served as
+shadows to the gigantic picture."  Arban was at one time on a
+level with the highest point of Mont Blanc, the top of which,
+standing out well above the clouds, resembled "an immense block
+of crystal sparkling with a thousand fires."
+
+In London, in the year of the Great Exhibition, and while the
+building was still standing in Hyde  Park, there occurred a
+balloon incident small in itself, but sufficient to cause much
+sensation at the crowded spot where it took place.  The ascent
+was made from  the Hippodrome by Mr. and Mrs. Graham in very
+boisterous weather, and, on being liberated, the balloon seems
+to have fouled a mast, suffering a considerable rent.  After
+this the aeronauts succeeded in clearing the trees in
+Kensington Gardens, and in descending fairly in the Park, but,
+still at the mercy of the winds, they were carried on to the
+roof of a house in Arlington Street, and thence on to another
+in Park Place, where, becoming lodged against a stack of
+chimneys, they were eventually rescued by the police without
+any material damage having been done.
+
+But this same summer saw the return to England of Henry
+Coxwell, and for some years the story of the conquest of the
+air is best told by following his stirring career, and his own
+comments on aeronautical events of this date.  We find him
+shortly setting about carrying out some reconnoitring and
+signalling experiments, designed to be of use in time of war. 
+This was an old idea of his, and one which had, of course, been
+long entertained by others, having, indeed, been put to some
+practical test in time of warfare.  It will be well to make
+note of what attention the matter had already received, and of
+what progress had been made both in theory and practice.
+
+We have already made some mention in Chapter IV. of the use
+which the French had made of balloons in their military
+operations at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of
+nineteenth the century.  It was, indeed, within the first ten
+years after the first invention of the balloon that, under the
+superintendence of the savants of the French Academy, a
+practical school of aeronautics was established at Meudon.  The
+names of Guyton, De Morveau (a distinguished French chemist),
+and Colonel Coutelle are chiefly associated with the movement,
+and under them some fifty students received necessary training. 
+The practising balloon had a capacity of 17,000 cubic feet, and
+was inflated with pure hydrogen, made by what was then a new
+process as applied to ballooning, and which will be described
+in a future chapter.  It appears that the balloon was kept
+always full, so that any opportunity of calm weather would be
+taken advantage of for practice.  And it is further stated that
+a balloon was constructed so sound and impervious that after
+the lapse of two months it was still capable, without being
+replenished, of raising into the air two men, with necessary
+ballast and equipment.  The practical trial for the balloon in
+real service came off in June, 1794, when Coutelle in person,
+accompanied by two staff officers, in one of the four balloons
+which the French Army had provided, made an ascent to
+reconnoitre the Austrian forces at Fleurus.  They ascended
+twice in one day, remaining aloft for some four hours, and, on
+their second ascent being sighted, drew a brisk fire from the
+enemy.  They were unharmed, however, and the successful
+termination of the battle of Fleurus has been claimed as due in
+large measure to the service rendered by that balloon.
+
+The extraordinary fact that the use of the balloon was for many
+years discontinued in the French Army is attributed to a
+strangely superstitious prejudice entertained by Napoleon.  Las
+Cases (in his "Private Life of Napoleon at St. Helena ")
+relates an almost miraculous story of Napoleon's coronation. 
+It appears that a sum of 23,500 francs was given to M. Garnerin
+to provide a balloon ascent to aid in the celebrations, and, in
+consequence, a colossal machine was made to ascend at 11 p.m. 
+on December 16th from the front of Notre Dame, carrying 3,000
+lights.  This balloon was unmanned, and at its departure
+apparently behaved extremely well, causing universal delight. 
+During the hours of darkness, however, it seems to have
+acquitted itself in a strange and well-nigh preternatural
+manner, for at daybreak it is sighted on the horizon by the
+inhabitants of Rome, and seen to be coming towards their city. 
+So true was its course that, as though with predetermined
+purpose, it sails on till it is positively over St. Peter's and
+the Vatican, when, its mission being apparently fulfilled, it
+settles to earth, and finally ends its career in the Lake
+Bracciano.  Regarded from whatever point of view, the flight
+was certainly extraordinary, and it is not surprising that in
+that age it was regarded as nothing less than a portent. 
+Moreover, little details of the wonderful story were quickly
+endowed with grave significance.  The balloon on reaching the
+ground rent itself.  Next, ere it plunged into the water, it
+carefully deposited a portion of its crown on the tomb of Nero. 
+Napoleon, on learning the facts, forbade that they should ever
+be referred to.  Further, he thenceforward discountenanced the
+balloon in his army, and the establishment at Meudon was
+abandoned.
+
+There is record of an attempt of some sort that was made to
+revive the French military ballooning school in the African
+campaign of 1830, but it was barren of results.  Again, it has
+been stated that the Austrians used balloons for
+reconnaissance, before Venice in 1849, and yet again the same
+thing is related of the Russians at the time of the siege of
+Sebastopol, though Kinglake does not mention the circumstance. 
+In 1846 Wise drew up and laid before the American War Office an
+elaborate scheme for the reduction of Vera Cruz.  This will be
+discussed in its due place, though it will be doubtless
+considered as chimerical.
+
+On the other hand, eminently practical were the experiments
+co-ordinated and begun to be put to an actual test by Mr.
+Coxwell, who, before he could duly impress his project upon the
+military authorities, had to make preliminary trials in private
+ventures.  The earliest of these was at the Surrey Zoological
+Gardens in the autumn of 1854, and it will be granted that much
+ingenuity and originality were displayed when it is considered
+that at that date neither wireless telegraphy, electric
+flashlight, nor even Morse Code signalling was in vogue. 
+According to his announcement, the spectators were to regard
+his balloon, captive or free, as floating at a certain altitude
+over a beleaguered fortress, the authorities in communication
+with it having the key of the signals and seeking to obtain
+through these means information as to the approach of an enemy. 
+It was to be supposed that, by the aid of glasses, a vast
+distance around could be subjected to careful scrutiny, and a
+constant communication kept up with the authorities in the
+fortress.  Further, the flags or other signals were supposed
+preconcerted and unknown to the enemy, being formed by
+variations of shape and colour.  Pigeons were also despatched
+from a considerable height to test their efficiency under novel
+conditions.  The public press commented favourably on the
+performance and result of this initial experiment.
+
+Mr. Coxwell's account of an occasion when he had to try
+conclusions with a very boisterous wind, and of the way in
+which he negotiated a very trying and dangerous landing, will
+be found alike interesting and instructive.  It was an ascent
+from the Crystal Palace, and the morning was fair and of bright
+promise outwardly; but Coxwell confesses to have disregarded a
+falling glass.  The inflation having been progressing
+satisfactorily, he retired to partake of luncheon, entirely
+free from apprehensions; but while thus occupied, he was
+presently sought out and summoned by a gardener, who told him
+that his balloon had torn away, and was now completely out of
+control, dragging his men about the bushes.  On reaching the
+scene, the men, in great strength, were about to attempt a more
+strenuous effort to drag the balloon back against the wind,
+which Coxwell promptly forbade, warning them that so they would
+tear all to pieces.  He then commenced, as it were, to "take in
+a reef," by gathering in the slack of the silk, which chiefly
+was catching the wind, and by drawing in the net, mesh by mesh,
+until the more inflated portion of the balloon was left snug
+and offering but little resistance to the gale, when he got her
+dragged in a direction slanting to the wind and under the lee
+of trees.
+
+Eventually a hazardous and difficult departure was effected,
+Mr. Chandler, a passenger already booked, insisting on
+accompanying the aeronaut, in spite of the latter's strongest
+protestations.  And their first peril came quickly, in a near
+shave of fouling the balcony of the North Tower, which they
+avoided only by a prompt discharge of sand, the crowd cheering
+loudly as they saw how the crisis was avoided.  The car, adds
+Mr. Coxwell in his memoirs, "was apparently trailing behind the
+balloon with a pendulous swing, which is not often the case...
+In less than two minutes we entered the lower clouds, passing
+through them quickly, and noticing that their tops, which are
+usually of white, rounded conformation, were torn into shreds
+and crests of vapour.  Above, there was a second wild-looking
+stratum of another order.  We could hear, as we hastened on,
+the hum of the West End of London; but we were bowling along,
+having little time to look about us, though some extra sandbags
+were turned to good account by making a bed of them at the
+bottom ends of the car, which we occupied in anticipation of a
+rough landing."
+
+As it came on to rain hard the voyagers agreed to descend, and
+Coxwell, choosing open ground, succeeded in the oft-attempted
+endeavour to drop his grapnel in front of a bank or hedge-row. 
+The balloon pulled up with such a shock as inevitably follows
+when flying at sixty miles an hour, and Mr. Coxwell continues:
+--"We were at this time suspended like a kite, and it was not so
+much the quantity of gas which kept us up as the hollow surface
+of loose silk, which acted like a falling kite, and the obvious
+game of skill consisted in not letting out too much gas to make
+the balloon pitch heavily with a thud that would have been
+awfully unpleasant; but to jockey our final touch in a gradual
+manner, and yet to do it as quickly as possible for fear of the
+machine getting adrift, since, under the peculiar circumstances
+in which we were placed, it would have inevitably fallen with a
+crushing blow, which might have proved fatal.  I never remember
+to have been in a situation when more coolness and nicety were
+required to overcome the peril which here beset us; while on
+that day the strong wind was, strange as it may sound, helping
+us to alight easily, that is to say as long as the grapnel held
+fast and the balloon did not turn over like an unsteady kite."
+Such peril as there was soon terminated without injury to
+either voyager.
+
+The same remark will apply to an occasion when Coxwell was
+caught in a thunderstorm, which he thus describes in brief:--"On
+a second ascent from Chesterfield we were carried into the
+midst of gathering clouds, which began to flash vividly, and in
+the end culminated in a storm.  There were indications, before
+we left the earth, as to what might be expected.  The lower
+breeze took us in another direction as we rose, but a gentle,
+whirling current higher up got us into the vortex of a highly
+charged cloud.... We had to prove by absolute experience
+whether the balloon was insulated and a non-conductor.  Beyond
+a drenching, no untoward incident occurred during a voyage
+lasting in all three-quarters of an hour."
+
+A voyage which Coxwell (referring, doubtless, to aerial travel
+over English soil only) describes as "being so very much in
+excess of accustomary trips in balloons" will be seen to fall
+short of one memorable voyage of which the writer will have to
+give his own experiences.  Some account, however, of what the
+famous aeronaut has to tell will find a fitting place here.
+
+It was an ascent on a summer night from North Woolwich, and on
+this occasion Coxwell was accom- panied by two friends, one
+being Henry Youens, who subsequently became a professional
+balloonist of considerable repute, and who at this time was an
+ardent amateur.  It was half an hour before midnight when the
+party took their places, and, getting smartly away from the
+crowd in the gala grounds, shot over the river, and shortly were
+over the town of Greenwich with the lights of London well
+ahead.  Then their course took them over Kennington Oval,
+Vauxhall Bridge, and Battersea, when they presently heard the
+strains of a Scotch polka.  This came up from the then famous
+Gardens of Cremorne, and, the breeze freshening, it was but a
+few minutes later when they stood over Kingston, by which time
+it became a question whether, being now clear of London, they
+should descend or else live out the night and take what thus
+might come their way.  This course, as the most prudent, as
+well as the most fascinating, was that which commended itself,
+and at that moment the hour of midnight was heard striking,
+showing that a fairly long distance had been covered in a short
+interval of time.
+
+From this period they would seem to have lost their way, and
+though scattered lights were sighted ahead, they were soon in
+doubt as to whether they might not already be nearing the sea,
+a doubt that was strengthened by their hearing the cry of
+sea-fowl.  After a pause, lights were seen looming under the
+haze to sea-ward, which at times resembled water; and a tail
+like that of a comet was discerned, beyond which was a black
+patch of considerable size.
+
+The patch was the Isle of Wight, and the tail the Water from
+Southampton.  They were thus wearing more south and towards
+danger.  They had no Davy lamp with which to read their
+aneroid, and could only tell from the upward flight of
+fragments of paper that they were descending.  Another
+deficiency in their equipment was the lack of a trail rope to
+break their fall, and for some time they were under unpleasant
+apprehension of an unexpected and rude impact with the ground,
+or collision with some undesirable object.  This induced them
+to discharge sand and to risk the consequences of another rise
+into space, and as they mounted they were not reassured by
+sighting to the south a ridge of lighter colour, which strongly
+suggested the coast line.
+
+But it was midsummer, and it was not long before bird life
+awakening was heard below, and then a streak of dawn revealed
+their locality, which was over the Exe, with Sidmouth and Tor
+Bay hard by on their left.  Then from here, the land jutting
+seawards, they confidently traversed Dartmoor, and effected a
+safe, if somewhat unseasonable, descent near Tavistock.  The
+distance travelled was considerable, but the duration, on the
+aeronaut's own showing, was less than five hours.
+
+In the year 1859 the Times commented on the usefulness of
+military balloons in language that fully justified all that
+Coxwell had previously claimed for them.  A war correspondent,
+who had accompanied the Austrian Army during that year, asks
+pertinently how it had happened that the French had been ready
+at six o'clock to make a combined attack against the Austrians,
+who, on their part, had but just taken up positions on the
+previous evening.  The correspondent goes on to supply the
+answer thus:--"No sooner was the first Austrian battalion out
+of Vallegio than a balloon was observed to rise in the air from
+the vicinity of Monsambano--a signal, no doubt, for the French
+in Castiglione.  I have a full conviction that the Emperor of
+the French knew overnight the exact position of every Austrian
+corps, while the Emperor of Austria was unable to ascertain the
+number or distribution of the forces of the allies."
+
+It appears that M. Godard was the aeronaut employed to observe
+the enemy, and that fresh balloons for the French Army were
+proceeded with.
+
+The date was now near at hand when Coxwell, in partnership with
+Mr. Glaisher, was to take part in the classical work which has
+rendered their names famous throughout the world.  Before
+proceeding to tell of that period, however, Mr. Coxwell has
+done well to record one aerial adventure, which, while but
+narrowly missing the most serious consequences, gives a very
+practical illustration of the chances in favour of the aeronaut
+under extreme circumstances.
+
+It was an ascent at Congleton in a gale of wind, a and the
+company of two passengers--Messrs. Pearson, of Lawton
+Hall--was pressed upon him.  Everything foretold a rough
+landing, and some time after the start was made the outlook was
+not improved by the fact that the dreaded county of Derbyshire
+was seen approaching; and it was presently apparent that the
+spot on which they had decided to descend was faced by rocks
+and a formidable gorge.  On this, Coxwell attempted to drop his
+grapnel in front of a stone wall, and so far with success; but
+the wall went down, as also another and another, the wicker car
+passing, with its great impetus, clean through the solid
+obstacles, till at last the balloon slit from top to bottom. 
+Very serious injuries to heads and limbs were sustained, but no
+lives were lost, and Coxwell himself, after being laid up at
+Buxton, got home on crutches.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII. SOME NOTEWORTHY ASCENTS.
+
+
+It was the year 1862, and the scientific world in England
+determined once again on attempting observational work in
+connection with balloons.  There had been a meeting of the
+British Association at Wolverhampton, and, under their
+auspices, and with the professional services of Thomas Lythgoe,
+Mr. Creswick, of Greenwich Observatory, was commissioned to
+make a lofty scientific ascent with a Cremorne balloon.  The
+attempt, however, was unsatisfactory; and the balloon being
+condemned, an application was made to Mr. Coxwell to provide a
+suitable craft, and to undertake its management.  The
+principals of the working committee were Colonel Sykes, M.P.,
+Dr. Lee, and Mr. James Glaisher, F.R.S., and a short conference
+between these gentlemen and the experienced aeronaut soon made
+it clear that a mammoth balloon far larger than any in
+existence was needed for the work in hand.  But here a fatal
+obstacle presented itself in lack of funds, for it transpired
+that the grant voted was only to be devoted to trial ascents.
+
+It was then that Mr. Coxwell, with characteristic enterprise,
+undertook, at his own cost, to build a suitable balloon, and,
+moreover, to have it ready by Midsummer Day.  It was a bold, as
+well as a generous, offer; for it was now March, and, according
+to Mr. Coxwell's statement, if silk were employed, the
+preparation and manufacture would occupy six months and cost
+not less than L2,000.  The fabric chosen was a sort of American
+cloth, and by unremitting efforts the task was performed to
+time, and the balloon forwarded to Wolverhampton, its
+dimensions being 55 feet in diameter, 80 feet in height from
+the ground, with a capacity of 93,000 cubic feet.  But the best
+feature in connection with it was the fact that Mr. Glaisher
+himself was to make the ascents as scientific observer.
+
+No time was lost in getting to work, but twice over the chosen
+days were unsuitable, and it was not till July 17th that the
+two colleagues, of whom so much is to be told, got away at 9.30
+a.m. with their balloon only two-thirds full, to allow of
+expansion to take place in such a lofty ascent as was
+contemplated.  And, when it is considered that an altitude of
+five miles was reached, it will be granted that the scientific
+gentleman who was making his maiden ascent that day showed
+remarkable endurance and tenacity of purpose--the all-important
+essential for the onerous and trying work before him.  At 9.56
+the balloon had disappeared from sight, climbing far into the
+sky in the E.N.E.  The story of the voyage we must leave in Mr.
+Glaisher's hands.  Certain events, however, associated with
+other aeronauts, which had already happened, and which should
+be considered in connection with the new drama now to be
+introduced, may fittingly here meet with brief mention.
+
+The trouble arising from the coasting across country of a
+fallen and still half-inflated balloon has already been
+sufficiently illustrated, and needs little further discussion. 
+It is common enough to see a balloon, when full and round,
+struggling restively under a moderate breeze with a score of
+men, and dragging them, and near a ton of sand-bags as well,
+about the starting ground.  But, as has already been pointed
+out, the power of the wind on the globe is vastly increased
+when the silk becomes slack and forms a hollow to hold the
+wind, like a bellying sail.  Various means to deal with this
+difficulty have been devised, one of these being an emergency,
+or ripping valve, in addition to the ordinary valve, consisting
+of an arrangement for tearing a large opening in the upper part
+of one of the gores, so that on reaching earth the balloon may
+be immediately crippled and emptied of so large a quantity of
+gas as to render dragging impossible.  Such a method is not
+altogether without drawbacks, one of these being the confusion
+liable to arise from there being more than one valve line to
+reckon with.  To obviate this, it has been suggested that the
+emergency line should be of a distinctive colour.
+
+But an experiment with a safeguard to somewhat of this nature
+was attended with fatal consequence in the year 1824.  A Mr.
+Harris, a lieutenant in the British Navy, ascended from the
+Eagle Tavern, City Road, with a balloon fitted with a
+contrivance of his own invention, consisting of a large hinged
+upper valve, having within it a smaller valve of the same
+description, the idea being that, should the operation of the
+smaller outlet not suffice for any occasion, then the shutter
+of the larger opening might be resorted to, to effect a more
+liberal discharge of gas.
+
+Mr. Harris took with him a young lady, Miss Stocks by name, and
+apparently the afternoon--it being late May-- was favourable
+for an aerial voyage; for, with full reliance on his apparatus,
+he left his grapnel behind, and was content with such
+assistance as the girl might be able to render him.  It was not
+long before the balloon was found descending, and with a
+rapidity that seemed somewhat to disturb the aeronaut; and
+when, after a re-ascent, effected by a discharge of ballast,
+another decided downward tendency ensued, Mr. Harris clearly
+realised that something was wrong, without, however, divining
+the cause.  The story subsequently told by the girl was to the
+effect that when the balloon was descending the second time she
+was spoken to by her unfortunate companion in an anxious
+manner.  "I then heard the balloon go 'Clap! clap!' and Mr.
+Harris said he was afraid it was bursting, at which I fainted,
+and knew no more until I found myself in bed."  A gamekeeper
+tells the sequel, relating that he observed the balloon, which
+was descending with great velocity, strike and break the head
+of an oak tree, after which it also struck the ground. 
+Hurrying up, he found the girl insensible, and Mr. Harris
+already dead, with his breast bone and several ribs broken. 
+The explanation of the accident given by Mr. Edward Spencer is
+alike convincing and instructive.  This eminently practical
+authority points out that the valve lines must have been made
+taut to the hoop at the time that the balloon was full and
+globular.  Thus, subsequently, when from diminution of gas the
+balloon's shape elongated, the valve line would become strained
+and begin to open the valve, but in such a gradual manner as to
+escape the notice of the aeronaut.  Miss Stocks, far from being
+unnerved by the terrible experience, actually made three
+subsequent ascents in company with Mr. Green.
+
+It deserves mention that another disaster, equally instructive,
+but happily not attended with loss of life, occurred in Dublin
+in 1844 to Mr. Hampton, who about this time made several public
+and enterprising voyages.  He evidently was possessed of
+admirable nerve and decision, and did not hesitate to make an
+ascent from the Porto-Bello Gardens in face of strong wind
+blowing sea-wards, and in spite of many protestations from the
+onlookers that he was placing himself in danger.  This danger
+he fully realised, more particularly when he recognised that
+the headland on which he hoped to alight was not in the
+direction of the wind's course.  Resolved, however, on
+gratifying the crowd, Mr. Hampton ascended rapidly, and then
+with equal expedition commenced a precipitate descent, which he
+accomplished with skill and without mishap.  But the wind was
+still boisterous, and the balloon sped onward along the ground
+towards fresh danger unforeseen, and perhaps not duly reckoned
+with.  Ahead was a cottage, the chimney of which was on fire. 
+A balloonist in these circumstances is apt to think little of a
+single small object in his way, knowing how many are the
+chances of missing or of successfully negotiating any such
+obstacle.  The writer on one occasion was, in the judgment of
+onlookers below, drifting in dangerous proximity to the awful
+Cwmavon stack in Glamorganshire, then in full blast; yet it was
+a fact that that vast vent of flame and smoke passed almost
+unheeded by the party in the descending car.  It may have been
+thus, also, with Mr. Hampton, who only fully realised his
+danger when his balloon blew up "with an awfully grand
+explosion," and he was reduced to the extremity of jumping for
+his life, happily escaping the mass of burning silk and ropes.
+
+The awful predicament of falling into the sea, which has been
+illustrated already, and which will recur again in these pages,
+was ably and successfully met by Mr. Cunningham, who made an
+afternoon ascent from the Artillery Barracks at Clevedon,
+reaching Snake Island at nightfall, where, owing to the
+gathering darkness, he felt constrained to open his valve.  He
+quickly commenced descending into the sea, and when within ten
+feet of the water, turned the "detaching screw" which connected
+the car with the balloon.  The effect of this was at once to
+launch him on the waves, but, being still able to keep control
+over the valve, he allowed just enough gas to remain within the
+silk to hold the balloon above water.  He then betook himself
+to the paddles with which his craft was provided, and reached
+Snake Island with the balloon in tow.  Here he seems to have
+found good use for a further portion of his very complete
+equipment; for, lighting a signal rocket, he presently brought
+a four-oared gig to his succour from Portsmouth Harbour.
+
+The teaching of the above incident is manifest enough.  If it
+should be contemplated to use the balloon for serious or
+lengthened travel anywhere within possible reach of the
+sea-board--and this must apply to all parts of the British
+Isles--it must become a wise precaution, if not an absolute
+necessity, to adopt some form of car that would be of avail in
+the event of a fall taking place in the sea.  Sufficient
+confirmation of this statement will be shortly afforded by a
+memorable voyage accomplished during the partnership of Messrs. 
+Glaisher and Coxwell, one which would certainly have found the
+travellers in far less jeopardy had their car been convertible
+into a boat.  We have already seen how essential Wise
+considered this expedient in his own bolder schemes, and it may
+further be mentioned here that modern air ships have been
+designed with the intention of making the water a perfectly
+safe landing.
+
+The ballooning exploits which, however, we have now to recount
+had quite another and more special object consistently in
+view--that of scientific investigation; and we would here
+premise that the proper appreciation of these investigations
+will depend on a due understanding of the attendant
+circumstances, as also of the constant characteristic behaviour
+of balloons, whether despatched for mere travel or research.
+
+First let us regard the actual path of a balloon in space when
+being manoeuvred in the way we read of in Mr. Glaisher's own
+accounts.  This part is in most cases approximately indicated
+in that most attractive volume of his entitled, "Travels in the
+Air," by diagrams giving a sectional presentment of his more
+important voyages; but a little commonplace consideration may
+take the place of diagrams.
+
+It has been common to assert that a balloon poised in space is
+the most delicate balance conceivable.  Its intrinsic weight
+must be exactly equal to the weight of the air it displaces,
+and since the density of the air decreases according to a fixed
+law, amounting, approximately, to a difference in barometric
+reading of 0.1 inch for every 90 feet, it follows,
+theoretically, that if a balloon is poised at 1,000 feet above
+sea level, then it would not be in equilibrium at any other
+height, so long as its weight and volume remain the same.  If
+it were 50 feet higher it must commence descending, and, if
+lower, then it must ascend till it reaches its true level; and,
+more than that, in the event of either such excursion mere
+impetus would carry it beyond this level, about which it would
+oscillate for a short time, after the manner of the pendulum. 
+This is substantially true, but it must be taken in connection
+with other facts which have a far greater influence on a
+balloon's position or motion.
+
+For instance, in the volume just referred to it is stated by M.
+Gaston Tissandier that on one occasion when aloft he threw
+overboard a chicken bone, and, immediately consulting a
+barometer, had to admit on "clearest evidence that the bone had
+caused a rise of from twenty to thirty yards, so delicately is
+a balloon equipoised in the air."  Here, without pausing to
+calculate whether the discharge of an ounce or so would suffice
+to cause a large balloon to ascend through ninety feet, it may
+be pointed out that the record cannot be trustworthy, from the
+mere fact that a free balloon is from moment to moment being
+subjected to other potent influences, which necessarily affect
+its position in space.  In daytime the sun's influence is an
+all-important factor, and whether shining brightly or partially
+hidden by clouds, a slight difference in obscuration will have
+a ready and marked effect on the balloon's altitude.  Again, a
+balloon in transit may pass almost momentarily from a warmer
+layer of air to a colder, or vice versa, the plane of
+demarcation between the two being very definite and abrupt, and
+in this case altitude is at once affected; or, yet again, there
+are the descending and ascending currents, met with constantly
+and unexpectedly, which have to be reckoned with.
+
+Thus it becomes a fact that a balloon's vertical course is
+subjected to constant checks and vicissitudes from a variety of
+causes, and these will have to be duly borne in mind when we
+are confronted with the often surprising results and readings
+which are supplied by scientific observers.  With regard to the
+close proximity, without appreciable intermingling, of widely
+differing currents, it should be mentioned that explorers have
+found in regions where winds of different directions pass each
+other that one air stream appears actually to drag against the
+surface of the other, as though admitting no interspace where
+the streams might mingle.  Indeed, trustworthy observers have
+stated that even a hurricane can rage over a tranquil
+atmosphere with a sharply defined surface of demarcation
+between calm and storm.  Thus, to quote the actual words of
+Charles Darwin, than whom it is impossible to adduce a more
+careful witness, we find him recording how on mountain heights
+he met with winds turbulent and unconfined, yet holding courses
+"like rivers within their beds."
+
+It is in tracing the trend of upper air streams, to whose
+wayward courses and ever varying conditions we are now to be
+introduced, that much of our most valuable information has
+come, affecting the possibility of forecasting British wind and
+weather.  It should need no insisting on that the data required
+by meteorologists are not sufficiently supplied by the readings
+of instruments placed on or near the ground, or by the set of
+the wind as determined by a vane planted on the top of a pole
+or roof of a building.  The chief factors in our meteorology
+are rather those broader and deeper conditions which obtain in
+higher regions necessarily beyond our ken, until those regions
+are duly and diligently explored.
+
+Mr. Glaisher's estimate of the utility of the balloon as an
+instrument of research, formed at the conclusion of his
+aeronautical labours, has a special value and significance. 
+Speaking with all the weight attaching to so trained and
+eminent an observer, he declares, "The balloon, considered as
+an instrument for vertical exploration, presents itself to us
+under a variety of aspects, each of which is fertile in
+suggestions.  Regarding the atmosphere as the great laboratory
+of changes which contain the germ of future dis discoveries, to
+belong respectively, as they unfold, to the chemist and
+meteorologist, the physical relation to animal life of
+different heights, the form of death which at certain
+elevations waits to accomplish its destruction, the effect of
+diminished pressure upon individuals similarly placed, the
+comparison of mountain ascents with the experiences of
+aeronauts, are some of the questions which suggest themselves
+and faintly indicate enquiries which naturally ally themselves
+to the course of balloon experiments.  Sufficiently varied and
+important, they will be seen to rank the balloon as a valuable
+aid to the uses of philosophy, and rescue it from the impending
+degradation of continuing a toy fit only to be exhibited or to
+administer to the pleasures of the curious and lovers of
+adventure."
+
+The words of the same authority as to the possible practical
+development of the balloon as an aerial machine should likewise
+be quoted, and will appear almost prophetic.  "In England the
+subject of aero-station has made but little progress, and no
+valuable invention has arisen to facilitate travelling in the
+air.  In all my ascents I used the balloon as I found it.  The
+desire which influenced me was to ascend to the higher regions
+and travel by its means in furtherance of a better knowledge of
+atmospheric phenomena.  Neither its management nor its
+improvement formed a part of my plan.  I soon found that
+balloon travelling was at the mercy of the wind, and I saw no
+probability of any method of steering balloons being obtained. 
+It even appeared to me that the balloon itself, admirable for
+vertical ascents, was not necessarily a first step in aerial
+navigation, and might possibly have no share in the solution of
+the problem.  It was this conviction that led to the formation
+of the Aeronautical Society a few years since under the
+presidency of the Duke of Argyll.  In the number of
+communications made to this society it is evident that many
+minds are taxing their ingenuity to discover a mode of
+navigating the air; all kinds of imaginary projects have been
+suggested, some showing great mechanical ingenuity, but all
+indicating the want of more knowledge of the atmosphere itself. 
+The first great aim of this society is the connecting the
+velocity of the air with its pressure on plane surfaces at
+various inclinations.
+
+"There seems no prospect of obtaining this relation otherwise
+than by a careful series of experiments."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIV. THE HIGHEST ASCENT ON RECORD.
+
+
+Mr. Glaisher's instrumental outfit was on an elaborate and
+costly scale, and the programme of experimental work drawn up
+for him by the Committee of the British Association did not err
+on the side of too much modesty.  In the first place the
+temperature and moisture of the atmosphere were to be examined. 
+Observations on mountain sides had determined that thermometers
+showed a decrease of 1 degree F. for every 300 feet, and the
+accuracy of this law was particularly to be tested.  Also,
+investigations were to be made as to the distribution of vapour
+below the clouds, in them, and above them.  Then careful
+observations respecting the dew point were to be undertaken at
+all accessible heights, and, more particularly, up to those
+heights where man may be resident or troops may be located. 
+The comparatively new instrument, the aneroid barometer,
+extremely valuable, if only trustworthy, by reason of its
+sensibility, portability and safety, was to be tested and
+compared with the behaviour of a reliable mercurial barometer. 
+Electrical conditions were to be examined; the presence of
+ozone tested; the vibration of a magnet was again to be
+resorted to to determine how far the magnetism of the earth
+might be affected by height.  The solar spectrum was to be
+observed; air was to be collected at different heights for
+analysis; clouds, also upper currents, were to be reported on. 
+Further observations were to be made on sound, on solar
+radiation, on the actinic action of the sun, and on atmospheric
+phenomena in general.
+
+All this must be regarded as a large order where only a very
+limited number of ascents were contemplated, and it may be
+mentioned that some of the methods of investigation, as, for
+instance, the use of ozone papers, would now be generally
+considered obsolete; while the mechanical aspiration of
+thermometers by a stream of air, which, as we have pointed out,
+was introduced by Welsh, and which is strongly insisted on at
+the present day, was considered unnecessary by Mr. Glaisher in
+the case of wet and dry bulb hygrometers.  The entire list of
+instruments, as minutely described by the talented observer,
+numbered twenty-two articles, among which were such
+irreproachable items as a bottle of water and a pair of
+scissors.
+
+The following is a condensed account, gathered from Mr.
+Glaisher's own narrative, of his first ascent, which has been
+already briefly sketched in these pages by the hand of Mr.
+Coxwell.  Very great difficulties were experienced in the
+inflation, which operation appeared as if it would never be
+completed, for a terrible W.S.W. wind was constantly blowing,
+and the movements of the balloon were so great and so rapid
+that it was impossible to fix a single instrument in its
+position before quitting the earth, a position of affairs
+which, says Mr. Glaisher, "was by no means cheering to a novice
+who had never before put his foot in the car of a balloon," and
+when, at last, at 9.42 a.m., Mr. Coxwell cast off, there was no
+upward motion, the car simply dragging on its side till the
+expiration  of a whole minute, when the balloon lifted, and in
+six minutes reached the first cloud at an altitude of 4,467
+feet.  This cloud was passed at 5,802 feet, and further cloud
+encountered at 2,000 feet further aloft.  Four minutes later,
+the ascent proceeding, the sun shone out brightly, expanding
+the balloon into a perfect globe and displaying a magnificent
+view, which, however, the incipient voyager did not allow
+himself to enjoy until the instruments were arranged in due
+order, by which time a height of 10,000 feet was recorded.
+
+Mr. Glaisher apparently now had opportunity for observing the
+clouds, which he describes as very beautiful, and he records
+the hearing of a band of music at a height of 12,709 feet,
+which was attained in exactly twenty minutes from the start.  A
+minute later the earth was sighted through a break in the
+clouds, and at 16,914 feet the clouds were far below, the sky
+above being perfectly cloudless, and of an intense Prussian
+blue.
+
+By this time Mr. Glaisher had received his first surprise, as
+imparted by the record of his instruments.  At starting, the
+temperature of the air had stood at 59 degrees.  Then at 4,000
+feet this was reduced to 45 degrees; and, further, to 26 degrees
+at 10,000 feet, when it remained stationary through an ascent of
+3,000 feet more, during which period both travellers added to
+their clothing, anticipating much accession of cold.  However,
+at 15,500 feet the temperature had actually risen to 31
+degrees, increasing to no less than 42 degrees at 19,500 feet.
+
+Astonishing as this discovery was, it was not the end of the
+wonder, for two minutes later, on somewhat descending, the
+temperature commenced decreasing so rapidly as to show a fall
+of 27 degrees in 26 minutes.  As to personal experiences, Mr.
+Glaisher should be left to tell his own story.  "At the height
+of 18,844 feet 18 vibrations of a horizontal magnet occupied
+26.8 seconds, and at the same height my pulse beat at the rate
+of 100 pulsations per minute.  At 19,415 feet palpitation of
+the heart became perceptible, the beating of the chronometer
+seemed very loud, and my breathing became affected.  At 19,435
+feet my pulse had accelerated, and it was with increasing
+difficulty that I could read the instruments; the palpitation
+of the heart was very perceptible; the hands and lips assumed a
+dark bluish colour, but not the face.  At 20,238 feet 28
+vibrations of a horizontal magnet occupied 43 seconds.  At
+21,792 feet I experienced a feeling analogous to sea-sickness,
+though there was neither pitching nor rolling in the balloon,
+and through this illness I was unable to watch the instrument
+long enough to lower the temperature to get a deposit of dew. 
+The sky at this elevation was of a very deep blue colour, and
+the clouds were far below us.  At 22,357 feet I endeavoured to
+make the magnet vibrate, but could not; it moved through arcs
+of about 20 degrees, and then settled suddenly.
+
+"Our descent began a little after 11 a.m., Mr. Coxwell
+experiencing considerable uneasiness at our too close vicinity
+to the Wash.  We came down quickly from a height of 16,300 feet
+to one of 12,400 feet in one minute; at this elevation we
+entered into a dense cloud which proved to be no less than 8,000
+feet in thickness and whilst passing through this the balloon
+was invisible from the car.  From the rapidity of the descent
+the balloon assumed the shape of a parachute, and though Mr.
+Coxwell had reserved a large amount of ballast, which he
+discharged as quickly as possible, we collected so much weight
+by the condensation of the immense amount of vapour through
+which we passed that, notwithstanding all his exertions, we
+came to the earth with a very considerable shock, which broke
+nearly all the instruments.... The descent took place at
+Langham, near Oakham."
+
+Just a month later Mr. Glaisher, bent on a yet loftier
+climb, made his second ascent, again under Mr. Coxwell's
+guidance, and again from Wolverhampton.  Besides attending to
+his instruments he found leisure to make other chance notes by
+the way.  He was particularly struck by the beauty of masses
+of cloud, which, by the time 12,000 feet were reached, were far
+below, "presenting at times mountain scenes of endless variety
+and grandeur, while fine dome-like clouds dazzled and charmed
+the eye with alternations and brilliant effects of light and
+shade."
+
+When a height of about 20,000 feet had been reached thunder was
+heard twice over, coming from below, though no clouds could be
+seen.  A height of 4,000 feet more was attained, and shortly
+after this Mr. Glaisher speaks of feeling unwell.  It was
+difficult to obtain a deposit of dew on the hygrometer, and the
+working of the aspirator became troublesome.  While in this
+region a sound like that of loud thunder came from the sky. 
+Observations were practically completed at this point, and a
+speedy and safe return to earth was effected, the landing being
+at Solihull, seven miles from Birmingham.
+
+It was on the 5th of September following that the same two
+colleagues carried out an exploit which will always stand alone
+in the history of aeronautics, namely, that of ascending to an
+altitude which, based on the best estimate they were able to
+make, they calculated to be no less than seven miles.  Whatever
+error may have unavoidably come into the actual estimate, which
+is to some extent conjectural, is in reality a small matter,
+not the least affecting the fact that the feat in itself will
+probably remain without a parallel of its kind.  In these days,
+when aeronauts attempt to reach an exceptionally lofty
+altitude, they invariably provide themselves with a cylinder of
+oxygen gas to meet the special emergencies of the situation, so
+that when regions of such attenuated air are reached that the
+action of heart and lungs becomes seriously affected, it is
+still within their power to inhale the life-giving gas which
+affords the greatest available restorative to their energies. 
+Forty years ago, however, cylinders of compressed oxygen gas
+were not available, and on this account alone we may state
+without hesitation that the enterprise which follows stands
+unparalleled at the present hour.
+
+The filling station at Wolverhampton was quitted at 1.3 p.m.,
+the temperature of the air being 59 degrees on the ground, and
+falling to 41 degrees at an altitude of 5,000 feet, directly
+after which a dense cloud was entered, which brought the
+temperature down to 36 degrees.  At this elevation the report of
+a gun was heard.  Here Mr. Glaisher attempted (probably for the
+first time in history) to take a cloud-scape photograph, the
+illumination being brilliant, and the plates with which he was
+furnished being considered extremely sensitive.  The attempt,
+however, was unsuccessful.  The height of two miles was reached
+in 19 minutes, and here the temperature was at freezing point. 
+In six minutes later three miles was reached, and the
+thermometer was down to 18 degrees.  In another twelve minutes
+four miles was attained, with the thermometer recording 8
+degrees, and by further discharge of sand the fifth aerial
+milestone was passed at 1.50 p.m., i.e. in 47 minutes from the
+start, with the thermometer 2 degrees below zero.
+
+Mr. Glaisher relates that up to this point he had taken
+observations with comfort, and experienced no trouble in
+respiration, whilst Mr. Coxwell, in consequence of the
+exertions he had to make, was breathing with difficulty.  More
+sand was now thrown out, and as the balloon rose higher Mr.
+Glaisher states that he found some difficulty in seeing
+clearly.  But from this point his experiences should be
+gathered from his own words:--
+
+"About 1.52 p.m., or later, I read the dry bulb thermometer as
+minus five; after this I could not see the column of mercury in
+the wet bulb thermometer, nor the hands of the watch, nor the
+fine divisions on any instrument.  I asked Mr. Coxwell to help
+me to read the instruments.  In consequence, however, of the
+rotatory motion of the balloon, which had continued without
+ceasing since leaving the earth, the valve line had become
+entangled, and he had to leave the car and mount into the ring
+to readjust it.  I then looked at the barometer, and found its
+reading to be 9 3/4 inches, still decreasing fast, implying a
+height exceeding 29,000 feet.  Shortly after, I laid my arm
+upon the table, possessed of its full vigour; but on being
+desirous of using it I found it powerless--it must have lost
+its power momentarily.  Trying to move the other arm, I found
+it powerless also.  Then I tried to shake myself, and
+succeeded, but I seemed to have no limbs.  In looking at the
+barometer my head fell over my left shoulder.  I struggled and
+shook my body again, but could not move my arms.  Getting my
+head upright for an instant only, it fell on my right shoulder;
+then I fell backwards, my back resting against the side of the
+car and my head on its edge.  In this position my eyes were
+directed to Mr. Coxwell in the ring.  When I shook my body I
+seemed to have full power over the muscles of the back, and
+considerably so over those of the neck, but none over either my
+arms or my legs.  As in the case of the arms, so all muscular
+power was lost in an instant from my back and neck.  I dimly
+saw Mr. Coxwell, and endeavoured to speak, but could not.  In
+an instant intense darkness overcame me, so that the optic
+nerve lost power suddenly; but I was still conscious, with as
+active a brain as at the present moment whilst writing this.  I
+thought I had been seized with asphyxia, and believed I should
+experience nothing more, as death would come unless we speedily
+descended.  Other thoughts were entering my mind when I
+suddenly became unconscious, as on going to sleep.  I cannot
+tell anything of the sense of hearing, as no sound reaches the
+ear to break the perfect stillness and silence of the regions
+between six and seven miles above the earth.  My last
+observation was made at 1.54 p.m., above 29,000 feet.  I
+suppose two or three minutes to have elapsed between my eyes
+becoming insensible to seeing fine divisions and 1.54 p.m., and
+then two or three minutes more to have passed till I was
+insensible, which I think, therefore, took place about 1.56
+p.m. or 1.57 p.m.
+
+"Whilst powerless, I heard the words 'Temperature' and
+'Observation,' and I knew Mr. Coxwell was in the car speaking
+to and endeavouring to rouse me--therefore consciousness and
+hearing had returned.  I then heard him speak more
+emphatically, but could not see, speak, or move.  I heard him
+again say, 'Do try, now do!'  Then the instruments became dimly
+visible, then Mr. Coxwell, and very shortly I saw clearly. 
+Next, I arose in my seat and looked around, as though waking
+from sleep, though not refreshed, and said to Mr. Coxwell, 'I
+have been insensible.'  He said, 'You have, and I too, very
+nearly.'  I then drew up my legs, which had been extended, and
+took a pencil in my hand to begin observations.  Mr. Coxwell
+told me that he had lost the use of his hands, which were
+black, and I poured brandy over them."
+
+Mr. Glaisher considers that he must have been totally
+insensible for a period of about seven minutes, at the end of
+which time the water reserved for the wet bulb thermometer,
+which he had carefully kept from freezing, had become a solid
+block of ice.  Mr. Coxwell's hands had become frostbitten, so
+that, being in the ring and desirous of coming to his friend's
+assistance, he was forced to rest his arms on the ring and drop
+down.  Even then, the table being in the way, he was unable to
+approach, and, feeling insensibility stealing over himself, he
+became anxious to open the valve.  "But in consequence of
+having lost the use of his hands he could not do this. 
+Ultimately he succeeded by seizing the cord in his teeth and
+dipping his head two or three times until the balloon took a
+decided turn downwards."  Mr. Glaisher adds that no
+inconvenience followed his insensibility, and presently
+dropping in a country where no conveyance of any kind could be
+obtained, he was able to walk between seven and eight miles.
+
+The interesting question of the actual height attained is thus
+discussed by Mr. Glaisher:--"I have already said that my last
+observation was made at a height of 29,000 feet.  At this time,
+1.54 p.m., we were ascending at the rate of 1,000 feet per
+minute, and when I resumed observations we were descending at
+the rate of 2,000 feet per minute.  These two positions must be
+connected, taking into account the interval of time between,
+namely, thirteen minutes; and on these considerations the
+balloon must have attained the altitude of 36,000 or 37,000
+feet.  Again, a very delicate minimum thermometer read minus
+11.9, and this would give a height of 37,000 feet.  Mr.
+Coxwell, on coming from the ring, noticed that the centre of
+the aneroid barometer, its blue hand, and a rope attached to
+the car, were all in the same straight line, and this gave a
+reading of seven inches, and leads to the same result. 
+Therefore, these independent means all lead to about the same
+elevation, namely, fully seven miles."
+
+So far we have followed Mr. Glaisher's account only, but Mr.
+Coxwell has added testimony of his own to this remarkable
+adventure, which renders the narrative more complete.  He
+speaks of the continued rotation of the balloon and the
+necessity for mounting into the ring to get possession of the
+valve line.  "I had previously," he adds, "taken off a thick
+pair of gloves so as to be the better able to manipulate the
+sand-bags, and the moment my unprotected hands rested on the
+ring, which retained the temperature of the air, I found that
+they were frost-bitten; but I did manage to bring down with me
+the valve line, after noticing the hand of the aneroid
+barometer, and it was not long before I succeeded in opening
+the shutters in the way described by Mr. Glaisher.... Again, on
+letting off more gas, I perceived that the lower part of the
+balloon was rapidly shrinking, and I heard a sighing, as if it
+were in the network and the ruffled surface of the cloth.  I
+then looked round, although it seemed advisable to let off more
+gas, to see if I could in any way assist Mr. Glaisher, but the
+table of instruments blocked the way, and I could not, with
+disabled hands, pass beneath.  My last hope, then, was in
+seeking the restorative effects of a warmer stratum of
+atmosphere.... Again I tugged at the valve line, taking stock,
+meanwhile, of the reserve ballast in store, and this, happily,
+was ample.
+
+"Never shall I forget those painful moments of doubt and
+suspense as to Mr. Glaisher's fate, when no response came to my
+questions.  I began to fear that he would never take any more
+readings.  I could feel the reviving effects of a warmer
+temperature, and wondered that no signs of animation were
+noticeable.  The hand of the aneroid that I had looked at was
+fast moving, while the under part of the balloon had risen high
+above the car.  I had looked towards the earth, and felt the
+rush of air as it passed upwards, but was still in despair when
+Mr. Glaisher gasped with a sigh, and the next moment he drew
+himself up and looked at me rather in confusion, and said he
+had been insensible, but did not seem to have any clear idea of
+how long until he caught up his pencil and noted the time and
+the reading of the instruments."
+
+The descent, which was at first very rapid, was effected
+without difficulty at Cold Weston.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XV. FURTHER SCIENTIFIC VOYAGES OF GLAISHER AND COXWELL.
+
+
+Early in the following spring we find the same two aeronauts
+going aloft again on a scientific excursion which had a
+termination nearly as sensational as the last.  The ascent was
+from the Crystal Palace, and the intention being to make a very
+early start the balloon for this purpose had been partially
+filled overnight; but by the morning the wind blew strongly,
+and, though the ground current would have carried the voyagers
+in comparative safety to the southwest, several pilots which
+were dismissed became, at no great height, carried away due
+south.  On this account the start was delayed till 1 p.m., by
+which time the sky had nearly filled in, with only occasional
+gleams of sun between the clouds.  It seemed as if the
+travellers would have to face the chance of crossing the
+Channel, and while, already in the car, they were actually
+discussing this point, their restraining rope broke, and they
+were launched unceremoniously into the skies.  This occasioned
+an unexpected lurch to the car, which threw Mr. Glaisher among
+his instruments, to the immediate destruction of some of them.
+
+Another result of this abrupt departure was a very rapid rise,
+which took the balloon a height of 3,000 feet in three minutes'
+space, and another 4,000 feet higher in six minutes more. 
+Seven thousand feet vertically in nine minutes is fast pace;
+but the voyagers were to know higher speed yet that day when
+the vertical motion was to be in the reverse and wrong
+direction.  At the height now reached they were in cloud, and
+while thus enveloped the temperature, as often happens,
+remained practically stationary at about 32 degrees, while
+that of the dew point increased several degrees.  But, on
+passing out of the cloud, the two temperatures were very
+suddenly separated, the latter decreasing rapidly under a deep
+blue upper sky that was now without a cloud.  Shortly after
+this the temperature dropped suddenly some 8 degrees, and then,
+during the next 12,000 feet, crept slowly down by small stages.
+Presently the balloon, reaching more than twenty thousand feet,
+or, roughly, four miles, and still ascending, the thermometer
+was taken with small fits of rising and falling alternately
+till an altitude of 24,000 feet was recorded, at which point
+other and more serious matters intruded themselves.
+
+The earth had been for a considerable time lost to view, and
+the rate and direction of recent progress had become merely
+conjectural.  What might be taking place in these obscured and
+lofty regions?  It would be as well to discover.  So the valve
+was opened rather freely, with the result that the balloon
+dropped a mile in three minutes.  Then another mile slower, by a
+shade.  Then at 12,000 feet a cloud layer was reached, and
+shortly after the voyagers broke through into the clear below.
+
+At that moment Mr. Glaisher, who was busy with his instruments,
+heard Mr. Coxwell make an exclamation which caused him to look
+over the car, and he writes, "The sea seemed to be under us. 
+Mr. Coxwell again exclaimed, 'There's not a moment to spare:  we
+must save the land at all risks.  Leave the instruments.'  Mr.
+Coxwell almost hung to the valve line, and told me to do the
+same, and not to mind its cutting my hand.  It was a bold
+decision opening the valve in this way, and it was boldly
+carried out."  As may be supposed, the bold decision ended with
+a crash.  The whole time of descending the four and a quarter
+miles was a quarter of an hour, the last two miles taking four
+minutes only.  For all that, there was no penalty beyond a few
+bruises and the wrecking of the instruments, and when land was
+reached there was no rebound; the balloon simply lay inert hard
+by the margin of the sea.  This terrific experience in its
+salient details is strangely similar to that already recorded
+by Albert Smith.
+
+In further experimental labours conducted during the summer of
+this year, many interesting facts stand out prominently among a
+voluminous mass of observations.  In an ascent in an east wind
+from the Crystal Palace in early July it was found that the
+upper limit of that wind was reached at 2,400 feet, at which
+level an air-stream from the north was encountered; but at
+3,000 feet higher the wind again changed to a current from the
+N.N.W.  At the height, then, of little more than half a mile,
+these upper currents were travelling leisurely; but what was
+more noteworthy was their humidity, which greatly increased
+with altitude, and a fact which may often be noted here
+obtruded itself, namely, when the aeronauts were at the
+upperlimits of the east wind, flat-bottomed cumulus clouds were
+floating at their level.  These clouds were entirely within the
+influence of the upper or north wind, so that their under sides
+were in contact with the east wind, i.e. with a much drier
+air, which at once dissipated all vapour in contact with it,
+and thus presented the appearance of flat-bottomed clouds.  It
+is a common experience to find the lower surface of a cloud
+mowed off flat by an east wind blowing beneath it.
+
+At the end of June a voyage from Wolverton was accomplished,
+which yielded remarkable results of much real value and
+interest.  The previous night had been perfectly calm, and
+through nearly the whole morning the sun shone in a clear blue
+sky, without a symptom of wind or coming change.  Shortly
+before noon, however, clouds appeared aloft, and the sky
+assumed an altered aspect.  Then the state of things quickly
+changed.  Wind currents reached the earth blowing strongly, and
+the half-filled balloon began to lurch to such an extent that
+the inflation could only with difficulty be proceeded with. 
+Fifty men were unable to hold it in sufficient restraint to
+prevent rude bumping of the car on the ground, and when, at
+length, arrangements were complete and release effected, rapid
+discharge of ballast alone saved collision with neighbouring
+buildings.
+
+It was now that the disturbance overhead came under
+investigation; and, considering the short period it had been in
+progress, proved most remarkable, the more so the further it
+was explored.  At 4,000 feet they plunged into the cloud
+canopy, through which as it was painfully cold, they, sought to
+penetrate into the clear above, feeling confident of finding
+themselves, according to their usual experience, in bright
+blue sky, with the sun brilliantly shining.  On the contrary,
+however, the region they now entered was further obscured with
+another canopy of cloud far up.  It was while they were
+traversing this clear interval that a sound unwonted in balloon
+travel assailed their ears. This was the "sighing, or rather
+moaning, of the wind as preceding a storm."  Rustling of the
+silk within the cordage is often heard aloft, being due to
+expansion of gas or similar cause; but the aeronauts soon
+convinced themselves that what they heard was attributable to
+nothing else than the actual conflict of air currents beneath.
+Then they reached fog--a dry fog--and, passing through it,
+entered a further fog, but wetting this time, and within the
+next 1,000 feet they were once again in fog that was dry; and
+then, reaching three miles high and seeing struggling sunbeams,
+they looked around and saw cloud everywhere, below, above, and
+far clouds on their own level.  The whole sky had filled in
+most completely since the hours but recently passed, when they
+had been expatiating on the perfect serenity of the empty
+heavens.
+
+Still they climbed upwards, and in the next 2,000 feet had
+entered further fog, dry at first, but turning wetter as they
+rose.  At four miles high they found themselves on a level with
+clouds, whose dark masses and fringed edges proved them to be
+veritable rain clouds; and, while still observing them, the fog
+surged up again and shut out the view, and by the time they had
+surmounted it they were no less than 23,000 feet up, or higher
+than the loftiest of the Andes. Even here, with cloud masses
+still piling high overhead, the eager observer, bent on further
+quests, was for pursuing the voyage; but Mr. Coxwell interposed
+with an emphatic, "Too short of sand!" and the downward journey
+had to be commenced.  Then phenomena similar to those already
+described were experienced again--fog banks (sometimes wet,
+sometimes dry), rain showers, and cloud strata of piercing
+cold.  Presently, too, a new wonder for a midsummer
+afternoon--a snow scene all around, and spicules of ice
+settling and remaining frozen on the coatsleeve.  Finally
+dropping to earth helplessly through the last 5,000 feet, with
+all ballast spent, Ely Cathedral was passed at close quarters;
+yet even that vast pile was hidden in the gloom that now lay
+over all the land.
+
+It was just a month later, and day broke with thoroughly dirty
+weather, a heavy sky, and falling showers. This was the day of
+all others that Mr. Glaisher was waiting for, having determined
+on making special investigations concerning the formation of
+rain in the clouds themselves.  It had long been noticed that,
+in an ordinary way, if there be two rain gauges placed, one
+near the surface of the ground, and another at a somewhat
+higher elevation, then the lower gauge will collect most water. 
+Does, then, rain condense in some appreciable quantity out of
+the lowest level?  Again, during rain, is the air saturated
+completely, and what regulates the quality of rainfall, for
+rain sometimes falls in large drops and sometimes in minute
+particles?  These were questions which Mr. Glaisher sought to
+solve, and there was another.
+
+Charles Green had stated as his conviction that whenever rain
+was falling from an overcast sky there would always be found a
+higher canopy of cloud over-hanging the lower stratum.  On the
+day, then, which we are now describing, Mr. Glaisher wished to
+put this his theory to the test; and, if correct, then he
+desired to measure the space between the cloud layers, to gauge
+their thickness, and to see if above the second stratum the sun
+was shining.  The main details of the ascent read thus:--
+
+In ten seconds they were in mist, and in ten seconds more were
+level with the cloud.  At 1,200 feet they were out of the rain,
+though not yet out of the cloud.  Emerging from the lower cloud
+at 2,300 feet, they saw, what Green would have foretold, an
+upper stratum of dark cloud above.  Then they made excursions
+up and down, trying high and low to verify these conditions,
+and passing through fogs both wet and dry, at last drifting
+earthward, through squalls of wind and rain with drops as large
+as fourpenny pieces, to find that on the ground heavy wet had
+been ceaselessly falling.
+
+A day trip over the eastern suburbs of London in the same year
+seems greatly to have impressed Mr. Glaisher. The noise of
+London streets as heard from above has much diminished during
+the last fifteen years' probably owing to the introduction of
+wood paving.  But, forty years ago, Mr. Glaisher describes the
+deep sound of London as resembling the roar of the sea, when at
+a mile high; while at greater elevations it was heard at a
+murmuring noise.  But the view must have been yet more striking
+than the hearing, for in one direction the white cliffs from
+Margate to Dover were visible, while Brighton and the sea
+beyond were sighted, and again all the coast line up to
+Yarmouth yet the atmosphere that day, one might have thought,
+should have been in turmoil, by reason of a conflict of
+aircurrents; for, within two miles of the earth, the wind was
+from the east; between two and three miles high it was exactly
+opposite, being from the west; but at three miles it was N.E.;
+while, higher, it was again directly opposite, or S.W.
+
+During his researches so far Mr. Glaisher had found much that
+was anomalous in the way of the winds, and in other elements
+of weather.  He was destined to find much more.  It had been
+commonly accepted that the temperature of the air decreases at
+the average rate of 10 degrees  for every 300 feet of elevation,
+and various computations, as, for example, those which relate
+to the co-efficient of refraction, have been founded on this
+basis; but Mr. Glaisher soon established that the above
+generalisation had to be much modified.  The following,
+gathered from his notes is a typical example of such surprises
+as the aeronaut with due instrumental equipment may not
+unfrequently meet with.
+
+It was the 12th of January, 1864, with an air-current on the
+ground from the S.E., of temperature 41 degrees,, which very
+slowly decreased up to 1,600 feet when a warm S.W. current was
+met with, and at 3,000 feet the temperature was 3 1/2 degrees
+higher than on the earth.  Above the S.W. stream the air became
+dry, and here the temperature decreased reasonably and
+consistently with altitude; while fine snow was found falling
+out of this upper space into the warmer stream below.  Mr.
+Glaisher discusses the peculiarity and formation of this stream
+in terms which will repay consideration.
+
+"The meeting with this S.W. current is of the highest
+importance, for it goes far to explain why England possesses a
+winter temperature so much higher than is due to her northern
+latitude.  Our high winter temperature has hitherto been mostly
+referred to the influence of the Gulf Stream.  Without doubting
+the influence of this natural agent, it is necessary to add the
+effect of a parallel atmospheric current to the oceanic current
+coming from the same region--a true aerial Gulf Stream.  This
+great energetic current meets with no obstruction in coming to
+us, or to Norway, but passes over the level Atlantic without
+interruption from mountains.  It cannot, however, reach France
+without crossing Spain and the lofty range of the Pyrenees, and
+the effect of these cold mountains in reducing its temperature
+is so great that the former country derives but little warmth
+from it."
+
+An ascent from Woolwich, arranged as near the equinox of that
+year as could be managed, supplied some further remarkable
+results.  The temperature, which was 45 degrees to begin with,
+at 4.7 p.m., crept down fairly steadily till 4,000 feet
+altitude was registered, when, in a region of warm fog, it
+commenced rising abruptly, and at 7,500 feet, in blue sky,
+stood at the same reading as when the balloon had risen only
+1,500 feet.  Then, amid many anomalous vicissitudes, the most
+curious, perhaps, was that recorded late in the afternoon,
+when, at 10,000 feet, the air was actually warmer than when the
+ascent began.
+
+That the temperature of the upper air commonly commences to
+rise after nightfall as the warmth radiated through day hours
+off the earth collects aloft, is a fact well known to the
+balloonist, and Mr. Glaisher carried out with considerable
+success a well-arranged programme for investigating the facts
+of the case.  Starting from Windsor on an afternoon of late
+May, he so arranged matters that his departure from earth took
+place about an hour and three quarters before sunset, his
+intention being to rise to a definite height, and with as
+uniform a speed as possible to time his descent so as to reach
+earth at the moment of sundown; and then to re-ascend and
+descend again m a precisely similar manner during an hour and
+three-quarters after sunset, taking observations all the way. 
+Ascending for the first flight, he left a temperature of 58
+degrees  on the earth, and found it 55 degrees at 1,200 feet,
+then 43 degrees at 3,600 feet, and 29 1/2 degrees at the
+culminating point of 6,200 feet.  Then, during the descent, the
+temperature increased, though not uniformly, till he was nearly
+brushing the tops of the trees, where it was some 3 degrees 
+colder than at starting.
+
+It was now that the balloon, showing a little waywardness,
+slightly upset a portion of the experiment, for, instead of
+getting to the neighbourhood of earth just at the moment of
+sunset, the travellers found themselves at that epoch 600 feet
+above the ground, and over the ridge of a hill, on passing
+which the balloon became sucked down with a down draught,
+necessitating a liberal discharge of sand to prevent contact
+with the ground.  This circumstance, slight in itself, caused
+the lowest point of the descent to be reached some minutes
+late, and, still more unfortunate, occasioned the ascent which
+immediately followed to be a rapid one, too rapid, doubtless,
+to give the registering instruments a fair chance; but one
+principal record aimed at was obtained at least with sufficient
+truth, namely, that at the culminating point, which again was
+6,200 feet, the temperature read 35 degrees, or about 6 degrees 
+warmer than when the balloon was at the same altitude a little
+more than an hour before.  This comparatively warm temperature
+was practically maintained for a considerable portion of the
+descent.
+
+We may summarise the principal of Mr. Glaisher's
+generalisations thus, using as nearly as possible his own
+words:--
+
+"The decrease of temperature, with increase of elevation, has a
+diurnal range, and depends upon the hour of the day, the
+changes being the greatest at mid-day and the early part of the
+afternoon, and decreasing to about sunset, when, with a clear
+sky, there is little or no change of temperature for several
+hundred feet from the earth; whilst, with a cloudy sky, the
+change decreases from the mid-day hours at a less rapid rate to
+about sunset, when the decrease is nearly uniform and at the
+rate of 1 degree in 2,000 feet.
+
+"Air currents differing in direction are almost always to be
+met with.  The thicknesses of these were found to vary greatly. 
+The direction of the wind on the earth was sometimes that of
+the whole mass of air up to 20,000 feet nearly, whilst at other
+times the direction changed within 500 feet of the earth
+Sometimes directly opposite currents were met with."
+
+With regard to the velocity of upper currents, as shown by the
+travel of balloons, when the distances between the places of
+ascent and descent are measured, it was always found that these
+distances were very much greater than the horizontal movement
+of the air, as measured by anemometers near the ground.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVI. SOME FAMOUS FRENCH AERONAUTS.
+
+
+By this period a revival of aeronautics in the land of its
+birth had fairly set in.  Since the last ascents of Gay Lussac,
+in 1804, already recorded, there had been a lull in ballooning
+enterprise in France, and no serious scientific expeditions are
+recorded until the year 1850, when MM. Baral and Bixio
+undertook some investigations respecting the upper air, which
+were to deal with its laws of temperature and humidity, with
+the proportion of carbonic acid present in it, with solar heat
+at different altitudes, with radiation and the polarisation of
+light, and certain other interesting enquiries.
+
+The first ascent, made in June from the Paris Observatory,
+though a lofty one, was attended with so much danger and
+confusion as to be barren of results.  The departure, owing to
+stormy weather, was hurried and illordered, so that the
+velocity in rising was excessive, the net constricted the
+rapidly-swelling globe, and the volumes of out-rushing gas
+half-suffocated the voyagers.  Then a large rent occurred,
+which caused an alarmingly rapid fall, and the two philosophers
+were reduced to the necessity of flinging away all they
+possessed, their instruments only excepted.  The landing, in a
+vineyard, was happily not attended with disaster, and within a
+month the same two colleagues attempted a second aerial
+excursion, again in wet weather.
+
+It would seem as if on this occasion, as on the former one,
+there was some lack of due management, for the car, suspended
+at a long distance from the balloon proper, acquired violent
+oscillations on leaving the ground, and dashing first against a
+tree, and then against a mast, broke some of the instruments. 
+A little later there occurred a repetition on a minor scale of
+the aeronauts' previous mishap, for a rent appeared in the
+silk, though, luckily, so low down in the balloon as to be of
+small consequence, and eventually an altitude of some 19,000
+feet was attained. At one time needles of ice were encountered
+settling abundantly with a crackling sound upon their
+notebooks.  But the most remarkable observation made during this
+voyage related to an extraordinary fall of temperature which,
+as recorded, is without parallel.  It took place in a cloud
+mass, 15,000 feet thick, and amounted to a drop of from 15
+degrees to -39 degrees.
+
+In 1867 M. C. Flammarion made a few balloon ascents, ostensibly
+for scientific research.  His account of these, translated by
+Dr. T. L. Phipson, is edited by Mr. Glaisher, and many of the
+experiences he relates will be found to contrast with those of
+others.  His physical symptoms alone were remarkable, for on
+one occasion, at an altitude of apparently little over 10,000
+feet, he became unwell being affected with a sensation of
+drowsiness, palpitation, shortness of breath, and singing in
+the ears, which, after landing gave place to a "fit of
+incessant gaping" while he states that in later voyages, at but
+slightly greater altitudes, his throat and lungs became
+affected, and he was troubled with presence of blood upon the
+lips.  This draws forth a footnote from Mr. Glaisher, which
+should be commended to all would-be sky voyagers.  It runs
+thus:--"I have never experienced any of these effects till I
+had long passed the heights reached by M. Flammarion, and at no
+elevation was there the presence of blood."  However, M.
+Flammarion adduces, at least, one reassuring fact, which will
+be read with interest.  Once, having, against the entreaties of
+his friends, ascended with an attack of influenza upon him, he
+came down to earth again an hour or two afterwards with this
+troublesome complaint completely cured.
+
+It would seem as if the soil of France supplied the aeronaut
+with certain phenomena not known in England, one of these
+apparently being the occasional presence of butterflies
+hovering round the car when at considerable heights.  M.
+Flammarion mentions more than one occasion when he thus saw
+them, and found them to be without sense of alarm at the
+balloon or its passengers.  Again, the French observer seems
+seldom to have detected those opposite airstreams which English
+balloonists may frequently observe, and have such cause to be
+wary of.  His words, as translated, are:--" t appears to me
+that two or more currents, flowing in different directions, are
+very rarely met with as we rise in the air, and when two layers
+of cloud appear to travel in opposite directions the effect is
+generally caused by the motion of one layer being more rapid
+than the other, when the latter appears to be moving in a
+contrary direction."  In continuation of these experiences, he
+speaks of an occasion when, speeding through the air at the rate
+of an ordinary express train, he was drawn towards a tempest by
+a species of attraction.
+
+The French aeronaut's estimate of what constitutes a terrific
+rate of fall differs somewhat from that of others whose
+testimony we have been recording.  In one descent, falling
+(without reaching earth, however) a distance of 2,130 feet in
+two minutes, he describes the earth rising up with frightful
+rapidity, though, as will be observed, this is not nearly half
+the speed at which either Mr. Glaisher or Albert Smith and his
+companions were precipitated on to bare ground.  Very many
+cases which we have cited go to show that the knowledge of the
+great elasticity of a well-made wicker car may rob a fall
+otherwise alarming of its terrors, while the practical
+certainty that a balloon descending headlong will form itself
+into a natural parachute, if properly managed, reduces
+enormously the risk attending any mere impact with earth.  It
+will be allowed by all experienced aeronauts that far worse
+chances lie in some awkward alighting ground, or in the
+dragging against dangerous obstacles after the balloon has
+fallen.
+
+Many of M. Flammarion's experiments are remarkable for their
+simplicity.  Indeed, in some cases he would seem to have
+applied himself to making trials the result of which could not
+have been seriously questioned.  The following, quoting from
+Dr. Phipson's translation, will serve as an example:--
+
+"Another mechanical experiment was made in the evening, and
+renewed next day.  I wished to verify Galileo's principle of
+the independence of simultaneous motions.  According to this
+principle, a body which is allowed to fall from another body in
+motion participates in the motion of the latter; thus, if we
+drop a marble from the masthead of a ship, it preserves during
+its fall the rate of motion of the vessel, and falls at the
+foot of the mast as if the ship were still.  Now, if a body
+falls from a balloon, does it also follow the motion of the
+latter, or does it fall directly to the earth in a line which
+is perpendicular to the point at which we let it fall?  In the
+first case its fall would be described by an oblique line. The
+latter was found to be the fact, as we proved by letting a
+bottle fall.  During its descent it partakes of the balloon's
+motion, and until it reaches the earth is always seen
+perpendicularly below the car."
+
+An interesting phenomenon, relating to the formation of fog was
+witnessed by M. Flammarion in one of his voyages.  He was
+flying low with a fast wind, and while traversing a forest he
+noticed here and there patches of light clouds, which,
+remaining motionless in defiance of the strong wind, continued
+to hang above the summits of the trees.  The explanation of
+this can hardly be doubtful, being analogous to the formation
+of a night-cap on a mountain peak where warm moist air-currents
+become chilled against the cold rock surface, forming,
+momentarily, a patch of cloud which, though constantly being
+blown away, is as constantly re-formed, and thus is made to
+appear as if stationary.
+
+The above instructive phenomenon could hardly have been noticed
+save by an aeronaut, and the same may be said of the
+following.  Passing in a clear sky over the spot where the
+Marne flows into the Seine, M. Flammarion notes that the water
+of the Marne, which, as he says, is as yellow now as it was in
+the time of Julius Caesar, does not mix with the green water of
+the Seine, which flows to the left of the current, nor with the
+blue water of the canal, which flows to the right.  Thus, a
+yellow river was seen flowing between two distinct brooks,
+green and blue respectively.
+
+Here was optical evidence of the way in which streams of water
+which actually unite may continue to maintain independent
+courses.  We have seen that the same is true of streams of air,
+and, where these traverse one another in a copious and complex
+manner, we find, as will be shown, conditions produced that
+cause a great deadening of sound; thus, great differences in
+the travel of sound in the silent upper air can be noticed on
+different days, and, indeed, in different periods of the same
+aerial voyage.  M. Flammarion bears undeniable testimony to the
+manner in which the equable condition of the atmosphere
+attending fog enhances, to the aeronaut, the hearing of sounds
+from below.  But when he gives definite heights as the range
+limits of definite sounds it must be understood that these
+ranges will be found to vary greatly according to
+circumstances.  Thus, where it is stated that a man's voice
+may make itself heard at 3,255 feet, it might be added that
+sometimes it cannot be heard at a considerably less altitude;
+and, again, the statement that the whistle of a locomotive
+rises to near 10,000 feet, and the noise of a railway train to
+8,200 feet, should be qualified an additional note to the
+effect that both may be occasionally heard at distances vastly
+greater.  But perhaps the most curious observation of M.
+Flammarion respecting sounds aloft relates to that of echo.  To
+his fancy, this had a vague depth, appearing also to  rise from
+the horizon with a curious tone, as if it came from another
+world.  To the writer, on the contrary, and to many fellow
+observers who have specially experimented with this test of
+sound, the echo has always appeared to come very much from the
+right place--the spot nearly immediately below--and if this
+suggested its coming from another world then the same would
+have to be said of all echoes generally.
+
+About the same period when M. Flammarion was conducting his
+early ascents, MM. de Fonvielle and Tissandier embarked on
+experimental voyages, which deserve some particular notice. 
+Interest in the new revival of the art of aeronautics was
+manifestly be coming reestablished in France, and though we
+find enthusiasts more than once bitterly complaining of the
+lack of financial assistance, still ballooning exhibitions,
+wherever accomplished, never failed to arouse popular
+appreciation.  But enthusiasm was by no means the universal
+attitude with which the world regarded aerial enterprise.  A
+remarkable and instructive instance is given to the contrary by
+M. W. de Fonvielle himself.
+
+He records an original ballooning exploit, organised at
+Algiers, which one might have supposed would have caused a
+great sensation, and to which he himself had called public
+attention in the local journals.  The brothers Braguet were to
+make an ascent from the Mustapha Plain in a small fire balloon
+heated with burning straw, and this risky performance was
+successfully carried out by the enterprising aeronauts.  But,
+to the onlooker, the most striking feature of the proceeding
+was the fact that while the Europeans present regarded the
+spectacle with curiosity and pleasure, the native Mussulmans
+did not appear to take the slightest interest in it; "And
+this," remarked de Fonvielle, "was not the first time that
+ignorant and fanatic people have been noted as manifesting
+complete indifference to balloon ascents.  After the taking of
+Cairo, when General Buonaparte wished to produce an effect upon
+the inhabitants, he not only made them a speech, but
+supplemented it with the ascent of a fire balloon.  The attempt
+was a complete failure, for the French alone looked up to the
+clouds to see what became of the balloon."
+
+In the summer of 1867 an attempt was made to revive the long
+extinct Aeronautic Company of France, established by De Guyton. 
+The undertaking was worked with considerable energy.  Some
+forty or fifty active recruits were pressed into the service, a
+suitable captive balloon was obtained, thousands of spectators
+came to watch the evolutions; and many were found to pay the
+handsome fee of 100 francs for a short excursion in the air.
+For all this, the effort was entirely abortive, and the
+ballooning corps, as such, dropped out of existence.
+
+A little while after this de Fonvielle, on a visit to England,
+had a most pathetic interview with the veteran Charles Green,
+who was living in comfortable retirement at Upper Holloway. 
+The grand old man pointed to a well-filled portfolio in the
+corner of his room, in which, he said, were accounts of all his
+travels, that would require a lifetime to peruse and put in
+order.  Green then took his visitor to the end of the narrow
+court, and, opening the door of an outhouse, showed him the old
+Nassau balloon.  "Here is my car," he said, touching it with a
+kind of solemn respect, "which, like its old pilot, now reposes
+quietly after a long and active career.  Here is the guide rope
+which I imagined in former years, and which has been found very
+useful to aeronauts.... Now my life has past and my time has
+gone by.... Though my hair is white and my body too weak to
+help you, I can still give you my advice, and you have my
+hearty wishes for your future."
+
+It was but shortly after this, on March 26, 1870, that Charles
+Green passed away in the 85th year of his age.
+
+De Fonvielle's colleague, M. Gaston Tissandier, was on one
+occasion accidentally brought to visit the resting place of the
+earliest among aeronauts, whose tragic death occurred while
+Charles Green himself was yet a boy.  In a stormy and hazardous
+descent Tissandier, under the guidance of M. Duruof, landed
+with difficulty on the sea coast of France, when one of the
+first to render help was a lightkeeper of the Griz-nez
+lighthouse, who gave the information that on the other side of
+the hills, a few hundred yards from the spot where they had
+landed, was the tomb of Pilatre de Rozier, whose tragical death
+has been recorded in an early chapter.  A visit to the actual
+locality the next day revealed the fact that a humble stone
+still marked the spot.
+
+Certain scientific facts and memoranda collected by the
+talented French aeronaut whom we are following are too
+interesting to be omitted.  In the same journey to which we
+have just referred the voyagers, when nearly over Calais, were
+witnesses from their commanding standpoint of a very striking
+phenomenon of mirage.  Looking in the direction of England, the
+far coast line was hidden by an immense veil of leaden-coloured
+cloud, and, following this cloud wall upward to detect where it
+terminated, the travellers saw above it a greenish layer like
+that of the surface of the sea, on which was detected a little
+black point suggesting a walnut shell.  Fixing their eyes on
+this black spot, they presently discerned it to be a ship
+sailing upside down upon an aerial ocean.  Soon after, a
+steamer blowing smoke, and then other vessels, added themselves
+to the illusory spectacle.
+
+Another wonder detected, equally striking though less uncommon,
+was of an acoustical nature, the locality this time being over
+Paris.  The height of the balloon at this moment was not great,
+and, moreover, was diminishing as it settled down.  Suddenly
+there broke in upon the voyagers a sound as of a confused kind
+of murmur.  It was not unlike the distant breaking of waves
+against a sandy coast, and scarcely less monotonous.  It was
+the noise of Paris that reached them, as soon as they sank to
+within 2,600 feet of the ground, but it disappeared at once
+when they threw out just sufficient ballast to rise above that
+altitude.
+
+It might appear to many that so strange and sudden a shutting
+out of a vast sound occurring abruptly in the free upper air
+must have been more imaginary than real, yet the phenomenon is
+almost precisely similar to one coming within the experience
+the writer, and vouched for by his son and daughter, as also by
+Mr. Percival Spencer, all of whom were joint observers at the
+time, the main point of difference in the two cases being the
+fact that the "region of silence" was recorded by the French
+observers as occurring at a somewhat lower level.  In both
+cases there is little doubt that the phenomenon can be referred
+to a stratum of disturbed or non-homogeneous air, which may
+have been very far spread, and which is capable of acting as a
+most opaque sound barrier.
+
+Attention has often been called in these pages to the fact that
+the action of the sun on an inflated balloon, even when the
+solar rays may be partially obscured and only operative for a
+few passing moments, is to give sudden and great buoyancy to
+the balloon.  An admirable opportunity for fairly estimating
+the dynamic effect of the sun's rays on a silk globe, whose
+fabric was half translucent, was offered to the French
+aeronauts when their balloon was spread on the grass under
+repair, and for this purpose inflated with the circumambient
+air by means of a simple rotatory fan.  The sun coming out, the
+interior of the globe quickly became suffocating, and it was
+found that, while the external temperature recorded 77 degrees,
+that of the interior was in excess of 91 degrees.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVII. ADVENTURE AND ENTERPRISE.
+
+
+A balloon which has become famous in history was frequently
+used in the researches of the French aeronauts mentioned in our
+last chapter.  This was known as "The Giant," the creation of
+M. Nadar, a progressive and practical aeronaut, who had always
+entertained ambitious ideas about aerial travel.
+
+M. Nadar had been editor of L'Aeronaut, a French journal
+devoted to the advancement of aerostation generally.  He had
+also strongly expressed his own views respecting the
+possibility of constructing air ships that should be subject to
+control and guidance when winds were blowing.  His great
+contention was that the dirigible air ship would, like a bird,
+have to be made heavier than the medium in which it was to fly. 
+As he put it, a balloon could never properly become a vessel. 
+It would only be a buoy.  In spite of any number of
+accessories, paddles, wings, fans, sails, it could not possibly
+prevent the wind from bodily carrying away the whole concern.
+
+After this strong expression of opinion, it may appear somewhat
+strange that such a bold theoriser should at once have set
+himself to construct the largest gas balloon on record.  Such,
+however, was the case and the reason urged was not otherwise
+than plausible.  For, seeing that a vast sum of money would be
+needed to put his theories into practice, M. Nadar conceived
+the idea of first constructing a balloon so unique and
+unrivalled that it should compel public attention in a way that
+no other balloon had done before, and so by popular exhibitions
+bring to his hand such sums as he required.  A proper idea of
+the scale of this huge machine can be easily gathered.  The
+largest balloons at present exhibited in this country are
+seldom much in excess of 50,000 cubic feet capacity.  Compared
+with these the "Great Nassau Balloon," built by Charles Green,
+which has been already sufficiently described, was a true
+leviathan; while Coxwell's "Mammoth" was larger yet, possessing
+a content, when fully inflated, of no less than 93,000 cubic
+feet, and measuring over 55 feet in diameter.  This, however,
+as will be seen, was but a mere pigmy when compared with "The
+Giant," which, measuring some 74 feet in diameter, possessed
+the prodigious capacity of 215,000 cubic feet.
+
+But the huge craft possessed another novelty besides that of
+exceptional size.  It was provided with a subsidiary balloon,
+called the "Compensator," and properly the idea of M. L.
+Godard, the function of which was to receive any expulsion of
+gas in ascending, and thus to prevent loss during any voyage. 
+The specification of this really remarkable structure may be
+taken from M. Nadar's own description.  The globe in itself was
+for greater strength virtually double, consisting of two
+identical balloons, one within the other, each made of white
+silk of the finest quality, and costing about 5s. 4d. per yard. 
+No less than 22,000 yards of this silk were required, and the
+sewing up of the gores was entirely done by hand.  The small
+compensating balloon was constructed to have a capacity of
+about 3,500 cubic feet, and the whole machine, when fully
+inflated, was calculated to lift 4 1/2 tons.  With this
+enormous margin of buoyancy, M. Nadar determined on making the
+car of proportionate and unparalleled dimensions, and of most
+elaborate design.  It contained two floors, of which the upper
+one was open, the height of all being nearly 7 feet, with a
+width of about 13 feet.  Then what was thought to be due
+provision was made for possible emergencies.  It might descend
+far from help or habitations, therefore means were provided for
+attaching wheels and axles.  Again, the chance of rough impact
+had to be considered, and so canes, to act as springs, were
+fitted around and below.  Once again, there was the contingency
+of immersion to be reckoned with; therefore there were provided
+buoys and water-tight compartments.  Further than this, unusual
+luxuries were added, for there were cabins, one for the captain
+at one end, and another with three berths for passengers at the
+other.  Nor was this all, for there was, in addition, a larder,
+a lavatory, a photographic room, and a printing office.  It
+remains now only to tell the tale of how this leviathan of the
+air acquitted itself.
+
+The first ascent was made on the 4th of October, 1853, from the
+Champ de Mars, and no fewer than fifteen living souls were
+launched together into the sky.  Of these Nadar was captain,
+with the brothers Godard lieutenants.  There was the Prince de
+Sayn-Wittgenstein; there was the Count de St. Martin; above
+all, there was a lady, the Princess de la Tour d'Auvergne.  The
+balloon came to earth at 9 o'clock at night near Meaux, and,
+considering all the provision which had been made to guard
+against rough landing, it can hardly be said that the descent
+was a happy one.  It appears that the car dragged on its side
+for nearly a mile, and the passengers, far from finding 
+security in the seclusion of the inner chambers, were glad to
+clamber out above and cling, as best they might, to the ropes.
+
+Many of the party were bruised more or less severely, though no
+one was seriously injured, and it was reported that such
+fragile articles as crockery, cakes, confectionery, and wine
+bottles to the number of no less than thirty-seven, were
+afterwards discovered to be intact, and received due attention. 
+It is further stated that the descent was decided on contrary
+to the wishes of the captain, but in deference to the judgment
+of the experienced MM. Godard, it being apparently their
+conviction that the balloon was heading out to sea, whereas, in
+reality, they were going due east, "with no sea at all before
+them nearer than the Caspian."
+
+This was certainly an unpropitious trial trip for the vessel
+that had so ambitiously sought dominion over the air, and the
+next trial, which was embarked upon a fortnight later, Sunday,
+October 18th, was hardly less unfortunate.  Again the ascent
+was from the Champ de Mars, and the send-off lacked nothing in
+the way of splendour and circumstance.  The Emperor was
+present, for two hours an interested observer of the
+proceedings; the King of Greece also attended, and even entered
+the car, while another famous spectator was the popular
+Meyerbeer.  "The Giant" first gave a preliminary demonstration
+of his power by taking up, for a cable's length, a living
+freight of some thirty individuals, and then, at 5.10 p.m.,
+started on its second free voyage, with nine souls on board,
+among them again being a lady, in the person of Madame Nadar. 
+For nearly twenty-four hours no tidings of the voyage were
+forthcoming, when a telegram was received stating that the
+balloon had passed over Compiegne, more than seventy miles from
+Paris, at 8.30 on the previous evening, and that Nadar had
+dropped the simple message, "All goes well!"  A later telegram
+the same evening stated that the balloon had at midnight on
+Sunday passed the Belgian frontier over Erquelines, where the
+Custom House officials had challenged the travellers without
+receiving an answer.
+
+But eight-and-forty hours since the start went by without
+further news, and excitement in Paris grew intense.  When the
+news came at last it was from Bremen, to say that Nadar's
+balloon had descended at Eystrup, Hanover, with five of the
+passengers injured, three seriously.  These three were M.
+Nadar, his wife, and M. St. Felix.  M. Nadar, in communicating
+this intelligence, added, "We owe our lives to the courage of
+Jules Godard."  The following signed testimony of M. Louis
+Godard is forthcoming, and as it refers to an occasion which is
+among the most thrilling in aerial adventure, it may well be
+given without abridgment.  It is here transcribed almost
+literatim from Mr. H. Turner's valuable work, "Astra Castra."
+
+"The Giant," after passing Lisle, proceeded in the direction of
+Belgium, where a fresh current, coming from the Channel, drove
+it over the marshes of Holland.  It was there that M. Louis
+Godard proposed to descend to await the break of day, in order
+to recognise the situation and again to depart.  It was one in
+the morning, the night was dark, but the weather calm. 
+Unfortunately, this advice, supported by long experience, was
+not listened to.  "The Giant" went on its way, and then Louis
+Godard no longer considered himself responsible for the
+consequences of the voyage.
+
+The balloon coasted the Zuyder Zee, and then entered Hanover. 
+The sun began to appear, drying  the netting and sides of the
+balloon, wet from its  passage through the clouds, and produced
+a dilatation which elevated the aeronauts to 15,000 feet.  At 
+eight o'clock the wind, blowing suddenly from the  west, drove
+the balloon in a right line towards the  North Sea.  It was
+necessary, at all hazards, to  effect a descent.  This was a
+perilous affair, as the  wind was blowing with extreme
+violence.  The brothers Godard assisted, by M. Gabriel, opened
+the valve and got out the anchors; but, unfortunately, the 
+horizontal progress of the balloon augmented from second to
+second.  The first obstacle which the anchors encountered was
+a tree; it was instantly  uprooted, and dragged along to a
+second obstacle, a house, whose roof was carried off.  At this
+moment  the two cables of the anchors were broken without the
+voyagers being aware of it.  Foreseeing the successive shocks
+that were about to ensue--the moment was critical--the least
+forgetfulness might cause death.  To add to the difficulty, the
+balloon's inclined  position did not permit of operating the
+valve, except on the hoop.
+
+At the request of his brother, Jules Godard attempted the
+difficult work of climbing to this hoop, and, in spite of his
+known agility, he was obliged several times to renew the
+effort.  Alone, and not being able to detach the cord, M. Louis
+Godard begged M. Yon to join his brother on the hoop.  The two
+made themselves masters of the rope, which they passed to Louis
+Godard.  The latter secured it firmly, in spite of the shocks
+he received.  A violent impact shook the car and M. de St.
+Felix became entangled under the car as it was ploughing the
+ground.  It was impossible to render him any assistance;
+notwithstanding, Jules Godard, stimulated by his brother, leapt
+out to attempt mooring the balloon to the trees by means of the
+ropes.  M. Montgolfier, entangled in the same manner, was
+re-seated in time and saved by Louis Godard.
+
+At this moment others leapt out and escaped with a few
+contusions.  The car, dragged along by the balloon, broke trees
+more than half a yard in diameter and overthrew everything that
+opposed it.
+
+Louis Godard made M. Yon leap out of the car to assist Madame
+Nadar; but a terrible shock threw out MM. Nadar, Louis Godard,
+and Montgolfier, the two first against the ground, the third
+into the water.  Madame Nadar, in spite of the efforts of the
+voyagers, remained the last, and found herself squeezed between
+the ground and the car, which had fallen upon her.  More than
+twenty minutes elapsed before it was possible to disentangle
+her, in spite of the most vigorous efforts on the part of
+everyone.  It was at this moment the balloon burst and, like a
+furious monster, destroyed everything around it.  Immediately
+afterwards they ran to the assistance of M. de St. Felix, who
+had been left behind, and whose face was one ghastly wound, and
+covered with blood and mire.  He had an arm broken, his chest
+grazed and bruised.
+
+After this accident, though a creditable future lay in store
+for "The Giant," its monstrous and unwieldy car was condemned,
+and presently removed to the Crystal Palace, where it was daily
+visited by large crowds.
+
+It is impossible to dismiss this brief sketch of French
+balloonists of this period without paying some due tribute to
+M. Depuis Delcourt, equally well known in the literary and
+scientific world, and regarded in his own country as a father
+among aeronauts.  Born in 1802, his recollection went back to
+the time of Montgolfier and Charles, to the feats of Garnerin,
+and the death of Madame Blanchard.  He established the
+Aerostatic and Meteorological Society of France, and was the
+author of many works, as well as of a journal dealing with
+aerial navigation.  He closed a life devoted to the pursuit and
+advancement of aerostation in April, 1864.
+
+Before very long, events began shaping themselves in the
+political world which were destined to bring the balloon in
+France into yet greater prominence.  But we should mention that
+already its capabilities in time of war to meet the
+requirements of military operations had been scientifically and
+systematically tested, and of these trials it will be necessary
+to speak without further delay.
+
+Reference has already been made in these pages to a valuable
+article contributed in 1862 by Lieutenant G. Grover, R.E., to
+the Royal Engineers' papers.  From this report it would appear
+that the balloon, as a means of reconnoitring, was employed
+with somewhat uncertain success at the battle of Solferino, the
+brothers Godard being engaged as aeronauts.  The balloon used
+was a Montgolfier, or fire balloon, and, in spite of its ready
+inflation, MM. Godard considered it, from the difficulty of
+maintaining within it the necessary degree of buoyancy, far
+inferior to the gas inflated balloon.  On the other hand, the
+Austrian Engineer Committee were of a contrary opinion.  It
+would seem that no very definite conclusions had been arrived
+at with respect to the use and value of the military balloon up
+to the time of the commencement of the American War in 1862.
+
+It was now that the practice of ballooning became a recognised
+department of military manoeuvres, and a valuable report
+appears in the above-mentioned papers from the pen of Captain
+F. Beaumont, R.E.  According to this officer, the Americans
+made trial of two different balloons, both hydrogen inflated,
+one having a capacity of about 13,000 cubic feet, and the other
+about twice as large.  It was this latter that the Americans
+used almost exclusively, it being found to afford more
+steadiness and safety, and to be the means, sometimes
+desirable, of taking up more than two persons.  The difficulty
+of sufficient gas supply seems to have been well met.  Two
+generators sufficed, these being "nothing more than large tanks
+of wood, acid-proof inside, and of sufficient strength to
+resist the expansive action of the gas; they were provided with
+suitable stopcocks for regulating the admission of the gas, and
+with manhole covers for introducing the necessary materials."
+The gas, as evolved, being made to pass successively through
+two vessels containing lime water, was delivered cool and
+purified into the balloon, and as the sulphuric acid needed for
+the process was found sufficiently cheap, and scrap iron also
+required was readily come by, it would seem that practical
+difficulties in the field were reduced to a minimum.
+
+According to Captain Beaumont, the difficulties which might
+have been expected from windy weather were not considerable,
+and twenty-five or thirty men sufficed to convey the balloon
+easily, when inflated, over all obstacles. The transport of the
+bulk of the rest of the apparatus does not read, on paper, a
+very serious matter.  The two generators required four horses
+each, and the acid and balloon carts as many more.  Arrived on
+the scene of action, the drill itself was a simple matter.  A
+squad of thirty men under an officer sufficed to get the
+balloon into position, and to arrange the ballast so that, with
+all in, there was a lifting power of some thirty pounds.  Then,
+at the word of command, the men together drop the car, and
+seize the three guy ropes, of which one is made to pass through
+a snatch block firmly secured.  The guy ropes are then payed
+out according to the directions of the aeronaut, as conveyed
+through the officer.
+
+The balloon accompanied the army's advance where its services
+could be turned to the greatest advantage.  It was employed in
+making continual ascents, and furnishing daily reports to
+General M'Clellan, and it was supposed that by constant
+observation the aeronaut could, at a glance, assure himself
+that no change had taken place in the occupation of the
+country.  Captain Beaumont, speaking, be it remembered, of the
+military operations and manoeuvres then in vogue, declared that
+earthworks could be seen even at the distance of eight miles,
+though their character could not be distinctly stated.  Wooded
+country was unfitted for balloon reconnaissance, and only in a
+plain could any considerable body of troops be made known.  Then
+follows such a description as one would be expecting to find:--
+
+"During the battle of Hanover Court House, which was the first
+engagement of importance before Richmond, I happened to be
+close to the balloon when the heavy firing began.  The wind was
+rather high; but I was anxious to see, if possible, what was
+going on, and I went up with the father of the aeronaut.  The
+balloon was, however, short of gas, and as the wind was high we
+were obliged to come down.  I then went up by myself, the
+diminished weight giving increased steadiness; but it was not
+considered safe to go more than 500 feet, on account of the
+unsettled state of the weather.  The balloon was very unsteady,
+so much so that it was difficult to fix my sight on any
+particular object.  At that distance I could see nothing of the
+fight."
+
+Following this is another significant sentence:--
+
+"In the case of a siege, I am inclined to think that a balloon
+reconnaissance would be of less value than in almost any other
+case where a reconnaissance can be required; but, even here, if
+useless, it is, at any rate, also harmless.  I once saw the
+fire of artillery directed from the balloon; this became
+necessary, as it was only in this way that the picket which it
+was desired to dislodge could be seen.  However, I cannot say
+that I thought the fire of artillery was of much effect against
+the unseen object; not that this was the fault of the balloon,
+for had it not told the artillerists which way the shots were
+falling their fire would have been more useless still."
+
+It will be observed that at this time photography had not been
+adopted as an adjunct to military ballooning.
+
+Full details have been given in this chapter of the monster
+balloon constructed by M. Nadar; but in 1864 Eugene Godard
+built one larger yet of the Montgolfier type.  Its capacity was
+nearly half a million cubic feet, while the stove which
+inflated it stood 18 feet high, and weighed nearly 1,000
+pounds.  Two  free ascents were made without mishap from
+Cremorne Gardens.  Five years later Ashburnham Park was the
+scene of captive ascents made with another mammoth balloon,
+containing no less than 350,000 cubic feet of pure hydrogen,
+and capable of lifting 11 tons.  It was built at a cost of
+28,000 francs by M. Giffard, the well-known engineer and
+inventor of the injector for feeding steam engines.
+
+These aerial leviathans do not appear to have been, in any true
+sense successful.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XVIII. THE BALLOON IN THE SIEGE OF PARIS.
+
+
+Within a few months of the completion of the period covered by
+the records of the last chapter, France was destined to receive
+a more urgent stimulus than ever before to develop the
+resources of ballooning, and, in hot haste, to turn to the most
+serious and practical account all the best resources of aerial
+locomotion.  The stern necessity of war was upon her, and
+during four months the sole mode of exit from Paris--nay, the
+only possible means of conveying a simple message beyond the
+boundary of her fortifications--was by balloon.
+
+Hitherto, from the very inception of the art from the earliest
+Montgolfier with its blazing furnace, the balloon had gone up
+from the gay capital under every variety of circumstance--for
+pleasure, for exhibition, for scientific research.  It was now
+put in requisition to mitigate the emergency occasioned by the
+long and close investment of the city by the Prussian forces.
+
+Recognising, at an early stage, the possibilities of the
+balloon, an enquiry was at once made by the military
+authorities as to the existing resources of the city, when it
+was quickly discovered that, with certain exceptions to be
+presently mentioned, such balloons as were in existence within
+the walls were either unserviceable or inadequate for the work
+that was demanded of them.  Thereupon, with admirable
+promptness and enterprise, it was forthwith determined to
+organise the building and equipment of a regular fleet of
+balloons of sufficient size and strength.
+
+It chanced that there were in Paris at the time two
+professional aeronauts of proved experience and skill, both of
+whom had become well known in London only the season before in
+connection with M. Giffard's huge captive balloon at Ashburnham
+Park.  These were MM. Godard and Yon, and to them was entrusted
+the establishment of two separate factories in spacious
+buildings, which were at once available and admirably adapted
+for the purpose.  These were at the Orleans and the Northern
+Railway stations respectively, where spacious roofs and
+abundant elbow room, the chief requisites, were to be found. 
+The first-mentioned station was presided over Godard, the
+latter by M. Yon, assisted by M. Dartois.
+
+It was not doubted that the resources of the city would be able
+to supply the large demand that would be made for suitable
+material; but silk as a fabric was at once barred on the score
+of expense alone.  A single journey was all that needed to be
+calculated on for each craft, and thus calico would serve the
+purpose, and would admit of speedy making up.  Slight
+differences in manufacture were adopted at the two factories. 
+At the Northern station plain white calico was used, sewn with
+a sewing machine, whereas at the Orleans station the material
+was coloured and entrusted only to hand stitching.  The
+allimportant detail of varnish was supplied by a mixture of
+linseed oil and the active principle of ordinary driers, and
+this, laid on with a rubber, rendered the material gas-tight
+and quickly dry enough for use.  Hundreds of hands, men and
+women, were employed at the two factories, at which some sixty
+balloons were produced before the end of the siege.  Much of
+the more important work was entrusted to sailors, who showed
+special aptness, not only in fitting out and rigging the
+balloons, but also in their management when entrusted to the
+winds.
+
+It must have been an impressive sight for friend or foe to
+witness the departure of each aerial vessel on its venturesome
+mission.  The bold plunge into space above the roofs of the
+imprisoned city; the rapid climb into the sky and, later, the
+pearl drop high in air floating away to its uncertain and
+hazardous haven, running the gauntlet of the enemy's fire by
+day or braving what at first appeared to be equal danger,
+attending the darkness of night.  It will be seen, however,
+that, of the two evils, that of the darkness was considered the
+less, even though, with strange and unreasonable excess of
+caution, the aeronauts would not suffer the use of the
+perfectly safe and almost indispensable Davy lamp.
+
+Before any free ascents were ventured on, two old balloons were
+put to some practical trial as stationary observatories.  One
+of these was moored at Montmartre, the other at Mont-souris. 
+From these centres daily, when the weather permitted, captive
+ascents were made--four by day and two by night--to watch and
+locate the movements of the enemy.  The system, as far as it
+went, was well planned.  It was safe, and, to favour
+expedition, messages were written in the car of the balloon and
+slid down the cable to the attendants below.  The net result,
+however, from a strategic point of view, does not appear to
+have been of great value.
+
+Ere yet the balloons were ready, certain bold and eventful
+escapes were ventured on.  M. Duruof, already introduced in
+these pages, trusting himself to the old craft, "Le Neptune,"
+in unskyworthy condition, made a fast plunge into space, and,
+catching the upper winds, was borne away for as long a period
+as could be maintained at the cost of a prodigal expenditure of
+ballast.  The balloon is said to have described a visible
+parabola, like the trajectory of a projectile, and fell at
+Evreux in safety and beyond the range of the enemy's fire,
+though not far from their lines.  This was on the 23rd of
+September.  Two days afterwards the first practical trial was
+made with homing pigeons, with the idea of using them in
+connection with balloons for the establishment of an officially
+sanctioned post.  MM. Maugin and Grandchamp conducted this
+voyage in the "Ville de Florence," and descended near
+Vernouillet, not far beyond Le Foret de St. Germain, and less
+than twenty miles from Paris.  The serviceability of the
+pigeon, however, was clearly established, and a note
+contributed by Mr. Glaisher, relating to the breeding and
+choice of these birds, may be considered of interest.  Mr. R.
+W. Aldridge, of Charlton, as quoted by Mr. Glaisher, stated
+that his experience went to show that these birds can be
+produced with different powers of orientation to meet the
+requirements of particular cases.  "The bird required to make
+journeys under fifty miles would materially differ in its
+pedigree from one capable of flying 100 or 600 miles. 
+Attention, in particular, must be given to the colour of the
+eye; if wanted for broad daylight the bird known as the 'Pearl
+Eye,' from its colour, should be selected; but if for foggy
+weather or for twilight flying the black- or blue-eyed bird
+should receive the preference."
+
+Only a small minority, amounting to about sixty out of 360
+birds taken up, returned to Paris, but these are calculated to
+have conveyed among them some 100,000 messages.  To reduce
+these pigeon messages to the smallest possible compass a method
+of reduction by photography was employed with much success.  A
+long letter might, in this way, be faithfully recorded on a
+surface of thinnest photographic paper, not exceeding the
+dimensions of a postage stamp, and, when received, no more was
+necessary than to subject it to magnification, and then to
+transcribe it and send a fair copy to the addressee.
+
+The third voyage from Paris, on September 29th was undertaken
+by Louis Godard in two small balloons, united together,
+carrying both despatches and pigeons, and a safe landing was
+effected at Mantes This successful feat was rival led the next
+day by M. Tissandier, who ascended alone in a balloon of only
+some 26,000 cubic feet capacity and reached earth at Dreux, in
+Normandy.
+
+These voyages exhausted the store of ready-made balloons, but
+by a week later the first of those being specially manufactured
+was ready, and conveyed in safety from the city no less a
+personage than M. Gambetta.
+
+The courageous resolve of the great man caused much sensation
+in Paris, the more so because, owing to contrary winds, the
+departure had to be postponed from day to day.  And when, at
+length, on October 7th, Gambetta and his secretary, with the
+aeronaut Trichet, actually got away, in company with another
+balloon, they were vigorously fired at with shot and shell
+before they had cleared St. Denis.  Farther out over the German
+posts they were again under fire, and escaped by discharging
+ballast, not, however, before Gambetta had been grazed by a
+bullet.  Yet once more they were assailed by German volleys
+before, about 3 p.m., they found a haven near Montdidier.
+
+The usual dimensions of the new balloons gave a capacity of
+70,000 cubic feet, and each of these, when inflated with coal
+gas, was calculated to convey a freight of passengers, ballast,
+and despatches amounting to some 2,000 pounds.  Their despatch
+became frequent, sometimes two in the same twenty-four hours.
+In less than a single week in October as many as four balloons
+had fallen in Belgium, and as many more elsewhere.  Up till now
+some sixteen ventures had ended well, but presently there came
+trouble.  On October 22nd MM. Iglesia and Jouvencel fell at
+Meaux, occupied by the Prussians; their despatches, however,
+were saved in a dung cart.  The twenty-third  voyage ended more
+unhappily.  On this occasion a sailor acted as aeronaut,
+accompanied by an engineer, Etienne Antonin, and carrying
+nearly 1,000 pounds of letters. It chanced that they descended
+near Orleans on the very day when that town was re-occupied by
+the enemy, and both voyagers were made prisoners. The engineer,
+however, subsequently escaped.  Three days later another
+sailor, also accompanied by an engineer, fell at the town of
+Ferrieres, then occupied by the Prussians, when both were made
+prisoners. In this case, also, the engineer succeeded in making
+his escape; while the despatches were rescued by a forester and
+forwarded in safety.
+
+At about this date W. de Fonvielle, acting as aeronaut, and
+taking passengers, made a successful escape, of which he has
+given a graphic account.  He had been baulked by more than one
+serious contretemps.  It had been determined that the departure
+should be by night, and November 19th being fixed upon, the
+balloon was in process of inflation under a gentle wind that
+threatened a travel towards Prussian soil, when, as the moment
+of departure approached, a large hole was accidentally made in
+the fabric by the end of the metal pipe, and it was then too
+late to effect repairs.  The next and following days the weather
+was foul, and the departure was not effected till the 25th,
+when he sailed away over the familiar but desolated country. 
+He and his companions were fired at, but only when they were
+well beyond range, and in less than two hours the party reached
+Louvain, beyond Brussels, some 180 English miles in a direct
+line from their starting point. This was the day after the
+"Ville d'Orleans" balloon had made the record voyage and
+distance of all the siege, falling in Norway, 600 miles north
+of Christiania, after a flight of fifteen hours.
+
+At the end of November, when over thirty escape voyages had
+been made, two fatal disasters occurred.  A sailor of the name
+of Prince ascended alone on a moonless night, and at dawn, away
+on the north coast of Scotland, some fishermen sighted a
+balloon in the sky dropping to the westward in the ocean.  The
+only subsequent trace of this balloon was a bag of despatches
+picked up in the Channel. Curiously enough, two days later
+almost the same story was repeated.  Two aeronauts, this time
+in charge of despatches and pigeons, were carried out to sea
+and never traced.
+
+Undeterred by these disasters, a notable escape was now
+attempted.  An important total eclipse of the sun was to occur
+in a track crossing southern Spain and Algeria on December
+22nd.  An enthusiastic astronomer, Janssen, was commissioned by
+the Academy of Sciences to attend and make observations of this
+eclipse.  But M. Janssen was in Paris, as were also his
+instruments, and the eclipse track lay nearly a thousand miles
+away.  The one and only possible mode of fulfilling his
+commission was to try the off-chance afforded by balloon, and
+this chance he resorted to only twenty days before the eclipse
+was due.
+
+Taking with him the essential parts of a reflecting telescope,
+and an active young sailor as assistant, he left Paris at 6
+a.m. and rose at once to 3,600 feet, dipping again somewhat at
+sunrise (owing, as he supposed, to loss of heat through
+radiation), but subsequently ascending again rapidly under the
+increased altitude of the sun till his balloon attained its
+highest level of 7,200 feet.  From this elevation, shortly
+after 11 a.m., he sighted the sea, when he commenced a descent
+which brought him to earth at the mouth of the Loire.  It had
+been fast travelling--some 300 miles in little more than three
+hours--and the ground wind was strong.  Nevertheless, neither
+passengers nor instruments were injured, and M. Janssen was
+fully established by the day of eclipse on his observing ground
+at Oran, on the Algerian coast.  It is distressing to add that
+the phenomenon was hidden by cloud.  In the month that followed
+this splendid venture no fewer than fifteen balloons escaped
+from Paris, of which four fell into the hands of the enemy,
+although for greater security all ascents were now being made
+by night.
+
+On January 13th, 1871, a new device for the return post was
+tried, and, in addition to pigeons, sheep dogs were taken up,
+with the idea of their being returned to the city with messages
+concealed within their collars.  There is apparently no record
+of any message having been returned to the town by this
+ingenious method.  On January 24th a balloon, piloted by a
+sailor, and containing a large freight of letters, fell within
+the Prussian lines, but the patriotism of the country was
+strong enough to secure the despatches being saved and
+entrusted to the safe conveyance of the Post Office.  Then
+followed the total loss of a balloon at sea; but this was
+destined to be the last, save one, that was to attempt the
+dangerous mission.  The next day, January 28th, the last
+official balloon left the town, manned by a single sailor,
+carrying but a small weight of despatches, but ordering the
+ships to proceed to Dieppe for the revictualling of Paris.
+
+Five additional balloons at that time in readiness were never
+required for the risky service for which they were designed.
+
+There can be little doubt that had the siege continued a more
+elaborate use of balloons would have been developed. Schemes
+were being mooted to attempt the vastly more difficult task of
+conveying balloons into Paris from outside.  When hostilities
+terminated there were actually six balloons in readiness for
+this venture at Lisle, and waiting only for a northerly wind. 
+M. de Fonvielle, possessed of both courage and experience, was
+prepared to put in practice a method of guiding by a small
+propelling force a balloon that was being carried by
+sufficiently favouring winds within a few degrees of its
+desired goal--and in the case of Paris the goal was an area of
+some twenty miles in diameter.  Within the invested area
+several attempts were actually made to control balloons by
+methods of steering.  The names of Vert and Dupuy de Lome must
+here be specially mentioned.  The former had elaborated an
+invention which received much assistance, and was subsequently
+exhibited at the Crystal Palace.  The latter received a grant
+of L1,600 to perfect a complex machine, having within its gas
+envelope an air chamber, suggested by the swimming bladder of a
+fish, having also a sail helm and a propelling screw, to be
+operated by manual labour.
+
+The relation of this invention to others of similar purpose
+will be further discussed later on.  But an actual trial of a
+dirigible craft, the design of Admiral Labrousse, was made from
+the Orleans railway station on January 9th. This machine
+consisted of a balloon of about the standard capacity of the
+siege balloons, namely some 70,000 cubic feet, fitted with two
+screws of about 12 feet diameter, but capable of being readily
+worked at moderate speed.  It was not a success.  M. Richard,
+with three sailors, made a tentative ascent, and used their
+best endeavours to control their vessel, but practically
+without avail, and the machine presently coming to earth
+clumsily, a portion of the gear caught in the ground and the
+travellers were thrown over and roughly dragged for a long
+distance.
+
+Fairly looked at, the aerial post of the siege of Paris must be
+regarded as an ambitious and, on the whole, successful
+enterprise.  Some two million and a half of letters, amounting
+in weight to some ten tons, were conveyed through the four
+months, in addition to which at least an equal weight of other
+freight was taken up, exclusive of actual passengers, of whom
+no fewer than two hundred were transported from the beleaguered
+city.  Of these only one returned, seven or eight were drowned,
+twice this number were taken prisoners, and as many again more
+or less injured in descents.  From a purely financial point of
+view the undertaking was no failure, as the cost, great as it
+necessarily became, was, it is said, fairly covered by the
+postage, which it was possible and by no means unreasonable to
+levy.  The  recognised tariff seems to have been 20 centimes
+for 4 grammes, or at the rate of not greatly more than a
+shilling per English ounce.  Surely hardly on a par with famein
+prices in a time of siege.
+
+It has already been stated that the defenders of Paris did not
+derive substantial assistance from the services of such a
+reconnoitring balloon as is generally used in warfare at every
+available opportunity.  It is possible that the peculiar
+circumstances of the investment of the town rendered such
+reconnaissance of comparatively small value.  But, at any rate,
+it seems clear that due opportunity was not given to this
+strategic method.  M. Giffard, who at the commencement of the
+siege was in Paris, and whose experience with a captive balloon
+was second to none, made early overtures to the Government,
+offering to build for L40,000 a suitable balloon, capable of
+raising forty persons to a heightm of 3,000 feet.  Forty aerial
+scouts, it may be said, are hardly needed for purposes of
+outlook at one time; but it appears that this was not the
+consideration which stood in the way of M. Giffard's offer being
+accepted.  According to M. de Fonvielle, the Government refused
+the experienced aeronaut's proposal on the ground that he
+required a place in the Champs Elysees, "which it would be
+necessary to clear of a few shrubs"!
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIX. THE TRAGEDY OF THE ZENITH."--THE NAVIGABLE BALLOON
+
+
+The mechanical air ship had, by this time, as may be inferred,
+begun seriously to occupy the attention of both theoretical and
+practical aeronauts.  One of the earliest machines deserving of
+special mention was designed by M. Giffard, and consisted of an
+elongated balloon, 104 feet in length and 39 feet in greatest
+diameter, furnished with a triangular rudder, and a steam
+engine operating a screw.  The fire of the engine, which burned
+coke, was skilfully protected, and the fuel and water required
+were taken into calculation as so much ballast to be gradually
+expended.  In this vessel, inflated only with coal gas, and
+somewhat unmanageable and difficult to balance, the
+enthusiastic inventor ascended alone from the Hippodrome and
+executed sundry desired movements, not unsuccessfully.  But the
+trial was not of long duration, and the descent proved both
+rapid and perilous.  Had the trial been made in such a perfect
+calm as that which prevailed when certain subsequent inventions
+were tested, it was considered that M. Giffard's vessel would
+have been as navigable as a boat in the water.  This unrivalled
+mechanician, after having made great advances in the direction
+of high speed engines of sufficient lightness, proceeded to
+design a vastly improved dirigible balloon, when his endeavours
+were frustrated by blindness.
+
+As has been already stated, M. Dupuy de Lome, at the end of the
+siege of Paris, was engaged in building a navigable balloon,
+which, owing to the unsettled state of affairs in France, did
+not receive its trial till two years later.  This balloon, which
+was inflated with pure hydrogen, was of greater capacity than
+that of M. Giffard, being cigar shaped and measuring 118 feet
+by 48 feet.  It was also provided with an ingenious arrangement
+consisting of an internal air bag, capable of being either
+inflated or discharged, for the purpose of keeping the
+principal envelope always distended, and thus offering the
+least possible resistance to the wind.  The propelling power
+was the manual labour of eight men working the screw, and the
+steerage was provided for by a triangular rudder.  The trial,
+which was carried out without mishap, took place in February,
+1872, in the Fort of Vincennes, under the personal direction of
+the inventor, when it was found that the vessel readily obeyed
+the helm, and was capable of a speed exceeding six miles an
+hour.
+
+It was not till nine years after this that the next important
+trial with air ships was made.  The brothers Tissandier will
+then be found taking the lead, and an appalling incident in the
+aeronautical career of one of these has now to be recorded.
+
+In the spring of 1875, and with the co-operation of French
+scientific societies, it was determined to make two
+experimental voyages in a balloon called the "Zenith," one of
+these to be of long duration, the other of great height.  The
+first of these had been successfully accomplished in a flight
+of twenty-four hours' duration from Paris to Bordeaux.  It was
+now April the 15th, and the lofty flight was embarked upon by
+M. Gaston Tissandier, accompanied by MM. Croce-Spinelli and
+Sivel.  Under competent advice, provision for respiration on
+emergency was provided in three small balloons, filled with a
+mixture of air and oxygen, and fitted with indiarubber hose
+pipes, which would allow the mixture, when inhaled, to pass
+first through a wash bottle containing aromatic fluid.  The
+experiments determined on included an analysis of the
+proportion of carbonic acid gas at different heights by means
+of special apparatus; spectroscopic observations, and the
+readings registered by certain barometers and thermometers. A
+novel and valuable experiment, also arranged, was that of
+testing the internal temperature of the balloon as compared
+with that of the external air.
+
+Ascending at 11.30 a.m. under a warm sun, the balloon had by 1
+p.m. reached an altitude of 16,000 feet, when the external air
+was at freezing point, the gas high in the balloon being 72
+degrees, and at the centre 66 degrees.  Ere this height had
+been fully reached, however, the voyagers had begun to breathe
+oxygen.  At 11.57, an hour previously, Spinelli had written in
+his notebook, "Slight pain in the ears--somewhat oppressed--it
+is the gas."  At 23,000 feet Sivel wrote in his notebook, "I am
+inhaling oxygen--the effect is excellent," after which he
+proceeded to urge the balloon higher by a discharge of ballast. 
+The rest of the terrible narrative has now to be taken from the
+notes of M. Tissandier, and as these constitute one of the most
+thrilling narratives in aeronautical records we transcribe them
+nearly in full, as given by Mr. Glaisher:--
+
+"At 23,000 feet we were standing up in the car.  Sivel, who had
+given up for a moment, is re-invigorated.  Croce-Spinelli is
+motionless in front of me.... I felt stupefied and frozen.  I
+wished to put on my fur gloves, but, without being conscious of
+it, the action of taking them from my pocket necessitated an
+effort that I could no longer make.... I copy, verbatim, the
+following lines which were written by me, although I have no
+very distinct remembrance of doing so.  They are traced in a
+hardly legible manner by a hand trembling with cold:  'My hands
+are frozen.  I am all right.  We are all all right.  Fog in the
+horizon, with little rounded cirrus.  We are ascending.  Croce
+pants; he inhales oxygen.  Sivel closes his eyes.  Croce also
+closes his eyes.... Sivel throws out ballast'--these last words
+are hardly readable.  Sivel seized his knife and cut
+successively three cords, and the three bags emptied themselves
+and we ascended rapidly.  The last remembrance of this ascent
+which remains clear to me relates to a moment earlier. 
+Croce-Spinelli was seated, holding in one hand a wash bottle of
+oxygen gas.  His head was slightly inclined and he seemed
+oppressed.  I had still strength to tap the aneroid barometer
+to facilitate the movement of the needle.  Sivel had just
+raised his hand towards the sky.  As for myself, I remained
+perfectly still, without suspecting that I had, perhaps,
+already lost the power of moving.  About the height of 25,000
+feet the condition of stupefaction which ensues is
+extraordinary.  The mind and body weaken by degrees, and
+imperceptibly, without consciousness of it.  No suffering is
+then experienced; on the contrary, an inner joy is felt like an
+irradiation from the surrounding flood of light.   One becomes
+indifferent.  One thinks no more of the perilous position or of
+danger.  One ascends, and is happy to ascend.   The vertigo of
+the upper regions is not an idle word; but, so far as I can
+judge from my personal impression, vertigo appears at the last
+moment; it immediately precedes annihilation, sudden,
+unexpected, and irresistible.
+
+"When Sivel cut away the bags of ballast at the height of about
+24,000 feet, I seemed to remember that he was sitting at the
+bottom of the car, and nearly in the same position as
+Croce-Spinelli.  For my part, I was in the angle of the car,
+thanks to which support I was able to hold up; but I soon felt
+too weak even to turn my head to look at my companions.  Soon I
+wished to take hold of the tube of oxygen, but it was
+impossible to raise my arm.  My mind, nevertheless, was quite
+clear.  I wished to explain, 'We are 8,000 metres high'; but my
+tongue was, as it were, paralysed.  All at once I closed my
+eyes, and, sinking down inert, became insensible.  This was
+about 1.30 p.m.  At 2.8 p.m. I awoke for a moment, and found
+the balloon rapidly descending.  I was able to cut away a bag
+of ballast to check the speed and write in my notebook the
+following lines, which I copy:
+
+" 'We are descending.  Temperature, 3 degrees.  I throw out
+ballast.  Barometer, 12.4 inches.  We are descending.  Sivel
+and Croce still in a fainting state at the bottom of the car. 
+Descending very rapidly.'
+
+"Hardly had I written these lines when a kind of trembling
+seized me, and I fell back weakened again.  There was a violent
+wind from below, upwards, denoting a very rapid descent.  After
+some minutes I felt myself shaken by the arm, and I recognised
+Croce, who had revived.  'Throw out ballast,' he said to me,
+'we are descending '; but I could hardly open my eyes, and did
+not see whether Sivel was awake.  I called to mind that Croce
+unfastened the aspirator, which he then threw overboard, and
+then he threw out ballast, rugs, etc.
+
+"All this is an extremely confused remembrance, quickly
+extinguished, for again I fell back inert more completely than
+before, and it seemed to me that I was dying.  What happened?
+It is certain that the balloon, relieved of a great weight of
+ballast, at once ascended to the higher regions.
+
+"At 3.30 p.m. I opened my eyes again.  I felt dreadfully giddy
+and oppressed, but gradually came to myself.  The balloon was
+descending with frightful speed and making great oscillations. 
+I crept along on my knees, and I pulled Sivel and Croce by the
+arm.  'Sivel! Croce!' I exclaimed, 'Wake up!'  My two
+companions were huddled up motionless in the car, covered by
+their cloaks. I collected all my strength, and endeavoured to
+raise them up.  Sivel's face was black, his eyes dull, and his
+mouth was open and full of blood.  Croce's eyes were half
+closed and his mouth was bloody.
+
+"To relate what happened afterwards is quite impossible.  I
+felt a frightful wind; we were still 9,700 feet high.  There
+remained in the car two bags of ballast, which I threw out.  I
+was drawing near the earth.  I looked for my knife to cut the
+small rope which held the anchor, but could not find it.  I was
+like a madman, and continued to call 'Sivel! Sivel!'  By good
+fortune I was able to put my hand upon my knife and detach the
+anchor at the right moment.  The shock on coming to the ground
+was dreadful. The balloon seemed as if it were being flattened. 
+I thought it was going to remain where it had fallen, but the
+wind was high, and it was dragged across fields, the anchor not
+catching.  The bodies of my unfortunate friends were shaken
+about in the car, and I thought every moment they would be
+jerked out.  At length, however, I seized the valve line, and
+the gas soon escaped from the balloon, which lodged against a
+tree.  It was then four o'clock.  On stepping out, I was seized
+with a feverish attack, and sank down and thought for a moment
+that I was going to join my friends in the next world; but I
+came to.  I found the bodies of my friends cold and stiff.  I
+had them put under shelter in an adjacent barn.  The descent of
+the 'Zenith' took place in the plains 155 miles from Paris as
+the crow flies.  The greatest height attained in this ascent is
+estimated at 28,000 feet."
+
+It was in 1884 that the brothers Tissandier commenced
+experiments with a screw-propelled air ship resembling in shape
+those constructed by Giffard and Dupuy de Lome, but smaller,
+measuring only 91 feet by 30 feet, and operated by an electric
+motor placed in circuit with a powerful battery of bichromate
+cells.  Two trials were made with this vessel in October, 1883,
+and again in the following September, when it proved itself
+capable of holding its course in calm air and of being readily
+controlled by the rudder.
+
+But, ere this, a number of somewhat similar experiments, on
+behalf of the French Government, had been entered upon by
+Captains Renard and Krebs at Chalais-Meudon.  Their balloon may
+be described as fish-shaped, 165 feet long, and 27.5 feet in
+principal diameter. It was operated by an electric motor, which
+was capable of driving a screw of large dimensions at
+forty-eight revolutions per minute.  At its first trial, in
+August, 1884, in dead calm, it attained a velocity of over
+twelve miles per hour, travelling some two and a half miles in
+a forward direction, when, by application of the rudder and
+judicious management, it was manoeuvred homewards, and
+practically brought to earth at the point of departure.
+
+A more important trial was made on the 12th of the following
+month, and was witnessed by M. Tissandier, according to whom
+the aerostat conveying the inventors ascended gently and
+steadily, drifting with an appreciable breeze until the screw
+was set in motion and the helm put down, when the vessel was
+brought round to the wind and held its own until the motor, by
+an accident, ceased working.  A little later the same air ship
+met with more signal success.  On one occasion, starting from
+ChalaisMeudon, it took a direct course to the N.E., crossing
+the railway and the Seine, where the aeronauts, stopping the
+screw, ascertained the velocity of the wind to be approximately
+five miles an hour.  The screw being again put in motion, the
+balloon was steered to the right, and, following a path
+parallel to its first, returned to its point of departure.
+Starting again the same afternoon, it was caused to perform a
+variety of aerial evolutions, and after thirty-five minutes
+returned once more to its starting place.
+
+A tabular comparison of the four navigable balloons which we
+have now described has been given as follows:--
+
+Date.    Name.             Motor.           Vel. p. Sec.
+1852  M. Henri Giffard    Steam engine     13.12 ft.
+1872  M. Dupuy de Lome    Muscular force    9.18 ft.
+1883  MM. Tissandier      Electric motor    9.84 ft.
+1884  MM. Renard & Krebs  Electric motor   18.04 ft.
+
+About this period, that is in 1883, and really prior to the
+Meudon experiments, there were other attempts at aerial
+locomotion not to be altogether passed over, which were made
+also in France, but financed by English money.  The experiments
+were performed by Mr. F. A. Gower, who, writing to Professor
+Tyndall, claims to have succeeded in "driving a large balloon
+fairly against the wind by steam power."  A melancholy interest
+will always belong to these trials from the fact that Mr. Gower
+was subsequently blown out to sea with his balloon, leaving no
+trace behind.
+
+At this stage it will be well to glance at some of the more
+important theories which were being mooted as to the
+possibility of aerial locomotion properly so called.  Broadly,
+there were two rival schools at this time.  We will call them
+the "lighter-than-air-ites" and the "heavier-than-air-ites,"
+respectively.  The former were the advocates of the air vessel
+of which the balloon is a type.  The latter school maintained
+that, as birds are heavier than air, so the air locomotive of
+the future would be a machine itself heavier than air, but
+capable of being navigated by a motor yet to be discovered,
+which would develop proportionate power.  Sir H. Maxim's words
+may be aptly quoted here.  "In all Nature," he says, "we do not
+find a single balloon.  All Nature's flying machines are
+heavier than the air, and depend altogether upon the
+development of dynamic energy."
+
+The faculty of soaring, possessed by many birds, of which the
+albatross may be considered a type, led to numerous
+speculations as to what would constitute the ideal principle of
+the air motor.  Sir G. Cayley, as far back as 1809, wrote a
+classical article on this subject, without, however, adding
+much to its elucidation.  Others after his time conceived that
+the bird, by sheer habit and practice, could perform, as it
+were, a trick in balancing by making use of the complex air
+streams varying in speed and direction that were supposed to
+intermingle above.
+
+Mr. R. A. Proctor discusses the matter with his usual
+clear-sightedness.  He premises that the bird may, in actual
+fact, only poise itself for some ten minutes--an interval which
+many will consider far too small--without flap of the wings,
+and, while contending that the problem must be simply a
+mechanical one, is ready to admit that "the sustaining power of
+the air on bodies of a particular form travelling swiftly
+through it may be much greater or very different in character
+from what is supposed."  In his opinion, it is a fact that a
+flat body travelling swiftly and horizontally will sink towards
+the ground much more slowly than a similar body moving
+similarly but with less speed.  In proof of this he gives the
+homely illustration of a flat stone caused to make " ducks and
+drakes."  Thus he contends that the bird accomplishes its
+floating feat simply by occasional powerful propulsive efforts,
+combined with perfect balance.  From which he deduces the
+corollary that "if ever the art of flying, or rather of making
+flying machines, is attained by man, it will be by combining
+rapid motion with the power of perfect balancing."
+
+It will now appear as a natural and certain consequence that a
+feature to be introduced by experimentalists into flying
+machines should be the "Aeroplane," or, in other words, a plane
+which, at a desired angle, should be driven at speed through
+the air.  Most notable attempts with this expedient were now
+shortly made by Hiram Maxim, Langley, and others.
+
+But, contemporaneously with these attempts, certain feats with
+the rival aerostat--the balloon--were accomplished, which will
+be most fittingly told in this place.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XX.  A CHAPTER OF ACCIDENTS.
+
+
+It will have been gathered from what has been already stated
+that the balloonist is commonly in much uncertainty as to his
+precise course when he is above the clouds, or when unable from
+darkness to see the earth beneath him.  With a view of
+overcoming this disadvantage some original experiments were
+suggested by a distinguished officer, who during the seventies
+had begun to interest himself in aeronautics.
+
+This was Captain Burnaby. His method was to employ two small
+silk parachutes, which, if required, might carry burning
+magnesium wires, and which were to be attached to each other by
+a length of silk thread.  On dropping one parachute, it would
+first partake of the motion of the balloon, but would presently
+drop below, when the second parachute would be dismissed, and
+then an imaginary line drawn between the two bodies was
+supposed to betray the balloon's course.  It should be
+mentioned, however, that if a careful study is made of the
+course of many descending parachutes it will be found that
+their behaviour is too uncertain to be relied upon for such a
+purpose as the above.  They will often float behind the
+balloon's wake, but sometimes again will be found in front, and
+sometimes striking off in some side direction, so wayward and
+complex are the currents which control such small bodies.  Mr.
+Glaisher has stated that a balloon's course above the clouds
+may be detected by observing the grapnel, supposed to be
+hanging below the car, as this would be seen to be out of the
+vertical as the balloon drifted, and thus serve to indicate the
+course.  However this may be, the most experienced sky sailors
+will be found to be in perplexity as to their direction, as
+also their speed, when view of the earth is obscured.
+
+But Captain Burnaby is associated notably with the adventurous
+side of ballooning, the most famous of his aerial exploits
+being, perhaps, that of crossing the English Channel alone from
+Dover on March 23rd, 1882.  Outwardly, he made presence of
+sailing to Paris by sky to dine there that evening; inwardly,
+he had determined to start simply with a wind which bid fair
+for a cross-Channel trip, and to take whatever chances it might
+bring him.
+
+Thus, at 10.30 a.m., just as the mail packet left the pier, he
+cast off with a lifting power which rapidly carried him to a
+height of 2,000 feet, when he found his course to be towards
+Folkestone.  But by shortly after 11 o'clock he had decided
+that he was changing his direction, and when, as he judged,
+some seven miles from Boulogne, the wind was carrying him not
+across, but down the Channel.  Then, for nearly four hours, the
+balloon shifted about with no improvement in the outlook, after
+which the wind fell calm, and the balloon remained motionless
+at 2,000 feet above the sea.  This state of things continuing
+for an hour, the Captain resolved on the heroic expedient of
+casting out all his ballast and philosophically abiding the
+issue.  The manoeuvre turned out a happy one, for the balloon,
+shooting up to 11,000 feet, caught a current, on which it was
+rapidly carried towards and over the main land; and, when twelve
+miles beyond Dieppe, it became easy to descend to a lower level
+by manipulation of the valve, and finally to make a successful
+landing in open country beyond.
+
+A few years before, an attempt to cross the Channel from the
+other side ended far more disastrously.  Jules  Duruof, already
+mentioned as having piloted the first runaway balloon from
+beleaguered Paris, had determined on an attempt to cross over
+to England from Calais; and, duly advertising the event, a
+large concourse assembled on the day announced, clamouring
+loudly for the ascent.  But the wind proved unsuitable, setting
+out over the North Sea, and the mayor thought fit to interfere,
+and had the car removed so as to prevent proceedings. On this
+the crowd grew impatient, and Duruof, determining to keep faith
+with them, succeeded by an artifice in regaining his car, which
+he hastily carried back to the balloon, and immediately taking
+his seat, and accompanied by his wife, the intrepid pair
+commenced their bold flight just as the shades of evening were
+settling down.  Shortly the balloon disappeared into the
+gathering darkness, and then for three days Calais knew no more
+of balloon or balloonists.
+
+Neither could the voyagers see aught for certain of their own
+course, and thus through the long night hours their attention
+was wholly needed, without chance of sleep, in closely watching
+their situation, lest unawares they should be borne down on the
+waves.  When morning broke they discovered that they were still
+being carried out over the sea on a furious gale, being
+apparently off the Danish coast, with the distant mountains of
+Norway dimly visible on the starboard bow.  It was at this
+point, and possibly owing to the chill commonly experienced
+aloft soon after dawn, that the balloon suddenly took a
+downward course and plunged into the sea, happily,
+however,fairly in the track of vessels.  Presently a ship came
+in sight, but cruelly kept on its course, leaving the castaways
+in despair, with their car fast succumbing to the waves.
+
+Help, nevertheless, was really at hand.  The captain of an
+English fishing smack, the Grand Charge, had sighted the
+sinking balloon, and was already bearing down to the rescue. 
+It is said that when, at length, a boat came alongside as near
+as it was possible, Madame Duruof was unable to make the
+necessary effort to jump on board, and her husband had to throw
+her into the arms of the sailors.  A fitting sequel to the
+story comes from Paris, where the heroic couple, after a
+sojourn in England, were given a splendid reception and a purse
+of money, with which M. Duruof forthwith constructed a new
+balloon, named the "Ville de Calais."
+
+On the 4th of March, 1882, the ardent amateur balloonist, Mr.
+Simmons, had a narrow escape in circumstances somewhat similar
+to the above.  He was attempting, in company with Colonel
+Brine, to cross the Channel from Canterbury, when a change of
+wind carried them out towards the North Sea.  Falling in the
+water, they abandoned their balloon, but were rescued by the
+mail packet Foam.
+
+The same amateur aeronaut met with an exciting experience not
+long after, when in company with Sir Claude C. de Crespigny.
+The two adventurers left Maldon, in Essex, at 11 p.m., on an
+August night, and, sailing at a great height out to sea, lost
+all sight of land till 6 a.m. the next morning, when, at 17,000
+feet altitude, they sighted the opposite coast and descended in
+safety near Flushing.
+
+Yet another adventure at sea, and one which proved fatal and
+unspeakably regrettable, occurred about this time, namely, on
+the 10th of December, 1881, when Captain Templer, Mr. W.
+Powell, M.P., and Mr. Agg-Gardner ascended from Bath.  We
+prefer to give the account as it appears in a leading article
+in the Times for December 13th of that year.
+
+After sailing over Glastonbury, "Crewkerne was presently
+sighted, then Beaminster.  The roar of the sea gave the next
+indication of the locality to which the balloon had drifted and
+the first hint of the possible perils of the voyage.  A descent
+was now effected to within a few hundred feet of earth, and an
+endeavour was made to ascertain the exact position they had
+reached.  The course taken by the balloon between Beaminster
+and the sea is not stated in Captain Templer's letter.  The
+wind, as far as we can gather, must have shifted, or different
+currents of air must have been found at the different
+altitudes.  What Captain Templer says is that they coasted
+along to Symonsbury, passing, it would seem, in an easterly
+direction and keeping still very near to the earth.  Soon after
+they had left Symonsbury, Captain Templer shouted to a man
+below to tell them how far they were from Bridport, and he
+received for answer that Bridport was about a mile off.  The
+pace at which the balloon was moving had now increased to
+thirty-five miles an hour.  The sea was dangerously close, and
+a few minutes in a southerly current of air would have been
+enough to carry them over it.  They seem, however, to have been
+confident in their own powers of management.  They threw out
+ballast, and rose to a height of 1,500 feet, and thence came
+down again only just in time, touching the ground at a distance
+of about 150 yards from the cliff.  The balloon here dragged
+for a few feet, and Captain Templer, who had been letting off
+the gas, rolled out of the car, still holding the valve line in
+his hand.  This was the last chance of a safe escape for
+anybody.  The balloon, with its weight lightened, went up about
+eight feet.  Mr. Agg-Gardner dropped out and broke his leg. 
+Mr. Powell now remained as the sole occupant of the car. 
+Captain Templer, who had still hold of the rope, shouted to Mr.
+Powell to come down the line.  This he attempted to do, but in
+a few seconds, and before he could commence his perilous
+descent, the line was torn out of Captain Templer's hands.  All
+communication with the earth was cut off, and the balloon rose
+rapidly, taking Mr. Powell with it in a south-easterly
+direction out to sea."
+
+It was a few seasons previous to this, namely, on the 8th of
+July, 1874, when Mr. Simmons was concerned in a balloon
+fatality of a peculiarly distressing nature.  A Belgian,
+Vincent de Groof, styling himself the "Flying Man," announced
+his intention of descending in a parachute from a balloon
+piloted by Mr. Simmons, who was to start from Cremorne Gardens. 
+The balloon duly ascended, with De Groof in his machine
+suspended below, and when over St. Luke's Church, and at a
+height estimated at 80 feet, it is thought that the unfortunate
+man overbalanced himself after detaching his apparatus, and
+fell forward, clinging to the ropes.  The machine failed to
+open, and De Groof was precipitated into Robert Street,
+Chelsea, expiring almost immediately.  The porter of Chelsea
+Infirmary, who was watching the balloon, asserted that he
+fancied the falling man called out twice, "Drop into the
+churchyard; look out!"  Mr. Simmons, shooting upwards in his
+balloon, thus suddenly lightened, to a great height, became
+insensible, and when he recovered consciousness found himself
+over Victoria Park.  He made a descent, without mishap, on a
+line of railway in Essex.
+
+On the 19th of August, 1887, occurred an important total
+eclipse of the sun, the track of which lay across Germany,
+Russia, Western Siberia, and Japan.  At all suitable stations
+along the shadow track astronomers from all parts of the world
+established themselves; but at many eclipses observers had had
+bad fortune owing to the phenomenon at the critical moment
+being obscured.  And on this account one astronomer determined
+on measures which should render his chances of a clear view a
+practical certainty.  Professor Mendeleef, in Russia, resolved
+to engage a balloon, and by rising above the cloud barrier,
+should there be one, to have the eclipse all to himself.  It
+was an example of fine enthusiasm, which, moreover, was
+presently put to a severe and unexpected test, for the balloon,
+when inflated, proved unable to take up both the aeronaut and
+the astronomer, whereupon the latter, though wholly
+inexperienced, had no alternative but to ascend alone, which,
+either by accident or choice, he actually did.  Shooting up
+into space, he soon reached an altitude of 11,500 feet, where
+he obtained, even if he did not enjoy, an unobstructed view of
+the Corona.  It may be supposed, however, that, owing to the
+novelty of his situation, his scientific observations may not
+have been so complete as they would have been on terra firma.
+
+In the same month an attempt to reach a record height was made
+by MM. Jovis and Mallet at Paris, with the net result that an
+elevation of 23,000 feet was reached.  It will have been noted
+that the difficulty through physical exhaustion of inhaling
+oxygen from either a bag or cylinder is a serious matter not
+easily overcome, and it has been suggested that the helmet
+invented by M. Fleuss might prove of value.  This contrivance,
+which has scarcely attracted the attention it has merited,
+provides a receptacle for respiration, containing oxygen and
+certain purifying media, by means of which the inventor was
+able to remain for hours under water without any communication
+with the outward air.
+
+About the period at which we have now arrived two fatal
+accidents befel English aeronauts.  We have related how Maldon,
+in Essex, was associated with one of the more adventurous
+exploits in Mr. Simmons's career.  It was fated also to be
+associated with the voyage with which his career closed.  On
+August 27th, 1888, he ascended from Olympia in company with Mr.
+Field, of West Brighton, and Mr. Myers, of the Natural History
+Museum, with the intention, if practicable, of crossing to
+Flanders; and the voyage proceeded happily until the
+neighbourhood of Maldon was reached, when, as the sea coast was
+in sight, and it was already past five o'clock, it appeared
+prudent to Mr. Simmons to descend and moor the balloon for the
+night.  Some labourers some three miles from Maldon sighted the
+balloon coming up at speed, and at the same time descending
+until its grapnel commenced tearing through a field of barley,
+when ballast was thrown out, causing the balloon to rise again
+towards and over some tall elms, which became the cause of the
+disaster which followed.  The grapnel, catching in the upper
+boughs of one of these trees, held fast, while the balloon,
+borne by the force of a strong wind, was repeatedly blown down
+to earth with violence, rebounding each time to a considerable
+height, only to be flung down again on the same spot.  After
+three or four impacts the balloon is reported to have burst
+with a loud noise, when high in the air, the silk being blown
+about over the field, and the car and its occupants dashed to
+the ground.  Help was unavailing till this final catastrophe,
+and when, at length, the labourers were able to extricate the
+party, Mr. Simmons was found with a fractured skull and both
+companions badly injured.
+
+Four summers later, June 30th, 1892, Captain Dale, the aeronaut
+to the Crystal Palace, was announced to make an ascent from the
+usual balloon grounds, weather permitting.  Through the night
+and morning a violent storm prevailed, and it was contemplated
+that the exhibition would be withdrawn; but the wind abating in
+the afternoon, the inflation was proceeded with, and the ascent
+took place shortly before 6 p.m., not, however, before a large
+rent had been discovered and repaired as far as possible by
+Mrs. Dale.  As passengers, there ascended the Captain's son
+William, aged nineteen, Mr. J. Macintosh, and Mr. Cecil
+Shadbolt.  When the balloon had reached an altitude estimated
+at 600 feet the onlookers were horrified to see it suddenly
+collapse, a large rent having developed near the top part of
+the silk, from which the gas "rushed out in a dense mass,
+allowing the balloon to fall like a rag."  The occupants of the
+car were seen to be throwing out everything madly, even
+wrenching the buttons from their clothing.  All, however, with
+little avail, for the balloon fell "with a sickening thud,"
+midway between the Maze and lower lake.  All were found alive;
+but Captain Dale, who had alighted on his back, died in a few
+minutes; Mr. Shadbolt succumbed later, and both remaining
+passengers sustained terrible injuries.
+
+Few balloon mishaps, unattended with fatal results, have proved
+more exciting than the following.  A large party had ascended
+from Belfast, in a monster balloon, under the guidance of Mr.
+Coxwell, on a day which was very unfit for the purpose by
+reason of stormy weather.  A more serious trouble than the
+wind, however, lay in several of the passengers themselves, who
+seem to have been highly excitable Irishmen, incapable at the
+critical moment of quietly obeying orders
+
+The principal hero of the story, a German.  Mr. Runge, in
+writing afterwards to the Ulster Observer, entirely exonerates
+Mr. Coxwell from any blame, attributing his mischances solely
+to the reprehensible conduct of his companions.  On approaching
+the ground, Mr. Coxwell gave clear instructions.  The
+passengers were to sit down in an unconstrained position facing
+each other, and be prepared for some heavy shocks.  Above all
+things they were to be careful to get out one by one, and on no
+account to leave hold of the car.  Many of the passengers,
+however, refused to sit down, and, according to Mr. Runge,
+"behaved in the wildest manner, losing completely their
+self-control. Seizing the valve rope themselves, they tore it
+away from its attachment, the stronger pushing back the weaker,
+and refusing to lend help when they had got out.  In
+consequence of this the car, relieved of their weight, tore
+away from the grasp of Mr. Coxwell and those who still clung to
+it, and rose above the trees, with Mr. Runge and one other
+passenger, Mr. Halferty, alone within.  As the balloon came
+earthwards again, they shouted to the countrymen for succour,
+but without the slightest avail, and presently, the anchor
+catching, the car struck the earth with a shock which threw Mr.
+Halferty out on the ground, leaving Mr. Runge to rise again
+into the air, this time alone."  He thus continues the story:--
+
+"The balloon moved on, very soon, in a horizontal direction
+straight towards the sea, which we were then rapidly nearing. 
+Coming to a farm, I shouted out to the people standing there. 
+Some women, with their quick humane instincts, were the first
+to perceive my danger, and exhorted the men to hurry to my
+assistance, they themselves running as fast as they could to
+tender what little help they might be able to give me.  The
+anchor stuck in a willow tree.  I shouted out to the people
+below to secure the cable and anchor by ropes, which they did. 
+The evening was now beautifully still, the breeze had died
+away, and the balloon was swinging calmly at her moorings above
+the farmhouse.  One of the men asked me whether I had a rope
+with me, and how I intended to get out.  I told them only to
+take care of the cable, because the balloon would settle down
+by herself before long.  I was congratulating myself on a
+speedy escape from my dangerous position.  I had not counted on
+the wind.  A breeze in about six or eight minutes sprang up,
+tossed the balloon about like a large sail, then a crash,
+and--the anchor was loose again.  It tore through the trees,
+flinging limbs and branches about like matches.  It struck the
+roof of the farmhouse, splintering the chimneys and tiles like
+glass.
+
+"On I went; I came near another farm; shouted out for help, and
+told the men to secure the anchor to the foot of a large tree
+close by.  The anchor was soon made fast, but this was only a
+momentary relief.  The breeze again filled the half-empty
+balloon like a sail, there was a severe strain on the cable,
+then a dull sound, and a severe concussion of the basket--the
+cable, strange fatality, had broken, and the anchor, my last
+and only hope, was gone.  I was now carried on in a straight
+direction towards the sea, which was but a short distance
+ahead.  The anchor being lost I gave up all hope.  I sat down
+resigned in the car, and prepared for the end.  All at once I
+discovered that a side current was drifting me towards the
+mountain; the car struck the ground, and was dashing along at a
+fearful rate, knocking down stone fences and breaking
+everything it came in contact with in its wild career. 
+By-and-by the knocks became less frequent.  We were passing
+over a cultivated country, and the car was, as it were skimming
+the surface and grazing the top of the hedges.  I saw a thick
+hawthorn hedge at some distance before me, and the balloon
+rapidly sweeping towards it.  That was my only chance.  I
+rushed to the edge of the car and flung myself down upon the
+hedge."
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXI. THE COMING OF THE FLYING MACHINE.
+
+
+In the early nineties the air ship was engaging the attention
+of many inventors, and was making important strides in the
+hands of Mr. Maxim.  This unrivalled mechanician, in stating
+the case, premises that a motive power has to be discovered
+which can develop at least as much power in proportion to its
+weight as a bird is able to develop.  He asserts that a heavy
+bird, with relatively small wings--such as a goose--carries
+about 150 lb. to the horse power, while the albatross or the
+vulture, possessed of proportionately greater winged surface,
+can carry about 250 lbs. per horse power.
+
+Professor Langley, of Washington, working contemporaneously,
+but independently of Mr. Maxim, had tried exhaustive
+experiments on a rotating arm (characteristically designated by
+Mr. Maxim a "merry-go-round"), thirty feet long, applying
+screw propellers.  He used, for the most part, small planes,
+carrying loads of only two or three pounds, and, under these
+circumstances, the weight carried was at the rate of 250 lbs.
+per horse power.  His important statements with regard to these
+trials are that one-horse power will transport a larger weight
+at twenty miles an hour than at ten, and a still larger at
+forty miles than at twenty, and so on; that "the sustaining
+pressure of the air on a plane moving at a small angle of
+inclination to a horizontal path is many times greater than
+would result from the formula implicitly given by Newton,
+while, whereas in land or marine transport increased speed is
+maintained only by a disproportionate expenditure of power
+within the limits of experiment, in aerial horizontal transport
+the higher speeds are more economical of power than the lower
+ones."
+
+This Mr. Maxim is evidently ready to endorse, stating, in his
+own words, that birds obtain the greater part of their support
+by moving forward with sufficient velocity so as to be
+constantly resting on new air, the inertia of which has not
+been disturbed.  Mr. Maxim's trials were on a scale comparable
+with all his mechanical achievements.  He employed for his
+experiments a rotating arm, sweeping out a circle, the
+circumference of which was 200 feet.  To the end of this arm he
+attached a cigar-shaped apparatus, driven by a screw, and
+arranged in such a manner that aero-planes could be attached to
+it at any angle.  These planes were on a large scale, carrying
+weights of from 20 lbs. to 100 lbs.  With this contrivance he
+found that, whatever push the screw communicated to the
+aero-plane, "the plane would lift in a vertical direction from
+ten to fifteen times as much as the horizontal push that it
+received from the screw, and which depended upon the angle at
+which the plane was set, and the speed at which the apparatus
+was travelling through the air."  Next, having determined by
+experiment the power required to perform artificial flight, Mr.
+Maxim applied himself to designing the requisite motor.  "I
+constructed," he states, "two sets of compound engines of
+tempered steel, all the parts being made very light and strong,
+and a steam generator of peculiar construction, the greater
+part of the heating surface consisting of small and thin copper
+tubes. For fuel I employed naphtha."
+
+This Mr. Maxim wrote in 1892, adding that he was then
+experimenting with a large machine, having a spread of over 100
+feet.  Labour, skill, and money were lavishly devoted
+henceforward to the great task undertaken, and it was not long
+before the giant flying machine, the outcome of so much patient
+experimenting, was completed and put to a practical trial.  Its
+weight was 7,500 lbs.  The screw propellers were nearly 18 feet
+in diameter, each with two blades, while the engines were
+capable of being run up to 360 horse power.  The entire machine
+was mounted on an inner railway track of 9 feet and an outer of
+35 feet gauge, while above there was a reversed rail along
+which the machine would begin to run so soon as with increase
+of speed it commenced to lift itself off the inner track.
+
+In one of the latest experiments it was found that when a speed
+of 42 miles an hour was attained all the wheels were running on
+the upper track, and revolving in the opposite direction from
+those on the lower track.  However, after running about 1,000
+feet, an axle tree doubled up, and immediately afterwards the
+upper track broke away, and the machine, becoming liberated,
+floated in the air, "giving those on board a sensation of being
+in a boat."
+
+The experiment proved conclusively to the inventor that a
+machine could be made on a large scale, in which the lifting
+effect should be considerably greater than the weight of the
+machine, and this, too, when a steam engine was the motor. 
+When, therefore, in the years shortly following, the steam
+engine was for the purposes of aerial locomotion superseded by
+the lighter and more suitable petrol engine, the construction
+of a navigable air ship became vastly more practicable.  Still,
+in Sir H. Maxim's opinion, lately expressed, "those who seek to
+navigate the air by machines lighter than the air have come,
+practically, to the end of their tether," while, on the other
+hand, "those who seek to navigate the air with machines heavier
+than the air have not even made a start as yet, and the
+possibilities before them are very great indeed."
+
+As to the assertion that the aerial navigators last mentioned
+"have not even made a start as yet," we can only say that Sir
+H. Maxim speaks with far too much modesty.  His own colossal
+labours in the direction of that mode of aerial flight, which
+he considers to be alone feasible, are of the first importance
+and value, and, as far as they have gone, exhaustive.  Had his
+experiments been simply confined to his classical
+investigations of the proper form of the screw propeller his
+name would still have been handed down as a true pioneer in
+aeronautics.  His work, however, covers far wider ground, and
+he has, in a variety of ways, furnished practical and reliable
+data, which must always be an indispensable guide to every
+future worker in the same field.
+
+Professor Langley, in attacking the same problem, first studied
+the principle and behaviour of a well-known toy--the model
+invented by Penaud, which, driven by the tension of
+india-rubber, sustains itself in the air for a few seconds.
+He constructed over thirty modifications of this model, and
+spent many months in trying from these to as certain what he
+terms the "laws of balancing leading to horizontal flight." 
+His best endeavours at first, however, showed that he needed
+three or four feet of sustaining surface to a pound of weight,
+whereas he calculated that a bird could soar with a surface of
+less than half a foot to the pound.  He next proceeded to
+steam-driven models in which for a time he found an insuperable
+difficulty in keeping down the weight, which, in practice,
+always exceeded his calculation; and it was not till the end of
+1893 that he felt himself prepared for a fair trial.  At this
+time he had prepared a model weighing between nine and ten
+pounds, and he needed only a suitable launching apparatus to be
+used over water.  The model would, like a bird, require an
+initial velocity imparted to it, and the discovery of a
+suitable apparatus gave him great trouble.  For the rest the
+facilities for launching were supplied by a houseboat moored on
+the Potomac.  Foiled again and again by many difficulties, it
+was not till after repeated failures and the lapse of many
+months, when, as the Professor himself puts it, hope was low,
+that success finally came.  It was in the early part of 1896
+that a successful flight was accomplished in the presence of
+Dr. Bell, of telephone fame, and the following is a brief
+epitome of the account that this accomplished scientist
+contributed to the columns of Nature:--
+
+"The flying machine, built, apparently, almost entirely of
+metal, was driven by an engine said to weigh, with fuel and
+water, about 25 lbs., the supporting surface from tip to tip
+being 12 or 14 feet.  Starting from a platform about 20 feet
+high, the machine rose at first directly in the face of the
+wind, moving with great steadiness, and subsequently wheeling
+in large curves until steam was exhausted, when, from a height
+of 80 or 100 feet, it shortly settled down.  The experiment was
+then repeated with similar results.  Its motion was so steady
+that a glass of water might have remained unspilled.  The
+actual length of flight each time, which lasted for a minute
+and a half, exceeded half a mile, while the velocity was
+between twenty and twenty-five miles an hour in a course that
+was constantly taking it 'up hill.'  A yet more successful
+flight was subsequently made."
+
+But flight of another nature was being courageously attempted
+at this time.  Otto Lilienthal, of Berlin, in imitation of the
+motion of birds, constructed a flying apparatus which he
+operated himself, and with which he could float down from
+considerable elevations.  "The feat," he warns tyros, "requires
+practice.  In the beginning the height should be moderate, and
+the wings not too large, or the wind will soon show that it is
+not to be trifled with."  The inventor commenced with all due
+caution, making his first attempt over a grass plot from a
+spring board one metre high, and subsequently increasing this
+height to two and a half metres, from which elevation he could
+safely cross the entire grass plot.  Later he launched himself
+from the lower ridges of a hill 250 feet high, when he sailed
+to a distance of over 250 yards, and this time he writes
+enthusiastically of his self-taught accomplishment:--
+
+"To those who, from a modest beginning and with gradually
+increased extent and elevation of flight have gained full
+control over the apparatus, it is not in the least dangerous to
+cross deep and broad ravines.  It is a difficult task to convey
+to one who has never enjoyed aerial flight a clear perception
+of the exhilarating pleasure of this elastic motion.  The
+elevation above the ground loses its terrors, because we have
+learned by experience what sure dependence may be placed upon
+the buoyancy of the air."
+
+As a commentary to the above we extract the following:--"We
+have to record the death of Otto Lilienthal, whose soaring
+machine, during a gliding flight, suddenly tilted over at a
+height of about 60 feet, by which mishap he met an untimely
+death on August 9th, 1896."  Mr. O. Chanute, C.E. of Chicago,
+took up the study of gliding flight at the point where
+Lilienthal left it, and, later, Professor Fitzgerald and
+others.  Besides that invented by Penaud, other aero-plane
+models demanding mention had been produced by Tatin, Moy,
+Stringfellow, and Lawrence Hargrave, of Australia, the
+subsequent inventor of the well-known cellular kite.  These
+models, for the most part, aim at the mechanical solution of
+the problem connected with the soaring flight of a bird.
+
+The theoretical solution of the same problem had been attacked
+by Professor Langley in a masterly monograph, entitled "The
+Internal Work of the Wind."  By painstaking experiment with
+delicate instruments, specially constructed, the Professor
+shows that wind in general, so far from being, as was commonly
+assumed, mere air put in motion with an approximately uniform
+velocity in the same strata, is, in reality, variable and
+irregular in its movements beyond anything which had been
+anticipated, being made up, in fact, of a succession of brief
+pulsations in different directions, and of great complexity.  
+These pulsations, he argues, if of sufficient amplitude and
+frequency, would be capable, by reason of their own "internal
+work," of sustaining or even raising a suitably curved surface
+which was being carried along by the main mean air stream. 
+This would account for the phenomenon of "soaring."  Lord
+Rayleigh, discussing the same problem, premises that when a
+bird is soaring the air cannot be moving uniformly and
+horizontally.  Then comes the natural question, Is it moving in
+ascending currents?  Lord Rayleigh has frequently noticed such
+currents, particularly above a cliff facing the wind.  Again,
+to quote another eminent authority, Major Baden-Powell, on an
+occasion when flying one of his own kites, found it getting to
+so high an angle that it presently rose absolutely overhead,
+with the string perpendicular.  He then took up a heavy piece
+of wood, which, when tied to the string, began to rise in the
+air.  He satisfied himself that this curious result was solely
+due to a strong uptake of the air.
+
+But, again, Lord Rayleigh, lending support to Professor
+Langley's argument, points out that the apparent cause of
+soaring may be the non-uniformity of the wind.  The upper
+currents are generally stronger than the lower, and it is
+mechanically possible for a bird, taking advantage of two
+adjacent air streams, different in velocity, to maintain itself
+in air without effort on its own part.
+
+Lord Rayleigh, proceeding to give his views on artificial
+flight, declares the main problem of the flying machine to be
+the problem of the aerial plane.  He states the case thus:--
+"Supposing a plane surface to be falling vertically at the rate
+of four miles an hour, and also moving horizontally at the rate
+of twenty miles an hour, it might have been supposed that the
+horizontal motion would make no difference to the pressure on
+its under surface which the falling plane must experience.  We
+are told, however, that in actual trial the horizontal motion
+much increases the pressure under the falling plane, and it is
+this fact on which the possibility of natural and artificial
+flight depends.
+
+Ere this opinion had been stated by Lord Rayleigh in his
+discourse on "Flight," at the Royal Institution, there were
+already at work upon the aero-plane a small army of inventors,
+of whom it will be only possible in a future chapter to mention
+some. Due reference, however, should here be made to Mr. W. F.
+Wenham, of Boston, U.S.A., who had been at work on artificial
+flight for many years, and to whose labours in determining
+whether man's power is sufficient to raise his own weight Lord
+Rayleigh paid a high tribute.  As far back as 1866 Mr. Wenham
+had published a paper on aerial locomotion, in which he shows
+that any imitation by man of the far-extended wings of a bird
+might be impracticable, the alternative being to arrange the
+necessary length of wing as a series of aero-planes, a
+conception far in advance of many theorists of his time.
+
+But there had been developments in aerostation in other lines,
+and it is time to turn from the somewhat tedious technicalities
+of mechanical flight and the theory or practice of soaring, to
+another important means for traversing the air--the parachute.
+This aerial machine, long laid aside, was to lend its aid to
+the navigation of the air with a reliability never before
+realised.  Professor Baldwin, as he was termed, an American
+aeronaut, arrived in England in the summer of 1888, and
+commenced giving a series of exhibitions from the Alexandra
+Palace with a parachute of his own invention, which, in actual
+performance, seems to have been the most perfect instrument of
+the kind up to that time devised.  It was said to be about 18
+feet in diameter, whereas that of Garnerin, already mentioned,
+had a diameter of some 30 feet, and was distinctly top-heavy,
+owing to its being thus inadequately ballasted; for it was
+calculated that its enormous size would have served for the
+safe descent, not of one man, but of four or five.  Baldwin's
+parachute, on the contrary, was reckoned to give safe descent
+to 250 lbs., which would include weight of man and apparatus,
+and reduce the ultimate fall to one not exceeding 8 feet. The
+parachute was attached to the ring of a small balloon of 12,000
+cubic feet, and the Professor ascended, sitting on a mere sling
+of rope, which did duty for a car.
+
+Mr. Thomas Moy, who investigated the mechanics of the
+contrivance, estimated that after a drop of 16 feet, the upward
+pressure, amounting to over 2 lb. per square foot, would act on
+a surface of not less than 254 square feet.  There was, at the
+time, much foolish comment on the great distance which the
+parachute fell before it opened, a complete delusion due to the
+fact that observers failed to see that at the moment of
+separation the balloon itself sprang upward.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXII.  THE STORY OF THE SPENCERS.
+
+
+It has been in the hands of the Spencers that the parachute, as
+also many other practical details of aeronautics, has been
+perfected, and some due sketch of the career of this family of
+eminent aeronauts must be no longer delayed.
+
+Charles Green had stood godfather to the youngest son of his
+friend and colleague, Mr. Edward Spencer, and in later years,
+as though to vindicate the fact, this same son took up the
+science of aeronautics at the point where his father had left
+it.  We find his name in the records of the Patent Office of
+1868 as the inventor of a manumetric flying machine, and there
+are accounts of the flying leaps of several hundred feet which
+he was enabled to take by means of the machine he constructed. 
+Again, in 1882 we find him an inventor, this time of the patent
+asbestos fire balloon, by means of which the principal danger
+to such balloons was overcome.
+
+At this point it is needful to make mention of the third
+generation--the several sons who early showed their zeal and
+aptitude for perpetuating the family tradition.  It was from
+his school playground that the eldest son, Percival, witnessed
+with intense interest what appeared like a drop floating in the
+sky at an immense altitude.  This proved to be Simmons's
+balloon, which had just risen to a vast elevation over Cremorne
+Gardens, after having liberated the unfortunate De Groof, as
+mentioned in a former chapter.  And one may be sure that the
+terrible reality of the disaster that had happened was not lost
+on the young schoolboy.  But his wish was to become an
+aeronauts, and from this desire nothing deterred him, so that
+school days were scarcely over before he began to accompany his
+father aloft, and in a very few years, i.e. in 1888, he had
+assumed the full responsibilities of a professional balloonist.
+
+It was in this year that Professor Baldwin appeared in England,
+and it is easy to understand that the parachute became an
+object of interest to the young Spencer, who commenced on his
+own account a series of trials at the Alexandra Palace, and it
+was now, also, that chance good fortune came his way.  An
+Indian gentleman, who was witness of his experiments, and
+convinced that a favourable field for their further development
+existed in his own country, proposed to the young aspirant that
+he should accompany him to India, with equipment suited for the
+making of a successful campaign.
+
+Thus it came about that in the early days of 1889, in the
+height of the season, Mr. Percival Spencer arrived at Bombay,
+and at once commenced professional business in earnest.  Coal
+gas being here available, a maiden ascent was quickly arranged,
+and duly announced to take place at the Government House,
+Paral, the chief attraction being the parachute descent, the
+first ever attempted in India.
+
+This preliminary exhibition proving in all ways a complete
+success, Mr. Spencer, after a few repetitions of his
+performance, repaired to Calcutta; but here great difficulties
+were experienced in the matter of gas.  The coal gas available
+was inadequate, and when recourse was had to pure hydrogen the
+supply proved too sluggish.  At the advertised hour of
+departure the balloon was not sufficiently inflated, while the
+spectators were growing impatient.  It was at this critical
+moment that Mr. Spencer resolved on a surprise.  Suddenly
+casting off the parachute, and seated on a mere sling below the
+half-inflated balloon, without ballast, without grapnel, and
+unprovided with a valve, he sailed away over the heads of the
+multitude.
+
+The afternoon was already far advanced, and the short tropical
+twilight soon gave way to darkness, when the intrepid voyager
+disappeared completely from sight.  Excitement was intense that
+night in Calcutta, and greater still the next day when, as hour
+after hour went by, no news save a series of wild and false
+reports reached the city.  Trains arriving from the country
+brought no intelligence, and telegraphic enquiries sent in all
+directions proved fruitless.  The Great Eastern Hotel, where
+the young man had been staying, was literally besieged for
+hours by a large crowd eager for any tidings.  Then the Press
+gave expression to the gloomiest forebodings, and the town was
+in a fever of unrest.  From the direction the balloon had taken
+it was thought that, even if the aeronaut had descended in
+safety, he could only have been landed in the jungle of the
+Sunderbunds, beset with perils, and without a chance of
+succour.  A large reward was offered for reliable information,
+and orders were issued to every likely station to organise a
+search.  But ere this was fully carried into effect messages
+were telegraphed to England definitely asserting that Mr.
+Spencer had lost his life.  For all this, after three days he
+returned to Calcutta, none the worse for the exploit.
+
+Then the true tale was unravelled.  The balloon had changed its
+course from S.E. to E. after passing out of sight of Calcutta,
+and eventually came to earth the same evening in the
+neighbourhood of Hossainabad, thirty-six miles distant.  During
+his aerial flight the voyager's main trouble had been caused by
+his cramped position, the galling of his sling seat, and the
+numbing effect of cold as he reached high altitudes; but, as
+twilight darkened into gloom, his real anxiety was with respect
+to his place of landing, for he could with difficulty see the
+earth underneath.  He heard the distant roll of the waters,
+caused by the numerous creeks which intersect the delta of the
+Ganges, and when darkness completely shut out the view it was
+impossible to tell whether he was over land or sea.  Fortune
+favoured him, however, and reaching dry ground, he sprang from
+his seat, relinquishing at the same moment his hold of the
+balloon, which instantly disappeared into the darkness.
+
+Then his wanderings began.  He was in an unknown country,
+without knowledge of the language, and with only a few rupees
+in his pocket.  Presently, however, seeing a light, he
+proceeded towards it, but only to find himself stopped by a
+creek.  Foiled more than once in this way, he at length arrived
+at the dwelling of a family of natives, who promptly fled in
+terror.  To inspire confidence and prove that he was mortal,
+Mr. Spencer threw his coat over the mud wall of the compound,
+with the result that, after examination of the garment, he was
+received and cared for in true native fashion, fed with rice
+and goat's milk, and allowed the use of the verandah to sleep
+in.  He succeeded in communing with the natives by dint of lead
+pencil sketches and dumb show, and learned, among other things,
+that he had descended in a little clearing surrounded by woods,
+and bounded by tidal creeks, which were infested with
+alligators.  Yet, in the end, the waterways befriended him;
+for, as he was being ferried across, he chanced on his balloon
+sailing down on the tide, recovered it, and used the tidal
+waters for the return journey.
+
+The greeting upon his arrival in Calcutta was enthusiastic
+beyond description from both Europeans and natives.  The hero
+of the adventure was visited by rajahs and notables, who vied
+with each other in expressions of welcome, in making presents,
+even inviting him to visit the sacred precincts of their
+zenanas.  The promised parachute descent was subsequently
+successfully made at Cossipore, and then followed a busy,
+brilliant season, after which the wanderer returned to England. 
+By September he is in Dublin, and makes the first parachute
+descent ever witnessed in Ireland; but by November he is in
+Bombay again, whence, proceeding to Calcutta, he repeats his
+success of the year before.  Next he visits Allahabad, where
+the same fortune attends him, though his balloon flies away in
+a temporary escape into the Jumna.  By May he is ascending at
+Singapore, armed here, however, with a cork jacket.
+
+Hence, flushed with success, he repairs to the Dutch Indies,
+and demonstrates to the Dutch officers the use of the balloon
+in war.  As a natural consequence, he is moved up to the seat
+of the Achinese War in Sumatra, where, his balloon being moored
+to the rear of an armoured train, an immediate move is made to
+the front, and orders are forthwith telephoned from various
+centres to open fire on the enemy.  Mr. Spencer, the while
+accompanied by an officer, makes a captive ascent, in which for
+some time he is actually under the enemy's fire.  The result of
+this plucky experiment is a most flattering official report. 
+In all the above-mentioned ascents he made his own gas without
+a hitch.
+
+Thence he travels on with the same trusty little 12,000 cubic
+feet balloon, the same programme, and the same success.  This
+is slightly varied, however, at Kobe, Japan, where his
+impatient craft fairly breaks away with him, and, soaring high,
+flies overhead of a man-of-war, and plumps into the water a
+mile out at sea.  But "Smartly" was the word.  The ship's crew
+was beat to quarters, and within one minute a boat was to the
+rescue.  An ascent at Cairo, where he made a parachute descent
+in sight of the Pyramids and landed in the desert, completed
+this oriental tour, and home duties necessitated his return to
+England.  Among exploits far too many to enumerate may be
+mentioned four several occasions when Mr. Percival Spencer has
+crossed the English Channel.
+
+It fell to the lot of the second son, Arthur, to carry fame
+into fresh fields.  In the year 1897 he visited Australia,
+taking with him two balloons, one of these being a noble craft
+of 80,000 cubic feet, considerably larger than any balloon used
+in England, and the singular fate of this aerial monster is
+deserving of mention.
+
+Its trial trip in the new country was arranged to take place on
+Boxing Day in the Melbourne Exhibition ground, and for the
+lengthy and critical work of inflation the able assistance of
+British bluejackets  was secured.  To all appearance, the main
+difficulties to be provided against were likely to arise simply
+from a somewhat inadequate supply of gas, and on this account
+filling commenced as early as 10 a.m. on the morning of the day
+previous to the exhibition, and was continued till 6 o'clock in
+the afternoon, by which time the balloon, being about half
+full, was staved down with sandbags through the night till 4
+o'clock the next morning, when the inflation was again
+proceeded with without hindrance and apparently under
+favourable conditions.  The morning was beautifully fine, warm,
+brilliant, and still, and so remained until half-past six,
+when, with startling rapidity, there blew up a sudden squall
+known in the country as a "Hot Buster," and in two or three
+minutes' space a terrific wind storm was sweeping the ground. 
+A dozen men, aiding a dead weight of 220 sandbags, endeavoured
+to control the plunging balloon, but wholly without avail.  Men
+and bags together were lifted clean up in the air on the
+windward side, and the silk envelope, not yet completely
+filled, at once escaped from the net and, flying upwards to a
+height estimated at 10,000 feet, came to earth again ninety
+miles away in a score of fragments.  Nothing daunted, however,
+Mr. Spencer at once endeavoured to retrieve his fortunes, and
+started straightway for the gold-mining districts of Ballarat
+and Bendigo with a hot-air balloon, with which he successfully
+gave a series of popular exhibitions of parachute descents. 
+Few aeronauts are more consistently reliable than Mr. Arthur
+Spencer.  A few summers ago in this country he was suddenly
+called upon to give proof of his prowess and presence of mind
+in a very remarkable manner.  It was at an engagement at
+Reading, where he had been conducting captive ascents
+throughout the afternoon, and was requested to conclude the
+evening with a "right away," in which two passengers had agreed
+to accompany him.  The balloon had been hauled down for the
+last time, when, by some mistake, the engine used for the
+purpose proceeded to work its pump without previously
+disconnecting the hauling gear.  The consequence of this was
+that the cable instantly snapped, and in a moment the large
+balloon, devoid of ballast, grapnel, or other appliances, and
+with neck still tied, was free, and started skyward.
+
+The inevitable result of this accident must have been that the
+balloon in a few seconds would rise to a height where the
+expansion of the imprisoned gas would burst and destroy it. 
+Mr. Spencer, however, was standing near, and, grasping the
+situation in a moment, caught at the car as it swung upwards,
+and, getting hold, succeeded in drawing himself up and so
+climbing into the ring. Quickly as this was done, the balloon
+was already distended to the point of bursting, and only the
+promptest release of gas averted catastrophe.
+
+Mr. Stanley Spencer made himself early known to the world by a
+series of parachute descents, performed from the roof of
+Olympia.  It was a bold and sensational exhibition, and on the
+expiration of his engagement the young athlete, profiting by
+home training, felt fully qualified to attempt any aerial feat
+connected with the profession of an aeronaut.  And at this
+juncture an eminent American cyclist, visiting the father's
+factory, suggested to Stanley a business tour in South America.
+
+As an extra attraction it was proposed that a young lady
+parachutist should be one of the company; so, after a few
+satisfactory trial exhibitions in England, the party made their
+way to Rio, Brazil.  Here an ascent was arranged, and by the
+day and hour appointed the balloon was successfully inflated
+with hydrogen, an enormous concourse collected, and the lady
+performer already seated in the sling.  Then a strange
+mischance happened.  By some means, never satisfactorily
+explained, the young woman, at the moment of release, slipped
+from her seat, and the balloon, escaping into the air, turned
+over and fell among the people, who vindictively destroyed it. 
+Then the crowd grew ungovernable, and threatened the lives of
+the aeronauts, who eventually were, with difficulty, rescued by
+the soldiery.
+
+This was a bad start; but with a spare balloon a fresh attempt
+at an ascent was arranged, though, from another cause, with no
+better success.  This time a furious storm arose, before the
+inflation was completed, and the balloon, carrying away, was
+torn to ribbons.  Yet a third time, with a hot air balloon now,
+a performance was advertised and successfully carried out; but,
+immediately after, Mr. Spencer's American friend succumbed to
+yellow fever, and the young man, being thrown on his own
+resources, had to fight his own way until his fortunes had been
+sufficiently restored to return to England.
+
+A few months later he set sail for Canada, where for several
+months he had a most profitable career, on one occasion only
+meeting with some difficulty.  He was giving an exhibition on
+Prince Edward's Island, not far from the sea, but on a day so
+calm that he did not hesitate to ascend.  On reaching 3,000
+feet, however, he was suddenly caught by a strong land breeze,
+which, ere he could reach the water, had carried him a mile out
+to sea, and here he was only rescued after a long interval,
+during which he had become much exhausted in his attempts to
+save his parachute from sinking.
+
+Early in 1892 our traveller visited South Africa with a hot air
+balloon, and, fortune continuing to favour him, he subsequently
+returned to Canada, and proceeded thence to the United States
+and Cuba.  It was at Havannah that popular enthusiasm in his
+favour ran so high that he was presented with a medal by the
+townsfolk.  It was from here also that, a little while after,
+tidings of his own death reached him, together with most
+gratifying obituary notices.  It would seem that, after his
+departure, an adventurer, attempting to personate him, met with
+his death.
+
+In November, 1897, he followed his elder brother's footsteps to
+the East, and exhibited in Calcutta, Singapore, Canton, and
+also Hong-Kong, where, for the first and only time in his
+experience, he met with serious accident.  He was about to
+ascend for the ordinary parachute performance with a hot air
+balloon, which was being held down by about thirty men, one
+among them being a Chinaman possessed of much excitability and
+very long finger nails.  By means of these latter the man
+contrived to gouge a considerable hole in the fabric of the
+balloon.  Mr. Spencer, to avoid a disappointment, risked an
+ascent, and it was not till the balloon had reached 600 feet
+that the rent developed into a long slit, and so brought about
+a sudden fall to earth.  Alighting on the side of a mountain,
+Mr. Spencer lay helpless with a broken leg till the arrival of
+some British bluejackets, who conveyed him to the nearest
+surgeon, when, after due attention, he was sent home.  Other
+remarkable exploits, which Mr. Stanley Spencer shared with Dr.
+Berson and with the writer and his daughter, will be recorded
+later.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIII. NEW DEPARTURES IN AEROSTATION.
+
+
+After Mr. Coxwell's experiments at Aldershot in 1862 the
+military balloon, as far as England was concerned, remained in
+abeyance for nine long years, when the Government appointed a
+Commission to enquire into its utility, and to conduct further
+experiments.  The members of this committee were Colonel Noble,
+R.E., Sir F. Abel, Captain Lee, R.E., assisted by Captain
+Elsdale, R.E., and Captain (now Colonel) Templer.  Yet another
+nine years, however, elapsed before much more was heard of this
+modernised military engine.
+
+But about the beginning of the eighties the Government had
+become fully alive to the importance of the subject, and Royal
+Engineers at Woolwich grew busy with balloon manufacture and
+experiment.  Soon "the sky around London became speckled with
+balloons."  The method of making so-called pure hydrogen by
+passing steam over red-hot iron was fully tested, and for a
+time gained favour.  The apparatus, weighing some three tons,
+was calculated to be not beyond the carrying powers of three
+service waggons, while it was capable of generating enough gas
+to inflate two balloons in twenty-four hours, a single
+inflation holding good, under favourable circumstances, for a
+long period.  At the Brighton Volunteer Review of 1880, Captain
+Templer, with nine men, conducted the operations of a captive
+reconnoitring balloon.  This was inflated at the Lewes gas
+works, and then towed two and a half miles across a river, a
+railway, and a line of telegraph wires, after which it was let
+up to a height of 1,500 feet, whence, it was stated, that so
+good a view was obtained that "every man was clearly seen."  Be
+it remembered, however, that the country was not the South
+African veldt, and every man was in the striking English
+uniform of that date.
+
+Just at this juncture came the Egyptian War, and it will be
+recalled that in the beginning of that war balloons were
+conspicuous by their absence.  The difficulties of
+reconnaissance were keenly felt and commented on, and among
+other statements we find the following in the war intelligence
+of the Times:--
+
+"As the want of a balloon equipment has been mentioned in
+letters from Egypt, it may be stated that all the War
+Department balloons remain in store at the Royal Dockyard at
+Woolwich, but have been recently examined and found perfectly
+serviceable."  An assertion had been made to the effect that
+the nature of the sand in Egypt would impede the transport of
+the heavy material necessary for inflation.  At last, however,
+the order came for the despatch of the balloon equipment to the
+front, and though this arrived long after Tel-el-Kebir, yet it
+is recorded that the first ascent in real active service in the
+British Army took place on the 25th of March, 1885, at Suakin,
+and balloons becoming regarded as an all-important part of the
+equipment of war, they were sent out in the Bechuanaland
+Expedition under Sir Charles Warren, the supply of gas being
+shipped to Cape Town in cylinders.
+
+It was at this period that, according to Mr. Coxwell, Lord
+Wolseley made ascents at home in a war balloon to form his own
+personal opinion of their capabilities, and, expressing this
+opinion to one of his staff, said that had he been able to
+employ balloons in the earlier stages of the Soudan campaign
+the affair would not have lasted as many months as it did
+years.  This statement, however, should be read in conjunction
+with another of the same officer in the "Soldier's Pocket
+Book," that "in a windy country balloons are useless."  In the
+Boer War the usefulness of the balloon was frequently tested,
+more particularly during the siege of Ladysmith, when it was
+deemed of great value in directing the fire of the British
+artillery, and again in Buller's advance, where the balloon is
+credited with having located a "death-trap" of the enemy at
+Spion Kop.  Other all-important service was rendered at
+Magersfontein.  The Service balloon principally used was made
+of goldbeaters' skin, containing about 10,000 cubic feet of
+hydrogen, which had been produced by the action of sulphuric
+acid on zinc, and compressed in steel cylinders.  A special gas
+factory was, for the purpose of the campaign, established at
+Cape Town.
+
+It is here that reference must be made to some of the special
+work undertaken by Mr. Eric S. Bruce, which dealt with the
+management of captive balloons under different conditions, and
+with a system of signalling thus rendered feasible.  Mr. Bruce,
+who, since Major Baden-Powell's retirement from the office, has
+devoted his best energies as secretary to the advancement of
+the British Aeronautical Society, was the inventor of the
+system of electric balloon signalling which he supplied to the
+British Government, as well as to the Belgian and Italian
+Governments.  This system requires but a very small balloon,
+made of three or four thicknesses of goldbeaters' skin,
+measuring from 7 to 10 feet in diameter, and needing only two
+or three gas cylinders for inflation.  Within the balloon,
+which is sufficiently translucent, are placed several
+incandescent lamps in metallic circuit, with a source of
+electricity on the ground.  This source of electricity may
+consist of batteries of moderate size or a portable hand
+dynamo.  In the circuit is placed an apparatus for making and
+breaking contact rapidly, and by varying the duration of the
+flashes in the balloon telegraphic messages may be easily
+transmitted.  To overcome the difficulty of unsteadiness, under
+circumstances of rough weather, in the captive balloon which
+carried the glow lamps, Mr. Bruce experimented with guy ropes,
+and gave a most successful exhibition of their efficiency
+before military experts at Stamford Bridge grounds, though a
+stiff wind was blowing at the time.
+
+It must be perfectly obvious, however, that a captive balloon
+in a wind is greatly at a disadvantage, and to counteract this,
+attempts have been made in the direction of a combination
+between the balloon and a kite.  This endeavour has been
+attended with some measure of success in the German army.  Mr.
+Douglas Archibald, in England, was one of the first to advocate
+the kite balloon.  In 1888 he called attention to the
+unsatisfactory behaviour of captive balloons in variable winds,
+dropping with every gust and rising again with a lull.  In
+proof he described an expedient of Major Templer's, where an
+attempt was being made to operate a photographic camera hoisted
+by two tandem kites.  "The balloon," he writes, "went up
+majestically, and all seemed very satisfactory until a mile of
+cable had been run out, and the winder locked."  It was then
+that troubles began which threatened the wreckage of the
+apparatus, and Mr. Archibald, in consequence, strongly
+recommended a kite balloon at that time.  Twelve years later
+the same able experimentalist, impressed with the splendid work
+done by kites alone for meteorological purposes at least,
+allowed that he was quite content to "let the kite balloon go
+by."
+
+But the German school of aeronauts were doing bigger things
+than making trials with kite balloons.  The German Society for
+the Promotion of Aerial Navigation, assisted by the Army
+Balloon Corps, were busy in 1888, when a series of important
+ascents were commenced.  Under the direction of Dr. Assmann,
+the energetic president of the aeronautical society above
+named, captive ascents were arranged in connection with free
+ascents for meteorological purposes, and it was thus
+practicable to make simultaneous observations at different
+levels.  These experiments, which were largely taken up on the
+Continent, led to others of yet higher importance, in which the
+unmanned balloon took a part.  But the Continental annals of
+this date contain one unhappy record of another nature, the
+recounting of which will, at least, break the monotony
+attending mere experimental details.
+
+In October, 1893, Captain Charbonnet, an enthusiastic French
+aeronaut, resolved on spending his honeymoon, with the full
+consent of his bride, in a prolonged balloon excursion.  The
+start was to be made from Turin, and, the direction of travel
+lying across the Alps, it was the hope of the voyagers
+eventually to reach French territory.  The ascent was made in
+perfect safety, as was also the first descent, at the little
+village of Piobesi, ten miles away.  Here a halt was made for
+the night, and the next morning, when a fresh start was
+determined on, two young Italians, Signori Botto and Durando,
+were taken on board as assistants, for the exploit began to
+assume an appearance of some gravity, and this the more so when
+storm clouds began brewing.  At an altitude of 10,000 feet
+cross-currents were encountered, and the course becoming
+obscured the captain descended to near the earth, where he
+discovered himself to be in dangerous proximity to gaunt
+mountain peaks.  On observing this, he promptly cast out sand
+so liberally that the balloon rose to a height approaching
+20,000 feet, when a rapid descent presently began, and refused
+to be checked, even with the expenditure of all available
+ballast.
+
+All the while the earth remained obscured, but, anticipating a
+fall among the mountains, Captain Charbonnet bade his
+companions lie down in the car while he endeavoured to catch
+sight of some landmark; but, quite suddenly, the balloon struck
+some mountain slope with such force as to throw the captain
+back into the car with a heavy blow over the eye; then,
+bounding across a gulley, it struck again and yet again,
+falling and rebounding between rocky walls, till it settled on
+a steep and snowy ridge.  Darkness was now closing in, and the
+party, without food or proper shelter, had to pass the night as
+best they might on the bare spot where they fell, hoping for
+encouragement with the return of day.  But dawn showed them to
+be on a dangerous peak, 10,000 feet high, whence they must
+descend by their own unassisted efforts.  After a little
+clambering the captain, who was in a very exhausted state, fell
+through a hidden crevasse, fracturing his skull sixty feet
+below.  The remaining three struggled on throughout the day,
+and had to pass a second night on the mountain, this time
+without covering.  On the third day they met with a shepherd,
+who conducted them with difficulty to the little village of
+Balme.
+
+This story, by virtue of its romance, finds a place in these
+pages; but, save for its tragic ending, it hardly stands alone. 
+Ballooning enterprise and adventure were growing every year
+more and more common on the Continent.  In Scandinavia we find
+the names of Andree, Fraenkal, and Strindberg; in Denmark that
+of Captain Rambusch.  Berlin and Paris had virtually become the
+chief centres of the development of ballooning as a science. 
+In the former city a chief among aeronauts had arisen in Dr. A.
+Berson, who, in December, 1894, not only reached 30,000 feet,
+ascending alone, but at that height sustained himself
+sufficiently, by inhaling oxygen, to take systematic
+observations throughout the entire voyage of five hours.  The
+year before, in company with Lieutenant Gross, he barely
+escaped with his life, owing to tangled ropes getting foul of
+the valve.  Toulet and those who accompanied him lost their
+lives near Brussels.  Later Wolfert and his engineer were
+killed near Berlin, while Johannsen and Loyal fell into the
+Sound.  Thus ever fresh and more extended enterprise was
+embarked upon with good fortune and ill.  In fact, it had
+become evident to all that the Continent afforded facilities
+for the advancement of aerial exploration which could be met
+with in no other parts of the world, America only excepted. 
+And it was at this period that the expedient of the ballon
+sonde, or unmanned balloon, was happily thought of.  One of
+these balloons, the "Cirrus," among several trials, rose to a
+height, self-registered, of 61,000 feet, while a possible
+greater height has been accorded to it.  On one occasion,
+ascending from Berlin, it fell in Western Russia, on another in
+Bosnia.  Then, in 1896, at the Meteorological Conference at
+Paris, with Mascart as President, Gustave Hermite, with
+characteristic ardour, introduced a scheme of national ascents
+with balloons manned and unmanned, and this scheme was soon put
+in effect under a commission of famous names--Andree, Assmann,
+Berson, Besancon, Cailletet, Erk, de Fonvielle, Hergesell,
+Hermite, Jaubert, Pomotzew (of St. Petersburg), and Rotch (of
+Boston, Mass.).
+
+In November, 1896, five manned balloons and three unmanned
+ascended simultaneously from France, Germany, and Russia.  The
+next year saw, with the enterprise of these nations, the
+co-operation of Austria and Belgium.  Messrs. Hermite and
+Besancon, both French aeronauts, were the first to make
+practical trial of the method of sounding the upper air by
+unmanned balloons, and, as a preliminary attempt, dismissed
+from Paris a number of small balloons, a large proportion of
+which were recovered, having returned to earth after less than
+100 miles' flight.  Larger paper balloons were now constructed,
+capable of carrying simple self-recording instruments, also
+postcards, which became detached at regular intervals by the
+burning away of slow match, and thus indicated the path of the
+balloon.  The next attempt was more ambitious, made with a
+goldbeaters' skin balloon containing 4,000 cubic feet of gas,
+and carrying automatic instruments of precision.  This balloon
+fell in the Department of the Yonne, and was returned to Paris
+with the instruments, which remained uninjured, and which
+indicated that an altitude of 49,000 feet had been reached, and
+a minimum temperature of -60 degrees encountered.  Yet larger
+balloons of the same nature were then experimented with in
+Germany, as well as France.
+
+A lack of public support has crippled the attempts of
+experimentalists in this country, but abroad this method of
+aerial exploration continues to gain favour.
+
+Distinct from, and supplementing, the records obtained by free
+balloons, manned or unmanned, are those to be gathered from an
+aerostat moored to earth.  It is here that the captive balloon
+has done good service to meteorology, as we have shown, but
+still more so has the high-flying kite.  It must long have been
+recognised that instruments placed on or near the ground are
+insufficient for meteorological purposes, and, as far back as
+1749, we find Dr. Wilson, of Glasgow, employing kites to
+determine the upper currents, and to carry thermometers into
+higher strata of the air.  Franklin's kite and its application
+is matter of history.  Many since that period made experiments
+more or less in earnest to obtain atmospheric observations by
+means of kites, but probably the first in England, at least to
+obtain satisfactory results, was Mr. Douglas Archibald, who,
+during the eighties, was successful in obtaining valuable wind
+measurements, as also other results, including aerial
+photographs, at varying altitudes up to 1,000 or 1,200 feet.
+From that period the records of serious and systematic kite
+flying must be sought in America.  Mr. W. A. Eddy was one of the
+pioneers, and a very serviceable tailless kite, in which the
+cross-bar is bowed away from the wind, is his invention, and
+has been much in use.  Mr. Eddy established his kite at Blue
+Hill--the now famous kite observatory--and succeeded in lifting
+self-recording meteorological instruments to considerable
+heights.  The superiority of readings thus obtained is obvious
+from the fact that fresh air-streams are constantly playing on
+the instruments.
+
+A year or two later a totally dissimilar kite was introduced by
+Mr. Lawrence Hargrave, of Sydney, Australia.  This invention,
+which has proved of the greatest utility and efficiency, would,
+from its appearance, upset all conventional ideas of what a
+kite should be, resembling in its simplest form a mere box,
+minus the back and front.  Nevertheless, these kites, in their
+present form, have carried instruments to heights of upwards of
+two miles, the restraining line being fine steel piano wire.
+
+But another and most efficient kite, admirably adapted for many
+most important purposes, is that invented by Major
+Baden-Powell.  The main objects originally aimed at in the
+construction of this kite related to military operations, such
+as signalling, photography, and the raising of a man to an
+elevation for observational purposes.  In the opinion of the
+inventor, who is a practiced aeronaut, a wind of over thirty
+miles an hour renders a captive balloon useless, while a kite
+under such conditions should be capable of taking its place in
+the field.  Describing his early experiments, Major, then
+Captain, Baden-Powell, stated that in 1894, after a number of
+failures, he succeeded with a hexagonal structure of cambric,
+stretched on a bamboo framework 36 feet high, in lifting a
+man--not far, but far enough to prove that his theories were
+right.  Later on, substituting a number of small kites for one
+big one, he was, on several occasions, raised to a height of
+100 feet, and had sent up sand bags, weighing 9 stone, to 300
+feet, at which height they remained suspended nearly a whole
+day.
+
+This form of kite, which has been further developed, has been
+used in the South African campaign in connection with wireless
+telegraphy for the taking of photographs at great heights,
+notably at Modder River, and for other purposes.
+
+It has been claimed that the first well-authenticated occasion
+of a man being raised by a kite was when at Pirbright Camp a
+Baden-Powell kite, 30 feet high, flown by two lines, from which
+a basket was suspended, took a man up to a height of 10 feet. 
+It is only fair, however, to state that it is related that more
+than fifty years ago a lady was lifted some hundred feet by a
+great kite constructed by one George Pocock, whose machine was
+designed for an observatory in war, and also for drawing
+carriages along highways.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIV.  ANDREE AND HIS VOYAGES
+
+
+Among many suggestions, alike important and original, due to
+Major Baden-Powell, and coming within the field of aeronautics,
+is one having reference to the use of balloons for geographical
+research generally and more particularly for the exploration of
+Egypt, which, in his opinion, is a country possessing many most
+desirable qualifications on the score of prevailing winds, of
+suitable base, and of ground adapted for such steering as may be
+effected with a trail rope.  At the Bristol meeting of the
+British Association the Major thus propounded his method: "I
+should suggest several balloons, one of about 60,000 cubic feet,
+and, say, six smaller ones of about 7,000 cubic feet; then, if
+one gets torn or damaged, the others might remain intact.  After
+a time, when gas is lost, one of the smaller ones could be
+emptied into the others, and the exhausted envelope discharged
+as ballast; the smaller balloons would be easier to transport by
+porters than one big one, and they could be more easily secured
+on the earth during contrary winds.  Over the main balloon a
+light awning might be rigged to neutralise, as far as possible,
+the changes of temperature.  A lightning conductor to the top of
+the balloon might be desirable.  A large sail would be arranged,
+and a bifurcated guide rope attached to the end of a horizontal
+pole would form an efficient means of steering.  The car would
+be boat-shaped and waterproof, so that it could be used for a
+return journey down a river.  Water tanks would be fitted."
+
+The reasonableness of such a scheme is beyond question, even
+without the working calculations with which it is accompanied;
+but, ere these words were spoken, one of the most daring
+explorers that the world has known had begun to put in practice
+a yet bolder and rasher scheme of his own.  The idea of
+reaching the North Pole by means of balloons appears to have
+been entertained many years ago.  In a curious work, published
+in Paris in 1863 by Delaville Dedreux, there is a suggestion
+for reaching the North Pole by an aerostat which should be
+launched from the nearest accessible point, the calculation
+being that the distance from such a starting place to the Pole
+and back again would be only some 1,200 miles, which could be
+covered in two days, supposing only that there could be found a
+moderate and favourable wind in each direction.  Mr. C. G.
+Spencer also wrote on the subject, and subsequently Commander
+Cheyne proposed a method of reaching the Pole by means of
+triple balloons.  A similar scheme was advocated in yet more
+serious earnest by M. Hermite in the early eighties.
+
+Some ten years later than this M. S. A. Andree, having obtained
+sufficient assistance, took up the idea with the determined
+intention of pushing it to a practical issue.  He had already
+won his spurs as an aeronaut, as may be briefly told.  In
+October, 1893, when making an ascent for scientific purposes,
+his balloon got carried out over the Baltic.  It may have been
+the strength of the wind that had taken him by surprise; but,
+there being now no remedy, it was clearly the speed and
+persistence of the wind that alone could save him.  If a chance
+vessel could not, or would not, "stand by," he must make the
+coast of Finland or fall in the sea, and several times the fall
+in the sea seemed imminent as his balloon commenced dropping. 
+This threatened danger induced him to cast away his anchor,
+after which the verge of the Finland shore was nearly reached,
+when a change of wind began to carry him along the rocky coast,
+just as night was setting in.
+
+Recognising his extreme danger, Andree stood on the edge of the
+car, with a bag of ballast ready for emergencies.  He actually
+passed over an island, on which was a building with a light;
+but failed to effect a landing, and so fell in the sea on the
+farther side; but, the balloon presently righting itself,
+Andree, now greatly exhausted, made his last effort, and as he
+rose over the next cliff jumped for his life.  It was past 7
+p.m. when he found himself once again on firm ground, but with
+a sprained leg and with no one within call.  Seeking what
+shelter he could, he lived out the long night, and, being now
+scarce able to stand, took off his clothes and waved them for a
+signal.  This signal was not seen, yet shortly a boat put off
+from an island--the same that he had passed the evening before-
+-and rowed towards him.  The boatman overnight had seen a
+strange sail sweeping over land and sea, and he had come in
+quest of it, bringing timely succour to the castaway.
+
+Briefly stated, Andree's grand scheme was to convey a suitable
+balloon, with means for inflating it, as also all necessary
+equipment, as far towards the Pole as a ship could proceed, and
+thence, waiting for a favourable wind, to sail by sky until the
+region of the Pole should be crossed, and some inhabited
+country reached beyond.  The balloon was to be kept near the
+earth, and steered, as far as this might be practicable, by
+means of a trail rope.  The balloon, which had a capacity of
+nearly 162,000 cubic feet, was made in Paris, and was provided
+with a rudder sail and an arrangement whereby the hang of the
+trail rope could be readily shifted to different positions on
+the ring.  Further, to obviate unnecessary diffusion and loss
+of gas at the mouth, the balloon was fitted with a lower valve,
+which would only open at a moderate pressure, namely, that of
+four inches of water.
+
+All preparations were completed by the summer of 1896, and on
+June 7th the party embarked at Gothenburg with all necessaries
+on board, arriving at Spitzbergen on June 21st.  Andree, who
+was to be accompanied on his aerial voyage by two companions,
+M. Nils Strindberg and Dr.  Ekholm, spent some time in
+selecting a spot that would seem suitable for their momentous
+start, and this was finally found on Dane's Island, where their
+cargo was accordingly landed.
+
+The first operation was the erection of a wooden shed, the
+materials for which they had brought with them, as a protection
+from the wind.  It was a work which entailed some loss of time,
+after which the gas apparatus had to be got into order, so
+that, in spite of all efforts, it was the 27th of July before
+the balloon was inflated and in readiness.
+
+A member of an advance party of an eclipse  expedition arriving
+in Spitzbergen at this period, and paying a visit to Andree for
+the purpose of taking him letters, wrote:--" We watched him
+deal out the letters to his men.  They are all volunteers and
+include seven sea captains, a lawyer, and other people some
+forty in all.  Andree chaffed each man to whom he gave a
+letter, and all were as merry as crickets over the business.... 
+We spent our time in watching preparations.  The vaseline (for
+soaking the guide ropes) caught fire to-day, but, luckily no
+rope was in the pot."
+
+But the wind as yet was contrary, and day after day passed
+without any shift to a favourable quarter, until the captain of
+the ship which had conveyed them was compelled to bring matters
+to an issue by saying that they must return home without delay
+if he was to avoid getting frozen in for the winter.  The
+balloon had now remained inflated for twenty-one days, and Dr. 
+Ekholm, calculating that the leakage of gas amounted to nearly
+1 per cent. per day, became distrustful of the capability of
+such a vessel to cope with such a voyage as had been aimed at. 
+The party had now no choice but to return home with their
+balloon, leaving, however, the shed and gas-generating
+apparatus for another occasion.
+
+This occasion came the following summer, when the dauntless
+explorers returned to their task, leaving Gothenburg on May
+28th, 1897, in a vessel lent by the King of Sweden, and
+reaching Dane's Island on the 30th of the same month.  Dr. 
+Ekholm had retired from the enterprise, but in his place were
+two volunteers, Messrs. Frankel and Svedenborg, the latter as
+"odd man," to fill the place of any of the other three who
+might be prevented from making the final venture.
+
+It was found that the shed had suffered during the winter, and
+some time was spent in making the repairs and needful
+preparation, so that the month of June was half over before all
+was in readiness for the inflation.  This operation was then
+accomplished in four days, and by midnight of June 22nd the
+balloon was at her moorings, full and in readiness; but, as in
+the previous year, the wind was contrary, and remained so for
+nearly three weeks.  This, of course, was a less serious
+matter, inasmuch as the voyagers were a month earlier with
+their preparation, but so long a delay must needs have told
+prejudicially against the buoyancy of the balloon, and Andree
+is hardly to be blamed for having, in the end, committed
+himself to a wind that was not wholly favourable.
+
+The wind, if entirely from the right direction, should have
+been due south, but on July 11th it had veered to a direction
+somewhat west of south, and Andree, tolerating no further
+delay, seized this as his best opportunity, and with a wind
+"whistling through the woodwork of the shed and flapping the
+canvas," accompanied by Frankel and Svedenborg, started on his
+ill-fated voyage.
+
+A telegram which Andree wrote for the Press at that epoch ran
+thus:--" At this moment, 2.30 p.m., we are ready to start.  We
+shall probably be driven in a north-north-easterly direction."
+
+On July 22nd a carrier pigeon was recovered by the fishing boat
+Alken between North Cape, Spitzbergen, and Seven Islands,
+bearing a message, "July 13th, 12.30 p.m., 82 degrees  2
+minutes north lat., 15 degrees 5 minutes east long.  Good
+journey eastward.  All goes well on board.  Andree."
+
+Not till August 31st was there picked up in the Arctic zone a
+buoy, which is preserved in the Museum of Stockholm.  It bears
+the message, "Buoy No. 4.  First to be thrown out.  11th July,
+10 p.m., Greenwich mean time.  All well up till now.  We are
+pursuing our course at an altitude of about 250 metres
+Direction at first northerly 10 degrees east; later; northerly
+45 degrees east.  Four carrier pigeons were despatched at 5.40
+p.m.  They flew westwards.  We are now above the ice, which is
+very cut up in all directions.  Weather splendid.  In excellent
+spirits.--Andree, Svedenborg, Frankel.  (Postscript later on.)
+Above the clouds, 7.45, Greenwich mean time."
+
+According to Reuter, the Anthropological and Geological Society
+at Stockholm received the following telegram from a ship owner
+at Mandal:--"Captain Hueland, of the steamship Vaagen who
+arrived there on Monday morning, reports that when off Kola
+Fjord, Iceland, in 65 degrees 34 minutes north lat., 21 degrees
+28 minutes west long., on May 14th he found a drifting buoy,
+marked 'No. 7.'  Inside the buoy was a capsule marked 'Andree's
+Polar Expedition,' containing a slip of paper, on which was
+given the following: 'Drifting Buoy No. 7.  This buoy was
+thrown out from Andree's balloon on July 11th 1897, 10.55 p.m.,
+Greenwich mean time, 82 degrees north lat., 25 degrees east
+lon.  We are at an altitude of 600 metres.  All well.--Andree,
+Svedenborg, Frankel.' "
+
+Commenting on the first message, Mr. Percival Spencer says:--"I
+cannot place reliance upon the accuracy of either the date or
+else the lat. and long. given, as I am confident that the
+balloon would have travelled a greater distance in two days."
+It should be noted that Dane's Island lies in 79 degrees 30
+minutes north lat. and 10 degrees 10 minutes east long.
+
+Mr. Spencer's opinion, carefully considered and expressed
+eighteen months afterwards, will be read with real interest:--
+
+"The distance from Dane's Island to the Pole is about 750
+miles, and to Alaska on the other side about 1,500 miles.  The
+course of the balloon, however, was not direct to the Pole, but
+towards Franz Josef Land (about 600 miles) and to the Siberian
+coast (another 800 miles).  Judging from the description of
+the wind at the start, and comparing it with my own ballooning
+experience, I estimate its speed as 40 miles per hour, and it
+will, therefore, be evident that a distance of 2,000 miles
+would be covered in 50 hours, that is two days and two hours
+after the start.  I regard all theories as to the balloon being
+capable of remaining in the air for a month as illusory.  No
+free balloon has ever remained aloft for more than 36 hours,
+but with the favourable conditions at the northern regions
+(where the sun does not set and where the temperature remains
+equable) a balloon might remain in the air for double the
+length of time which I consider ample for the purpose of Polar
+exploration."
+
+A record of the direction of the wind was made after Andree's
+departure, and proved that there was a fluctuation in direction
+from S.W. to N.W., indicating that the voyagers may have been
+borne across towards Siberia.  This, however, can be but
+surmise.  All aeronauts of experience know that it is an
+exceedingly difficult manoeuvre to keep a trail rope dragging
+on the ground if it is desirable to prevent contact with the
+earth on the one hand, or on the other to avoid loss of gas.  A
+slight increase of temperature or drying off of condensed
+moisture may--indeed, is sure to after a while--lift the rope
+off the ground, in which case the balloon, rising into upper
+levels, may be borne away on currents which may be of almost
+any direction, and of which the observer below may know
+nothing.  As to the actual divergence from the wind's direction
+which a trail rope and side sail might be hoped to effect, it
+may be confidently stated that, notwithstanding some wonderful
+accounts that have gone abroad, it must not be relied on as
+commonly amounting to much more than one or, at the most, two
+points.
+
+Although it is to be feared that trustworthy information as to
+the ultimate destination of Andree's balloon may never be
+gained, yet we may safely state that his ever famous, though
+regrettable, voyage was the longest in duration ever attained. 
+At the end of 48 hours his vessel would seem to have been still
+well up and going strong.  The only other previous voyage that
+had in duration of travel approached this record was that made
+by M.  Mallet, in 1892, and maintained for 36 hours.  Next we
+may mention that of M. Herve, in 1886, occupying 24 1/2 hours,
+which feat, however, was almost equal led by the great Leipzig
+balloon in 1897, which, with eight people in the car, remained
+up for 24 1/4 hours, and did not touch earth till 1,032 miles
+had been traversed.
+
+The fabric of Andree's balloon may not be considered to have
+been the best for such an exceptional purpose.  Dismissing
+considerations of cost, goldbeaters' skin would doubtless have
+been more suitable.  The military balloons at Aldershot are
+made of this, and one such balloon has been known to remain
+inflated for three months with very little loss.  It is
+conceivable, therefore, that the chances of the voyagers, whose
+ultimate safety depended so largely upon the staying power of
+their aerial vessel, might have been considerably increased.
+
+One other expedient, wholly impracticable, but often seriously
+discussed, may be briefly referred to, namely, the idea of
+taking up apparatus for pumping gas into metal receivers as the
+voyage proceeds, in order to raise or lower a balloon, and in
+this way to prolong its life.  Mr. Wenham has investigated the
+point with his usual painstaking care, and reduced its
+absurdity to a simple calculation, which should serve to banish
+for good such a mere extravagant theory.
+
+Suppose, he says, the gas were compressed to one-twentieth part
+of its bulk, which would mean a pressure within its receiver of
+300 lbs. per square inch, and that each receiver had a capacity
+of 1 cubic foot, while for safety sake it was made of steel
+plates one-twentieth of an inch thick, then each receiver would
+weigh 10 lbs., and to liberate 1,000 feet clearly a weight of
+500 lbs. would have to be taken up.  Now, when it is considered
+that 1,000 cubic feet of hydrogen will only lift 72 lbs., the
+scheme begins to look hope less enough.  But when the question
+of the pumping apparatus, to be worked by hand, is contemplated
+the difficulties introduced become yet more insuperable.  The
+only feasible suggestion with respect the use of compressed gas
+is that of taking on board charged cylinders under high
+pressure, which, after being discharged to supply the leakage
+of the balloon could, in an uninhabited country, be cast out as
+ballast last.  It will need no pointing out, however, that such
+an idea would be practically as futile as another which has
+gravely been recommended, namely, that of heating the gas of
+the balloon by a Davy lamp, so as to increase its buoyancy at
+will.  Major Baden-Powell has aptly described this as
+resembling "an attempt to warm a large hall with a small spirit
+lamp.'
+
+In any future attempt to reach the Pole by balloon it is
+not unreasonable to suppose that wireless telegraphy will be
+put in practice to maintain communication with the base.  The
+writer's personal experience of the possibilities afforded by
+this mode of communication, yet in its infancy, will be given.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXV.  THE MODERN AIRSHIP--IN SEARCH OF THE LEONIDS.
+
+
+In the autumn of 1898 the aeronautical world was interested to
+hear that a young Brazilian, M. Santos Dumont, had completed a
+somewhat novel dirigible balloon, cylindrical in shape, with
+conical ends, 83 feet long by 12 feet in diameter, holding
+6,500 cubic feet of gas, and having a small compensating
+balloon of 880 cubic feet capacity.  For a net was substituted
+a simple contrivance, consisting of two side pockets, running
+the length of the balloon, and containing battens of wood, to
+which were affixed the suspension cords, bands being also sewn
+over the upper part of the balloon connecting the two pockets. 
+The most important novelty, however, was the introduction of a
+small petroleum motor similar to those used for motor
+tricycles.
+
+The inventor ascended in this balloon, inflated with pure
+hydrogen, from the Jardin d'Acclimatation, Paris, and circled
+several times round the large captive balloon in the Gardens,
+after which, moving towards the Bois de Boulogne, he made
+several sweeps of 100 yards radius.  Then the pump of the
+compensator caused the engine to stop, and the machine,
+partially collapsing, fell to the ground.  Santos Dumont was
+somewhat shaken, but announced his intention of making other
+trials.  In this bold and successful attempt there was clear
+indication of a fresh phase in the construction of the airship,
+consisting in the happy adoption of the modern type of
+petroleum motor.  Two other hying machines were heard of about
+this date, one by Professor Giampietre, of Pavia, cigar-shaped,
+driven by screws, and rigged with masts and sails.  The other,
+which had been constructed and tested in strict privacy, was
+the invention of a French engineer, M. Ader, and was imagined
+to imitate the essential structure of a bird.  Two steam motors
+of 20-horse power supplied the power.  It was started by being
+run on the ground on small wheels attached to it, and it was
+claimed that before a breakdown occurred the machine had
+actually raised itself into the air.
+
+Of Santos Dumont the world was presently to know more, and the
+same must be said of another inventor, Dr. Barton, of
+Beckenham, who shortly completed an airship model carrying
+aeroplanes and operated by clockwork.  In an early experiment
+this model travelled four miles in twenty-three minutes.
+
+But another airship, a true leviathan, had been growing into
+stately and graceful proportions on the shores of the Bodenzee
+in Wurtemberg, and was already on the eve of completion.  Count
+Zeppelin, a lieut.-general in the German Army, who had seen
+service in the Franco-German War, had for some years devoted
+his fortune and energy to the practical study of aerial
+navigation, and had prosecuted experiments on a large scale. 
+Eventually, having formed a company with a large capital, he
+was enabled to construct an airship which in size has been
+compared to a British man-of-war.  Cigar-shaped, its length was
+no less than 420 feet, and diameter 40 feet, while its weight
+amounted to no more than 7,250 lbs.  The framework, which for
+lightness had been made of aluminium, was, with the object of
+preventing all the gas collecting at one end of its elongated
+form, subdivided into seventeen compartments, each of these
+compartments containing a completely fitted gas balloon, made
+of oiled cotton and marvellously gas tight.  A steering
+apparatus was placed both fore and aft, and at a safe distance
+below the main structure were fixed, also forward and aft, on
+aluminium platforms, two Daimler motor engines of 16-horse
+power, working aluminium propellers of four blades at the rate
+of 1,000 revolutions a minute.  Finally, firmly attached to the
+inner framework by rods of aluminium, were two cars of the same
+metal, furnished with buffer springs to break the force of a
+fall.  The trial trip was not made till the summer
+following--June, 1900--and, in the meanwhile, experiments had
+gone forward with another mode of flight, terminating,
+unhappily, in the death of one of the most expert and ingenious
+of mechanical aeronauts.
+
+Mr. Percy S.  Pilcher, now thirty-three years of age, having
+received his early training in the Navy, retired from the
+Service to become a civil engineer, and had been for some time
+a partner in the firm of Wilson and Pilcher.  For four or five
+years he had been experimenting in soaring flight, using a
+Lilienthal machine, which he improved to suit his own methods. 
+Among these was the device of rising off the ground by being
+rapidly towed by a line against the wind.
+
+At the end of September he gave an exhibition at Stamford Park
+before Lord Bray and a select party of friends--this in spite
+of an unsuitable afternoon of unsteady wind and occasional
+showers.  A long towing line was provided, which, being passed
+round pulley blocks and dragged by a couple of horses, was
+capable of being hauled in at high speed.  The first trial,
+though ending in an accident, was eminently satisfactory.  The
+apparatus, running against the wind, had risen some distance,
+when the line broke, yet the inventor descended slowly and
+safely with outstretched wings.  The next trial also commenced
+well, with an easy rise to a height of some thirty feet.  At
+that point, however, the tail broke with a snap, and the
+machine, pitching over, fell a complete wreck.  Mr. Pilcher was
+found insensible, with his thigh broken, and though no other
+serious injury was apparent, he succumbed two days afterwards
+without recovering consciousness.  It was surmised that
+shrinkage of the canvas of the tail, through getting wet, had
+strained and broken its bamboo stretcher.
+
+This autumn died Gaston Tissandier, at the age of fifty-six;
+and in the month of December, at a ripe old age, while still in
+full possession of intellectual vigour, Mr. Coxwell somewhat
+suddenly passed away.  Always keenly interested in the progress
+of aeronautics; he had but recently, in a letter to the
+Standard, proposed a well-considered and practical method of
+employing Montgolfier reconnoitring balloons, portable, readily
+inflated, and especially suited to the war in South Africa. 
+Perhaps the last letters of a private nature penned by Mr.
+Coxwell were to the writer and his daughter, full of friendly
+and valuable suggestion, and more particularly commenting on a
+recent scientific aerial voyage, which proved to be not only
+sensational, but established a record in English ballooning.
+
+The great train of the November meteors, known as the Leonids,
+which at regular periods of thirty-three years had in the past
+encountered the earth's atmosphere, was due, and over-due.  The
+cause of this, and of their finally eluding observation, need
+only be very briefly touched on here.  The actual meteoric
+train is known to travel in an elongated ellipse, the far end
+of which lies near the confines of the solar system, while at a
+point near the hither end the earth's orbit runs slantingly
+athwart it, forming, as it were, a level crossing common to the
+two orbits, the earth taking some five or six hours in transit. 
+Calculation shows that the meteor train is to be expected at
+this crossing every thirty-three and a third years, while the
+train is extended to such an enormous length--taking more than
+a year to draw clear--that the earth must needs encounter it
+ere it gets by, possibly even two years running.  There could
+be no absolute certainty about the exact year, nor the exact
+night when the earth and the meteors would foregather, owing to
+the uncertain disturbance which the latter must suffer from the
+pull of the planetary bodies in the long journey out and home
+again among them.  As is now known, this disturbing effect had
+actually dispersed the train.
+
+The shower, which was well seen in 1866, was pretty confidently
+expected in 1899, and to guard against the mischance of cloudy
+weather, it was arranged that the writer should, on behalf of
+the Times newspaper, make an ascent on the right night to
+secure observations.  Moreover, it was arranged that he should
+have, as chief assistant, his own daughter, an enthusiastic
+lady aeronaut, who had also taken part in previous astronomical
+work.
+
+Unfortunately there were two nights, those of November 14th and
+15th, when the expected shower seemed equally probable, and,
+taking counsel with the best authorities in the astronomical
+world, it seemed that the only course to avoid disappointment
+would be to have a balloon filled and moored in readiness for
+an immediate start, either on the first night or on the second.
+
+This settled the matter from the astronomical side, but there
+was the aeronautical side also to be considered.  A balloon of
+56,000 cubic feet capacity was the largest available for the
+occasion, and a night ascent with three passengers and
+instruments would need plenty of lifting power to meet chance
+emergencies.  Thus it seemed that a possible delay of
+forty-eight hours might entail a greater leakage of gas than
+could be afforded.
+
+The leakage might be expected chiefly to occur at the valve in
+the head of the balloon, it being extremely difficult to render
+any form of mechanical valve gas tight, however carefully its
+joints be stopped with luting.  On this account, therefore, it
+was determined that the balloon should be fitted with what is
+known as a solid or rending valve, consisting simply of balloon
+fabric tied hard and fast over the entire upper outlet, after
+the fashion of a jam pot cover.  The outlet itself was a gaping
+hole of over 2 feet across; but by the time its covering had
+been carefully varnished over all leakage was sufficiently
+prevented, the one drawback to this method being the fact that
+the liberation of gas now admitted of no regulation.  Pulling
+the valve line would simply mean opening the entire wide
+aperture, which could in no way be closed again.
+
+The management of such a valve consists in allowing the balloon
+to sink spontaneously earthwards, and when it has settled near
+the ground, having chosen a desirable landing place, to tear
+open the so-called valve once and for all.
+
+This expedient, dictated by necessity, seeming sufficient for
+the purpose at hand, preparations were proceeded with, and,
+under the management of Mr. Stanley Spencer, who agreed to act
+as aeronaut, a large balloon, with solid valve, was brought
+down to Newbury gas works on November 14th, and, being inflated
+during the afternoon, was full and made snug by sundown.  But
+as the meteor radiant would not be well above the horizon till
+after midnight, the aeronautical party retired for refreshment,
+and subsequently for rest, when, as the night wore on, it
+became evident that, though the sky remained clear, there would
+be no meteor display that night.  The next day was overcast,
+and by nightfall hopelessly so, the clouds ever thickening,
+with absence of wind or any indication which might give promise
+of a change.  Thus by midnight it became impossible to tell
+whether any display were in progress or not.  Under these
+circumstances, it might have been difficult to decide when to
+make the start with the best show of reason.  Clearly too early
+a start could not subsequently be rectified; the balloon, once
+off, could not come back again; while, once liberated, it would
+be highly unwise for it to remain aloft and hidden by clouds
+for more than some two hours, lest it should be carried out to
+sea.
+
+Happily the right decision under these circumstances was
+perfectly clear.  Other things being equal, the best time would
+be about 4 a.m., by which period the moon, then near the full,
+would be getting low, and the two hours of darkness left would
+afford the best seeing.  Leaving, then, an efficient outlook on
+the balloon ground, the party enjoyed for some hours the
+entertainment offered them by the Newbury Guildhall Club, and
+at 4 a.m. taking their seats in the car, sailed up into the
+calm chilly air of the November night.
+
+But the chilliness did not last for long.  A height of 1,500
+feet was read by the Davy lamp, and then we entered fog--warm,
+wetting fog, through which the balloon would make no progress
+in spite of a prodigal discharge of sand.  The fact was that
+the balloon, which had become chilled through the night hours,
+was gathering a great weight of moisture from condensation on
+its surface, and when, at last, the whole depth of the cloud,
+1,500 feet, had been penetrated, the chill of the upper air
+crippled the balloon and sent her plunging down again into the
+mist, necessitating yet further expenditure of sand, which by
+this time had amounted to no less than 3 1/2 cwt. in twenty
+minutes.  And then at last we reached our level, a region on
+the upper margin of the cloud floor, where evaporation reduced
+the temperature, that had recently been that of greenhouse
+warmth, to intense cold.
+
+That evaporation was going on around us on a gigantic scale was
+made very manifest.  The surface of the vast cloud floor below
+us was in a perfect turmoil, like that of a troubled sea.  If
+the cloud surface could be compared to anything on earth it
+most resembled sea where waves are running mountains high.  At
+one moment we should be sailing over a trough, wide and deep
+below us, the next a mighty billow would toss itself aloft and
+vanish utterly into space.  Everywhere wreaths of mist with
+ragged fringes were withering away into empty air, and, more
+remarkable yet, was the conflict of wind which sent the cloud
+wrack flying simply in all directions.
+
+For two hours now there was opportunity for observing at
+leisure all that could be made of the falling meteors.  There
+were a few, and these, owing to our clear, elevated region,
+were exceptionally bright.  The majority, too, were true
+Leonids, issuing from the radiant point in the "Sickle," but
+these were not more numerous than may be counted on that night
+in any year, and served to emphasise the fact that no real
+display was in progress.  The outlook was maintained, and
+careful notes made for two hours, at the end of which time the
+dawn began to break, the stars went in, and we were ready to
+pack up and come down.
+
+But the point was that we were not coming down.  We were at
+that time, 6 a.m., 4,000 feet high, and it needs no pointing
+out that at such an altitude it would have been madness to tear
+open our huge rending valve, thus emptying the balloon of gas. 
+It may also be unnecessary to point out that in an ordinary
+afternoon ascent such a valve would be perfectly satisfactory,
+for under these circumstances the sun presently must go down,
+the air must grow chill, and the balloon must come earthward,
+allowing of an easy descent until a safe and suitable
+opportunity for rending the valve occurred; but now we knew
+that conditions were reversed, and that the sun was just going
+to rise.
+
+And then it was we realised that we were caught in a trap. 
+From that moment it was painfully evident that we were
+powerless to act, and were at the mercy of circumstances.  By
+this time the light was strong, and, being well above the
+tossing billows of mist, we commanded an extended view on every
+side, which revealed, however, only the upper unbroken surface
+of the dense cloud canopy that lay over all the British Isles. 
+We could only make a rough guess as to our probable locality. 
+We knew that our course at starting lay towards the west, and
+if we were maintaining that course a travel of scarcely more
+than sixty miles would carry us out to the open sea.  We had
+already been aloft for two hours, and as we were at an altitude
+at which fast upper currents are commonly met with, it was high
+time that, for safety, we should be coming down; yet it was
+morally certain that it would be now many hours before our
+balloon would commence to descend of its own accord by sheer
+slow leakage of gas, by which time, beyond all reasonable
+doubt, we must be carried far out over the Atlantic.  All we
+could do was to listen intently for any sounds that might reach
+us from earth, and assure us that we were still over the land;
+and for a length of time such sounds were vouchsafed us--the
+bark of a dog, the lowing of cattle, the ringing trot of a
+horse on some hard road far down.
+
+And then, as we were expecting, the sun climbed up into an
+unsullied sky, and, mounting by leaps and bounds, we watched
+the cloud floor receding beneath us.  The effect was extremely
+beautiful.  A description written to the Times the next
+morning, while the impression was still fresh, and from notes
+made at this period, ran thus:--" Away to an infinitely distant
+horizon stretched rolling billows of snowy whiteness, broken up
+here and there into seeming icefields, with huge fantastic
+hummocks.  Elsewhere domes and spires reared themselves above
+the general surface, or an isolated Matterhorn towered into
+space.  In some quarters it was impossible to look without the
+conviction that we actually beheld the outline of lofty cliffs
+overhanging a none too distant sea."  Shortly we began to hear
+loud reports overhead, resembling small explosions, and we knew
+what these were--the moist, shrunken netting was giving out
+under the hot sun and yielding now and again with sudden
+release to the rapidly expanding gas.  It was, therefore, with
+grave concern, but with no surprise, that when we next turned
+to the aneroid we found the index pointing to 9,000 feet, and
+still moving upwards.
+
+Hour after hour passed by, and, sounds having ceased to reach
+us, it remains uncertain whether or no we were actually carried
+out to sea and headed back again by contrary currents, an
+experience with which aeronauts, including the writer, have
+been familiar; but, at length, there was borne up to us the
+distant sound of heavy hammers and of frequent trains, from
+which we gathered that we were probably over Bristol, and it
+was then that the thought occurred to my daughter that we might
+possibly communicate with those below with a view to succour. 
+This led to our writing the following message many times over
+on blank telegraph forms and casting them down:-- "Urgent. 
+Large balloon from Newbury travelling overhead above the
+clouds.  Cannot descend.  Telegraph to sea coast (coast-guards)
+to be ready to rescue.--Bacon and Spencer."
+
+While thus occupied we caught the sound of waves, and the
+shriek of a ship's siren.  We were crossing a reach of the
+Severn, and most of our missives probably fell in the sea.  But
+over the estuary there must have been a cold upper current
+blowing, which crippled our balloon, for the aneroid presently
+told of a fall of 2,000 feet.  It was now past noon, and to us
+the turn of the tide was come.  Very slowly, and with strange
+fluctuations, the balloon crept down till it reached and became
+enveloped in the cloud below, and then the end was near.  The
+actual descent occupied nearly two hours, and affords a curious
+study in aerostation.  The details of the balloon's dying
+struggles and of our own rough descent, entailing the fracture
+of my daughter's arm, are told in another volume.*
+
+We fell near Neath, Glamorganshire, only one and a half miles
+short of the sea, completing a voyage which is a record in
+English ballooning--ten hours from start to finish.
+
+* "By Land and Sky," by the Author.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI.  RECENT AERONAUTICAL EVENTS.
+
+
+The first trial of the Zeppelin air ship was arranged to take
+place on June 30th, 1900, a day which, from absence of wind,
+was eminently well suited for the purpose; but the inflation
+proved too slow a process, and operations were postponed to the
+morrow.  The morrow, however, was somewhat windy, causing
+delay, and by the time all was in readiness darkness had set in
+and the start was once more postponed.  On the evening of the
+third day the monster craft was skilfully and successfully
+manoeuvred, and, rising with a very light wind, got fairly
+away, carrying Count Zeppelin and four other persons in the two
+cars.  Drifting with the wind, it attained a height of some 800
+or 900 feet, at which point the steering apparatus being
+brought into play it circled round and faced the wind, when it
+remained stationary.  But not for long.  Shortly it began to
+descend and, sinking gradually, gracefully, and in perfect
+safety, in about nine minutes it reached and rested on the
+water, when it was towed home.
+
+A little later in the month, July, another trial was made, when
+a wind was blowing estimated at sixteen miles an hour.  As on
+the previous occasion, the direct influence of the sun was
+avoided by waiting till evening hours.  It ascended at 8 p.m.,
+and the engines getting to work it made a slow progress of
+about two miles an hour against the wind for about 3 1/2 miles,
+when one of the rudders gave way, and the machine was obliged
+to descend.
+
+On the evening of October 24th of the same year, in very calm
+weather and with better hope, another ascent was made.  On this
+occasion, however, success was frustrated by one of the rear
+rudders getting foul of the gear, followed by the escape of gas
+from one of the balloons.
+
+Another and more successful trial took place in the same month,
+again in calm atmosphere.  Inferior gas was employed, and it
+would appear that the vessel had not sufficient buoyancy.  It
+remained aloft for a period of twenty minutes, during which it
+proved perfectly manageable, making a graceful journey out and
+home, and returning close to its point of departure.  This
+magnificent air ship, the result of twenty years of experiment,
+has since been abandoned and broken up; yet the sacrifice has
+not been without result.  Over and above the stimulus which
+Count Zeppelin's great endeavour has given to the aeronautical
+world, two special triumphs are his.  He has shown balloonists
+how to make a perfectly gas-tight material, and has raised
+powerful petroleum motors in a balloon with safety.
+
+In the early part of 1900 it was announced that a member of the
+Paris Aero Club, who at the time withheld his name (M. Deutsch)
+offered a prize of 100,000 francs to the aeronaut who, either
+in a balloon or flying machine, starting from the grounds of
+the Aero Club at Longchamps, would make a journey round the
+Eiffel Tower, returning to the starting place within half an
+hour.  The donor would withdraw his prize if not won within
+five years, and in the meanwhile would pay 4,000 francs
+annually towards the encouragement of worthy experimenters.
+
+It was from this time that flying machines in great variety and
+goodly number began to be heard of, if not actually seen.  One
+of the earliest to be announced in the Press was a machine
+invented by the Russian, Feedoroff, and the Frenchman, Dupont. 
+Dr. Danilewsky came forward with a flying machine combining
+balloon and aeroplane, the steering of which would be worked
+like a velocipede by the feet of the aeronaut.
+
+Mr. P. Y. Alexander, of Bath, who had long been an enthusiastic
+balloonist, and who had devoted a vast amount of pains,
+originality, and engineering skill to the pursuit of
+aeronautics, was at this time giving much attention to the
+flying machine, and was, indeed, one of the assistants in the
+first successful launching of the Zeppelin airship.  In concert
+with Mr. W. G. Walker, A.M.I.C.E., Mr. Alexander carried out
+some valuable and exhaustive experiments on the lifting power
+of air propellers, 30 feet in diameter, driven by a portable
+engine.  The results, which were of a purely technical nature,
+have been embodied in a carefully compiled memoir.
+
+An air ship now appeared, invented by M. Rose, consisting of
+two elongated vessels filled with gas, and carrying the working
+gear and car between them.  The machine was intentionally made
+heavier than air, and was operated by a petrol motor of
+12-horse power.
+
+It was now that announcements began to be made to the effect
+that, next to the Zeppelin air ship, M. Santos Dumont's balloon
+was probably attracting most of the attention of experts.  The
+account given of this air vessel] by the Daily Express was
+somewhat startling.  The balloon proper was compared to a large
+torpedo.  Three feet beneath this hangs the gasoline motor
+which is to supply the power.  The propeller is 12 feet in
+diameter, and is revolved so rapidly by the motor that the
+engine frequently gets red hot.  The only accommodation for the
+traveller is a little bicycle seat, from which the aeronaut
+will direct his motor and steering gear by means of treadles. 
+Then the inclination or declination of his machine must be
+noted on the spirit level at his side, and the 200 odd pounds
+of ballast must be regulated as the course requires.
+
+A more detailed account of this navigable balloon was furnished
+by a member of the Paris Aero Club.  From this authority we
+learn that the capacity of the balloon was 10,700 cubic feet. 
+It contained an inner balloon and an air fan, the function of
+which was to maintain the shape of the balloon when meeting the
+wind, and the whole was operated by a 10-horse power motor
+capable of working the screw at 100 revolutions per minute.
+
+But before the aerial exploits of Santos Dumont had become
+famous, balloons had again claimed public attention.  On August
+1st Captain Spelterini, with two companions, taking a balloon
+and 180 cylinders of hydrogen to the top of the Rigi and
+ascending thence, pursued a north-east course, across extensive
+and beautiful tracts of icefield and mountain fastnesses
+unvisited by men.  The descent, which was difficult and
+critical, was happily manoeuvred.  This took place on the
+Gnuetseven, a peak over 5,000 feet high, the plateau on which
+the voyagers landed being described as only 50 yards square,
+surrounded by precipices.
+
+On the 10th of September following the writer was fortunate in
+carrying out some wireless telegraphy experiments in a balloon,
+the success of which is entirely due to the unrivalled skill of
+Mr. Nevil Maskelyne, F.R.A.S., and to his clever adaptation of
+the special apparatus of his own invention to the exigencies of
+a free balloon.  The occasion was the garden party at the
+Bradford meeting of the British Association, Admiral Sir Edmund
+Fremantle taking part in the voyage, with Mr. Percival Spencer
+in charge.  The experiment was to include the firing of a mine
+in the grounds two minutes after the balloon had left, and this
+item was entirely successful.  The main idea was to attempt to
+establish communication between a base and a free balloon
+retreating through space at a height beyond practicable gun
+shot.  The wind was fast and squally, and the unavoidable rough
+jolting which the car received at the start put the
+transmitting instrument out of action.  The messages, however,
+which were sent from the grounds at Lister Park were received
+and watched by the occupants of the car up to a distance of
+twenty miles, at which point the voyage terminated.
+
+On September 30th, and also on October 9th, of this year, took
+place two principal balloon races from Vincennes in connection
+with the Paris Exposition.  In the first race, among those who
+competed were M. Jacques Faure, the Count de la Vaulx, and M.
+Jacques Balsan.  The Count was the winner, reaching Wocawek, in
+Russian Poland, a travel of 706 miles, in 21 hours 34 minutes. 
+M. Balsan was second, descending near Dantzig in East Prussia,
+757 miles, in 22 hours.  M. Jacques Faure reached Mamlitz, in
+East Prussia, a distance of 753 miles.
+
+In the final race the Count de la Vaulx made a record voyage of
+1,193 miles, reaching Korosticheff, in Russia, in 35 hours 45
+minutes, attaining a maximum altitude of 18,810 feet.  M. J.
+Balsan reached a greater height, namely, 21,582 feet,
+travelling to Rodom, in Russia, a distance of 843 miles, in 27
+hours 25 minutes.
+
+Some phenomenal altitudes were attained at this time.  In
+September, 1898, Dr. Berson, of Berlin, ascended from the
+Crystal Palace in a balloon inflated with hydrogen, under the
+management of Mr. Stanley Spencer, oxygen being an essential
+part of the equipment.  The start was made at 5 p.m., and the
+balloon at first drifted south-east, out over the mouth of the
+Thames, until at an altitude of 10,000 feet an upper current
+changed the course to southwest, the balloon mounting rapidly
+till 23,000 feet was reached, at which height the coast of
+France was plainly seen.  At 25,000 feet both voyagers were
+gasping, and compelled to inhale oxygen.  At 27,500 feet, only
+four bags of ballast being left, the descent was commenced, and
+a safe landing was effected at Romford.
+
+Subsequently Dr.  Berson, in company with Dr. Suring, ascending
+from Berlin, attained an altitude of 34,000 feet.  At 30,000
+feet the aeronauts were inhaling oxygen, and before reaching
+their highest point both had for a considerable time remained
+unconscious.
+
+In 1901 a new aeroplane flying machine began to attract
+attention, the invention of Herr Kress.  A novel feature of the
+machine was a device to render it of avail for Arctic travel. 
+In shape it might be compared to an iceboat with two keels and
+a long stem, the keels being adapted to run on ice or snow,
+while the boat would float on water.  Power was to be derived
+from a petrol motor.
+
+At the same period M. Henry Sutor was busy on Lake Constance
+with an air ship designed also to float on water.  Then Mr.
+Buchanan followed with a fish-shaped vessel, one of the most
+important specialities of which consisted in side propellers,
+the surfaces of which were roughened with minute diagonal
+grooves to effect a greater grip on the air.
+
+No less original was the air ship, 100 feet long, and carrying
+18,000 cubic feet of gas, which Mr. W. Beedle was engaged upon. 
+In this machine, besides the propellers for controlling the
+horizontal motion, there was one to regulate vertical motion,
+with a view of obviating expenditure of gas or ballast.
+
+But by this time M. Santos Dumont, pursuing his hobby with
+unparalleled perseverance, had built in succession no less than
+six air ships, meeting with no mean success, profiting by every
+lesson taught by failures, and making light of all accidents,
+great or small.  On July 15th, 1901, he made a famous try for
+the Deutsch prize in a cigar-shaped balloon, 110 feet long,
+19,000 cubic feet capacity, carrying a Daimler oil motor of
+15-horse power.  The day was not favourable, but, starting from
+the Parc d'Aerostation, he was abreast of the Eiffel Tower in
+thirteen minutes, circling round which, and battling against a
+head wind, he reached the grounds of the Aero Club in 41
+minutes from the start, or 11 minutes late by the conditions of
+the prize.  A cylinder had broken down, and the balance of the
+vessel had become upset.
+
+Within a fortnight--July 29th--in favourable weather, he made
+another flight, lasting fifteen minutes, at the end of which he
+had returned to his starting ground.  Then on August 8th a more
+momentous attempt came off.  Sailing up with a rapid ascent,
+and flying with the wind, Santos Dumont covered the distance to
+the Tower in five minutes only, and gracefully swung round;
+but, immediately after, the wind played havoc, slowing down the
+motor, at the same time damaging the balloon, and causing an
+escape of gas.  On this Santos Dumont, ascending higher into
+the sky, quitted the car, and climbed along the keel to
+inspect, and, if possible, rectify the motor, but with little
+success.  The balloon was emptying, and the machine pitched
+badly, till a further rent occurred, when it commenced falling
+hopelessly and with a speed momentarily increasing.
+
+Slanting over a roof, the balloon caught a chimney and tore
+asunder; but the wreck, also catching, held fast, while the car
+hung helplessly down a blank wall.  In this perilous
+predicament great coolness and agility alone averted disaster,
+till firemen were able to come to the rescue.
+
+The air ship was damaged beyond repair, but by September 6th
+another was completed, and on trial appeared to work well
+until, while travelling at speed, it was brought up and badly
+strained by the trail rope catching in trees.
+
+Early in the next month the young Brazilian was aloft again,
+with weather conditions entirely in his favour; but again
+certain minor mishaps prevented his next struggle for the
+prize, which did not take place till the 19th.  On this day a
+light cross wind was blowing, not sufficient, however,
+seriously to influence the first stage of the time race, and
+the outward journey was accomplished with a direct flight in
+nine minutes.  On rounding the tower, however, the wind began
+to tell prejudicially, and the propeller became deranged.  On
+this, letting his vessel fall off from the wind, Santos Dumont
+crawled along the framework till he reached the motor, which he
+succeeded in again setting in working order, though not without
+a delay of several minutes and some loss of ground.  From that
+point the return journey was accomplished in eight minutes, and
+the race was, at the time, declared lost by 40 seconds only.
+
+The most important and novel feature in the air ships
+constructed by Santos Dumont was the internal ballonet,
+inflated automatically by a ventilator, the expedient being
+designed to preserve the shape of the main balloon itself while
+meeting the wind.  On the whole, it answered well, and took the
+place of the heavy wire cage used by Zeppelin.
+
+M. de Fonvielle, commenting on the achievements of Santos
+Dumont, wrote:--"It does not appear that he has navigated his
+balloon against more than very light winds, but in his
+machinery he has shown such attention to detail that it may
+reasonably be expected that if he continues to increase his
+motive power he will, ere long, exceed past performances."
+
+Mr. Chanute has a further word to say about the possibility of
+making balloons navigable.  He considers that their size will
+have to be great to the verge of impracticability and the power
+of the motor enormous in proportion to its weight.  As to
+flying machines, properly so called, he calculates the best
+that has been done to be the sustaining of from 27 lbs. to 55
+lbs. per horse power by impact upon the air.  But Mr. Chanute
+also argues that the equilibrium is of prime importance, and on
+this point there could scarcely be a greater authority.  No one
+of living men has given more attention to the problem of
+"soaring," and it is stated that he has had about a thousand
+"slides" made by assistants, with different types of machine,
+and all without the slightest accident.
+
+Many other aerial vessels might be mentioned.  Mr. T. H.
+Bastin, of Clapham, has been engaged for many years on a
+machine which should imitate bird flight as nearly as this may
+be practicable.
+
+Baron Bradsky aims at a navigable balloon on an ambitious
+scale.  M. Tatin is another candidate for the Deutsch prize. 
+Of Dr. Barton's air ship more is looked for, as being designed
+for the War Office.  It is understood that the official
+requirements demand a machine which, while capable of
+transporting a man through the air at a speed of 13 miles an
+hour, can remain fully inflated for 48 hours.  One of the most
+sanguine, as well as enterprising, imitators of Santos Dumont
+was a fellow countryman, Auguste Severo.  Of his machine during
+construction little could be gathered, and still less seen,
+from the fact that the various parts were being manufactured at
+different workshops, but it was known to be of large size and
+to be fitted with powerful motors.  This was an ill-fated
+vessel.  At an early hour on May 12th of this year, 1902, all
+Paris was startled by a report that M. Severo and his
+assistant, M. Sachet had been killed while making a trial
+excursion.  It appears that at daybreak it had been decided
+that the favourable moment for trial had arrived.  The
+machinery was got ready, and with little delay the air vessel
+was dismissed and rose quietly and steadily into the calm sky. 
+The Daily Mail gives the following account of what ensued:--
+
+"For the first few minutes all went well, and the motor seemed
+to be working satisfactorily.  The air ship answered the helm
+readily, and admiring exclamations rose from the crowd.... But
+as the vessel rose higher she was seen to fall off from the
+wind, while the aeronauts could be seen vainly endeavouring to
+keep her head on.  Then M. Severo commenced throwing out
+ballast.... All this time the ship was gradually soaring higher
+and higher until, just  as it was over the Montparnasse
+Cemetery, at the height of 2,000 feet, a sheet of flame was
+seen to shoot up from one of the motors, and instantly the
+immense silk envelope containing 9,000 cubicfeet of hydrogen
+was enveloped in leaping tongues of fire.... As soon as the
+flames came in contact with the gas a tremendous explosion
+followed, and in an instant all that was left of the air ship
+fell to the earth."  Both aeronauts were dashed to pieces.  It
+was thought that the fatality was caused through faulty
+construction, the escape valve for the gas being situated only
+about nine feet from the motor.  It was announced by Count de
+la Vaulx that during the summer of 1901 he would attempt to
+cross the Mediterranean by a balloon, provisioned for three
+weeks, maintaining communication with the coast during his
+voyage by wireless telegraphy and other methods of signalling. 
+He was to make use of the "Herve Deviator," or steering
+apparatus, which may be described as a series of cupshaped
+plates dipping in the water at the end of a trail rope.  By
+means of controlling cords worked from the car, the whole
+series of plates could be turned at an angle to the direction
+of the wind, by which the balloon's course would be altered. 
+Count de la Vaulx attempted this grand journey on October 12th,
+starting from Toulon with the intention of reaching Algiers,
+taking the precaution, however, of having a cruiser in
+attendance.  When fifty miles out from Marseilles a passing
+steamer received from the balloon the signal, "All's well"; but
+the wind had veered round to the east, and, remaining
+persistently in this quarter, the Count abandoned his venture,
+and, signalling to the cruiser, succeeded in alighting on her
+deck, not, however, before he had completed the splendid and
+record voyage of 41 hours' duration.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVII.  THE POSSIBILITIES OF BALLOONS IN WARFARE.
+
+
+Clearly the time has not yet arrived when the flying machine
+will be serviceable in war.  Yet we are not without those
+theorisers who, at the present moment, would seriously propose
+schemes for conveying dynamite and other explosives by air
+ship, or dropping them over hostile forces or fortresses, or
+even fleets at sea.  They go yet further, and gravely discuss
+the point whether such warfare would be legitimate.  We,
+however, may say at once, emphatically, that any such scheme is
+simply impracticable.  It must be abundantly evident that, so
+far, no form of dirigible air ship exists which could be relied
+on to carry out any required manoeuvre in such atmospheric
+conditions as generally prevail.  If, even in calm and
+favourable weather, more often than not motors break down, or
+gear carries away, what hope is there for any aerial craft
+which would attempt to battle with such wind currents as
+commonly blow aloft?
+
+And when we turn to the balloon proper, are chances greatly
+improved?  The eminently practical aeronaut, John Wise, as was
+told in Chapter XII., prepared a scheme for the reduction of
+Vera Cruz by the agency of a balloon.  Let us glance at it.  A
+single balloon was to suffice, measuring 100 feet in diameter,
+and capable of raising in the gross 30,000 lbs.  To manoeuvre
+this monstrous engine he calculates he would require a cable
+five miles long, by means of which he hoped, in some manner, to
+work his way directly over the fortress, and to remain poised
+at that point at the height of a mile in the sky.  Once granted
+that he could arrive and maintain himself at that position, the
+throwing out of combustibles would be simple, though even then
+the spot where they would alight after the drop of a mile would
+be by no means certain.  It is also obvious that a vast amount
+of gas would have to be sacrificed to compensate for the
+prodigal discharge of ballast in the form of missiles.
+
+The idea of manoeuvring a balloon in a wind, and poising it in
+the manner suggested, is, of course, preposterous; and when one
+considers the attempt to aim bombs from a moving balloon high
+in air the case becomes yet more absurd.  Any such missile
+would partake of the motion of the balloon itself, and it would
+be impossible to tell where it would strike the earth.
+
+To give an example which is often enough tried in balloon
+travel when the ground below is clear.  A glass bottle
+(presumably empty) is cast overboard and its fall watched.  It
+is seen not to be left behind, but to keep pace with the
+balloon, shrinking gradually to an object  too small to be
+discerned, except when every now and then a ray of sunlight
+reflected off it reveals it for a moment as it continues to
+plunge downwards.  After a very few seconds the impression is
+that it is about to reach the earth, and the eye forms a guess
+at some spot which it will strike; but the spot is quickly
+passed, and the bottle travels far beyond across a field, over
+the further fence, and vastly further yet; indeed, inasmuch as
+to fall a mile in air a heavy body may take over twenty
+seconds--and twenty seconds is long to those who watch--it is
+often impossible to tell to two or three fields where it will
+finally settle.
+
+All this while the risk that a balloon would run of being
+riddled by bullets, shrapnel, or pom-poms has not been taken
+into account, and as to the estimate of this risk there is some
+difference of opinion.  The balloon corps and the artillery
+apparently approach the question with different bias.  On the
+one hand, it is stated with perfect truth that a free balloon,
+which is generally either rising or falling, as well as moving
+across country, is a hard object to hit, and a marksman would
+only strike it with a chance or blundering shot; but, on the
+other hand let us take the following report of three years ago.
+
+The German artillery had been testing the efficiency of a
+quick-firing gun when used against a balloon, and they decided
+that the latter would have no chance of escape except at night. 
+A German kite-balloon was kept moving at an altitude of 600
+metres, and the guns trained upon it were distant 3,000 metres. 
+It was then stated that after the third discharge of the rapid
+firing battery the range was found, when all was at once over
+with the balloon; for, not only was it hit with every
+discharge, but it was presently set on fire and annihilated.
+
+But, in any case, the antique mode of keeping a balloon moored
+at any spot as a post of observation must be abandoned in
+modern warfare.  Major Baden-Powell, speaking from personal
+experience in South Africa, has shown how dangerous, or else
+how useless, such a form of reconnaissance has become.  "I
+remember," he says, "at the battle of Magersfontein my company
+was lying down in extended order towards the left of our line. 
+We were perfectly safe from musketry fire, as we lay, perhaps,
+two miles from the Boer trenches, which were being shelled by
+some of our guns close by.  The enemy's artillery was
+practically silent.  Presently, on looking round, I descried
+our balloon away out behind us about two miles off.  Then she
+steadily rose and made several trips to a good height, but what
+could be seen from that distance?  When a large number of our
+troops were ranged up within 800 yards of the trenches, and
+many more at all points behind them, what useful information
+could be obtained by means of the balloon four miles off?"
+
+The same eminent authority insists on the necessity of an
+observing war balloon making short ascents.  The balloon, in
+his opinion, should be allowed to ascend rapidly to its full
+height, and with as little delay as possible be hauled down
+again.  Under these conditions it may then be well worth
+testing whether the primitive form of balloon, the Montgolfier,
+might not be the most valuable.  Instead of being made, as the
+war balloon is now, of fragile material, and filled with costly
+gas difficult to procure, and which has to be conveyed in heavy
+and cumbersome cylinders, a hot air balloon could be rapidly
+carried by hand anywhere where a few men could push their way. 
+It is of strong material, readily mended if torn, and could be
+inflated for short ascents, if not by mere brush wood, then by
+a portable blast furnace and petroleum.
+
+But there is a further use for balloons in warfare not yet
+exploited.  The Siege of Paris showed the utility of free
+balloons, and occasions arise when their use might be still
+further extended.  The writer pointed out that it might have
+been very possible for an aeronaut of experience, by choosing
+the right weather and the right position along the British
+lines, to have skilfully manoeuvred a free balloon by means of
+upper currents, so as to convey all-important intelligence to
+besieged Mafeking, and he proved that it would have sufficed if
+the balloon could have been "tacked" across the sky to within
+some fifteen miles of the desired goal.
+
+The mode of signalling which he proposed was by means of a
+"collapsing drum," an instrument of occasional use in the Navy. 
+A modification of this instrument, as employed by the writer,
+consisted of a light, spherical, drum-shaped frame of large
+size, which, when covered with dark material and hung in the
+clear below the car of a lofty balloon, could be well seen
+either against blue sky or grey at a great distance.  The
+so-called drum could, by a very simple contrivance, readily
+worked from the car, be made to collapse into a very
+inconspicuous object, and thus be capable of displaying Morse
+Code signals.  A long pause with the drum extended--like the
+long wave of a signalling flag--would denote a "dash," and a
+short pause a "dot," and these motions would be at once
+intelligible to anyone acquainted with the now universal Morse
+Code system.
+
+Provided with an apparatus of the kind, the writer made an
+ascent from Newbury at a time when the military camps were
+lying on Salisbury Plain at a distance of nearly twenty miles
+to the south-west.  The ground wind up to 2,500 feet on
+starting was nearly due north, and would have defeated the
+attempt; again, the air stream blowing above that height was
+nearly due east, which again would have proved unsuitable.  But
+it was manifestly possible to utilise the two currents, and
+with good luck to zig-zag one's course so as to come within
+easy signalling distance of the various camps; and, as a matter
+of fact, we actually passed immediately over Bulford Camp, with
+which we exchanged signals, while two other camps lay close to
+right and left of us.  Fortune favouring us, we had actually
+hit our mark, though it would have been sufficient for the
+experiment had our course lain within ten miles right or left.
+
+Yet a further use for the balloon in warfare remains untried in
+this country.  Acting under the advice of experts in the
+Service, the writer, in the early part of the present year,
+suggested to the Admiralty the desirability of experimenting
+with balloons as a means of detecting submarine engines of war. 
+It is well known that reefs and shoals can generally be seen
+from a cliff or mast head far more clearly than from the deck
+or other position near the surface of the water.  Would not,
+then, a balloon, if skilfully manoeuvred, serve as a valuable
+post of observation?  The Admiralty, in acknowledging the
+communication, promised to give the matter their attention; but
+by the month of June the Press had announcements of how the
+self-same experiments had been successfully carried through by
+French authorities, while a few days later the Admiralty wrote,
+"For the present no need is seen for the use of a captive
+balloon to detect submarines."
+
+Among many and varied ballooning incidents which have occurred
+to the writer, there are some which may not unprofitably be
+compared with certain experiences already recorded of other
+aeronauts.  Thunderstorms, as witnessed from a balloon, have
+already been casually described, and it may reasonably be hoped
+that the observations which have, under varying circumstances,
+been made at high altitudes may throw some additional light on
+this familiar, though somewhat perplexing, phenomenon.
+
+To begin with, it seems a moot point whether a balloon caught
+in a thunderstorm is, or is not, in any special danger of being
+struck.  It has been argued that immunity under such
+circumstances must depend upon whether a sufficiently long time
+has elapsed since the balloon left the earth to allow of its
+becoming positively electrified by induction from the clouds or
+by rain falling upon its surface.  But there are many other
+points to be considered.  There is the constant escape of gas
+from the mouth; there is the mass of pointed metal in the
+anchor; and, again, it is conceivable that a balloon rapidly
+descending out of a thunderstorm might carry with it a charge
+residing on its moistened surface which might manifest itself
+disastrously as the balloon reached the earth.
+
+Instances seem to have been not infrequent of balloons
+encountering thunderstorms; but, unfortunately, in most cases
+the observers have not had any scientific training, or the
+accounts which are to hand are those of the type of journalist
+who is chiefly in quest of sensational copy.
+
+Thus there is an account from America of a Professor King who
+made an ascent from Burlington, Iowa, just as a thunderstorm
+was approaching, with the result that, instead of scudding away
+with the wind before the storm, he was actually, as if by some
+attraction, drawn into it.  On this his aim was to pierce
+through the cloud above, and then follows a description which
+it is hard to realise:--"There came down in front of him, and
+apparently not more than 50 feet distant, a grand discharge of
+electricity."  Then he feels the car lifted, the gas suddenly
+expands to overflowing, and the balloon is hurled through the
+cloud with inconceivable velocity, this happening several
+times, with tremendous oscillations of the car, until the
+balloon is borne to earth in a torrent of rain.  We fancy that
+many practical balloonists will hardly endorse this
+description.
+
+But we have another, relating to one of the most distinguished
+aeronauts, M. Eugene Godard, who, in an ascent with local
+journalists, was caught in a thunderstorm.  Here we are
+told--presumably by the journalists--that "twice the lightning
+flashed within a few yards of the terror-stricken crew."
+
+Once again, in an ascent at Derby, a spectator writes:--"The
+lightning played upon the sphere of the balloon, lighting it up
+and making things visible through it."  This, however, one must
+suppose, can hardly apply to the balloon when liberated.
+
+But a graphic description of a very different character given
+in the "Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society"
+for January, 1901, is of real value.  It appears that three
+lieutenants of the Prussian Balloon Corps took charge of a
+balloon that ascended at Berlin, and, when at a height of 2,300
+feet, became enveloped in the mist, through which only
+occasional glimpses of earth were seen.  At this point a sharp,
+crackling sound was heard at the ring, like the sparking of a
+huge electrical machine, and, looking up, the voyagers beheld
+sparks apparently some half-inch thick, and over two feet in
+length, playing from the ring.  Thunder was heard, but--and
+this may have significance--only before and after the above
+phenomenon.
+
+Another instructive experience is recorded of the younger Green
+in an ascent which he made from Frankfort-on-the-Maine.  On
+this occasion he relates that he encountered a thunderstorm,
+and at a height of 4,400 feet found himself at the level where
+the storm clouds were discharging themselves in a deluge.  He
+seems to have had no difficulty in ascending through the storm
+into the clear sky above, where a breeze from another quarter
+quickly carried him away from the storm centre.
+
+This co-existence, or conflict of opposite currents, is held to
+be the common characteristic, if not the main cause, of
+thunderstorms, and tallies with the following personal
+experience.  It was in typical July weather of 1900 that the
+writer and his son, accompanied by Admiral Sir Edmund Fremantle
+and Mr. Percival Spencer, made an evening ascent from Newbury. 
+It had been a day of storms, but about 5 p.m., after what
+appeared to be a clearing shower, the sky brightened, and we
+sailed up into a cloudless heaven.  The wind, at 3,000 feet,
+was travelling at some thirty miles an hour, and ere the
+distance of ten miles had been covered a formidable thunder
+pack was seen approaching and coming up dead against the wind. 
+Nothing could be more evident than that the balloon was
+travelling rapidly with a lower wind, while the storm was being
+borne equally rapidly on an upper and diametrically opposite
+current.  It proved one of the most severe thunderstorms
+remembered in the country.  It brooded for five hours over
+Devizes, a few miles ahead.  A homestead on our right was
+struck and burned to the ground, while on our left two soldiers
+were killed on Salisbury Plain.  The sky immediately overhead
+was, of course, hidden by the large globe of the balloon, but
+around and beneath us the storm seemed to gather in a blue grey
+mist, which quickly broadened and deepened till, almost before
+we could realise it, we found ourselves in the very heart of
+the storm, the lightning playing all around us, and the sharp
+hail stinging our faces.
+
+The countrymen below described the balloon as apparently
+enveloped by the lightning, but with ourselves, though the
+flashes were incessant, and on all sides, the reverberations of
+the thunder were not remarkable, being rather brief explosions
+in which they resembled the thunder claps not infrequently
+described by travellers on mountain heights.
+
+The balloon was now descending from a double cause: the weight
+of moisture suddenly accurnulated on its surface, and the very
+obvious downrush of cold air that accompanied the storm of
+pelting hail.  With a very limited store of ballast, it seemed
+impossible to make a further ascent, nor was this desirable. 
+The signalling experiments on which we were intent could not be
+carried on in such weather.  The only course was to descend,
+and though this was not at once practicable, owing to Savernake
+Forest being beneath us, we effected a safe landing in the
+first available  clearing.
+
+As has been mentioned, Mr. Glaisher and other observers have
+recorded several remarkable instances of opposite wind currents
+being met with at moderate altitudes.  None, however, can have
+been more noteworthy or surprising than the following
+experience Of the writer on Whit Monday of 1899.  The ascent
+was under an overcast sky, from the Crystal Palace at 3 p.m.,
+at which hour a cold drizzle was settling in with a moderate
+breeze from the east.  Thus, starting from the usual filling
+ground near the north tower, the balloon sailed over the body
+of the Palace, and thence over the suburbs towards the west
+till lost in the mist.  We then ascended through 1,500 feet of
+dense, wetting cloud, and, emerging in bright sunshine,
+continued to drift for two hours at an average altitude of some
+3,000 feet; 1,000 feet below us was the ill-defined, ever
+changing upper surface of the dense cloud floor, and it was no
+longer possible to determine our course, which we therefore
+assumed to have remained unchanged.  At length, however, as a
+measure of prudence, we determined to descend through the
+clouds sufficiently to learn something of our whereabouts,
+which we reasonably expected to be somewhere in Surrey or
+Berks.  On emerging, however, below the cloud, the first object
+that loomed out of the mist irnmediately below us was a cargo
+vessel, in the rigging of which our trail rope was entangling
+itself.  Only by degrees the fact dawned upon us that we were
+in the estuary of the Thames, and beating up towards London
+once again with an cast wind.  Thus it became evident that at
+the higher level, unknown to ourselves, we had been headed back
+on our course, for two hours, by a wind diametrically opposed
+to that blowing on the ground.
+
+Two recent developments of the hot-air war balloon suggest
+great possibilities in the near future.  One takes the form of
+a small captive, carrying aloft a photographic camera directed
+and operated electrically from the ground.  The other is a
+self-contained passenger balloon of large dimensions, carrying
+in complete safety a special petroleum burner of great power. 
+These new and important departures are mainly due to the
+mechanical genius of Mr. J. N. Maskelyne, who has patented and
+perfected them in conjunction with the writer.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVIII.  THE CONSTITUTION OF THE AIR.
+
+
+Some fair idea of the conditions prevailing in the upper air
+may have been gathered from the many and various observations
+already recorded.  Stating the case broadly, we may assert that
+the same atmospheric changes with which we are familiar at the
+level of the earth are to be found also at all accessible
+heights, equally extensive and equally sudden.
+
+Standing on an open heath on a gusty day, we may often note the
+rhythmic buffeting of the wind, resembling the assault of
+rolling billows of air.  The evidence of these billows has been
+actually traced far aloft in balloon travel, when aeronauts,
+looking down on a wind-swept surface of cloud, have observed
+this surface to be thrown into a series of rolls of vapour,
+which were but vast and veritable waves of air.  The interval
+between successive crests of these waves has on one occasion
+been estimated at approximately half a mile.  We have seen how
+these air streams sometimes hold wide and independent sway at
+different levels.  We have seen, too, how they sometimes meet
+and mingle, not infrequently attended with electrical
+disturbance
+
+Through broad drifts of air minor air streams would seem often
+literally to "thread" their way, breakng up into filaments or
+wandering rills of air.  In the voyage across Salisbury Plain
+lately described, while the balloon was being carried with the
+more sluggish current, a number of small parachutes were dropped
+out at frequent intervals and carefully watched.  These would
+commonly attend the balloon for a little while, until, getting
+into some minor air stream, they would suddenly and rapidly
+diverge at such wide angles as to suggest that crossing our
+actual course there were side paths, down which the smaller
+bodies became wafted.
+
+On another occasion the writer met with strongly marked and
+altogether exceptional evidence of the vehemence and
+persistence of these minor aerial streamlets.  It was on an
+occasion in April weather, when a heavy overcast sky blotted
+out the upper heavens.  In the cloud levels the wind was
+somewhat sluggish, and for an hour we travelled at an average
+speed of a little over twenty miles an hour, never higher than
+3,000 feet.  At this point, while flying over Hertfordshire, we
+threw out sufficient ballast to cause the balloon to rise clear
+of the hazy lower air, and coming under the full influence of
+the sun, then in the meridian, we shot upwards at considerable
+speed, and soon attained an altitude of three miles.  But for a
+considerable portion of this climb--while, in fact, we were
+ascending through little less than a mile of our upward
+course--we were assailed by impetuous cross currents, which
+whistled through car and rigging and smote us fairly on the
+cheek.  It was altogether a novel experience, and the more
+remarkable from the fact that our main onward course was not
+appreciably diverted.
+
+Then we got above these currents, and remained at our maximum
+level, while we floated, still at only a moderate speed, the
+length of a county.  The descent then began, and once again,
+while we dropped through the same  disturbed region, the same
+far-reaching and obtrusive cross-current assailed us.  It was
+quite obvious that the vehement currents were too slender to
+tell largely upon the huge surface of the balloon, as it was
+being swept steadily onwards by the main wind, which never
+varied in direction from ground levels up to the greatest
+height attained.
+
+This experience is but confirmation of the story of the wind
+told by the wind gauges on the Forth Bridge.  Here the maximum
+pressure measured on the large gauge of 300 square feet is
+commonly considerably less than that on the smaller gauge,
+suggesting that the latter must be due to threads of air of
+limited area and high velocity.
+
+Further and very valuable light is thrown on the peculiar ways
+of the wind, now being considered, by Professor Langley in the
+special researches of his to which reference has already been
+made.  This eminent observer and mathematician, suspecting that
+the old-fashioned instruments, which only told what the wind
+had been doing every hour, or at best every minute, gave but a
+most imperfect record, constructed delicate gauges, which would
+respond to every impulse and give readings from second to
+second.
+
+In this way he established the fact that the wind, far from
+being a body of even approximate uniformity, is under most
+ordinary conditions irregular almost beyond conception. 
+Further, that the greater the speed the greater the
+fluctuations, so that a high wind has to be regarded as "air
+moving in a tumultuous mass," the velocity at one moment
+perhaps forty miles an hour, then diminishing to an almost
+instantaneous calm, and then resuming."  In fact, in the very
+nature of the case, wind is not the result of one simple cause,
+but of an infinite number of impulses and changes, perhaps long
+passed, which are preserved in it, and which die only slowly
+away."
+
+When we come to take observations of temperature we find the
+conditions in the atmosphere above us to be at first sight not
+a little complex, and altogether different in day and night
+hours.  From observations already recorded in this
+volume--notably those of Gay Lussac, Welsh, and Glaisher--it
+has been made to appear that, in ascending into the sky in
+daytime, the temperature usually falls according to a general
+law; but there are found regions where the fall of temperature
+becomes arrested, such regions being commonly, though by no
+means invariably, associated with visible cloud.  It is
+probable, however, that it would be more correct not to
+interpret the presence of cloud as causing manifestation of
+cold, but rather to regard the meeting of warm and cold
+currents as the cause of cloud.
+
+The writer has experimented in the upper regions with a special
+form of air thermometer of great sensibility, designed to
+respond rapidly to slight variations of temperature.  Testing
+this instrument on one occasion in a room of equable warmth,
+and without draughts, he was puzzled by seeing the index in a
+capillary tube suddenly mounting rapidly, due to some cause
+which was not apparent, till it was noticed that the parlour
+cat, attracted by the proceedings, had approached near the
+apparatus.  The behaviour of this instrument when slung in the
+clear some distance over the side of the balloon car, and
+carefully watched, suggests by its fitful, sudden, and rapid
+changes that warmer currents are often making their way in such
+slender wandering rills as have been already pictured as
+permeating the broader air streams.  During night hours
+conditions are reversed.  The warmer air radiated off the earth
+through the day has then ascended.  It will be found at
+different heights, lying in pools or strata, possibly
+resembling in form, could they be seen, masses of visible
+cloud.
+
+The writer has gathered from night voyages instructive and
+suggestive facts with reference to the ascent of air streams,
+due to differences of temperature, particularly over London and
+the suburbs, and it is conceivable that in such ascending
+streams may lie a means of dealing successfully with
+visitations of smoke and fog.
+
+One lesson taught by balloon travel has been that fog or haze
+will come or go in obedience to temperature variations at low
+levels.  Thus thick haze has lain over London, more
+particularly over the lower parts, at sundown.  Then through
+night hours, as the temperature of the lower air has become
+equalised, the haze has completely disappeared, but only to
+reassert itself at dawn.
+
+A description of the very impressive experience of a night sail
+over London has been reserved, but should not be altogether
+omitted.  Glaisher, writing of the spectacle as he observed it
+nearly forty years ago, describes London seen at night from a
+balloon at a distance as resembling a vast conflagration.  When
+actually over the town, a main thoroughfare like the Commercial
+Road shone up like a line of brilliant fire; but, travelling
+westward, Oxford Street presented an appearance which puzzled
+him.  "Here the two thickly studded rows of brilliant lights
+were seen on either side of the street, with a narrow, dark
+space between, and this dark space was bounded, as it were, on
+both sides by a bright fringe like frosted silver."  Presently
+he discovered that  this rich effect was caused by the bright
+illumination of the shop lights on the pavements."
+
+London, as seen from a balloon on a clear moonlight night in
+August a year ago (1901), wore a somewhat altered appearance. 
+There were the fairy lamps tracing out the streets, which,
+though dark centred, wore their silver lining; but in irregular
+patches a whiter light from electric arc lamps broadened and
+brightened and shone out like some pyrotechnic display above
+the black housetops.  Through the vast town ran a blank, black
+channel, the river, winding on into distance, crossed here and
+there by bridges showing as bright bands, and with bright spots
+occasionally to mark where lay the river craft.  But what was
+most striking was the silence.  Though the noise of London
+traffic as heard from a balloon has diminished of late years
+owing to the better paving, yet in day hours the roar of the
+streets is heard up to a great height as a hard, harsh,
+grinding din.  But at night, after the last 'bus has ceased to
+ply, and before the market carts begin lumbering in, the
+balloonist, as he sails over the town, might imagine that he
+was traversing a City of the Dead.
+
+It is at such times that a shout through a speaking trumpet has
+a most startling effect, and more particularly a blast on a
+horn.  In this case after an interval of some seconds a wild
+note will be flung back from the house-tops below, answered and
+re-answered on all sides as it echoes from roof to roof--a
+wild, weird uproar that awakes suddenly, and then dies out
+slowly far away.
+
+Experiments with echoes from a balloon have proved instructive. 
+If, when riding at a height, say, of 2,000 feet, a charge of
+gun-cotton be fired electrically 100 feet below the car, the
+report, though really as loud as a cannon, sounds no more than
+a mere pistol shot, possibly partly owing to the greater rarity
+of the air, but chiefly because the sound, having no background
+to reflect it, simply spends itself in the air.  Then, always
+and under all conditions of atmosphere soever, there ensues
+absolute silence until the time for the echo back from earth
+has fully elapsed, when a deafening outburst of thunder rises
+from below, rolling on often for more than half a minute.  Two
+noteworthy facts, at least, the writer has established from a
+very large number of trials: first, that the theory of aerial
+echoes thrown back from empty space, which physicists have held
+to exist constantly, and to be part of the cause of thunder,
+will have to be abandoned; and, secondly, that from some cause
+yet to be fully explained the echo back from the earth is
+always behind its time.
+
+But balloons have revealed further suggestive facts with regard
+to sound, and more particularly with regard to the varying
+acoustic properties of the air.  It is a familiar experience
+how distant sounds will come and go, rising and falling, often
+being wafted over extraordinary distances, and again failing
+altogether, or sometimes being lost at near range, but
+appearing in strength further away.  A free balloon, moving in
+the profound silence of the upper air, becomes an admirable
+sound observatory.  It may be clearly detected that in certain
+conditions of atmosphere, at least, there are what may be
+conceived to be aerial sound channels, through which sounds are
+,momentarily conveyed with abnormal intensity.  This phenomenon
+does but serve to give an intelligible presentment of the
+unseen conditions existing in the realm of air.
+
+It would be reasonable to suppose that were an eye so
+constituted as to be able to see, say, cumulus masses of warmer
+air, strata mottled with traces of other gases, and beds of
+invisible matter in suspension, one might suppose that what we
+deem the clearest sky would then appear flecked with forms as
+many and various as the clouds that adorn our summer heavens.
+
+But there is matter in suspension in the atmosphere which is
+very far from invisible, and which in the case of large towns
+is very commonly lying in thick strata overhead, stopping back
+the sunlight, and forming the nucleus round which noisome fogs
+may form.  Experimenting with suitable apparatus, the writer
+has found on a still afternoon in May, at 2,000 feet above
+Kingston in Surrey, that the air was charged far more heavily
+with dust than that of the London streets the next day; and,
+again, at half a mile above the city in the month of August
+last dust, much of it being of a gross and even fibrous nature,
+was far more abundant than on grass enclosures in the town
+during the forenoon of the day following.
+
+An attempt has been made to include England in a series of
+international balloon ascents arranged expressly for the
+purpose of taking simultaneous observations at a large number
+of stations over Europe, by which means it is hoped that much
+fresh knowledge will be forthcoming with respect to the
+constitution of the atmosphere up to the highest levels
+accessible by balloons manned and unmanned.  It is very much to
+be regretted that in the case of England the attempt here
+spoken of has rested entirely on private enterprise.  First and
+foremost in personal liberality and the work of organisation
+must be mentioned Mr. P. Y. Alexander, whose zeal in the
+progress of aeronautics is second to none in this country. 
+Twice through his efforts England has been represented in the
+important work for which Continental nations have no difficulty
+in obtaining public grants.  The first occasion was on November
+8th, 1900, when the writer was privileged to occupy a seat in
+the balloon furnished by Mr. Alexander, and equipped with the
+most modern type of instruments.  It was a stormy and fast
+voyage from the Crystal Palace to Halstead, in Essex, 48 miles
+in 40 minutes.  Simultaneously with this, Mr. Alexander
+dismissed an unmanned balloon from Bath, which ascended 8,000
+feet, and landed at Cricklade.  Other balloons which took part
+in the combined experiment were two from Paris, three from
+Chalais Meudon, three from Strasburg, two from Vienna, two from
+Berlin, and two from St. Petersburg.
+
+The section of our countrymen specially interested in
+aeronautics--a growing community--is represented by the
+Aeronautical Society, formed in 1865, with the Duke of Argyll
+for president, and for thirty years under the most energetic
+management of Mr. F. W. Brearey, succeeding whom as hon. secs. 
+have been Major Baden-Powell and Mr. Eric S. Bruce.  Mr.
+Brearey was one of the most successful inventors of flying
+models.  Mr. Chanute, speaking as President of the American
+Society of Civil Engineers, paid him a high and well-deserved
+compliment in saying that it was through his influence that
+aerial navigation had been cleared of much rubbish and placed
+upon a scientific and firm basis.
+
+Another community devoting itself to the pursuit of balloon
+trips and matters aeronautical generally is the newly-formed
+Aero Club, of whom one of the most prominent and energetic
+members is the Hon. C. S. Rolls.
+
+It had been announced that M. Santos-Dumont would bring an air
+ship to England, and during the summer of the present year
+would give exhibitions of its capability.  It was even rumoured
+that he might circle round St. Paul's and accomplish other
+aerial feats unknown in England.  The promise was fulfilled so
+far as bringing the air ship to England was concerned, for one
+of his vessels which had seen service was deposited at the
+Crystal Palace.  In some mysterious manner, however, never
+sufficiently made clear to the public, this machine was one
+morning found damaged, and M. Santos-Dumont has withdrawn from
+his proposed engagements.
+
+In thus doing he left the field open to one of our own
+countrymen, who, in his first attempt at flight with an air
+ship of his own invention and construction, has proved himself
+no unworthy rival of the wealthy young Brazilian.
+
+Mr. Stanley Spencer, in a very brief space of time, designed
+and built completely in the workshops of the firm an elongated
+motor balloon, 75 feet long by 20 feet diameter, worked by a
+screw and petrol motor.  This motor is placed in the prow, 25
+feet away from, and in front of, the safety valve, by which
+precaution any danger of igniting the escaping gas is avoided. 
+Should, however, a collapse of the machine arise from any
+cause, there is an arrangement for throwing the balloon into
+the form of a parachute.  Further, there is provided means for
+admitting air at will into the balloon, by which the necessity
+for much ballast is obviated.
+
+Mr. Spencer having filled the balloon with pure hydrogen, made
+his first trial with this machine late in an evening at the end
+of June.  The performance of the vessel is thus described in
+the Westminster Gazette:--"The huge balloon filled slowly, so
+that the light was rapidly failing when at last the doors of
+the big shed slid open and the ship was brought carefully out,
+her motor started, and her maiden voyage commenced.  With Mr.
+Stanley Spencer in the car, she sailed gracefully down the
+football field, wheeled round in a circle--a small circle,
+too--and for perhaps a quarter of an hour sailed a tortuous
+course over the heads of a small but enthusiastic crowd of
+spectators.  The ship was handicapped to some extent by the
+fact that in their anxiety to make the trial the aeronauts had
+not waited to inflate it fully, but still it did its work well,
+answered its helm readily, showed no signs of rolling, and, in
+short, appeared to give entire satisfaction to everybody
+concerned--so much so, indeed, that Mr. Stanley Spencer
+informed the crowd after the ascent that he was quite ready to
+take up any challenge that M. Santos Dumont might throw down."
+Within a few weeks of this his first success Mr. Spencer was
+able to prove to the world that he had only claimed for his
+machine what its powers fully justified.  On a still September
+afternoon, ascending alone, he steered his aerial ship in an
+easy and graceful flight over London, from the Crystal Palace
+to Harrow.
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XXIX.  CONCLUSION.
+
+
+The future development of aerostation is necessarily difficult
+to forecast.  Having reviewed its history from its inception we
+have to allow that the balloon in itself, as an instrument of
+aerial locomotion, remains practically only where it was 120
+years ago.  Nor, in the nature of the case, is this to be
+wondered at.  The wind, which alone guides the balloon, is
+beyond man's control, while, as a source of lifting power, a
+lighter and therefore more suitable gas than hydrogen is not to
+be found in nature.
+
+It is, however, conceivable that a superior mode of inflation
+may yet be discovered.  Now that the liquefaction of gases has
+become an accomplished fact, it seems almost theoretically
+possible that a balloonist may presently be able to provide
+himself with an unlimited reserve of potential energy so as to
+be fitted for travel of indefinite duration.  Endowed with
+increased powers of this nature, the aeronaut could utilise a
+balloon for voyages of discovery over regions of the earth
+which bar man's progress by any other mode of travel.  A future
+Andree, provided with a means of maintaining his gas supply for
+six weeks, need have no hesitation in laying his course towards
+the North Pole, being confident that the winds must ultimately
+waft him to some safe haven.  He could, indeed, well afford,
+having reached the Pole, to descend and build his cairn, or
+even to stop a week, if he so desired, before continuing on his
+way.
+
+But it may fairly be claimed for the balloon, even as it now
+is, that a great and important future is open to it as a means
+for exploring inaccessible country.  It may, indeed, be urged
+that Andree's task was, in the very nature of the case, well
+nigh impracticable, and his unfortunate miscarriage will be
+used as argument against such a method of exploration.  But it
+must always be remembered that in Andree's case the rigours of
+climate which he was compelled to face were the most serious of
+all obstacles to balloon travel.  The extreme cold would not
+only cause constant shrinkage of the gas, but would entail the
+deposition of a weight of moisture, if not of snow, upon the
+surface of the balloon, which must greatly shorten its life.
+
+It would be entirely otherwise if the country it were sought to
+explore were in lower latitudes, in Australia, or within the
+vast unknown belt of earth lying nearer the equator.  The
+writer's scheme for exploring the wholly unknown regions of
+Arabia is already before the public.  The fact, thought to be
+established by the most experienced aeronauts of old times, and
+already referred to in these pages, that at some height a
+strong west wind is to be found blowing with great constancy
+all round the globe, is in accordance with the view entertained
+by modern meteorologists.  Such a wind, too, may be expected to
+be a fairly fast wind, the calculation being that, as a general
+rule, the velocity of currents increases from the ground at the
+rate of about three miles per hour for each thousand feet of
+height; thus the chance of a balloon drifting speedily across
+the breadth of Arabia is a strong one, and, regarded in this
+light, the distance to be traversed is certainly not excessive,
+being probably well within the lasting power of such a balloon
+as that employed by Andree.  If, for the sake of gas supply,
+Aden were chosen for the starting ground, then 1,200 miles
+E.N.E. would carry the voyager to Muscat; 1,100 miles N.E. by
+E. would land him at Sohar; while some 800 miles would suffice
+to take him to the seaboard if his course lay N.E.  It must
+also be borne in mind that the Arabian sun by day, and the heat
+radiated off the desert by night, would be all in favour of the
+buoyancy of the balloon.
+
+But there are other persistent winds that, for purposes of
+exploration, would prove equally serviceable and sure.  From
+time immemorial the dweller on the Nile has been led to regard
+his river in the light of a benignant deity.  If he wished to
+travel down its course he had but to entrust his vessel to the
+stream, and this would carry him.  If, again, he wished to
+retrace his course, he had but to raise a sail, and the
+prevalent wind, conquering the flood, would bear him against
+the stream.  This constant north wind, following the Nile
+valley, and thence trending still southward towards Uganda, has
+been regarded as a means to hand well adapted for the
+exploration of important unsurveyed country by balloon.  This
+scheme has been conceived and elaborated by Major B.F.S. 
+Baden-Powell, and, so far, the only apparent obstacle in the
+way has proved the lack of necessary funds.
+
+It will be urged, however, that for purposes of exploration
+some form of dirigible balloon is desirable, and we have
+already had proof that where it is not sought to combat winds
+strongly opposed to their course such air ships as
+Santos-Dumont or Messrs. Spencer have already constructed
+acquit themselves well; and it requires no stretch of
+imagination to conceive that before the present century is
+closed many great gaps in the map of the world will have been
+filled in by aerial survey.
+
+But, leaving the balloon to its proper function, we turn to the
+flying machine properly so called with more sanguine hopes of
+seeing the real conquest of the air achieved.  It was as it
+were but yesterday when the air ship, unhampered by huge globes
+of gas, and controlled by mechanical means alone, was first
+fairly tried, yet it is already considered by those best able
+to judge that its ultimate success is assured.
+
+This success rests now solely in the hands of the mechanical
+engineer.  He must, and surely can, build the ship of such
+strength that some essential part does not at the critical
+moment break down or carry away.  He may have to improve his
+motive power, and here, again, we do not doubt his cunning. 
+Motor engines, self-contained and burning liquid fuel, are yet
+in their infancy, and the extraordinary emulation now existing
+in their production puts it beyond doubt that every year will
+see rapid improvement in their efficiency.
+
+We do not expect, nor do we desire, that the world may see the
+fulfilment of the poet's dream, "Argosies of magic sails" or
+"Airy navies grappling in the central blue."  We would not
+befog our vision of the future with any wild imaginings,
+seeking, as some have done, to see in the electricity or other
+hidden power of heaven the means for its subjugation by man;
+but it is far from unreasonable to hope that but a little while
+shall pass, and we shall have more perfect and reliable
+knowledge of the tides and currents in the vast ocean of air,
+and when that day may have come then it may be claimed that the
+grand problem of aerial navigation will be already solved.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of The Dominion of the Air:
+The Story of Aerial Navigation by J. M. Bacon 
+
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