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diff --git a/861-h/861-h.htm b/861-h/861-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2527c48 --- /dev/null +++ b/861-h/861-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,9615 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + The Dominion of the Air, by J. M. Bacon + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dominion of the Air, by J. M. Bacon + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Dominion of the Air + +Author: J. M. Bacon + +Release Date: July 23, 2008 [EBook #861] +Last Updated: January 25, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE DOMINION OF THE AIR *** + + + + +Produced by Dianne Bean, and David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + THE DOMINION OF THE AIR + </h1> + <h2> + The Story of Aerial Navigation<br /> + </h2> + <h2> + by J. M. Bacon + </h2> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. </a> THE DAWN OF + AERONAUTICS. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. </a> THE + INVENTION OF THE BALLOON. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER + III. </a> THE FIRST BALLOON ASCENT IN ENGLAND. <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. </a> THE DEVELOPMENT OF + BALLOON PHILOSOPHY. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. </a> SOME + FAMOUS EARLY VOYAGERS. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. + </a> CHARLES GREEN AND THE NASSAU BALLOON. <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. </a> CHARLES GREEN—FURTHER + ADVENTURES. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII. </a> JOHN + WISE—THE AMERICAN AERONAUT. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0009"> + CHAPTER IX. </a> EARLY METHODS AND IDEAS. <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. </a> THE COMMENCEMENT OF A + NEW ERA. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI. </a> THE + BALLOON IN THE SERVICE OF SCIENCE. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0012"> + CHAPTER XII. </a> HENRY COXWELL AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES. <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII. </a> SOME NOTEWORTHY + ASCENTS. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIV. </a> THE + HIGHEST ASCENT ON RECORD. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER + XV. </a> FURTHER SCIENTIFIC VOYAGES OF GLAISHER AND COXWELL. + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0016"> CHAPTER XVI. </a> SOME + FAMOUS FRENCH AERONAUTS. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0017"> CHAPTER + XVII. </a> ADVENTURE AND ENTERPRISE. <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0018"> CHAPTER XVIII. </a> THE BALLOON IN THE + SIEGE OF PARIS. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0019"> CHAPTER XIX. </a> THE + TRAGEDY OF THE ZENITH—THE NAVIGABLE BALLOON <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0020"> CHAPTER XX. </a> A CHAPTER OF + ACCIDENTS. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0021"> CHAPTER XXI. </a> THE + COMING OF THE FLYING MACHINE. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0022"> + CHAPTER XXII. </a> THE STORY OF THE SPENCERS. <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0023"> CHAPTER XXIII. </a> NEW DEPARTURES IN + AEROSTATION. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0024"> CHAPTER XXIV. </a> ANDREE + AND HIS VOYAGES <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0025"> CHAPTER XXV. </a> THE + MODERN AIRSHIP—IN SEARCH OF THE LEONIDS. <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0026"> CHAPTER XXVI. </a> RECENT AERONAUTICAL + EVENTS. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0027"> CHAPTER XXVII. </a> THE + POSSIBILITIES OF BALLOONS IN WARFARE. <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0028"> + CHAPTER XXVIII. </a> THE CONSTITUTION OF THE AIR. + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0029"> CHAPTER XXIX. </a> CONCLUSION. + <br /><br /> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. THE DAWN OF AERONAUTICS. + </h2> + <p> + "He that would learn to fly must be brought up to the constant practice of + it from his youth, trying first only to use his wings as a tame goose will + do, so by degrees learning to rise higher till he attain unto skill and + confidence." + </p> + <p> + So wrote Wilkins, Bishop of Chester, who was reckoned a man of genius and + learning in the days of the Commonwealth. But so soon as we come to + inquire into the matter we find that this good Bishop was borrowing from + the ideas of others who had gone before him; and, look back as far as we + will, mankind is discovered to have entertained persistent and often + plausible ideas of human flight. And those ideas had in some sort of way, + for good or ill, taken practical shape. Thus, as long ago as the days when + Xenophon was leading back his warriors to the shores of the Black Sea, and + ere the Gauls had first burned Rome, there was a philosopher, Archytas, + who invented a pigeon which could fly, partly by means of mechanism, and + partly also, it is said, by aid of an aura or spirit. And here arises a + question. Was this aura a gas, or did men use it as spiritualists do + today, as merely a word to conjure with? + </p> + <p> + Four centuries later, in the days of Nero, there was a man in Rome who + flew so well and high as to lose his life thereby. Here, at any rate, was + an honest man, or the story would not have ended thus; but of the rest—and + there are many who in early ages aspired to the attainment of flight—we + have no more reason to credit their claims than those of charlatans who + flourish in every age. + </p> + <p> + In medieval times we are seriously told by a saintly writer (St. Remigius) + of folks who created clouds which rose to heaven by means of "an earthen + pot in which a little imp had been enclosed." We need no more. That was an + age of flying saints, as also of flying dragons. Flying in those days of + yore may have been real enough to the multitude, but it was at best + delusion. In the good old times it did not need the genius of a Maskelyne + to do a "levitation" trick. We can picture the scene at a "flying seance." + On the one side the decidedly professional showman possessed of sufficient + low cunning; on the other the ignorant and highly superstitious audience, + eager to hear or see some new thing—the same audience that, deceived + by a simple trick of schoolboy science, would listen to supernatural + voices in their groves, or oracular utterances in their temples, or watch + the urns of Bacchus fill themselves with wine. Surely for their eyes it + would need no more than the simplest phantasmagoria, or maybe only a + little black thread, to make a pigeon rise and fly. + </p> + <p> + It is interesting to note, however, that in the case last cited there is + unquestionably an allusion to some crude form of firework, and what more + likely or better calculated to impress the ignorant! Our firework makers + still manufacture a "little Devil." Pyrotechnic is as old as history + itself; we have an excellent description of a rocket in a document at + least as ancient as the ninth century. And that a species of pyrotechny + was resorted to by those who sought to imitate flight we have proof in the + following recipe for a flying body given by a Doctor, eke a Friar, in + Paris in the days of our King John:— + </p> + <p> + "Take one pound of sulphur, two pounds of willowcarbon, six pounds of rock + salt ground very fine in a marble mortar. Place, when you please, in a + covering made of flying papyrus to produce thunder. The covering in order + to ascend and float away should be long, graceful, well filled with this + fine powder; but to produce thunder the covering should be short, thick, + and half full." + </p> + <p> + Nor does this recipe stand alone. Take another sample, of which chapter + and verse are to be found in the MSS. of a Jesuit, Gaspard Schott, of + Palermo and Rome, born three hundred years ago:— + </p> + <p> + "The shells of hen-eggs, if properly filled and well secured against the + penetration of the air, and exposed to solar rays, will ascend to the + skies and sometimes suffer a natural change. And if the eggs of the larger + description of swans, or leather balls stitched with fine thongs, be + filled with nitre, the purest sulphur quicksilver, or kindred materials + which rarify by their caloric energy, and if they externally resemble + pigeons, they will easily be mistaken for flying animals." + </p> + <p> + Thus it would seem that, hunting back in history, there were three main + ideas on which would-be aeronauts of old exercised their ingenuity. There + was the last-mentioned method, which, by the way, Jules Verne partly + relies on when he takes his heroes to the moon, and which in its highest + practical development may be seen annually on the night of "Brock's + Benefit" at the Crystal Palace. There is, again, the "tame goose" method, + to which we must return presently; and, lastly, there is a third method, + to which, as also to the brilliant genius who conceived it, we must + without further delay be introduced. This may be called the method of "a + hollow globe." + </p> + <p> + Roger Bacon, Melchisedeck-fashion, came into existence at Ilchester in + 1214 of parentage that is hard to trace. He was, however, a born + philosopher, and possessed of intellect and penetration that placed him + incalculably ahead of his generation. A man of marvellous insight and + research, he grasped, and as far as possible carried out, ideas which + dawned on other men only after centuries. Thus, many of his utterances + have been prophetic. It is probable that among his chemical discoveries he + re-invented gunpowder. It is certain that he divined the properties of a + lens, and diving deep into experimental and mechanical sciences, actually + foresaw the time when, in his own words, "men would construct engines to + traverse land and water with great speed and carry with them persons and + merchandise." Clearly in his dreams Bacon saw the Atlantic not merely + explored, but on its bosom the White Star liners breaking records, + contemptuous of its angriest seas. He saw, too, a future Dumont circling + in the air, and not only in a dead calm, but holding his own with the + feathered race. He tells his dream thus: "There may be made some flying + instrument so that a man sitting in the middle of the instrument and + turning some mechanism may put in motion some artificial wings which may + beat the air like a bird flying." + </p> + <p> + But he lived too long before his time. His ruin lay not only in his + superior genius, but also in his fearless outspokenness. He presently fell + under the ban of the Church, through which he lost alike his liberty and + the means of pursuing investigation. Had it been otherwise we may fairly + believe that the "admirable Doctor," as he was called, would have been the + first to show mankind how to navigate the air. His ideas are perfectly + easy to grasp. He conceived that the air was a true fluid, and as such + must have an upper limit, and it would be on this upper surface, he + supposed, as on the bosom of the ocean, that man would sail his air-ship. + A fine, bold guess truly. He would watch the cirrus clouds sailing grandly + ten miles above him on some stream that never approached nearer. Up there, + in his imagination, would be tossing the waves of our ocean of air. Wait + for some little better cylinders of oxygen and an improved foot-warmer, + and a future Coxwell will go aloft and see; but as to an upper sea, it is + truly there, and we may visit and view its sun-lit tossing billows + stretching out to a limitless horizon at such times as the nether world is + shrouded in densest gloom. Bacon's method of reaching such an upper sea as + he postulated was, as we have said, by a hollow globe. + </p> + <p> + "The machine must be a large hollow globe, of copper or other suitable + metal, wrought extremely thin so as to have it as light as possible," and + "it must be filled with ethereal air or liquid fire." This was written in + the thirteenth century, and it is scarcely edifying to find four hundred + years after this the Jesuit Father Lana, who contrived to make his name + live in history as a theoriser in aeronautics, arrogating to himself the + bold conception of the English Friar, with certain unfortunate + differences, however, which in fairness we must here clearly point out. + Lana proclaimed his speculations standing on a giant's shoulders. + Torricelli, with his closed bent tube, had just shown the world how + heavily the air lies above us. It then required little mathematical skill + to calculate what would be the lifting power of any vessel void of air on + the earth's surface. Thus Lana proposed the construction of an air ship + which possibly because of its picturesquesness has won him notoriety. But + it was a fraud. We have but to conceive a dainty boat in which the + aeronaut would sit at ease handling a little rudder and a simple sail. + These, though a schoolboy would have known better, he thought would guide + his vessel when in the air. + </p> + <p> + So much has been claimed for Father Lana and his mathematical and other + attainments that it seems only right to insist on the weakness of his + reasoning. An air ship simply drifting with the wind is incapable of + altering its course in the slightest degree by either sail or rudder. It + is simply like a log borne along in a torrent; but to compare such a log + properly with the air ship we must conceive it WHOLLY submerged in the + water and having no sail or other appendage projecting into the air, which + would, of course, introduce other conditions. If, however, a man were to + sit astride of the log and begin to propel it so that it travels either + faster or slower than the stream, then in that case, either by paddle or + rudder, the log could be guided, and the same might be said of Lana's air + boat if only he had thought of some adequate paddle, fan, or other + propeller. But he did not. One further explanatory sentence may here be + needed; for we hear of balloons which are capable of being guided to a + small extent by sail and rudder. In these cases, however, the rudder is a + guide rope trailing on earth or sea, so introducing a fresh element and + fresh conditions which are easy to explain. + </p> + <p> + Suppose a free balloon drifting down the wind to have a sail suddenly + hoisted on one side, what happens? The balloon will simply swing till this + sail is in front, and thus continue its straightforward course. Suppose, + however, that as soon as the side sail is hoisted a trail rope is also + dropped aft from a spar in the rigging. The tendency of the sail to fly + round in front is now checked by the dragging rope, and it is constrained + to remain slanting at an angle on one side; at the same time the rate of + the balloon is reduced by the dragging rope, so that it travels slower + than the wind, which, now acting on its slant sail, imparts a certain + sidelong motion much as it does in the case of a sailing boat. + </p> + <p> + Lana having in imagination built his ship, proceeds to make it float up + into space, for which purpose he proposes four thin copper globes + exhausted of air. Had this last been his own idea we might have pardoned + him. We have, however, pointed out that it was not, and we must further + point out that in copying his great predecessor he fails to see that he + would lose enormous advantage by using four globes instead of one. But, + beyond all, he failed to see what the master genius of Bacon saw clearly—that + his thin globes when exhausted must infallibly collapse by virtue of that + very pressure of the air which he sought to make use of. + </p> + <p> + It cannot be too strongly insisted on that if the too much belauded + speculations of Lana have any value at all it is that they throw into + stronger contrast the wonderful insight of the philosopher who so long + preceded him. By sheer genius Bacon had foreseen that the emptied globe + must be filled with SOMETHING, and for this something he suggests + "ethereal air" or "liquid fire," neither of which, we contend, were empty + terms. With Bacon's knowledge of experimental chemistry it is a question, + and a most interesting one, whether he had not in his mind those two + actual principles respectively of gas and air rarefied by heat on which we + launch our balloons into space to-day. + </p> + <p> + Early progress in any art or science is commonly intermittent. It was so + in the story of aeronautics. Advance was like that of the incoming tide, + throwing an occasional wave far in front of its rising flood. It was a + phenomenal wave that bore Roger Bacon and left his mark on the sand where + none other approached for centuries. In those centuries men were either + too priest-ridden to lend an ear to Science, or, like children, followed + only the Will-o'-the-Wisp floating above the quagmire which held them + fast. They ran after the stone that was to turn all to gold, or the elixir + that should conquer death, or the signs in the heavens that should + foretell their destinies; and the taint of this may be traced even when + the dark period that followed was clearing away. Four hundred years after + Roger's death, his illustrious namesake, Francis Bacon, was formulating + his Inductive Philosophy, and with complete cock-sureness was teaching + mankind all about everything. Let us look at some of his utterances which + may help to throw light on the way he regarded the problem we are dealing + with. + </p> + <p> + "It is reported," Francis Bacon writes, "that the Leucacians in ancient + time did use to precipitate a man from a high cliffe into the sea; tying + about him, with strings, at some distance, many great fowles; and fixing + unto his body divers feathers, spread, to breake the fall. Certainly many + birds of good wing (as Kites and the like) would beare up a good weight as + they flie. And spreading of feathers, thin and close, and in great + breadth, will likewise beare up a great weight, being even laid without + tilting upon the sides. The further extension of this experiment of flying + may be thought upon." + </p> + <p> + To say the least, this is hardly mechanical. But let us next follow the + philosopher into the domain of Physics. Referring to a strange assertion, + that "salt water will dissolve salt put into it in less time than fresh + water will dissolve it," he is at once ready with an explanation to fit + the case. "The salt," he says, "in the precedent water doth by similitude + of substance draw the salt new put in unto it." Again, in his finding, + well water is warmer in winter than summer, and "the cause is the + subterranean heat which shut close in (as in winter) is the more, but if + it perspire (as it doth in summer) it is the less." This was Bacon the + Lord. What a falling off—from the experimentalist's point of view—from + Bacon the Friar! We can fancy him watching a falcon poised motionless in + the sky, and reflecting on that problem which to this day fairly puzzles + our ablest scientists, settling the matter in a sentence: "The cause is + that feathers doe possess upward attractions." During four hundred years + preceding Lord Verulam philosophers would have flown by aid of a + broomstick. Bacon himself would have merely parried the problem with a + platitude! + </p> + <p> + At any rate, physicists, even in the brilliant seventeenth century, made + no material progress towards the navigation of the air, and thus presently + let the simple mechanic step in before them. Ere that century had closed + something in the nature of flight had been accomplished. It is exceedingly + hard to arrive at actual fact, but it seems pretty clear that more than + one individual, by starting from some eminence, could let himself fall + into space and waft himself away for some distance with fair success and + safety, It is stated that an English Monk, Elmerus, flew the space of a + furlong from a tower in Spain, a feat of the same kind having been + accomplished by another adventurer from the top of St. Mark's at Venice. + </p> + <p> + In these attempts it would seem that the principle of the parachute was to + some extent at least brought into play. If also circumstantial accounts + can be credited, it would appear that a working model of a flying machine + was publicly exhibited by one John Muller before the Emperor Charles V. at + Nuremberg. Whatever exaggeration or embellishment history may be guilty of + it is pretty clear that some genuine attempts of a practical and not + unsuccessful nature had been made here and there, and these prompted the + flowery and visionary Bishop Wilkins already quoted to predict confidently + that the day was approaching when it "would be as common for a man to call + for his wings as for boots and spurs." + </p> + <p> + We have now to return to the "tame goose" method, which found its best and + boldest exponent in a humble craftsman, by name Besnier, living at Sable, + about the year 1678. This mechanical genius was by trade a locksmith, and + must have been possessed of sufficient skill to construct an efficient + apparatus out of such materials as came to his hand, of the simplest + possible design. It may be compared to the earliest type of bicycle, the + ancient "bone shaker," now almost forgotten save by those who, like the + writer, had experience of it on its first appearance. Besnier's wings, as + it would appear, were essentially a pair of double-bladed paddles and + nothing more, roughly resembling the double-paddle of an old-fashioned + canoe, only the blades were large, roughly rectangular, and curved or + hollowed. The operator would commence by standing erect and balancing + these paddles, one on each shoulder, so that the hollows of the blades + should be towards the ground. The forward part of each paddle was then + grasped by the hands, while the hinder part of each was connected to the + corresponding leg. This, presumably, would be effected after the arms had + been raised vertically, the leg attachment being contrived in some way + which experience would dictate. + </p> + <p> + The flyer was now fully equipped, and nothing remained for him save to + mount some eminence and, throwing himself forward into space and assuming + the position of a flying bird, to commence flapping and beating the air + with a reciprocal motion. First, he would buffet the air downwards with + the left arm and right leg simultaneously, and while these recovered their + position would strike with the right hand and left leg, and so on + alternately. With this crude method the enterprising inventor succeeded in + raising himself by short stages from one height to another, reaching thus + the top of a house, whence he could pass over others, or cross a river or + the like. + </p> + <p> + The perfecting of his system became then simply a question of practice and + experience, and had young athletes only been trained from early years to + the new art it seems reasonable to suppose that some crude approach to + human flight would have been effected. Modifications and improvements in + construction would soon have suggested themselves, as was the case with + the bicycle, which in its latest developments can scarcely be recognised + as springing from the primitive "bone-shaker" of thirty-three years ago. + We would suggest the idea to the modern inventor. He will in these days, + of course, find lighter materials to hand. Then he will adopt some link + motion for the legs in place of leather thongs, and will hinge the paddle + blades so that they open out with the forward stroke, but collapse with + the return. Then look on another thirty-three years—a fresh + generation—and our youth of both sexes may find a popular recreation + in graceful aerial exercise. The pace is not likely to be excessive, and + molestations from disguised policemen—not physically adapted, by the + way, to rapid flight—need not be apprehended. + </p> + <p> + One of the best tests of Besnier's measure of success is supplied by the + fact that he had pupils as well as imitators. First on this list must be + mentioned a Mr. Baldwin, a name which, curiously enough, twice over in + modern times comes into the records of bold aerial exploits. This + individual, it appears, purchased a flying outfit of Besnier himself, and + surpassed his master in achievement. A little later one Dante contrived + some modification of the same apparatus, with which he pursued the new + mode of progress till he met with a fractured thigh. + </p> + <p> + But whatever the imitators of Besnier may have accomplished, to the honest + smith must be accorded the full credit of their success, and with his + simple, but brilliant, record left at flood mark, the tide of progress + ebbed back again, while mankind ruminated over the great problem in + apparent inactivity. But not for long. The air-pump about this period was + given to the world, and chemists were already busy investigating the + nature of gases. Cavallo was experimenting on kindred lines, while in our + own land the rival geniuses of Priestley and Cavendish were clearing the + way to make with respect to the atmosphere the most important discovery + yet dreamed of. In recording this dawn of a new era, however, we should + certainly not forget how, across the Atlantic, had arisen a Rumford and a + Franklin, whose labours were destined to throw an all-important sidelight + on the pages of progress which we have now to chronicle. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. THE INVENTION OF THE BALLOON. + </h2> + <p> + It was a November night of the year 1782, in the little town of Annonay, + near Lyons. Two young men, Stephen and Joseph Montgolfier, the + representatives of a firm of paper makers, were sitting together over + their parlour fire. While watching the smoke curling up the chimney one + propounded an idea by way of a sudden inspiration: "Why shouldn't smoke be + made to raise bodies into the air?" + </p> + <p> + The world was waiting for this utterance, which, it would seem, was on the + tip of the tongue with many others. Cavendish had already discovered what + he designated "inflammable air," though no one had as yet given it its + later title of hydrogen gas. Moreover, in treating of this gas—Dr. + Black of Edinburgh, as much as fifteen years before the date we have now + arrived at, had suggested that it should be made capable of raising a thin + bladder in the air. With a shade more of good fortune, or maybe with a + modicum more of leisure, the learned Doctor would have won the invention + of the balloon for his own country. Cavallo came almost nearer, and + actually putting the same idea into practice, had succeeded in the spring + of 1782 in making soap bubbles blown with hydrogen gas float upwards. But + he had accomplished no more when, as related, in the autumn of the same + year the brothers Montgolfier conceived the notion of making bodies + "levitate" by the simpler expedient of filling them with smoke. + </p> + <p> + This was the crude idea, the application of which in their hands was soon + marked with notable success. Their own trade supplied ready and suitable + materials for a first experiment, and, making an oblong bag of thin paper + a few feet in length, they proceeded to introduce a cloud of smoke into it + by holding crumpled paper kindled in a chafing dish beneath the open + mouth. What a subject is there here for an imaginative painter! As the + smoky cloud formed within, the bag distended itself, became buoyant, and + presently floated to the ceiling. The simple trial proved a complete + success, due, as it appeared to them, to the ascensive power of a cloud of + smoke. + </p> + <p> + An interesting and more detailed version of the story is extant. While the + experiment was in progress a neighbour, the widow of a tradesman who had + been connected in business with the firm, seeing smoke escaping into the + room, entered and stood watching the proceedings, which were not + unattended with difficulties. The bag, half inflated, was not easy to hold + in position over the chafing dish, and rapidly cooled and collapsed on + being removed from it. The widow noting this, as also the perplexity of + the young men, suggested that they should try the result of tying the dish + on at the bottom of the bag. This was the one thing wanted to secure + success, and that good lady, whose very name is unhappily lost, deserves + an honoured place in history. It was unquestionably the adoption of her + idea which launched the first balloon into space. + </p> + <p> + The same experiment repeated in the open air proving a yet more pronounced + success, more elaborate trials were quickly developed, and the infant + balloon grew fast. One worthy of the name, spherical in shape and of some + 600 cubic feet capacity, was now made and treated as before, with the + result that ere it was fully inflated it broke the strings that held it + and sailed away hundreds of feet into the air. The infant was fast + becoming a prodigy. Encouraged by their fresh success, the inventors at + once set about preparations for the construction of a much larger balloon + some thirty-five feet diameter (that is, of about 23,000 cubic feet + capacity), to be made of linen lined with paper and this machine, launched + on a favourable day in the following spring, rose with great swiftness to + fully a thousand feet, and travelled nearly a mile from its starting + ground. + </p> + <p> + Enough; the time was already ripe for a public demonstration of the new + invention, and accordingly the 5th of the following June witnessed the + ascent of the same balloon with due ceremony and advertisement. Special + pains were taken with the inflation, which was conducted over a pit above + which the balloon envelope was slung; and in accordance with the view that + smoke was the chief lifting power, the fuel was composed of straw largely + mixed with wool. It is recorded that the management of the furnace needed + the attention of two men only, while eight men could hardly hold the + impatient balloon in restraint. The inflation, in spite of the fact that + the fuel chosen was scarcely the best for the purpose, was conducted + remarkable expedition, and on being released, the craft travelled one and + a half miles into the air, attaining a height estimated at over 6,000 + feet. + </p> + <p> + From this time the tide of events in the aeronautical world rolls on in + full flood, almost every half-year marking a fresh epoch, until a new + departure in the infant art of ballooning was already on the point of + being reached. It had been erroneously supposed that the ascent of the + Montgolfier balloon had been due, not to the rarefaction of the air within + it—which was its true cause—but to the evolution of some light + gas disengaged by the nature of the fuel used. It followed, therefore, + almost as a matter of course, that chemists, who, as stated in the last + chapter, were already acquainted with so-called "inflammable air," or + hydrogen gas, grasped the fact that this gas would serve better than any + other for the purposes of a balloon. And no sooner had the news of the + Montgolfiers' success reached Paris than a subscription was raised, and M. + Charles, Professor of Experimental Philosophy, was appointed, with the + assistance of M. Roberts, to superintend the construction of a suitable + balloon and its inflation by the proposed new method. + </p> + <p> + The task was one of considerable difficulty, owing partly to the necessity + of procuring some material which would prevent the escape of the lightest + and most subtle gas known, and no less by reason of the difficulty of + preparing under pressure a sufficient quantity of gas itself. The + experiment, sound enough in theory, was eventually carried through after + several instructive failures. A suitable material was found in "lustring," + a glossy silk cloth varnished with a solution of caoutchouc, and this + being formed into a balloon only thirteen feet in diameter and fitted + without other aperture than a stopcock, was after several attempts filled + with hydrogen gas prepared in the usual way by the action of dilute + sulphuric acid on scrap iron. + </p> + <p> + The preparations completed, one last and all-important mistake was made by + closing the stop-cock before the balloon was dismissed, the disastrous and + unavoidable result of this being at the time overlooked. + </p> + <p> + On August 25, 1783, the balloon was liberated on the Champ de Mars before + an enormous concourse, and in less than two minutes had reached an + elevation of half a mile, when it was temporarily lost in cloud, through + which, however, it penetrated, climbing into yet higher cloud, when, + disappearing from sight, it presently burst and descended to earth after + remaining in the air some three-quarters of an hour. + </p> + <p> + The bursting of this little craft taught the future balloonist his first + great lesson, namely, that on leaving earth he must open the neck of his + balloon; and the reason of this is obvious. While yet on earth the + imprisoned gas of a properly filled balloon distends the silk by virtue of + its expansive force, and in spite of the enormous outside pressure which + the weight of air exerts upon it. Then, as the balloon rises high in the + air and the outside pressure grows less, the struggling gas within, if + allowed no vent, stretches the balloon more and more until the slender + fabric bursts under the strain. + </p> + <p> + At the risk of being tedious, we have dwelt at some length on the initial + experiments which in less than a single year had led to the discovery and + development of two distinct methods—still employed and in + competition with each other—of dismissing balloons into the heavens. + We are now prepared to enter fully into the romantic history of our + subject which from this point rapidly unfolds itself. + </p> + <p> + Some eleven months only after the two Montgolfiers were discovered toying + with their inflated paper bag, the younger of the two brothers was engaged + to make an exhibition of his new art before the King at Versailles, and + this was destined to be the first occasion when a balloon was to carry a + living freight into the sky. The stately structure, which was gorgeously + decorated, towered some seventy feet into the air, and was furnished with + a wicker car in which the passengers were duly installed. These were three + in number, a sheep, a cock, and a duck, and amid the acclamations of the + multitude, rose a few hundred feet and descended half a mile away. The + cock was found to have sustained an unexplained mishap: its leg was + broken; but the sheep was feeding complacently, and the duck was quacking + with much apparent satisfaction. + </p> + <p> + Now, who among mortals will come forward and win the honour of being the + first to sail the skies? M. Pilitre de Rozier at once volunteered, and by + the month of November a new air ship was built, 74 feet high, 48 feet in + largest diameter, and 15 feet across the neck, outside which a wicker + gallery was constructed, while an iron brazier was slung below all. But to + trim the boat properly two passengers were needed, and de Rozier found a + ready colleague in the Marquis d'Arlandes. By way of precaution, de Rozier + made a few preliminary ascents with the balloon held captive, and then the + two intrepid Frenchmen took their stand on opposite sides of the gallery, + each furnished with bundles of fuel to feed the furnace, each also + carrying a large wet sponge with which to extinguish the flames whenever + the machine might catch fire. On casting off the balloon rose readily, and + reaching 3,000 feet, drifted away on an upper current. + </p> + <p> + The rest of the narrative, much condensed from a letter of the Marquis, + written a week later, runs somewhat thus: "Our departure was at fifty-four + minutes past one, and occasioned little stir among the spectators. + Thinking they might be frightened and stand in need of encouragement, I + waved my arm. M. de Rozier cried, 'You are doing nothing, and we are not + rising!' I stirred the fire, and then began to scan the river, but Pilitre + cried again, 'See the river; we are dropping into it!' We again urged the + fire, but still clung to the river bed. Presently I heard a noise in the + upper part of the balloon, which gave a shock as though it had burst. I + called to my companion, 'Are you dancing?' The balloon by now had many + holes burned in it, and using my sponge I cried that we must descend. My + companion, however, explained that we were over Paris, and must now cross + it. Therefore, raising the fire once more, we turned south till we passed + the Luxemburg, when, extinguishing the flame, the balloon came down spent + and empty." + </p> + <p> + Daring as was this ascent, it was in achievement eclipsed two months later + at Lyons, when a mammoth balloon, 130 feet in height and lifting 18 tons, + was inflated in seventeen minutes, and ascended with no less than seven + passengers. When more than half a mile aloft this machine, which was made + of too slender material for its huge size, suddenly developed a rent of + half its length, causing it to descend with immense velocity; but without + the smallest injury to any of the passengers. This was a memorable + performance, and the account, sensational as it may read, is by no means + unworthy of credit; for, as will be seen hereafter, a balloon even when + burst or badly torn in midair may, on the principle of the parachute, + effect its own salvation. + </p> + <p> + In the meanwhile, the rival balloon of hydrogen gas—the Charliere, + as it has been called—had had its first innings. Before the close of + the year MM. Roberts and Charles constructed and inflated a hydrogen + balloon, this time fitted with a practicable valve, and in partnership + accomplished an ascent beating all previous records. The day, December 17, + was one of winter temperature; yet the aeronauts quickly reached 6,000 + feet, and when, after remaining aloft for one and a half hours, they + descended, Roberts got out, leaving Charles in sole possession. Left to + himself, this young recruit seems to have met with experiences which are + certainly unusual, and which must be attributed largely to the novelty of + his situation. He declared that at 9,000 feet, or less than two miles, all + objects on the earth had disappeared from view, a statement which can only + be taken to mean that he had entered cloud. Further, at this moderate + elevation he not only became benumbed with cold, but felt severe pain in + his right ear and jaw. He held on, however, ascending till 10,500 feet + were reached, when he descended, having made a journey of thirty miles + from the start. + </p> + <p> + Ascents, all on the Continent, now followed one another in rapid + succession, and shortly the MM. Roberts essayed a venture on new lines. + They attempted the guidance of a balloon by means of oars, and though they + failed in this they were fortunate in making a fresh record. They also + encountered a thunderstorm, and by adopting a perfectly scientific method—of + which more hereafter—succeeded in eluding it. The storm broke around + them when they were 14,000 feet high, and at this altitude, noting that + there were diverse currents aloft, they managed to manoeuvre their balloon + higher or lower at will and to suit their purpose, and by this stratagem + drew away from the storm centre. After six and a half hours their voyage + ended, but not until 150 miles had been covered. + </p> + <p> + It must be freely granted that prodigious progress had been made in an art + that as yet was little more than a year old; but assuredly not enough to + justify the absurdly inflated ideas that the Continental public now began + to indulge in. Men lost their mental balance, allowing their imagination + to run riot, and speculation became extravagant in the extreme. There was + to be no limit henceforward to the attainment of fresh knowledge, nor any + bounds placed to where man might roam. The universe was open to him: he + might voyage if he willed to the moon or elsewhere: Paris was to be the + starting point for other worlds: Heaven itself had been taken by storm. + </p> + <p> + Moderation had to be learned ere long by the discipline of more than one + stern lesson. Hitherto a marvellous—call it a Providential—good + fortune had attended the first aerial travellers; and even when mishaps + presently came to be reckoned with, it may fairly be questioned whether so + many lives were sacrificed among those who sought to voyage through the + sky as were lost among such as first attempted to navigate the sea. + </p> + <p> + It is in such ventures as we are now regarding that fortune seems readiest + to favour the daring, and if I may digress briefly to adduce experiences + coming within my own knowledge, I would say that it is to his very + impulsiveness that the enthusiast often owes the safety of his neck. It is + the timid, not the bold rider, that comes to grief at the fence. It is the + man who draws back who is knocked over by a tramcar. Sheer impetus, moral + or physical, often carries you through, as in the case of a fall from + horse-back. To tumble off when your horse is standing still and receive a + dead blow from the ground might easily break a limb. But at full gallop + immunity often lies in the fact that you strike the earth at an angle, and + being carried forward, impact is less abrupt. I can only say that I have + on more than one occasion found the greatest safety in a balloon venture + involving the element of risk to lie in complete abandonment to + circumstances, and in the increased life and activity which the delirium + of excitement calls forth. In comparing, however, man's first ventures by + sky with those by sea, we must remember what far greater demand the former + must have made upon the spirit of enterprise and daring. + </p> + <p> + We can picture the earliest sea voyager taking his first lesson astride of + a log with one foot on the bottom, and thus proceeding by sure stages till + he had built his coracle and learned to paddle it in shoal water. But the + case was wholly different when the first frail air ship stood at her + moorings with straining gear and fiercely burning furnace, and when the + sky sailor knew that no course was left him but to dive boldly up into an + element whence there was no stepping back, and separated from earth by a + gulf which man instinctively dreads to look down upon. + </p> + <p> + Taking events in their due sequence, we have now to record a voyage which + the terrors of sky and sea together combined to make memorable. Winter had + come—early January of 1785—when, in spite of short dark days + and frosty air, M. Blanchard, accompanied by an American, Dr. Jeffries, + determined on an attempt to cross the Channel. They chose the English + side, and inflating their balloon with hydrogen at Dover, boldly cast off, + and immediately drifted out to sea. Probably they had not paid due thought + to the effect of low sun and chilly atmosphere, for their balloon rose + sluggishly and began settling down ere little more than a quarter of their + course was run. Thereupon they parted with a large portion of their + ballast, with the result that they crept on as far as mid-Channel, when + they began descending again, and cast out the residue of their sand, + together with some books, and this, too, with the uncomfortable feeling + that even these measures would not suffice to secure their safety. + </p> + <p> + This was in reality the first time that a sea passage had been made by + sky, and the gravity of their situation must not be under-estimated. We + are so accustomed in a sea passage to the constant passing of other + vessels that we allow ourselves to imagine that a frequented portion of + the ocean, such as the Channel, is thickly dotted over with shipping of + some sort. But in entertaining this idea we are forgetful of the fact that + we are all the while on a steamer track. The truth, however, is that + anywhere outside such a track, even from the commanding point of view of a + high-flying balloon, the ocean is seen to be more vast than we suppose, + and bears exceedingly little but the restless waves upon its surface. Once + fairly in the water with a fallen balloon, there is clearly no rising + again, and the life of the balloon in this its wrong element is not likely + to be a long one. The globe of gas may under favourable circumstances + continue to float for some while, but the open wicker car is the worst + possible boat for the luckless voyagers, while to leave it and cling to + the rigging is but a forlorn hope, owing to the mass of netting which + surrounds the silk, and which would prove a death-trap in the water. There + are many instances of lives having been lost in such a dilemma, even when + help was near at hand. + </p> + <p> + Our voyagers, whom we left in mid-air and stream, were soon descending + again, and this time they threw out their tackle—anchor, ropes, and + other gear, still without adequately mending matters. Then their case grew + desperate. The French coast was, indeed, well in sight, but there seemed + but slender chance of reaching it, when they began divesting themselves of + clothing as a last resort. The upshot of this was remarkable, and deserves + a moment's consideration. When a balloon has been lightened almost to the + utmost the discharge of a small weight sometimes has a magical effect, as + is not difficult to understand. Throwing out ten pounds at an early stage, + when there may be five hundred pounds more of superfluous weight, will + tell but little, but when those five hundred pounds are expended then an + extra ten pounds scraped together from somewhere and cast overboard may + cause a balloon to make a giant stride into space by way of final effort; + and it was so with M. Blanchard. His expiring balloon shot up and over the + approaching land, and came safely to earth near the Forest of Guiennes. A + magnificent feast was held at Calais to celebrate the above event. M. + Blanchard was presented with the freedom of the city in a gold box, and + application was made to the Ministry to have the balloon purchased and + deposited as a memorial in the church. On the testimony of the grandson of + Dr. Jeffries the car of this balloon is now in the museum of the same + city. + </p> + <p> + A very noteworthy example of how a balloon may be made to take a fresh + lease of life is supplied by a voyage of M. Testu about this date, which + must find brief mention in these pages. In one aspect it is laughable, in + another it is sublime. From every point of view it is romantic. + </p> + <p> + It was four o'clock on a threatening day in June when the solitary + aeronaut took flight from Paris in a small hydrogen balloon only partially + filled, but rigged with some contrivance of wings which were designed to + render it self-propelling. Discovering, however, that this device was + inoperative, M. Testu, after about an hour and a half, allowed the balloon + to descend to earth in a corn field, when, without quitting hold of the + car, he commenced collecting stones for ballast. But as yet he knew not + the ways of churlish proprietors of land, and in consequence was presently + surprised by a troublesome crowd, who proceeded, as they supposed, to take + him prisoner till he should pay heavy compensation, dragging him off to + the nearest village by the trail rope of his balloon. + </p> + <p> + M. Testu now had leisure to consider his situation, and presently hit on a + stratagem the like of which has often since been adopted by aeronauts in + like predicament. Representing to his captors that without his wings he + would be powerless, he suffered them to remove these weighty appendages, + when also dropping a heavy cloak, he suddenly cut the cord by which he was + being dragged, and, regaining freedom, soared away into the sky. He was + quickly high aloft, and heard thunder below him, soon after which, the + chill of evening beginning to bring him earthward, he descried a hunt in + full cry, and succeeded in coming down near the huntsmen, some of whom + galloped up to him, and for their benefit he ascended again, passing this + time into dense cloud with thunder and lightning. He saw the sun go down + and the lightning gather round, yet with admirable courage he lived the + night out aloft till the storms were spent and the midsummer sun rose once + more. With daylight restored, his journey ended at a spot over sixty miles + from Paris. + </p> + <p> + We have, of course, recounted only a few of the more noteworthy early + ballooning ventures. In reality there had up to the present time been + scores of ascents made in different localities and in all conditions of + wind and weather, yet not a life had been lost. We have now, however, to + record a casualty which cost the first and boldest aeronaut his life, and + which is all the more regrettable as being due to circumstances that + should never have occurred. + </p> + <p> + M. Pilatre de Rosier, accompanied by M. Romain, determined on crossing the + Channel from the French side; and, thinking to add to their buoyancy and + avoid the risk of falling in the sea, hit on the extraordinary idea of + using a fire balloon beneath another filled with hydrogen gas! With this + deadly compound machine they actually ascended from Boulogne, and had not + left the land when the inevitable catastrophe took place. + </p> + <p> + The balloons caught fire and blew up at a height of 3,000 feet, while the + unfortunate voyagers were dashed to atoms. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. THE FIRST BALLOON ASCENT IN ENGLAND. + </h2> + <p> + As may be supposed, it was not long before the balloon was introduced into + England. Indeed, the first successful ascent on record made in our own + country took place in the summer of 1784, ten months previous to the fatal + venture narrated at the close of the last chapter. Now, it is a remarkable + and equally regrettable circumstance that though the first ascent on + British soil was undoubtedly made by one of our own countrymen, the fact + is almost universally forgotten, or ignored, and the credit is accorded to + a foreigner. + </p> + <p> + Let us in strict honesty examine into the case. Vincent Lunardi, an + Italian, Secretary to the Neapolitan Ambassador, Prince Caramanico, being + in England in the year 1784, determined on organising and personally + executing an ascent from London; and his splendid enterprise, which was + presently carried to a successful issue, will form the principal subject + of the present chapter. It will be seen that remarkable success crowned + his efforts, and that his first and ever memorable voyage was carried + through on September 15th of that year. + </p> + <p> + More than a month previously, however, attention had been called to the + fact that a Mr. Tytler was preparing to make an ascent from Edinburgh in a + hot air balloon, and in the London Chronicle of August 27th occurs the + following circumstantial and remarkable letter from a correspondent to + that journal: + </p> + <p> + "Edinburgh, Aug. 27, 1784. + </p> + <p> + "Mr. Tytler has made several improvements upon his fire balloon. The + reason of its failure formerly was its being made of porous linen, through + which the air made its escape. To remedy this defect, Mr. Tytler has got + it covered with a varnish to retain the inflammable air after the balloon + is filled. + </p> + <p> + "Early this morning this bold adventurer took his first aerial flight. The + balloon being filled at Comely Garden, he seated himself in the basket, + and the ropes being cut he ascended very high and descended quite + gradually on the road to Restalrig, about half a mile from the place where + he rose, to the great satisfaction of those spectators who were present. + Mr. Tytler went up without the furnace this morning; when that is added he + will be able to feed the balloon with inflammable air, and continue his + aerial excursions as long as he chooses. + </p> + <p> + "Mr. Tytler is now in high spirits, and in his turn laughs at those + infidels who ridiculed his scheme as visionary and impracticable. Mr. + Tytler is the first person in Great Britain who has navigated the air." + </p> + <p> + Referring to this exploit, Tytler, in a laudatory epistle addressed to + Lunardi, tells of the difficulties he had had to contend with, and + artlessly reveals the cool, confident courage he must have displayed. No + shelter being available for the inflation, and a strong wind blowing, his + first misfortune was the setting fire to his wicker gallery. The next was + the capsizing and damaging of his balloon, which he had lined with paper. + He now substituted a coat of varnish for the paper, and his gallery being + destroyed, so that he could no longer attempt to take up a stove, he + resolved to ascend without one. In the end the balloon was successfully + inflated, when he had the hardihood to entrust himself to a small basket + (used for carrying earthenware) slung below, and thus to launch himself + into the sky. He did so under the conviction that the risk he ran was + greater than it really was, for he argued that his craft was now only like + a projectile, and "must undoubtedly come to the ground with the same + velocity with which it ascended." On this occasion the crowd tried for + some time to hold him near the ground by one of the restraining ropes, so + that his flight was curtailed. In a second experiment, however, he + succeeded in rising some hundreds of feet, and came to earth without + mishap. + </p> + <p> + But little further information respecting Mr. Tytler is apparently + forthcoming, and therefore beyond recording the fact that he was the first + British aeronaut, and also that he was the first to achieve a balloon + ascent in Great Britain, we are unable to make further mention of him in + this history. + </p> + <p> + Of his illustrious contemporary already mentioned there is, on the + contrary, much to record, and we would desire to give full credit to his + admirable courage and perseverance. It was with a certain national and + pardonable pride that the young Italian planned his bold exploit, feeling + with a sense of self-satisfaction, which he is at no pains to hide, that + he aimed at winning honour for his country as well as for himself. In a + letter which he wrote to his guardian, Chevalier Gherardo Compagni, he + alludes to the stolid indifference of the English people and philosophers + to the brilliant achievements in aeronautics which had been made and so + much belauded on the Continent. He proclaims the rivalry as regards + science and art existing between France and England, attributing to the + latter an attitude of sullen jealousy. At the same time he is fully alive + to the necessity of gaining English patronage, and sets about securing + this with tactful diplomacy. First he casts about for a suitable spot + where his enterprise would not fail to enlist general attention and + perhaps powerful patrons, and here he is struck by the attractions and + facilities offered by Chelsea Hospital. He therefore applies to Sir George + Howard, the Governor, asking for the use of the famous hospital, to which, + on the occasion of his experiments, he desires that admittance should only + be granted to subscribers, while any profits should be devoted to the + pensioners of the hospital. His application having been granted, he + assures his guardian that he "still maintains his mental balance, and his + sleep is not banished by the magnitude of his enterprise, which is + destined to lead him through the path of danger to glory." + </p> + <p> + This letter was dated the 15th of July, and by the beginning of August his + advertisement was already before the public, inviting subscribers and + announcing a private view of his balloon at the Lyceum, where it was in + course of construction, and was being fitted with contrivances of his own + in the shape of oars and sails. He had by this time not only enlisted the + interest of Sir George Howard, and of Sir Joseph Banks, but had secured + the direct patronage of the King. + </p> + <p> + But within a fortnight a most unforeseen mishap had occurred, which + threatened to overwhelm Lunardi in disappointment and ruin. A Frenchman of + the name of Moret, designing to turn to his own advertisement the + attention attracted by Lunardi's approaching trials, attempted to + forestall the event by an enterprise of his own, announcing that he would + make an ascent with a hot air balloon in some gardens near Chelsea + Hospital, and at a date previous to that fixed upon by Lunardi. In + attempting, however, to carry out this unworthy project the adventurer met + with the discomfiture he deserved. He failed to effect his inflation, and + when after fruitless attempts continued for three hours, his balloon + refused to rise, a large crowd, estimated at 60,000, assembled outside, + broke into the enclosure, committing havoc on all sides, not unattended + with acts of violence and robbery. + </p> + <p> + The whole neighbourhood became alarmed, and it followed as a matter of + course that Lunardi was peremptorily ordered to discontinue his + preparations, and to announce in the public press that his ascent from + Chelsea Hospital was forbidden. Failure and ruin now stared the young + enthusiast in the face, and it was simply the generous feeling of the + British public, and the desire to see fair play, that gave him another + chance. As it was, he became the hero of the hour; thousands flocked to + the show rooms at the Lyceum, and he shortly obtained fresh grounds, + together with needful protection for his project, at the hands of the Hon. + Artillery Company. By the 15th of September all incidental difficulties, + the mere enumeration of which would unduly swell these pages, had been + overcome by sheer persistence, and Lunardi stood in the enclosure allotted + him, his preparations in due order, with 150,000 souls, who had formed for + hours a dense mass of spectators, watching intently and now confidently + the issue of his bold endeavour. + </p> + <p> + But his anxieties were as yet far from over, for a London crowd had never + yet witnessed a balloon ascent, while but a month ago they had seen and + wreaked their wrath upon the failure of an adventurer. They were not + likely to be more tolerant now. And when the advertised hour for departure + had arrived, and the balloon remained inadequately inflated, matters began + to take a more serious turn. Half an hour later they approached a crisis, + when it began to be known that the balloon still lacked buoyancy, and that + the supply of gas was manifestly insufficient. The impatience of the mob + indeed was kept in restraint by one man alone. This man was the Prince of + Wales who, refusing to join the company within the building and careless + of the attitude of the crowd, remained near the balloon to check disorder + and unfair treatment. + </p> + <p> + But an hour after time the balloon still rested inert and then, with fine + resolution, Lunardi tried one last expedient. He bade his colleague, Mr. + Biggen, who was to have ascended with him, remain behind, and quietly + substituting a smaller and lighter wicker car, or rather gallery, took his + place within and severed the cords just as the last gun fired. The Prince + of Wales raised his hat, imitated at once by all the bystanders, and the + first balloon that ever quitted English soil rose into the air amid the + extravagant enthusiasm of the multitude. The intrepid aeronaut, pardonably + excited, and fearful lest he should not be seen within the gallery, made + frantic efforts to attract attention by waving his flag, and worked his + oars so vigorously that one of them broke and fell. A pigeon also gained + its freedom and escaped. The voyager, however, still retained companions + in his venture—a dog and a cat. + </p> + <p> + Following his own account, Lunardi's first act on finding himself fairly + above the town was to fortify himself with some glasses of wine, and to + devour the leg of a chicken. He describes the city as a vast beehive, St. + Paul's and other churches standing out prominently; the streets shrunk to + lines, and all humanity apparently transfixed and watching him. A little + later he is equally struck with the view of the open country, and his + ecstasy is pardonable in a novice. The verdant pastures eclipsed the + visions of his own lands. The precision of boundaries impressed him with a + sense of law and order, and of good administration in the country where he + was a sojourner. + </p> + <p> + By this time he found his balloon, which had been only two-thirds full at + starting, to be so distended that he was obliged to untie the mouth to + release the strain. He also found that the condensed moisture round the + neck had frozen. These two statements point to his having reached a + considerable altitude, which is intelligible enough. It is, however, + difficult to believe his further assertion that by the use of his single + oar he succeeded in working himself down to within a few hundred feet of + the earth. The descent of the balloon must, in point of fact, have been + due to a copious outrush of gas at his former altitude. Had his oar really + been effective in working the balloon down it would not have needed the + discharge of ballast presently spoken of to cause it to reascend. Anyhow, + he found himself sufficiently near the earth to land a passenger who was + anxious to get out. His cat had not been comfortable in the cold upper + regions, and now at its urgent appeal was deposited in a corn field, which + was the point of first contact with the earth. It was carefully received + by a country-woman, who promptly sold it to a gentleman on the other side + of the hedge, who had been pursuing the balloon. + </p> + <p> + The first ascent of a balloon in England was deserving of some record, and + an account alike circumstantial and picturesque is forthcoming. The novel + and astonishing sight was witnessed by a Hertfordshire farmer, whose + testimony, published by Lunardi in the same year, runs as follows:— + </p> + <p> + This deponent on his oath sayeth that, being on Wednesday, the 15th day of + September instant, between the hours of three and four in the afternoon, + in a certain field called Etna, in the parish of North Mimms aforesaid, he + perceived a large machine sailing in the air, near the place where he was + on horseback; that the machine continuing to approach the earth, the part + of it in which this deponent perceived a gentleman standing came to the + ground and dragged a short way on the ground in a slanting direction; that + the time when this machine thus touched the earth was, as near as this + deponent could judge, about a quarter before four in the afternoon. That + this deponent being on horseback, and his horse restive, he could not + approach nearer to the machine than about four poles, but that he could + plainly perceive therein gentleman dressed in light coloured cloaths, + holding in his hand a trumpet, which had the appearance of silver or + bright tin. That by this time several harvest men coming up from the other + part of the field, to the number of twelve men and thirteen women, this + deponent called to them to endeavour to stop the machine, which the men + attempted, but the gentleman in the machine desiring them to desist, and + the machine moving with considerable rapidity, and clearing the earth, + went off in a north direction and continued in sight at a very great + height for near an hour afterwards. And this deponent further saith that + the part of the machine in the which the gentleman stood did not actually + touch the ground for more than half a minute, during which time the + gentleman threw out a parcel of what appeared to this deponent as dry + sand. That after the machine had ascended again from the earth this + deponent perceived a grapple with four hooks, which hung from the bottom + of the machine, dragging along the ground, which carried up with it into + the air a small parcel of loose oats, which the women were raking in the + field. And this deponent further on his oath sayeth that when the machine + had risen clear from the ground about twenty yards the gentleman spoke to + this deponent and to the rest of the people with his trumpet, wishing them + goodbye and saying that he should soon go out of sight. And this deponent + further on his oath sayeth that the machine in which the gentleman came + down to earth appeared to consist of two distinct parts connected together + by ropes, namely that in which the gentleman appeared to be, a stage + boarded at the bottom, and covered with netting and ropes on the sides + about four feet and a half high, and the other part of the machine + appeared in the shape of an urn, about thirty feet high and of about the + same diameter, made of canvas like oil skin, with green, red, and yellow + stripes. + </p> + <p> + NATHANIEL WHITBREAD. + </p> + <p> + Sworn before me this twentieth day of September, 1784, WILLIAM BAKER. + </p> + <p> + It was a curious fact, pointed out to the brave Italian by a resident, + that the field in which the temporary descent had been made was called + indifferently Etna or Italy, "from the circumstance which attended the + late enclosure of a large quantity of roots, rubbish, etc., having been + collected there, and having continued burning for many days. The common + people having heard of a burning mountain in Italy gave the field that + name." + </p> + <p> + But the voyage did not end at Etna. The, as yet, inexperienced aeronaut + now cast out all available ballast in the shape of sand, as also his + provisions, and rising with great speed, soon reached a greater altitude + than before, which he sought to still farther increase by throwing down + his plates, knives, and forks. In this somewhat reckless expenditure he + thought himself justified by the reliance he placed on his oar, and it is + not surprising that in the end he owns that he owed his safety in his + final descent to his good fortune. The narrative condensed concludes thus:— + </p> + <p> + "At twenty minutes past four I descended in a meadow near Ware. Some + labourers were at work in it. I requested their assistance, but they + exclaimed they would have nothing to do with one who came on the Devil's + Horse, and no entreaties could prevail on them to approach me. I at last + owed my deliverance to a young woman in the field who took hold of a cord + I had thrown out, and, calling to the men, they yielded that assistance at + her request which they had refused to mine." + </p> + <p> + As may be supposed, Lunardi's return to London resembled a royal progress. + Indeed, he was welcomed as a conqueror to whom the whole town sought to do + honour, and perhaps his greatest gratification came by way of the accounts + he gathered of incidents which occurred during his eventful voyage. At a + dinner at which he was being entertained by the Lord Mayor and judges he + learned that a lady seeing his falling oar, and fancying that he himself + was dashed to pieces, received a shock thereby which caused her death. + Commenting on this, one of the judges bade him be reassured, inasmuch as + he had, as if by compensation, saved the life of a young man who might + live to be reformed. The young man was a criminal whose condemnation was + regarded as certain at the hands of the jury before whom he was being + arraigned, when tidings reached the court that Lunardi's balloon was in + the air. On this so much confusion arose that the jury were unable to give + due deliberation to the case, and, fearing to miss the great sight, + actually agreed to acquit the prisoner, that they themselves might be free + to leave the court! + </p> + <p> + But he was flattered by a compliment of a yet higher order. He was told + that while he hovered over London the King was in conference with his + principal Ministers, and his Majesty, learning that he was in the sky, is + reported to have said to his councillors, "We may resume our own + deliberations at pleasure, but we may never see poor Lunardi again!" On + this, it is further stated that the conference broke up, and the King, + attended by Mr. Pitt and other chief officers of State, continued to view + Lunardi through telescopes as long as he remained in the horizon. + </p> + <p> + The public Press, notably the Morning Post of September 16, paid a worthy + tribute to the hero of the hour, and one last act of an exceptional + character was carried out in his honour, and remains in evidence to this + hour. In a meadow in the parish of Standon, near Ware, there stands a + rough hewn stone, now protected by an iron rail. It marks the spot where + Lunardi landed, and on it is cut a legend which runs thus: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Let Posterity know + And knowing be astonished + that + On the 15th day of September 1784 + Vincent Lunardi of Lusca in Tuscany + The first aerial traveller in Britain + Mounting from the Artillery Ground + In London + And Traversing the Regions of the Air + For Two Hours and Fifteen Minutes + In this Spot Revisited the Earth. + On this rude monument + For ages be recorded + That Wondrous Enterprise + Successfully atchieved + By the Powers of Chemistry + And the Fortitude of Man + That Improvement in Science + Which + The Great Author of all Knowledge + Patronyzing by His Providence + The Invention of Mankind + Hath graciously permitted + To Their Benefit + And + His own Eternal Glory. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. THE DEVELOPMENT OF BALLOON PHILOSOPHY. + </h2> + <p> + In less than two years not only had the science of ballooning reached + almost its highest development, but the balloon itself, as an aerostatic + machine, had been brought to a state of perfection which has been but + little improved upon up to the present hour. Better or cheaper methods of + inflation were yet to be discovered, lighter and more suitable material + remained to be manufactured; but the navigation of the air, which hitherto + through all time had been beyond man's grasp, had been attained, as it + were, at a bound, and at the hands of many different and independent + experimentalists was being pursued with almost the same degree of success + and safety as to-day. + </p> + <p> + Nor was this all. There was yet another triumph of the aeronautical art + which, within the same brief period, had been to all intents and purposes + achieved, even if it had not been brought to the same state of perfection + as at the present hour. This was the Parachute. This fact is one which for + a sufficient reason is not generally known. It is very commonly supposed + that the parachute, in anything like its present form, is a very modern + device, and that the art of successfully using it had not been introduced + to the world even so lately as thirty years ago. Thus, we find it stated + in works of that date dealing with the subject that disastrous + consequences almost necessarily attended the use of the parachute, "the + defects of which had been attempted to be remedied in various ways, but up + to this time without success." A more correct statement, however, would + have been that the art of constructing and using a practicable parachute + had through many years been lost or forgotten. In actual fact, it had been + adopted with every assurance of complete success by the year 1785, when + Blanchard by its means lowered dogs and other animals with safety from a + balloon. A few years later he descended himself in a like apparatus from + Basle, meeting, however, with the misadventure of a broken leg. + </p> + <p> + But we must go much further back for the actual conception of the + parachute, which, we might suppose, may originally have been suggested by + the easy floating motion with which certain seeds or leaves will descend + from lofty trees, or by the mode adopted by birds of dropping softly to + earth with out-stretched wings. M. de la Loubere, in his historical + account of Siam, which he visited in 1687-88, speaks of an ingenious + athlete who exceedingly diverted the King and his court by leaping from a + height and supporting himself in the air by two umbrellas, the handles of + which were affixed to his girdle. In 1783, that is, the same year as that + in which the balloon was invented, M. le Normand experimented with a like + umbrella-shaped contrivance, with a view to its adoption as a fire escape, + and he demonstrated the soundness of the principle by descending himself + from the windows of a lofty house at Lyons. + </p> + <p> + It was, however, reserved for M. Jacques Garnerin in 1797 to make the + first parachute descent that attracted general attention. Garnerin had + previously been detained as a State prisoner in the fortress of Bade, in + Hungary, after the battle of Marchiennes in 1793, and during his + confinement had pondered on the possibility of effecting his escape by a + parachute. His solitary cogitations and calculations resulted, after his + release, in the invention and construction of an apparatus which he put to + a practical test at Paris before the court of France on October 22nd, + 1797. Ascending in a hydrogen balloon to the height of about 2,000 feet, + he unhesitatingly cut himself adrift, when for some distance he dropped + like a stone. The folds of his apparatus, however, opening suddenly, his + fall became instantly checked. The remainder of his descent, though + leisurely, occupying, in fact, some twelve minutes, appeared to the + spectators to be attended with uncertainty, owing to a swinging motion set + up in the car to which he was clinging. But the fact remains that he + reached the earth with only slight impact, and entirely without injury. + </p> + <p> + It appears that Garnerin subsequently made many equally successful + parachute descents in France, and during the short peace of 1802 visited + London, where he gave an exhibition of his art. From the most reliable + accounts of his exploit it would seem that his drop was from a very great + height, and that a strong ground wind was blowing at the time, the result + of which was that wild, wide oscillations were set up in the car, which + narrowly escaped bringing him in contact with the house tops in St. + Pancreas, and eventually swung him down into a field, not without some + unpleasant scratches. + </p> + <p> + Nor was Garnerin the only successful parachutist at this period. A Polish + aeronaut, Jordaki Kuparento, ascended from Warsaw on the 24th of July, + 1804 in a hot air balloon, taking up, as was the custom, an attached + furnace, which caused the balloon to take fire when at a great height. + Kuparento, however, who was alone, had as a precaution provided himself + with a parachute, and with this he seems to have found no difficulty in + effecting a safe descent to earth. + </p> + <p> + It was many years after this that fresh experimentalists, introducing + parachutes on new lines and faulty in construction, met with death or + disaster. Enough, however, has already been said to show that in the early + years we are now traversing in this history a perfectly practicable + parachute had become an accomplished fact. The early form is well + described by Mr. Monck Mason in a letter to the Morning Herald in 1837, + written on the eve of an unrehearsed and fatal experiment made by Mr. + Cocking, which must receive notice in due course. "The principle," writes + Mr. Monck Mason, "upon which all these parachutes were constructed is the + same, and consists simply of a flattened dome of silk or linen from 24 + feet to 28 feet in diameter. From the outer margin all around at stated + intervals proceed a large number of cords, in length about the diameter of + the dome itself, which, being collected together in one point and made + fast to another of superior dimensions attached to the apex of the + machine, serve to maintain it in its form when expanded in the progress of + the descent. To this centre cord likewise, at a distance below the point + of junction, varying according to the fancy of the aeronaut, is fixed the + car or basket in which he is seated, and the whole suspended from the + network of the balloon in such a manner as to be capable of being detached + in an instant at the will of the individual by cutting the rope by which + it is made fast above." + </p> + <p> + It followed almost as a matter of course that so soon as the balloon had + been made subject to something like due control, and thus had become + recognised as a new machine fairly reduced to the service of man, it began + to be regarded as an instrument which should be made capable of being + devoted to scientific research. Indeed, it may be claimed that, among the + very earliest aeronauts, those who had sailed away into the skies and + brought back intelligent observations or impressions of the realm of + cloud-land, or who had only described their own sensations at lofty + altitudes, had already contributed facts of value to science. It is time + then, taking events in their due sequence, that mention should be made of + the endeavours of various savants, who began about the commencement of the + nineteenth century to gather fresh knowledge from the exploration of the + air by balloon ascents organised with fitting equipment. The time had now + come for promoting the balloon to higher purposes than those of mere + exhibition or amusement. In point of fact, it had already in one way been + turned to serious practical account. It had been used by the French during + military operations in the revolutionary war as a mode of reconnoitring, + and not without success, so that when after due trial the war balloon was + judged of value a number of similar balloons were constructed for the use + of the various divisions of the French army, and, as will be told in its + proper place, one, at least, of these was put to a positive test before + the battle of Fleurus. + </p> + <p> + But, returning to more strictly scientific ascents, which began to be + mooted at this period, we are at once impressed with the widespread + influence which the balloon was exercising on thinking minds. We note this + from the fact that what must be claimed to be the first genuine ascent for + scientific observation was made in altogether fresh ground, and at so + distant a spot as St. Petersburg. + </p> + <p> + It was now the year 1804, and the Russian Academy had determined on + attempting an examination of the physical condition of the higher + atmosphere by means of the balloon. The idea had probably been suggested + by scientific observations which had already been made on mountain heights + by such explorers as De Luc, Saussure, Humboldt, and others. And now it + was determined that their results should be tested alongside such + observations as could be gathered in the free heaven far removed from any + disturbing effects that might be caused by contiguity to earth. The lines + of enquiry to which special attention was required were such as would be + naturally suggested by the scientific knowledge of the hour, though they + may read somewhat quaintly to-day. Would there be any change in the + intensity of the magnetic force? Any change in the inclination of the + magnetised needle? Would evaporation find a new law? Would solar rays + increase in power? What amount of electric matter would be found? What + change in the colours produced by the prism? What would be the + constitution of the higher and more attenuated air? What physical effect + would it have on human and bird life? + </p> + <p> + The ascent was made at 7.15 on a summer evening by M. Robertson and the + Academician, M. Sacharof, to whom we are indebted for the following resume + of notes, which have a special value as being the first of their class. + Rising slowly, a difference of atmosphere over the Neva gave the balloon a + downward motion, necessitating the discharge of ballast. As late as 8.45 + p.m. a fine view was obtained of the Newski Islands, and the whole course + of the neighbouring river. At 9.20 p.m., when the barometer had fallen + from 30 inches to 23 inches, a canary and a dove were dismissed, the + former falling precipitately, while the latter sailed down to a village + below. All available ballast was now thrown out, including a spare great + coat and the remains of supper, with the result that at 9.30 the barometer + had fallen to 22 inches, and at this height they caught sight of the upper + rim of the sun. The action of heart and lungs remained normal. No stars + were seen, though the sky was mainly clear, such clouds as were visible + appearing white and at a great height. The echo of a speaking trumpet was + heard after an interval of ten seconds. This was substantially the outcome + of the experiments. The practical difficulties of carrying out prearranged + observations amid the inconvenience of balloon travel were much felt. + Their instruments were seriously damaged, and their results, despite most + painstaking and praiseworthy efforts, must be regarded as somewhat + disappointing. + </p> + <p> + But ere the autumn of the same year two other scientific ascents, + admirably schemed and financed at the public expense, had been + successfully carried out at Paris in a war balloon which, as will be told, + had at this time been returned from military operations in Egypt. In the + first of these, Gay Lussac ascended in company with M. Biot, with very + complete equipment. Choosing ten o'clock in the morning for their hour of + departure, they quickly entered a region of thin, but wet fog, after which + they shot up into denser cloud, which they completely surmounted at a + height of 6,500 feet, when they described the upper surface as bearing the + resemblance, familiar enough to aeronauts and mountaineers, as of a white + sea broken up into gently swelling billows, or of an extended plain + covered with snow. + </p> + <p> + A series of simple experiments now embarked upon showed the behaviour of + magnetised iron, as also of a galvanic pile or battery, to remain + unaltered. As their altitude increased their pulses quickened, though + beyond feeling keenly the contrast of a colder air and of scorching rays + of the sun they experienced no physical discomfort. At 11,000 feet a + linnet which they liberated fell to the earth almost helplessly, while a + pigeon with difficulty maintained an irregular and precipitate flight. A + carefully compiled record was made of variations of temperature and + humidity, and they succeeded in determining that the upper air was charged + with negative electricity. In all this these two accomplished physicists + may be said to have carried out a brilliant achievement, even though their + actual results may seem somewhat meagre. They not only were their own + aeronauts, but succeeded in arranging and carrying out continuous and + systematic observations throughout the period of their remaining in the + sky. + </p> + <p> + This voyage was regarded as such a pronounced success that three weeks + later, in mid-September, Gay Lussac was induced to ascend again, this time + alone, and under circumstances that should enable him to reach an + exceptionally high altitude. Experience had taught the advisability of + certain modifications in his equipment. A magnet was ingeniously slung + with a view of testing its oscillation even in spite of accidental + gyrations in the balloon. Thermometers and hygrometers were carefully + sheltered from the direct action of the sun, and exhausted flasks were + supplied with the object of bringing down samples of upper air for + subsequent analysis. + </p> + <p> + Again it was an early morning ascent, with a barometer on the ground + standing at 30.6 inches, and a slightly misty air. Lussac appears to have + accomplished the exceedingly difficult task of counting the oscillations + of his magnet with satisfaction to himself. At 10,000 feet twenty + vibrations occupied 83 seconds, as compared with 84.33 seconds at the + earth's surface. The variation of the compass remained unaltered, as also + the behaviour of magnetised iron at all altitudes. Keeping his balloon + under perfect control, and maintaining a uniform and steady ascent, he at + the same time succeeded in compiling an accurate table of readings + recording atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity, and it is + interesting to find that he was confronted with an apparent anomaly which + will commonly present itself to the aeronaut observer. Up to 12,000 feet + the temperature had decreased consistently from 82 degrees to 47 degrees, + after which it increased 6 degrees in the next 2,000 feet. This by no + means uncommon experience shall be presently discussed. The balloon was + now steadily manoeuvred up to 18,636 feet, at which height freezing point + was practically reached. Then with a further climb 20,000 feet is + recorded, at which altitude the ardent philosopher could still attend to + his magnetic observations, nor is his arduous and unassisted task + abandoned here, but with marvellous pertinacity he yet struggled upwards + till a height of no less than 23,000 feet is recorded, and the thermometer + had sunk to 14 degrees F. Four miles and a quarter above the level of the + sea, reached by a solitary aerial explorer, whose legitimate training lay + apart from aeronautics, and whose main care was the observation of the + philosophical instruments he carried! The achievement of this French + savant makes a brilliant record in the early pages of our history. + </p> + <p> + It is not surprising that Lussac should own to having felt no + inconsiderable personal discomfort before his venture was over. In spite + of warm clothing he suffered greatly from cold and benumbed fingers, not + less also from laboured breathing and a quickened pulse; headache + supervened, and his throat became parched and unable to swallow food. In + spite of all, he conducted the descent with the utmost skill, climbing + down quietly and gradually till he alighted with gentle ease at St. + Gourgen, near Rouen. It may be mentioned here that the analysis of the + samples of air which he had brought down proved them to contain the normal + proportion of oxygen, and to be essentially identical, as tested in the + laboratory, with the free air secured at the surface of the earth. + </p> + <p> + The sudden and apparently unaccountable variation in temperature recorded + by Lussac is a striking revelation to an aerial observer, and becomes yet + more marked when more sensitive instruments are used than those which were + taken up on the occasion just related. It will be recorded in a future + chapter how more suitable instruments came in course of time to be + devised. It is only necessary to point out at this stage that instruments + which lack due sensibility will unavoidably read too high in ascents, and + too low in descents where, according to the general law, the air is found + to grow constantly colder with elevation above the earth's surface. It is + strong evidence of considerable efficiency in the instruments, and of + careful attention on the part of the observer, that Lussac was able to + record the temporary inversion of the law of change of temperature + above-mentioned. Had he possessed modern instrumental equipment he would + have brought down a yet more remarkable account of the upper regions which + he visited, and learned that the variations of heat and cold were + considerably more striking than he supposed. + </p> + <p> + With a specially devised instrument used with special precautions, the + writer, as will be shown hereafter, has been able to prove that the + temperature of the air, as traversed in the wayward course of a balloon, + is probably far more variable and complex than has been recorded by most + observers. + </p> + <p> + The exceptional height claimed to have been reached by Gay Lassac need not + for a moment be questioned, and the fact that he did not experience the + same personal inconvenience as has been complained of by mountain climbers + at far less altitudes admits of ready explanation. The physical exertion + demanded of the mountaineer is entirely absent in the case of an aeronaut + who is sailing at perfect ease in a free balloon. Moreover, it must be + remembered that—a most important consideration—the aerial + voyager, necessarily travelling with the wind, is unconscious, save at + exceptional moments, of any breeze whatever, and it is a well-established + fact that a degree of cold which might be insupportable when a breeze is + stirring may be but little felt in dead calm. It should also be + remembered, in duly regarding Gay Lussac's remarkable record, that this + was not his first experience of high altitudes, and it is an acknowledged + truth that an aeronaut, especially if he be an enthusiast, quickly becomes + acclimatised to his new element, and sufficiently inured to its occasional + rigours. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. SOME FAMOUS EARLY VOYAGERS. + </h2> + <p> + During certain years which now follow it will possibly be thought that our + history, so far as incidents of special interest are concerned, somewhat + languishes. Yet it may be wrong to regard this period as one of stagnation + or retrogression. + </p> + <p> + Before passing on to later annals, however, we must duly chronicle certain + exceptional achievements and endeavours as yet unmentioned, which stand + out prominently in the period we have been regarding as also in the + advancing years of the new century Among these must in justice be included + those which come into the remarkable, if somewhat pathetic subsequent + career of the brilliant, intrepid Lunardi. + </p> + <p> + Compelling everywhere unbounded admiration he readily secured the means + necessary for carrying out further exploits wherever he desired while at + the same time he met with a measure of good fortune in freedom from + misadventure such as has generally been denied to less bold adventurers. + Within a few months of the time when we left him, the popular hero and + happy recipient of civic and royal favours, we find him in Scotland + attempting feats which a knowledge of practical difficulties bids us + regard as extraordinary. + </p> + <p> + To begin with, nothing appears more remarkable than the ease, expedition, + and certainty with which in days when necessary facilities must have been + far harder to come by than now, he could always fill his balloon by the + usually tedious and troublesome mode attending hydrogen inflation. We see + him at his first Scottish ascent, completing the operation in little more + than two hours. It is the same later at Glasgow, where, commencing with + only a portion of his apparatus, he finds the inflation actually to + proceed too rapidly for his purpose, and has to hold the powers at his + command strongly in check. Later, in December weather, having still + further improved his apparatus, he makes his balloon support itself after + the inflation of only ten minutes. Then, as if assured of impunity, he + treats recognised risks with a species of contempt. At Kelso he hails + almost with joy the fact that the wind must carry him rapidly towards the + sea, which in the end he narrowly escapes. At Glasgow the chances of safe + landing are still more against him, yet he has no hesitation in starting, + and at last the catastrophe he seemed to court actually overtook him, and + he plumped into the sea near Berwick, where no sail was even in sight, and + a winter's night coming on. From this predicament he was rescued by a + special providence which once before had not deserted him, when in a + tumult of violent and contrary currents, and at a great height to boot, + his gallery was almost completely carried away, and he had to cling on to + the hoop desperately with both hands. + </p> + <p> + Then we lose sight of the dauntless, light-hearted Italian for + one-and-twenty years, when in the Gentleman's Magazine of July 31, 1806, + appears the brief line, "Died in the convent of Barbadinas, of a decline, + Mr. Vincent Lunardi, the celebrated aeronaut." + </p> + <p> + Garnerin, of whom mention has already been made, accomplished in the + summer of 1802 two aerial voyages marked by extreme velocity in the rate + of travel. The first of these is also remarkable as having been the first + to fairly cross the heart of London. Captain Snowdon, R.N., accompanied + the aeronaut. The ascent took place from Chelsea Gardens, and proved so + great an attraction that the crowd overflowed into the neighbouring parts + of the town, choking up the thoroughfares with vehicles, and covering the + river with boats. On being liberated, the balloon sped rapidly away, + taking a course midway between the river and the main highway of the + Strand, Fleet Street, and Cheapside, and so passed from view of the + multitude. Such a departure could hardly fail to lead to subsequent + adventures, and this is pithily told in a letter written by Garnerin + himself: "I take the earliest opportunity of informing you that after a + very pleasant journey, but after the most dangerous descent I ever made, + on account of the boisterous weather and the vicinity of the sea, we + alighted at the distance of four miles from this place and sixty from + Ranelagh. We were only three-quarters of an hour on the way. To-night I + intend to be in London with the balloon, which is torn to pieces. We + ourselves are all over bruises." + </p> + <p> + Only a week after the same aeronaut ascended again from Marylebone, when + he attained almost the same velocity, reaching Chingford, a distance of + seventeen miles, in fifteen minutes. + </p> + <p> + The chief danger attending a balloon journey in a high wind, supposing no + injury has been sustained in filling and launching, results not so much + from impact with the ground on alighting as from the subsequent almost + inevitable dragging along the ground. The grapnels, spurning the open, + will often obtain no grip save in a hedge or tree, and even then large + boughs will be broken through or dragged away, releasing the balloon on a + fresh career which may, for a while, increase in mad impetuosity as the + emptying silk offers a deeper hollow for the wind to catch. + </p> + <p> + The element of risk is of another nature in the case of a night ascent, + when the actual alighting ground cannot be duly chosen or foreseen. Among + many record night ascents may here, somewhat by anticipation of events, be + mentioned two embarked upon by the hero of our last adventure. M. Garnerin + was engaged to make a spectacular ascent from Tivoli at Paris, leaving the + grounds at night with attached lamps illuminating his balloon. His first + essay was on a night of early August, when he ascended at 11 p.m., + reaching a height of nearly three miles. Remaining aloft through the hours + of darkness, he witnessed the sun rise at half-past two in the morning, + and eventually came to earth after a journey of some seven hours, during + which time he had covered considerably more than a hundred miles. A like + bold adventure carried out from the same grounds the following month was + attended with graver peril. A heavy thunderstorm appearing imminent, + Garnerin elected to ascend with great rapidity, with the result that his + balloon, under the diminished pressure, quickly became distended to an + alarming degree, and he was reduced to the necessity of piercing a hole in + the silk, while for safety's sake he endeavoured to extinguish all lamps + within reach. He now lost all control over his balloon, which became + unmanageable in the conflict of the storm. Having exhausted his ballast, + he presently was rudely brought to earth and then borne against a mountain + side, finally losing consciousness until the balloon had found anchorage + three hundred miles away from Paris. + </p> + <p> + A night ascent, which reads as yet more sensational and extraordinary, is + reported to have been made a year or two previously, and when it is + considered that the balloon used was of the Montgolfier type the account + as it is handed down will be allowed to be without parallel. It runs thus: + Count Zambeccari, Dr. Grassati of Rome, and M. Pascal Andreoli of Antona + ascended on a November night from Bologna, allowing their balloon to rise + with excessive velocity. In consequence of this rapid transition to an + extreme altitude the Count and the Doctor became insensible, leaving + Andreoli alone in possession of his faculties. At two o'clock in the + morning they found themselves descending over the Adriatic, at which time + a lantern which they carried expired and was with difficulty re-lighted. + Continuing to descend, they presently pitched in to the sea and became + drenched with salt water. It may seem surprising that the balloon, which + could not be prevented falling in the water, is yet enabled to ascend from + the grip of the waves by the mere discharge of ballast. (It would be + interesting to inquire what meanwhile happened to the fire which they + presumably carried with them.) They now rose into regions of cloud, where + they became covered with hoar frost and also stone deaf. At 3 a.m. they + were off the coast of Istria, once more battling with the waves till + picked up by a shore boat. The balloon, relieved of their weight, then + flew away into Turkey. + </p> + <p> + However overdrawn this narrative may appear, it must be read in the light + of another account, the bare, hard facts of which can admit of no + question. It is five years later, and once again Count Zambeccari is + ascending from Bologna, this time in company with Signor Bonagna. Again it + is a Montgolfier or fire balloon, and on nearing earth it becomes + entangled in a tree and catches fire. The aeronauts jump for their lives, + and the Count is killed on the spot. Certainly, when every allowance is + made for pardonable or unintentional exaggeration, it must be conceded + that there were giants in those days. Giants in the conception and + accomplishment of deeds of lofty daring. Men who came scathless through + supreme danger by virtue of the calmness and courage with which they + withstood it. + </p> + <p> + Among other appalling disasters we have an example of a terrific descent + from a vast height in which the adventurers yet escape with their lives. + It was the summer of 1808, and the aeronauts, MM. Andreoli and Brioschi, + ascending from Padua, reach a height at which a barometer sinks to eight + inches, indicating upwards of 30,000 feet. At this point the balloon + bursts, and falls precipitately near Petrarch's tomb. Commenting on this, + Mr. Glaisher, the value of whose opinion is second to none, is not + disposed to question the general truth of the narrative. In regard to + Zambeccari's escape from the sea related above, it should be stated that + in the case of a gas-inflated balloon which has no more than dipped its + car or gallery in the waves, it is generally perfectly possible to raise + it again from the water, provided there is on board a store of ballast, + the discharge of which will sufficiently lighten the balloon. A case in + point occurred in a most romantic and perilous voyage accomplished by Mr. + Sadler on the 1st of October, 1812. + </p> + <p> + His adventure is one of extraordinary interest, and of no little value to + the practical aeronaut. The following account is condensed from Mr. + Sadler's own narrative. He started from the grounds of Belvedere House, + Dublin, with the expressed intention of endeavouring to cross over the + Irish Channel to Liverpool. There appear to have been two principal air + drifts, an upper and a lower, by means of which he entertained fair hopes + of steering his desired course. But from the outset he was menaced with + dangers and difficulties. Ere he had left the land he discovered a rent in + his silk which, occasioned by some accident before leaving, showed signs + of extending. To reach this, it was necessary to extemporise by means of a + rope a species of ratlins by which he could climb the rigging. He then + contrived to close the rent with his neckcloth. He was, by this time, over + the sea, and, manoeuvring his craft by aid of the two currents at his + disposal, he was carried to the south shore of the Isle of Man, whence he + was confident of being able, had he desired it, of landing in Cumberland. + This, however, being contrary to his intention, he entrusted himself to + the higher current, and by it was carried to the north-west of Holyhead. + Here he dropped once again to the lower current, drifting south of the + Skerry Lighthouse across the Isle of Anglesea, and at 4.30 p.m. found + himself abreast of the Great Orme's Head. Evening now approaching, he had + determined to seek a landing, but at this critical juncture the wind + shifted to the southward, and he became blown out to sea. Then, for an + hour, he appears to have tried high and low for a more favourable current, + but without success; and, feeling the danger of his situation, and, + moreover, sighting no less than five vessels beating down the Channel, he + boldly descended in the sea about a mile astern of them. He must for + certain have been observed by these vessels; but each and all held on + their course, and, thus deserted, the aeronaut had no choice but to + discharge ballast, and, quitting the waves, to regain his legitimate + element. His experiences at this period of his extraordinary voyage are + best told in his own words. "At the time I descended the sun was near + setting Already the shadows of evening had cast a dusky hue over the face + of the ocean, and a crimson glow purpled the tops of the waves as, heaving + in the evening breeze, they died away in distance, or broke in foam + against the sides of the vessels, and before I rose from the sea the orb + had sunk below the horizon, leaving only the twilight glimmer to light the + vast expanse around me. How great, therefore, was my astonishment, and how + incapable is expression to convey an adequate idea of my feelings when, + rising to the upper region of the air, the sun, whose parting beams I had + already witnessed, again burst on my view, and encompassed me with the + full blaze of day. Beneath me hung the shadows of even, whilst the clear + beams of the sun glittered on the floating vehicle which bore me along + rapidly before the wind." + </p> + <p> + After a while he sights three more vessels, which signify their + willingness to stand by, whereupon he promptly descends, dropping beneath + the two rear-most of them. From this point the narrative of the sinking + man, and the gallant attempt at rescue, will rival any like tale of the + sea. For the wind, now fast rising, caught the half empty balloon so soon + as the car touched the sea, and the vessel astern, though in full pursuit, + was wholly unable to come up. Observing this, Mr. Sadler, trusting more to + the vessel ahead, dropped his grappling iron by way of drag, and shortly + afterwards tried the further expedient of taking off his clothes and + attaching them to the iron. The vessels, despite these endeavours, failing + to overhaul him, he at last, though with reasonable reluctance, determined + to further cripple the craft that bore him so rapidly by liberating a + large quantity of gas, a desperate, though necessary, expedient which + nearly cost him his life. + </p> + <p> + For the car now instantly sank, and the unfortunate man, clutching at the + hoop, found he could not even so keep himself above the water, and was + reduced to clinging, as a last hope, to the netting. The result of this + could be foreseen, for he was frequently plunged under water by the mere + rolling of the balloon. Cold and exertion soon told on him, as he clung + frantically to the valve rope, and when his strength failed him he + actually risked the expedient of passing his head through the meshes of + the net. It was obvious that for avail help must soon come; yet the + pursuing vessel, now close, appeared to hold off, fearing to become + entangled in the net, and in this desperate extremity, fainting from + exhaustion and scarcely able to cry aloud, Mr. Sadler himself seems to + have divined the chance yet left; for, summoning his failing strength, he + shouted to the sailors to run their bowsprit through his balloon. This was + done, and the drowning man was hauled on board with the life scarcely in + him. + </p> + <p> + A fitting sequel to the above adventure followed five years afterwards. + The Irish Sea remained unconquered. No balloonist had as yet ever crossed + its waters. Who would attempt the feat once more? Who more worthy than the + hero's own son, Mr. Windham Sadler? + </p> + <p> + This aspiring aeronaut, emulating his father's enterprising spirit, chose + the same starting ground at Dublin, and on the longest day of 1817, when + winds seemed favourable, left the Porto Bello barracks at 1.20 p.m. His + endeavour was to "tack" his course by such currents as he should find, in + the manner attempted by his father, and at starting the ground current + blew favourably from the W.S.W. He, however, allowed his balloon to rise + to too high an altitude, where he must have been taken aback by a contrary + drift; for, on descending again through a shower of snow, he found himself + no further than Ben Howth, as yet only ten miles on his long journey. + Profiting by his mistake, he thenceforward, by skilful regulation, kept + his balloon within due limits, and successfully maintained a direct course + across the sea, reaching a spot in Wales not far from Holyhead an hour and + a half before sundown. The course taken was absolutely the shortest + possible, being little more than seventy miles, which he traversed in five + hours. + </p> + <p> + From this period of our story, noteworthy events in aeronautical history + grow few and far between. As a mere exhibition the novelty of a balloon + ascent had much worn off. No experimentalist was ready with any new + departure in the art. No fresh adventure presented itself to the minds of + the more enterprising spirits; and, whereas a few years previously + ballooning exploits crowded into every summer season and were not + neglected even in winter months, there is now for a while little to + chronicle, either abroad or in our own country. A certain revival of the + sensational element in ballooning was occasionally witnessed, and not + without mishap, as in the case of Madame Blanchard, who, in the summer of + 1819, ascending at night with fireworks from the Tivoli Gardens, Paris, + managed to set fire to her balloon and lost her life in her terrific fall. + Half a dozen years later a Mr., as also Mrs., Graham figure before the + public in some bold spectacular ascents. + </p> + <p> + But the fame of any aeronaut of that date must inevitably pale before the + dawning light shed by two stars of the first magnitude that were arising + in two opposite parts of the world—Mr. John Wise in America, and Mr. + Charles Green in our own country. The latter of these, who has been well + styled the "Father of English Aeronautics," now entered on a long and + honoured career of so great importance and success that we must reserve + for him a separate and special chapter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. CHARLES GREEN AND THE NASSAU BALLOON. + </h2> + <p> + The balloon, which had gradually been dropping out of favour, had now been + virtually laid aside, and, to all appearance, might have continued so, + when, as if by chance concurrence of events, there arrived both the hour + and the man to restore it to the world, and to invest it with a new + practicability and importance. The coronation of George the Fourth was at + hand, and this became a befitting occasion for the rare genius mentioned + at the end of the last chapter, and now in his thirty-sixth year, to put + in practice a new method of balloon management and inflation, the entire + credit of which must be accorded to him alone. + </p> + <p> + From its very introduction and inception the gas balloon, an expensive and + fragile structure in itself, had proved at all times exceedingly costly in + actual use. Indeed, we find that at the date at which we have now arrived + the estimate for filling a balloon of 70,000 cubic feet—no + extraordinary capacity—with hydrogen gas was about L250. When, then, + to this great outlay was added the difficulty and delay of producing a + sufficient supply by what was at best a clumsy process, as also the + positive failure and consequent disappointment which not infrequently + ensued, it is easy to understand how through many years balloon ascents, + no longer a novelty, had begun to be regarded with distrust, and the + profession of a balloonist was doomed to become unremunerative. A simpler + and cheaper mode of inflation was not only a desideratum, but an absolute + necessity. The full truth of this may be gathered from the fact that we + find there were not seldom instances where two or three days of continuous + and anxious labour were expended in generating and passing hydrogen into a + balloon, through the fabric of which the subtle gas would escape almost as + fast as it was produced. + </p> + <p> + It was at this juncture, then, that Charles Green conceived the happy idea + of substituting for hydrogen gas the ordinary household gas, which at this + time was to be found ready to hand and in sufficient quantity in all towns + of any consequence; and by the day of the coronation all was in readiness + for a public exhibition of this method of inflation, which was carried out + with complete success, though not altogether without unrehearsed and + amusing incident, as must be told. + </p> + <p> + The day, July 18, was one of summer heat, and Green at the conclusion of + his preparations, fatigued with anxious labour and oppressed by the + crowding of the populace, took refuge within the car of his balloon, which + was by that time already inflated, and only awaiting the gun signal that + was to announce the moment for its departure. To allow of his gaining the + refreshment of somewhat purer air he begged his friends who were holding + the car of his balloon in restraint to keep it suspended at a few feet + from the earth, while he rested himself within, and, this being done, it + would appear that he fell into a doze, from which he did not awake till he + found that the balloon, which had slipped from his friends' hold, was + already high above the crowd and requiring his prompt attention. This was, + however, by no means an untoward accident, and Green's triumph was + complete. By this one venture alone the success of the new method was + entirely assured. The cost of the inflation had been reduced ten-fold, the + labour and uncertainty a hundred-fold, and, over and above all, the + confidence of the public was restored. It is little wonder, then, that in + the years that now follow we find the balloon returning to all the favour + it had enjoyed in its palmiest days. But Green proved himself something + more than a practical balloonist of the first rank. He brought to the aid + of his profession ideas which were matured by due thought and + scientifically sound. It is true he still clung for a while to the + antiquated notion that mechanical means could, with advantage, be used to + cause a balloon to ascend or descend, or to alter its direction in a + tranquil atmosphere. But he saw clearly that the true method of navigating + a balloon should be by a study of upper currents, and this he was able to + put to practical proof on a memorable occasion, and in a striking manner, + as we shall presently relate. + </p> + <p> + He learned the lesson early in his career while acquiring facts and + experience, unassisted, in a number of solitary voyages made from + different parts of the country. Among these he is careful to record an + occasion when, making a day-light ascent from Boston, Lincolnshire, he + maintained a lofty course, which promised to take him direct to Grantham; + but, presently descending to a lower level, and his balloon diverging at + an angle of some 45 degrees, he now headed for Newark. This experience he + stored away. + </p> + <p> + A month later we find him making a night voyage from Vauxhall Gardens, + destined to be the scene of many memorable ascents in the near future; and + on this occasion he gave proof of his capability as a close and + intelligent observer. It was a July night, near 11 p.m., moonless and + cloudy, yet the earth was visible, and under these circumstances his + simple narrative becomes of scientific value. He accurately distinguished + the reflective properties of the face of the diversified country he + traversed. Over Battersea and Wandsworth—this was in 1826—there + were white sheets spread over the land, which proved to be corn crops + ready for the sickle. Where crops were not the ground was darker, with, + here and there, objects absolutely black—in other words, trees and + houses. Then he mentions the river in a memorandum, which reads strangely + to the aeronaut who has made the same night voyage in these latter days. + The stream was crossed in places with rows of lamps apparently resting on + the water. These were the lighted bridges; but, here and there, were dark + planks, and these too were bridges—at Battersea and Putney—but + without a light upon them! + </p> + <p> + In these and many other simple, but graphic, narratives Green draws his + own pictures of Nature in her quieter moods. But he was not without early + experience of her horse play, a highly instructive record of which should + not be omitted here, and which, as coming from so careful and + conscientious an observer, is best gathered from his own words. The ascent + was from Newbury, and it can have been no mean feat to fill, under + ordinary circumstances, a balloon carrying two passengers and a + considerable weight of ballast at the small gas-holder which served the + town eighty-five years ago. But the circumstances were not ordinary, for + the wind was extremely squally; a tremendous hail and thunderstorm blew + up, and a hurricane swept the balloon with such force that two tons weight + of iron and a hundred men scarce sufficed to hold it in check. + </p> + <p> + Green on this occasion had indeed a companion, whose usefulness however at + a pinch may be doubted when we learn that he was both deaf and dumb. The + rest of the narrative runs thus: "Between 4 and 5 p.m. the clouds + dispersed, but the wind continued to rage with unabated fury the whole of + the evening. At 6 p.m. I stepped into the car with Mr. Simmons and gave + the word 'Away!' The moment the machine was disencumbered of its weights + it was torn by the violence of the wind from the assistants, bounded off + with the velocity of lightning in a southeasterly direction, and in a very + short space of time attained an elevation of two miles. At this altitude + we perceived two immense bodies of clouds operated on by contrary currents + of air until at length they became united, and at that moment my ears were + assailed by the most awful and longest continued peal of thunder I have + ever heard. These clouds were a full mile beneath us, but perceiving other + strata floating at the same elevation at which we were sailing, which from + their appearance I judged to be highly charged with electricity, I + considered it prudent to discharge twenty pounds of ballast, and we rose + half a mile above our former elevation, where I considered we were + perfectly safe and beyond their influence. I observed, amongst other + phenomena, that at every discharge of thunder all the detached pillars of + clouds within the distance of a mile around became attracted and appeared + to concentrate their force towards the first body of clouds alluded to, + leaving the atmosphere clear and calm beneath and around us. + </p> + <p> + "With very trifling variations we continued the same course until 7.15 + p.m., when we descended to within 500 feet of the earth; but, perceiving + from the disturbed surface of the rivers and lakes that a strong wind + existed near the earth, we again ascended and continued our course till + 7.30 p.m., when a final descent was safely effected in a meadow field in + the parish of Crawley in Surrey, situated between Guildford and Horsham, + and fifty-eight miles from Newbury. This stormy voyage was performed in + one hour and a half." + </p> + <p> + It was after Green had followed his profession for fifteen years that he + was called upon to undertake the management of an aerial venture, which, + all things considered, has never been surpassed in genuine enterprise and + daring. The conception of the project was due to Mr. Robert Hollond, and + it took shape in this way. This gentleman, fresh from Cambridge, possessed + of all the ardour of early manhood, as also of adequate means, had begun + to devote himself with the true zeal of the enthusiast to the pursuit of + ballooning, finding due opportunity for this in his friendship with Mr. + Green, who enjoyed the management of the fine balloon made for ascents at + the then popular Vauxhall Gardens. In the autumn of 1836 the proprietors + of this balloon, contemplating making an exhibition of an ascent from + Paris, and requiring their somewhat fragile property to be conveyed to + that city, Mr. Hollond boldly came forward and offered to transfer it + thither, and, as nearly as this might be possible, by passage through the + sky. The proposal was accepted, and Mr. Holland, in conjunction with + Green, set about the needful preparations. These, as will appear, were on + an extraordinary scale, and no blame is to be imputed on that account, as + a little consideration will show. For the venture proposed was not to be + that of merely crossing the Channel, which, as we have seen, had been + successfully effected no less than fifty years before. The voyage in + contemplation was to be from London; it was, moreover, to be pursued + through a long, moonless winter's night, and under conditions of which no + living aeronaut had had actual experience. + </p> + <p> + Calculation, based on a sufficient knowledge of fast upper currents, told + that their course, ere finished, might be one of almost indefinite length, + and it is not too much to say that no one, with the knowledge of that day, + could predict within a thousand miles where the dawn of the next day might + find them. The equipment, therefore, was commensurate with the possible + task before them. To begin with, they limited their number to three in all—Mr. + Hollond, as chief and keeper of the log; Mr. Green, as aeronaut; and an + enthusiastic colleague, Mr. Monck Mason, as the chronicler of the party. + Next, they provided themselves with passports to all parts of the + Continent; and then came the fitting out and victualling of the aerial + craft itself, calculated to carry some 90,000 cubic feet of gas, and a + counterpoise of a ton of ballast, which took the form partly of actual + provisions in large quantity, partly of gear and apparatus, and for the + rest of sand and also lime, of which more anon. Across the middle of the + car was fixed a bench to serve as table, and also as a stage for the + winding in and out of an enormous trail rope a thousand feet long, + designed by Mr. Green to meet the special emergencies of the voyage. At + the bottom of the car was spread a large cushion to serve the purposes of + rest. When all was in readiness unfitness of weather baulked the + travellers for some days, but Monday, the 7th of November, was judged a + favourable day, so that the inflation was rapidly proceeded with, and at + 1.30 p.m. the "Monstre Balloon," as it was entitled in the "Ingoldsby + Legends," left the earth on her eventful and ever memorable voyage. The + weather was fine and promising, and, rising with a moderate breeze from + the N.W., they began to traverse the northern parts of Kent, while light, + drifting upper clouds gave indication of other possible currents. Mr. + Hollond was precise in the determination of times and of all readings and + we learn that at exactly 2.48 p.m. they were crossing the Medway, six + miles west of Rochester, while at 4.5 p.m. the lofty towers of Canterbury + were well in view, two miles to the east, and here a little function was + well carried out. Green had twice ascended from this city under patronage + of the authorities, and the idea occurred to the party that it would be a + graceful compliment to drop a message to the Mayor as they passed. A + suitable note, therefore, quickly written, was dismissed in a parachute, + and it may be mentioned that this, as also a similar missive addressed + later to the Mayor of Dover, were duly received and acknowledged. + </p> + <p> + At a quarter past four they sighted the sea, and here, the air beginning + to grow chill, the balloon dropped earthward, and for some miles they + skimmed the ground, disturbing the partridges, scattering the rooks, and + keeping up a running conversation the while with labourers and passers + below. In this there was exercise of perfectly proper aerial seamanship, + such as moreover presently led to an exhibition of true science. To save + ballast is, with a balloon, to prolong life, and this may often best be + done by flying low, which doubtless was Green's present intention. But + soon his trained eye saw that the ground current which now carried them + was leading them astray. They were trending to the northward, and so far + out of their course that they would soon make the North Foreland, and so + be carried out over the North Sea far from their desired direction. + Thereupon Green attempted to put in practice his theory, already spoken + of, of steering by upper currents, and the event proved his judgment + peculiarly correct. "Nothing," wrote Mr. Monck Mason, "could exceed the + beauty of the manoeuvre, to which the balloon at once responded, regaining + her due course, and, in a matter of a few minutes only, bearing the + voyagers almost vertically over the castle of Dover in the exact line for + crossing the straits between that town and Calais." + </p> + <p> + So far all was well, and success had been extraordinary; but from this + moment they became faced with new conditions, and with the grave trouble + of uncertainty. Light was failing, the sea was before them, and—what + else thenceforth? 4.48 p.m. was recorded as the moment when the first line + of breaking waves was seen directly below them, and then the English coast + line began rapidly to fade out from their view. But, ahead, the obscurity + was yet more intense, for clouds, banked up like a solid wall, crowned + along its frowning heights, with "parapets and turrets and batteries and + bastions," and, plunging into this opposing barrier, they were quickly + buried in blackness, losing at the same time over the sea all sound from + earth soever. So for a short hour's space, when the sound of waves once + again broke in upon them, and immediately afterwards emerging from the + dense cloud (a sea-fog merely) they found themselves immediately over the + brilliantly lighted town of Calais. Seeing this, the travellers attempted + to signal by igniting and lowering a Bengal Light, which was directly + followed by the beating of drums from below. + </p> + <p> + It adds a touch of reality, as well as cheerfulness, to the narrative to + read that at this period of their long journey the travellers apply + themselves to a fair, square meal, the first for twelve hours, despite the + day's excitement and toil. We have an entry among the stores of the + balloon of wine bottles and spirit flasks, but there is no mention of + these being requisitioned at this period. The demand seems rather to have + been for coffee—coffee hot; and this by a novel device was soon + prepared. It goes without saying that a fire or flame of any kind, except + with special precautions, is inadmissable in a balloon; but a cooking + heat, sufficient for the present purpose, was supplied from the store of + lime, a portion of which, being placed in a suitably contrived vessel and + slaked quickly, procured the desired beverage. + </p> + <p> + This meal now indulged in seems to have been heartily and happily enjoyed; + and from this point, for a while, the narrative becomes that of + enthusiastic and delighted travellers. In the gloom below, for leagues + around, they regarded the scattered fires of a watchful population, with + here and there the lights of larger towns, and the contemplation begot + romantic reveries. "Were they not amid the vast solitudes of the skies, in + the dead of night, unknown and unnoticed, secretly and silently reviewing + kingdoms, exploring territories, and surveying cities all clothed in the + dark mantle of mystery?" Presently they identified the blazing city of + Liege, with the lurid lights of extensive outlying iron works, and this + was the last visible sign they caught of earth that night; save, at least, + when occasional glimpses of lightning momentarily and dimly outlined the + world in the abyss below. + </p> + <p> + Ere long, they met with their first discomfort, which they seem to have + regarded as a most serious one, namely, the accidental dropping overboard + of their cherished coffee-boiling apparatus. With its loss their store of + lime became useless, save as ballast, and for this it was forthwith + utilised until nothing remained but the empty lime barrel itself, which, + being regarded as an objectionable encumbrance, it was desirable to get + rid of, were it not for the risk involved in rudely dropping it to earth. + But the difficulty was met. They possessed a suitable small parachute, + and, attached to this, the barrel was allowed to float earthward. + </p> + <p> + As hours advanced, the blackness of night increased, and their impressions + appear somewhat strange to anyone familiar with ordinary night travel in + the sky. Mr. Monck Mason compares their progress through the darkness to + "cleaving their way through an interminable mass of black marble." Then, + presently, an unaccountable object puzzles and absorbs the attention of + all the party for a long period. They were gazing open-mouthed at a long + narrow avenue of feeble light, which, though apparently belonging to + earth, was too long and regular for a river, and too broad for a canal or + road, and it was only after many futile imaginings that they discovered + they were simply looking at a stay rope of the balloon hanging far out + over the side. + </p> + <p> + Somewhat later still, there was a more serious claim upon the imagination. + It was half-past three in the morning, and the balloon, which, to escape + from too low an altitude, had been liberally lightened, had now at high + speed mounted to a vast height. And then, amid the black darkness and dead + silence of that appalling region, suddenly overhead came the sound of an + explosion, followed by the violent rustling of the silk, while the car + jerked violently, as though suddenly detached from its hold. This was the + idea, leading to the belief that the balloon had suddenly exploded, and + that they were falling headlong to earth. Their suspense, however, cannot + have been long, and the incident was intelligible enough, being due to the + sudden yielding of stiffened net and silk under rapid expansion caused by + their speedy and lofty ascent. + </p> + <p> + The chief incidents of the night were now over, until the dawn arrived and + began to reveal a strange land, with large tracts of snow, giving place, + as the light strengthened, to vast forests. To their minds these suggested + the plains of Poland, if not the steppes of Russia, and, fearing that the + country further forward might prove more inhospitable, they decided to + come to earth as speedily as possible. This, in spite of difficult + landing, they effected about the hour that the waking population were + moving abroad, and then, and not till then, they learned the land of their + haven—the heart of the German forests. Five hundred miles had been + covered in eighteen hours from start to finish! + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. CHARLES GREEN—FURTHER ADVENTURES. + </h2> + <p> + All history is liable to repeat itself, and that of aeronautics forms no + exception to the rule. The second year after the invention of the balloon + the famous M. Blanchard, ascending from Frankfort, landed near Weilburg, + and, in commemoration of the event, the flag he bore was deposited among + the archives in the ducal palace of that town. Fifty-one years passed by + when, outside the same city, a yet more famous balloon effected its + landing, and with due ceremony its flag is presently laid beside that of + Blanchard in the same ducal palace. The balloon of the "Immortal Three," + whose splendid voyage has just been recounted, will ever be known by the + title of the Great Nassau Balloon, but the neighbourhood of its landing + was that of the town of Weilburg, in the Duchy of Nassau, whither the + party betook themselves, and where, during many days, they were + entertained with extravagant hospitality and honour until business + recalled Mr. Hollond home. + </p> + <p> + Green had now made upwards of two hundred ascents, and, though he lived to + make a thousand, it was impossible that he could ever eclipse this last + record. It is true that the same Nassau balloon, under his guidance, made + many other most memorable voyages, some of which it will be necessary to + dwell on. But, to preserve a better chronology, we must first, without + further digression, approach an event which fills a dark page in our + annals; and, in so doing, we have to transfer our attention from the + balloon itself to its accessory, the parachute. + </p> + <p> + Twenty-three years before our present date, that is to say in 1814, Mr. + Cocking delivered his views as to the proper form of the parachute before + the Society of Arts, who, as a mark of approval, awarded him a medal. This + parachute, however, having never taken practical shape, and only existing, + figuratively speaking, in the clouds, seemed unlikely to find its way + there in reality until the success of the Nassau adventure stirred its + inventor to strenuous efforts to give it an actual trial. Thus it came + about that he obtained Mr. Green's co-operation in the attempt he now + undertook, and, though this ended disastrously, for Mr. Cocking, the great + professional aeronaut can in no way soever be blamed for the tragic event. + </p> + <p> + The date of the trial was in July, 1837. Mr. Cocking's parachute was + totally different in principle from that form which, as we have seen, had + met with a fair measure of success at the hands of early experimenters; + and on the eve of its trial it was strongly denounced and condemned in the + London Press by the critic whom we have recently so freely quoted, Mr. + Monck Mason. + </p> + <p> + This able reasoner and aeronaut pointed out that the contrivance about to + be tested aimed at obviating two principal drawbacks which the parachute + had up to that time presented, namely (1) the length of time which elapses + before it becomes sufficiently expanded, and (2) the oscillatory movement + which accompanies the descent. In this new endeavour the inventor caused + his machine to be fixed rigidly open, and to assume the shape of an + inverted cone. In other words, instead of its being like an umbrella + opened, it rather resembled an umbrella blown inside out. Taking, then, + the shape and dimensions of Mr. Cocking's structure as a basis for + mathematical calculation, as also its weight, which for required strength + he put at 500 lbs. Mr. Monck Mason estimated that the adventurer and his + machine must attain in falling a velocity of some twelve miles an hour. In + fact, his positive prediction was that one of two events must inevitably + take place. "Either the parachute would come to the ground with a force + incompatible with the safety of the individual, or should it be attempted + to make it sufficiently light to resist this conclusion, it must give way + beneath the forces which will develop in the descent." + </p> + <p> + This emphatic word of warning was neglected, and the result of the + terrible experiment can best be gathered from two principal sources. + First, that of a special reporter writing from terra-firma, and, secondly, + that of Mr. Green himself, who gives his own observations as made from the + balloon in which he took the unfortunate man and his invention into the + sky. + </p> + <p> + The journalist, who first speaks of the enormous concourse that gathered + to see the ascent, not only within Vauxhall Gardens, but on every vantage + ground without, proceeds to tell of his interview with Mr. Cocking + himself, who, when questioned as to the danger involved, remarked that + none existed for him, and that the greatest peril, if any, would attend + the balloon when suddenly relieved of his weight. The proprietors of the + Gardens, as the hour approached, did their best to dissuade the + over-confident inventor, offering, themselves, to take the consequences of + any public disappointment. This was again without avail, and so, towards 6 + p.m., Mr. Green, accompanied by Mr. Spencer, a solicitor of whom this + history will have more to tell, entered the balloon, which was then let up + about 40 feet that the parachute might be affixed below. A little later, + Mr. Cocking, casting aside his heavy coat and tossing off a glass of wine, + entered his car and, amid deafening acclamations, with the band playing + the National Anthem, the balloon and aeronauts above, and he himself in + his parachute swinging below, mounted into the heavens, passing presently, + in the gathering dusk, out of view of the Gardens. + </p> + <p> + The sequel should be gathered from Mr. Green's own narrative. Previous to + starting, 650 lbs. of ballast had to be discarded to gain buoyancy + sufficient to raise the massive machine. This, together with another 100 + lbs., which was also required to be ejected owing to the cooling of the + air, was passed out through a canvas tube leading downwards through a hole + in the parachute, an ingenious contrivance which would prevent the sand + thrown out from the balloon falling on the slender structure itself. On + quitting the earth, however, this latter set up such violent oscillations + that the canvas tube was torn away, and then it became the troublesome + task of the aeronauts to make up their ballast into little parcels, and, + as occasion required, to throw these into space clear of the swinging + parachute below. + </p> + <p> + Despite all efforts, however, it was soon evident that the cumbersome + nature of the huge parachute would prevent its being carried up quite so + high as the inventor desired. Mr. Cocking had stipulated for an elevation + of 7,000 feet, and, as things were, only 5,000 feet could be reached, at + any rate, before darkness set in. This fact was communicated to Mr. + Cocking, who promptly intimated his intention of leaving, only requesting + to know whereabouts he was, to which query Mr. Spencer replied that they + were on a level with Greenwich. The brief colloquy that ensued is thus + given by Mr. Green:— + </p> + <p> + "I asked him if he felt quite comfortable, and if the practical trial bore + out his calculation. Mr. Cocking replied, 'Yes, I never felt more + comfortable or more delighted in my life,' presently adding, 'Well, now I + think I shall leave you.' I answered, 'I wish you a very "Good Night!" and + a safe descent if you are determined to make it and not use the tackle' (a + contrivance for enabling him to retreat up into the balloon if he + desired). Mr. Cocking's only reply was, 'Good-night, Spencer; Good-night, + Green!' Mr. Cocking then pulled the rope that was to liberate himself, but + too feebly, and a moment afterwards more violently, and in an instant the + balloon shot upwards with the velocity of a sky rocket. The effect upon us + at this moment was almost beyond description. The immense machine which + suspended us between heaven and earth, whilst it appeared to be forced + upwards with terrific violence and rapidity through unknown and + untravelled regions amidst the howlings of a fearful hurricane, rolled + about as though revelling in a freedom for which it had long struggled, + but of which until that moment it had been kept in utter ignorance. It, at + length, as if somewhat fatigued by its exertions, gradually assumed the + motions of a snake working its way with extraordinary speed towards a + given object. During this frightful operation the gas was rushing in + torrents from the upper and lower valve, but more particularly from the + latter, as the density of the atmosphere through which we were forcing our + progress pressed so heavily on the valve at the top of the balloon as to + admit of but a comparatively small escape by this aperture. At this + juncture, had it not been for the application to our mouths of two pipes + leading into an air bag, with which we had furnished ourselves previous to + starting, we must within a minute have been suffocated, and so, but by + different means, have shared the melancholy fate of our friend. This bag + was formed of silk, sufficiently capacious to contain 100 gallons of + atmospheric air. Prior to our ascent, the bag was inflated with the + assistance of a pair of bellows with fifty gallons of air, so allowing for + any expansion which might be produced in the upper regions. Into the end + of this bag were introduced two flexible tubes, and the moment we felt + ourselves to be going up in the manner just described, Mr. Spencer, as + well as myself, placed either of them in our mouths. By this simple + contrivance we preserved ourselves from instantaneous suffocation, a + result which must have ensued from the apparently endless volume of gas + with which the car was enveloped. The gas, notwithstanding all our + precautions, from the violence of its operation on the human frame, almost + immediately deprived us of sight, and we were both, as far as our + visionary powers were concerned, in a state of total darkness for four or + five minutes." + </p> + <p> + Messrs. Green and Spencer eventually reached earth in safety near + Maidstone, knowing nothing of the fate of their late companion. But of + this we are sufficiently informed through a Mr. R. Underwood, who was on + horseback near Blackheath and watching the aeronauts at the moment when + the parachute was separated from the balloon. He noticed that the former + descended with the utmost rapidity, at the same time swaying fearfully + from side to side, until the basket and its occupant, actually parting + from the parachute, fell together to earth through several hundred feet + and were dashed to pieces. + </p> + <p> + It would appear that the liberation of the parachute from below the + balloon had been carried out without hitch; indeed, all so far had worked + well, and the wind at the time was but a gentle breeze. The misadventure, + therefore, must be entirely attributed to the faulty manner in which the + parachute was constructed. There could, of course, be only one issue to + the sheer drop from such a height, which became the unfortunate Mr. + Cocking's fate, but the very interesting question will have to be + discussed as to the chances in favour of the aeronaut who, within his + wicker car, while still duly attached to the balloon, may meet with a + precipitate descent. + </p> + <p> + We may here fitly mention an early perilous experience of Mr. Green, due + simply to the malice of someone never discovered. It appears that while + Green's balloon, previous to an ascent, was on the ground, the cords + attaching the car had been partly severed in such a way as to escape + detection. So that as soon as the balloon rose the car commenced breaking + away, and its occupants, Mr. Green and Mr. Griffiths, had to clutch at the + ring, to which with difficulty they continued to cling. Meanwhile, the car + remaining suspended by one cord only, the balloon was caused to hang awry, + with the result that its upper netting began giving way, allowing the + balloon proper gradually to escape through the bursting meshes, thus + threatening the distracted voyagers with terrible disaster. The disaster, + in fact, actually came to pass ere the party completed their descent, "the + balloon, rushing through the opening in the net-work with a tremendous + explosion, and the two passengers clinging to the rest of the gear, + falling through a height said to be near a hundred feet. Both, though only + with much time and difficulty, recovered from the shock." + </p> + <p> + In 1840, three years after the tragic adventure connected with Mr. + Cocking's parachute trial, we find Charles Green giving his views as to + the practicability of carrying out a ballooning enterprise which should + far excel all others that had hitherto been attempted. This was nothing + less than the crossing of the Atlantic from America to England. There is + no shadow of doubt that the adventurous aeronaut was wholly in earnest in + the readiness he expressed to embark on the undertaking should adequate + funds be forthcoming; and he discusses the possibilities with singular + clearness and candour. He maintains that the actual difficulties resolve + themselves into two only: first, the maintenance of the balloon in the sky + for the requisite period of time; and, secondly, the adequate control of + its direction in space. With respect to the first difficulty, he points + out the fact to which we have already referred, namely, that it is + impossible to avoid the fluctuations of level in a balloon's course, "by + which it constantly becomes alternately subjected to escape of gas by + expansion, and consequent loss of ballast, to furnish an equivalent + diminution of weight." Taking his own balloon of 80,000 cubic feet by way + of example, he shows that this, fully inflated on the earth, would lose + 8,000 cubic feet of gas by expansion in ascending only 3,000 feet. + Moreover, the approach of night or passage through cloud or falling rain + would occasion chilling of the gas or accumulation of moisture on the + silk, in either case necessitating the loss of ballast, the store of which + is always the true measure of the balloon's life. + </p> + <p> + To combat the above difficulty Green sanguinely relies on his favourite + device of a trail or guide rope, whose function, being that of relieving + the balloon of a material weight as it approaches the earth, could, he + supposed, be made to act yet more efficiently when over the sea in the + following manner. Its length, suspended from the ring, being not less than + 2,000 feet, it should have attached at its lower end at certain intervals + a number of small, stout waterproof canvas bags, the apertures of which + should be contrived to admit water, but to oppose its return. Between + these bags were to be conical floats, to support any length of the rope + that might descend on the sea. Now, should the balloon commence + descending, it would simply deposit a certain portion of rope on the water + until it regained equilibrium at no great decrease of altitude, and would + thus continue its course until alteration of conditions should cause it to + recommence rising, when the weight of water now collected in the bags + would play its part in preventing the balloon from soaring up into space. + With such a contrivance Green allowed himself to imagine that he could + keep a properly made balloon at practically the same altitude for a period + of three months if required. + </p> + <p> + The difficulty of maintaining a due course was next discussed, and + somewhat speedily disposed of. Here Green relied on the results of his own + observation, gathered during 275 ascents, and stated his conviction that + there prevails a uniformity of upper wind currents that would enable him + to carry out his bold projects successfully. His contention is best given + in his own words: + </p> + <p> + "Under whatever circumstances," he says, "I made my ascent, however + contrary the direction of the winds below, I uniformly found that at a + certain elevation, varying occasionally, but always within 10,000 feet of + the earth, a current from the west or rather from the north of west, + invariably travailed, nor do I recollect a single instance in which a + different result ensued." Green's complete scheme is now sufficiently + evident. He was to cross the Atlantic practically by the sole assistance + of upper currents and his guide rope, but on this latter expedient, should + adverse conditions prevail, he yet further relied, for he conceived that + the rope could have attached to its floating end a water drag, which would + hold the balloon in check until favouring gales returned. + </p> + <p> + Funds, apparently, were not forthcoming to allow of Mr. Green's putting + his bold method to the test; but we find him still adhering with so much + zeal to his project that, five years later, he made, though again + unsuccessfully, a second proposal to cross the Atlantic by balloon. He + still continued to make many and most enterprising ascents, and one of a + specially sensational nature must be briefly mentioned before we pass on + to regard the exploits of other aeronauts. + </p> + <p> + It was in 1841 on the occasion of a fete at Cremorne House, when Mr. + Green, using his famous Nassau balloon, ascended with a Mr. Macdonnell. + The wind was blowing with such extreme violence that Rainham, in Essex, + about twenty miles distant, was reached in little more than a quarter of + an hour, and here, on nearing the earth, the grapnel, finding good hold, + gave a wrench to the balloon that broke the ring and jerked the car + completely upside down, the aeronauts only escaping precipitation by + holding hard to the ropes. A terrific steeplechase ensued, in which the + travellers were dragged through stout fencing and other obstacles till the + balloon, fairly emptied of gas, finally came to rest, but not until some + severe injuries had been received. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. JOHN WISE—THE AMERICAN AERONAUT. + </h2> + <p> + By this period the domination of the air was being pursued in a fresh part + of the world. England and her Continental neighbours had vied with each in + adding to the roll of conquests, and it could hardly other be supposed + that America would stand by without taking part in the campaign which was + now being revived with so much fresh energy in the skies. + </p> + <p> + The American champion who stepped forward was Mr. John Wise, of Lancaster, + Pa., whose career, commencing in the year 1835, we must now for a while + follow. Few attempts at ballooning of any kind had up to that time been + made in all America. There is a record that in December, 1783, Messrs. + Rittenhouse and Hopkins, Members of the Philosophical Academy of + Philadelphia, instituted experiments with an aerial machine consisting of + a cage to which forty-seven small balloons were harnessed. In this strange + craft a carpenter, by name Wilcox, was induced to ascend, which, it is + said, he did successfully, remaining in the air for ten minutes, when, + finding himself near a river, he sought to come to earth again by opening + several of his balloons. This brought about an awkward descent, attended, + however, by no more serious accident than a dislocated wrist. Mr. Wise, on + the other hand, states that Blanchard had won the distinction of making + the first ascent in the New World in 1793 in Philadelphia on which + occasion Washington was a spectator; and a few years afterwards other + Frenchmen gave exhibitions, which, however, led to no real development of + the new art on this, the further side of the Atlantic. Thus the endeavours + we are about to describe were those of an independent and, at the same + time, highly, practical experimentalist, and on this account have a + special value of their own. + </p> + <p> + The records that Wise has left of his investigations begin at the earliest + stage, and possess the charm of an obvious and somewhat quaint reality. + They commence with certain crude calculations which would seem to place no + limit to the capabilities of a balloon. Thus, he points out that one of + "the very moderate size of 400 feet diameter" would convey 13,000 men. "No + wonder, then," he continues, "the citizens of London became alarmed during + the French War, when they mistook the appearance of a vast flock of birds + coming towards the Metropolis for Napoleon's army apparently coming down + upon them with this new contrivance." + </p> + <p> + Proceeding to practical measures, Wise's first care was to procure some + proper material of which to build an experimental balloon of sufficient + size to lift and convey himself alone. For this he chose ordinary + long-cloth, rendered gas-tight by coats of suitable varnish, the + preparation of which became with him, as, indeed, it remains to this day, + a problem of chief importance and difficulty. Perhaps it hardly needs + pointing out that the varnish of a balloon must not only be sufficiently + elastic not to crack or scale off with folding or unavoidable rough usage, + but it must also be of a nature to resist the common tendency of such + substances to become adherent or "tacky." Wise determined on bird lime + thinned with linseed oil and ordinary driers. With this preparation he + coated his material several times both before and after the making up, and + having procured a net, of which he speaks with pride, and a primitive sort + of car, of which he bitterly complains, he thought himself sufficiently + equipped to embark on an actual ascent, which he found a task of much + greater practical difficulty than the mere manufacture of his air ship. + For the inflation by hydrogen of so small a balloon as his was he made + more than ample provision in procuring no less than fifteen casks of 130 + gallons capacity each. He also duly secured a suitable filling ground at + the corner of Ninth and Green Streets, Philadelphia, but he made a + miscalculation as to the time the inflation would demand, and this led to + unforeseen complications, for as yet he knew not the way of a crowd which + comes to witness a balloon ascent. + </p> + <p> + Having all things in readiness, and prudently waiting for fair weather, he + embarked on his grand experiment on the 2nd of May, 1835, announcing 4 + p.m. as the hour of departure. But by that time the inflation, having only + proceeded for three hours, the balloon was but half full, and then the + populace began to behave as in such circumstances they always will. They + were incredulous, and presently grew troublesome. In vain the harnessing + of the car was proceeded with as though all were well. For all was not + well, and when the aeronaut stepped into his car with only fifteen pounds + of sand and a few instruments he must have done so with much misgiving. + Still, he had friends around who might have been useful had they been less + eager to help. But these simply crowded round him, giving him no elbow + room, nor opportunity for trying the "lift" of his all-too-empty globe. + Moreover, some would endeavour to throw the machine upward, while others + as strenuously strove to keep it down, and at last the former party + prevailed, and the balloon, being fairly cast into the air, grazed a + neighbouring chimney and then plunged into an adjacent plot, not, however, + before the distracted traveller had flung away all his little stock of + sand. There now was brief opportunity for free action, and to the first + bystander who came running up Wise gave the task of holding the car in + check. To the next he handed out his instruments, his coat, and also his + boots, hoping thus to get away; but his chance had not yet come, for once + again the crowd swarmed round him, keeping him prisoner with good-natured + but mistaken interference, and drowning his voice with excited shouting. + Somehow, by word and gesture, he gave his persecutors to understand that + he wished to speak, and then he begged them only to give him a chance, + whereupon the crowd fell back, forming a ring, and leaving only one man + holding the car. It was a moment of suspense, for Wise calculated that he + had only parted with some eighteen pounds since his first ineffectual + start from the filling ground; but it was enough, and in another moment he + was sailing up clear above the crowd. So great, as has been already shewn, + is often the effect of parting with the last few pounds of dead weight in + a well-balanced balloon. + </p> + <p> + Such was the first "send off" of the future great balloonist, destined to + become the pioneer in aeronautics on the far side of the Atlantic. The + balloon ascended to upwards of a mile, floating gradually away, but at its + highest point it reached a conflict of currents, causing eddies from which + Wise escaped by a slight decrease of weight, effected by merely cutting + away the wreaths of flowers that were tied about his car. A further small + substitute for ballast he extemporised in the metal tube inserted in the + neck of his fabric, and this he cast out when over the breadth of the + Delaware, and he describes it as falling with a rustling sound, and + striking the water with a splash plainly heard at more than a mile in the + sky. After an hour and a quarter the balloon spontaneously and steadily + settled to earth. + </p> + <p> + An ascent carried out later in the same summer led to a mishap, which + taught the young aeronaut an all-important lesson. Using the same balloon + and the same mode of inflation, he got safely and satisfactorily away from + his station in the town of Lebanon, Pa., and soon found himself over a + toll gate in the open country, where the gate keeper in banter called up + to him for his due. To this summons Wise, with heedless alacrity, + responded in a manner which might well have cost him dear. He threw out a + bag of sand to represent his toll, and, though he estimated this at only + six pounds, it so greatly accelerated his ascent that he shortly found + himself at a greater altitude than he ever after attained. He passed + through mist into upper sunshine, where he experienced extreme cold and + ear-ache, at which time, seeking the natural escape from such trouble, he + found to his dismay that the valve rope was out of reach. Thus he was + compelled to allow the balloon to ascend yet higher, at its own will; and + then a terrible event happened. + </p> + <p> + By mischance the neck of his balloon, which should have been open, was out + of reach and folded inwards in such a way as to prevent the free escape of + the gas, which, at this great altitude, struggled for egress with a loud + humming noise, giving him apprehensions of an accident which very shortly + occurred, namely, the bursting of the lower part of his balloon with a + loud report. It happened, however, that no extreme loss of gas ensued, and + he commenced descending with a speed which, though considerable, was not + very excessive. Still, he was eager to alight in safety, until a chance + occurrence made him a second time that afternoon guilty of an act of + boyish impetuosity. A party of volunteers firing a salute in his honour as + he neared the ground, he instantly flung out papers, ballast, anything he + could lay his hands on, and once again soared to a great height with his + damaged balloon. He could then do no more, and presently subsiding to + earth again, he acquired the welcome knowledge that even in such + precarious circumstances a balloon may make a long fall with safety to its + freight. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Wise's zeal and indomitable spirit of enterprise led to speedy + developments of the art which he had espoused; the road to success being + frequently pointed out by failure or mishap. He quickly discarded the + linen balloon for one of silk on which he tried a new varnish composed of + linseed oil and india-rubber, and, dressing several gores with this, he + rolled them up and left them through a night in a drying loft, with the + result that the next day they were disintegrated and on the point of + bursting into flame by spontaneous combustion. Fresh silk and other + varnish were then tried, but with indifferent success. Next he endeavoured + to dispense with sewing, and united the gores of yet another balloon by + the mere adhesiveness of the varnish and application of a hot iron. This + led to a gaping seam developing at the moment of an ascent, and then there + followed a hasty and hazardous descent on a house-top and an exciting + rescue by a gentleman who appeared opportunely at a third storey window. + Further, another balloon had been destroyed, and Wise badly burned, at a + descent, owing to a naked light having been brought near the escaping gas. + It is then without wonder that we find him after this temporarily + bankrupt, and resorting to his skill in instrument-making to recover his + fortunes. Only, however, for a few months, after which he is before the + public once more as a professional aeronaut. He now adopts coal gas for + inflation, and incidents of an impressive nature crowd into his career, + forcing important facts upon him. The special characteristics of his own + country present peculiar difficulties; broad rivers and vast forests + become serious obstacles. He is caught in the embrace of a whirlwind; he + narrowly escapes falling into a forest fire; he is precipitated, but + harmlessly, into a pine wood. Among other experiments, he makes a small + copy of Mr. Cocking's parachute, and drops it to earth with a cat as + passenger, proving thereby that that unfortunate gentleman's principle was + really less in fault than the actual slenderness of the material used in + his machine. + </p> + <p> + We now approach one of Wise's boldest, and at the same time most valuable, + experiments. It was the summer of 1839, and once again the old trouble of + spontaneous combustion had destroyed a silk balloon which was to have + ascended at Easton, Pa. Undeterred, however, Wise resolutely advertised a + fresh attempt, and, with only a clear month before the engagement, + determined on hastily rigging up a cambric muslin balloon, soaking it in + linseed oil and essaying the best exhibition that this improvised + experiment could afford. It was intended to become a memorable one, + inasmuch as, should he meet with no hindrance, his determination was + nothing less than that of bursting this balloon at a great height, having + firmly convinced himself that the machine in these circumstances would + form itself into a natural parachute, and bring him to earth with every + chance in favour of safety. In his own words, "Scientific calculations + were on his side with a certainty as great and principles as comprehensive + as that a pocket-handkerchief will not fall as rapidly to the ground when + thrown out of a third storey window as will a brick." + </p> + <p> + His balloon was specially contrived for the experiment in hand, having + cords sewn to the upper parts of its seams, and then led down through the + neck, where they were secured within reach, their office being that of + rending the whole head of the balloon should this be desired. On this + occasion a cat and a dog were taken up, one of these being let fall from a + height of 2,000 feet in a Cocking's parachute, and landing in safety, the + other being similarly dismissed at an altitude of 4,000 feet in an oiled + silk balloon made in the form of a collapsed balloon, which, after falling + a little distance, expanded sufficiently to allow of its descending with a + safe though somewhat vibratory motion. Its behaviour, at any rate, fully + determined Wise on carrying out his own experiment. + </p> + <p> + Being constructed entirely for the main object in view, the balloon had no + true opening in the neck beyond an orifice of about an inch, and by the + time a height of 13,000 feet had been reached the gas was streaming + violently through this small hole, the entire globe being expanded nearly + to bursting point, and the cords designed for rending the balloon very + tense. At this critical period Wise owns to having experienced + considerable nervous excitement, and observing far down a thunderstorm in + progress he began to waver in his mind, and inclined towards relieving the + balloon of its strain, and so abandoning his experiment, at least for the + present. He remembers pulling out his watch to make a note of the hour, + and, while thus occupied, the straining cords, growing tenser every + moment, suddenly took charge of the experiment and burst the balloon of + their own accord. The gas now rushed from the huge rent above tumultuously + and in some ten seconds had entirely escaped, causing the balloon to + descend rapidly, until the lower part of the muslin, doubling in upwards, + formed a species of parachute after the manner intended. The balloon now + came down with zig-zag descent, and finally the car, striking the earth + obliquely, tossed its occupant out into a field unharmed. Shortly after + this Wise experimented with further success with an exploded balloon. + </p> + <p> + It is not a little remarkable that this pioneer of aeronautics in American—a + contemporary of Charles Green in England, but working and investigating + single-handed on perfectly independent lines—should have arrived at + the same conclusions as did Green himself as to the possibility, which, in + his opinion, amounted to a certainty, of being able to cross the Atlantic + by balloon if only adequate funds were forth-coming. So intent was he on + his bold scheme that, in the summer of 1843, he handed to the Lancaster + Intelligencer a proclamation, which he desired might be conveyed to all + publishers of newspapers on the globe. It contained, among other clauses, + the following:— + </p> + <p> + "Having from a long experience in aeronautics been convinced that a + constant and regular current of air is blowing at all times from west to + east, with a velocity of from twenty to forty and even sixty miles per + hour, according to its height from the earth, and having discovered a + composition which renders silk or muslin impervious to hydrogen gas, so + that a balloon may be kept afloat for many weeks, I feel confident with + these advantages that a trip across the Atlantic will not be attended with + as much real danger as by the common mode of transition. The balloon is to + be 100 feet in diameter, giving it a net ascending power of 25,000 lbs." + It was further stated that the crew would consist of three persons, + including a sea navigator, and a scientific landsman. The specifications + for the transatlantic vessel were also to include a seaworthy boat in + place of the ordinary car. The sum requisite for this enterprise was, at + the time, not realised; but it should be mentioned that several years + later a sufficient sum of money was actually subscribed. In the summer of + 1873 the proprietors of the New York Daily Graphic provided for the + construction of a balloon of no less than 400,000 cubic feet capacity, and + calculated to lift 14,000 lbs. It was, however, made of bad material; and, + becoming torn in inflation, Wise condemned and declined to use it. A few + months later, when it had been repaired, one Donaldson and two other + adventurers, attempting a voyage with this ill-formed monster, ascended + from New York, and were fortunate in coming down safely, though not + without peril, somewhere in Connecticut. + </p> + <p> + Failing in his grand endeavour, Wise continued to follow the career of a + professional aeronaut for some years longer, of which he has left a full + record, terminating with the spring of 1848. His ascents were always + marked by carefulness of detail, and a coolness and courage in trying + circumstances that secured him uniform success and universal regard. He + was, moreover, always a close and intelligent observer, and many of his + memoranda are of scientific value. + </p> + <p> + His description of an encounter with a storm-cloud in the June of 1843 has + an interest of its own, and may not be considered overdrawn. It was an + ascent from Carlisle, Pa., to celebrate the anniversary of Bunker's Hill, + and Wise was anxious to gratify the large concourse of people assembled, + and thus was tempted, soon after leaving the ground, to dive up into a + huge black cloud of peculiarly forbidding aspect. This cloud appeared to + remain stationary while he swept beneath it, and, having reached its + central position, he observed that its under surface was concave towards + the earth, and at that moment he became swept upwards in a vortex that set + his balloon spinning and swinging violently, while he himself was + afflicted with violent nausea and a feeling of suffocation. The cold + experienced now became intense, and the cordage became glazed with ice, + yet this had no effect in checking the upward whirling of the balloon. + Sunshine was beyond the upper limits of the cloud; but this was no sooner + reached than the balloon, escaping from the uprush, plunged down several + hundred feet, only to be whirled up again, and this reciprocal motion was + repeated eight or ten times during an interval of twenty minutes, in all + of which time no expenditure of gas or discharge of ballast enabled the + aeronaut to regain any control over his vessel. + </p> + <p> + Statements concerning a thunderstorm witnessed at short range by Wise will + compare with other accounts. The thunder "rattled" without any + reverberations, and when the storm was passing, and some dense clouds + moving in the upper currents, the "surface of the lower stratum swelled up + suddenly like a boiling cauldron, which was immediately followed by the + most brilliant ebullition of sparkling coruscations." Green, in his stormy + ascent from Newbury, England, witnessed a thunderstorm below him, as will + be remembered, while an upper cloud stratum lay at his own level. It was + then that Green observed that "at every discharge of thunder all the + detached pillars of clouds within the distance of a mile around became + attracted." + </p> + <p> + The author will have occasion, in due place, to give personal experiences + of an encounter with a thunderstorm which will compare with the foregoing + description. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. EARLY METHODS AND IDEAS. + </h2> + <p> + Before proceeding to introduce the chief actors and their achievements in + the period next before us, it will be instructive to glance at some of the + principal ideas and methods in favour with aeronauts up to the date now + reached. It will be seen that Wise in America, contrary to the practice of + Green in our own country, had a strong attachment to the antique mode of + inflation with hydrogen prepared by the vitriolic process; and his + balloons were specially made and varnished for the use of this gas. The + advantage which he thus bought at the expense of much trouble and the + providing of cumbersome equipment was obvious enough, and may be well + expressed by a formula which holds good to-day, namely, that whereas 1,000 + cubic feet of hydrogen is capable of lifting 7 lbs., the same quantity of + coal gas of ordinary quality will raise but 35 lbs. The lighter gas came + into all Wise's calculations for bolder schemes. Thus, when he discusses + the possibility of using a metal balloon, his figures work out as follows: + If a balloon of 200 feet diameter were constructed out of copper, weighing + one pound to the square foot; if, moreover, some six tons were allowed for + the weight of car and fastenings, an available lifting power would remain + capable of raising 45 tons to an altitude of two miles. This calculation + may appear somewhat startling, yet it is not only substantially correct, + but Wise entertained no doubt as to the practicability of such a machine. + For its inflation he suggests inserting a muslin balloon filled with air + within the copper globe, and then passing hydrogen gas between the muslin + and copper surfaces, which would exclude the inner balloon as the copper + one filled up. + </p> + <p> + His method of preparing hydrogen was practically that still adopted in the + field, and seems in his hands to have been seldom attended with + difficulty. With eight common 130-gallon rum puncheons he could reckon on + evolving 5,000 cubic feet of gas in an hour, using his elements in the + following proportions: water, 560 lbs.; sulphuric acid (sp. g. 1.85), 144 + lbs.; iron turnings, 125 lbs. The gas, as given off, was cooled and + purified by being passed through a head of water kept cool and containing + lime in solution. Contrasted with this, we find it estimated, according to + the practice of this time, that a ton of good bituminous coal should yield + 10,000 cubic feet of carburetted hydrogen fit for lighting purposes, and a + further quantity which, though useless as an illuminant, is still of + excellent quality for the aeronaut. + </p> + <p> + It would even seem from a statement of Mr. Monck Mason that the value of + coke in his day largely compensated for the cost of producing coal gas, so + that in a large number of Green's ascents no charge whatever was made for + gas by the companies that supplied him. + </p> + <p> + Some, at least, of the methods formerly recommended for the management of + free balloons must in these days be modified. Green, as we have seen, was + in favour of a trail rope of inordinate length, which he recommended both + as an aid to steering and for a saving of ballast. In special + circumstances, and more particularly over the sea, this may be reckoned a + serviceable adjunct, but over land its use, in this country at least, + would be open to serious objection. The writer has seen the consternation, + not to say havoc, that a trail rope may occasion when crossing a town, or + even private grounds, and the actual damage done to a garden of hops, or + to telegraph or telephone wires, may be very serious indeed. Moreover, the + statement made by some early practitioners that a trail rope will not + catch so as to hold fast in a wood or the like, is not to be relied on, + for an instance could be mentioned coming under the writer's knowledge + where such a rope was the source of so much trouble in a high wind that it + had to be cut away. + </p> + <p> + The trouble arose in this way. The rope dragged harmlessly enough along + the open ground. It would, likewise, negotiate exceedingly well a single + tree or a whole plantation, catching and releasing itself with only such + moderate tugs at the car as were not disturbing; but, presently, its end, + which had been caught and again released by one tree, swung free in air + through a considerable gap to another tree, where, striking a horizontal + bough, it coiled itself several times around, and thus held the balloon + fast, which now, with the strength of the wind, was borne to the earth + again and again, rebounding high in air after each impact, until freedom + was gained only by the sacrifice of a portion of the rope. + </p> + <p> + Wise recommends a pendant line of 600 or 800 feet, capable of bearing a + strain of 100 lbs., and with characteristic ingenuity suggests a special + use which can be made of it, namely, that of having light ribbons tied on + at every hundred feet, by means of which the drifts of lower currents may + be detected. In this suggestion there is, indeed, a great deal of sound + sense; for there is, as will be shown hereafter, very much value to be + attached to a knowledge of those air rivers that are flowing, often wholly + unsuspected, at various heights. Small parachutes, crumpled paper, and + other such-like bodies as are commonly thrown out and relied on to declare + the lower drifts, are not wholly trustworthy, for this reason—that + air-streams are often very slender, mere filaments, as they are sometimes + called, and these, though setting in some definite direction, and capable + of entrapping and wafting away some small body which may come within their + influence, may not affect the travel of so big an object as a balloon, + which can only partake of some more general air movement. + </p> + <p> + Wise, by his expedient of tying ribbons at different points to his trail + rope, would obtain much more correct and constant information respecting + those general streams through which the pendant rope was moving. A similar + expedient adopted by the same ingenious aeronaut is worthy of imitation, + namely, that of tying ribbons on to a rod projecting laterally from the + car. These form a handy and constant telltale as to the flight of the + balloon, for should they be fluttering upwards the sky sailor at once + knows that his craft is descending, and that he must act accordingly. + </p> + <p> + The material, pure silk, which was universally adopted up to and after the + period we are now regarding, is not on every account to be reckoned the + most desirable. In the first place, its cost alone is prohibitive, and + next, although lighter than any kind of linen, strength for strength, it + requires a greater weight of varnish, which, moreover, it does not take so + kindly as does fabric made of vegetable tissue. Further, paradoxical as it + may appear, its great strength is not entirely an advantage. There are + occasions which must come into the experience of every zealous aeronaut + when his balloon has descended in a rough wind, and in awkward country. + This may, indeed, happen even when the ascent has been made in calm. + Squalls of wind may spring up at short notice, or after traversing only + two or three counties a strong gale may be found on the earth, though such + was absent in the starting ground. This is more particularly the case when + the landing chances to be on high ground in the neighbourhood of the sea. + In these circumstances, the careful balloonist, who will generally be + forewarned by the ruffle on any water he may pass, or by the drift of + smoke, the tossing of trees, or by their very rustling or "singing" wafted + upwards to him, will, if possible, seek for his landing place the lee of a + wood or some other sheltered spot. But, even with all his care, he will + sometimes find himself, on reaching earth, being dragged violently across + country on a mad course which the anchor cannot check. Now, the country + through which he is making an unwilling steeplechase may be difficult, or + even dangerous. Rivers, railway cuttings, or other undesirable obstacles + may lie ahead, or, worse yet, such a death trap as in such circumstances + almost any part of Derbyshire affords, with its stone walls, its + precipitous cliffs, and deep rocky dells. To be dragged at the speed of an + express train through territory of this description will presently mean + damage to something, perhaps to telegraph poles, to roofs, or crops, and + if not, then to the balloon itself. Something appertaining to it must be + victimised, and it is in all ways best that this should be the fabric of + the balloon itself. If made of some form, or at least some proportion of + linen, this will probably rend ere long, and, allowing the gas to escape, + will soon bring itself to rest. On the other hand, if the balloon proper + is a silk one, with sound net and in good condition, it is probable that + something else will give way first, and that something may prove to be the + hapless passenger or passengers. + </p> + <p> + And here be it laid down as one first and all-important principle, that in + any such awkward predicament as that just described, if there be more than + one passenger aboard, let none attempt to get out. In the first place, he + may very probably break a limb in so doing, inasmuch as the tangle of the + ropes will not allow of his getting cut readily; or, when actually on the + ground, he may be caught and impaled by the anchor charging and leaping + behind. But, worse than all, he may, in any case, jeopardise the lives of + his companions, who stand in need of all the available weight and help + that the car contains up to the moment Of coming to final rest. + </p> + <p> + We have already touched on the early notions as to the means of steering a + balloon. Oars had been tested without satisfactory result, and the + conception of a rotary screw found favour among theorists at this time, + the principle being actually tried with success in working models, which, + by mechanical means, could be made to flit about in the still air of the + lecture room; but the only feasible method advocated was that already + alluded to, which depended on the undesirable action of a trail rope + dragging over the ground or through water. The idea was, of course, + perfectly practical, and was simply analogous to the method adopted by + sailors, who, when floating with the stream but without wind, are desirous + of gaining "steerage way." While simply drifting with the flood, they are + unable to guide their vessel in any way, and this, in practice, is + commonly effected by simply propelling the vessel faster than the stream, + in which case the rudder at once becomes available. But the same result is + equally well obtained by slowing the vessel, and this is easily + accomplished by a cable, with a small anchor or other weight attached, + dragging below the vessel. This cable is essentially the same as the + guide-rope of the older aeronauts. + </p> + <p> + It is when we come to consider the impressions and sensations described by + sky voyagers of bygone times that we find them curiously at variance with + our own. As an instance, we may state that the earth, as seen from a + highflying balloon, used to be almost always described as appearing + concave, or like a huge basin, and ingenious attempts were made to prove + mathematically that this must be so. The laws of refraction are brought in + to prove the fact; or, again, the case is stated thus: Supposing the + extreme horizon to be seen when the balloon is little more than a mile + high, the range of view on all sides will then be, roughly, some eighty + miles. If, then, a line were drawn from the aerial observer to this remote + distance, that line would be almost horizontal; so nearly so that he + cannot persuade himself that his horizon is otherwise than still on a + level with his eye; yet the earth below him lies, as it seems, at the + bottom of a huge gulf. Thus the whole visible earth appears as a vast bowl + or basin. This is extremely ingenious reasoning, and not to be + disregarded; but the fact remains that in the experience of the writer and + of many others whom he has consulted, there is no such optical illusion as + I have just discussed, and to their vision it is impossible to regard the + earth as anything but uniformly flat. + </p> + <p> + Another impression invariably insisted on by early balloonists is that the + earth, on quitting it, appears to drop away into an abyss, leaving the + voyagers motionless, and this illusion must, indeed, be probably + universal. It is the same illusion as the apparent gliding backwards of + objects to a traveller in a railway carriage; only in this latter case the + rattling and shaking of the carriage helps the mind to grasp the real fact + that the motion belongs to the train itself; whereas it is otherwise with + a balloon, whose motion is so perfectly smooth as to be quite + imperceptible. + </p> + <p> + Old ideas, formed upon insufficient observations, even if erroneous, were + slow to die. Thus it used to be stated that an upper cloud floor adapted + itself to the contour of the land over which it rested, giving what Mr. + Monck Mason has called a "phrenological estimate" of the character of the + earth below; the clouds, "even when under the influence of rapid motion, + seeming to accommodate themselves to all variations of form in the surface + of the subjacent soil, rising with its prominences and sinking with its + depressions." Probably few aeronauts of the present time will accept the + statement. + </p> + <p> + It used commonly to be asserted, and is so often to this day, that a + feeling as of sea-sickness is experienced in balloon travel, and the + notion has undoubtedly arisen from the circumstances attending an ascent + in a captive balloon. It were well, now that ballooning bids fair to + become popular, to disabuse the public mind of such a wholly false idea. + The truth is that a balloon let up with a lengthy rope and held captive + will, with a fitful breeze, pitch and sway in a manner which may induce + all the unpleasant feelings attending a rough passage at sea. It may do + worse, and even be borne to earth with a puff of wind which may come + unexpectedly, and considerably unsettle the nerves of any holiday + passenger. I could tell of a "captive" that had been behaving itself + creditably on a not very settled day suddenly swooping over a roadway and + down into public gardens, where it lay incontinently along the ground, and + then, before the astonished passengers could attempt to alight, it was + seized with another mood, and, mounting once again majestically skyward, + submitted to be hauled down with all becoming grace and ease. It is owing + to their vagaries and want of manageability that, as will be shown, + "captives" are of uncertain use in war. On the other hand, a free balloon + is exempt from such disadvantages, and at moderate heights not the + smallest feeling of nausea is ever experienced. The only unpleasant + sensation, and that not of any gravity, ever complained of, is a peculiar + tension in the ears experienced in a rapid ascent, or more often, perhaps, + in a descent. The cause, which is trivial and easily removed, should be + properly understood, and cannot be given in clearer language than that + used by Professor Tyndall:—"Behind the tympanic membrane exists a + cavity—the drum of the ear—in part crossed by a series of + bones, and in part occupied by air. This cavity communicates with the + mouth by means of a duct called the Eustachian tube. This tube is + generally closed, the air space behind the tympanic membrane being thus + cut off from the external air. If, under these circumstances, the external + air becomes denser, it will press the tympanic membrane inwards; if, on + the other hand, the air on the other side becomes rarer, while the + Eustachian tube becomes closed, the membrane will be pressed outwards. + Pain is felt in both cases, and partial deafness is experienced.... By the + act of swallowing the Eustachian tube is opened, and thus equilibrium is + established between the external and internal pressure." + </p> + <p> + Founded on physical facts more or less correct in themselves, come a + number of tales of olden days, which are at least more marvellous than + credible, the following serving as an example. The scientific truth + underlying the story is the well-known expedient of placing a shrivelled + apple under the receiver of an air pump. As the air becomes rarefied the + apple swells, smooths itself out, and presently becomes round and rosy as + it was in the summer time. It is recorded that on one occasion a man of + mature years made an ascent, accompanied by his son, and, after reaching + some height, the youth remarked on how young his father was looking. They + still continued to ascend, and the same remark was repeated more than + once. And at last, having now reached attenuated regions, the son cried in + astonishment, "Why, dad, you ought to be at school!" The cause of this + remark was that in the rarefied air all the wrinkles had come out of the + old man's face, and his cheeks were as chubby as his son's. + </p> + <p> + This discussion of old ideas should not be closed without mention of a + plausible plea for the balloon made by Wise and others on the score of its + value to health. Lofty ascents have proved a strain on even robust + constitutions—the heart may begin to suffer, or ills akin to + mountain sickness may intervene before a height equal to that of our + loftiest mountain is reached. But many have spoken of an exhilaration of + spirits not inferior to that of the mountaineer, which is experienced, and + without fatigue, in sky voyages reasonably indulged in—of a + light-heartedness, a glow of health, a sharpened appetite, and the keen + enjoyment of mere existence. Nay, it has been seriously affirmed that + "more good may be got by the invalid in an hour or two while two miles up + on a fine summer's day than is to be gained in an entire voyage from New + York to Madeira by sea." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. THE COMMENCEMENT OF A NEW ERA. + </h2> + <p> + Resuming the roll of progressive aeronauts in England whose labours were + devoted to the practical conquest of the air, and whose methods and + mechanical achievements mark the road of advance by which the successes of + to-day have been obtained, there stand out prominently two individuals, of + whom one has already received mention in these pages. + </p> + <p> + The period of a single life is seldom sufficient to allow within its span + the full development of any new departure in art or science, and it + cannot, therefore, be wondered at if Charles Green, though reviving and + re-modelling the art of ballooning in our own country, even after an + exceptionally long and successful career, left that pursuit to which he + had given new birth virtually still in its infancy. + </p> + <p> + The year following that in which Green conducted the famous Nassau voyage + we find him experimenting in the same balloon with his chosen friend and + colleague, Edward Spencer, solicitor, of Barnsbury, who, only nine years + later, compiles memoranda of thirty-four ascents, made under every variety + of circumstance, many being of a highly enterprising nature. We find him + writing enthusiastically of the raptures he experienced when sailing over + London in night hours, of lofty ascents and extremely low temperatures, of + speeding twenty-eight miles in twenty minutes, of grapnel ropes breaking, + and of a cross-country race of four miles through woods and hedges. Such + was Mr. Spencer the elder, and if further evidence were needed of his + practical acquaintance with, as well as personal devotion to, his adopted + profession of aeronautics, we have it in the store of working calculations + and other minutiae of the craft, most carefully compiled in manuscript by + his own hand; these memoranda being to this day constantly consulted by + his grandsons, the present eminent aeronauts, Messrs. Spencer Brothers, as + supplying a manual of reliable data for the execution of much of the most + important parts of their work. + </p> + <p> + In the terrific ordeal and risk entailed by the daring and fatal parachute + descent of Cocking, Green required an assistant of exceptional nerve and + reliability, and, as has been recorded, his choice at once fell on Edward + Spencer. In this choice it has already been shown that he was well + justified, and in the trying circumstances that ensued Green frankly owns + that it was his competent companion who was the first to recover himself. + A few years later, when a distinguished company, among whom were Albert + Smith and Shirley Brooks, made a memorable ascent from Cremorne, Edward + Spencer is one of the select party. + </p> + <p> + Some account of this voyage should be given, and it need not be said that + no more graphic account is to be found than that given by the facile pen + of Albert Smith himself. His personal narrative also forms an instructive + contrast to another which he had occasion to give to the world shortly + afterwards, and which shall be duly noticed. The enthusiastic writer first + describes, with apparent pride, the company that ascended with him. + Besides Mr. Shirley Brooks, there were Messrs. Davidson, of the Garrick + Club; Mr. John Lee, well known in theatrical circles; Mr. P. Thompson, of + Guy's Hospital, and others—ten in all, including Charles Green as + skipper, and Edward Spencer, who, sitting in the rigging, was entrusted + with the all-important management of the valve rope. + </p> + <p> + "The first sensation experienced," Albert Smith continues, "was not that + we were rising, but that the balloon remained fixed, whilst all the world + below was rapidly falling away; while the cheers with which they greeted + our departure grew fainter, and the cheerers themselves began to look like + the inmates of many sixpenny Noah's Arks grouped upon a billiard table.... + Our hats would have held millions.... And most strange is the roar of the + city as it comes surging into the welkin as though the whole metropolis + cheered you with one voice.... Yet none beyond the ordinary passengers are + to be seen. The noise is as inexplicable as the murmur in the air at hot + summer noontide." + </p> + <p> + The significance of this last remark will be insisted on when the writer + has to tell his own experiences aloft over London, as also a note to the + effect that there were seen "large enclosed fields and gardens and + pleasure grounds where none were supposed to exist by ordinary + passengers." Another interesting note, having reference to a once familiar + feature on the river, now disappearing, related to the paddle boats of + those days, the steamers making a very beautiful effect, "leaving two long + wings of foam behind them similar to the train of a table rocket." Highly + suggestive, too, of the experiences of railway travellers in the year 1847 + is the account of the alighting, which, by the way, was obviously of no + very rude nature. "Every time," says the writer, "the grapnel catches in + the ground the balloon is pulled up suddenly with a shock that would soon + send anybody from his seat, a jerk like that which occurs when fresh + carriages are brought up to a railway train." But the concluding paragraph + in this rosy narrative affords another and a very notable contrast to the + story which that same writer had occasion to put on record before that + same year had passed. + </p> + <p> + "We counsel everybody to go up in a balloon... In spite of the apparent + frightful fragility of cane and network nothing can in reality be more + secure... The stories of pressure on the ears, intense cold, and the + danger of coming down are all fictions.... Indeed, we almost wanted a few + perils to give a little excitement to the trip, and have some notion, if + possible, of going up the next time at midnight with fireworks in a + thunderstorm, throwing away all the ballast, fastening down the valve, and + seeing where the wind will send us." + </p> + <p> + The fireworks, the thunderstorm, and the throwing away of ballast, all + came off on the 15th of the following October, when Albert Smith made his + second ascent, this time from Vauxhall Gardens, under the guidance of Mr. + Gypson, and accompanied by two fellow-passengers. Fireworks, which were to + be displayed when aloft, were suspended on a framework forty feet below + the car. Lightning was also playing around as they cast off. The + description which Albert Smith gives of London by night as seen from an + estimated elevation of 4,000 feet, should be compared with other + descriptions that will be given in these pages:— + </p> + <p> + "In the obscurity all traces of houses and enclosures are lost sight of. I + can compare it to nothing else than floating over dark blue and boundless + sea spangled with hundreds of thousands of stars. These stars were the + lamps. We could see them stretching over the river at the bridges, edging + its banks, forming squares and long parallel lines of light in the streets + and solitary parks. Further and further apart until they were altogether + lost in the suburbs. The effect was bewildering." + </p> + <p> + At 7,000 feet, one of the passengers, sitting in the ring, remarked that + the balloon was getting very tense, and the order was given to "ease her" + by opening the top valve. The valve line was accordingly pulled, "and + immediately afterwards we heard a noise similar to the escape of steam in + a locomotive, and the lower part of the balloon collapsed rapidly, and + appeared to fly up into the upper portion. At the same instant the balloon + began to fall with appalling velocity, the immense mass of loose silk + surging and rustling frightfully over our heads.... retreating up away + from us more and more into the head of the balloon. The suggestion was + made to throw everything over that might lighten the balloon. I had two + sandbags in my lap, which were cast away directly.... There were several + large bags of ballast, and some bottles of wine, and these were instantly + thrown away, but no effect was perceptible. The wind still appeared to be + rushing up past us at a fearful rate, and, to add to the horror, we came + among the still expiring discharge of the fireworks which floated in the + air, so that little bits of exploded cases and touch-paper, still + incandescent, attached themselves to the cordage of the balloon and were + blown into sparks.... I presume we must have been upwards of a mile from + the earth.... How long we were descending I have not the slightest idea, + but two minutes must have been the outside.... We now saw the houses, the + roofs of which appeared advancing to meet us, and the next instant, as we + dashed by their summits, the words, 'Hold hard!' burst simultaneously from + all the party.... We were all directly thrown out of the car along the + ground, and, incomprehensible as it now appears to me, nobody was + seriously hurt." + </p> + <p> + But "not so incomprehensible, after all," will be the verdict of all who + compare the above narrative with the ascents given in a foregoing account + of how Wise had fared more than once when his balloon had burst. For, as + will be readily guessed, the balloon had in this case also burst, owing to + the release of the upper valve being delayed too long, and the balloon had + in the natural way transformed itself into a true parachute. Moreover, the + fall, which, by Albert Smith's own showing, was that of about a mile in + two minutes, was not more excessive than one which will presently be + recorded of Mr. Glaisher, who escaped with no material injury beyond a few + bruises. + </p> + <p> + One fact has till now been omitted with regard to the above sensational + voyage, namely, the name of the passenger who, sitting in the ring, was + the first to point out the imminent danger of the balloon. This individual + was none other than Mr. Henry Coxwell, the second, indeed, of the two who + were mentioned in the opening paragraph of this chapter as marking the + road of progress which it is the scope of these pages to trace, and to + whom we must now formally introduce our readers. + </p> + <p> + This justly famous sky pilot, whose practical acquaintance with ballooning + extends over more than forty years, was the son of a naval officer + residing near Chatham, and in his autobiography he describes + enthusiastically how, a lad of nine years old, he watched through a sea + telescope a balloon, piloted by Charles Green, ascend from Rochester and, + crossing the Thames, disappear in distance over the Essex flats. He goes + on to describe how the incident started him in those early days on boyish + endeavours to construct fire balloons and paper parachutes. Some years + later his home, on the death of his father, being transferred to Eltham, + he came within frequent view of such balloons as, starting from the + neighbourhood of London, will through the summer drift with the prevailing + winds over that part of Kent. And it was here that, ere long, he came in + at the death of another balloon of which Green was in charge. + </p> + <p> + And from this time onwards the schoolboy with the strange hobby was + constantly able to witness the flights and even the inflations of those + ships of the air, which, his family associations notwithstanding took + precedence of all boyish diversions. + </p> + <p> + His elder brother, now a naval officer, entirely failed to divert his + aspirations into other channels, and it was when the boy had completed + sixteen summers that an aeronautic enterprise attracted not only his own, + but public attention also. It was the building of a mammoth balloon at + Vauxhall under the superintendence of Mr. Green. The launching of this + huge craft when completed was regarded as so great an occasion that the + young Coxwell, who had by this time obtained a commercial opening abroad, + was allowed, at his earnest entreaty, to stay till the event had come off, + and fifty years after the hardened sky sailor is found describing with a + boyish enthusiasm how thirty-six policemen were needed round that balloon; + how enormous weights were attached to the cordage, only to be lifted feet + above the ground; while the police were compelled to pass their staves + through the meshes to prevent the cords cutting their hands. At this + ascent Mr. Hollond was a passenger, and by the middle of the following + November all Europe was ringing with the great Nassau venture. + </p> + <p> + Commercial business did not suit the young Coxwell, and at the age of + one-and-twenty we find him trying his hand at the profession of + surgeon-dentist, not, however, with any prospect of its keeping him from + the longing of his soul, which grew stronger and stronger upon him. It was + not till the summer of 1844 that Mr. Hampton, giving an exhibition from + the White Conduit Gardens, Pentonville, offered the young man, then + twenty-five years old, his first ascent. + </p> + <p> + In after years Coxwell referred to his first sensations in characteristic + language, contrasting them with the experiences of the mountaineer. "In + Alpine travels," he says, "the process is so slow, and contact with the + crust of the earth so palpable, that the traveller is gradually prepared + for each successive phase of view as it presents itself. But in the + balloon survey, cities, villages, and vast tracts for observation spring + almost magically before the eye, and change in aspect and size so + pleasingly that bewilderment first and then unbounded admiration is sure + to follow." + </p> + <p> + The ice was now fairly broken, and, not suffering professional duties to + be any hindrance, Coxwell began to make a series of ascents under the + leadership of two rival balloonists, Gale and Gypson. One voyage made with + the latter he describes as leading to the most perilous descent in the + annals of aerostation. This was the occasion, given above, on which Albert + Smith was a passenger, and which that talented writer describes in his own + fashion. He does not, however, add the fact, worthy of being chronicled, + that exactly a week after the appalling adventure Gypson and Coxwell, + accompanied by a Captain whose name does not transpire, and loaded with + twice the previous weight of fireworks, made a perfectly successful night + ascent and descent in the same balloon. + </p> + <p> + It is very shortly after this that we find Coxwell seduced into + undertaking for its owners the actual management of a balloon, the + property of Gale, and now to be known as the "Sylph." With this craft he + practically began his career as a professional balloonist, and after a few + preliminary ascents made in England, was told off to carry on engagements + in Belgium. + </p> + <p> + A long series of ascents was now made on the Continent, and in the + troubled state of affairs some stirring scenes were visited, not without + some real adventure. One occasion attended with imminent risk occurred at + Berlin in 1851. Coxwell relates that a Prussian labourer whom he had + dismissed for bad conduct, and who almost too manifestly harboured + revenge, nevertheless begged hard for a re-engagement, which, as the man + was a handy fellow, Coxwell at length assented to. He took up three + passengers beside himself, and at an elevation of some 3,000 feet found it + necessary to open the valve, when, on pulling the cord, one of the top + shutters broke and remained open, leaving a free aperture of 26 inches by + 12 inches, and occasioning such a copious discharge of gas that nothing + short of a providential landing could save disaster. But the providential + landing came, the party falling into the embrace of a fruit tree in an + orchard. It transpired afterwards that the labourer had been seen to + tamper with the valve, the connecting lines of which he had partially + severed. + </p> + <p> + Returning to England in 1852 Coxwell, through the accidents inseparable + from his profession, found himself virtually in possession of the field. + Green, now advanced in years, was retiring from the public life in which + he had won so much fame and honour. Gale was dead, killed in an ascent at + Bordeaux. Only one aspirant contested the place of public aeronaut—one + Goulston, who had been Gale's patron. Before many months, however, he too + met with a balloonist's death, being dashed against some stone walls when + ascending near Manchester. + </p> + <p> + It will not be difficult to form an estimate of how entirely the + popularity of the balloon was now reestablished in England, from the mere + fact that before the expiration of the year Coxwell had been called upon + to make thirty-six voyages. Some of these were from Glasgow, and here a + certain coincidence took place which is too curious to be omitted. A + descent effected near Milngavie took place in the same field in which + Sadler, twenty-nine years before, had also descended, and the same man who + caught the rope of Mr. Sadler's balloon performed the same service once + again for a fresh visitor from the skies. + </p> + <p> + The following autumn Coxwell, in fulfilling one out of many engagements, + found himself in a dilemma which bore resemblance in a slight degree to a + far more serious predicament in which the writer became involved, and + which must be told in due place. The preparations for the ascent, which + was from the Mile End Road, had been hurried, and after finally getting + away at a late hour in the evening, it was found that the valve line had + got caught in a fold of the silk, and could not be operated. In + consequence, the balloon was, of necessity, left to take its own chance + through the night, and, after rising to a considerable height, it slowly + lost buoyancy during the chilly hours, and, gradually settling, came to + earth near Basingstoke, where the voyager, failing to get help or shelter, + made his bed within his own car, lying in an open field, as other + aeronauts have had to do in like circumstances. + </p> + <p> + Coxwell tells of a striking phenomenon seen during that voyage. "A + splendid meteor was below the car, and apparently about 600 feet distant. + It was blue and yellow, moving rapidly in a N.E. direction, and became + extinguished without noise or sparks." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. THE BALLOON IN THE SERVICE OF SCIENCE. + </h2> + <p> + At this point we must, for a brief while, drop the history of the famous + aeronaut whose early career we have been briefly sketching in the last + chapter, and turn our attention to a new feature of English ballooning. We + have, at last, to record some genuinely scientific ascents, which our + country now, all too tardily, instituted. It was the British Association + that took the initiative, and the two men they chose for their purpose + were both exceptionally qualified for the task they had in hand. The + practical balloonist was none other than the veteran Charles Green, now in + his sixty-seventh year, but destined yet to enjoy nearly twenty years more + of life. The scientific expert was Mr. John Welsh, well fitted for the + projected work by long training at Kew Observatory. The balloon which they + used is itself worthy of mention, being the great Nassau Balloon of olden + fame. + </p> + <p> + Welsh was quick to realise more clearly than any former experimentalist + that on account of the absence of breeze in a free balloon, as also on + account of great solar radiation, the indications of thermometers would, + without special precautions, be falsified. He therefore invented a form of + aspirating thermometer, the earliest to be met with, and far in advance of + any that were subsequently used by other scientists. It consisted of a + polished tube, in which thermometers were enclosed, and through which a + stream of air was forced by bellows. + </p> + <p> + The difficulty of obtaining really accurate readings where thermometers + are being quickly transported through varying temperatures is generally + not duly appreciated. In the case of instruments carried m a balloon it + should be remembered that the balloon itself conveys, clinging about it, + no inconsiderable quantity of air, brought from other levels, while the + temperature of its own mass will be liable to affect any thermometer in + close neighbourhood. Moreover, any ordinary form of thermometer is + necessarily sluggish in action, as may be readily noticed. If, for + example, one be carried from a warm room to a cold passage, or vice versa + it will be seen that the column moves very deliberately, and quite a long + interval will elapse before it reaches its final position, the cause being + that the entire instrument, with any stand or mounting that it may have, + will have to adapt itself to the change of temperature before a true + record will be obtained. This difficulty applies unavoidably to all + thermometers in some degree, and the skill of instrument makers has been + taxed to reduce the errors to a minimum. It is necessary, in any case, + that a constant stream of surrounding air should play upon the instrument, + and though this is most readily effected when instruments are carried + aloft by kites, yet even thus it is thought that an interval of some + minutes has to elapse before any form of thermometer will faithfully + record any definite change of temperature. It is on this account that some + allowance must be made for observations which will, in due place, be + recorded of scientific explorers; the point to be borne in mind being + that, as was mentioned in a former chapter, such observations will have to + be regarded as giving readings which are somewhat too high in ascents and + too low in descents. Two forms of thermometers at extremely simple + construction, yet possessed of great sensibility, will be discussed in + later chapters. + </p> + <p> + The thermometers that Welsh used were undoubtedly far superior to any that + were devised before his time and it is much to be regretted that they were + allowed to fall into disuse. Perhaps the most important stricture on the + observations that will have to be recorded is that the observers were not + provided with a base station, on which account the value of results was + impaired. It was not realised that it was necessary to make observations + on the ground to compare with those that were being made at high + altitudes. + </p> + <p> + Welsh made, in all, four ascents in the summer and autumn of 1852 and in + his report he is careful to give the highest praise to his colleague, + Green, whose control over his balloon he describes as "so complete that + none who accompanied him can be otherwise than relieved from all + apprehension, and free to devote attention calmly to the work before him." + </p> + <p> + The first ascent was made at 3.49 p.m. on August the 17th, under a south + wind and with clouds covering some three-quarters of the sky. Welsh's + first remark significant, and will be appreciated by anyone who has + attempted observational work in a balloon. He states naively that "a short + time was lost at first in an attempt to put the instruments into more + convenient order, and also from the novelty of the situation." Then he + mentions an observation which, in the experience of the writer, is a + common one. The lowest clouds, which were about 2,500 feet high and not + near the balloon, were passed without being noticed; other clouds were + passed at different heights; and, finally, a few star-shaped crystals of + snow; but the sun shone almost constantly. Little variation occurred in + the direction of travel, which averaged thirty-eight miles an hour, and + the descent took place at 5.20 p.m. at Swavesey, near Cambridge. + </p> + <p> + The second ascent took place at 4.43 p.m. on August 26th, under a gentle + east wind and a partially obscured sky. The clouds were again passed + without being perceived. This was at the height of 3,000 feet, beyond + which was very clear sky of deep blue. The air currents up to the limits + of 12,000 feet set from varying directions. The descent occurred near + Chesham at 7.45 p.m. + </p> + <p> + The third ascent, at 2.35 p.m. on October the 21st was made into a sky + covered with dense cloud masses lying within 3,000 and 3,700 feet. The sun + was then seen shining through cirrus far up. The shadow of the balloon was + also seen on the cloud, fringed with a glory, and about this time there + was seen "stretching for a considerable length in a serpentine course, + over the surface of the cloud, a well-defined belt, having the appearance + of a broad road." + </p> + <p> + Being now at 12,000 feet, Green thought it prudent to reconnoitre his + position, and, finding they were near the sea, descended at 4.20 p.m. at + Rayleigh, in Essex. Some important notes on the polarisation of the clouds + were made. + </p> + <p> + The fourth and final voyage was made in a fast wind averaging fifty knots + from the north-east. Thin scud was met at 1,900 feet, and an upper stratum + at 4,500 feet, beyond which was bright sun. The main shift of wind took + place just as the upper surface of the first stratum was reached. In this + ascent Welsh reached his greatest elevation, 22,930 feet, when both Green + and himself experienced considerable difficulty in respiration and much + fatigue. The sea being now perceived rapidly approaching, a hasty descent + was made, and many of the instruments were broken. + </p> + <p> + In summarising his results Welsh states that "the temperature of the air + decreases uniformly with height above the earth's surface until at a + certain elevation, varying on different days, decrease is arrested, and + for the space of 2,000 or 3,000 feet the temperature remains nearly + constant, or even increases, the regular diminution being again resumed + and generally maintained at a rate slightly less rapid than in the lower + part of the atmosphere, and commencing from a higher temperature than + would have existed but for the interruption noticed." The analysis of the + upper air showed the proportion of oxygen and nitrogen to vary scarcely + more than at different spots on the earth. + </p> + <p> + As it is necessary at this point to take leave of the veteran Green as a + practical aeronaut, we may here refer to one or two noteworthy facts and + incidents relating to his eventful career. In 1850 M. Poitevin is said to + have attracted 140,000 people to Paris to look at an exhibition of himself + ascending in a balloon seated on horseback, after which Madame Poitevin + ascended from Cremorne Gardens in the same manner, the exhibition being + intended as a representation of "Europa on a Bull." This, however, was + discountenanced by the authorities and withdrawn. The feats were, in + reality, merely the repetitions of one that had been conceived and + extremely well carried out by Green many years before—as long ago, + in fact, as 1828, when he arranged to make an ascent from the Eagle + Tavern, City Road, seated on a pony. To carry out his intention, he + discarded the ordinary car, replacing it with a small platform, which was + provided with places to receive the pony's feet; while straps attached to + the hoop were passed under the animal's body, preventing it from lying + down or from making any violent movement. This the creature seemed in no + way disposed to attempt, and when all had been successfully carried out + and an easy descent effected at Beckenham, the pony was discovered eating + a meal of beans with which it had been supplied. + </p> + <p> + Several interesting observations have been recorded by Green on different + occasions, some of which are highly instructive from a practical or + scientific point of view. On an ascent from Vauxhall, in which he was + accompanied by his friend Spencer and Mr. Rush, he recorded how, as he + constantly and somewhat rapidly rose, the wind changed its direction from + N.W. through N. to N.E., while he remained over the metropolis, the + balloon all the while rotating on its axis. This continual swinging or + revolving of the balloon Green considers an accompaniment of either a + rapid ascent or descent, but it may be questioned whether it is not merely + a consequence of changing currents, or, sometimes, of an initial spin + given inadvertently to the balloon at the moment of its being liberated. + The phenomenon of marked change which he describes in the upper currents + is highly interesting, and tallies with what the writer has frequently + experienced over London proper. Such higher currents may be due to natural + environment, and to conditions necessarily prevailing over so vast and + varied a city, and they may be able to play an all-important part in the + dispersal of London smoke or fog. This point will be touched on later. In + this particular voyage Green records that as he was rising at the moment + when his barometer reached 19 inches, the thermometer he carried + registered 46 degrees, while on coming down, when the barometer again + marked 19 inches, the same thermometer recorded only 22 degrees. It will + not fail to be recognised that there is doubtless here an example of the + errors alluded to above, inseparable from readings taken in ascent and + descent. + </p> + <p> + A calculation made by Green in his earlier years has a certain value. By + the time he had accomplished 200 ascents he was at pains to compute that + he had travelled across country some 6,000 miles, which had been traversed + in 240 hours. From this it would follow that the mean rate of travel in + aerial voyages will be about twenty-five miles per hour. Towards the end + of his career we find it stated by Lieutenant G. Grover, R.E., that "the + Messrs. Green, Father and Son, have made between them some 930 ascents, in + none of which have they met with any material accident or failure." This + is wonderful testimony, indeed, and we may here add the fact that the + father took up his own father, then at the age of eighty-three, in a + balloon ascent of 1845, without any serious consequences. But it is time + that some account should be given of a particular occasion which at least + provided the famous aeronaut with an adventure spiced with no small amount + of risk. It was on the 5th of July, 1850, that Green ascended, with Rush + as his companion, from Vauxhall, at the somewhat late hour of 7.50 p.m., + using, as always, the great Nassau balloon. The rate of rise must have + been very considerable, and they presently record an altitude of no less + than 20,000 feet, and a temperature of 12 degrees below freezing. They + were now above the clouds, where all view of earth was lost, and, not + venturing to remain long in this situation, they commenced a rapid + descent, and on emerging below found themselves sailing down Sea Reach in + the direction of Nore Sands, when they observed a vessel. Their chance of + making land was, to say the least, uncertain, and Green, considering that + his safety lay in bespeaking the vessel's assistance, opened the valve and + brought the car down in the water some two miles north of Sheerness, the + hour being 8.45, and only fifty-five minutes since the start. The wind was + blowing stiffly, and, catching the hollow of the half-inflated balloon, + carried the voyagers rapidly down the river, too fast, indeed, to allow of + the vessel's overtaking them. This being soon apparent, Green cast out his + anchor, and not without result, for it shortly became entangled in a + sunken wreck, and the balloon was promptly "brought up," though struggling + and tossing in the broken water. A neighbouring barge at once put off a + boat to the rescue, and other boats were despatched by H.M. cutter Fly, + under Commander Gurling. Green and Rush were speedily rescued, but the + balloon itself was too restive and dangerous an object to approach with + safety. At Green's suggestion, therefore, a volley of musketry was fired + into the silk' after which it became possible to pass a rope around it and + expel the gas. Green subsequently relates how it took a fortnight to + restore the damage, consisting of sixty-two bullet rents and nineteen torn + gores. + </p> + <p> + Green's name will always be famous, if only for the fact that it was he + who first adopted the use of coal gas in his calling. This, it will be + remembered, was in 1821, and it should be borne in mind that at that time + household gas had only recently been introduced. In point of fact, it + first lighted Pall Mall in 1805, and it was not used for the general + lighting of London till 1814. + </p> + <p> + We are not surprised to find that the great aeronaut at one time turned + his attention to the construction of models, and this with no + inconsiderable success. A model of his was exhibited in 1840 at the + Polytechnic Institution, and is described in the Times as consisting of a + miniature balloon of three feet diameter, inflated with coal gas. It was + acted on by fans, which were operated by mechanism placed in the car. A + series of three experiments was exhibited. First, the balloon being + weighted so as to remain poised in the still air of the building, the + mechanism was started, and the machine rose steadily to the ceiling. The + fans were then reversed, when the model, equally gracefully, descended to + the floor. Lastly, the balloon, with a weighted trail rope, being once + more balanced in mid-air, the fans were applied laterally, when the + machine would take a horizontal flight, pulling the trail rope after it, + with an attached weight dragging along the floor until the mechanism had + run down, when it again remained stationary. The correspondent of the + Times continues, "Mr. Green states that by these simple means a voyage + across the Atlantic may be performed in three or four days, as easily as + from Vauxhall Gardens to Nassau." + </p> + <p> + We can hardly attribute this statement seriously to one who knew as well + as did Green how fickle are the winds, and how utterly different are the + conditions between the still air of a room and those of the open sky. His + insight into the difficulties of the problem cannot have been less than + that of his successor, Coxwell, who, as the result of his own equally wide + experience, states positively, "I could never imagine a motive power of + sufficient force to direct and guide a balloon, much less to enable a man + or a machine to fly." Even when modern invention had produced a motive + power undreamed of in the days we are now considering, Coxwell declares + his conviction that inherent difficulties would not be overcome "unless + the air should invariably remain in a calm state." + </p> + <p> + It would be tedious and scarcely instructive to inquire into the various + forms of flying machines that were elaborated at this period; but one that + was designed in America by Mr. Henson, and with which it was seriously + contemplated to attempt to cross the Atlantic, may be briefly described. + In theory it was supposed to be capable of being sustained in the air by + virtue of the speed mechanically imparted to it, and of the angle at which + its advancing under surface would meet the air. The inventor claimed to + have produced a steam engine of extreme lightness as well as efficiency, + and for the rest his machine consisted of a huge aero-plane propelled by + fans with oblique vanes, while a tail somewhat resembling that of a bird + was added, as also a rudder, the functions of which were to direct the + craft vertically and horizontally respectively. Be it here recorded that + the machine did not cross the Atlantic. + </p> + <p> + One word as to the instruments used up to this time for determining + altitudes. These were, in general, ordinary mercurial barometers, + protected in various ways. Green encased his instrument in a simple metal + tube, which admitted of the column of mercury being easily read. This + instrument, which is generally to be seen held in his hand in Green's old + portraits, might be mistaken for a mariner's telescope. It is now in the + possession of the family of Spencers, the grandchildren of his old + aeronautical friend and colleague, and it is stated that with all his care + the glass was not infrequently broken in a descent. + </p> + <p> + Wise, with characteristic ingenuity, devised a rough-and-ready height + instrument, which he claims to have answered well. It consisted simply of + a common porter bottle, to the neck of which was joined a bladder of the + same capacity. The bottle being filled with air of the density of that on + the ground, and the bladder tied on in a collapsed state, the expansion of + the air in the bottle would gradually fill the bladder as it rose into the + rarer regions of the atmosphere. Experience would then be trusted to + enable the aeronaut to judge his height from the amount of inflation + noticeable in the bladder. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. HENRY COXWELL AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES. + </h2> + <p> + Mention should be made in these pages of a night sail of a hundred miles, + boldly carried out in 1849 by M. Arban, which took the voyager from + Marseilles to Turin fairly over the Alps. The main summit was reached at + 11 p.m., when the "snow, cascades, and rivers were all sparkling under the + moon, and the ravines and rocks produced masses of darkness which served + as shadows to the gigantic picture." Arban was at one time on a level with + the highest point of Mont Blanc, the top of which, standing out well above + the clouds, resembled "an immense block of crystal sparkling with a + thousand fires." + </p> + <p> + In London, in the year of the Great Exhibition, and while the building was + still standing in Hyde Park, there occurred a balloon incident small in + itself, but sufficient to cause much sensation at the crowded spot where + it took place. The ascent was made from the Hippodrome by Mr. and Mrs. + Graham in very boisterous weather, and, on being liberated, the balloon + seems to have fouled a mast, suffering a considerable rent. After this the + aeronauts succeeded in clearing the trees in Kensington Gardens, and in + descending fairly in the Park, but, still at the mercy of the winds, they + were carried on to the roof of a house in Arlington Street, and thence on + to another in Park Place, where, becoming lodged against a stack of + chimneys, they were eventually rescued by the police without any material + damage having been done. + </p> + <p> + But this same summer saw the return to England of Henry Coxwell, and for + some years the story of the conquest of the air is best told by following + his stirring career, and his own comments on aeronautical events of this + date. We find him shortly setting about carrying out some reconnoitring + and signalling experiments, designed to be of use in time of war. This was + an old idea of his, and one which had, of course, been long entertained by + others, having, indeed, been put to some practical test in time of + warfare. It will be well to make note of what attention the matter had + already received, and of what progress had been made both in theory and + practice. + </p> + <p> + We have already made some mention in Chapter IV. of the use which the + French had made of balloons in their military operations at the end of the + eighteenth and beginning of nineteenth the century. It was, indeed, within + the first ten years after the first invention of the balloon that, under + the superintendence of the savants of the French Academy, a practical + school of aeronautics was established at Meudon. The names of Guyton, De + Morveau (a distinguished French chemist), and Colonel Coutelle are chiefly + associated with the movement, and under them some fifty students received + necessary training. The practising balloon had a capacity of 17,000 cubic + feet, and was inflated with pure hydrogen, made by what was then a new + process as applied to ballooning, and which will be described in a future + chapter. It appears that the balloon was kept always full, so that any + opportunity of calm weather would be taken advantage of for practice. And + it is further stated that a balloon was constructed so sound and + impervious that after the lapse of two months it was still capable, + without being replenished, of raising into the air two men, with necessary + ballast and equipment. The practical trial for the balloon in real service + came off in June, 1794, when Coutelle in person, accompanied by two staff + officers, in one of the four balloons which the French Army had provided, + made an ascent to reconnoitre the Austrian forces at Fleurus. They + ascended twice in one day, remaining aloft for some four hours, and, on + their second ascent being sighted, drew a brisk fire from the enemy. They + were unharmed, however, and the successful termination of the battle of + Fleurus has been claimed as due in large measure to the service rendered + by that balloon. + </p> + <p> + The extraordinary fact that the use of the balloon was for many years + discontinued in the French Army is attributed to a strangely superstitious + prejudice entertained by Napoleon. Las Cases (in his "Private Life of + Napoleon at St. Helena ") relates an almost miraculous story of Napoleon's + coronation. It appears that a sum of 23,500 francs was given to M. + Garnerin to provide a balloon ascent to aid in the celebrations, and, in + consequence, a colossal machine was made to ascend at 11 p.m. on December + 16th from the front of Notre Dame, carrying 3,000 lights. This balloon was + unmanned, and at its departure apparently behaved extremely well, causing + universal delight. During the hours of darkness, however, it seems to have + acquitted itself in a strange and well-nigh preternatural manner, for at + daybreak it is sighted on the horizon by the inhabitants of Rome, and seen + to be coming towards their city. So true was its course that, as though + with predetermined purpose, it sails on till it is positively over St. + Peter's and the Vatican, when, its mission being apparently fulfilled, it + settles to earth, and finally ends its career in the Lake Bracciano. + Regarded from whatever point of view, the flight was certainly + extraordinary, and it is not surprising that in that age it was regarded + as nothing less than a portent. Moreover, little details of the wonderful + story were quickly endowed with grave significance. The balloon on + reaching the ground rent itself. Next, ere it plunged into the water, it + carefully deposited a portion of its crown on the tomb of Nero. Napoleon, + on learning the facts, forbade that they should ever be referred to. + Further, he thenceforward discountenanced the balloon in his army, and the + establishment at Meudon was abandoned. + </p> + <p> + There is record of an attempt of some sort that was made to revive the + French military ballooning school in the African campaign of 1830, but it + was barren of results. Again, it has been stated that the Austrians used + balloons for reconnaissance, before Venice in 1849, and yet again the same + thing is related of the Russians at the time of the siege of Sebastopol, + though Kinglake does not mention the circumstance. In 1846 Wise drew up + and laid before the American War Office an elaborate scheme for the + reduction of Vera Cruz. This will be discussed in its due place, though it + will be doubtless considered as chimerical. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, eminently practical were the experiments co-ordinated + and begun to be put to an actual test by Mr. Coxwell, who, before he could + duly impress his project upon the military authorities, had to make + preliminary trials in private ventures. The earliest of these was at the + Surrey Zoological Gardens in the autumn of 1854, and it will be granted + that much ingenuity and originality were displayed when it is considered + that at that date neither wireless telegraphy, electric flashlight, nor + even Morse Code signalling was in vogue. According to his announcement, + the spectators were to regard his balloon, captive or free, as floating at + a certain altitude over a beleaguered fortress, the authorities in + communication with it having the key of the signals and seeking to obtain + through these means information as to the approach of an enemy. It was to + be supposed that, by the aid of glasses, a vast distance around could be + subjected to careful scrutiny, and a constant communication kept up with + the authorities in the fortress. Further, the flags or other signals were + supposed preconcerted and unknown to the enemy, being formed by variations + of shape and colour. Pigeons were also despatched from a considerable + height to test their efficiency under novel conditions. The public press + commented favourably on the performance and result of this initial + experiment. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Coxwell's account of an occasion when he had to try conclusions with a + very boisterous wind, and of the way in which he negotiated a very trying + and dangerous landing, will be found alike interesting and instructive. It + was an ascent from the Crystal Palace, and the morning was fair and of + bright promise outwardly; but Coxwell confesses to have disregarded a + falling glass. The inflation having been progressing satisfactorily, he + retired to partake of luncheon, entirely free from apprehensions; but + while thus occupied, he was presently sought out and summoned by a + gardener, who told him that his balloon had torn away, and was now + completely out of control, dragging his men about the bushes. On reaching + the scene, the men, in great strength, were about to attempt a more + strenuous effort to drag the balloon back against the wind, which Coxwell + promptly forbade, warning them that so they would tear all to pieces. He + then commenced, as it were, to "take in a reef," by gathering in the slack + of the silk, which chiefly was catching the wind, and by drawing in the + net, mesh by mesh, until the more inflated portion of the balloon was left + snug and offering but little resistance to the gale, when he got her + dragged in a direction slanting to the wind and under the lee of trees. + </p> + <p> + Eventually a hazardous and difficult departure was effected, Mr. Chandler, + a passenger already booked, insisting on accompanying the aeronaut, in + spite of the latter's strongest protestations. And their first peril came + quickly, in a near shave of fouling the balcony of the North Tower, which + they avoided only by a prompt discharge of sand, the crowd cheering loudly + as they saw how the crisis was avoided. The car, adds Mr. Coxwell in his + memoirs, "was apparently trailing behind the balloon with a pendulous + swing, which is not often the case... In less than two minutes we entered + the lower clouds, passing through them quickly, and noticing that their + tops, which are usually of white, rounded conformation, were torn into + shreds and crests of vapour. Above, there was a second wild-looking + stratum of another order. We could hear, as we hastened on, the hum of the + West End of London; but we were bowling along, having little time to look + about us, though some extra sandbags were turned to good account by making + a bed of them at the bottom ends of the car, which we occupied in + anticipation of a rough landing." + </p> + <p> + As it came on to rain hard the voyagers agreed to descend, and Coxwell, + choosing open ground, succeeded in the oft-attempted endeavour to drop his + grapnel in front of a bank or hedge-row. The balloon pulled up with such a + shock as inevitably follows when flying at sixty miles an hour, and Mr. + Coxwell continues:—"We were at this time suspended like a kite, and + it was not so much the quantity of gas which kept us up as the hollow + surface of loose silk, which acted like a falling kite, and the obvious + game of skill consisted in not letting out too much gas to make the + balloon pitch heavily with a thud that would have been awfully unpleasant; + but to jockey our final touch in a gradual manner, and yet to do it as + quickly as possible for fear of the machine getting adrift, since, under + the peculiar circumstances in which we were placed, it would have + inevitably fallen with a crushing blow, which might have proved fatal. I + never remember to have been in a situation when more coolness and nicety + were required to overcome the peril which here beset us; while on that day + the strong wind was, strange as it may sound, helping us to alight easily, + that is to say as long as the grapnel held fast and the balloon did not + turn over like an unsteady kite." Such peril as there was soon terminated + without injury to either voyager. + </p> + <p> + The same remark will apply to an occasion when Coxwell was caught in a + thunderstorm, which he thus describes in brief:—"On a second ascent + from Chesterfield we were carried into the midst of gathering clouds, + which began to flash vividly, and in the end culminated in a storm. There + were indications, before we left the earth, as to what might be expected. + The lower breeze took us in another direction as we rose, but a gentle, + whirling current higher up got us into the vortex of a highly charged + cloud.... We had to prove by absolute experience whether the balloon was + insulated and a non-conductor. Beyond a drenching, no untoward incident + occurred during a voyage lasting in all three-quarters of an hour." + </p> + <p> + A voyage which Coxwell (referring, doubtless, to aerial travel over + English soil only) describes as "being so very much in excess of + accustomary trips in balloons" will be seen to fall short of one memorable + voyage of which the writer will have to give his own experiences. Some + account, however, of what the famous aeronaut has to tell will find a + fitting place here. + </p> + <p> + It was an ascent on a summer night from North Woolwich, and on this + occasion Coxwell was accompanied by two friends, one being Henry Youens, + who subsequently became a professional balloonist of considerable repute, + and who at this time was an ardent amateur. It was half an hour before + midnight when the party took their places, and, getting smartly away from + the crowd in the gala grounds, shot over the river, and shortly were over + the town of Greenwich with the lights of London well ahead. Then their + course took them over Kennington Oval, Vauxhall Bridge, and Battersea, + when they presently heard the strains of a Scotch polka. This came up from + the then famous Gardens of Cremorne, and, the breeze freshening, it was + but a few minutes later when they stood over Kingston, by which time it + became a question whether, being now clear of London, they should descend + or else live out the night and take what thus might come their way. This + course, as the most prudent, as well as the most fascinating, was that + which commended itself, and at that moment the hour of midnight was heard + striking, showing that a fairly long distance had been covered in a short + interval of time. + </p> + <p> + From this period they would seem to have lost their way, and though + scattered lights were sighted ahead, they were soon in doubt as to whether + they might not already be nearing the sea, a doubt that was strengthened + by their hearing the cry of sea-fowl. After a pause, lights were seen + looming under the haze to sea-ward, which at times resembled water; and a + tail like that of a comet was discerned, beyond which was a black patch of + considerable size. + </p> + <p> + The patch was the Isle of Wight, and the tail the Water from Southampton. + They were thus wearing more south and towards danger. They had no Davy + lamp with which to read their aneroid, and could only tell from the upward + flight of fragments of paper that they were descending. Another deficiency + in their equipment was the lack of a trail rope to break their fall, and + for some time they were under unpleasant apprehension of an unexpected and + rude impact with the ground, or collision with some undesirable object. + This induced them to discharge sand and to risk the consequences of + another rise into space, and as they mounted they were not reassured by + sighting to the south a ridge of lighter colour, which strongly suggested + the coast line. + </p> + <p> + But it was midsummer, and it was not long before bird life awakening was + heard below, and then a streak of dawn revealed their locality, which was + over the Exe, with Sidmouth and Tor Bay hard by on their left. Then from + here, the land jutting seawards, they confidently traversed Dartmoor, and + effected a safe, if somewhat unseasonable, descent near Tavistock. The + distance travelled was considerable, but the duration, on the aeronaut's + own showing, was less than five hours. + </p> + <p> + In the year 1859 the Times commented on the usefulness of military + balloons in language that fully justified all that Coxwell had previously + claimed for them. A war correspondent, who had accompanied the Austrian + Army during that year, asks pertinently how it had happened that the + French had been ready at six o'clock to make a combined attack against the + Austrians, who, on their part, had but just taken up positions on the + previous evening. The correspondent goes on to supply the answer thus:—"No + sooner was the first Austrian battalion out of Vallegio than a balloon was + observed to rise in the air from the vicinity of Monsambano—a + signal, no doubt, for the French in Castiglione. I have a full conviction + that the Emperor of the French knew overnight the exact position of every + Austrian corps, while the Emperor of Austria was unable to ascertain the + number or distribution of the forces of the allies." + </p> + <p> + It appears that M. Godard was the aeronaut employed to observe the enemy, + and that fresh balloons for the French Army were proceeded with. + </p> + <p> + The date was now near at hand when Coxwell, in partnership with Mr. + Glaisher, was to take part in the classical work which has rendered their + names famous throughout the world. Before proceeding to tell of that + period, however, Mr. Coxwell has done well to record one aerial adventure, + which, while but narrowly missing the most serious consequences, gives a + very practical illustration of the chances in favour of the aeronaut under + extreme circumstances. + </p> + <p> + It was an ascent at Congleton in a gale of wind, a and the company of two + passengers—Messrs. Pearson, of Lawton Hall—was pressed upon + him. Everything foretold a rough landing, and some time after the start + was made the outlook was not improved by the fact that the dreaded county + of Derbyshire was seen approaching; and it was presently apparent that the + spot on which they had decided to descend was faced by rocks and a + formidable gorge. On this, Coxwell attempted to drop his grapnel in front + of a stone wall, and so far with success; but the wall went down, as also + another and another, the wicker car passing, with its great impetus, clean + through the solid obstacles, till at last the balloon slit from top to + bottom. Very serious injuries to heads and limbs were sustained, but no + lives were lost, and Coxwell himself, after being laid up at Buxton, got + home on crutches. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII. SOME NOTEWORTHY ASCENTS. + </h2> + <p> + It was the year 1862, and the scientific world in England determined once + again on attempting observational work in connection with balloons. There + had been a meeting of the British Association at Wolverhampton, and, under + their auspices, and with the professional services of Thomas Lythgoe, Mr. + Creswick, of Greenwich Observatory, was commissioned to make a lofty + scientific ascent with a Cremorne balloon. The attempt, however, was + unsatisfactory; and the balloon being condemned, an application was made + to Mr. Coxwell to provide a suitable craft, and to undertake its + management. The principals of the working committee were Colonel Sykes, + M.P., Dr. Lee, and Mr. James Glaisher, F.R.S., and a short conference + between these gentlemen and the experienced aeronaut soon made it clear + that a mammoth balloon far larger than any in existence was needed for the + work in hand. But here a fatal obstacle presented itself in lack of funds, + for it transpired that the grant voted was only to be devoted to trial + ascents. + </p> + <p> + It was then that Mr. Coxwell, with characteristic enterprise, undertook, + at his own cost, to build a suitable balloon, and, moreover, to have it + ready by Midsummer Day. It was a bold, as well as a generous, offer; for + it was now March, and, according to Mr. Coxwell's statement, if silk were + employed, the preparation and manufacture would occupy six months and cost + not less than L2,000. The fabric chosen was a sort of American cloth, and + by unremitting efforts the task was performed to time, and the balloon + forwarded to Wolverhampton, its dimensions being 55 feet in diameter, 80 + feet in height from the ground, with a capacity of 93,000 cubic feet. But + the best feature in connection with it was the fact that Mr. Glaisher + himself was to make the ascents as scientific observer. + </p> + <p> + No time was lost in getting to work, but twice over the chosen days were + unsuitable, and it was not till July 17th that the two colleagues, of whom + so much is to be told, got away at 9.30 a.m. with their balloon only + two-thirds full, to allow of expansion to take place in such a lofty + ascent as was contemplated. And, when it is considered that an altitude of + five miles was reached, it will be granted that the scientific gentleman + who was making his maiden ascent that day showed remarkable endurance and + tenacity of purpose—the all-important essential for the onerous and + trying work before him. At 9.56 the balloon had disappeared from sight, + climbing far into the sky in the E.N.E. The story of the voyage we must + leave in Mr. Glaisher's hands. Certain events, however, associated with + other aeronauts, which had already happened, and which should be + considered in connection with the new drama now to be introduced, may + fittingly here meet with brief mention. + </p> + <p> + The trouble arising from the coasting across country of a fallen and still + half-inflated balloon has already been sufficiently illustrated, and needs + little further discussion. It is common enough to see a balloon, when full + and round, struggling restively under a moderate breeze with a score of + men, and dragging them, and near a ton of sand-bags as well, about the + starting ground. But, as has already been pointed out, the power of the + wind on the globe is vastly increased when the silk becomes slack and + forms a hollow to hold the wind, like a bellying sail. Various means to + deal with this difficulty have been devised, one of these being an + emergency, or ripping valve, in addition to the ordinary valve, consisting + of an arrangement for tearing a large opening in the upper part of one of + the gores, so that on reaching earth the balloon may be immediately + crippled and emptied of so large a quantity of gas as to render dragging + impossible. Such a method is not altogether without drawbacks, one of + these being the confusion liable to arise from there being more than one + valve line to reckon with. To obviate this, it has been suggested that the + emergency line should be of a distinctive colour. + </p> + <p> + But an experiment with a safeguard to somewhat of this nature was attended + with fatal consequence in the year 1824. A Mr. Harris, a lieutenant in the + British Navy, ascended from the Eagle Tavern, City Road, with a balloon + fitted with a contrivance of his own invention, consisting of a large + hinged upper valve, having within it a smaller valve of the same + description, the idea being that, should the operation of the smaller + outlet not suffice for any occasion, then the shutter of the larger + opening might be resorted to, to effect a more liberal discharge of gas. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Harris took with him a young lady, Miss Stocks by name, and apparently + the afternoon—it being late May—was favourable for an aerial + voyage; for, with full reliance on his apparatus, he left his grapnel + behind, and was content with such assistance as the girl might be able to + render him. It was not long before the balloon was found descending, and + with a rapidity that seemed somewhat to disturb the aeronaut; and when, + after a re-ascent, effected by a discharge of ballast, another decided + downward tendency ensued, Mr. Harris clearly realised that something was + wrong, without, however, divining the cause. The story subsequently told + by the girl was to the effect that when the balloon was descending the + second time she was spoken to by her unfortunate companion in an anxious + manner. "I then heard the balloon go 'Clap! clap!' and Mr. Harris said he + was afraid it was bursting, at which I fainted, and knew no more until I + found myself in bed." A gamekeeper tells the sequel, relating that he + observed the balloon, which was descending with great velocity, strike and + break the head of an oak tree, after which it also struck the ground. + Hurrying up, he found the girl insensible, and Mr. Harris already dead, + with his breast bone and several ribs broken. The explanation of the + accident given by Mr. Edward Spencer is alike convincing and instructive. + This eminently practical authority points out that the valve lines must + have been made taut to the hoop at the time that the balloon was full and + globular. Thus, subsequently, when from diminution of gas the balloon's + shape elongated, the valve line would become strained and begin to open + the valve, but in such a gradual manner as to escape the notice of the + aeronaut. Miss Stocks, far from being unnerved by the terrible experience, + actually made three subsequent ascents in company with Mr. Green. + </p> + <p> + It deserves mention that another disaster, equally instructive, but + happily not attended with loss of life, occurred in Dublin in 1844 to Mr. + Hampton, who about this time made several public and enterprising voyages. + He evidently was possessed of admirable nerve and decision, and did not + hesitate to make an ascent from the Porto-Bello Gardens in face of strong + wind blowing sea-wards, and in spite of many protestations from the + onlookers that he was placing himself in danger. This danger he fully + realised, more particularly when he recognised that the headland on which + he hoped to alight was not in the direction of the wind's course. + Resolved, however, on gratifying the crowd, Mr. Hampton ascended rapidly, + and then with equal expedition commenced a precipitate descent, which he + accomplished with skill and without mishap. But the wind was still + boisterous, and the balloon sped onward along the ground towards fresh + danger unforeseen, and perhaps not duly reckoned with. Ahead was a + cottage, the chimney of which was on fire. A balloonist in these + circumstances is apt to think little of a single small object in his way, + knowing how many are the chances of missing or of successfully negotiating + any such obstacle. The writer on one occasion was, in the judgment of + onlookers below, drifting in dangerous proximity to the awful Cwmavon + stack in Glamorganshire, then in full blast; yet it was a fact that that + vast vent of flame and smoke passed almost unheeded by the party in the + descending car. It may have been thus, also, with Mr. Hampton, who only + fully realised his danger when his balloon blew up "with an awfully grand + explosion," and he was reduced to the extremity of jumping for his life, + happily escaping the mass of burning silk and ropes. + </p> + <p> + The awful predicament of falling into the sea, which has been illustrated + already, and which will recur again in these pages, was ably and + successfully met by Mr. Cunningham, who made an afternoon ascent from the + Artillery Barracks at Clevedon, reaching Snake Island at nightfall, where, + owing to the gathering darkness, he felt constrained to open his valve. He + quickly commenced descending into the sea, and when within ten feet of the + water, turned the "detaching screw" which connected the car with the + balloon. The effect of this was at once to launch him on the waves, but, + being still able to keep control over the valve, he allowed just enough + gas to remain within the silk to hold the balloon above water. He then + betook himself to the paddles with which his craft was provided, and + reached Snake Island with the balloon in tow. Here he seems to have found + good use for a further portion of his very complete equipment; for, + lighting a signal rocket, he presently brought a four-oared gig to his + succour from Portsmouth Harbour. + </p> + <p> + The teaching of the above incident is manifest enough. If it should be + contemplated to use the balloon for serious or lengthened travel anywhere + within possible reach of the sea-board—and this must apply to all + parts of the British Isles—it must become a wise precaution, if not + an absolute necessity, to adopt some form of car that would be of avail in + the event of a fall taking place in the sea. Sufficient confirmation of + this statement will be shortly afforded by a memorable voyage accomplished + during the partnership of Messrs. Glaisher and Coxwell, one which would + certainly have found the travellers in far less jeopardy had their car + been convertible into a boat. We have already seen how essential Wise + considered this expedient in his own bolder schemes, and it may further be + mentioned here that modern air ships have been designed with the intention + of making the water a perfectly safe landing. + </p> + <p> + The ballooning exploits which, however, we have now to recount had quite + another and more special object consistently in view—that of + scientific investigation; and we would here premise that the proper + appreciation of these investigations will depend on a due understanding of + the attendant circumstances, as also of the constant characteristic + behaviour of balloons, whether despatched for mere travel or research. + </p> + <p> + First let us regard the actual path of a balloon in space when being + manoeuvred in the way we read of in Mr. Glaisher's own accounts. This part + is in most cases approximately indicated in that most attractive volume of + his entitled, "Travels in the Air," by diagrams giving a sectional + presentment of his more important voyages; but a little commonplace + consideration may take the place of diagrams. + </p> + <p> + It has been common to assert that a balloon poised in space is the most + delicate balance conceivable. Its intrinsic weight must be exactly equal + to the weight of the air it displaces, and since the density of the air + decreases according to a fixed law, amounting, approximately, to a + difference in barometric reading of 0.1 inch for every 90 feet, it + follows, theoretically, that if a balloon is poised at 1,000 feet above + sea level, then it would not be in equilibrium at any other height, so + long as its weight and volume remain the same. If it were 50 feet higher + it must commence descending, and, if lower, then it must ascend till it + reaches its true level; and, more than that, in the event of either such + excursion mere impetus would carry it beyond this level, about which it + would oscillate for a short time, after the manner of the pendulum. This + is substantially true, but it must be taken in connection with other facts + which have a far greater influence on a balloon's position or motion. + </p> + <p> + For instance, in the volume just referred to it is stated by M. Gaston + Tissandier that on one occasion when aloft he threw overboard a chicken + bone, and, immediately consulting a barometer, had to admit on "clearest + evidence that the bone had caused a rise of from twenty to thirty yards, + so delicately is a balloon equipoised in the air." Here, without pausing + to calculate whether the discharge of an ounce or so would suffice to + cause a large balloon to ascend through ninety feet, it may be pointed out + that the record cannot be trustworthy, from the mere fact that a free + balloon is from moment to moment being subjected to other potent + influences, which necessarily affect its position in space. In daytime the + sun's influence is an all-important factor, and whether shining brightly + or partially hidden by clouds, a slight difference in obscuration will + have a ready and marked effect on the balloon's altitude. Again, a balloon + in transit may pass almost momentarily from a warmer layer of air to a + colder, or vice versa, the plane of demarcation between the two being very + definite and abrupt, and in this case altitude is at once affected; or, + yet again, there are the descending and ascending currents, met with + constantly and unexpectedly, which have to be reckoned with. + </p> + <p> + Thus it becomes a fact that a balloon's vertical course is subjected to + constant checks and vicissitudes from a variety of causes, and these will + have to be duly borne in mind when we are confronted with the often + surprising results and readings which are supplied by scientific + observers. With regard to the close proximity, without appreciable + intermingling, of widely differing currents, it should be mentioned that + explorers have found in regions where winds of different directions pass + each other that one air stream appears actually to drag against the + surface of the other, as though admitting no interspace where the streams + might mingle. Indeed, trustworthy observers have stated that even a + hurricane can rage over a tranquil atmosphere with a sharply defined + surface of demarcation between calm and storm. Thus, to quote the actual + words of Charles Darwin, than whom it is impossible to adduce a more + careful witness, we find him recording how on mountain heights he met with + winds turbulent and unconfined, yet holding courses "like rivers within + their beds." + </p> + <p> + It is in tracing the trend of upper air streams, to whose wayward courses + and ever varying conditions we are now to be introduced, that much of our + most valuable information has come, affecting the possibility of + forecasting British wind and weather. It should need no insisting on that + the data required by meteorologists are not sufficiently supplied by the + readings of instruments placed on or near the ground, or by the set of the + wind as determined by a vane planted on the top of a pole or roof of a + building. The chief factors in our meteorology are rather those broader + and deeper conditions which obtain in higher regions necessarily beyond + our ken, until those regions are duly and diligently explored. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Glaisher's estimate of the utility of the balloon as an instrument of + research, formed at the conclusion of his aeronautical labours, has a + special value and significance. Speaking with all the weight attaching to + so trained and eminent an observer, he declares, "The balloon, considered + as an instrument for vertical exploration, presents itself to us under a + variety of aspects, each of which is fertile in suggestions. Regarding the + atmosphere as the great laboratory of changes which contain the germ of + future dis discoveries, to belong respectively, as they unfold, to the + chemist and meteorologist, the physical relation to animal life of + different heights, the form of death which at certain elevations waits to + accomplish its destruction, the effect of diminished pressure upon + individuals similarly placed, the comparison of mountain ascents with the + experiences of aeronauts, are some of the questions which suggest + themselves and faintly indicate enquiries which naturally ally themselves + to the course of balloon experiments. Sufficiently varied and important, + they will be seen to rank the balloon as a valuable aid to the uses of + philosophy, and rescue it from the impending degradation of continuing a + toy fit only to be exhibited or to administer to the pleasures of the + curious and lovers of adventure." + </p> + <p> + The words of the same authority as to the possible practical development + of the balloon as an aerial machine should likewise be quoted, and will + appear almost prophetic. "In England the subject of aero-station has made + but little progress, and no valuable invention has arisen to facilitate + travelling in the air. In all my ascents I used the balloon as I found it. + The desire which influenced me was to ascend to the higher regions and + travel by its means in furtherance of a better knowledge of atmospheric + phenomena. Neither its management nor its improvement formed a part of my + plan. I soon found that balloon travelling was at the mercy of the wind, + and I saw no probability of any method of steering balloons being + obtained. It even appeared to me that the balloon itself, admirable for + vertical ascents, was not necessarily a first step in aerial navigation, + and might possibly have no share in the solution of the problem. It was + this conviction that led to the formation of the Aeronautical Society a + few years since under the presidency of the Duke of Argyll. In the number + of communications made to this society it is evident that many minds are + taxing their ingenuity to discover a mode of navigating the air; all kinds + of imaginary projects have been suggested, some showing great mechanical + ingenuity, but all indicating the want of more knowledge of the atmosphere + itself. The first great aim of this society is the connecting the velocity + of the air with its pressure on plane surfaces at various inclinations. + </p> + <p> + "There seems no prospect of obtaining this relation otherwise than by a + careful series of experiments." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV. THE HIGHEST ASCENT ON RECORD. + </h2> + <p> + Mr. Glaisher's instrumental outfit was on an elaborate and costly scale, + and the programme of experimental work drawn up for him by the Committee + of the British Association did not err on the side of too much modesty. In + the first place the temperature and moisture of the atmosphere were to be + examined. Observations on mountain sides had determined that thermometers + showed a decrease of 1 degree F. for every 300 feet, and the accuracy of + this law was particularly to be tested. Also, investigations were to be + made as to the distribution of vapour below the clouds, in them, and above + them. Then careful observations respecting the dew point were to be + undertaken at all accessible heights, and, more particularly, up to those + heights where man may be resident or troops may be located. The + comparatively new instrument, the aneroid barometer, extremely valuable, + if only trustworthy, by reason of its sensibility, portability and safety, + was to be tested and compared with the behaviour of a reliable mercurial + barometer. Electrical conditions were to be examined; the presence of + ozone tested; the vibration of a magnet was again to be resorted to to + determine how far the magnetism of the earth might be affected by height. + The solar spectrum was to be observed; air was to be collected at + different heights for analysis; clouds, also upper currents, were to be + reported on. Further observations were to be made on sound, on solar + radiation, on the actinic action of the sun, and on atmospheric phenomena + in general. + </p> + <p> + All this must be regarded as a large order where only a very limited + number of ascents were contemplated, and it may be mentioned that some of + the methods of investigation, as, for instance, the use of ozone papers, + would now be generally considered obsolete; while the mechanical + aspiration of thermometers by a stream of air, which, as we have pointed + out, was introduced by Welsh, and which is strongly insisted on at the + present day, was considered unnecessary by Mr. Glaisher in the case of wet + and dry bulb hygrometers. The entire list of instruments, as minutely + described by the talented observer, numbered twenty-two articles, among + which were such irreproachable items as a bottle of water and a pair of + scissors. + </p> + <p> + The following is a condensed account, gathered from Mr. Glaisher's own + narrative, of his first ascent, which has been already briefly sketched in + these pages by the hand of Mr. Coxwell. Very great difficulties were + experienced in the inflation, which operation appeared as if it would + never be completed, for a terrible W.S.W. wind was constantly blowing, and + the movements of the balloon were so great and so rapid that it was + impossible to fix a single instrument in its position before quitting the + earth, a position of affairs which, says Mr. Glaisher, "was by no means + cheering to a novice who had never before put his foot in the car of a + balloon," and when, at last, at 9.42 a.m., Mr. Coxwell cast off, there was + no upward motion, the car simply dragging on its side till the expiration + of a whole minute, when the balloon lifted, and in six minutes reached the + first cloud at an altitude of 4,467 feet. This cloud was passed at 5,802 + feet, and further cloud encountered at 2,000 feet further aloft. Four + minutes later, the ascent proceeding, the sun shone out brightly, + expanding the balloon into a perfect globe and displaying a magnificent + view, which, however, the incipient voyager did not allow himself to enjoy + until the instruments were arranged in due order, by which time a height + of 10,000 feet was recorded. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Glaisher apparently now had opportunity for observing the clouds, + which he describes as very beautiful, and he records the hearing of a band + of music at a height of 12,709 feet, which was attained in exactly twenty + minutes from the start. A minute later the earth was sighted through a + break in the clouds, and at 16,914 feet the clouds were far below, the sky + above being perfectly cloudless, and of an intense Prussian blue. + </p> + <p> + By this time Mr. Glaisher had received his first surprise, as imparted by + the record of his instruments. At starting, the temperature of the air had + stood at 59 degrees. Then at 4,000 feet this was reduced to 45 degrees; + and, further, to 26 degrees at 10,000 feet, when it remained stationary + through an ascent of 3,000 feet more, during which period both travellers + added to their clothing, anticipating much accession of cold. However, at + 15,500 feet the temperature had actually risen to 31 degrees, increasing + to no less than 42 degrees at 19,500 feet. + </p> + <p> + Astonishing as this discovery was, it was not the end of the wonder, for + two minutes later, on somewhat descending, the temperature commenced + decreasing so rapidly as to show a fall of 27 degrees in 26 minutes. As to + personal experiences, Mr. Glaisher should be left to tell his own story. + "At the height of 18,844 feet 18 vibrations of a horizontal magnet + occupied 26.8 seconds, and at the same height my pulse beat at the rate of + 100 pulsations per minute. At 19,415 feet palpitation of the heart became + perceptible, the beating of the chronometer seemed very loud, and my + breathing became affected. At 19,435 feet my pulse had accelerated, and it + was with increasing difficulty that I could read the instruments; the + palpitation of the heart was very perceptible; the hands and lips assumed + a dark bluish colour, but not the face. At 20,238 feet 28 vibrations of a + horizontal magnet occupied 43 seconds. At 21,792 feet I experienced a + feeling analogous to sea-sickness, though there was neither pitching nor + rolling in the balloon, and through this illness I was unable to watch the + instrument long enough to lower the temperature to get a deposit of dew. + The sky at this elevation was of a very deep blue colour, and the clouds + were far below us. At 22,357 feet I endeavoured to make the magnet + vibrate, but could not; it moved through arcs of about 20 degrees, and + then settled suddenly. + </p> + <p> + "Our descent began a little after 11 a.m., Mr. Coxwell experiencing + considerable uneasiness at our too close vicinity to the Wash. We came + down quickly from a height of 16,300 feet to one of 12,400 feet in one + minute; at this elevation we entered into a dense cloud which proved to be + no less than 8,000 feet in thickness and whilst passing through this the + balloon was invisible from the car. From the rapidity of the descent the + balloon assumed the shape of a parachute, and though Mr. Coxwell had + reserved a large amount of ballast, which he discharged as quickly as + possible, we collected so much weight by the condensation of the immense + amount of vapour through which we passed that, notwithstanding all his + exertions, we came to the earth with a very considerable shock, which + broke nearly all the instruments.... The descent took place at Langham, + near Oakham." + </p> + <p> + Just a month later Mr. Glaisher, bent on a yet loftier climb, made his + second ascent, again under Mr. Coxwell's guidance, and again from + Wolverhampton. Besides attending to his instruments he found leisure to + make other chance notes by the way. He was particularly struck by the + beauty of masses of cloud, which, by the time 12,000 feet were reached, + were far below, "presenting at times mountain scenes of endless variety + and grandeur, while fine dome-like clouds dazzled and charmed the eye with + alternations and brilliant effects of light and shade." + </p> + <p> + When a height of about 20,000 feet had been reached thunder was heard + twice over, coming from below, though no clouds could be seen. A height of + 4,000 feet more was attained, and shortly after this Mr. Glaisher speaks + of feeling unwell. It was difficult to obtain a deposit of dew on the + hygrometer, and the working of the aspirator became troublesome. While in + this region a sound like that of loud thunder came from the sky. + Observations were practically completed at this point, and a speedy and + safe return to earth was effected, the landing being at Solihull, seven + miles from Birmingham. + </p> + <p> + It was on the 5th of September following that the same two colleagues + carried out an exploit which will always stand alone in the history of + aeronautics, namely, that of ascending to an altitude which, based on the + best estimate they were able to make, they calculated to be no less than + seven miles. Whatever error may have unavoidably come into the actual + estimate, which is to some extent conjectural, is in reality a small + matter, not the least affecting the fact that the feat in itself will + probably remain without a parallel of its kind. In these days, when + aeronauts attempt to reach an exceptionally lofty altitude, they + invariably provide themselves with a cylinder of oxygen gas to meet the + special emergencies of the situation, so that when regions of such + attenuated air are reached that the action of heart and lungs becomes + seriously affected, it is still within their power to inhale the + life-giving gas which affords the greatest available restorative to their + energies. Forty years ago, however, cylinders of compressed oxygen gas + were not available, and on this account alone we may state without + hesitation that the enterprise which follows stands unparalleled at the + present hour. + </p> + <p> + The filling station at Wolverhampton was quitted at 1.3 p.m., the + temperature of the air being 59 degrees on the ground, and falling to 41 + degrees at an altitude of 5,000 feet, directly after which a dense cloud + was entered, which brought the temperature down to 36 degrees. At this + elevation the report of a gun was heard. Here Mr. Glaisher attempted + (probably for the first time in history) to take a cloud-scape photograph, + the illumination being brilliant, and the plates with which he was + furnished being considered extremely sensitive. The attempt, however, was + unsuccessful. The height of two miles was reached in 19 minutes, and here + the temperature was at freezing point. In six minutes later three miles + was reached, and the thermometer was down to 18 degrees. In another twelve + minutes four miles was attained, with the thermometer recording 8 degrees, + and by further discharge of sand the fifth aerial milestone was passed at + 1.50 p.m., i.e. in 47 minutes from the start, with the thermometer 2 + degrees below zero. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Glaisher relates that up to this point he had taken observations with + comfort, and experienced no trouble in respiration, whilst Mr. Coxwell, in + consequence of the exertions he had to make, was breathing with + difficulty. More sand was now thrown out, and as the balloon rose higher + Mr. Glaisher states that he found some difficulty in seeing clearly. But + from this point his experiences should be gathered from his own words:— + </p> + <p> + "About 1.52 p.m., or later, I read the dry bulb thermometer as minus five; + after this I could not see the column of mercury in the wet bulb + thermometer, nor the hands of the watch, nor the fine divisions on any + instrument. I asked Mr. Coxwell to help me to read the instruments. In + consequence, however, of the rotatory motion of the balloon, which had + continued without ceasing since leaving the earth, the valve line had + become entangled, and he had to leave the car and mount into the ring to + readjust it. I then looked at the barometer, and found its reading to be 9 + 3/4 inches, still decreasing fast, implying a height exceeding 29,000 + feet. Shortly after, I laid my arm upon the table, possessed of its full + vigour; but on being desirous of using it I found it powerless—it + must have lost its power momentarily. Trying to move the other arm, I + found it powerless also. Then I tried to shake myself, and succeeded, but + I seemed to have no limbs. In looking at the barometer my head fell over + my left shoulder. I struggled and shook my body again, but could not move + my arms. Getting my head upright for an instant only, it fell on my right + shoulder; then I fell backwards, my back resting against the side of the + car and my head on its edge. In this position my eyes were directed to Mr. + Coxwell in the ring. When I shook my body I seemed to have full power over + the muscles of the back, and considerably so over those of the neck, but + none over either my arms or my legs. As in the case of the arms, so all + muscular power was lost in an instant from my back and neck. I dimly saw + Mr. Coxwell, and endeavoured to speak, but could not. In an instant + intense darkness overcame me, so that the optic nerve lost power suddenly; + but I was still conscious, with as active a brain as at the present moment + whilst writing this. I thought I had been seized with asphyxia, and + believed I should experience nothing more, as death would come unless we + speedily descended. Other thoughts were entering my mind when I suddenly + became unconscious, as on going to sleep. I cannot tell anything of the + sense of hearing, as no sound reaches the ear to break the perfect + stillness and silence of the regions between six and seven miles above the + earth. My last observation was made at 1.54 p.m., above 29,000 feet. I + suppose two or three minutes to have elapsed between my eyes becoming + insensible to seeing fine divisions and 1.54 p.m., and then two or three + minutes more to have passed till I was insensible, which I think, + therefore, took place about 1.56 p.m. or 1.57 p.m. + </p> + <p> + "Whilst powerless, I heard the words 'Temperature' and 'Observation,' and + I knew Mr. Coxwell was in the car speaking to and endeavouring to rouse me—therefore + consciousness and hearing had returned. I then heard him speak more + emphatically, but could not see, speak, or move. I heard him again say, + 'Do try, now do!' Then the instruments became dimly visible, then Mr. + Coxwell, and very shortly I saw clearly. Next, I arose in my seat and + looked around, as though waking from sleep, though not refreshed, and said + to Mr. Coxwell, 'I have been insensible.' He said, 'You have, and I too, + very nearly.' I then drew up my legs, which had been extended, and took a + pencil in my hand to begin observations. Mr. Coxwell told me that he had + lost the use of his hands, which were black, and I poured brandy over + them." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Glaisher considers that he must have been totally insensible for a + period of about seven minutes, at the end of which time the water reserved + for the wet bulb thermometer, which he had carefully kept from freezing, + had become a solid block of ice. Mr. Coxwell's hands had become + frostbitten, so that, being in the ring and desirous of coming to his + friend's assistance, he was forced to rest his arms on the ring and drop + down. Even then, the table being in the way, he was unable to approach, + and, feeling insensibility stealing over himself, he became anxious to + open the valve. "But in consequence of having lost the use of his hands he + could not do this. Ultimately he succeeded by seizing the cord in his + teeth and dipping his head two or three times until the balloon took a + decided turn downwards." Mr. Glaisher adds that no inconvenience followed + his insensibility, and presently dropping in a country where no conveyance + of any kind could be obtained, he was able to walk between seven and eight + miles. + </p> + <p> + The interesting question of the actual height attained is thus discussed + by Mr. Glaisher:—"I have already said that my last observation was + made at a height of 29,000 feet. At this time, 1.54 p.m., we were + ascending at the rate of 1,000 feet per minute, and when I resumed + observations we were descending at the rate of 2,000 feet per minute. + These two positions must be connected, taking into account the interval of + time between, namely, thirteen minutes; and on these considerations the + balloon must have attained the altitude of 36,000 or 37,000 feet. Again, a + very delicate minimum thermometer read minus 11.9, and this would give a + height of 37,000 feet. Mr. Coxwell, on coming from the ring, noticed that + the centre of the aneroid barometer, its blue hand, and a rope attached to + the car, were all in the same straight line, and this gave a reading of + seven inches, and leads to the same result. Therefore, these independent + means all lead to about the same elevation, namely, fully seven miles." + </p> + <p> + So far we have followed Mr. Glaisher's account only, but Mr. Coxwell has + added testimony of his own to this remarkable adventure, which renders the + narrative more complete. He speaks of the continued rotation of the + balloon and the necessity for mounting into the ring to get possession of + the valve line. "I had previously," he adds, "taken off a thick pair of + gloves so as to be the better able to manipulate the sand-bags, and the + moment my unprotected hands rested on the ring, which retained the + temperature of the air, I found that they were frost-bitten; but I did + manage to bring down with me the valve line, after noticing the hand of + the aneroid barometer, and it was not long before I succeeded in opening + the shutters in the way described by Mr. Glaisher.... Again, on letting + off more gas, I perceived that the lower part of the balloon was rapidly + shrinking, and I heard a sighing, as if it were in the network and the + ruffled surface of the cloth. I then looked round, although it seemed + advisable to let off more gas, to see if I could in any way assist Mr. + Glaisher, but the table of instruments blocked the way, and I could not, + with disabled hands, pass beneath. My last hope, then, was in seeking the + restorative effects of a warmer stratum of atmosphere.... Again I tugged + at the valve line, taking stock, meanwhile, of the reserve ballast in + store, and this, happily, was ample. + </p> + <p> + "Never shall I forget those painful moments of doubt and suspense as to + Mr. Glaisher's fate, when no response came to my questions. I began to + fear that he would never take any more readings. I could feel the reviving + effects of a warmer temperature, and wondered that no signs of animation + were noticeable. The hand of the aneroid that I had looked at was fast + moving, while the under part of the balloon had risen high above the car. + I had looked towards the earth, and felt the rush of air as it passed + upwards, but was still in despair when Mr. Glaisher gasped with a sigh, + and the next moment he drew himself up and looked at me rather in + confusion, and said he had been insensible, but did not seem to have any + clear idea of how long until he caught up his pencil and noted the time + and the reading of the instruments." + </p> + <p> + The descent, which was at first very rapid, was effected without + difficulty at Cold Weston. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV. FURTHER SCIENTIFIC VOYAGES OF GLAISHER AND COXWELL. + </h2> + <p> + Early in the following spring we find the same two aeronauts going aloft + again on a scientific excursion which had a termination nearly as + sensational as the last. The ascent was from the Crystal Palace, and the + intention being to make a very early start the balloon for this purpose + had been partially filled overnight; but by the morning the wind blew + strongly, and, though the ground current would have carried the voyagers + in comparative safety to the southwest, several pilots which were + dismissed became, at no great height, carried away due south. On this + account the start was delayed till 1 p.m., by which time the sky had + nearly filled in, with only occasional gleams of sun between the clouds. + It seemed as if the travellers would have to face the chance of crossing + the Channel, and while, already in the car, they were actually discussing + this point, their restraining rope broke, and they were launched + unceremoniously into the skies. This occasioned an unexpected lurch to the + car, which threw Mr. Glaisher among his instruments, to the immediate + destruction of some of them. + </p> + <p> + Another result of this abrupt departure was a very rapid rise, which took + the balloon a height of 3,000 feet in three minutes' space, and another + 4,000 feet higher in six minutes more. Seven thousand feet vertically in + nine minutes is fast pace; but the voyagers were to know higher speed yet + that day when the vertical motion was to be in the reverse and wrong + direction. At the height now reached they were in cloud, and while thus + enveloped the temperature, as often happens, remained practically + stationary at about 32 degrees, while that of the dew point increased + several degrees. But, on passing out of the cloud, the two temperatures + were very suddenly separated, the latter decreasing rapidly under a deep + blue upper sky that was now without a cloud. Shortly after this the + temperature dropped suddenly some 8 degrees, and then, during the next + 12,000 feet, crept slowly down by small stages. Presently the balloon, + reaching more than twenty thousand feet, or, roughly, four miles, and + still ascending, the thermometer was taken with small fits of rising and + falling alternately till an altitude of 24,000 feet was recorded, at which + point other and more serious matters intruded themselves. + </p> + <p> + The earth had been for a considerable time lost to view, and the rate and + direction of recent progress had become merely conjectural. What might be + taking place in these obscured and lofty regions? It would be as well to + discover. So the valve was opened rather freely, with the result that the + balloon dropped a mile in three minutes. Then another mile slower, by a + shade. Then at 12,000 feet a cloud layer was reached, and shortly after + the voyagers broke through into the clear below. + </p> + <p> + At that moment Mr. Glaisher, who was busy with his instruments, heard Mr. + Coxwell make an exclamation which caused him to look over the car, and he + writes, "The sea seemed to be under us. Mr. Coxwell again exclaimed, + 'There's not a moment to spare: we must save the land at all risks. Leave + the instruments.' Mr. Coxwell almost hung to the valve line, and told me + to do the same, and not to mind its cutting my hand. It was a bold + decision opening the valve in this way, and it was boldly carried out." As + may be supposed, the bold decision ended with a crash. The whole time of + descending the four and a quarter miles was a quarter of an hour, the last + two miles taking four minutes only. For all that, there was no penalty + beyond a few bruises and the wrecking of the instruments, and when land + was reached there was no rebound; the balloon simply lay inert hard by the + margin of the sea. This terrific experience in its salient details is + strangely similar to that already recorded by Albert Smith. + </p> + <p> + In further experimental labours conducted during the summer of this year, + many interesting facts stand out prominently among a voluminous mass of + observations. In an ascent in an east wind from the Crystal Palace in + early July it was found that the upper limit of that wind was reached at + 2,400 feet, at which level an air-stream from the north was encountered; + but at 3,000 feet higher the wind again changed to a current from the + N.N.W. At the height, then, of little more than half a mile, these upper + currents were travelling leisurely; but what was more noteworthy was their + humidity, which greatly increased with altitude, and a fact which may + often be noted here obtruded itself, namely, when the aeronauts were at + the upperlimits of the east wind, flat-bottomed cumulus clouds were + floating at their level. These clouds were entirely within the influence + of the upper or north wind, so that their under sides were in contact with + the east wind, i.e. with a much drier air, which at once dissipated all + vapour in contact with it, and thus presented the appearance of + flat-bottomed clouds. It is a common experience to find the lower surface + of a cloud mowed off flat by an east wind blowing beneath it. + </p> + <p> + At the end of June a voyage from Wolverton was accomplished, which yielded + remarkable results of much real value and interest. The previous night had + been perfectly calm, and through nearly the whole morning the sun shone in + a clear blue sky, without a symptom of wind or coming change. Shortly + before noon, however, clouds appeared aloft, and the sky assumed an + altered aspect. Then the state of things quickly changed. Wind currents + reached the earth blowing strongly, and the half-filled balloon began to + lurch to such an extent that the inflation could only with difficulty be + proceeded with. Fifty men were unable to hold it in sufficient restraint + to prevent rude bumping of the car on the ground, and when, at length, + arrangements were complete and release effected, rapid discharge of + ballast alone saved collision with neighbouring buildings. + </p> + <p> + It was now that the disturbance overhead came under investigation; and, + considering the short period it had been in progress, proved most + remarkable, the more so the further it was explored. At 4,000 feet they + plunged into the cloud canopy, through which as it was painfully cold, + they, sought to penetrate into the clear above, feeling confident of + finding themselves, according to their usual experience, in bright blue + sky, with the sun brilliantly shining. On the contrary, however, the + region they now entered was further obscured with another canopy of cloud + far up. It was while they were traversing this clear interval that a sound + unwonted in balloon travel assailed their ears. This was the "sighing, or + rather moaning, of the wind as preceding a storm." Rustling of the silk + within the cordage is often heard aloft, being due to expansion of gas or + similar cause; but the aeronauts soon convinced themselves that what they + heard was attributable to nothing else than the actual conflict of air + currents beneath. Then they reached fog—a dry fog—and, passing + through it, entered a further fog, but wetting this time, and within the + next 1,000 feet they were once again in fog that was dry; and then, + reaching three miles high and seeing struggling sunbeams, they looked + around and saw cloud everywhere, below, above, and far clouds on their own + level. The whole sky had filled in most completely since the hours but + recently passed, when they had been expatiating on the perfect serenity of + the empty heavens. + </p> + <p> + Still they climbed upwards, and in the next 2,000 feet had entered further + fog, dry at first, but turning wetter as they rose. At four miles high + they found themselves on a level with clouds, whose dark masses and + fringed edges proved them to be veritable rain clouds; and, while still + observing them, the fog surged up again and shut out the view, and by the + time they had surmounted it they were no less than 23,000 feet up, or + higher than the loftiest of the Andes. Even here, with cloud masses still + piling high overhead, the eager observer, bent on further quests, was for + pursuing the voyage; but Mr. Coxwell interposed with an emphatic, "Too + short of sand!" and the downward journey had to be commenced. Then + phenomena similar to those already described were experienced again—fog + banks (sometimes wet, sometimes dry), rain showers, and cloud strata of + piercing cold. Presently, too, a new wonder for a midsummer afternoon—a + snow scene all around, and spicules of ice settling and remaining frozen + on the coatsleeve. Finally dropping to earth helplessly through the last + 5,000 feet, with all ballast spent, Ely Cathedral was passed at close + quarters; yet even that vast pile was hidden in the gloom that now lay + over all the land. + </p> + <p> + It was just a month later, and day broke with thoroughly dirty weather, a + heavy sky, and falling showers. This was the day of all others that Mr. + Glaisher was waiting for, having determined on making special + investigations concerning the formation of rain in the clouds themselves. + It had long been noticed that, in an ordinary way, if there be two rain + gauges placed, one near the surface of the ground, and another at a + somewhat higher elevation, then the lower gauge will collect most water. + Does, then, rain condense in some appreciable quantity out of the lowest + level? Again, during rain, is the air saturated completely, and what + regulates the quality of rainfall, for rain sometimes falls in large drops + and sometimes in minute particles? These were questions which Mr. Glaisher + sought to solve, and there was another. + </p> + <p> + Charles Green had stated as his conviction that whenever rain was falling + from an overcast sky there would always be found a higher canopy of cloud + over-hanging the lower stratum. On the day, then, which we are now + describing, Mr. Glaisher wished to put this his theory to the test; and, + if correct, then he desired to measure the space between the cloud layers, + to gauge their thickness, and to see if above the second stratum the sun + was shining. The main details of the ascent read thus:— + </p> + <p> + In ten seconds they were in mist, and in ten seconds more were level with + the cloud. At 1,200 feet they were out of the rain, though not yet out of + the cloud. Emerging from the lower cloud at 2,300 feet, they saw, what + Green would have foretold, an upper stratum of dark cloud above. Then they + made excursions up and down, trying high and low to verify these + conditions, and passing through fogs both wet and dry, at last drifting + earthward, through squalls of wind and rain with drops as large as + fourpenny pieces, to find that on the ground heavy wet had been + ceaselessly falling. + </p> + <p> + A day trip over the eastern suburbs of London in the same year seems + greatly to have impressed Mr. Glaisher. The noise of London streets as + heard from above has much diminished during the last fifteen years' + probably owing to the introduction of wood paving. But, forty years ago, + Mr. Glaisher describes the deep sound of London as resembling the roar of + the sea, when at a mile high; while at greater elevations it was heard at + a murmuring noise. But the view must have been yet more striking than the + hearing, for in one direction the white cliffs from Margate to Dover were + visible, while Brighton and the sea beyond were sighted, and again all the + coast line up to Yarmouth yet the atmosphere that day, one might have + thought, should have been in turmoil, by reason of a conflict of + aircurrents; for, within two miles of the earth, the wind was from the + east; between two and three miles high it was exactly opposite, being from + the west; but at three miles it was N.E.; while, higher, it was again + directly opposite, or S.W. + </p> + <p> + During his researches so far Mr. Glaisher had found much that was + anomalous in the way of the winds, and in other elements of weather. He + was destined to find much more. It had been commonly accepted that the + temperature of the air decreases at the average rate of 10 degrees for + every 300 feet of elevation, and various computations, as, for example, + those which relate to the co-efficient of refraction, have been founded on + this basis; but Mr. Glaisher soon established that the above + generalisation had to be much modified. The following, gathered from his + notes is a typical example of such surprises as the aeronaut with due + instrumental equipment may not unfrequently meet with. + </p> + <p> + It was the 12th of January, 1864, with an air-current on the ground from + the S.E., of temperature 41 degrees,, which very slowly decreased up to + 1,600 feet when a warm S.W. current was met with, and at 3,000 feet the + temperature was 3 1/2 degrees higher than on the earth. Above the S.W. + stream the air became dry, and here the temperature decreased reasonably + and consistently with altitude; while fine snow was found falling out of + this upper space into the warmer stream below. Mr. Glaisher discusses the + peculiarity and formation of this stream in terms which will repay + consideration. + </p> + <p> + "The meeting with this S.W. current is of the highest importance, for it + goes far to explain why England possesses a winter temperature so much + higher than is due to her northern latitude. Our high winter temperature + has hitherto been mostly referred to the influence of the Gulf Stream. + Without doubting the influence of this natural agent, it is necessary to + add the effect of a parallel atmospheric current to the oceanic current + coming from the same region—a true aerial Gulf Stream. This great + energetic current meets with no obstruction in coming to us, or to Norway, + but passes over the level Atlantic without interruption from mountains. It + cannot, however, reach France without crossing Spain and the lofty range + of the Pyrenees, and the effect of these cold mountains in reducing its + temperature is so great that the former country derives but little warmth + from it." + </p> + <p> + An ascent from Woolwich, arranged as near the equinox of that year as + could be managed, supplied some further remarkable results. The + temperature, which was 45 degrees to begin with, at 4.7 p.m., crept down + fairly steadily till 4,000 feet altitude was registered, when, in a region + of warm fog, it commenced rising abruptly, and at 7,500 feet, in blue sky, + stood at the same reading as when the balloon had risen only 1,500 feet. + Then, amid many anomalous vicissitudes, the most curious, perhaps, was + that recorded late in the afternoon, when, at 10,000 feet, the air was + actually warmer than when the ascent began. + </p> + <p> + That the temperature of the upper air commonly commences to rise after + nightfall as the warmth radiated through day hours off the earth collects + aloft, is a fact well known to the balloonist, and Mr. Glaisher carried + out with considerable success a well-arranged programme for investigating + the facts of the case. Starting from Windsor on an afternoon of late May, + he so arranged matters that his departure from earth took place about an + hour and three quarters before sunset, his intention being to rise to a + definite height, and with as uniform a speed as possible to time his + descent so as to reach earth at the moment of sundown; and then to + re-ascend and descend again m a precisely similar manner during an hour + and three-quarters after sunset, taking observations all the way. + Ascending for the first flight, he left a temperature of 58 degrees on the + earth, and found it 55 degrees at 1,200 feet, then 43 degrees at 3,600 + feet, and 29 1/2 degrees at the culminating point of 6,200 feet. Then, + during the descent, the temperature increased, though not uniformly, till + he was nearly brushing the tops of the trees, where it was some 3 degrees + colder than at starting. + </p> + <p> + It was now that the balloon, showing a little waywardness, slightly upset + a portion of the experiment, for, instead of getting to the neighbourhood + of earth just at the moment of sunset, the travellers found themselves at + that epoch 600 feet above the ground, and over the ridge of a hill, on + passing which the balloon became sucked down with a down draught, + necessitating a liberal discharge of sand to prevent contact with the + ground. This circumstance, slight in itself, caused the lowest point of + the descent to be reached some minutes late, and, still more unfortunate, + occasioned the ascent which immediately followed to be a rapid one, too + rapid, doubtless, to give the registering instruments a fair chance; but + one principal record aimed at was obtained at least with sufficient truth, + namely, that at the culminating point, which again was 6,200 feet, the + temperature read 35 degrees, or about 6 degrees warmer than when the + balloon was at the same altitude a little more than an hour before. This + comparatively warm temperature was practically maintained for a + considerable portion of the descent. + </p> + <p> + We may summarise the principal of Mr. Glaisher's generalisations thus, + using as nearly as possible his own words:— + </p> + <p> + "The decrease of temperature, with increase of elevation, has a diurnal + range, and depends upon the hour of the day, the changes being the + greatest at mid-day and the early part of the afternoon, and decreasing to + about sunset, when, with a clear sky, there is little or no change of + temperature for several hundred feet from the earth; whilst, with a cloudy + sky, the change decreases from the mid-day hours at a less rapid rate to + about sunset, when the decrease is nearly uniform and at the rate of 1 + degree in 2,000 feet. + </p> + <p> + "Air currents differing in direction are almost always to be met with. The + thicknesses of these were found to vary greatly. The direction of the wind + on the earth was sometimes that of the whole mass of air up to 20,000 feet + nearly, whilst at other times the direction changed within 500 feet of the + earth Sometimes directly opposite currents were met with." + </p> + <p> + With regard to the velocity of upper currents, as shown by the travel of + balloons, when the distances between the places of ascent and descent are + measured, it was always found that these distances were very much greater + than the horizontal movement of the air, as measured by anemometers near + the ground. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0016" id="link2HCH0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVI. SOME FAMOUS FRENCH AERONAUTS. + </h2> + <p> + By this period a revival of aeronautics in the land of its birth had + fairly set in. Since the last ascents of Gay Lussac, in 1804, already + recorded, there had been a lull in ballooning enterprise in France, and no + serious scientific expeditions are recorded until the year 1850, when MM. + Baral and Bixio undertook some investigations respecting the upper air, + which were to deal with its laws of temperature and humidity, with the + proportion of carbonic acid present in it, with solar heat at different + altitudes, with radiation and the polarisation of light, and certain other + interesting enquiries. + </p> + <p> + The first ascent, made in June from the Paris Observatory, though a lofty + one, was attended with so much danger and confusion as to be barren of + results. The departure, owing to stormy weather, was hurried and + illordered, so that the velocity in rising was excessive, the net + constricted the rapidly-swelling globe, and the volumes of out-rushing gas + half-suffocated the voyagers. Then a large rent occurred, which caused an + alarmingly rapid fall, and the two philosophers were reduced to the + necessity of flinging away all they possessed, their instruments only + excepted. The landing, in a vineyard, was happily not attended with + disaster, and within a month the same two colleagues attempted a second + aerial excursion, again in wet weather. + </p> + <p> + It would seem as if on this occasion, as on the former one, there was some + lack of due management, for the car, suspended at a long distance from the + balloon proper, acquired violent oscillations on leaving the ground, and + dashing first against a tree, and then against a mast, broke some of the + instruments. A little later there occurred a repetition on a minor scale + of the aeronauts' previous mishap, for a rent appeared in the silk, + though, luckily, so low down in the balloon as to be of small consequence, + and eventually an altitude of some 19,000 feet was attained. At one time + needles of ice were encountered settling abundantly with a crackling sound + upon their notebooks. But the most remarkable observation made during this + voyage related to an extraordinary fall of temperature which, as recorded, + is without parallel. It took place in a cloud mass, 15,000 feet thick, and + amounted to a drop of from 15 degrees to -39 degrees. + </p> + <p> + In 1867 M. C. Flammarion made a few balloon ascents, ostensibly for + scientific research. His account of these, translated by Dr. T. L. + Phipson, is edited by Mr. Glaisher, and many of the experiences he relates + will be found to contrast with those of others. His physical symptoms + alone were remarkable, for on one occasion, at an altitude of apparently + little over 10,000 feet, he became unwell being affected with a sensation + of drowsiness, palpitation, shortness of breath, and singing in the ears, + which, after landing gave place to a "fit of incessant gaping" while he + states that in later voyages, at but slightly greater altitudes, his + throat and lungs became affected, and he was troubled with presence of + blood upon the lips. This draws forth a footnote from Mr. Glaisher, which + should be commended to all would-be sky voyagers. It runs thus:—"I + have never experienced any of these effects till I had long passed the + heights reached by M. Flammarion, and at no elevation was there the + presence of blood." However, M. Flammarion adduces, at least, one + reassuring fact, which will be read with interest. Once, having, against + the entreaties of his friends, ascended with an attack of influenza upon + him, he came down to earth again an hour or two afterwards with this + troublesome complaint completely cured. + </p> + <p> + It would seem as if the soil of France supplied the aeronaut with certain + phenomena not known in England, one of these apparently being the + occasional presence of butterflies hovering round the car when at + considerable heights. M. Flammarion mentions more than one occasion when + he thus saw them, and found them to be without sense of alarm at the + balloon or its passengers. Again, the French observer seems seldom to have + detected those opposite airstreams which English balloonists may + frequently observe, and have such cause to be wary of. His words, as + translated, are:—"It appears to me that two or more currents, + flowing in different directions, are very rarely met with as we rise in + the air, and when two layers of cloud appear to travel in opposite + directions the effect is generally caused by the motion of one layer being + more rapid than the other, when the latter appears to be moving in a + contrary direction." In continuation of these experiences, he speaks of an + occasion when, speeding through the air at the rate of an ordinary express + train, he was drawn towards a tempest by a species of attraction. + </p> + <p> + The French aeronaut's estimate of what constitutes a terrific rate of fall + differs somewhat from that of others whose testimony we have been + recording. In one descent, falling (without reaching earth, however) a + distance of 2,130 feet in two minutes, he describes the earth rising up + with frightful rapidity, though, as will be observed, this is not nearly + half the speed at which either Mr. Glaisher or Albert Smith and his + companions were precipitated on to bare ground. Very many cases which we + have cited go to show that the knowledge of the great elasticity of a + well-made wicker car may rob a fall otherwise alarming of its terrors, + while the practical certainty that a balloon descending headlong will form + itself into a natural parachute, if properly managed, reduces enormously + the risk attending any mere impact with earth. It will be allowed by all + experienced aeronauts that far worse chances lie in some awkward alighting + ground, or in the dragging against dangerous obstacles after the balloon + has fallen. + </p> + <p> + Many of M. Flammarion's experiments are remarkable for their simplicity. + Indeed, in some cases he would seem to have applied himself to making + trials the result of which could not have been seriously questioned. The + following, quoting from Dr. Phipson's translation, will serve as an + example:— + </p> + <p> + "Another mechanical experiment was made in the evening, and renewed next + day. I wished to verify Galileo's principle of the independence of + simultaneous motions. According to this principle, a body which is allowed + to fall from another body in motion participates in the motion of the + latter; thus, if we drop a marble from the masthead of a ship, it + preserves during its fall the rate of motion of the vessel, and falls at + the foot of the mast as if the ship were still. Now, if a body falls from + a balloon, does it also follow the motion of the latter, or does it fall + directly to the earth in a line which is perpendicular to the point at + which we let it fall? In the first case its fall would be described by an + oblique line. The latter was found to be the fact, as we proved by letting + a bottle fall. During its descent it partakes of the balloon's motion, and + until it reaches the earth is always seen perpendicularly below the car." + </p> + <p> + An interesting phenomenon, relating to the formation of fog was witnessed + by M. Flammarion in one of his voyages. He was flying low with a fast + wind, and while traversing a forest he noticed here and there patches of + light clouds, which, remaining motionless in defiance of the strong wind, + continued to hang above the summits of the trees. The explanation of this + can hardly be doubtful, being analogous to the formation of a night-cap on + a mountain peak where warm moist air-currents become chilled against the + cold rock surface, forming, momentarily, a patch of cloud which, though + constantly being blown away, is as constantly re-formed, and thus is made + to appear as if stationary. + </p> + <p> + The above instructive phenomenon could hardly have been noticed save by an + aeronaut, and the same may be said of the following. Passing in a clear + sky over the spot where the Marne flows into the Seine, M. Flammarion + notes that the water of the Marne, which, as he says, is as yellow now as + it was in the time of Julius Caesar, does not mix with the green water of + the Seine, which flows to the left of the current, nor with the blue water + of the canal, which flows to the right. Thus, a yellow river was seen + flowing between two distinct brooks, green and blue respectively. + </p> + <p> + Here was optical evidence of the way in which streams of water which + actually unite may continue to maintain independent courses. We have seen + that the same is true of streams of air, and, where these traverse one + another in a copious and complex manner, we find, as will be shown, + conditions produced that cause a great deadening of sound; thus, great + differences in the travel of sound in the silent upper air can be noticed + on different days, and, indeed, in different periods of the same aerial + voyage. M. Flammarion bears undeniable testimony to the manner in which + the equable condition of the atmosphere attending fog enhances, to the + aeronaut, the hearing of sounds from below. But when he gives definite + heights as the range limits of definite sounds it must be understood that + these ranges will be found to vary greatly according to circumstances. + Thus, where it is stated that a man's voice may make itself heard at 3,255 + feet, it might be added that sometimes it cannot be heard at a + considerably less altitude; and, again, the statement that the whistle of + a locomotive rises to near 10,000 feet, and the noise of a railway train + to 8,200 feet, should be qualified an additional note to the effect that + both may be occasionally heard at distances vastly greater. But perhaps + the most curious observation of M. Flammarion respecting sounds aloft + relates to that of echo. To his fancy, this had a vague depth, appearing + also to rise from the horizon with a curious tone, as if it came from + another world. To the writer, on the contrary, and to many fellow + observers who have specially experimented with this test of sound, the + echo has always appeared to come very much from the right place—the + spot nearly immediately below—and if this suggested its coming from + another world then the same would have to be said of all echoes generally. + </p> + <p> + About the same period when M. Flammarion was conducting his early ascents, + MM. de Fonvielle and Tissandier embarked on experimental voyages, which + deserve some particular notice. Interest in the new revival of the art of + aeronautics was manifestly be coming reestablished in France, and though + we find enthusiasts more than once bitterly complaining of the lack of + financial assistance, still ballooning exhibitions, wherever accomplished, + never failed to arouse popular appreciation. But enthusiasm was by no + means the universal attitude with which the world regarded aerial + enterprise. A remarkable and instructive instance is given to the contrary + by M. W. de Fonvielle himself. + </p> + <p> + He records an original ballooning exploit, organised at Algiers, which one + might have supposed would have caused a great sensation, and to which he + himself had called public attention in the local journals. The brothers + Braguet were to make an ascent from the Mustapha Plain in a small fire + balloon heated with burning straw, and this risky performance was + successfully carried out by the enterprising aeronauts. But, to the + onlooker, the most striking feature of the proceeding was the fact that + while the Europeans present regarded the spectacle with curiosity and + pleasure, the native Mussulmans did not appear to take the slightest + interest in it; "And this," remarked de Fonvielle, "was not the first time + that ignorant and fanatic people have been noted as manifesting complete + indifference to balloon ascents. After the taking of Cairo, when General + Buonaparte wished to produce an effect upon the inhabitants, he not only + made them a speech, but supplemented it with the ascent of a fire balloon. + The attempt was a complete failure, for the French alone looked up to the + clouds to see what became of the balloon." + </p> + <p> + In the summer of 1867 an attempt was made to revive the long extinct + Aeronautic Company of France, established by De Guyton. The undertaking + was worked with considerable energy. Some forty or fifty active recruits + were pressed into the service, a suitable captive balloon was obtained, + thousands of spectators came to watch the evolutions; and many were found + to pay the handsome fee of 100 francs for a short excursion in the air. + For all this, the effort was entirely abortive, and the ballooning corps, + as such, dropped out of existence. + </p> + <p> + A little while after this de Fonvielle, on a visit to England, had a most + pathetic interview with the veteran Charles Green, who was living in + comfortable retirement at Upper Holloway. The grand old man pointed to a + well-filled portfolio in the corner of his room, in which, he said, were + accounts of all his travels, that would require a lifetime to peruse and + put in order. Green then took his visitor to the end of the narrow court, + and, opening the door of an outhouse, showed him the old Nassau balloon. + "Here is my car," he said, touching it with a kind of solemn respect, + "which, like its old pilot, now reposes quietly after a long and active + career. Here is the guide rope which I imagined in former years, and which + has been found very useful to aeronauts.... Now my life has past and my + time has gone by.... Though my hair is white and my body too weak to help + you, I can still give you my advice, and you have my hearty wishes for + your future." + </p> + <p> + It was but shortly after this, on March 26, 1870, that Charles Green + passed away in the 85th year of his age. + </p> + <p> + De Fonvielle's colleague, M. Gaston Tissandier, was on one occasion + accidentally brought to visit the resting place of the earliest among + aeronauts, whose tragic death occurred while Charles Green himself was yet + a boy. In a stormy and hazardous descent Tissandier, under the guidance of + M. Duruof, landed with difficulty on the sea coast of France, when one of + the first to render help was a lightkeeper of the Griz-nez lighthouse, who + gave the information that on the other side of the hills, a few hundred + yards from the spot where they had landed, was the tomb of Pilatre de + Rozier, whose tragical death has been recorded in an early chapter. A + visit to the actual locality the next day revealed the fact that a humble + stone still marked the spot. + </p> + <p> + Certain scientific facts and memoranda collected by the talented French + aeronaut whom we are following are too interesting to be omitted. In the + same journey to which we have just referred the voyagers, when nearly over + Calais, were witnesses from their commanding standpoint of a very striking + phenomenon of mirage. Looking in the direction of England, the far coast + line was hidden by an immense veil of leaden-coloured cloud, and, + following this cloud wall upward to detect where it terminated, the + travellers saw above it a greenish layer like that of the surface of the + sea, on which was detected a little black point suggesting a walnut shell. + Fixing their eyes on this black spot, they presently discerned it to be a + ship sailing upside down upon an aerial ocean. Soon after, a steamer + blowing smoke, and then other vessels, added themselves to the illusory + spectacle. + </p> + <p> + Another wonder detected, equally striking though less uncommon, was of an + acoustical nature, the locality this time being over Paris. The height of + the balloon at this moment was not great, and, moreover, was diminishing + as it settled down. Suddenly there broke in upon the voyagers a sound as + of a confused kind of murmur. It was not unlike the distant breaking of + waves against a sandy coast, and scarcely less monotonous. It was the + noise of Paris that reached them, as soon as they sank to within 2,600 + feet of the ground, but it disappeared at once when they threw out just + sufficient ballast to rise above that altitude. + </p> + <p> + It might appear to many that so strange and sudden a shutting out of a + vast sound occurring abruptly in the free upper air must have been more + imaginary than real, yet the phenomenon is almost precisely similar to one + coming within the experience the writer, and vouched for by his son and + daughter, as also by Mr. Percival Spencer, all of whom were joint + observers at the time, the main point of difference in the two cases being + the fact that the "region of silence" was recorded by the French observers + as occurring at a somewhat lower level. In both cases there is little + doubt that the phenomenon can be referred to a stratum of disturbed or + non-homogeneous air, which may have been very far spread, and which is + capable of acting as a most opaque sound barrier. + </p> + <p> + Attention has often been called in these pages to the fact that the action + of the sun on an inflated balloon, even when the solar rays may be + partially obscured and only operative for a few passing moments, is to + give sudden and great buoyancy to the balloon. An admirable opportunity + for fairly estimating the dynamic effect of the sun's rays on a silk + globe, whose fabric was half translucent, was offered to the French + aeronauts when their balloon was spread on the grass under repair, and for + this purpose inflated with the circumambient air by means of a simple + rotatory fan. The sun coming out, the interior of the globe quickly became + suffocating, and it was found that, while the external temperature + recorded 77 degrees, that of the interior was in excess of 91 degrees. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0017" id="link2HCH0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVII. ADVENTURE AND ENTERPRISE. + </h2> + <p> + A balloon which has become famous in history was frequently used in the + researches of the French aeronauts mentioned in our last chapter. This was + known as "The Giant," the creation of M. Nadar, a progressive and + practical aeronaut, who had always entertained ambitious ideas about + aerial travel. + </p> + <p> + M. Nadar had been editor of L'Aeronaut, a French journal devoted to the + advancement of aerostation generally. He had also strongly expressed his + own views respecting the possibility of constructing air ships that should + be subject to control and guidance when winds were blowing. His great + contention was that the dirigible air ship would, like a bird, have to be + made heavier than the medium in which it was to fly. As he put it, a + balloon could never properly become a vessel. It would only be a buoy. In + spite of any number of accessories, paddles, wings, fans, sails, it could + not possibly prevent the wind from bodily carrying away the whole concern. + </p> + <p> + After this strong expression of opinion, it may appear somewhat strange + that such a bold theoriser should at once have set himself to construct + the largest gas balloon on record. Such, however, was the case and the + reason urged was not otherwise than plausible. For, seeing that a vast sum + of money would be needed to put his theories into practice, M. Nadar + conceived the idea of first constructing a balloon so unique and + unrivalled that it should compel public attention in a way that no other + balloon had done before, and so by popular exhibitions bring to his hand + such sums as he required. A proper idea of the scale of this huge machine + can be easily gathered. The largest balloons at present exhibited in this + country are seldom much in excess of 50,000 cubic feet capacity. Compared + with these the "Great Nassau Balloon," built by Charles Green, which has + been already sufficiently described, was a true leviathan; while Coxwell's + "Mammoth" was larger yet, possessing a content, when fully inflated, of no + less than 93,000 cubic feet, and measuring over 55 feet in diameter. This, + however, as will be seen, was but a mere pigmy when compared with "The + Giant," which, measuring some 74 feet in diameter, possessed the + prodigious capacity of 215,000 cubic feet. + </p> + <p> + But the huge craft possessed another novelty besides that of exceptional + size. It was provided with a subsidiary balloon, called the "Compensator," + and properly the idea of M. L. Godard, the function of which was to + receive any expulsion of gas in ascending, and thus to prevent loss during + any voyage. The specification of this really remarkable structure may be + taken from M. Nadar's own description. The globe in itself was for greater + strength virtually double, consisting of two identical balloons, one + within the other, each made of white silk of the finest quality, and + costing about 5s. 4d. per yard. No less than 22,000 yards of this silk + were required, and the sewing up of the gores was entirely done by hand. + The small compensating balloon was constructed to have a capacity of about + 3,500 cubic feet, and the whole machine, when fully inflated, was + calculated to lift 4 1/2 tons. With this enormous margin of buoyancy, M. + Nadar determined on making the car of proportionate and unparalleled + dimensions, and of most elaborate design. It contained two floors, of + which the upper one was open, the height of all being nearly 7 feet, with + a width of about 13 feet. Then what was thought to be due provision was + made for possible emergencies. It might descend far from help or + habitations, therefore means were provided for attaching wheels and axles. + Again, the chance of rough impact had to be considered, and so canes, to + act as springs, were fitted around and below. Once again, there was the + contingency of immersion to be reckoned with; therefore there were + provided buoys and water-tight compartments. Further than this, unusual + luxuries were added, for there were cabins, one for the captain at one + end, and another with three berths for passengers at the other. Nor was + this all, for there was, in addition, a larder, a lavatory, a photographic + room, and a printing office. It remains now only to tell the tale of how + this leviathan of the air acquitted itself. + </p> + <p> + The first ascent was made on the 4th of October, 1853, from the Champ de + Mars, and no fewer than fifteen living souls were launched together into + the sky. Of these Nadar was captain, with the brothers Godard lieutenants. + There was the Prince de Sayn-Wittgenstein; there was the Count de St. + Martin; above all, there was a lady, the Princess de la Tour d'Auvergne. + The balloon came to earth at 9 o'clock at night near Meaux, and, + considering all the provision which had been made to guard against rough + landing, it can hardly be said that the descent was a happy one. It + appears that the car dragged on its side for nearly a mile, and the + passengers, far from finding security in the seclusion of the inner + chambers, were glad to clamber out above and cling, as best they might, to + the ropes. + </p> + <p> + Many of the party were bruised more or less severely, though no one was + seriously injured, and it was reported that such fragile articles as + crockery, cakes, confectionery, and wine bottles to the number of no less + than thirty-seven, were afterwards discovered to be intact, and received + due attention. It is further stated that the descent was decided on + contrary to the wishes of the captain, but in deference to the judgment of + the experienced MM. Godard, it being apparently their conviction that the + balloon was heading out to sea, whereas, in reality, they were going due + east, "with no sea at all before them nearer than the Caspian." + </p> + <p> + This was certainly an unpropitious trial trip for the vessel that had so + ambitiously sought dominion over the air, and the next trial, which was + embarked upon a fortnight later, Sunday, October 18th, was hardly less + unfortunate. Again the ascent was from the Champ de Mars, and the send-off + lacked nothing in the way of splendour and circumstance. The Emperor was + present, for two hours an interested observer of the proceedings; the King + of Greece also attended, and even entered the car, while another famous + spectator was the popular Meyerbeer. "The Giant" first gave a preliminary + demonstration of his power by taking up, for a cable's length, a living + freight of some thirty individuals, and then, at 5.10 p.m., started on its + second free voyage, with nine souls on board, among them again being a + lady, in the person of Madame Nadar. For nearly twenty-four hours no + tidings of the voyage were forthcoming, when a telegram was received + stating that the balloon had passed over Compiegne, more than seventy + miles from Paris, at 8.30 on the previous evening, and that Nadar had + dropped the simple message, "All goes well!" A later telegram the same + evening stated that the balloon had at midnight on Sunday passed the + Belgian frontier over Erquelines, where the Custom House officials had + challenged the travellers without receiving an answer. + </p> + <p> + But eight-and-forty hours since the start went by without further news, + and excitement in Paris grew intense. When the news came at last it was + from Bremen, to say that Nadar's balloon had descended at Eystrup, + Hanover, with five of the passengers injured, three seriously. These three + were M. Nadar, his wife, and M. St. Felix. M. Nadar, in communicating this + intelligence, added, "We owe our lives to the courage of Jules Godard." + The following signed testimony of M. Louis Godard is forthcoming, and as + it refers to an occasion which is among the most thrilling in aerial + adventure, it may well be given without abridgment. It is here transcribed + almost literatim from Mr. H. Turner's valuable work, "Astra Castra." + </p> + <p> + "The Giant," after passing Lisle, proceeded in the direction of Belgium, + where a fresh current, coming from the Channel, drove it over the marshes + of Holland. It was there that M. Louis Godard proposed to descend to await + the break of day, in order to recognise the situation and again to depart. + It was one in the morning, the night was dark, but the weather calm. + Unfortunately, this advice, supported by long experience, was not listened + to. "The Giant" went on its way, and then Louis Godard no longer + considered himself responsible for the consequences of the voyage. + </p> + <p> + The balloon coasted the Zuyder Zee, and then entered Hanover. The sun + began to appear, drying the netting and sides of the balloon, wet from its + passage through the clouds, and produced a dilatation which elevated the + aeronauts to 15,000 feet. At eight o'clock the wind, blowing suddenly from + the west, drove the balloon in a right line towards the North Sea. It was + necessary, at all hazards, to effect a descent. This was a perilous + affair, as the wind was blowing with extreme violence. The brothers Godard + assisted, by M. Gabriel, opened the valve and got out the anchors; but, + unfortunately, the horizontal progress of the balloon augmented from + second to second. The first obstacle which the anchors encountered was a + tree; it was instantly uprooted, and dragged along to a second obstacle, a + house, whose roof was carried off. At this moment the two cables of the + anchors were broken without the voyagers being aware of it. Foreseeing the + successive shocks that were about to ensue—the moment was critical—the + least forgetfulness might cause death. To add to the difficulty, the + balloon's inclined position did not permit of operating the valve, except + on the hoop. + </p> + <p> + At the request of his brother, Jules Godard attempted the difficult work + of climbing to this hoop, and, in spite of his known agility, he was + obliged several times to renew the effort. Alone, and not being able to + detach the cord, M. Louis Godard begged M. Yon to join his brother on the + hoop. The two made themselves masters of the rope, which they passed to + Louis Godard. The latter secured it firmly, in spite of the shocks he + received. A violent impact shook the car and M. de St. Felix became + entangled under the car as it was ploughing the ground. It was impossible + to render him any assistance; notwithstanding, Jules Godard, stimulated by + his brother, leapt out to attempt mooring the balloon to the trees by + means of the ropes. M. Montgolfier, entangled in the same manner, was + re-seated in time and saved by Louis Godard. + </p> + <p> + At this moment others leapt out and escaped with a few contusions. The + car, dragged along by the balloon, broke trees more than half a yard in + diameter and overthrew everything that opposed it. + </p> + <p> + Louis Godard made M. Yon leap out of the car to assist Madame Nadar; but a + terrible shock threw out MM. Nadar, Louis Godard, and Montgolfier, the two + first against the ground, the third into the water. Madame Nadar, in spite + of the efforts of the voyagers, remained the last, and found herself + squeezed between the ground and the car, which had fallen upon her. More + than twenty minutes elapsed before it was possible to disentangle her, in + spite of the most vigorous efforts on the part of everyone. It was at this + moment the balloon burst and, like a furious monster, destroyed everything + around it. Immediately afterwards they ran to the assistance of M. de St. + Felix, who had been left behind, and whose face was one ghastly wound, and + covered with blood and mire. He had an arm broken, his chest grazed and + bruised. + </p> + <p> + After this accident, though a creditable future lay in store for "The + Giant," its monstrous and unwieldy car was condemned, and presently + removed to the Crystal Palace, where it was daily visited by large crowds. + </p> + <p> + It is impossible to dismiss this brief sketch of French balloonists of + this period without paying some due tribute to M. Depuis Delcourt, equally + well known in the literary and scientific world, and regarded in his own + country as a father among aeronauts. Born in 1802, his recollection went + back to the time of Montgolfier and Charles, to the feats of Garnerin, and + the death of Madame Blanchard. He established the Aerostatic and + Meteorological Society of France, and was the author of many works, as + well as of a journal dealing with aerial navigation. He closed a life + devoted to the pursuit and advancement of aerostation in April, 1864. + </p> + <p> + Before very long, events began shaping themselves in the political world + which were destined to bring the balloon in France into yet greater + prominence. But we should mention that already its capabilities in time of + war to meet the requirements of military operations had been + scientifically and systematically tested, and of these trials it will be + necessary to speak without further delay. + </p> + <p> + Reference has already been made in these pages to a valuable article + contributed in 1862 by Lieutenant G. Grover, R.E., to the Royal Engineers' + papers. From this report it would appear that the balloon, as a means of + reconnoitring, was employed with somewhat uncertain success at the battle + of Solferino, the brothers Godard being engaged as aeronauts. The balloon + used was a Montgolfier, or fire balloon, and, in spite of its ready + inflation, MM. Godard considered it, from the difficulty of maintaining + within it the necessary degree of buoyancy, far inferior to the gas + inflated balloon. On the other hand, the Austrian Engineer Committee were + of a contrary opinion. It would seem that no very definite conclusions had + been arrived at with respect to the use and value of the military balloon + up to the time of the commencement of the American War in 1862. + </p> + <p> + It was now that the practice of ballooning became a recognised department + of military manoeuvres, and a valuable report appears in the + above-mentioned papers from the pen of Captain F. Beaumont, R.E. According + to this officer, the Americans made trial of two different balloons, both + hydrogen inflated, one having a capacity of about 13,000 cubic feet, and + the other about twice as large. It was this latter that the Americans used + almost exclusively, it being found to afford more steadiness and safety, + and to be the means, sometimes desirable, of taking up more than two + persons. The difficulty of sufficient gas supply seems to have been well + met. Two generators sufficed, these being "nothing more than large tanks + of wood, acid-proof inside, and of sufficient strength to resist the + expansive action of the gas; they were provided with suitable stopcocks + for regulating the admission of the gas, and with manhole covers for + introducing the necessary materials." The gas, as evolved, being made to + pass successively through two vessels containing lime water, was delivered + cool and purified into the balloon, and as the sulphuric acid needed for + the process was found sufficiently cheap, and scrap iron also required was + readily come by, it would seem that practical difficulties in the field + were reduced to a minimum. + </p> + <p> + According to Captain Beaumont, the difficulties which might have been + expected from windy weather were not considerable, and twenty-five or + thirty men sufficed to convey the balloon easily, when inflated, over all + obstacles. The transport of the bulk of the rest of the apparatus does not + read, on paper, a very serious matter. The two generators required four + horses each, and the acid and balloon carts as many more. Arrived on the + scene of action, the drill itself was a simple matter. A squad of thirty + men under an officer sufficed to get the balloon into position, and to + arrange the ballast so that, with all in, there was a lifting power of + some thirty pounds. Then, at the word of command, the men together drop + the car, and seize the three guy ropes, of which one is made to pass + through a snatch block firmly secured. The guy ropes are then payed out + according to the directions of the aeronaut, as conveyed through the + officer. + </p> + <p> + The balloon accompanied the army's advance where its services could be + turned to the greatest advantage. It was employed in making continual + ascents, and furnishing daily reports to General M'Clellan, and it was + supposed that by constant observation the aeronaut could, at a glance, + assure himself that no change had taken place in the occupation of the + country. Captain Beaumont, speaking, be it remembered, of the military + operations and manoeuvres then in vogue, declared that earthworks could be + seen even at the distance of eight miles, though their character could not + be distinctly stated. Wooded country was unfitted for balloon + reconnaissance, and only in a plain could any considerable body of troops + be made known. Then follows such a description as one would be expecting + to find:— + </p> + <p> + "During the battle of Hanover Court House, which was the first engagement + of importance before Richmond, I happened to be close to the balloon when + the heavy firing began. The wind was rather high; but I was anxious to + see, if possible, what was going on, and I went up with the father of the + aeronaut. The balloon was, however, short of gas, and as the wind was high + we were obliged to come down. I then went up by myself, the diminished + weight giving increased steadiness; but it was not considered safe to go + more than 500 feet, on account of the unsettled state of the weather. The + balloon was very unsteady, so much so that it was difficult to fix my + sight on any particular object. At that distance I could see nothing of + the fight." + </p> + <p> + Following this is another significant sentence:— + </p> + <p> + "In the case of a siege, I am inclined to think that a balloon + reconnaissance would be of less value than in almost any other case where + a reconnaissance can be required; but, even here, if useless, it is, at + any rate, also harmless. I once saw the fire of artillery directed from + the balloon; this became necessary, as it was only in this way that the + picket which it was desired to dislodge could be seen. However, I cannot + say that I thought the fire of artillery was of much effect against the + unseen object; not that this was the fault of the balloon, for had it not + told the artillerists which way the shots were falling their fire would + have been more useless still." + </p> + <p> + It will be observed that at this time photography had not been adopted as + an adjunct to military ballooning. + </p> + <p> + Full details have been given in this chapter of the monster balloon + constructed by M. Nadar; but in 1864 Eugene Godard built one larger yet of + the Montgolfier type. Its capacity was nearly half a million cubic feet, + while the stove which inflated it stood 18 feet high, and weighed nearly + 1,000 pounds. Two free ascents were made without mishap from Cremorne + Gardens. Five years later Ashburnham Park was the scene of captive ascents + made with another mammoth balloon, containing no less than 350,000 cubic + feet of pure hydrogen, and capable of lifting 11 tons. It was built at a + cost of 28,000 francs by M. Giffard, the well-known engineer and inventor + of the injector for feeding steam engines. + </p> + <p> + These aerial leviathans do not appear to have been, in any true sense + successful. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0018" id="link2HCH0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVIII. THE BALLOON IN THE SIEGE OF PARIS. + </h2> + <p> + Within a few months of the completion of the period covered by the records + of the last chapter, France was destined to receive a more urgent stimulus + than ever before to develop the resources of ballooning, and, in hot + haste, to turn to the most serious and practical account all the best + resources of aerial locomotion. The stern necessity of war was upon her, + and during four months the sole mode of exit from Paris—nay, the + only possible means of conveying a simple message beyond the boundary of + her fortifications—was by balloon. + </p> + <p> + Hitherto, from the very inception of the art from the earliest Montgolfier + with its blazing furnace, the balloon had gone up from the gay capital + under every variety of circumstance—for pleasure, for exhibition, + for scientific research. It was now put in requisition to mitigate the + emergency occasioned by the long and close investment of the city by the + Prussian forces. + </p> + <p> + Recognising, at an early stage, the possibilities of the balloon, an + enquiry was at once made by the military authorities as to the existing + resources of the city, when it was quickly discovered that, with certain + exceptions to be presently mentioned, such balloons as were in existence + within the walls were either unserviceable or inadequate for the work that + was demanded of them. Thereupon, with admirable promptness and enterprise, + it was forthwith determined to organise the building and equipment of a + regular fleet of balloons of sufficient size and strength. + </p> + <p> + It chanced that there were in Paris at the time two professional aeronauts + of proved experience and skill, both of whom had become well known in + London only the season before in connection with M. Giffard's huge captive + balloon at Ashburnham Park. These were MM. Godard and Yon, and to them was + entrusted the establishment of two separate factories in spacious + buildings, which were at once available and admirably adapted for the + purpose. These were at the Orleans and the Northern Railway stations + respectively, where spacious roofs and abundant elbow room, the chief + requisites, were to be found. The first-mentioned station was presided + over Godard, the latter by M. Yon, assisted by M. Dartois. + </p> + <p> + It was not doubted that the resources of the city would be able to supply + the large demand that would be made for suitable material; but silk as a + fabric was at once barred on the score of expense alone. A single journey + was all that needed to be calculated on for each craft, and thus calico + would serve the purpose, and would admit of speedy making up. Slight + differences in manufacture were adopted at the two factories. At the + Northern station plain white calico was used, sewn with a sewing machine, + whereas at the Orleans station the material was coloured and entrusted + only to hand stitching. The allimportant detail of varnish was supplied by + a mixture of linseed oil and the active principle of ordinary driers, and + this, laid on with a rubber, rendered the material gas-tight and quickly + dry enough for use. Hundreds of hands, men and women, were employed at the + two factories, at which some sixty balloons were produced before the end + of the siege. Much of the more important work was entrusted to sailors, + who showed special aptness, not only in fitting out and rigging the + balloons, but also in their management when entrusted to the winds. + </p> + <p> + It must have been an impressive sight for friend or foe to witness the + departure of each aerial vessel on its venturesome mission. The bold + plunge into space above the roofs of the imprisoned city; the rapid climb + into the sky and, later, the pearl drop high in air floating away to its + uncertain and hazardous haven, running the gauntlet of the enemy's fire by + day or braving what at first appeared to be equal danger, attending the + darkness of night. It will be seen, however, that, of the two evils, that + of the darkness was considered the less, even though, with strange and + unreasonable excess of caution, the aeronauts would not suffer the use of + the perfectly safe and almost indispensable Davy lamp. + </p> + <p> + Before any free ascents were ventured on, two old balloons were put to + some practical trial as stationary observatories. One of these was moored + at Montmartre, the other at Mont-souris. From these centres daily, when + the weather permitted, captive ascents were made—four by day and two + by night—to watch and locate the movements of the enemy. The system, + as far as it went, was well planned. It was safe, and, to favour + expedition, messages were written in the car of the balloon and slid down + the cable to the attendants below. The net result, however, from a + strategic point of view, does not appear to have been of great value. + </p> + <p> + Ere yet the balloons were ready, certain bold and eventful escapes were + ventured on. M. Duruof, already introduced in these pages, trusting + himself to the old craft, "Le Neptune," in unskyworthy condition, made a + fast plunge into space, and, catching the upper winds, was borne away for + as long a period as could be maintained at the cost of a prodigal + expenditure of ballast. The balloon is said to have described a visible + parabola, like the trajectory of a projectile, and fell at Evreux in + safety and beyond the range of the enemy's fire, though not far from their + lines. This was on the 23rd of September. Two days afterwards the first + practical trial was made with homing pigeons, with the idea of using them + in connection with balloons for the establishment of an officially + sanctioned post. MM. Maugin and Grandchamp conducted this voyage in the + "Ville de Florence," and descended near Vernouillet, not far beyond Le + Foret de St. Germain, and less than twenty miles from Paris. The + serviceability of the pigeon, however, was clearly established, and a note + contributed by Mr. Glaisher, relating to the breeding and choice of these + birds, may be considered of interest. Mr. R. W. Aldridge, of Charlton, as + quoted by Mr. Glaisher, stated that his experience went to show that these + birds can be produced with different powers of orientation to meet the + requirements of particular cases. "The bird required to make journeys + under fifty miles would materially differ in its pedigree from one capable + of flying 100 or 600 miles. Attention, in particular, must be given to the + colour of the eye; if wanted for broad daylight the bird known as the + 'Pearl Eye,' from its colour, should be selected; but if for foggy weather + or for twilight flying the black- or blue-eyed bird should receive the + preference." + </p> + <p> + Only a small minority, amounting to about sixty out of 360 birds taken up, + returned to Paris, but these are calculated to have conveyed among them + some 100,000 messages. To reduce these pigeon messages to the smallest + possible compass a method of reduction by photography was employed with + much success. A long letter might, in this way, be faithfully recorded on + a surface of thinnest photographic paper, not exceeding the dimensions of + a postage stamp, and, when received, no more was necessary than to subject + it to magnification, and then to transcribe it and send a fair copy to the + addressee. + </p> + <p> + The third voyage from Paris, on September 29th was undertaken by Louis + Godard in two small balloons, united together, carrying both despatches + and pigeons, and a safe landing was effected at Mantes This successful + feat was rival led the next day by M. Tissandier, who ascended alone in a + balloon of only some 26,000 cubic feet capacity and reached earth at + Dreux, in Normandy. + </p> + <p> + These voyages exhausted the store of ready-made balloons, but by a week + later the first of those being specially manufactured was ready, and + conveyed in safety from the city no less a personage than M. Gambetta. + </p> + <p> + The courageous resolve of the great man caused much sensation in Paris, + the more so because, owing to contrary winds, the departure had to be + postponed from day to day. And when, at length, on October 7th, Gambetta + and his secretary, with the aeronaut Trichet, actually got away, in + company with another balloon, they were vigorously fired at with shot and + shell before they had cleared St. Denis. Farther out over the German posts + they were again under fire, and escaped by discharging ballast, not, + however, before Gambetta had been grazed by a bullet. Yet once more they + were assailed by German volleys before, about 3 p.m., they found a haven + near Montdidier. + </p> + <p> + The usual dimensions of the new balloons gave a capacity of 70,000 cubic + feet, and each of these, when inflated with coal gas, was calculated to + convey a freight of passengers, ballast, and despatches amounting to some + 2,000 pounds. Their despatch became frequent, sometimes two in the same + twenty-four hours. In less than a single week in October as many as four + balloons had fallen in Belgium, and as many more elsewhere. Up till now + some sixteen ventures had ended well, but presently there came trouble. On + October 22nd MM. Iglesia and Jouvencel fell at Meaux, occupied by the + Prussians; their despatches, however, were saved in a dung cart. The + twenty-third voyage ended more unhappily. On this occasion a sailor acted + as aeronaut, accompanied by an engineer, Etienne Antonin, and carrying + nearly 1,000 pounds of letters. It chanced that they descended near + Orleans on the very day when that town was re-occupied by the enemy, and + both voyagers were made prisoners. The engineer, however, subsequently + escaped. Three days later another sailor, also accompanied by an engineer, + fell at the town of Ferrieres, then occupied by the Prussians, when both + were made prisoners. In this case, also, the engineer succeeded in making + his escape; while the despatches were rescued by a forester and forwarded + in safety. + </p> + <p> + At about this date W. de Fonvielle, acting as aeronaut, and taking + passengers, made a successful escape, of which he has given a graphic + account. He had been baulked by more than one serious contretemps. It had + been determined that the departure should be by night, and November 19th + being fixed upon, the balloon was in process of inflation under a gentle + wind that threatened a travel towards Prussian soil, when, as the moment + of departure approached, a large hole was accidentally made in the fabric + by the end of the metal pipe, and it was then too late to effect repairs. + The next and following days the weather was foul, and the departure was + not effected till the 25th, when he sailed away over the familiar but + desolated country. He and his companions were fired at, but only when they + were well beyond range, and in less than two hours the party reached + Louvain, beyond Brussels, some 180 English miles in a direct line from + their starting point. This was the day after the "Ville d'Orleans" balloon + had made the record voyage and distance of all the siege, falling in + Norway, 600 miles north of Christiania, after a flight of fifteen hours. + </p> + <p> + At the end of November, when over thirty escape voyages had been made, two + fatal disasters occurred. A sailor of the name of Prince ascended alone on + a moonless night, and at dawn, away on the north coast of Scotland, some + fishermen sighted a balloon in the sky dropping to the westward in the + ocean. The only subsequent trace of this balloon was a bag of despatches + picked up in the Channel. Curiously enough, two days later almost the same + story was repeated. Two aeronauts, this time in charge of despatches and + pigeons, were carried out to sea and never traced. + </p> + <p> + Undeterred by these disasters, a notable escape was now attempted. An + important total eclipse of the sun was to occur in a track crossing + southern Spain and Algeria on December 22nd. An enthusiastic astronomer, + Janssen, was commissioned by the Academy of Sciences to attend and make + observations of this eclipse. But M. Janssen was in Paris, as were also + his instruments, and the eclipse track lay nearly a thousand miles away. + The one and only possible mode of fulfilling his commission was to try the + off-chance afforded by balloon, and this chance he resorted to only twenty + days before the eclipse was due. + </p> + <p> + Taking with him the essential parts of a reflecting telescope, and an + active young sailor as assistant, he left Paris at 6 a.m. and rose at once + to 3,600 feet, dipping again somewhat at sunrise (owing, as he supposed, + to loss of heat through radiation), but subsequently ascending again + rapidly under the increased altitude of the sun till his balloon attained + its highest level of 7,200 feet. From this elevation, shortly after 11 + a.m., he sighted the sea, when he commenced a descent which brought him to + earth at the mouth of the Loire. It had been fast travelling—some + 300 miles in little more than three hours—and the ground wind was + strong. Nevertheless, neither passengers nor instruments were injured, and + M. Janssen was fully established by the day of eclipse on his observing + ground at Oran, on the Algerian coast. It is distressing to add that the + phenomenon was hidden by cloud. In the month that followed this splendid + venture no fewer than fifteen balloons escaped from Paris, of which four + fell into the hands of the enemy, although for greater security all + ascents were now being made by night. + </p> + <p> + On January 13th, 1871, a new device for the return post was tried, and, in + addition to pigeons, sheep dogs were taken up, with the idea of their + being returned to the city with messages concealed within their collars. + There is apparently no record of any message having been returned to the + town by this ingenious method. On January 24th a balloon, piloted by a + sailor, and containing a large freight of letters, fell within the + Prussian lines, but the patriotism of the country was strong enough to + secure the despatches being saved and entrusted to the safe conveyance of + the Post Office. Then followed the total loss of a balloon at sea; but + this was destined to be the last, save one, that was to attempt the + dangerous mission. The next day, January 28th, the last official balloon + left the town, manned by a single sailor, carrying but a small weight of + despatches, but ordering the ships to proceed to Dieppe for the + revictualling of Paris. + </p> + <p> + Five additional balloons at that time in readiness were never required for + the risky service for which they were designed. + </p> + <p> + There can be little doubt that had the siege continued a more elaborate + use of balloons would have been developed. Schemes were being mooted to + attempt the vastly more difficult task of conveying balloons into Paris + from outside. When hostilities terminated there were actually six balloons + in readiness for this venture at Lisle, and waiting only for a northerly + wind. M. de Fonvielle, possessed of both courage and experience, was + prepared to put in practice a method of guiding by a small propelling + force a balloon that was being carried by sufficiently favouring winds + within a few degrees of its desired goal—and in the case of Paris + the goal was an area of some twenty miles in diameter. Within the invested + area several attempts were actually made to control balloons by methods of + steering. The names of Vert and Dupuy de Lome must here be specially + mentioned. The former had elaborated an invention which received much + assistance, and was subsequently exhibited at the Crystal Palace. The + latter received a grant of L1,600 to perfect a complex machine, having + within its gas envelope an air chamber, suggested by the swimming bladder + of a fish, having also a sail helm and a propelling screw, to be operated + by manual labour. + </p> + <p> + The relation of this invention to others of similar purpose will be + further discussed later on. But an actual trial of a dirigible craft, the + design of Admiral Labrousse, was made from the Orleans railway station on + January 9th. This machine consisted of a balloon of about the standard + capacity of the siege balloons, namely some 70,000 cubic feet, fitted with + two screws of about 12 feet diameter, but capable of being readily worked + at moderate speed. It was not a success. M. Richard, with three sailors, + made a tentative ascent, and used their best endeavours to control their + vessel, but practically without avail, and the machine presently coming to + earth clumsily, a portion of the gear caught in the ground and the + travellers were thrown over and roughly dragged for a long distance. + </p> + <p> + Fairly looked at, the aerial post of the siege of Paris must be regarded + as an ambitious and, on the whole, successful enterprise. Some two million + and a half of letters, amounting in weight to some ten tons, were conveyed + through the four months, in addition to which at least an equal weight of + other freight was taken up, exclusive of actual passengers, of whom no + fewer than two hundred were transported from the beleaguered city. Of + these only one returned, seven or eight were drowned, twice this number + were taken prisoners, and as many again more or less injured in descents. + From a purely financial point of view the undertaking was no failure, as + the cost, great as it necessarily became, was, it is said, fairly covered + by the postage, which it was possible and by no means unreasonable to + levy. The recognised tariff seems to have been 20 centimes for 4 grammes, + or at the rate of not greatly more than a shilling per English ounce. + Surely hardly on a par with fame in prices in a time of siege. + </p> + <p> + It has already been stated that the defenders of Paris did not derive + substantial assistance from the services of such a reconnoitring balloon + as is generally used in warfare at every available opportunity. It is + possible that the peculiar circumstances of the investment of the town + rendered such reconnaissance of comparatively small value. But, at any + rate, it seems clear that due opportunity was not given to this strategic + method. M. Giffard, who at the commencement of the siege was in Paris, and + whose experience with a captive balloon was second to none, made early + overtures to the Government, offering to build for L40,000 a suitable + balloon, capable of raising forty persons to a height of 3,000 feet. Forty + aerial scouts, it may be said, are hardly needed for purposes of outlook + at one time; but it appears that this was not the consideration which + stood in the way of M. Giffard's offer being accepted. According to M. de + Fonvielle, the Government refused the experienced aeronaut's proposal on + the ground that he required a place in the Champs Elysees, "which it would + be necessary to clear of a few shrubs"! + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0019" id="link2HCH0019"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIX. THE TRAGEDY OF THE ZENITH—THE NAVIGABLE BALLOON + </h2> + <p> + The mechanical air ship had, by this time, as may be inferred, begun + seriously to occupy the attention of both theoretical and practical + aeronauts. One of the earliest machines deserving of special mention was + designed by M. Giffard, and consisted of an elongated balloon, 104 feet in + length and 39 feet in greatest diameter, furnished with a triangular + rudder, and a steam engine operating a screw. The fire of the engine, + which burned coke, was skilfully protected, and the fuel and water + required were taken into calculation as so much ballast to be gradually + expended. In this vessel, inflated only with coal gas, and somewhat + unmanageable and difficult to balance, the enthusiastic inventor ascended + alone from the Hippodrome and executed sundry desired movements, not + unsuccessfully. But the trial was not of long duration, and the descent + proved both rapid and perilous. Had the trial been made in such a perfect + calm as that which prevailed when certain subsequent inventions were + tested, it was considered that M. Giffard's vessel would have been as + navigable as a boat in the water. This unrivalled mechanician, after + having made great advances in the direction of high speed engines of + sufficient lightness, proceeded to design a vastly improved dirigible + balloon, when his endeavours were frustrated by blindness. + </p> + <p> + As has been already stated, M. Dupuy de Lome, at the end of the siege of + Paris, was engaged in building a navigable balloon, which, owing to the + unsettled state of affairs in France, did not receive its trial till two + years later. This balloon, which was inflated with pure hydrogen, was of + greater capacity than that of M. Giffard, being cigar shaped and measuring + 118 feet by 48 feet. It was also provided with an ingenious arrangement + consisting of an internal air bag, capable of being either inflated or + discharged, for the purpose of keeping the principal envelope always + distended, and thus offering the least possible resistance to the wind. + The propelling power was the manual labour of eight men working the screw, + and the steerage was provided for by a triangular rudder. The trial, which + was carried out without mishap, took place in February, 1872, in the Fort + of Vincennes, under the personal direction of the inventor, when it was + found that the vessel readily obeyed the helm, and was capable of a speed + exceeding six miles an hour. + </p> + <p> + It was not till nine years after this that the next important trial with + air ships was made. The brothers Tissandier will then be found taking the + lead, and an appalling incident in the aeronautical career of one of these + has now to be recorded. + </p> + <p> + In the spring of 1875, and with the co-operation of French scientific + societies, it was determined to make two experimental voyages in a balloon + called the "Zenith," one of these to be of long duration, the other of + great height. The first of these had been successfully accomplished in a + flight of twenty-four hours' duration from Paris to Bordeaux. It was now + April the 15th, and the lofty flight was embarked upon by M. Gaston + Tissandier, accompanied by MM. Croce-Spinelli and Sivel. Under competent + advice, provision for respiration on emergency was provided in three small + balloons, filled with a mixture of air and oxygen, and fitted with + indiarubber hose pipes, which would allow the mixture, when inhaled, to + pass first through a wash bottle containing aromatic fluid. The + experiments determined on included an analysis of the proportion of + carbonic acid gas at different heights by means of special apparatus; + spectroscopic observations, and the readings registered by certain + barometers and thermometers. A novel and valuable experiment, also + arranged, was that of testing the internal temperature of the balloon as + compared with that of the external air. + </p> + <p> + Ascending at 11.30 a.m. under a warm sun, the balloon had by 1 p.m. + reached an altitude of 16,000 feet, when the external air was at freezing + point, the gas high in the balloon being 72 degrees, and at the centre 66 + degrees. Ere this height had been fully reached, however, the voyagers had + begun to breathe oxygen. At 11.57, an hour previously, Spinelli had + written in his notebook, "Slight pain in the ears—somewhat oppressed—it + is the gas." At 23,000 feet Sivel wrote in his notebook, "I am inhaling + oxygen—the effect is excellent," after which he proceeded to urge + the balloon higher by a discharge of ballast. The rest of the terrible + narrative has now to be taken from the notes of M. Tissandier, and as + these constitute one of the most thrilling narratives in aeronautical + records we transcribe them nearly in full, as given by Mr. Glaisher:— + </p> + <p> + "At 23,000 feet we were standing up in the car. Sivel, who had given up + for a moment, is re-invigorated. Croce-Spinelli is motionless in front of + me.... I felt stupefied and frozen. I wished to put on my fur gloves, but, + without being conscious of it, the action of taking them from my pocket + necessitated an effort that I could no longer make.... I copy, verbatim, + the following lines which were written by me, although I have no very + distinct remembrance of doing so. They are traced in a hardly legible + manner by a hand trembling with cold: 'My hands are frozen. I am all + right. We are all all right. Fog in the horizon, with little rounded + cirrus. We are ascending. Croce pants; he inhales oxygen. Sivel closes his + eyes. Croce also closes his eyes.... Sivel throws out ballast'—these + last words are hardly readable. Sivel seized his knife and cut + successively three cords, and the three bags emptied themselves and we + ascended rapidly. The last remembrance of this ascent which remains clear + to me relates to a moment earlier. Croce-Spinelli was seated, holding in + one hand a wash bottle of oxygen gas. His head was slightly inclined and + he seemed oppressed. I had still strength to tap the aneroid barometer to + facilitate the movement of the needle. Sivel had just raised his hand + towards the sky. As for myself, I remained perfectly still, without + suspecting that I had, perhaps, already lost the power of moving. About + the height of 25,000 feet the condition of stupefaction which ensues is + extraordinary. The mind and body weaken by degrees, and imperceptibly, + without consciousness of it. No suffering is then experienced; on the + contrary, an inner joy is felt like an irradiation from the surrounding + flood of light. One becomes indifferent. One thinks no more of the + perilous position or of danger. One ascends, and is happy to ascend. The + vertigo of the upper regions is not an idle word; but, so far as I can + judge from my personal impression, vertigo appears at the last moment; it + immediately precedes annihilation, sudden, unexpected, and irresistible. + </p> + <p> + "When Sivel cut away the bags of ballast at the height of about 24,000 + feet, I seemed to remember that he was sitting at the bottom of the car, + and nearly in the same position as Croce-Spinelli. For my part, I was in + the angle of the car, thanks to which support I was able to hold up; but I + soon felt too weak even to turn my head to look at my companions. Soon I + wished to take hold of the tube of oxygen, but it was impossible to raise + my arm. My mind, nevertheless, was quite clear. I wished to explain, 'We + are 8,000 metres high'; but my tongue was, as it were, paralysed. All at + once I closed my eyes, and, sinking down inert, became insensible. This + was about 1.30 p.m. At 2.8 p.m. I awoke for a moment, and found the + balloon rapidly descending. I was able to cut away a bag of ballast to + check the speed and write in my notebook the following lines, which I + copy: + </p> + <p> + "'We are descending. Temperature, 3 degrees. I throw out ballast. + Barometer, 12.4 inches. We are descending. Sivel and Croce still in a + fainting state at the bottom of the car. Descending very rapidly.' + </p> + <p> + "Hardly had I written these lines when a kind of trembling seized me, and + I fell back weakened again. There was a violent wind from below, upwards, + denoting a very rapid descent. After some minutes I felt myself shaken by + the arm, and I recognised Croce, who had revived. 'Throw out ballast,' he + said to me, 'we are descending '; but I could hardly open my eyes, and did + not see whether Sivel was awake. I called to mind that Croce unfastened + the aspirator, which he then threw overboard, and then he threw out + ballast, rugs, etc. + </p> + <p> + "All this is an extremely confused remembrance, quickly extinguished, for + again I fell back inert more completely than before, and it seemed to me + that I was dying. What happened? It is certain that the balloon, relieved + of a great weight of ballast, at once ascended to the higher regions. + </p> + <p> + "At 3.30 p.m. I opened my eyes again. I felt dreadfully giddy and + oppressed, but gradually came to myself. The balloon was descending with + frightful speed and making great oscillations. I crept along on my knees, + and I pulled Sivel and Croce by the arm. 'Sivel! Croce!' I exclaimed, + 'Wake up!' My two companions were huddled up motionless in the car, + covered by their cloaks. I collected all my strength, and endeavoured to + raise them up. Sivel's face was black, his eyes dull, and his mouth was + open and full of blood. Croce's eyes were half closed and his mouth was + bloody. + </p> + <p> + "To relate what happened afterwards is quite impossible. I felt a + frightful wind; we were still 9,700 feet high. There remained in the car + two bags of ballast, which I threw out. I was drawing near the earth. I + looked for my knife to cut the small rope which held the anchor, but could + not find it. I was like a madman, and continued to call 'Sivel! Sivel!' By + good fortune I was able to put my hand upon my knife and detach the anchor + at the right moment. The shock on coming to the ground was dreadful. The + balloon seemed as if it were being flattened. I thought it was going to + remain where it had fallen, but the wind was high, and it was dragged + across fields, the anchor not catching. The bodies of my unfortunate + friends were shaken about in the car, and I thought every moment they + would be jerked out. At length, however, I seized the valve line, and the + gas soon escaped from the balloon, which lodged against a tree. It was + then four o'clock. On stepping out, I was seized with a feverish attack, + and sank down and thought for a moment that I was going to join my friends + in the next world; but I came to. I found the bodies of my friends cold + and stiff. I had them put under shelter in an adjacent barn. The descent + of the 'Zenith' took place in the plains 155 miles from Paris as the crow + flies. The greatest height attained in this ascent is estimated at 28,000 + feet." + </p> + <p> + It was in 1884 that the brothers Tissandier commenced experiments with a + screw-propelled air ship resembling in shape those constructed by Giffard + and Dupuy de Lome, but smaller, measuring only 91 feet by 30 feet, and + operated by an electric motor placed in circuit with a powerful battery of + bichromate cells. Two trials were made with this vessel in October, 1883, + and again in the following September, when it proved itself capable of + holding its course in calm air and of being readily controlled by the + rudder. + </p> + <p> + But, ere this, a number of somewhat similar experiments, on behalf of the + French Government, had been entered upon by Captains Renard and Krebs at + Chalais-Meudon. Their balloon may be described as fish-shaped, 165 feet + long, and 27.5 feet in principal diameter. It was operated by an electric + motor, which was capable of driving a screw of large dimensions at + forty-eight revolutions per minute. At its first trial, in August, 1884, + in dead calm, it attained a velocity of over twelve miles per hour, + travelling some two and a half miles in a forward direction, when, by + application of the rudder and judicious management, it was manoeuvred + homewards, and practically brought to earth at the point of departure. + </p> + <p> + A more important trial was made on the 12th of the following month, and + was witnessed by M. Tissandier, according to whom the aerostat conveying + the inventors ascended gently and steadily, drifting with an appreciable + breeze until the screw was set in motion and the helm put down, when the + vessel was brought round to the wind and held its own until the motor, by + an accident, ceased working. A little later the same air ship met with + more signal success. On one occasion, starting from Chalais-Meudon, it + took a direct course to the N.E., crossing the railway and the Seine, + where the aeronauts, stopping the screw, ascertained the velocity of the + wind to be approximately five miles an hour. The screw being again put in + motion, the balloon was steered to the right, and, following a path + parallel to its first, returned to its point of departure. Starting again + the same afternoon, it was caused to perform a variety of aerial + evolutions, and after thirty-five minutes returned once more to its + starting place. + </p> + <p> + A tabular comparison of the four navigable balloons which we have now + described has been given as follows:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Date. Name. Motor. Vel. p. Sec. + 1852 M. Henri Giffard Steam engine 13.12 ft. + 1872 M. Dupuy de Lome Muscular force 9.18 ft. + 1883 MM. Tissandier Electric motor 9.84 ft. + 1884 MM. Renard & Krebs Electric motor 18.04 ft. +</pre> + <p> + About this period, that is in 1883, and really prior to the Meudon + experiments, there were other attempts at aerial locomotion not to be + altogether passed over, which were made also in France, but financed by + English money. The experiments were performed by Mr. F. A. Gower, who, + writing to Professor Tyndall, claims to have succeeded in "driving a large + balloon fairly against the wind by steam power." A melancholy interest + will always belong to these trials from the fact that Mr. Gower was + subsequently blown out to sea with his balloon, leaving no trace behind. + </p> + <p> + At this stage it will be well to glance at some of the more important + theories which were being mooted as to the possibility of aerial + locomotion properly so called. Broadly, there were two rival schools at + this time. We will call them the "lighter-than-air-ites" and the + "heavier-than-air-ites," respectively. The former were the advocates of + the air vessel of which the balloon is a type. The latter school + maintained that, as birds are heavier than air, so the air locomotive of + the future would be a machine itself heavier than air, but capable of + being navigated by a motor yet to be discovered, which would develop + proportionate power. Sir H. Maxim's words may be aptly quoted here. "In + all Nature," he says, "we do not find a single balloon. All Nature's + flying machines are heavier than the air, and depend altogether upon the + development of dynamic energy." + </p> + <p> + The faculty of soaring, possessed by many birds, of which the albatross + may be considered a type, led to numerous speculations as to what would + constitute the ideal principle of the air motor. Sir G. Cayley, as far + back as 1809, wrote a classical article on this subject, without, however, + adding much to its elucidation. Others after his time conceived that the + bird, by sheer habit and practice, could perform, as it were, a trick in + balancing by making use of the complex air streams varying in speed and + direction that were supposed to intermingle above. + </p> + <p> + Mr. R. A. Proctor discusses the matter with his usual clear-sightedness. + He premises that the bird may, in actual fact, only poise itself for some + ten minutes—an interval which many will consider far too small—without + flap of the wings, and, while contending that the problem must be simply a + mechanical one, is ready to admit that "the sustaining power of the air on + bodies of a particular form travelling swiftly through it may be much + greater or very different in character from what is supposed." In his + opinion, it is a fact that a flat body travelling swiftly and horizontally + will sink towards the ground much more slowly than a similar body moving + similarly but with less speed. In proof of this he gives the homely + illustration of a flat stone caused to make "ducks and drakes." Thus he + contends that the bird accomplishes its floating feat simply by occasional + powerful propulsive efforts, combined with perfect balance. From which he + deduces the corollary that "if ever the art of flying, or rather of making + flying machines, is attained by man, it will be by combining rapid motion + with the power of perfect balancing." + </p> + <p> + It will now appear as a natural and certain consequence that a feature to + be introduced by experimentalists into flying machines should be the + "Aeroplane," or, in other words, a plane which, at a desired angle, should + be driven at speed through the air. Most notable attempts with this + expedient were now shortly made by Hiram Maxim, Langley, and others. + </p> + <p> + But, contemporaneously with these attempts, certain feats with the rival + aerostat—the balloon—were accomplished, which will be most + fittingly told in this place. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0020" id="link2HCH0020"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XX. A CHAPTER OF ACCIDENTS. + </h2> + <p> + It will have been gathered from what has been already stated that the + balloonist is commonly in much uncertainty as to his precise course when + he is above the clouds, or when unable from darkness to see the earth + beneath him. With a view of overcoming this disadvantage some original + experiments were suggested by a distinguished officer, who during the + seventies had begun to interest himself in aeronautics. + </p> + <p> + This was Captain Burnaby. His method was to employ two small silk + parachutes, which, if required, might carry burning magnesium wires, and + which were to be attached to each other by a length of silk thread. On + dropping one parachute, it would first partake of the motion of the + balloon, but would presently drop below, when the second parachute would + be dismissed, and then an imaginary line drawn between the two bodies was + supposed to betray the balloon's course. It should be mentioned, however, + that if a careful study is made of the course of many descending + parachutes it will be found that their behaviour is too uncertain to be + relied upon for such a purpose as the above. They will often float behind + the balloon's wake, but sometimes again will be found in front, and + sometimes striking off in some side direction, so wayward and complex are + the currents which control such small bodies. Mr. Glaisher has stated that + a balloon's course above the clouds may be detected by observing the + grapnel, supposed to be hanging below the car, as this would be seen to be + out of the vertical as the balloon drifted, and thus serve to indicate the + course. However this may be, the most experienced sky sailors will be + found to be in perplexity as to their direction, as also their speed, when + view of the earth is obscured. + </p> + <p> + But Captain Burnaby is associated notably with the adventurous side of + ballooning, the most famous of his aerial exploits being, perhaps, that of + crossing the English Channel alone from Dover on March 23rd, 1882. + Outwardly, he made presence of sailing to Paris by sky to dine there that + evening; inwardly, he had determined to start simply with a wind which bid + fair for a cross-Channel trip, and to take whatever chances it might bring + him. + </p> + <p> + Thus, at 10.30 a.m., just as the mail packet left the pier, he cast off + with a lifting power which rapidly carried him to a height of 2,000 feet, + when he found his course to be towards Folkestone. But by shortly after 11 + o'clock he had decided that he was changing his direction, and when, as he + judged, some seven miles from Boulogne, the wind was carrying him not + across, but down the Channel. Then, for nearly four hours, the balloon + shifted about with no improvement in the outlook, after which the wind + fell calm, and the balloon remained motionless at 2,000 feet above the + sea. This state of things continuing for an hour, the Captain resolved on + the heroic expedient of casting out all his ballast and philosophically + abiding the issue. The manoeuvre turned out a happy one, for the balloon, + shooting up to 11,000 feet, caught a current, on which it was rapidly + carried towards and over the main land; and, when twelve miles beyond + Dieppe, it became easy to descend to a lower level by manipulation of the + valve, and finally to make a successful landing in open country beyond. + </p> + <p> + A few years before, an attempt to cross the Channel from the other side + ended far more disastrously. Jules Duruof, already mentioned as having + piloted the first runaway balloon from beleaguered Paris, had determined + on an attempt to cross over to England from Calais; and, duly advertising + the event, a large concourse assembled on the day announced, clamouring + loudly for the ascent. But the wind proved unsuitable, setting out over + the North Sea, and the mayor thought fit to interfere, and had the car + removed so as to prevent proceedings. On this the crowd grew impatient, + and Duruof, determining to keep faith with them, succeeded by an artifice + in regaining his car, which he hastily carried back to the balloon, and + immediately taking his seat, and accompanied by his wife, the intrepid + pair commenced their bold flight just as the shades of evening were + settling down. Shortly the balloon disappeared into the gathering + darkness, and then for three days Calais knew no more of balloon or + balloonists. + </p> + <p> + Neither could the voyagers see aught for certain of their own course, and + thus through the long night hours their attention was wholly needed, + without chance of sleep, in closely watching their situation, lest + unawares they should be borne down on the waves. When morning broke they + discovered that they were still being carried out over the sea on a + furious gale, being apparently off the Danish coast, with the distant + mountains of Norway dimly visible on the starboard bow. It was at this + point, and possibly owing to the chill commonly experienced aloft soon + after dawn, that the balloon suddenly took a downward course and plunged + into the sea, happily, however, fairly in the track of vessels. Presently + a ship came in sight, but cruelly kept on its course, leaving the + castaways in despair, with their car fast succumbing to the waves. + </p> + <p> + Help, nevertheless, was really at hand. The captain of an English fishing + smack, the Grand Charge, had sighted the sinking balloon, and was already + bearing down to the rescue. It is said that when, at length, a boat came + alongside as near as it was possible, Madame Duruof was unable to make the + necessary effort to jump on board, and her husband had to throw her into + the arms of the sailors. A fitting sequel to the story comes from Paris, + where the heroic couple, after a sojourn in England, were given a splendid + reception and a purse of money, with which M. Duruof forthwith constructed + a new balloon, named the "Ville de Calais." + </p> + <p> + On the 4th of March, 1882, the ardent amateur balloonist, Mr. Simmons, had + a narrow escape in circumstances somewhat similar to the above. He was + attempting, in company with Colonel Brine, to cross the Channel from + Canterbury, when a change of wind carried them out towards the North Sea. + Falling in the water, they abandoned their balloon, but were rescued by + the mail packet Foam. + </p> + <p> + The same amateur aeronaut met with an exciting experience not long after, + when in company with Sir Claude C. de Crespigny. The two adventurers left + Maldon, in Essex, at 11 p.m., on an August night, and, sailing at a great + height out to sea, lost all sight of land till 6 a.m. the next morning, + when, at 17,000 feet altitude, they sighted the opposite coast and + descended in safety near Flushing. + </p> + <p> + Yet another adventure at sea, and one which proved fatal and unspeakably + regrettable, occurred about this time, namely, on the 10th of December, + 1881, when Captain Templer, Mr. W. Powell, M.P., and Mr. Agg-Gardner + ascended from Bath. We prefer to give the account as it appears in a + leading article in the Times for December 13th of that year. + </p> + <p> + After sailing over Glastonbury, "Crewkerne was presently sighted, then + Beaminster. The roar of the sea gave the next indication of the locality + to which the balloon had drifted and the first hint of the possible perils + of the voyage. A descent was now effected to within a few hundred feet of + earth, and an endeavour was made to ascertain the exact position they had + reached. The course taken by the balloon between Beaminster and the sea is + not stated in Captain Templer's letter. The wind, as far as we can gather, + must have shifted, or different currents of air must have been found at + the different altitudes. What Captain Templer says is that they coasted + along to Symonsbury, passing, it would seem, in an easterly direction and + keeping still very near to the earth. Soon after they had left Symonsbury, + Captain Templer shouted to a man below to tell them how far they were from + Bridport, and he received for answer that Bridport was about a mile off. + The pace at which the balloon was moving had now increased to thirty-five + miles an hour. The sea was dangerously close, and a few minutes in a + southerly current of air would have been enough to carry them over it. + They seem, however, to have been confident in their own powers of + management. They threw out ballast, and rose to a height of 1,500 feet, + and thence came down again only just in time, touching the ground at a + distance of about 150 yards from the cliff. The balloon here dragged for a + few feet, and Captain Templer, who had been letting off the gas, rolled + out of the car, still holding the valve line in his hand. This was the + last chance of a safe escape for anybody. The balloon, with its weight + lightened, went up about eight feet. Mr. Agg-Gardner dropped out and broke + his leg. Mr. Powell now remained as the sole occupant of the car. Captain + Templer, who had still hold of the rope, shouted to Mr. Powell to come + down the line. This he attempted to do, but in a few seconds, and before + he could commence his perilous descent, the line was torn out of Captain + Templer's hands. All communication with the earth was cut off, and the + balloon rose rapidly, taking Mr. Powell with it in a south-easterly + direction out to sea." + </p> + <p> + It was a few seasons previous to this, namely, on the 8th of July, 1874, + when Mr. Simmons was concerned in a balloon fatality of a peculiarly + distressing nature. A Belgian, Vincent de Groof, styling himself the + "Flying Man," announced his intention of descending in a parachute from a + balloon piloted by Mr. Simmons, who was to start from Cremorne Gardens. + The balloon duly ascended, with De Groof in his machine suspended below, + and when over St. Luke's Church, and at a height estimated at 80 feet, it + is thought that the unfortunate man overbalanced himself after detaching + his apparatus, and fell forward, clinging to the ropes. The machine failed + to open, and De Groof was precipitated into Robert Street, Chelsea, + expiring almost immediately. The porter of Chelsea Infirmary, who was + watching the balloon, asserted that he fancied the falling man called out + twice, "Drop into the churchyard; look out!" Mr. Simmons, shooting upwards + in his balloon, thus suddenly lightened, to a great height, became + insensible, and when he recovered consciousness found himself over + Victoria Park. He made a descent, without mishap, on a line of railway in + Essex. + </p> + <p> + On the 19th of August, 1887, occurred an important total eclipse of the + sun, the track of which lay across Germany, Russia, Western Siberia, and + Japan. At all suitable stations along the shadow track astronomers from + all parts of the world established themselves; but at many eclipses + observers had had bad fortune owing to the phenomenon at the critical + moment being obscured. And on this account one astronomer determined on + measures which should render his chances of a clear view a practical + certainty. Professor Mendeleef, in Russia, resolved to engage a balloon, + and by rising above the cloud barrier, should there be one, to have the + eclipse all to himself. It was an example of fine enthusiasm, which, + moreover, was presently put to a severe and unexpected test, for the + balloon, when inflated, proved unable to take up both the aeronaut and the + astronomer, whereupon the latter, though wholly inexperienced, had no + alternative but to ascend alone, which, either by accident or choice, he + actually did. Shooting up into space, he soon reached an altitude of + 11,500 feet, where he obtained, even if he did not enjoy, an unobstructed + view of the Corona. It may be supposed, however, that, owing to the + novelty of his situation, his scientific observations may not have been so + complete as they would have been on terra firma. + </p> + <p> + In the same month an attempt to reach a record height was made by MM. + Jovis and Mallet at Paris, with the net result that an elevation of 23,000 + feet was reached. It will have been noted that the difficulty through + physical exhaustion of inhaling oxygen from either a bag or cylinder is a + serious matter not easily overcome, and it has been suggested that the + helmet invented by M. Fleuss might prove of value. This contrivance, which + has scarcely attracted the attention it has merited, provides a receptacle + for respiration, containing oxygen and certain purifying media, by means + of which the inventor was able to remain for hours under water without any + communication with the outward air. + </p> + <p> + About the period at which we have now arrived two fatal accidents befel + English aeronauts. We have related how Maldon, in Essex, was associated + with one of the more adventurous exploits in Mr. Simmons's career. It was + fated also to be associated with the voyage with which his career closed. + On August 27th, 1888, he ascended from Olympia in company with Mr. Field, + of West Brighton, and Mr. Myers, of the Natural History Museum, with the + intention, if practicable, of crossing to Flanders; and the voyage + proceeded happily until the neighbourhood of Maldon was reached, when, as + the sea coast was in sight, and it was already past five o'clock, it + appeared prudent to Mr. Simmons to descend and moor the balloon for the + night. Some labourers some three miles from Maldon sighted the balloon + coming up at speed, and at the same time descending until its grapnel + commenced tearing through a field of barley, when ballast was thrown out, + causing the balloon to rise again towards and over some tall elms, which + became the cause of the disaster which followed. The grapnel, catching in + the upper boughs of one of these trees, held fast, while the balloon, + borne by the force of a strong wind, was repeatedly blown down to earth + with violence, rebounding each time to a considerable height, only to be + flung down again on the same spot. After three or four impacts the balloon + is reported to have burst with a loud noise, when high in the air, the + silk being blown about over the field, and the car and its occupants + dashed to the ground. Help was unavailing till this final catastrophe, and + when, at length, the labourers were able to extricate the party, Mr. + Simmons was found with a fractured skull and both companions badly + injured. + </p> + <p> + Four summers later, June 30th, 1892, Captain Dale, the aeronaut to the + Crystal Palace, was announced to make an ascent from the usual balloon + grounds, weather permitting. Through the night and morning a violent storm + prevailed, and it was contemplated that the exhibition would be withdrawn; + but the wind abating in the afternoon, the inflation was proceeded with, + and the ascent took place shortly before 6 p.m., not, however, before a + large rent had been discovered and repaired as far as possible by Mrs. + Dale. As passengers, there ascended the Captain's son William, aged + nineteen, Mr. J. Macintosh, and Mr. Cecil Shadbolt. When the balloon had + reached an altitude estimated at 600 feet the onlookers were horrified to + see it suddenly collapse, a large rent having developed near the top part + of the silk, from which the gas "rushed out in a dense mass, allowing the + balloon to fall like a rag." The occupants of the car were seen to be + throwing out everything madly, even wrenching the buttons from their + clothing. All, however, with little avail, for the balloon fell "with a + sickening thud," midway between the Maze and lower lake. All were found + alive; but Captain Dale, who had alighted on his back, died in a few + minutes; Mr. Shadbolt succumbed later, and both remaining passengers + sustained terrible injuries. + </p> + <p> + Few balloon mishaps, unattended with fatal results, have proved more + exciting than the following. A large party had ascended from Belfast, in a + monster balloon, under the guidance of Mr. Coxwell, on a day which was + very unfit for the purpose by reason of stormy weather. A more serious + trouble than the wind, however, lay in several of the passengers + themselves, who seem to have been highly excitable Irishmen, incapable at + the critical moment of quietly obeying orders. + </p> + <p> + The principal hero of the story, a German. Mr. Runge, in writing + afterwards to the Ulster Observer, entirely exonerates Mr. Coxwell from + any blame, attributing his mischances solely to the reprehensible conduct + of his companions. On approaching the ground, Mr. Coxwell gave clear + instructions. The passengers were to sit down in an unconstrained position + facing each other, and be prepared for some heavy shocks. Above all things + they were to be careful to get out one by one, and on no account to leave + hold of the car. Many of the passengers, however, refused to sit down, + and, according to Mr. Runge, "behaved in the wildest manner, losing + completely their self-control. Seizing the valve rope themselves, they + tore it away from its attachment, the stronger pushing back the weaker, + and refusing to lend help when they had got out. In consequence of this + the car, relieved of their weight, tore away from the grasp of Mr. Coxwell + and those who still clung to it, and rose above the trees, with Mr. Runge + and one other passenger, Mr. Halferty, alone within. As the balloon came + earthwards again, they shouted to the countrymen for succour, but without + the slightest avail, and presently, the anchor catching, the car struck + the earth with a shock which threw Mr. Halferty out on the ground, leaving + Mr. Runge to rise again into the air, this time alone." He thus continues + the story:— + </p> + <p> + "The balloon moved on, very soon, in a horizontal direction straight + towards the sea, which we were then rapidly nearing. Coming to a farm, I + shouted out to the people standing there. Some women, with their quick + humane instincts, were the first to perceive my danger, and exhorted the + men to hurry to my assistance, they themselves running as fast as they + could to tender what little help they might be able to give me. The anchor + stuck in a willow tree. I shouted out to the people below to secure the + cable and anchor by ropes, which they did. The evening was now beautifully + still, the breeze had died away, and the balloon was swinging calmly at + her moorings above the farmhouse. One of the men asked me whether I had a + rope with me, and how I intended to get out. I told them only to take care + of the cable, because the balloon would settle down by herself before + long. I was congratulating myself on a speedy escape from my dangerous + position. I had not counted on the wind. A breeze in about six or eight + minutes sprang up, tossed the balloon about like a large sail, then a + crash, and—the anchor was loose again. It tore through the trees, + flinging limbs and branches about like matches. It struck the roof of the + farmhouse, splintering the chimneys and tiles like glass. + </p> + <p> + "On I went; I came near another farm; shouted out for help, and told the + men to secure the anchor to the foot of a large tree close by. The anchor + was soon made fast, but this was only a momentary relief. The breeze again + filled the half-empty balloon like a sail, there was a severe strain on + the cable, then a dull sound, and a severe concussion of the basket—the + cable, strange fatality, had broken, and the anchor, my last and only + hope, was gone. I was now carried on in a straight direction towards the + sea, which was but a short distance ahead. The anchor being lost I gave up + all hope. I sat down resigned in the car, and prepared for the end. All at + once I discovered that a side current was drifting me towards the + mountain; the car struck the ground, and was dashing along at a fearful + rate, knocking down stone fences and breaking everything it came in + contact with in its wild career. By-and-by the knocks became less + frequent. We were passing over a cultivated country, and the car was, as + it were skimming the surface and grazing the top of the hedges. I saw a + thick hawthorn hedge at some distance before me, and the balloon rapidly + sweeping towards it. That was my only chance. I rushed to the edge of the + car and flung myself down upon the hedge." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0021" id="link2HCH0021"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXI. THE COMING OF THE FLYING MACHINE. + </h2> + <p> + In the early nineties the air ship was engaging the attention of many + inventors, and was making important strides in the hands of Mr. Maxim. + This unrivalled mechanician, in stating the case, premises that a motive + power has to be discovered which can develop at least as much power in + proportion to its weight as a bird is able to develop. He asserts that a + heavy bird, with relatively small wings—such as a goose—carries + about 150 lb. to the horse power, while the albatross or the vulture, + possessed of proportionately greater winged surface, can carry about 250 + lbs. per horse power. + </p> + <p> + Professor Langley, of Washington, working contemporaneously, but + independently of Mr. Maxim, had tried exhaustive experiments on a rotating + arm (characteristically designated by Mr. Maxim a "merry-go-round"), + thirty feet long, applying screw propellers. He used, for the most part, + small planes, carrying loads of only two or three pounds, and, under these + circumstances, the weight carried was at the rate of 250 lbs. per horse + power. His important statements with regard to these trials are that + one-horse power will transport a larger weight at twenty miles an hour + than at ten, and a still larger at forty miles than at twenty, and so on; + that "the sustaining pressure of the air on a plane moving at a small + angle of inclination to a horizontal path is many times greater than would + result from the formula implicitly given by Newton, while, whereas in land + or marine transport increased speed is maintained only by a + disproportionate expenditure of power within the limits of experiment, in + aerial horizontal transport the higher speeds are more economical of power + than the lower ones." + </p> + <p> + This Mr. Maxim is evidently ready to endorse, stating, in his own words, + that birds obtain the greater part of their support by moving forward with + sufficient velocity so as to be constantly resting on new air, the inertia + of which has not been disturbed. Mr. Maxim's trials were on a scale + comparable with all his mechanical achievements. He employed for his + experiments a rotating arm, sweeping out a circle, the circumference of + which was 200 feet. To the end of this arm he attached a cigar-shaped + apparatus, driven by a screw, and arranged in such a manner that + aero-planes could be attached to it at any angle. These planes were on a + large scale, carrying weights of from 20 lbs. to 100 lbs. With this + contrivance he found that, whatever push the screw communicated to the + aero-plane, "the plane would lift in a vertical direction from ten to + fifteen times as much as the horizontal push that it received from the + screw, and which depended upon the angle at which the plane was set, and + the speed at which the apparatus was travelling through the air." Next, + having determined by experiment the power required to perform artificial + flight, Mr. Maxim applied himself to designing the requisite motor. "I + constructed," he states, "two sets of compound engines of tempered steel, + all the parts being made very light and strong, and a steam generator of + peculiar construction, the greater part of the heating surface consisting + of small and thin copper tubes. For fuel I employed naphtha." + </p> + <p> + This Mr. Maxim wrote in 1892, adding that he was then experimenting with a + large machine, having a spread of over 100 feet. Labour, skill, and money + were lavishly devoted henceforward to the great task undertaken, and it + was not long before the giant flying machine, the outcome of so much + patient experimenting, was completed and put to a practical trial. Its + weight was 7,500 lbs. The screw propellers were nearly 18 feet in + diameter, each with two blades, while the engines were capable of being + run up to 360 horse power. The entire machine was mounted on an inner + railway track of 9 feet and an outer of 35 feet gauge, while above there + was a reversed rail along which the machine would begin to run so soon as + with increase of speed it commenced to lift itself off the inner track. + </p> + <p> + In one of the latest experiments it was found that when a speed of 42 + miles an hour was attained all the wheels were running on the upper track, + and revolving in the opposite direction from those on the lower track. + However, after running about 1,000 feet, an axle tree doubled up, and + immediately afterwards the upper track broke away, and the machine, + becoming liberated, floated in the air, "giving those on board a sensation + of being in a boat." + </p> + <p> + The experiment proved conclusively to the inventor that a machine could be + made on a large scale, in which the lifting effect should be considerably + greater than the weight of the machine, and this, too, when a steam engine + was the motor. When, therefore, in the years shortly following, the steam + engine was for the purposes of aerial locomotion superseded by the lighter + and more suitable petrol engine, the construction of a navigable air ship + became vastly more practicable. Still, in Sir H. Maxim's opinion, lately + expressed, "those who seek to navigate the air by machines lighter than + the air have come, practically, to the end of their tether," while, on the + other hand, "those who seek to navigate the air with machines heavier than + the air have not even made a start as yet, and the possibilities before + them are very great indeed." + </p> + <p> + As to the assertion that the aerial navigators last mentioned "have not + even made a start as yet," we can only say that Sir H. Maxim speaks with + far too much modesty. His own colossal labours in the direction of that + mode of aerial flight, which he considers to be alone feasible, are of the + first importance and value, and, as far as they have gone, exhaustive. Had + his experiments been simply confined to his classical investigations of + the proper form of the screw propeller his name would still have been + handed down as a true pioneer in aeronautics. His work, however, covers + far wider ground, and he has, in a variety of ways, furnished practical + and reliable data, which must always be an indispensable guide to every + future worker in the same field. + </p> + <p> + Professor Langley, in attacking the same problem, first studied the + principle and behaviour of a well-known toy—the model invented by + Penaud, which, driven by the tension of india-rubber, sustains itself in + the air for a few seconds. He constructed over thirty modifications of + this model, and spent many months in trying from these to as certain what + he terms the "laws of balancing leading to horizontal flight." His best + endeavours at first, however, showed that he needed three or four feet of + sustaining surface to a pound of weight, whereas he calculated that a bird + could soar with a surface of less than half a foot to the pound. He next + proceeded to steam-driven models in which for a time he found an + insuperable difficulty in keeping down the weight, which, in practice, + always exceeded his calculation; and it was not till the end of 1893 that + he felt himself prepared for a fair trial. At this time he had prepared a + model weighing between nine and ten pounds, and he needed only a suitable + launching apparatus to be used over water. The model would, like a bird, + require an initial velocity imparted to it, and the discovery of a + suitable apparatus gave him great trouble. For the rest the facilities for + launching were supplied by a houseboat moored on the Potomac. Foiled again + and again by many difficulties, it was not till after repeated failures + and the lapse of many months, when, as the Professor himself puts it, hope + was low, that success finally came. It was in the early part of 1896 that + a successful flight was accomplished in the presence of Dr. Bell, of + telephone fame, and the following is a brief epitome of the account that + this accomplished scientist contributed to the columns of Nature:— + </p> + <p> + "The flying machine, built, apparently, almost entirely of metal, was + driven by an engine said to weigh, with fuel and water, about 25 lbs., the + supporting surface from tip to tip being 12 or 14 feet. Starting from a + platform about 20 feet high, the machine rose at first directly in the + face of the wind, moving with great steadiness, and subsequently wheeling + in large curves until steam was exhausted, when, from a height of 80 or + 100 feet, it shortly settled down. The experiment was then repeated with + similar results. Its motion was so steady that a glass of water might have + remained unspilled. The actual length of flight each time, which lasted + for a minute and a half, exceeded half a mile, while the velocity was + between twenty and twenty-five miles an hour in a course that was + constantly taking it 'up hill.' A yet more successful flight was + subsequently made." + </p> + <p> + But flight of another nature was being courageously attempted at this + time. Otto Lilienthal, of Berlin, in imitation of the motion of birds, + constructed a flying apparatus which he operated himself, and with which + he could float down from considerable elevations. "The feat," he warns + tyros, "requires practice. In the beginning the height should be moderate, + and the wings not too large, or the wind will soon show that it is not to + be trifled with." The inventor commenced with all due caution, making his + first attempt over a grass plot from a spring board one metre high, and + subsequently increasing this height to two and a half metres, from which + elevation he could safely cross the entire grass plot. Later he launched + himself from the lower ridges of a hill 250 feet high, when he sailed to a + distance of over 250 yards, and this time he writes enthusiastically of + his self-taught accomplishment:— + </p> + <p> + "To those who, from a modest beginning and with gradually increased extent + and elevation of flight have gained full control over the apparatus, it is + not in the least dangerous to cross deep and broad ravines. It is a + difficult task to convey to one who has never enjoyed aerial flight a + clear perception of the exhilarating pleasure of this elastic motion. The + elevation above the ground loses its terrors, because we have learned by + experience what sure dependence may be placed upon the buoyancy of the + air." + </p> + <p> + As a commentary to the above we extract the following:—"We have to + record the death of Otto Lilienthal, whose soaring machine, during a + gliding flight, suddenly tilted over at a height of about 60 feet, by + which mishap he met an untimely death on August 9th, 1896." Mr. O. + Chanute, C.E. of Chicago, took up the study of gliding flight at the point + where Lilienthal left it, and, later, Professor Fitzgerald and others. + Besides that invented by Penaud, other aero-plane models demanding mention + had been produced by Tatin, Moy, Stringfellow, and Lawrence Hargrave, of + Australia, the subsequent inventor of the well-known cellular kite. These + models, for the most part, aim at the mechanical solution of the problem + connected with the soaring flight of a bird. + </p> + <p> + The theoretical solution of the same problem had been attacked by + Professor Langley in a masterly monograph, entitled "The Internal Work of + the Wind." By painstaking experiment with delicate instruments, specially + constructed, the Professor shows that wind in general, so far from being, + as was commonly assumed, mere air put in motion with an approximately + uniform velocity in the same strata, is, in reality, variable and + irregular in its movements beyond anything which had been anticipated, + being made up, in fact, of a succession of brief pulsations in different + directions, and of great complexity. These pulsations, he argues, if of + sufficient amplitude and frequency, would be capable, by reason of their + own "internal work," of sustaining or even raising a suitably curved + surface which was being carried along by the main mean air stream. This + would account for the phenomenon of "soaring." Lord Rayleigh, discussing + the same problem, premises that when a bird is soaring the air cannot be + moving uniformly and horizontally. Then comes the natural question, Is it + moving in ascending currents? Lord Rayleigh has frequently noticed such + currents, particularly above a cliff facing the wind. Again, to quote + another eminent authority, Major Baden-Powell, on an occasion when flying + one of his own kites, found it getting to so high an angle that it + presently rose absolutely overhead, with the string perpendicular. He then + took up a heavy piece of wood, which, when tied to the string, began to + rise in the air. He satisfied himself that this curious result was solely + due to a strong uptake of the air. + </p> + <p> + But, again, Lord Rayleigh, lending support to Professor Langley's + argument, points out that the apparent cause of soaring may be the + non-uniformity of the wind. The upper currents are generally stronger than + the lower, and it is mechanically possible for a bird, taking advantage of + two adjacent air streams, different in velocity, to maintain itself in air + without effort on its own part. + </p> + <p> + Lord Rayleigh, proceeding to give his views on artificial flight, declares + the main problem of the flying machine to be the problem of the aerial + plane. He states the case thus:—"Supposing a plane surface to be + falling vertically at the rate of four miles an hour, and also moving + horizontally at the rate of twenty miles an hour, it might have been + supposed that the horizontal motion would make no difference to the + pressure on its under surface which the falling plane must experience. We + are told, however, that in actual trial the horizontal motion much + increases the pressure under the falling plane, and it is this fact on + which the possibility of natural and artificial flight depends." + </p> + <p> + Ere this opinion had been stated by Lord Rayleigh in his discourse on + "Flight," at the Royal Institution, there were already at work upon the + aero-plane a small army of inventors, of whom it will be only possible in + a future chapter to mention some. Due reference, however, should here be + made to Mr. W. F. Wenham, of Boston, U.S.A., who had been at work on + artificial flight for many years, and to whose labours in determining + whether man's power is sufficient to raise his own weight Lord Rayleigh + paid a high tribute. As far back as 1866 Mr. Wenham had published a paper + on aerial locomotion, in which he shows that any imitation by man of the + far-extended wings of a bird might be impracticable, the alternative being + to arrange the necessary length of wing as a series of aero-planes, a + conception far in advance of many theorists of his time. + </p> + <p> + But there had been developments in aerostation in other lines, and it is + time to turn from the somewhat tedious technicalities of mechanical flight + and the theory or practice of soaring, to another important means for + traversing the air—the parachute. This aerial machine, long laid + aside, was to lend its aid to the navigation of the air with a reliability + never before realised. Professor Baldwin, as he was termed, an American + aeronaut, arrived in England in the summer of 1888, and commenced giving a + series of exhibitions from the Alexandra Palace with a parachute of his + own invention, which, in actual performance, seems to have been the most + perfect instrument of the kind up to that time devised. It was said to be + about 18 feet in diameter, whereas that of Garnerin, already mentioned, + had a diameter of some 30 feet, and was distinctly top-heavy, owing to its + being thus inadequately ballasted; for it was calculated that its enormous + size would have served for the safe descent, not of one man, but of four + or five. Baldwin's parachute, on the contrary, was reckoned to give safe + descent to 250 lbs., which would include weight of man and apparatus, and + reduce the ultimate fall to one not exceeding 8 feet. The parachute was + attached to the ring of a small balloon of 12,000 cubic feet, and the + Professor ascended, sitting on a mere sling of rope, which did duty for a + car. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Thomas Moy, who investigated the mechanics of the contrivance, + estimated that after a drop of 16 feet, the upward pressure, amounting to + over 2 lb. per square foot, would act on a surface of not less than 254 + square feet. There was, at the time, much foolish comment on the great + distance which the parachute fell before it opened, a complete delusion + due to the fact that observers failed to see that at the moment of + separation the balloon itself sprang upward. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0022" id="link2HCH0022"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXII. THE STORY OF THE SPENCERS. + </h2> + <p> + It has been in the hands of the Spencers that the parachute, as also many + other practical details of aeronautics, has been perfected, and some due + sketch of the career of this family of eminent aeronauts must be no longer + delayed. + </p> + <p> + Charles Green had stood godfather to the youngest son of his friend and + colleague, Mr. Edward Spencer, and in later years, as though to vindicate + the fact, this same son took up the science of aeronautics at the point + where his father had left it. We find his name in the records of the + Patent Office of 1868 as the inventor of a manumetric flying machine, and + there are accounts of the flying leaps of several hundred feet which he + was enabled to take by means of the machine he constructed. Again, in 1882 + we find him an inventor, this time of the patent asbestos fire balloon, by + means of which the principal danger to such balloons was overcome. + </p> + <p> + At this point it is needful to make mention of the third generation—the + several sons who early showed their zeal and aptitude for perpetuating the + family tradition. It was from his school playground that the eldest son, + Percival, witnessed with intense interest what appeared like a drop + floating in the sky at an immense altitude. This proved to be Simmons's + balloon, which had just risen to a vast elevation over Cremorne Gardens, + after having liberated the unfortunate De Groof, as mentioned in a former + chapter. And one may be sure that the terrible reality of the disaster + that had happened was not lost on the young schoolboy. But his wish was to + become an aeronauts, and from this desire nothing deterred him, so that + school days were scarcely over before he began to accompany his father + aloft, and in a very few years, i.e. in 1888, he had assumed the full + responsibilities of a professional balloonist. + </p> + <p> + It was in this year that Professor Baldwin appeared in England, and it is + easy to understand that the parachute became an object of interest to the + young Spencer, who commenced on his own account a series of trials at the + Alexandra Palace, and it was now, also, that chance good fortune came his + way. An Indian gentleman, who was witness of his experiments, and + convinced that a favourable field for their further development existed in + his own country, proposed to the young aspirant that he should accompany + him to India, with equipment suited for the making of a successful + campaign. + </p> + <p> + Thus it came about that in the early days of 1889, in the height of the + season, Mr. Percival Spencer arrived at Bombay, and at once commenced + professional business in earnest. Coal gas being here available, a maiden + ascent was quickly arranged, and duly announced to take place at the + Government House, Paral, the chief attraction being the parachute descent, + the first ever attempted in India. + </p> + <p> + This preliminary exhibition proving in all ways a complete success, Mr. + Spencer, after a few repetitions of his performance, repaired to Calcutta; + but here great difficulties were experienced in the matter of gas. The + coal gas available was inadequate, and when recourse was had to pure + hydrogen the supply proved too sluggish. At the advertised hour of + departure the balloon was not sufficiently inflated, while the spectators + were growing impatient. It was at this critical moment that Mr. Spencer + resolved on a surprise. Suddenly casting off the parachute, and seated on + a mere sling below the half-inflated balloon, without ballast, without + grapnel, and unprovided with a valve, he sailed away over the heads of the + multitude. + </p> + <p> + The afternoon was already far advanced, and the short tropical twilight + soon gave way to darkness, when the intrepid voyager disappeared + completely from sight. Excitement was intense that night in Calcutta, and + greater still the next day when, as hour after hour went by, no news save + a series of wild and false reports reached the city. Trains arriving from + the country brought no intelligence, and telegraphic enquiries sent in all + directions proved fruitless. The Great Eastern Hotel, where the young man + had been staying, was literally besieged for hours by a large crowd eager + for any tidings. Then the Press gave expression to the gloomiest + forebodings, and the town was in a fever of unrest. From the direction the + balloon had taken it was thought that, even if the aeronaut had descended + in safety, he could only have been landed in the jungle of the + Sunderbunds, beset with perils, and without a chance of succour. A large + reward was offered for reliable information, and orders were issued to + every likely station to organise a search. But ere this was fully carried + into effect messages were telegraphed to England definitely asserting that + Mr. Spencer had lost his life. For all this, after three days he returned + to Calcutta, none the worse for the exploit. + </p> + <p> + Then the true tale was unravelled. The balloon had changed its course from + S.E. to E. after passing out of sight of Calcutta, and eventually came to + earth the same evening in the neighbourhood of Hossainabad, thirty-six + miles distant. During his aerial flight the voyager's main trouble had + been caused by his cramped position, the galling of his sling seat, and + the numbing effect of cold as he reached high altitudes; but, as twilight + darkened into gloom, his real anxiety was with respect to his place of + landing, for he could with difficulty see the earth underneath. He heard + the distant roll of the waters, caused by the numerous creeks which + intersect the delta of the Ganges, and when darkness completely shut out + the view it was impossible to tell whether he was over land or sea. + Fortune favoured him, however, and reaching dry ground, he sprang from his + seat, relinquishing at the same moment his hold of the balloon, which + instantly disappeared into the darkness. + </p> + <p> + Then his wanderings began. He was in an unknown country, without knowledge + of the language, and with only a few rupees in his pocket. Presently, + however, seeing a light, he proceeded towards it, but only to find himself + stopped by a creek. Foiled more than once in this way, he at length + arrived at the dwelling of a family of natives, who promptly fled in + terror. To inspire confidence and prove that he was mortal, Mr. Spencer + threw his coat over the mud wall of the compound, with the result that, + after examination of the garment, he was received and cared for in true + native fashion, fed with rice and goat's milk, and allowed the use of the + verandah to sleep in. He succeeded in communing with the natives by dint + of lead pencil sketches and dumb show, and learned, among other things, + that he had descended in a little clearing surrounded by woods, and + bounded by tidal creeks, which were infested with alligators. Yet, in the + end, the waterways befriended him; for, as he was being ferried across, he + chanced on his balloon sailing down on the tide, recovered it, and used + the tidal waters for the return journey. + </p> + <p> + The greeting upon his arrival in Calcutta was enthusiastic beyond + description from both Europeans and natives. The hero of the adventure was + visited by rajahs and notables, who vied with each other in expressions of + welcome, in making presents, even inviting him to visit the sacred + precincts of their zenanas. The promised parachute descent was + subsequently successfully made at Cossipore, and then followed a busy, + brilliant season, after which the wanderer returned to England. By + September he is in Dublin, and makes the first parachute descent ever + witnessed in Ireland; but by November he is in Bombay again, whence, + proceeding to Calcutta, he repeats his success of the year before. Next he + visits Allahabad, where the same fortune attends him, though his balloon + flies away in a temporary escape into the Jumna. By May he is ascending at + Singapore, armed here, however, with a cork jacket. + </p> + <p> + Hence, flushed with success, he repairs to the Dutch Indies, and + demonstrates to the Dutch officers the use of the balloon in war. As a + natural consequence, he is moved up to the seat of the Achinese War in + Sumatra, where, his balloon being moored to the rear of an armoured train, + an immediate move is made to the front, and orders are forthwith + telephoned from various centres to open fire on the enemy. Mr. Spencer, + the while accompanied by an officer, makes a captive ascent, in which for + some time he is actually under the enemy's fire. The result of this plucky + experiment is a most flattering official report. In all the + above-mentioned ascents he made his own gas without a hitch. + </p> + <p> + Thence he travels on with the same trusty little 12,000 cubic feet + balloon, the same programme, and the same success. This is slightly + varied, however, at Kobe, Japan, where his impatient craft fairly breaks + away with him, and, soaring high, flies overhead of a man-of-war, and + plumps into the water a mile out at sea. But "Smartly" was the word. The + ship's crew was beat to quarters, and within one minute a boat was to the + rescue. An ascent at Cairo, where he made a parachute descent in sight of + the Pyramids and landed in the desert, completed this oriental tour, and + home duties necessitated his return to England. Among exploits far too + many to enumerate may be mentioned four several occasions when Mr. + Percival Spencer has crossed the English Channel. + </p> + <p> + It fell to the lot of the second son, Arthur, to carry fame into fresh + fields. In the year 1897 he visited Australia, taking with him two + balloons, one of these being a noble craft of 80,000 cubic feet, + considerably larger than any balloon used in England, and the singular + fate of this aerial monster is deserving of mention. + </p> + <p> + Its trial trip in the new country was arranged to take place on Boxing Day + in the Melbourne Exhibition ground, and for the lengthy and critical work + of inflation the able assistance of British bluejackets was secured. To + all appearance, the main difficulties to be provided against were likely + to arise simply from a somewhat inadequate supply of gas, and on this + account filling commenced as early as 10 a.m. on the morning of the day + previous to the exhibition, and was continued till 6 o'clock in the + afternoon, by which time the balloon, being about half full, was staved + down with sandbags through the night till 4 o'clock the next morning, when + the inflation was again proceeded with without hindrance and apparently + under favourable conditions. The morning was beautifully fine, warm, + brilliant, and still, and so remained until half-past six, when, with + startling rapidity, there blew up a sudden squall known in the country as + a "Hot Buster," and in two or three minutes' space a terrific wind storm + was sweeping the ground. A dozen men, aiding a dead weight of 220 + sandbags, endeavoured to control the plunging balloon, but wholly without + avail. Men and bags together were lifted clean up in the air on the + windward side, and the silk envelope, not yet completely filled, at once + escaped from the net and, flying upwards to a height estimated at 10,000 + feet, came to earth again ninety miles away in a score of fragments. + Nothing daunted, however, Mr. Spencer at once endeavoured to retrieve his + fortunes, and started straightway for the gold-mining districts of + Ballarat and Bendigo with a hot-air balloon, with which he successfully + gave a series of popular exhibitions of parachute descents. Few aeronauts + are more consistently reliable than Mr. Arthur Spencer. A few summers ago + in this country he was suddenly called upon to give proof of his prowess + and presence of mind in a very remarkable manner. It was at an engagement + at Reading, where he had been conducting captive ascents throughout the + afternoon, and was requested to conclude the evening with a "right away," + in which two passengers had agreed to accompany him. The balloon had been + hauled down for the last time, when, by some mistake, the engine used for + the purpose proceeded to work its pump without previously disconnecting + the hauling gear. The consequence of this was that the cable instantly + snapped, and in a moment the large balloon, devoid of ballast, grapnel, or + other appliances, and with neck still tied, was free, and started skyward. + </p> + <p> + The inevitable result of this accident must have been that the balloon in + a few seconds would rise to a height where the expansion of the imprisoned + gas would burst and destroy it. Mr. Spencer, however, was standing near, + and, grasping the situation in a moment, caught at the car as it swung + upwards, and, getting hold, succeeded in drawing himself up and so + climbing into the ring. Quickly as this was done, the balloon was already + distended to the point of bursting, and only the promptest release of gas + averted catastrophe. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Stanley Spencer made himself early known to the world by a series of + parachute descents, performed from the roof of Olympia. It was a bold and + sensational exhibition, and on the expiration of his engagement the young + athlete, profiting by home training, felt fully qualified to attempt any + aerial feat connected with the profession of an aeronaut. And at this + juncture an eminent American cyclist, visiting the father's factory, + suggested to Stanley a business tour in South America. + </p> + <p> + As an extra attraction it was proposed that a young lady parachutist + should be one of the company; so, after a few satisfactory trial + exhibitions in England, the party made their way to Rio, Brazil. Here an + ascent was arranged, and by the day and hour appointed the balloon was + successfully inflated with hydrogen, an enormous concourse collected, and + the lady performer already seated in the sling. Then a strange mischance + happened. By some means, never satisfactorily explained, the young woman, + at the moment of release, slipped from her seat, and the balloon, escaping + into the air, turned over and fell among the people, who vindictively + destroyed it. Then the crowd grew ungovernable, and threatened the lives + of the aeronauts, who eventually were, with difficulty, rescued by the + soldiery. + </p> + <p> + This was a bad start; but with a spare balloon a fresh attempt at an + ascent was arranged, though, from another cause, with no better success. + This time a furious storm arose, before the inflation was completed, and + the balloon, carrying away, was torn to ribbons. Yet a third time, with a + hot air balloon now, a performance was advertised and successfully carried + out; but, immediately after, Mr. Spencer's American friend succumbed to + yellow fever, and the young man, being thrown on his own resources, had to + fight his own way until his fortunes had been sufficiently restored to + return to England. + </p> + <p> + A few months later he set sail for Canada, where for several months he had + a most profitable career, on one occasion only meeting with some + difficulty. He was giving an exhibition on Prince Edward's Island, not far + from the sea, but on a day so calm that he did not hesitate to ascend. On + reaching 3,000 feet, however, he was suddenly caught by a strong land + breeze, which, ere he could reach the water, had carried him a mile out to + sea, and here he was only rescued after a long interval, during which he + had become much exhausted in his attempts to save his parachute from + sinking. + </p> + <p> + Early in 1892 our traveller visited South Africa with a hot air balloon, + and, fortune continuing to favour him, he subsequently returned to Canada, + and proceeded thence to the United States and Cuba. It was at Havannah + that popular enthusiasm in his favour ran so high that he was presented + with a medal by the townsfolk. It was from here also that, a little while + after, tidings of his own death reached him, together with most gratifying + obituary notices. It would seem that, after his departure, an adventurer, + attempting to personate him, met with his death. + </p> + <p> + In November, 1897, he followed his elder brother's footsteps to the East, + and exhibited in Calcutta, Singapore, Canton, and also Hong-Kong, where, + for the first and only time in his experience, he met with serious + accident. He was about to ascend for the ordinary parachute performance + with a hot air balloon, which was being held down by about thirty men, one + among them being a Chinaman possessed of much excitability and very long + finger nails. By means of these latter the man contrived to gouge a + considerable hole in the fabric of the balloon. Mr. Spencer, to avoid a + disappointment, risked an ascent, and it was not till the balloon had + reached 600 feet that the rent developed into a long slit, and so brought + about a sudden fall to earth. Alighting on the side of a mountain, Mr. + Spencer lay helpless with a broken leg till the arrival of some British + bluejackets, who conveyed him to the nearest surgeon, when, after due + attention, he was sent home. Other remarkable exploits, which Mr. Stanley + Spencer shared with Dr. Berson and with the writer and his daughter, will + be recorded later. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0023" id="link2HCH0023"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIII. NEW DEPARTURES IN AEROSTATION. + </h2> + <p> + After Mr. Coxwell's experiments at Aldershot in 1862 the military balloon, + as far as England was concerned, remained in abeyance for nine long years, + when the Government appointed a Commission to enquire into its utility, + and to conduct further experiments. The members of this committee were + Colonel Noble, R.E., Sir F. Abel, Captain Lee, R.E., assisted by Captain + Elsdale, R.E., and Captain (now Colonel) Templer. Yet another nine years, + however, elapsed before much more was heard of this modernised military + engine. + </p> + <p> + But about the beginning of the eighties the Government had become fully + alive to the importance of the subject, and Royal Engineers at Woolwich + grew busy with balloon manufacture and experiment. Soon "the sky around + London became speckled with balloons." The method of making so-called pure + hydrogen by passing steam over red-hot iron was fully tested, and for a + time gained favour. The apparatus, weighing some three tons, was + calculated to be not beyond the carrying powers of three service waggons, + while it was capable of generating enough gas to inflate two balloons in + twenty-four hours, a single inflation holding good, under favourable + circumstances, for a long period. At the Brighton Volunteer Review of + 1880, Captain Templer, with nine men, conducted the operations of a + captive reconnoitring balloon. This was inflated at the Lewes gas works, + and then towed two and a half miles across a river, a railway, and a line + of telegraph wires, after which it was let up to a height of 1,500 feet, + whence, it was stated, that so good a view was obtained that "every man + was clearly seen." Be it remembered, however, that the country was not the + South African veldt, and every man was in the striking English uniform of + that date. + </p> + <p> + Just at this juncture came the Egyptian War, and it will be recalled that + in the beginning of that war balloons were conspicuous by their absence. + The difficulties of reconnaissance were keenly felt and commented on, and + among other statements we find the following in the war intelligence of + the Times:— + </p> + <p> + "As the want of a balloon equipment has been mentioned in letters from + Egypt, it may be stated that all the War Department balloons remain in + store at the Royal Dockyard at Woolwich, but have been recently examined + and found perfectly serviceable." An assertion had been made to the effect + that the nature of the sand in Egypt would impede the transport of the + heavy material necessary for inflation. At last, however, the order came + for the despatch of the balloon equipment to the front, and though this + arrived long after Tel-el-Kebir, yet it is recorded that the first ascent + in real active service in the British Army took place on the 25th of + March, 1885, at Suakin, and balloons becoming regarded as an all-important + part of the equipment of war, they were sent out in the Bechuanaland + Expedition under Sir Charles Warren, the supply of gas being shipped to + Cape Town in cylinders. + </p> + <p> + It was at this period that, according to Mr. Coxwell, Lord Wolseley made + ascents at home in a war balloon to form his own personal opinion of their + capabilities, and, expressing this opinion to one of his staff, said that + had he been able to employ balloons in the earlier stages of the Soudan + campaign the affair would not have lasted as many months as it did years. + This statement, however, should be read in conjunction with another of the + same officer in the "Soldier's Pocket Book," that "in a windy country + balloons are useless." In the Boer War the usefulness of the balloon was + frequently tested, more particularly during the siege of Ladysmith, when + it was deemed of great value in directing the fire of the British + artillery, and again in Buller's advance, where the balloon is credited + with having located a "death-trap" of the enemy at Spion Kop. Other + all-important service was rendered at Magersfontein. The Service balloon + principally used was made of goldbeaters' skin, containing about 10,000 + cubic feet of hydrogen, which had been produced by the action of sulphuric + acid on zinc, and compressed in steel cylinders. A special gas factory + was, for the purpose of the campaign, established at Cape Town. + </p> + <p> + It is here that reference must be made to some of the special work + undertaken by Mr. Eric S. Bruce, which dealt with the management of + captive balloons under different conditions, and with a system of + signalling thus rendered feasible. Mr. Bruce, who, since Major + Baden-Powell's retirement from the office, has devoted his best energies + as secretary to the advancement of the British Aeronautical Society, was + the inventor of the system of electric balloon signalling which he + supplied to the British Government, as well as to the Belgian and Italian + Governments. This system requires but a very small balloon, made of three + or four thicknesses of goldbeaters' skin, measuring from 7 to 10 feet in + diameter, and needing only two or three gas cylinders for inflation. + Within the balloon, which is sufficiently translucent, are placed several + incandescent lamps in metallic circuit, with a source of electricity on + the ground. This source of electricity may consist of batteries of + moderate size or a portable hand dynamo. In the circuit is placed an + apparatus for making and breaking contact rapidly, and by varying the + duration of the flashes in the balloon telegraphic messages may be easily + transmitted. To overcome the difficulty of unsteadiness, under + circumstances of rough weather, in the captive balloon which carried the + glow lamps, Mr. Bruce experimented with guy ropes, and gave a most + successful exhibition of their efficiency before military experts at + Stamford Bridge grounds, though a stiff wind was blowing at the time. + </p> + <p> + It must be perfectly obvious, however, that a captive balloon in a wind is + greatly at a disadvantage, and to counteract this, attempts have been made + in the direction of a combination between the balloon and a kite. This + endeavour has been attended with some measure of success in the German + army. Mr. Douglas Archibald, in England, was one of the first to advocate + the kite balloon. In 1888 he called attention to the unsatisfactory + behaviour of captive balloons in variable winds, dropping with every gust + and rising again with a lull. In proof he described an expedient of Major + Templer's, where an attempt was being made to operate a photographic + camera hoisted by two tandem kites. "The balloon," he writes, "went up + majestically, and all seemed very satisfactory until a mile of cable had + been run out, and the winder locked." It was then that troubles began + which threatened the wreckage of the apparatus, and Mr. Archibald, in + consequence, strongly recommended a kite balloon at that time. Twelve + years later the same able experimentalist, impressed with the splendid + work done by kites alone for meteorological purposes at least, allowed + that he was quite content to "let the kite balloon go by." + </p> + <p> + But the German school of aeronauts were doing bigger things than making + trials with kite balloons. The German Society for the Promotion of Aerial + Navigation, assisted by the Army Balloon Corps, were busy in 1888, when a + series of important ascents were commenced. Under the direction of Dr. + Assmann, the energetic president of the aeronautical society above named, + captive ascents were arranged in connection with free ascents for + meteorological purposes, and it was thus practicable to make simultaneous + observations at different levels. These experiments, which were largely + taken up on the Continent, led to others of yet higher importance, in + which the unmanned balloon took a part. But the Continental annals of this + date contain one unhappy record of another nature, the recounting of which + will, at least, break the monotony attending mere experimental details. + </p> + <p> + In October, 1893, Captain Charbonnet, an enthusiastic French aeronaut, + resolved on spending his honeymoon, with the full consent of his bride, in + a prolonged balloon excursion. The start was to be made from Turin, and, + the direction of travel lying across the Alps, it was the hope of the + voyagers eventually to reach French territory. The ascent was made in + perfect safety, as was also the first descent, at the little village of + Piobesi, ten miles away. Here a halt was made for the night, and the next + morning, when a fresh start was determined on, two young Italians, Signori + Botto and Durando, were taken on board as assistants, for the exploit + began to assume an appearance of some gravity, and this the more so when + storm clouds began brewing. At an altitude of 10,000 feet cross-currents + were encountered, and the course becoming obscured the captain descended + to near the earth, where he discovered himself to be in dangerous + proximity to gaunt mountain peaks. On observing this, he promptly cast out + sand so liberally that the balloon rose to a height approaching 20,000 + feet, when a rapid descent presently began, and refused to be checked, + even with the expenditure of all available ballast. + </p> + <p> + All the while the earth remained obscured, but, anticipating a fall among + the mountains, Captain Charbonnet bade his companions lie down in the car + while he endeavoured to catch sight of some landmark; but, quite suddenly, + the balloon struck some mountain slope with such force as to throw the + captain back into the car with a heavy blow over the eye; then, bounding + across a gulley, it struck again and yet again, falling and rebounding + between rocky walls, till it settled on a steep and snowy ridge. Darkness + was now closing in, and the party, without food or proper shelter, had to + pass the night as best they might on the bare spot where they fell, hoping + for encouragement with the return of day. But dawn showed them to be on a + dangerous peak, 10,000 feet high, whence they must descend by their own + unassisted efforts. After a little clambering the captain, who was in a + very exhausted state, fell through a hidden crevasse, fracturing his skull + sixty feet below. The remaining three struggled on throughout the day, and + had to pass a second night on the mountain, this time without covering. On + the third day they met with a shepherd, who conducted them with difficulty + to the little village of Balme. + </p> + <p> + This story, by virtue of its romance, finds a place in these pages; but, + save for its tragic ending, it hardly stands alone. Ballooning enterprise + and adventure were growing every year more and more common on the + Continent. In Scandinavia we find the names of Andree, Fraenkal, and + Strindberg; in Denmark that of Captain Rambusch. Berlin and Paris had + virtually become the chief centres of the development of ballooning as a + science. In the former city a chief among aeronauts had arisen in Dr. A. + Berson, who, in December, 1894, not only reached 30,000 feet, ascending + alone, but at that height sustained himself sufficiently, by inhaling + oxygen, to take systematic observations throughout the entire voyage of + five hours. The year before, in company with Lieutenant Gross, he barely + escaped with his life, owing to tangled ropes getting foul of the valve. + Toulet and those who accompanied him lost their lives near Brussels. Later + Wolfert and his engineer were killed near Berlin, while Johannsen and + Loyal fell into the Sound. Thus ever fresh and more extended enterprise + was embarked upon with good fortune and ill. In fact, it had become + evident to all that the Continent afforded facilities for the advancement + of aerial exploration which could be met with in no other parts of the + world, America only excepted. And it was at this period that the expedient + of the ballon sonde, or unmanned balloon, was happily thought of. One of + these balloons, the "Cirrus," among several trials, rose to a height, + self-registered, of 61,000 feet, while a possible greater height has been + accorded to it. On one occasion, ascending from Berlin, it fell in Western + Russia, on another in Bosnia. Then, in 1896, at the Meteorological + Conference at Paris, with Mascart as President, Gustave Hermite, with + characteristic ardour, introduced a scheme of national ascents with + balloons manned and unmanned, and this scheme was soon put in effect under + a commission of famous names—Andree, Assmann, Berson, Besancon, + Cailletet, Erk, de Fonvielle, Hergesell, Hermite, Jaubert, Pomotzew (of + St. Petersburg), and Rotch (of Boston, Mass.). + </p> + <p> + In November, 1896, five manned balloons and three unmanned ascended + simultaneously from France, Germany, and Russia. The next year saw, with + the enterprise of these nations, the co-operation of Austria and Belgium. + Messrs. Hermite and Besancon, both French aeronauts, were the first to + make practical trial of the method of sounding the upper air by unmanned + balloons, and, as a preliminary attempt, dismissed from Paris a number of + small balloons, a large proportion of which were recovered, having + returned to earth after less than 100 miles' flight. Larger paper balloons + were now constructed, capable of carrying simple self-recording + instruments, also postcards, which became detached at regular intervals by + the burning away of slow match, and thus indicated the path of the + balloon. The next attempt was more ambitious, made with a goldbeaters' + skin balloon containing 4,000 cubic feet of gas, and carrying automatic + instruments of precision. This balloon fell in the Department of the + Yonne, and was returned to Paris with the instruments, which remained + uninjured, and which indicated that an altitude of 49,000 feet had been + reached, and a minimum temperature of -60 degrees encountered. Yet larger + balloons of the same nature were then experimented with in Germany, as + well as France. + </p> + <p> + A lack of public support has crippled the attempts of experimentalists in + this country, but abroad this method of aerial exploration continues to + gain favour. + </p> + <p> + Distinct from, and supplementing, the records obtained by free balloons, + manned or unmanned, are those to be gathered from an aerostat moored to + earth. It is here that the captive balloon has done good service to + meteorology, as we have shown, but still more so has the high-flying kite. + It must long have been recognised that instruments placed on or near the + ground are insufficient for meteorological purposes, and, as far back as + 1749, we find Dr. Wilson, of Glasgow, employing kites to determine the + upper currents, and to carry thermometers into higher strata of the air. + Franklin's kite and its application is matter of history. Many since that + period made experiments more or less in earnest to obtain atmospheric + observations by means of kites, but probably the first in England, at + least to obtain satisfactory results, was Mr. Douglas Archibald, who, + during the eighties, was successful in obtaining valuable wind + measurements, as also other results, including aerial photographs, at + varying altitudes up to 1,000 or 1,200 feet. From that period the records + of serious and systematic kite flying must be sought in America. Mr. W. A. + Eddy was one of the pioneers, and a very serviceable tailless kite, in + which the cross-bar is bowed away from the wind, is his invention, and has + been much in use. Mr. Eddy established his kite at Blue Hill—the now + famous kite observatory—and succeeded in lifting self-recording + meteorological instruments to considerable heights. The superiority of + readings thus obtained is obvious from the fact that fresh air-streams are + constantly playing on the instruments. + </p> + <p> + A year or two later a totally dissimilar kite was introduced by Mr. + Lawrence Hargrave, of Sydney, Australia. This invention, which has proved + of the greatest utility and efficiency, would, from its appearance, upset + all conventional ideas of what a kite should be, resembling in its + simplest form a mere box, minus the back and front. Nevertheless, these + kites, in their present form, have carried instruments to heights of + upwards of two miles, the restraining line being fine steel piano wire. + </p> + <p> + But another and most efficient kite, admirably adapted for many most + important purposes, is that invented by Major Baden-Powell. The main + objects originally aimed at in the construction of this kite related to + military operations, such as signalling, photography, and the raising of a + man to an elevation for observational purposes. In the opinion of the + inventor, who is a practiced aeronaut, a wind of over thirty miles an hour + renders a captive balloon useless, while a kite under such conditions + should be capable of taking its place in the field. Describing his early + experiments, Major, then Captain, Baden-Powell, stated that in 1894, after + a number of failures, he succeeded with a hexagonal structure of cambric, + stretched on a bamboo framework 36 feet high, in lifting a man—not + far, but far enough to prove that his theories were right. Later on, + substituting a number of small kites for one big one, he was, on several + occasions, raised to a height of 100 feet, and had sent up sand bags, + weighing 9 stone, to 300 feet, at which height they remained suspended + nearly a whole day. + </p> + <p> + This form of kite, which has been further developed, has been used in the + South African campaign in connection with wireless telegraphy for the + taking of photographs at great heights, notably at Modder River, and for + other purposes. + </p> + <p> + It has been claimed that the first well-authenticated occasion of a man + being raised by a kite was when at Pirbright Camp a Baden-Powell kite, 30 + feet high, flown by two lines, from which a basket was suspended, took a + man up to a height of 10 feet. It is only fair, however, to state that it + is related that more than fifty years ago a lady was lifted some hundred + feet by a great kite constructed by one George Pocock, whose machine was + designed for an observatory in war, and also for drawing carriages along + highways. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0024" id="link2HCH0024"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIV. ANDREE AND HIS VOYAGES + </h2> + <p> + Among many suggestions, alike important and original, due to Major + Baden-Powell, and coming within the field of aeronautics, is one having + reference to the use of balloons for geographical research generally and + more particularly for the exploration of Egypt, which, in his opinion, is + a country possessing many most desirable qualifications on the score of + prevailing winds, of suitable base, and of ground adapted for such + steering as may be effected with a trail rope. At the Bristol meeting of + the British Association the Major thus propounded his method: "I should + suggest several balloons, one of about 60,000 cubic feet, and, say, six + smaller ones of about 7,000 cubic feet; then, if one gets torn or damaged, + the others might remain intact. After a time, when gas is lost, one of the + smaller ones could be emptied into the others, and the exhausted envelope + discharged as ballast; the smaller balloons would be easier to transport + by porters than one big one, and they could be more easily secured on the + earth during contrary winds. Over the main balloon a light awning might be + rigged to neutralise, as far as possible, the changes of temperature. A + lightning conductor to the top of the balloon might be desirable. A large + sail would be arranged, and a bifurcated guide rope attached to the end of + a horizontal pole would form an efficient means of steering. The car would + be boat-shaped and waterproof, so that it could be used for a return + journey down a river. Water tanks would be fitted." + </p> + <p> + The reasonableness of such a scheme is beyond question, even without the + working calculations with which it is accompanied; but, ere these words + were spoken, one of the most daring explorers that the world has known had + begun to put in practice a yet bolder and rasher scheme of his own. The + idea of reaching the North Pole by means of balloons appears to have been + entertained many years ago. In a curious work, published in Paris in 1863 + by Delaville Dedreux, there is a suggestion for reaching the North Pole by + an aerostat which should be launched from the nearest accessible point, + the calculation being that the distance from such a starting place to the + Pole and back again would be only some 1,200 miles, which could be covered + in two days, supposing only that there could be found a moderate and + favourable wind in each direction. Mr. C. G. Spencer also wrote on the + subject, and subsequently Commander Cheyne proposed a method of reaching + the Pole by means of triple balloons. A similar scheme was advocated in + yet more serious earnest by M. Hermite in the early eighties. + </p> + <p> + Some ten years later than this M. S. A. Andree, having obtained sufficient + assistance, took up the idea with the determined intention of pushing it + to a practical issue. He had already won his spurs as an aeronaut, as may + be briefly told. In October, 1893, when making an ascent for scientific + purposes, his balloon got carried out over the Baltic. It may have been + the strength of the wind that had taken him by surprise; but, there being + now no remedy, it was clearly the speed and persistence of the wind that + alone could save him. If a chance vessel could not, or would not, "stand + by," he must make the coast of Finland or fall in the sea, and several + times the fall in the sea seemed imminent as his balloon commenced + dropping. This threatened danger induced him to cast away his anchor, + after which the verge of the Finland shore was nearly reached, when a + change of wind began to carry him along the rocky coast, just as night was + setting in. + </p> + <p> + Recognising his extreme danger, Andree stood on the edge of the car, with + a bag of ballast ready for emergencies. He actually passed over an island, + on which was a building with a light; but failed to effect a landing, and + so fell in the sea on the farther side; but, the balloon presently + righting itself, Andree, now greatly exhausted, made his last effort, and + as he rose over the next cliff jumped for his life. It was past 7 p.m. + when he found himself once again on firm ground, but with a sprained leg + and with no one within call. Seeking what shelter he could, he lived out + the long night, and, being now scarce able to stand, took off his clothes + and waved them for a signal. This signal was not seen, yet shortly a boat + put off from an island—the same that he had passed the evening + before—and rowed towards him. The boatman overnight had seen a + strange sail sweeping over land and sea, and he had come in quest of it, + bringing timely succour to the castaway. + </p> + <p> + Briefly stated, Andree's grand scheme was to convey a suitable balloon, + with means for inflating it, as also all necessary equipment, as far + towards the Pole as a ship could proceed, and thence, waiting for a + favourable wind, to sail by sky until the region of the Pole should be + crossed, and some inhabited country reached beyond. The balloon was to be + kept near the earth, and steered, as far as this might be practicable, by + means of a trail rope. The balloon, which had a capacity of nearly 162,000 + cubic feet, was made in Paris, and was provided with a rudder sail and an + arrangement whereby the hang of the trail rope could be readily shifted to + different positions on the ring. Further, to obviate unnecessary diffusion + and loss of gas at the mouth, the balloon was fitted with a lower valve, + which would only open at a moderate pressure, namely, that of four inches + of water. + </p> + <p> + All preparations were completed by the summer of 1896, and on June 7th the + party embarked at Gothenburg with all necessaries on board, arriving at + Spitzbergen on June 21st. Andree, who was to be accompanied on his aerial + voyage by two companions, M. Nils Strindberg and Dr. Ekholm, spent some + time in selecting a spot that would seem suitable for their momentous + start, and this was finally found on Dane's Island, where their cargo was + accordingly landed. + </p> + <p> + The first operation was the erection of a wooden shed, the materials for + which they had brought with them, as a protection from the wind. It was a + work which entailed some loss of time, after which the gas apparatus had + to be got into order, so that, in spite of all efforts, it was the 27th of + July before the balloon was inflated and in readiness. + </p> + <p> + A member of an advance party of an eclipse expedition arriving in + Spitzbergen at this period, and paying a visit to Andree for the purpose + of taking him letters, wrote:—"We watched him deal out the letters + to his men. They are all volunteers and include seven sea captains, a + lawyer, and other people some forty in all. Andree chaffed each man to + whom he gave a letter, and all were as merry as crickets over the + business.... We spent our time in watching preparations. The vaseline (for + soaking the guide ropes) caught fire to-day, but, luckily no rope was in + the pot." + </p> + <p> + But the wind as yet was contrary, and day after day passed without any + shift to a favourable quarter, until the captain of the ship which had + conveyed them was compelled to bring matters to an issue by saying that + they must return home without delay if he was to avoid getting frozen in + for the winter. The balloon had now remained inflated for twenty-one days, + and Dr. Ekholm, calculating that the leakage of gas amounted to nearly 1 + per cent. per day, became distrustful of the capability of such a vessel + to cope with such a voyage as had been aimed at. The party had now no + choice but to return home with their balloon, leaving, however, the shed + and gas-generating apparatus for another occasion. + </p> + <p> + This occasion came the following summer, when the dauntless explorers + returned to their task, leaving Gothenburg on May 28th, 1897, in a vessel + lent by the King of Sweden, and reaching Dane's Island on the 30th of the + same month. Dr. Ekholm had retired from the enterprise, but in his place + were two volunteers, Messrs. Frankel and Svedenborg, the latter as "odd + man," to fill the place of any of the other three who might be prevented + from making the final venture. + </p> + <p> + It was found that the shed had suffered during the winter, and some time + was spent in making the repairs and needful preparation, so that the month + of June was half over before all was in readiness for the inflation. This + operation was then accomplished in four days, and by midnight of June 22nd + the balloon was at her moorings, full and in readiness; but, as in the + previous year, the wind was contrary, and remained so for nearly three + weeks. This, of course, was a less serious matter, inasmuch as the + voyagers were a month earlier with their preparation, but so long a delay + must needs have told prejudicially against the buoyancy of the balloon, + and Andree is hardly to be blamed for having, in the end, committed + himself to a wind that was not wholly favourable. + </p> + <p> + The wind, if entirely from the right direction, should have been due + south, but on July 11th it had veered to a direction somewhat west of + south, and Andree, tolerating no further delay, seized this as his best + opportunity, and with a wind "whistling through the woodwork of the shed + and flapping the canvas," accompanied by Frankel and Svedenborg, started + on his ill-fated voyage. + </p> + <p> + A telegram which Andree wrote for the Press at that epoch ran thus:— + "At this moment, 2.30 p.m., we are ready to start. We shall probably be + driven in a north-north-easterly direction." + </p> + <p> + On July 22nd a carrier pigeon was recovered by the fishing boat Alken + between North Cape, Spitzbergen, and Seven Islands, bearing a message, + "July 13th, 12.30 p.m., 82 degrees 2 minutes north lat., 15 degrees 5 + minutes east long. Good journey eastward. All goes well on board. Andree." + </p> + <p> + Not till August 31st was there picked up in the Arctic zone a buoy, which + is preserved in the Museum of Stockholm. It bears the message, "Buoy No. + 4. First to be thrown out. 11th July, 10 p.m., Greenwich mean time. All + well up till now. We are pursuing our course at an altitude of about 250 + metres Direction at first northerly 10 degrees east; later; northerly 45 + degrees east. Four carrier pigeons were despatched at 5.40 p.m. They flew + westwards. We are now above the ice, which is very cut up in all + directions. Weather splendid. In excellent spirits.—Andree, + Svedenborg, Frankel. (Postscript later on.) Above the clouds, 7.45, + Greenwich mean time." + </p> + <p> + According to Reuter, the Anthropological and Geological Society at + Stockholm received the following telegram from a ship owner at Mandal:—"Captain + Hueland, of the steamship Vaagen who arrived there on Monday morning, + reports that when off Kola Fjord, Iceland, in 65 degrees 34 minutes north + lat., 21 degrees 28 minutes west long., on May 14th he found a drifting + buoy, marked 'No. 7.' Inside the buoy was a capsule marked 'Andree's Polar + Expedition,' containing a slip of paper, on which was given the following: + 'Drifting Buoy No. 7. This buoy was thrown out from Andree's balloon on + July 11th 1897, 10.55 p.m., Greenwich mean time, 82 degrees north lat., 25 + degrees east lon. We are at an altitude of 600 metres. All well.—Andree, + Svedenborg, Frankel.'" + </p> + <p> + Commenting on the first message, Mr. Percival Spencer says:—"I + cannot place reliance upon the accuracy of either the date or else the + lat. and long. given, as I am confident that the balloon would have + travelled a greater distance in two days." It should be noted that Dane's + Island lies in 79 degrees 30 minutes north lat. and 10 degrees 10 minutes + east long. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Spencer's opinion, carefully considered and expressed eighteen months + afterwards, will be read with real interest:— + </p> + <p> + "The distance from Dane's Island to the Pole is about 750 miles, and to + Alaska on the other side about 1,500 miles. The course of the balloon, + however, was not direct to the Pole, but towards Franz Josef Land (about + 600 miles) and to the Siberian coast (another 800 miles). Judging from the + description of the wind at the start, and comparing it with my own + ballooning experience, I estimate its speed as 40 miles per hour, and it + will, therefore, be evident that a distance of 2,000 miles would be + covered in 50 hours, that is two days and two hours after the start. I + regard all theories as to the balloon being capable of remaining in the + air for a month as illusory. No free balloon has ever remained aloft for + more than 36 hours, but with the favourable conditions at the northern + regions (where the sun does not set and where the temperature remains + equable) a balloon might remain in the air for double the length of time + which I consider ample for the purpose of Polar exploration." + </p> + <p> + A record of the direction of the wind was made after Andree's departure, + and proved that there was a fluctuation in direction from S.W. to N.W., + indicating that the voyagers may have been borne across towards Siberia. + This, however, can be but surmise. All aeronauts of experience know that + it is an exceedingly difficult manoeuvre to keep a trail rope dragging on + the ground if it is desirable to prevent contact with the earth on the one + hand, or on the other to avoid loss of gas. A slight increase of + temperature or drying off of condensed moisture may—indeed, is sure + to after a while—lift the rope off the ground, in which case the + balloon, rising into upper levels, may be borne away on currents which may + be of almost any direction, and of which the observer below may know + nothing. As to the actual divergence from the wind's direction which a + trail rope and side sail might be hoped to effect, it may be confidently + stated that, notwithstanding some wonderful accounts that have gone + abroad, it must not be relied on as commonly amounting to much more than + one or, at the most, two points. + </p> + <p> + Although it is to be feared that trustworthy information as to the + ultimate destination of Andree's balloon may never be gained, yet we may + safely state that his ever famous, though regrettable, voyage was the + longest in duration ever attained. At the end of 48 hours his vessel would + seem to have been still well up and going strong. The only other previous + voyage that had in duration of travel approached this record was that made + by M. Mallet, in 1892, and maintained for 36 hours. Next we may mention + that of M. Herve, in 1886, occupying 24 1/2 hours, which feat, however, + was almost equal led by the great Leipzig balloon in 1897, which, with + eight people in the car, remained up for 24 1/4 hours, and did not touch + earth till 1,032 miles had been traversed. + </p> + <p> + The fabric of Andree's balloon may not be considered to have been the best + for such an exceptional purpose. Dismissing considerations of cost, + goldbeaters' skin would doubtless have been more suitable. The military + balloons at Aldershot are made of this, and one such balloon has been + known to remain inflated for three months with very little loss. It is + conceivable, therefore, that the chances of the voyagers, whose ultimate + safety depended so largely upon the staying power of their aerial vessel, + might have been considerably increased. + </p> + <p> + One other expedient, wholly impracticable, but often seriously discussed, + may be briefly referred to, namely, the idea of taking up apparatus for + pumping gas into metal receivers as the voyage proceeds, in order to raise + or lower a balloon, and in this way to prolong its life. Mr. Wenham has + investigated the point with his usual painstaking care, and reduced its + absurdity to a simple calculation, which should serve to banish for good + such a mere extravagant theory. + </p> + <p> + Suppose, he says, the gas were compressed to one-twentieth part of its + bulk, which would mean a pressure within its receiver of 300 lbs. per + square inch, and that each receiver had a capacity of 1 cubic foot, while + for safety sake it was made of steel plates one-twentieth of an inch + thick, then each receiver would weigh 10 lbs., and to liberate 1,000 feet + clearly a weight of 500 lbs. would have to be taken up. Now, when it is + considered that 1,000 cubic feet of hydrogen will only lift 72 lbs., the + scheme begins to look hope less enough. But when the question of the + pumping apparatus, to be worked by hand, is contemplated the difficulties + introduced become yet more insuperable. The only feasible suggestion with + respect the use of compressed gas is that of taking on board charged + cylinders under high pressure, which, after being discharged to supply the + leakage of the balloon could, in an uninhabited country, be cast out as + ballast last. It will need no pointing out, however, that such an idea + would be practically as futile as another which has gravely been + recommended, namely, that of heating the gas of the balloon by a Davy + lamp, so as to increase its buoyancy at will. Major Baden-Powell has aptly + described this as resembling "an attempt to warm a large hall with a small + spirit lamp." + </p> + <p> + In any future attempt to reach the Pole by balloon it is not unreasonable + to suppose that wireless telegraphy will be put in practice to maintain + communication with the base. The writer's personal experience of the + possibilities afforded by this mode of communication, yet in its infancy, + will be given. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0025" id="link2HCH0025"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXV. THE MODERN AIRSHIP—IN SEARCH OF THE LEONIDS. + </h2> + <p> + In the autumn of 1898 the aeronautical world was interested to hear that a + young Brazilian, M. Santos Dumont, had completed a somewhat novel + dirigible balloon, cylindrical in shape, with conical ends, 83 feet long + by 12 feet in diameter, holding 6,500 cubic feet of gas, and having a + small compensating balloon of 880 cubic feet capacity. For a net was + substituted a simple contrivance, consisting of two side pockets, running + the length of the balloon, and containing battens of wood, to which were + affixed the suspension cords, bands being also sewn over the upper part of + the balloon connecting the two pockets. The most important novelty, + however, was the introduction of a small petroleum motor similar to those + used for motor tricycles. + </p> + <p> + The inventor ascended in this balloon, inflated with pure hydrogen, from + the Jardin d'Acclimatation, Paris, and circled several times round the + large captive balloon in the Gardens, after which, moving towards the Bois + de Boulogne, he made several sweeps of 100 yards radius. Then the pump of + the compensator caused the engine to stop, and the machine, partially + collapsing, fell to the ground. Santos Dumont was somewhat shaken, but + announced his intention of making other trials. In this bold and + successful attempt there was clear indication of a fresh phase in the + construction of the airship, consisting in the happy adoption of the + modern type of petroleum motor. Two other hying machines were heard of + about this date, one by Professor Giampietre, of Pavia, cigar-shaped, + driven by screws, and rigged with masts and sails. The other, which had + been constructed and tested in strict privacy, was the invention of a + French engineer, M. Ader, and was imagined to imitate the essential + structure of a bird. Two steam motors of 20-horse power supplied the + power. It was started by being run on the ground on small wheels attached + to it, and it was claimed that before a breakdown occurred the machine had + actually raised itself into the air. + </p> + <p> + Of Santos Dumont the world was presently to know more, and the same must + be said of another inventor, Dr. Barton, of Beckenham, who shortly + completed an airship model carrying aeroplanes and operated by clockwork. + In an early experiment this model travelled four miles in twenty-three + minutes. + </p> + <p> + But another airship, a true leviathan, had been growing into stately and + graceful proportions on the shores of the Bodenzee in Wurtemberg, and was + already on the eve of completion. Count Zeppelin, a lieut.-general in the + German Army, who had seen service in the Franco-German War, had for some + years devoted his fortune and energy to the practical study of aerial + navigation, and had prosecuted experiments on a large scale. Eventually, + having formed a company with a large capital, he was enabled to construct + an airship which in size has been compared to a British man-of-war. + Cigar-shaped, its length was no less than 420 feet, and diameter 40 feet, + while its weight amounted to no more than 7,250 lbs. The framework, which + for lightness had been made of aluminium, was, with the object of + preventing all the gas collecting at one end of its elongated form, + subdivided into seventeen compartments, each of these compartments + containing a completely fitted gas balloon, made of oiled cotton and + marvellously gas tight. A steering apparatus was placed both fore and aft, + and at a safe distance below the main structure were fixed, also forward + and aft, on aluminium platforms, two Daimler motor engines of 16-horse + power, working aluminium propellers of four blades at the rate of 1,000 + revolutions a minute. Finally, firmly attached to the inner framework by + rods of aluminium, were two cars of the same metal, furnished with buffer + springs to break the force of a fall. The trial trip was not made till the + summer following—June, 1900—and, in the meanwhile, experiments + had gone forward with another mode of flight, terminating, unhappily, in + the death of one of the most expert and ingenious of mechanical aeronauts. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Percy S. Pilcher, now thirty-three years of age, having received his + early training in the Navy, retired from the Service to become a civil + engineer, and had been for some time a partner in the firm of Wilson and + Pilcher. For four or five years he had been experimenting in soaring + flight, using a Lilienthal machine, which he improved to suit his own + methods. Among these was the device of rising off the ground by being + rapidly towed by a line against the wind. + </p> + <p> + At the end of September he gave an exhibition at Stamford Park before Lord + Bray and a select party of friends—this in spite of an unsuitable + afternoon of unsteady wind and occasional showers. A long towing line was + provided, which, being passed round pulley blocks and dragged by a couple + of horses, was capable of being hauled in at high speed. The first trial, + though ending in an accident, was eminently satisfactory. The apparatus, + running against the wind, had risen some distance, when the line broke, + yet the inventor descended slowly and safely with outstretched wings. The + next trial also commenced well, with an easy rise to a height of some + thirty feet. At that point, however, the tail broke with a snap, and the + machine, pitching over, fell a complete wreck. Mr. Pilcher was found + insensible, with his thigh broken, and though no other serious injury was + apparent, he succumbed two days afterwards without recovering + consciousness. It was surmised that shrinkage of the canvas of the tail, + through getting wet, had strained and broken its bamboo stretcher. + </p> + <p> + This autumn died Gaston Tissandier, at the age of fifty-six; and in the + month of December, at a ripe old age, while still in full possession of + intellectual vigour, Mr. Coxwell somewhat suddenly passed away. Always + keenly interested in the progress of aeronautics; he had but recently, in + a letter to the Standard, proposed a well-considered and practical method + of employing Montgolfier reconnoitring balloons, portable, readily + inflated, and especially suited to the war in South Africa. Perhaps the + last letters of a private nature penned by Mr. Coxwell were to the writer + and his daughter, full of friendly and valuable suggestion, and more + particularly commenting on a recent scientific aerial voyage, which proved + to be not only sensational, but established a record in English + ballooning. + </p> + <p> + The great train of the November meteors, known as the Leonids, which at + regular periods of thirty-three years had in the past encountered the + earth's atmosphere, was due, and over-due. The cause of this, and of their + finally eluding observation, need only be very briefly touched on here. + The actual meteoric train is known to travel in an elongated ellipse, the + far end of which lies near the confines of the solar system, while at a + point near the hither end the earth's orbit runs slantingly athwart it, + forming, as it were, a level crossing common to the two orbits, the earth + taking some five or six hours in transit. Calculation shows that the + meteor train is to be expected at this crossing every thirty-three and a + third years, while the train is extended to such an enormous length—taking + more than a year to draw clear—that the earth must needs encounter + it ere it gets by, possibly even two years running. There could be no + absolute certainty about the exact year, nor the exact night when the + earth and the meteors would foregather, owing to the uncertain disturbance + which the latter must suffer from the pull of the planetary bodies in the + long journey out and home again among them. As is now known, this + disturbing effect had actually dispersed the train. + </p> + <p> + The shower, which was well seen in 1866, was pretty confidently expected + in 1899, and to guard against the mischance of cloudy weather, it was + arranged that the writer should, on behalf of the Times newspaper, make an + ascent on the right night to secure observations. Moreover, it was + arranged that he should have, as chief assistant, his own daughter, an + enthusiastic lady aeronaut, who had also taken part in previous + astronomical work. + </p> + <p> + Unfortunately there were two nights, those of November 14th and 15th, when + the expected shower seemed equally probable, and, taking counsel with the + best authorities in the astronomical world, it seemed that the only course + to avoid disappointment would be to have a balloon filled and moored in + readiness for an immediate start, either on the first night or on the + second. + </p> + <p> + This settled the matter from the astronomical side, but there was the + aeronautical side also to be considered. A balloon of 56,000 cubic feet + capacity was the largest available for the occasion, and a night ascent + with three passengers and instruments would need plenty of lifting power + to meet chance emergencies. Thus it seemed that a possible delay of + forty-eight hours might entail a greater leakage of gas than could be + afforded. + </p> + <p> + The leakage might be expected chiefly to occur at the valve in the head of + the balloon, it being extremely difficult to render any form of mechanical + valve gas tight, however carefully its joints be stopped with luting. On + this account, therefore, it was determined that the balloon should be + fitted with what is known as a solid or rending valve, consisting simply + of balloon fabric tied hard and fast over the entire upper outlet, after + the fashion of a jam pot cover. The outlet itself was a gaping hole of + over 2 feet across; but by the time its covering had been carefully + varnished over all leakage was sufficiently prevented, the one drawback to + this method being the fact that the liberation of gas now admitted of no + regulation. Pulling the valve line would simply mean opening the entire + wide aperture, which could in no way be closed again. + </p> + <p> + The management of such a valve consists in allowing the balloon to sink + spontaneously earthwards, and when it has settled near the ground, having + chosen a desirable landing place, to tear open the so-called valve once + and for all. + </p> + <p> + This expedient, dictated by necessity, seeming sufficient for the purpose + at hand, preparations were proceeded with, and, under the management of + Mr. Stanley Spencer, who agreed to act as aeronaut, a large balloon, with + solid valve, was brought down to Newbury gas works on November 14th, and, + being inflated during the afternoon, was full and made snug by sundown. + But as the meteor radiant would not be well above the horizon till after + midnight, the aeronautical party retired for refreshment, and subsequently + for rest, when, as the night wore on, it became evident that, though the + sky remained clear, there would be no meteor display that night. The next + day was overcast, and by nightfall hopelessly so, the clouds ever + thickening, with absence of wind or any indication which might give + promise of a change. Thus by midnight it became impossible to tell whether + any display were in progress or not. Under these circumstances, it might + have been difficult to decide when to make the start with the best show of + reason. Clearly too early a start could not subsequently be rectified; the + balloon, once off, could not come back again; while, once liberated, it + would be highly unwise for it to remain aloft and hidden by clouds for + more than some two hours, lest it should be carried out to sea. + </p> + <p> + Happily the right decision under these circumstances was perfectly clear. + Other things being equal, the best time would be about 4 a.m., by which + period the moon, then near the full, would be getting low, and the two + hours of darkness left would afford the best seeing. Leaving, then, an + efficient outlook on the balloon ground, the party enjoyed for some hours + the entertainment offered them by the Newbury Guildhall Club, and at 4 + a.m. taking their seats in the car, sailed up into the calm chilly air of + the November night. + </p> + <p> + But the chilliness did not last for long. A height of 1,500 feet was read + by the Davy lamp, and then we entered fog—warm, wetting fog, through + which the balloon would make no progress in spite of a prodigal discharge + of sand. The fact was that the balloon, which had become chilled through + the night hours, was gathering a great weight of moisture from + condensation on its surface, and when, at last, the whole depth of the + cloud, 1,500 feet, had been penetrated, the chill of the upper air + crippled the balloon and sent her plunging down again into the mist, + necessitating yet further expenditure of sand, which by this time had + amounted to no less than 3 1/2 cwt. in twenty minutes. And then at last we + reached our level, a region on the upper margin of the cloud floor, where + evaporation reduced the temperature, that had recently been that of + greenhouse warmth, to intense cold. + </p> + <p> + That evaporation was going on around us on a gigantic scale was made very + manifest. The surface of the vast cloud floor below us was in a perfect + turmoil, like that of a troubled sea. If the cloud surface could be + compared to anything on earth it most resembled sea where waves are + running mountains high. At one moment we should be sailing over a trough, + wide and deep below us, the next a mighty billow would toss itself aloft + and vanish utterly into space. Everywhere wreaths of mist with ragged + fringes were withering away into empty air, and, more remarkable yet, was + the conflict of wind which sent the cloud wrack flying simply in all + directions. + </p> + <p> + For two hours now there was opportunity for observing at leisure all that + could be made of the falling meteors. There were a few, and these, owing + to our clear, elevated region, were exceptionally bright. The majority, + too, were true Leonids, issuing from the radiant point in the "Sickle," + but these were not more numerous than may be counted on that night in any + year, and served to emphasise the fact that no real display was in + progress. The outlook was maintained, and careful notes made for two + hours, at the end of which time the dawn began to break, the stars went + in, and we were ready to pack up and come down. + </p> + <p> + But the point was that we were not coming down. We were at that time, 6 + a.m., 4,000 feet high, and it needs no pointing out that at such an + altitude it would have been madness to tear open our huge rending valve, + thus emptying the balloon of gas. It may also be unnecessary to point out + that in an ordinary afternoon ascent such a valve would be perfectly + satisfactory, for under these circumstances the sun presently must go + down, the air must grow chill, and the balloon must come earthward, + allowing of an easy descent until a safe and suitable opportunity for + rending the valve occurred; but now we knew that conditions were reversed, + and that the sun was just going to rise. + </p> + <p> + And then it was we realised that we were caught in a trap. From that + moment it was painfully evident that we were powerless to act, and were at + the mercy of circumstances. By this time the light was strong, and, being + well above the tossing billows of mist, we commanded an extended view on + every side, which revealed, however, only the upper unbroken surface of + the dense cloud canopy that lay over all the British Isles. We could only + make a rough guess as to our probable locality. We knew that our course at + starting lay towards the west, and if we were maintaining that course a + travel of scarcely more than sixty miles would carry us out to the open + sea. We had already been aloft for two hours, and as we were at an + altitude at which fast upper currents are commonly met with, it was high + time that, for safety, we should be coming down; yet it was morally + certain that it would be now many hours before our balloon would commence + to descend of its own accord by sheer slow leakage of gas, by which time, + beyond all reasonable doubt, we must be carried far out over the Atlantic. + All we could do was to listen intently for any sounds that might reach us + from earth, and assure us that we were still over the land; and for a + length of time such sounds were vouchsafed us—the bark of a dog, the + lowing of cattle, the ringing trot of a horse on some hard road far down. + </p> + <p> + And then, as we were expecting, the sun climbed up into an unsullied sky, + and, mounting by leaps and bounds, we watched the cloud floor receding + beneath us. The effect was extremely beautiful. A description written to + the Times the next morning, while the impression was still fresh, and from + notes made at this period, ran thus:—"Away to an infinitely distant + horizon stretched rolling billows of snowy whiteness, broken up here and + there into seeming icefields, with huge fantastic hummocks. Elsewhere + domes and spires reared themselves above the general surface, or an + isolated Matterhorn towered into space. In some quarters it was impossible + to look without the conviction that we actually beheld the outline of + lofty cliffs overhanging a none too distant sea." Shortly we began to hear + loud reports overhead, resembling small explosions, and we knew what these + were—the moist, shrunken netting was giving out under the hot sun + and yielding now and again with sudden release to the rapidly expanding + gas. It was, therefore, with grave concern, but with no surprise, that + when we next turned to the aneroid we found the index pointing to 9,000 + feet, and still moving upwards. + </p> + <p> + Hour after hour passed by, and, sounds having ceased to reach us, it + remains uncertain whether or no we were actually carried out to sea and + headed back again by contrary currents, an experience with which + aeronauts, including the writer, have been familiar; but, at length, there + was borne up to us the distant sound of heavy hammers and of frequent + trains, from which we gathered that we were probably over Bristol, and it + was then that the thought occurred to my daughter that we might possibly + communicate with those below with a view to succour. This led to our + writing the following message many times over on blank telegraph forms and + casting them down:—"Urgent. Large balloon from Newbury travelling + overhead above the clouds. Cannot descend. Telegraph to sea coast + (coast-guards) to be ready to rescue.—Bacon and Spencer." + </p> + <p> + While thus occupied we caught the sound of waves, and the shriek of a + ship's siren. We were crossing a reach of the Severn, and most of our + missives probably fell in the sea. But over the estuary there must have + been a cold upper current blowing, which crippled our balloon, for the + aneroid presently told of a fall of 2,000 feet. It was now past noon, and + to us the turn of the tide was come. Very slowly, and with strange + fluctuations, the balloon crept down till it reached and became enveloped + in the cloud below, and then the end was near. The actual descent occupied + nearly two hours, and affords a curious study in aerostation. The details + of the balloon's dying struggles and of our own rough descent, entailing + the fracture of my daughter's arm, are told in another volume.{*} + </p> + <p> + We fell near Neath, Glamorganshire, only one and a half miles short of the + sea, completing a voyage which is a record in English ballooning—ten + hours from start to finish. + </p> + <p> + * "By Land and Sky," by the Author. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0026" id="link2HCH0026"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVI. RECENT AERONAUTICAL EVENTS. + </h2> + <p> + The first trial of the Zeppelin air ship was arranged to take place on + June 30th, 1900, a day which, from absence of wind, was eminently well + suited for the purpose; but the inflation proved too slow a process, and + operations were postponed to the morrow. The morrow, however, was somewhat + windy, causing delay, and by the time all was in readiness darkness had + set in and the start was once more postponed. On the evening of the third + day the monster craft was skilfully and successfully manoeuvred, and, + rising with a very light wind, got fairly away, carrying Count Zeppelin + and four other persons in the two cars. Drifting with the wind, it + attained a height of some 800 or 900 feet, at which point the steering + apparatus being brought into play it circled round and faced the wind, + when it remained stationary. But not for long. Shortly it began to descend + and, sinking gradually, gracefully, and in perfect safety, in about nine + minutes it reached and rested on the water, when it was towed home. + </p> + <p> + A little later in the month, July, another trial was made, when a wind was + blowing estimated at sixteen miles an hour. As on the previous occasion, + the direct influence of the sun was avoided by waiting till evening hours. + It ascended at 8 p.m., and the engines getting to work it made a slow + progress of about two miles an hour against the wind for about 3 1/2 + miles, when one of the rudders gave way, and the machine was obliged to + descend. + </p> + <p> + On the evening of October 24th of the same year, in very calm weather and + with better hope, another ascent was made. On this occasion, however, + success was frustrated by one of the rear rudders getting foul of the + gear, followed by the escape of gas from one of the balloons. + </p> + <p> + Another and more successful trial took place in the same month, again in + calm atmosphere. Inferior gas was employed, and it would appear that the + vessel had not sufficient buoyancy. It remained aloft for a period of + twenty minutes, during which it proved perfectly manageable, making a + graceful journey out and home, and returning close to its point of + departure. This magnificent air ship, the result of twenty years of + experiment, has since been abandoned and broken up; yet the sacrifice has + not been without result. Over and above the stimulus which Count + Zeppelin's great endeavour has given to the aeronautical world, two + special triumphs are his. He has shown balloonists how to make a perfectly + gas-tight material, and has raised powerful petroleum motors in a balloon + with safety. + </p> + <p> + In the early part of 1900 it was announced that a member of the Paris Aero + Club, who at the time withheld his name (M. Deutsch) offered a prize of + 100,000 francs to the aeronaut who, either in a balloon or flying machine, + starting from the grounds of the Aero Club at Longchamps, would make a + journey round the Eiffel Tower, returning to the starting place within + half an hour. The donor would withdraw his prize if not won within five + years, and in the meanwhile would pay 4,000 francs annually towards the + encouragement of worthy experimenters. + </p> + <p> + It was from this time that flying machines in great variety and goodly + number began to be heard of, if not actually seen. One of the earliest to + be announced in the Press was a machine invented by the Russian, + Feedoroff, and the Frenchman, Dupont. Dr. Danilewsky came forward with a + flying machine combining balloon and aeroplane, the steering of which + would be worked like a velocipede by the feet of the aeronaut. + </p> + <p> + Mr. P. Y. Alexander, of Bath, who had long been an enthusiastic + balloonist, and who had devoted a vast amount of pains, originality, and + engineering skill to the pursuit of aeronautics, was at this time giving + much attention to the flying machine, and was, indeed, one of the + assistants in the first successful launching of the Zeppelin airship. In + concert with Mr. W. G. Walker, A.M.I.C.E., Mr. Alexander carried out some + valuable and exhaustive experiments on the lifting power of air + propellers, 30 feet in diameter, driven by a portable engine. The results, + which were of a purely technical nature, have been embodied in a carefully + compiled memoir. + </p> + <p> + An air ship now appeared, invented by M. Rose, consisting of two elongated + vessels filled with gas, and carrying the working gear and car between + them. The machine was intentionally made heavier than air, and was + operated by a petrol motor of 12-horse power. + </p> + <p> + It was now that announcements began to be made to the effect that, next to + the Zeppelin air ship, M. Santos Dumont's balloon was probably attracting + most of the attention of experts. The account given of this air vessel by + the Daily Express was somewhat startling. The balloon proper was compared + to a large torpedo. Three feet beneath this hangs the gasoline motor which + is to supply the power. The propeller is 12 feet in diameter, and is + revolved so rapidly by the motor that the engine frequently gets red hot. + The only accommodation for the traveller is a little bicycle seat, from + which the aeronaut will direct his motor and steering gear by means of + treadles. Then the inclination or declination of his machine must be noted + on the spirit level at his side, and the 200 odd pounds of ballast must be + regulated as the course requires. + </p> + <p> + A more detailed account of this navigable balloon was furnished by a + member of the Paris Aero Club. From this authority we learn that the + capacity of the balloon was 10,700 cubic feet. It contained an inner + balloon and an air fan, the function of which was to maintain the shape of + the balloon when meeting the wind, and the whole was operated by a + 10-horse power motor capable of working the screw at 100 revolutions per + minute. + </p> + <p> + But before the aerial exploits of Santos Dumont had become famous, + balloons had again claimed public attention. On August 1st Captain + Spelterini, with two companions, taking a balloon and 180 cylinders of + hydrogen to the top of the Rigi and ascending thence, pursued a north-east + course, across extensive and beautiful tracts of icefield and mountain + fastnesses unvisited by men. The descent, which was difficult and + critical, was happily manoeuvred. This took place on the Gnuetseven, a + peak over 5,000 feet high, the plateau on which the voyagers landed being + described as only 50 yards square, surrounded by precipices. + </p> + <p> + On the 10th of September following the writer was fortunate in carrying + out some wireless telegraphy experiments in a balloon, the success of + which is entirely due to the unrivalled skill of Mr. Nevil Maskelyne, + F.R.A.S., and to his clever adaptation of the special apparatus of his own + invention to the exigencies of a free balloon. The occasion was the garden + party at the Bradford meeting of the British Association, Admiral Sir + Edmund Fremantle taking part in the voyage, with Mr. Percival Spencer in + charge. The experiment was to include the firing of a mine in the grounds + two minutes after the balloon had left, and this item was entirely + successful. The main idea was to attempt to establish communication + between a base and a free balloon retreating through space at a height + beyond practicable gun shot. The wind was fast and squally, and the + unavoidable rough jolting which the car received at the start put the + transmitting instrument out of action. The messages, however, which were + sent from the grounds at Lister Park were received and watched by the + occupants of the car up to a distance of twenty miles, at which point the + voyage terminated. + </p> + <p> + On September 30th, and also on October 9th, of this year, took place two + principal balloon races from Vincennes in connection with the Paris + Exposition. In the first race, among those who competed were M. Jacques + Faure, the Count de la Vaulx, and M. Jacques Balsan. The Count was the + winner, reaching Wocawek, in Russian Poland, a travel of 706 miles, in 21 + hours 34 minutes. M. Balsan was second, descending near Dantzig in East + Prussia, 757 miles, in 22 hours. M. Jacques Faure reached Mamlitz, in East + Prussia, a distance of 753 miles. + </p> + <p> + In the final race the Count de la Vaulx made a record voyage of 1,193 + miles, reaching Korosticheff, in Russia, in 35 hours 45 minutes, attaining + a maximum altitude of 18,810 feet. M. J. Balsan reached a greater height, + namely, 21,582 feet, travelling to Rodom, in Russia, a distance of 843 + miles, in 27 hours 25 minutes. + </p> + <p> + Some phenomenal altitudes were attained at this time. In September, 1898, + Dr. Berson, of Berlin, ascended from the Crystal Palace in a balloon + inflated with hydrogen, under the management of Mr. Stanley Spencer, + oxygen being an essential part of the equipment. The start was made at 5 + p.m., and the balloon at first drifted south-east, out over the mouth of + the Thames, until at an altitude of 10,000 feet an upper current changed + the course to southwest, the balloon mounting rapidly till 23,000 feet was + reached, at which height the coast of France was plainly seen. At 25,000 + feet both voyagers were gasping, and compelled to inhale oxygen. At 27,500 + feet, only four bags of ballast being left, the descent was commenced, and + a safe landing was effected at Romford. + </p> + <p> + Subsequently Dr. Berson, in company with Dr. Suring, ascending from + Berlin, attained an altitude of 34,000 feet. At 30,000 feet the aeronauts + were inhaling oxygen, and before reaching their highest point both had for + a considerable time remained unconscious. + </p> + <p> + In 1901 a new aeroplane flying machine began to attract attention, the + invention of Herr Kress. A novel feature of the machine was a device to + render it of avail for Arctic travel. In shape it might be compared to an + iceboat with two keels and a long stem, the keels being adapted to run on + ice or snow, while the boat would float on water. Power was to be derived + from a petrol motor. + </p> + <p> + At the same period M. Henry Sutor was busy on Lake Constance with an air + ship designed also to float on water. Then Mr. Buchanan followed with a + fish-shaped vessel, one of the most important specialities of which + consisted in side propellers, the surfaces of which were roughened with + minute diagonal grooves to effect a greater grip on the air. + </p> + <p> + No less original was the air ship, 100 feet long, and carrying 18,000 + cubic feet of gas, which Mr. W. Beedle was engaged upon. In this machine, + besides the propellers for controlling the horizontal motion, there was + one to regulate vertical motion, with a view of obviating expenditure of + gas or ballast. + </p> + <p> + But by this time M. Santos Dumont, pursuing his hobby with unparalleled + perseverance, had built in succession no less than six air ships, meeting + with no mean success, profiting by every lesson taught by failures, and + making light of all accidents, great or small. On July 15th, 1901, he made + a famous try for the Deutsch prize in a cigar-shaped balloon, 110 feet + long, 19,000 cubic feet capacity, carrying a Daimler oil motor of 15-horse + power. The day was not favourable, but, starting from the Parc + d'Aerostation, he was abreast of the Eiffel Tower in thirteen minutes, + circling round which, and battling against a head wind, he reached the + grounds of the Aero Club in 41 minutes from the start, or 11 minutes late + by the conditions of the prize. A cylinder had broken down, and the + balance of the vessel had become upset. + </p> + <p> + Within a fortnight—July 29th—in favourable weather, he made + another flight, lasting fifteen minutes, at the end of which he had + returned to his starting ground. Then on August 8th a more momentous + attempt came off. Sailing up with a rapid ascent, and flying with the + wind, Santos Dumont covered the distance to the Tower in five minutes + only, and gracefully swung round; but, immediately after, the wind played + havoc, slowing down the motor, at the same time damaging the balloon, and + causing an escape of gas. On this Santos Dumont, ascending higher into the + sky, quitted the car, and climbed along the keel to inspect, and, if + possible, rectify the motor, but with little success. The balloon was + emptying, and the machine pitched badly, till a further rent occurred, + when it commenced falling hopelessly and with a speed momentarily + increasing. + </p> + <p> + Slanting over a roof, the balloon caught a chimney and tore asunder; but + the wreck, also catching, held fast, while the car hung helplessly down a + blank wall. In this perilous predicament great coolness and agility alone + averted disaster, till firemen were able to come to the rescue. + </p> + <p> + The air ship was damaged beyond repair, but by September 6th another was + completed, and on trial appeared to work well until, while travelling at + speed, it was brought up and badly strained by the trail rope catching in + trees. + </p> + <p> + Early in the next month the young Brazilian was aloft again, with weather + conditions entirely in his favour; but again certain minor mishaps + prevented his next struggle for the prize, which did not take place till + the 19th. On this day a light cross wind was blowing, not sufficient, + however, seriously to influence the first stage of the time race, and the + outward journey was accomplished with a direct flight in nine minutes. On + rounding the tower, however, the wind began to tell prejudicially, and the + propeller became deranged. On this, letting his vessel fall off from the + wind, Santos Dumont crawled along the framework till he reached the motor, + which he succeeded in again setting in working order, though not without a + delay of several minutes and some loss of ground. From that point the + return journey was accomplished in eight minutes, and the race was, at the + time, declared lost by 40 seconds only. + </p> + <p> + The most important and novel feature in the air ships constructed by + Santos Dumont was the internal ballonet, inflated automatically by a + ventilator, the expedient being designed to preserve the shape of the main + balloon itself while meeting the wind. On the whole, it answered well, and + took the place of the heavy wire cage used by Zeppelin. + </p> + <p> + M. de Fonvielle, commenting on the achievements of Santos Dumont, wrote:—"It + does not appear that he has navigated his balloon against more than very + light winds, but in his machinery he has shown such attention to detail + that it may reasonably be expected that if he continues to increase his + motive power he will, ere long, exceed past performances." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Chanute has a further word to say about the possibility of making + balloons navigable. He considers that their size will have to be great to + the verge of impracticability and the power of the motor enormous in + proportion to its weight. As to flying machines, properly so called, he + calculates the best that has been done to be the sustaining of from 27 + lbs. to 55 lbs. per horse power by impact upon the air. But Mr. Chanute + also argues that the equilibrium is of prime importance, and on this point + there could scarcely be a greater authority. No one of living men has + given more attention to the problem of "soaring," and it is stated that he + has had about a thousand "slides" made by assistants, with different types + of machine, and all without the slightest accident. + </p> + <p> + Many other aerial vessels might be mentioned. Mr. T. H. Bastin, of + Clapham, has been engaged for many years on a machine which should imitate + bird flight as nearly as this may be practicable. + </p> + <p> + Baron Bradsky aims at a navigable balloon on an ambitious scale. M. Tatin + is another candidate for the Deutsch prize. Of Dr. Barton's air ship more + is looked for, as being designed for the War Office. It is understood that + the official requirements demand a machine which, while capable of + transporting a man through the air at a speed of 13 miles an hour, can + remain fully inflated for 48 hours. One of the most sanguine, as well as + enterprising, imitators of Santos Dumont was a fellow countryman, Auguste + Severo. Of his machine during construction little could be gathered, and + still less seen, from the fact that the various parts were being + manufactured at different workshops, but it was known to be of large size + and to be fitted with powerful motors. This was an ill-fated vessel. At an + early hour on May 12th of this year, 1902, all Paris was startled by a + report that M. Severo and his assistant, M. Sachet had been killed while + making a trial excursion. It appears that at daybreak it had been decided + that the favourable moment for trial had arrived. The machinery was got + ready, and with little delay the air vessel was dismissed and rose quietly + and steadily into the calm sky. The Daily Mail gives the following account + of what ensued:— + </p> + <p> + "For the first few minutes all went well, and the motor seemed to be + working satisfactorily. The air ship answered the helm readily, and + admiring exclamations rose from the crowd.... But as the vessel rose + higher she was seen to fall off from the wind, while the aeronauts could + be seen vainly endeavouring to keep her head on. Then M. Severo commenced + throwing out ballast.... All this time the ship was gradually soaring + higher and higher until, just as it was over the Montparnasse Cemetery, at + the height of 2,000 feet, a sheet of flame was seen to shoot up from one + of the motors, and instantly the immense silk envelope containing 9,000 + cubic feet of hydrogen was enveloped in leaping tongues of fire.... As + soon as the flames came in contact with the gas a tremendous explosion + followed, and in an instant all that was left of the air ship fell to the + earth." Both aeronauts were dashed to pieces. It was thought that the + fatality was caused through faulty construction, the escape valve for the + gas being situated only about nine feet from the motor. It was announced + by Count de la Vaulx that during the summer of 1901 he would attempt to + cross the Mediterranean by a balloon, provisioned for three weeks, + maintaining communication with the coast during his voyage by wireless + telegraphy and other methods of signalling. He was to make use of the + "Herve Deviator," or steering apparatus, which may be described as a + series of cupshaped plates dipping in the water at the end of a trail + rope. By means of controlling cords worked from the car, the whole series + of plates could be turned at an angle to the direction of the wind, by + which the balloon's course would be altered. Count de la Vaulx attempted + this grand journey on October 12th, starting from Toulon with the + intention of reaching Algiers, taking the precaution, however, of having a + cruiser in attendance. When fifty miles out from Marseilles a passing + steamer received from the balloon the signal, "All's well"; but the wind + had veered round to the east, and, remaining persistently in this quarter, + the Count abandoned his venture, and, signalling to the cruiser, succeeded + in alighting on her deck, not, however, before he had completed the + splendid and record voyage of 41 hours' duration. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0027" id="link2HCH0027"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVII. THE POSSIBILITIES OF BALLOONS IN WARFARE. + </h2> + <p> + Clearly the time has not yet arrived when the flying machine will be + serviceable in war. Yet we are not without those theorisers who, at the + present moment, would seriously propose schemes for conveying dynamite and + other explosives by air ship, or dropping them over hostile forces or + fortresses, or even fleets at sea. They go yet further, and gravely + discuss the point whether such warfare would be legitimate. We, however, + may say at once, emphatically, that any such scheme is simply + impracticable. It must be abundantly evident that, so far, no form of + dirigible air ship exists which could be relied on to carry out any + required manoeuvre in such atmospheric conditions as generally prevail. + If, even in calm and favourable weather, more often than not motors break + down, or gear carries away, what hope is there for any aerial craft which + would attempt to battle with such wind currents as commonly blow aloft? + </p> + <p> + And when we turn to the balloon proper, are chances greatly improved? The + eminently practical aeronaut, John Wise, as was told in Chapter XII., + prepared a scheme for the reduction of Vera Cruz by the agency of a + balloon. Let us glance at it. A single balloon was to suffice, measuring + 100 feet in diameter, and capable of raising in the gross 30,000 lbs. To + manoeuvre this monstrous engine he calculates he would require a cable + five miles long, by means of which he hoped, in some manner, to work his + way directly over the fortress, and to remain poised at that point at the + height of a mile in the sky. Once granted that he could arrive and + maintain himself at that position, the throwing out of combustibles would + be simple, though even then the spot where they would alight after the + drop of a mile would be by no means certain. It is also obvious that a + vast amount of gas would have to be sacrificed to compensate for the + prodigal discharge of ballast in the form of missiles. + </p> + <p> + The idea of manoeuvring a balloon in a wind, and poising it in the manner + suggested, is, of course, preposterous; and when one considers the attempt + to aim bombs from a moving balloon high in air the case becomes yet more + absurd. Any such missile would partake of the motion of the balloon + itself, and it would be impossible to tell where it would strike the + earth. + </p> + <p> + To give an example which is often enough tried in balloon travel when the + ground below is clear. A glass bottle (presumably empty) is cast overboard + and its fall watched. It is seen not to be left behind, but to keep pace + with the balloon, shrinking gradually to an object too small to be + discerned, except when every now and then a ray of sunlight reflected off + it reveals it for a moment as it continues to plunge downwards. After a + very few seconds the impression is that it is about to reach the earth, + and the eye forms a guess at some spot which it will strike; but the spot + is quickly passed, and the bottle travels far beyond across a field, over + the further fence, and vastly further yet; indeed, inasmuch as to fall a + mile in air a heavy body may take over twenty seconds—and twenty + seconds is long to those who watch—it is often impossible to tell to + two or three fields where it will finally settle. + </p> + <p> + All this while the risk that a balloon would run of being riddled by + bullets, shrapnel, or pom-poms has not been taken into account, and as to + the estimate of this risk there is some difference of opinion. The balloon + corps and the artillery apparently approach the question with different + bias. On the one hand, it is stated with perfect truth that a free + balloon, which is generally either rising or falling, as well as moving + across country, is a hard object to hit, and a marksman would only strike + it with a chance or blundering shot; but, on the other hand let us take + the following report of three years ago. + </p> + <p> + The German artillery had been testing the efficiency of a quick-firing gun + when used against a balloon, and they decided that the latter would have + no chance of escape except at night. A German kite-balloon was kept moving + at an altitude of 600 metres, and the guns trained upon it were distant + 3,000 metres. It was then stated that after the third discharge of the + rapid firing battery the range was found, when all was at once over with + the balloon; for, not only was it hit with every discharge, but it was + presently set on fire and annihilated. + </p> + <p> + But, in any case, the antique mode of keeping a balloon moored at any spot + as a post of observation must be abandoned in modern warfare. Major + Baden-Powell, speaking from personal experience in South Africa, has shown + how dangerous, or else how useless, such a form of reconnaissance has + become. "I remember," he says, "at the battle of Magersfontein my company + was lying down in extended order towards the left of our line. We were + perfectly safe from musketry fire, as we lay, perhaps, two miles from the + Boer trenches, which were being shelled by some of our guns close by. The + enemy's artillery was practically silent. Presently, on looking round, I + descried our balloon away out behind us about two miles off. Then she + steadily rose and made several trips to a good height, but what could be + seen from that distance? When a large number of our troops were ranged up + within 800 yards of the trenches, and many more at all points behind them, + what useful information could be obtained by means of the balloon four + miles off?" + </p> + <p> + The same eminent authority insists on the necessity of an observing war + balloon making short ascents. The balloon, in his opinion, should be + allowed to ascend rapidly to its full height, and with as little delay as + possible be hauled down again. Under these conditions it may then be well + worth testing whether the primitive form of balloon, the Montgolfier, + might not be the most valuable. Instead of being made, as the war balloon + is now, of fragile material, and filled with costly gas difficult to + procure, and which has to be conveyed in heavy and cumbersome cylinders, a + hot air balloon could be rapidly carried by hand anywhere where a few men + could push their way. It is of strong material, readily mended if torn, + and could be inflated for short ascents, if not by mere brush wood, then + by a portable blast furnace and petroleum. + </p> + <p> + But there is a further use for balloons in warfare not yet exploited. The + Siege of Paris showed the utility of free balloons, and occasions arise + when their use might be still further extended. The writer pointed out + that it might have been very possible for an aeronaut of experience, by + choosing the right weather and the right position along the British lines, + to have skilfully manoeuvred a free balloon by means of upper currents, so + as to convey all-important intelligence to besieged Mafeking, and he + proved that it would have sufficed if the balloon could have been "tacked" + across the sky to within some fifteen miles of the desired goal. + </p> + <p> + The mode of signalling which he proposed was by means of a "collapsing + drum," an instrument of occasional use in the Navy. A modification of this + instrument, as employed by the writer, consisted of a light, spherical, + drum-shaped frame of large size, which, when covered with dark material + and hung in the clear below the car of a lofty balloon, could be well seen + either against blue sky or grey at a great distance. The so-called drum + could, by a very simple contrivance, readily worked from the car, be made + to collapse into a very inconspicuous object, and thus be capable of + displaying Morse Code signals. A long pause with the drum extended—like + the long wave of a signalling flag—would denote a "dash," and a + short pause a "dot," and these motions would be at once intelligible to + anyone acquainted with the now universal Morse Code system. + </p> + <p> + Provided with an apparatus of the kind, the writer made an ascent from + Newbury at a time when the military camps were lying on Salisbury Plain at + a distance of nearly twenty miles to the south-west. The ground wind up to + 2,500 feet on starting was nearly due north, and would have defeated the + attempt; again, the air stream blowing above that height was nearly due + east, which again would have proved unsuitable. But it was manifestly + possible to utilise the two currents, and with good luck to zig-zag one's + course so as to come within easy signalling distance of the various camps; + and, as a matter of fact, we actually passed immediately over Bulford + Camp, with which we exchanged signals, while two other camps lay close to + right and left of us. Fortune favouring us, we had actually hit our mark, + though it would have been sufficient for the experiment had our course + lain within ten miles right or left. + </p> + <p> + Yet a further use for the balloon in warfare remains untried in this + country. Acting under the advice of experts in the Service, the writer, in + the early part of the present year, suggested to the Admiralty the + desirability of experimenting with balloons as a means of detecting + submarine engines of war. It is well known that reefs and shoals can + generally be seen from a cliff or mast head far more clearly than from the + deck or other position near the surface of the water. Would not, then, a + balloon, if skilfully manoeuvred, serve as a valuable post of observation? + The Admiralty, in acknowledging the communication, promised to give the + matter their attention; but by the month of June the Press had + announcements of how the self-same experiments had been successfully + carried through by French authorities, while a few days later the + Admiralty wrote, "For the present no need is seen for the use of a captive + balloon to detect submarines." + </p> + <p> + Among many and varied ballooning incidents which have occurred to the + writer, there are some which may not unprofitably be compared with certain + experiences already recorded of other aeronauts. Thunderstorms, as + witnessed from a balloon, have already been casually described, and it may + reasonably be hoped that the observations which have, under varying + circumstances, been made at high altitudes may throw some additional light + on this familiar, though somewhat perplexing, phenomenon. + </p> + <p> + To begin with, it seems a moot point whether a balloon caught in a + thunderstorm is, or is not, in any special danger of being struck. It has + been argued that immunity under such circumstances must depend upon + whether a sufficiently long time has elapsed since the balloon left the + earth to allow of its becoming positively electrified by induction from + the clouds or by rain falling upon its surface. But there are many other + points to be considered. There is the constant escape of gas from the + mouth; there is the mass of pointed metal in the anchor; and, again, it is + conceivable that a balloon rapidly descending out of a thunderstorm might + carry with it a charge residing on its moistened surface which might + manifest itself disastrously as the balloon reached the earth. + </p> + <p> + Instances seem to have been not infrequent of balloons encountering + thunderstorms; but, unfortunately, in most cases the observers have not + had any scientific training, or the accounts which are to hand are those + of the type of journalist who is chiefly in quest of sensational copy. + </p> + <p> + Thus there is an account from America of a Professor King who made an + ascent from Burlington, Iowa, just as a thunderstorm was approaching, with + the result that, instead of scudding away with the wind before the storm, + he was actually, as if by some attraction, drawn into it. On this his aim + was to pierce through the cloud above, and then follows a description + which it is hard to realise:—"There came down in front of him, and + apparently not more than 50 feet distant, a grand discharge of + electricity." Then he feels the car lifted, the gas suddenly expands to + overflowing, and the balloon is hurled through the cloud with + inconceivable velocity, this happening several times, with tremendous + oscillations of the car, until the balloon is borne to earth in a torrent + of rain. We fancy that many practical balloonists will hardly endorse this + description. + </p> + <p> + But we have another, relating to one of the most distinguished aeronauts, + M. Eugene Godard, who, in an ascent with local journalists, was caught in + a thunderstorm. Here we are told—presumably by the journalists—that + "twice the lightning flashed within a few yards of the terror-stricken + crew." + </p> + <p> + Once again, in an ascent at Derby, a spectator writes:—"The + lightning played upon the sphere of the balloon, lighting it up and making + things visible through it." This, however, one must suppose, can hardly + apply to the balloon when liberated. + </p> + <p> + But a graphic description of a very different character given in the + "Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society" for January, 1901, + is of real value. It appears that three lieutenants of the Prussian + Balloon Corps took charge of a balloon that ascended at Berlin, and, when + at a height of 2,300 feet, became enveloped in the mist, through which + only occasional glimpses of earth were seen. At this point a sharp, + crackling sound was heard at the ring, like the sparking of a huge + electrical machine, and, looking up, the voyagers beheld sparks apparently + some half-inch thick, and over two feet in length, playing from the ring. + Thunder was heard, but—and this may have significance—only + before and after the above phenomenon. + </p> + <p> + Another instructive experience is recorded of the younger Green in an + ascent which he made from Frankfort-on-the-Maine. On this occasion he + relates that he encountered a thunderstorm, and at a height of 4,400 feet + found himself at the level where the storm clouds were discharging + themselves in a deluge. He seems to have had no difficulty in ascending + through the storm into the clear sky above, where a breeze from another + quarter quickly carried him away from the storm centre. + </p> + <p> + This co-existence, or conflict of opposite currents, is held to be the + common characteristic, if not the main cause, of thunderstorms, and + tallies with the following personal experience. It was in typical July + weather of 1900 that the writer and his son, accompanied by Admiral Sir + Edmund Fremantle and Mr. Percival Spencer, made an evening ascent from + Newbury. It had been a day of storms, but about 5 p.m., after what + appeared to be a clearing shower, the sky brightened, and we sailed up + into a cloudless heaven. The wind, at 3,000 feet, was travelling at some + thirty miles an hour, and ere the distance of ten miles had been covered a + formidable thunder pack was seen approaching and coming up dead against + the wind. Nothing could be more evident than that the balloon was + travelling rapidly with a lower wind, while the storm was being borne + equally rapidly on an upper and diametrically opposite current. It proved + one of the most severe thunderstorms remembered in the country. It brooded + for five hours over Devizes, a few miles ahead. A homestead on our right + was struck and burned to the ground, while on our left two soldiers were + killed on Salisbury Plain. The sky immediately overhead was, of course, + hidden by the large globe of the balloon, but around and beneath us the + storm seemed to gather in a blue grey mist, which quickly broadened and + deepened till, almost before we could realise it, we found ourselves in + the very heart of the storm, the lightning playing all around us, and the + sharp hail stinging our faces. + </p> + <p> + The countrymen below described the balloon as apparently enveloped by the + lightning, but with ourselves, though the flashes were incessant, and on + all sides, the reverberations of the thunder were not remarkable, being + rather brief explosions in which they resembled the thunder claps not + infrequently described by travellers on mountain heights. + </p> + <p> + The balloon was now descending from a double cause: the weight of moisture + suddenly accumulated on its surface, and the very obvious downrush of cold + air that accompanied the storm of pelting hail. With a very limited store + of ballast, it seemed impossible to make a further ascent, nor was this + desirable. The signalling experiments on which we were intent could not be + carried on in such weather. The only course was to descend, and though + this was not at once practicable, owing to Savernake Forest being beneath + us, we effected a safe landing in the first available clearing. + </p> + <p> + As has been mentioned, Mr. Glaisher and other observers have recorded + several remarkable instances of opposite wind currents being met with at + moderate altitudes. None, however, can have been more noteworthy or + surprising than the following experience Of the writer on Whit Monday of + 1899. The ascent was under an overcast sky, from the Crystal Palace at 3 + p.m., at which hour a cold drizzle was settling in with a moderate breeze + from the east. Thus, starting from the usual filling ground near the north + tower, the balloon sailed over the body of the Palace, and thence over the + suburbs towards the west till lost in the mist. We then ascended through + 1,500 feet of dense, wetting cloud, and, emerging in bright sunshine, + continued to drift for two hours at an average altitude of some 3,000 + feet; 1,000 feet below us was the ill-defined, ever changing upper surface + of the dense cloud floor, and it was no longer possible to determine our + course, which we therefore assumed to have remained unchanged. At length, + however, as a measure of prudence, we determined to descend through the + clouds sufficiently to learn something of our whereabouts, which we + reasonably expected to be somewhere in Surrey or Berks. On emerging, + however, below the cloud, the first object that loomed out of the mist + immediately below us was a cargo vessel, in the rigging of which our trail + rope was entangling itself. Only by degrees the fact dawned upon us that + we were in the estuary of the Thames, and beating up towards London once + again with an cast wind. Thus it became evident that at the higher level, + unknown to ourselves, we had been headed back on our course, for two + hours, by a wind diametrically opposed to that blowing on the ground. + </p> + <p> + Two recent developments of the hot-air war balloon suggest great + possibilities in the near future. One takes the form of a small captive, + carrying aloft a photographic camera directed and operated electrically + from the ground. The other is a self-contained passenger balloon of large + dimensions, carrying in complete safety a special petroleum burner of + great power. These new and important departures are mainly due to the + mechanical genius of Mr. J. N. Maskelyne, who has patented and perfected + them in conjunction with the writer. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0028" id="link2HCH0028"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVIII. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE AIR. + </h2> + <p> + Some fair idea of the conditions prevailing in the upper air may have been + gathered from the many and various observations already recorded. Stating + the case broadly, we may assert that the same atmospheric changes with + which we are familiar at the level of the earth are to be found also at + all accessible heights, equally extensive and equally sudden. + </p> + <p> + Standing on an open heath on a gusty day, we may often note the rhythmic + buffeting of the wind, resembling the assault of rolling billows of air. + The evidence of these billows has been actually traced far aloft in + balloon travel, when aeronauts, looking down on a wind-swept surface of + cloud, have observed this surface to be thrown into a series of rolls of + vapour, which were but vast and veritable waves of air. The interval + between successive crests of these waves has on one occasion been + estimated at approximately half a mile. We have seen how these air streams + sometimes hold wide and independent sway at different levels. We have + seen, too, how they sometimes meet and mingle, not infrequently attended + with electrical disturbance + </p> + <p> + Through broad drifts of air minor air streams would seem often literally + to "thread" their way, breaking up into filaments or wandering rills of + air. In the voyage across Salisbury Plain lately described, while the + balloon was being carried with the more sluggish current, a number of + small parachutes were dropped out at frequent intervals and carefully + watched. These would commonly attend the balloon for a little while, + until, getting into some minor air stream, they would suddenly and rapidly + diverge at such wide angles as to suggest that crossing our actual course + there were side paths, down which the smaller bodies became wafted. + </p> + <p> + On another occasion the writer met with strongly marked and altogether + exceptional evidence of the vehemence and persistence of these minor + aerial streamlets. It was on an occasion in April weather, when a heavy + overcast sky blotted out the upper heavens. In the cloud levels the wind + was somewhat sluggish, and for an hour we travelled at an average speed of + a little over twenty miles an hour, never higher than 3,000 feet. At this + point, while flying over Hertfordshire, we threw out sufficient ballast to + cause the balloon to rise clear of the hazy lower air, and coming under + the full influence of the sun, then in the meridian, we shot upwards at + considerable speed, and soon attained an altitude of three miles. But for + a considerable portion of this climb—while, in fact, we were + ascending through little less than a mile of our upward course—we + were assailed by impetuous cross currents, which whistled through car and + rigging and smote us fairly on the cheek. It was altogether a novel + experience, and the more remarkable from the fact that our main onward + course was not appreciably diverted. + </p> + <p> + Then we got above these currents, and remained at our maximum level, while + we floated, still at only a moderate speed, the length of a county. The + descent then began, and once again, while we dropped through the same + disturbed region, the same far-reaching and obtrusive cross-current + assailed us. It was quite obvious that the vehement currents were too + slender to tell largely upon the huge surface of the balloon, as it was + being swept steadily onwards by the main wind, which never varied in + direction from ground levels up to the greatest height attained. + </p> + <p> + This experience is but confirmation of the story of the wind told by the + wind gauges on the Forth Bridge. Here the maximum pressure measured on the + large gauge of 300 square feet is commonly considerably less than that on + the smaller gauge, suggesting that the latter must be due to threads of + air of limited area and high velocity. + </p> + <p> + Further and very valuable light is thrown on the peculiar ways of the + wind, now being considered, by Professor Langley in the special researches + of his to which reference has already been made. This eminent observer and + mathematician, suspecting that the old-fashioned instruments, which only + told what the wind had been doing every hour, or at best every minute, + gave but a most imperfect record, constructed delicate gauges, which would + respond to every impulse and give readings from second to second. + </p> + <p> + In this way he established the fact that the wind, far from being a body + of even approximate uniformity, is under most ordinary conditions + irregular almost beyond conception. Further, that the greater the speed + the greater the fluctuations, so that a high wind has to be regarded as + "air moving in a tumultuous mass," the velocity at one moment perhaps + forty miles an hour, then diminishing to an almost instantaneous calm, and + then resuming. "In fact, in the very nature of the case, wind is not the + result of one simple cause, but of an infinite number of impulses and + changes, perhaps long passed, which are preserved in it, and which die + only slowly away." + </p> + <p> + When we come to take observations of temperature we find the conditions in + the atmosphere above us to be at first sight not a little complex, and + altogether different in day and night hours. From observations already + recorded in this volume—notably those of Gay Lussac, Welsh, and + Glaisher—it has been made to appear that, in ascending into the sky + in daytime, the temperature usually falls according to a general law; but + there are found regions where the fall of temperature becomes arrested, + such regions being commonly, though by no means invariably, associated + with visible cloud. It is probable, however, that it would be more correct + not to interpret the presence of cloud as causing manifestation of cold, + but rather to regard the meeting of warm and cold currents as the cause of + cloud. + </p> + <p> + The writer has experimented in the upper regions with a special form of + air thermometer of great sensibility, designed to respond rapidly to + slight variations of temperature. Testing this instrument on one occasion + in a room of equable warmth, and without draughts, he was puzzled by + seeing the index in a capillary tube suddenly mounting rapidly, due to + some cause which was not apparent, till it was noticed that the parlour + cat, attracted by the proceedings, had approached near the apparatus. The + behaviour of this instrument when slung in the clear some distance over + the side of the balloon car, and carefully watched, suggests by its + fitful, sudden, and rapid changes that warmer currents are often making + their way in such slender wandering rills as have been already pictured as + permeating the broader air streams. During night hours conditions are + reversed. The warmer air radiated off the earth through the day has then + ascended. It will be found at different heights, lying in pools or strata, + possibly resembling in form, could they be seen, masses of visible cloud. + </p> + <p> + The writer has gathered from night voyages instructive and suggestive + facts with reference to the ascent of air streams, due to differences of + temperature, particularly over London and the suburbs, and it is + conceivable that in such ascending streams may lie a means of dealing + successfully with visitations of smoke and fog. + </p> + <p> + One lesson taught by balloon travel has been that fog or haze will come or + go in obedience to temperature variations at low levels. Thus thick haze + has lain over London, more particularly over the lower parts, at sundown. + Then through night hours, as the temperature of the lower air has become + equalised, the haze has completely disappeared, but only to reassert + itself at dawn. + </p> + <p> + A description of the very impressive experience of a night sail over + London has been reserved, but should not be altogether omitted. Glaisher, + writing of the spectacle as he observed it nearly forty years ago, + describes London seen at night from a balloon at a distance as resembling + a vast conflagration. When actually over the town, a main thoroughfare + like the Commercial Road shone up like a line of brilliant fire; but, + travelling westward, Oxford Street presented an appearance which puzzled + him. "Here the two thickly studded rows of brilliant lights were seen on + either side of the street, with a narrow, dark space between, and this + dark space was bounded, as it were, on both sides by a bright fringe like + frosted silver." Presently he discovered that this rich effect was caused + by the bright illumination of the shop lights on the pavements. + </p> + <p> + London, as seen from a balloon on a clear moonlight night in August a year + ago (1901), wore a somewhat altered appearance. There were the fairy lamps + tracing out the streets, which, though dark centred, wore their silver + lining; but in irregular patches a whiter light from electric arc lamps + broadened and brightened and shone out like some pyrotechnic display above + the black housetops. Through the vast town ran a blank, black channel, the + river, winding on into distance, crossed here and there by bridges showing + as bright bands, and with bright spots occasionally to mark where lay the + river craft. But what was most striking was the silence. Though the noise + of London traffic as heard from a balloon has diminished of late years + owing to the better paving, yet in day hours the roar of the streets is + heard up to a great height as a hard, harsh, grinding din. But at night, + after the last 'bus has ceased to ply, and before the market carts begin + lumbering in, the balloonist, as he sails over the town, might imagine + that he was traversing a City of the Dead. + </p> + <p> + It is at such times that a shout through a speaking trumpet has a most + startling effect, and more particularly a blast on a horn. In this case + after an interval of some seconds a wild note will be flung back from the + house-tops below, answered and re-answered on all sides as it echoes from + roof to roof—a wild, weird uproar that awakes suddenly, and then + dies out slowly far away. + </p> + <p> + Experiments with echoes from a balloon have proved instructive. If, when + riding at a height, say, of 2,000 feet, a charge of gun-cotton be fired + electrically 100 feet below the car, the report, though really as loud as + a cannon, sounds no more than a mere pistol shot, possibly partly owing to + the greater rarity of the air, but chiefly because the sound, having no + background to reflect it, simply spends itself in the air. Then, always + and under all conditions of atmosphere soever, there ensues absolute + silence until the time for the echo back from earth has fully elapsed, + when a deafening outburst of thunder rises from below, rolling on often + for more than half a minute. Two noteworthy facts, at least, the writer + has established from a very large number of trials: first, that the theory + of aerial echoes thrown back from empty space, which physicists have held + to exist constantly, and to be part of the cause of thunder, will have to + be abandoned; and, secondly, that from some cause yet to be fully + explained the echo back from the earth is always behind its time. + </p> + <p> + But balloons have revealed further suggestive facts with regard to sound, + and more particularly with regard to the varying acoustic properties of + the air. It is a familiar experience how distant sounds will come and go, + rising and falling, often being wafted over extraordinary distances, and + again failing altogether, or sometimes being lost at near range, but + appearing in strength further away. A free balloon, moving in the profound + silence of the upper air, becomes an admirable sound observatory. It may + be clearly detected that in certain conditions of atmosphere, at least, + there are what may be conceived to be aerial sound channels, through which + sounds are momentarily conveyed with abnormal intensity. This phenomenon + does but serve to give an intelligible presentment of the unseen + conditions existing in the realm of air. + </p> + <p> + It would be reasonable to suppose that were an eye so constituted as to be + able to see, say, cumulus masses of warmer air, strata mottled with traces + of other gases, and beds of invisible matter in suspension, one might + suppose that what we deem the clearest sky would then appear flecked with + forms as many and various as the clouds that adorn our summer heavens. + </p> + <p> + But there is matter in suspension in the atmosphere which is very far from + invisible, and which in the case of large towns is very commonly lying in + thick strata overhead, stopping back the sunlight, and forming the nucleus + round which noisome fogs may form. Experimenting with suitable apparatus, + the writer has found on a still afternoon in May, at 2,000 feet above + Kingston in Surrey, that the air was charged far more heavily with dust + than that of the London streets the next day; and, again, at half a mile + above the city in the month of August last dust, much of it being of a + gross and even fibrous nature, was far more abundant than on grass + enclosures in the town during the forenoon of the day following. + </p> + <p> + An attempt has been made to include England in a series of international + balloon ascents arranged expressly for the purpose of taking simultaneous + observations at a large number of stations over Europe, by which means it + is hoped that much fresh knowledge will be forthcoming with respect to the + constitution of the atmosphere up to the highest levels accessible by + balloons manned and unmanned. It is very much to be regretted that in the + case of England the attempt here spoken of has rested entirely on private + enterprise. First and foremost in personal liberality and the work of + organisation must be mentioned Mr. P. Y. Alexander, whose zeal in the + progress of aeronautics is second to none in this country. Twice through + his efforts England has been represented in the important work for which + Continental nations have no difficulty in obtaining public grants. The + first occasion was on November 8th, 1900, when the writer was privileged + to occupy a seat in the balloon furnished by Mr. Alexander, and equipped + with the most modern type of instruments. It was a stormy and fast voyage + from the Crystal Palace to Halstead, in Essex, 48 miles in 40 minutes. + Simultaneously with this, Mr. Alexander dismissed an unmanned balloon from + Bath, which ascended 8,000 feet, and landed at Cricklade. Other balloons + which took part in the combined experiment were two from Paris, three from + Chalais Meudon, three from Strasburg, two from Vienna, two from Berlin, + and two from St. Petersburg. + </p> + <p> + The section of our countrymen specially interested in aeronautics—a + growing community—is represented by the Aeronautical Society, formed + in 1865, with the Duke of Argyll for president, and for thirty years under + the most energetic management of Mr. F. W. Brearey, succeeding whom as + hon. secs. have been Major Baden-Powell and Mr. Eric S. Bruce. Mr. Brearey + was one of the most successful inventors of flying models. Mr. Chanute, + speaking as President of the American Society of Civil Engineers, paid him + a high and well-deserved compliment in saying that it was through his + influence that aerial navigation had been cleared of much rubbish and + placed upon a scientific and firm basis. + </p> + <p> + Another community devoting itself to the pursuit of balloon trips and + matters aeronautical generally is the newly-formed Aero Club, of whom one + of the most prominent and energetic members is the Hon. C. S. Rolls. + </p> + <p> + It had been announced that M. Santos-Dumont would bring an air ship to + England, and during the summer of the present year would give exhibitions + of its capability. It was even rumoured that he might circle round St. + Paul's and accomplish other aerial feats unknown in England. The promise + was fulfilled so far as bringing the air ship to England was concerned, + for one of his vessels which had seen service was deposited at the Crystal + Palace. In some mysterious manner, however, never sufficiently made clear + to the public, this machine was one morning found damaged, and M. + Santos-Dumont has withdrawn from his proposed engagements. + </p> + <p> + In thus doing he left the field open to one of our own countrymen, who, in + his first attempt at flight with an air ship of his own invention and + construction, has proved himself no unworthy rival of the wealthy young + Brazilian. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Stanley Spencer, in a very brief space of time, designed and built + completely in the workshops of the firm an elongated motor balloon, 75 + feet long by 20 feet diameter, worked by a screw and petrol motor. This + motor is placed in the prow, 25 feet away from, and in front of, the + safety valve, by which precaution any danger of igniting the escaping gas + is avoided. Should, however, a collapse of the machine arise from any + cause, there is an arrangement for throwing the balloon into the form of a + parachute. Further, there is provided means for admitting air at will into + the balloon, by which the necessity for much ballast is obviated. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Spencer having filled the balloon with pure hydrogen, made his first + trial with this machine late in an evening at the end of June. The + performance of the vessel is thus described in the Westminster Gazette:—"The + huge balloon filled slowly, so that the light was rapidly failing when at + last the doors of the big shed slid open and the ship was brought + carefully out, her motor started, and her maiden voyage commenced. With + Mr. Stanley Spencer in the car, she sailed gracefully down the football + field, wheeled round in a circle—a small circle, too—and for + perhaps a quarter of an hour sailed a tortuous course over the heads of a + small but enthusiastic crowd of spectators. The ship was handicapped to + some extent by the fact that in their anxiety to make the trial the + aeronauts had not waited to inflate it fully, but still it did its work + well, answered its helm readily, showed no signs of rolling, and, in + short, appeared to give entire satisfaction to everybody concerned—so + much so, indeed, that Mr. Stanley Spencer informed the crowd after the + ascent that he was quite ready to take up any challenge that M. Santos + Dumont might throw down." Within a few weeks of this his first success Mr. + Spencer was able to prove to the world that he had only claimed for his + machine what its powers fully justified. On a still September afternoon, + ascending alone, he steered his aerial ship in an easy and graceful flight + over London, from the Crystal Palace to Harrow. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0029" id="link2HCH0029"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIX. CONCLUSION. + </h2> + <p> + The future development of aerostation is necessarily difficult to + forecast. Having reviewed its history from its inception we have to allow + that the balloon in itself, as an instrument of aerial locomotion, remains + practically only where it was 120 years ago. Nor, in the nature of the + case, is this to be wondered at. The wind, which alone guides the balloon, + is beyond man's control, while, as a source of lifting power, a lighter + and therefore more suitable gas than hydrogen is not to be found in + nature. + </p> + <p> + It is, however, conceivable that a superior mode of inflation may yet be + discovered. Now that the liquefaction of gases has become an accomplished + fact, it seems almost theoretically possible that a balloonist may + presently be able to provide himself with an unlimited reserve of + potential energy so as to be fitted for travel of indefinite duration. + Endowed with increased powers of this nature, the aeronaut could utilise a + balloon for voyages of discovery over regions of the earth which bar man's + progress by any other mode of travel. A future Andree, provided with a + means of maintaining his gas supply for six weeks, need have no hesitation + in laying his course towards the North Pole, being confident that the + winds must ultimately waft him to some safe haven. He could, indeed, well + afford, having reached the Pole, to descend and build his cairn, or even + to stop a week, if he so desired, before continuing on his way. + </p> + <p> + But it may fairly be claimed for the balloon, even as it now is, that a + great and important future is open to it as a means for exploring + inaccessible country. It may, indeed, be urged that Andree's task was, in + the very nature of the case, well nigh impracticable, and his unfortunate + miscarriage will be used as argument against such a method of exploration. + But it must always be remembered that in Andree's case the rigours of + climate which he was compelled to face were the most serious of all + obstacles to balloon travel. The extreme cold would not only cause + constant shrinkage of the gas, but would entail the deposition of a weight + of moisture, if not of snow, upon the surface of the balloon, which must + greatly shorten its life. + </p> + <p> + It would be entirely otherwise if the country it were sought to explore + were in lower latitudes, in Australia, or within the vast unknown belt of + earth lying nearer the equator. The writer's scheme for exploring the + wholly unknown regions of Arabia is already before the public. The fact, + thought to be established by the most experienced aeronauts of old times, + and already referred to in these pages, that at some height a strong west + wind is to be found blowing with great constancy all round the globe, is + in accordance with the view entertained by modern meteorologists. Such a + wind, too, may be expected to be a fairly fast wind, the calculation being + that, as a general rule, the velocity of currents increases from the + ground at the rate of about three miles per hour for each thousand feet of + height; thus the chance of a balloon drifting speedily across the breadth + of Arabia is a strong one, and, regarded in this light, the distance to be + traversed is certainly not excessive, being probably well within the + lasting power of such a balloon as that employed by Andree. If, for the + sake of gas supply, Aden were chosen for the starting ground, then 1,200 + miles E.N.E. would carry the voyager to Muscat; 1,100 miles N.E. by E. + would land him at Sohar; while some 800 miles would suffice to take him to + the seaboard if his course lay N.E. It must also be borne in mind that the + Arabian sun by day, and the heat radiated off the desert by night, would + be all in favour of the buoyancy of the balloon. + </p> + <p> + But there are other persistent winds that, for purposes of exploration, + would prove equally serviceable and sure. From time immemorial the dweller + on the Nile has been led to regard his river in the light of a benignant + deity. If he wished to travel down its course he had but to entrust his + vessel to the stream, and this would carry him. If, again, he wished to + retrace his course, he had but to raise a sail, and the prevalent wind, + conquering the flood, would bear him against the stream. This constant + north wind, following the Nile valley, and thence trending still southward + towards Uganda, has been regarded as a means to hand well adapted for the + exploration of important unsurveyed country by balloon. This scheme has + been conceived and elaborated by Major B.F.S. Baden-Powell, and, so far, + the only apparent obstacle in the way has proved the lack of necessary + funds. + </p> + <p> + It will be urged, however, that for purposes of exploration some form of + dirigible balloon is desirable, and we have already had proof that where + it is not sought to combat winds strongly opposed to their course such air + ships as Santos-Dumont or Messrs. Spencer have already constructed acquit + themselves well; and it requires no stretch of imagination to conceive + that before the present century is closed many great gaps in the map of + the world will have been filled in by aerial survey. + </p> + <p> + But, leaving the balloon to its proper function, we turn to the flying + machine properly so called with more sanguine hopes of seeing the real + conquest of the air achieved. It was as it were but yesterday when the air + ship, unhampered by huge globes of gas, and controlled by mechanical means + alone, was first fairly tried, yet it is already considered by those best + able to judge that its ultimate success is assured. + </p> + <p> + This success rests now solely in the hands of the mechanical engineer. He + must, and surely can, build the ship of such strength that some essential + part does not at the critical moment break down or carry away. He may have + to improve his motive power, and here, again, we do not doubt his cunning. + Motor engines, self-contained and burning liquid fuel, are yet in their + infancy, and the extraordinary emulation now existing in their production + puts it beyond doubt that every year will see rapid improvement in their + efficiency. + </p> + <p> + We do not expect, nor do we desire, that the world may see the fulfilment + of the poet's dream, "Argosies of magic sails" or "Airy navies grappling + in the central blue." We would not befog our vision of the future with any + wild imaginings, seeking, as some have done, to see in the electricity or + other hidden power of heaven the means for its subjugation by man; but it + is far from unreasonable to hope that but a little while shall pass, and + we shall have more perfect and reliable knowledge of the tides and + currents in the vast ocean of air, and when that day may have come then it + may be claimed that the grand problem of aerial navigation will be already + solved. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Dominion of the Air, by J. M. 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