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diff --git a/8523-h/8523-h.htm b/8523-h/8523-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e187127 --- /dev/null +++ b/8523-h/8523-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,6254 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="iso-8859-1"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + Val D'arno, by John Ruskin, M.a. + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + .side { float: right; font-size: 75%; width: 25%; padding-left: 0.8em; + border-left: dashed thin; margin-left: 0.8em; text-align: left; + text-indent: 0; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; + font-weight: bold; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: solid 1px;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Val d'Arno, by John Ruskin + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Val d'Arno + +Author: John Ruskin + + +Release Date: July, 2005 [EBook #8523] +This file was first posted on July 19, 2003 +Last Updated: May 17, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VAL D'ARNO *** + + + + +Text file produced by Tiffany Vergon, ckirschner and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team + +The HTML file produced by David Widger + + + + +</pre> + + <div style="height: 8em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + VAL D'ARNO + </h1> + <h2> + By John Ruskin, M.A. + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <p> + <b>CONTENTS</b> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0002"> VAL D'ARNO </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0003"> LECTURE I. NICHOLAS THE PISAN. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0004"> LECTURE II. JOHN THE PISAN. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0005"> LECTURE III. SHIELD AND APRON. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0006"> LECTURE IV. PARTED PER PALE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0007"> LECTURE V. PAX VOBISCUM. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0008"> LECTURE VI. MARBLE COUCHANT. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0009"> LECTURE VII. MARBLE RAMPANT. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0010"> LECTURE VIII. FRANCHISE. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0011"> LECTURE IX. THE TYRRHENE SEA. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0012"> LECTURE X. FLEUR DE LYS. </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_APPE"> APPENDIX. (NOTES ON THE PLATES ILLUSTRATING THIS + VOLUME.) </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_LIST" id="link2H_LIST"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LIST OF PLATES. + </h2> + <h5> + (There are no illustrations in this edition) + </h5> + <h3> + THE ANCIENT SHORES OF ARNO + </h3> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I. THE PISAN LATONA + II. NICCOLA PISANO'S PULPIT + III. THE FOUNTAIN OF PERUGIA + IV. NORMAN IMAGERY + V. DOOR OF THE BAPTISTERY. PISA + VI. THE STORY OF ST. JOHN. ADVENT + VII. " " " " " DEPARTURE + VIII. "THE CHARGE TO ADAM" GIOVANNI PISANO + IX. " " " " MODERN ITALIAN + X. THE NATIVITY. GIOVANNI PISANO + XI. " " MODERN ITALIAN + XII. THE ANNUNCIATION AND VISITATION +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VAL D'ARNO + </h2> + <h3> + TEN LECTURES + </h3> + <h3> + ON + </h3> + <h3> + THE TUSCAN ART DIRECTLY ANTECEDENT TO THE FLORENTINE YEAR OF VICTORIES + <br /> <br /> GIVEN BEFORE THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD IN MICHAELMAS TERM, 1873 + </h3> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0003" id="link2H_4_0003"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LECTURE I. NICHOLAS THE PISAN. + </h2> + <p> + 1. On this day, of this month, the 20th of October, six hundred and + twenty-three years ago, the merchants and tradesmen of Florence met before + the church of Santa Croce; marched through the city to the palace of their + Podesta; deposed their Podesta; set over themselves, in his place, a + knight belonging to an inferior city; called him "Captain of the People;" + appointed under him a Signory of twelve Ancients chosen from among + themselves; hung a bell for him on the tower of the Lion, that he might + ring it at need, and gave him the flag of Florence to bear, half white, + and half red. + </p> + <p> + The first blow struck upon the bell in that tower of the Lion began the + tolling for the passing away of the feudal system, and began the joy-peal, + or carillon, for whatever deserves joy, in that of our modern liberties, + whether of action or of trade. + </p> + <p> + 2. Within the space of our Oxford term from that day, namely, on the 13th + of December in the same year, 1250, died, at Ferentino, in Apulia, the + second Frederick, Emperor of Germany; the second also of the two great + lights which in his lifetime, according to Dante's astronomy, ruled the + world,—whose light being quenched, "the land which was once the + residence of courtesy and valour, became the haunt of all men who are + ashamed to be near the good, or to speak to them." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "In sul paese chadice e po riga + solea valore e cortesia trovar si + prima che federigo Bavessi briga, + or puo sicuramente indi passarsi + per qualuuche lasciassi per vergogna + di ragionar co buoni, e appressarsi." + PURO., Cant. 16. +</pre> + <p> + 3. The "Paese che Adice e Po riga" is of course Lombardy; and might have + been enough distinguished by the name of its principal river. But Dante + has an especial reason for naming the Adige. It is always by the valley of + the Adige that the power of the German Caesars descends on Italy; and that + battlemented bridge, which doubtless many of you remember, thrown over the + Adige at Verona, was so built that the German riders might have secure and + constant access to the city. In which city they had their first stronghold + in Italy, aided therein by the great family of the Montecchi, Montacutes, + Mont-aigu-s, or Montagues; lords, so called, of the mountain peaks; in + feud with the family of the Cappelletti,—hatted, or, more properly, + scarlet-hatted, persons. And this accident of nomenclature, assisted by + your present familiar knowledge of the real contests of the sharp + mountains with the flat caps, or petasoi, of cloud, (locally giving Mont + Pilate its title, "Pileatus,") may in many points curiously illustrate for + you that contest of Frederick the Second with Innocent the Fourth, which + in the good of it and the evil alike, represents to all time the war of + the solid, rational, and earthly authority of the King, and State, with + the more or less spectral, hooded, imaginative, and nubiform authority of + the Pope, and Church. + </p> + <p> + 4. It will be desirable also that you clearly learn the material + relations, governing spiritual ones,—as of the Alps to their clouds, + so of the plains to their rivers. And of these rivers, chiefly note the + relation to each other, first, of the Adige and Po; then of the Arno and + Tiber. For the Adige, representing among the rivers and fountains of + waters the channel of Imperial, as the Tiber of the Papal power, and the + strength of the Coronet being founded on the white peaks that look down + upon Hapsburg and Hohenzollern, as that of the Scarlet Cap in the marsh of + the Campagna, "quo tenuis in sicco aqua destituisset," the study of the + policies and arts of the cities founded in the two great valleys of + Lombardy and Tuscany, so far as they were affected by their bias to the + Emperor, or the Church, will arrange itself in your minds at once in a + symmetry as clear as it will be, in our future work, secure and + suggestive. + </p> + <p> + 5. "Tenuis, in sicco." How literally the words apply, as to the native + streams, so to the early states or establishings of the great cities of + the world. And you will find that the policy of the Coronet, with its + tower-building; the policy of the Hood, with its dome-building; and the + policy of the bare brow, with its cot-building,—the three main + associations of human energy to which we owe the architecture of our + earth, (in contradistinction to the dens and caves of it,)—are + curiously and eternally governed by mental laws, corresponding to the + physical ones which are ordained for the rocks, the clouds, and the + streams. + </p> + <p> + The tower, which many of you so well remember the daily sight of, in your + youth, above the "winding shore" of Thames,—the tower upon the hill + of London; the dome which still rises above its foul and terrestrial + clouds; and the walls of this city itself, which has been "alma," + nourishing in gentleness, to the youth of England, because defended from + external hostility by the difficultly fordable streams of its plain, may + perhaps, in a few years more, be swept away as heaps of useless stone; but + the rocks, and clouds, and rivers of our country will yet, one day, + restore to it the glory of law, of religion, and of life. + </p> + <p> + 6. I am about to ask you to read the hieroglyphs upon the architecture of + a dead nation, in character greatly resembling our own,—in laws and + in commerce greatly influencing our own;—in arts, still, from her + grave, tutress of the present world. I know that it will be expected of me + to explain the merits of her arts, without reference to the wisdom of her + laws; and to describe the results of both, without investigating the + feelings which regulated either. I cannot do this; but I will at once end + these necessarily vague, and perhaps premature, generalizations; and only + ask you to study some portions of the life and work of two men, father and + son, citizens of the city in which the energies of this great people were + at first concentrated; and to deduce from that study the conclusions, or + follow out the inquiries, which it may naturally suggest. + </p> + <p> + 7. It is the modern fashion to despise Vasari. He is indeed despicable, + whether as historian or critic,—not least in his admiration of + Michael Angelo; nevertheless, he records the traditions and opinions of + his day; and these you must accurately know, before you can wisely + correct. I will take leave, therefore, to begin to-day with a sentence + from Vasari, which many of you have often heard quoted, but of which, + perhaps, few have enough observed the value. + </p> + <p> + "Niccola Pisano finding himself under certain Greek sculptors who were + carving the figures and other intaglio ornaments of the cathedral of Pisa, + and of the temple of St. John, and there being, among many spoils of + marbles, brought by the Pisan fleet, {1} some ancient tombs, there was one + among the others most fair, on which was sculptured the hunting of + Meleager." {2} + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: "Armata." The proper word for a land army is "esercito."} + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 2: Vol. i., p. 60, of Mrs. Foster's English translation, to + which I shall always refer, in order that English students may compare the + context if they wish. But the pieces of English which I give are my own + direct translation, varying, it will be found, often, from Mrs. Foster's, + in minute, but not unimportant, particulars.} + </p> + <p> + Get the meaning and contents of this passage well into your minds. In the + gist of it, it is true, and very notable. + </p> + <p> + 8. You are in mid thirteenth century; 1200-1300. The Greek nation has been + dead in heart upwards of a thousand years; its religion dead, for six + hundred. But through the wreck of its faith, and death in its heart, the + skill of its hands, and the cunning of its design, instinctively linger. + In the centuries of Christian power, the Christians are still unable to + build but under Greek masters, and by pillage of Greek shrines; and their + best workman is only an apprentice to the 'Graeculi esurientes' who are + carving the temple of St. John. + </p> + <p> + 9. Think of it. Here has the New Testament been declared for 1200 years. + No spirit of wisdom, as yet, has been given to its workmen, except that + which has descended from the Mars Hill on which St. Paul stood + contemptuous in pity. No Bezaleel arises, to build new tabernacles, unless + he has been taught by Daedalus. + </p> + <p> + 10. It is necessary, therefore, for you first to know precisely the manner + of these Greek masters in their decayed power; the manner which Vasari + calls, only a sentence before, "That old Greek manner, blundering, + disproportioned,"—Goffa, e sproporzionata. + </p> + <p> + "Goffa," the very word which Michael Angelo uses of Perugino. Behold, the + Christians despising the Dunce Greeks, as the Infidel modernists despise + the Dunce Christians. {1} + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: Compare "Ariadne Floreutina," § 46.} + </p> + <p> + 11. I sketched for you, when I was last at Pisa, a few arches of the apse + of the duomo, and a small portion of the sculpture of the font of the + Temple of St. John. I have placed them in your rudimentary series, as + examples of "quella vecchia maniera Greca, goffa e sproporzionata." My own + judgment respecting them is,—and it is a judgment founded on + knowledge which you may, if you choose, share with me, after working with + me,—that no architecture on this grand scale, so delicately skilful + in execution, or so daintily disposed in proportion, exists elsewhere in + the world. + </p> + <p> + 12. Is Vasari entirely wrong then? + </p> + <p> + No, only half wrong, but very fatally half wrong. There are Greeks, and + Greeks. + </p> + <p> + This head with the inlaid dark iris in its eyes, from the font of St. + John, is as pure as the sculpture of early Greece, a hundred years before + Phidias; and it is so delicate, that having drawn with equal care this and + the best work of the Lombardi at Venice (in the church of the Miracoli), I + found this to possess the more subtle qualities of design. And yet, in the + cloisters of St. John Lateran at Rome, you have Greek work, if not + contemporary with this at Pisa, yet occupying a parallel place in the + history of architecture, which is abortive, and monstrous beyond the power + of any words to describe. Vasari knew no difference between these two + kinds of Greek work. Nor do your modern architects. To discern the + difference between the sculpture of the font of Pisa, and the spandrils of + the Lateran cloister, requires thorough training of the hand in the finest + methods of draughtsmanship; and, secondly, trained habit of reading the + mythology and ethics of design. I simply assure you of the fact at + present; and if you work, you may have sight and sense of it. + </p> + <p> + 13. There are Greeks, and Greeks, then, in the twelfth century, differing + as much from each other as vice, in all ages, must differ from virtue. But + in Vasari's sight they are alike; in ours, they must be so, as far as + regards our present purpose. As men of a school, they are to be summed + under the general name of 'Byzantines;' their work all alike showing + specific characters of attenuate, rigid, and in many respects offensively + unbeautiful, design, to which Vasari's epithets of "goffa, e + sproporzionata" are naturally applied by all persons trained only in + modern principles. Under masters, then, of this Byzantine race, Niccola is + working at Pisa. + </p> + <p> + 14. Among the spoils brought by her fleets from Greece, is a sarcophagus, + with Meleager's hunt on it, wrought "con bellissima maniera," says Vasari. + </p> + <p> + You may see that sarcophagus—any of you who go to Pisa;—touch + it, for it is on a level with your hand; study it, as Niccola studied it, + to your mind's content. Within ten yards of it, stand equally accessible + pieces of Niccola's own work and of his son's. Within fifty yards of it, + stands the Byzantine font of the chapel of St. John. Spend but the good + hours of a single day quietly by these three pieces of marble, and you may + learn more than in general any of you bring home from an entire tour in + Italy. But how many of you ever yet went into that temple of St. John, + knowing what to look for; or spent as much time in the Campo Santo of + Pisa, as you do in Mr. Ryman's shop on a rainy day? + </p> + <p> + 15. The sarcophagus is not, however, (with Vasari's pardon) in 'bellissima + maniera' by any means. But it is in the classical Greek manner instead of + the Byzantine Greek manner. You have to learn the difference between + these. + </p> + <p> + Now I have explained to you sufficiently, in "Aratra Pentelici," what the + classical Greek manner is. The manner and matter of it being easily summed—as + those of natural and unaffected life;—nude life when nudity is right + and pure; not otherwise. To Niccola, the difference between this natural + Greek school, and the Byzantine, was as the difference between the bull of + Thurium and of Delhi, (see Plate 19 of "Aratra Pentelici"). + </p> + <p> + Instantly he followed the natural fact, and became the Father of Sculpture + to Italy. + </p> + <p> + 16. Are we, then, also to be strong by following the natural fact? + </p> + <p> + Yes, assuredly. That is the beginning and end of all my teaching to you. + But the noble natural fact, not the ignoble. You are to study men; not + lice nor entozoa. And you are to study the souls of men in their bodies, + not their bodies only. Mulready's drawings from the nude are more degraded + and bestial than the worst grotesques of the Byzantine or even the Indian + image makers. And your modern mob of English and American tourists, + following a lamplighter through the Vatican to have pink light thrown for + them on the Apollo Belvidere, are farther from capacity of understanding + Greek art, than the parish charity boy, making a ghost out of a turnip, + with a candle inside. + </p> + <p> + 17. Niccola followed the facts, then. He is the Master of Naturalism in + Italy. And I have drawn for you his lioness and cubs, to fix that in your + minds. And beside it, I put the Lion of St. Mark's, that you may see + exactly the kind of change he made. The Lion of St. Mark's (all but his + wings, which have been made and fastened on in the fifteenth century), is + in the central Byzantine manner; a fine decorative piece of work, + descending in true genealogy from the Lion of Nemea, and the crested skin + of him that clothes the head of the Heracles of Camarina. It has all the + richness of Greek Daedal work,—nay, it has fire and life beyond much + Greek Daedal work; but in so far as it is non-natural, symbolic, + decorative, and not like an actual lion, it would be felt by Niccola + Pisano to be imperfect. And instead of this decorative evangelical + preacher of a lion, with staring eyes, and its paw on a gospel, he carves + you a quite brutal and maternal lioness, with affectionate eyes, and paw + set on her cub. + </p> + <p> + 18. Fix that in your minds, then. Niccola Pisano is the Master of + Naturalism in Italy,—therefore elsewhere; of Naturalism, and all + that follows. Generally of truth, common-sense, simplicity, vitality,—and + of all these, with consummate power. A man to be enquired about, is not + he? and will it not make a difference to you whether you look, when you + travel in Italy, in his rough early marbles for this fountain of life, or + only glance at them because your Murray's Guide tells you,—and think + them "odd old things"? + </p> + <p> + 19. We must look for a moment more at one odd old thing—the + sarcophagus which was his tutor. Upon it is carved the hunting of + Meleager; and it was made, or by tradition received as, the tomb of the + mother of the Countess Matilda. I must not let you pass by it without + noticing two curious coincidences in these particulars. First, in the + Greek subject which is given Niccola to read. + </p> + <p> + The boar, remember, is Diana's enemy. It is sent upon the fields of + Calydon in punishment of the refusal of the Calydonians to sacrifice to + her. 'You have refused <i>me</i>,' she said; 'you will not have Artemis + Laphria, Forager Diana, to range in your fields. You shall have the + Forager Swine, instead.' + </p> + <p> + Meleager and Atalanta are Diana's servants,—servants of all order, + purity, due sequence of season, and time. The orbed architecture of + Tuscany, with its sculptures of the succession of the labouring months, as + compared with the rude vaults and monstrous imaginations of the past, was + again the victory of Meleager. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +20. Secondly, take what value there is in the tradition that this +sarcophagus was made the tomb of the mother of the + + {Illustration: PLATE I:—THE PISAN LATONA. Angle of Panel of the +Adoration, in Niccola's Pulpit.} +</pre> + <p> + Countess Matilda. If you look to the fourteenth chapter of the third + volume of "Modern Painters," you will find the mythic character of the + Countess Matilda, as Dante employed it explained at some length. She is + the representative of Natural Science as opposed to Theological. + </p> + <p> + 21. Chance coincidences merely, these; but full of teaching for us, + looking back upon the past. To Niccola, the piece of marble was, + primarily, and perhaps exclusively, an example of free chiselling, and + humanity of treatment. What else it was to him,—what the spirits of + Atalanta and Matilda could bestow on him, depended on what he was himself. + Of which Vasari tells you nothing. Not whether he was gentleman or clown—rich + or poor—soldier or sailor. Was he never, then, in those fleets that + brought the marbles back from the ravaged Isles of Greece? was he at first + only a labourer's boy among the scaffoldings of the Pisan apse,—his + apron loaded with dust—and no man praising him for his speech? Rough + he was, assuredly; probably poor; fierce and energetic, beyond even the + strain of Pisa,—just and kind, beyond the custom of his age, knowing + the Judgment and Love of God: and a workman, with all his soul and + strength, all his days. + </p> + <p> + 22. You hear the fame of him as of a sculptor only. It is right that you + should; for every great architect must be a sculptor, and be renowned, as + such, more than by his building. But Niccola Pisano had even more + influence on Italy as a builder than as a carver. + </p> + <p> + For Italy, at this moment, wanted builders more than carvers; and a change + was passing through her life, of which external edifice was a necessary + sign. I complained of you just now that you never looked at the Byzantine + font in the temple of St. John. The sacristan generally will not let you. + He takes you to a particular spot on the floor, and sings a musical chord. + The chord returns in prolonged echo from the chapel roof, as if the + building were all one sonorous marble bell. + </p> + <p> + Which indeed it is; and travellers are always greatly amused at being + allowed to ring this bell; but it never occurs to them to ask how it came + to be ringable:—how that tintinnabulate roof differs from the dome + of the Pantheon, expands into the dome of Florence, or declines into the + whispering gallery of St. Paul's. + </p> + <p> + 23. When you have had full satisfaction of the tintinnabulate roof, you + are led by the sacristan and Murray to Niccola Pisano's pulpit; which, if + you have spare time to examine it, you find to have six sides, to be + decorated with tablets of sculpture, like the sides of the sarcophagus, + and to be sustained on seven pillars, three of which are themselves + carried on the backs of as many animals. + </p> + <p> + All this arrangement had been contrived before Niccola's time, and + executed again and again. But behold! between the capitals of the pillars + and the sculptured tablets there are interposed five cusped arches, the + hollow beneath the pulpit showing dark through their foils. You have seen + such cusped arches before, you think? + </p> + <p> + Yes, gentlemen, <i>you</i> have; but the Pisans had <i>not</i>. And that + intermediate layer of the pulpit means—the change, in a word, for + all Europe, from the Parthenon to Amiens Cathedral. For Italy it means the + rise of her Gothic dynasty; it means the duomo of Milan instead of the + temple of Paestum. + </p> + <p> + 24. I say the duomo of Milan, only to put the change well before your + eyes, because you all know that building so well. The duomo of Milan is of + entirely bad and barbarous Gothic, but the passion of pinnacle and fret is + in it, visibly to you, more than in other buildings. It will therefore + serve to show best what fulness of change this pulpit of Niccola Pisano + signifies. + </p> + <p> + In it there is no passion of pinnacle nor of fret. You see the edges of + it, instead of being bossed, or knopped, or crocketed, are mouldings of + severest line. No vaulting, no clustered shafts, no traceries, no + fantasies, no perpendicular flights of aspiration. Steady pillars, each of + one polished block; useful capitals, one trefoiled arch between them; your + panel above it; thereon your story of the founder of Christianity. The + whole standing upon beasts, they being indeed the foundation of us, (which + Niccola knew far better than Mr. Darwin); Eagle to carry your Gospel + message—Dove you think it ought to be? + </p> + <p> + {Illustration: PLATE II.—NICCOLA PISANO'S PULPIT.} + </p> + <p> + Eagle, says Niccola, and not as symbol of St. John Evangelist only, but + behold! with prey between its claws. For the Gospel, it is Niccola's + opinion, is not altogether a message that you may do whatever you like, + and go straight to heaven. Finally, a slab of marble, cut hollow a little + to bear your book; space enough for you to speak from at ease,—and + here is your first architecture of Gothic Christianity! + </p> + <p> + 25. Indignant thunder of dissent from German doctors,—clamour from + French savants. 'What! and our Treves, and our Strasburg, and our + Poictiers, and our Chartres! And you call <i>this</i> thing the first + architecture of Christianity!' Yes, my French and German friends, very + fine the buildings you have mentioned are; and I am bold to say I love + them far better than you do, for you will run a railroad through any of + them any day that you can turn a penny by it. I thank you also, Germans, + in the name of our Lady of Strasburg, for your bullets and fire; and I + thank you, Frenchmen, in the name of our Lady of Rouen, for your new + haberdashers' shops in the Gothic town;—meanwhile have patience with + me a little, and let me go on. + </p> + <p> + 26. No passion of fretwork, or pinnacle whatever, I said, is in this Pisan + pulpit. The trefoiled arch itself, pleasant as it is, seems forced a + little; out of perfect harmony with the rest (see Plate II.). Unnatural, + perhaps, to Niccola? + </p> + <p> + Altogether unnatural to him, it is; such a thing never would have come + into his head, unless some one had shown it him. Once got into his head, + he puts it to good use; perhaps even he will let this somebody else put + pinnacles and crockets into his head, or at least, into his son's, in a + little while. Pinnacles,—crockets,—it may be, even traceries. + The ground-tier of the baptistery is round-arched, and has no pinnacles; + but look at its first story. The clerestory of the Duomo of Pisa has no + traceries, but look at the cloister of its Campo Santo. + </p> + <p> + 27. I pause at the words;—for they introduce a new group of + thoughts, which presently we must trace farther. + </p> + <p> + The Holy Field;—field of burial. The "cave of Machpelah which is + before Mamre," of the Pisans. "There they buried Abraham, and Sarah his + wife; there they buried Isaac, and Rebekah his wife; and there I buried + Leah." + </p> + <p> + How do you think such a field becomes holy,—how separated, as the + resting-place of loving kindred, from that other field of blood, bought to + bury strangers in? + </p> + <p> + When you have finally succeeded, by your gospel of mammon, in making all + the men of your own nation not only strangers to each other, but enemies; + and when your every churchyard becomes therefore a field of the stranger, + the kneeling hamlet will vainly drink the chalice of God in the midst of + them. The field will be unholy. No cloisters of noble history can ever be + built round such an one. + </p> + <p> + 28. But the very earth of this at Pisa was holy, as you know. That + "armata" of the Tuscan city brought home not only marble and ivory, for + treasure; but earth,—a fleet's burden,—from the place where + there was healing of soul's leprosy: and their field became a place of + holy tombs, prepared for its office with earth from the land made holy by + one tomb; which all the knighthood of Christendom had been pouring out its + life to win. + </p> + <p> + 29. I told you just now that this sculpture of Niccola's was the beginning + of Christian architecture. How do you judge that Christian architecture in + the deepest meaning of it to differ from all other? + </p> + <p> + All other noble architecture is for the glory of living gods and men; but + this is for the glory of death, in God and man. Cathedral, cloister, or + tomb,—shrine for the body of Christ, or for the bodies of the + saints. All alike signifying death to this world;—life, other than + of this world. + </p> + <p> + Observe, I am not saying how far this feeling, be it faith, or be it + imagination, is true or false;—I only desire you to note that the + power of all Christian work begins in the niche of the catacomb and depth + of the sarcophagus, and is to the end definable as architecture of the + tomb. + </p> + <p> + 30. Not altogether, and under every condition, sanctioned in doing such + honour to the dead by the Master of it. Not every grave is by His command + to be worshipped. Graves there may be—too little guarded, yet + dishonourable;—"ye are as graves that appear not, and the men that + walk over them are not aware of them." And graves too much guarded, yet + dishonourable, "which indeed appear beautiful outwardly, but are within + full of all uncleanness." Or graves, themselves honourable, yet which it + may be, in us, a crime to adorn. "For they indeed killed them, and ye + build their sepulchres." + </p> + <p> + Questions, these, collateral; or to be examined in due time; for the + present it is enough for us to know that all Christian architecture, as + such, has been hitherto essentially of tombs. + </p> + <p> + It has been thought, gentlemen, that there is a fine Gothic revival in + your streets of Oxford, because you have a Gothic door to your County + Bank: + </p> + <p> + Remember, at all events, it was other kind of buried treasure, and bearing + other interest, which Niccola Pisano's Gothic was set to guard. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0004" id="link2H_4_0004"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LECTURE II. JOHN THE PISAN. + </h2> + <p> + 31. I closed my last lecture with the statement, on which I desired to + give you time for reflection, that Christian architecture was, in its + chief energy, the adornment of tombs,—having the passionate function + of doing honour to the dead. + </p> + <p> + But there is an ethic, or simply didactic and instructive architecture, + the decoration of which you will find to be normally representative of the + virtues which are common alike to Christian and Greek. And there is a + natural tendency to adopt such decoration, and the modes of design fitted + for it, in civil buildings. {1} + </p> + <p> + {Footnote: "These several rooms were indicated by symbol and device: + Victory for the soldier, Hope for the exile, the Muses for the poets, + Mercury for the artists, Paradise for the preacher."—(Sagacius + Gazata, of the Palace of Can Grande. I translate only Sismondi's + quotation.)} + </p> + <p> + 32. <i>Civil</i>, or <i>civic</i>, I say, as opposed to military. But + again observe, there are two kinds of military building. One, the robber's + castle, or stronghold, out of which he issues to pillage; the other, the + honest man's castle, or stronghold, into which he retreats from pillage. + They are much like each other in external forms;—but Injustice, or + Unrighteousness, sits in the gate of the one, veiled with forest branches, + (see Giotto's painting of him); and Justice or Righteousness <i>enters</i> + by the gate of the other, over strewn forest branches. Now, for example of + this second kind of military architecture, look at Carlyle's account of + Henry the Fowler, {1} and of his building military towns, or burgs, to + protect his peasantry. In such function you have the first and proper idea + of a walled town,—a place into which the pacific country people can + retire for safety, as the Athenians in the Spartan war. Your fortress of + this kind is a religious and civil fortress, or burg, defended by burgers, + trained to defensive war. Keep always this idea of the proper nature of a + fortified city:—Its walls mean protection,—its gates + hospitality and triumph. In the language familiar to you, spoken of the + chief of cities: "Its walls are to be Salvation, and its gates to be + Praise." And recollect always the inscription over the north gate of + Siena: "Cor magis tibi Sena pandit."—"More than her gates, Siena + opens her heart to you." + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: "Frederick," vol. i.} + </p> + <p> + 33. When next you enter London by any of the great lines, I should like + you to consider, as you approach the city, what the feelings of the heart + of London are likely to be on your approach, and at what part of the + railroad station an inscription, explaining such state of her heart, might + be most fitly inscribed. Or you would still better understand the + difference between ancient and modern principles of architecture by taking + a cab to the Elephant and Castle, and thence walking to London Bridge by + what is in fact the great southern entrance of London. The only gate + receiving you is, however, the arch thrown over the road to carry the + South-Eastern Railway itself; and the only exhibition either of Salvation + or Praise is in the cheap clothes' shops on each side; and especially in + one colossal haberdasher's shop, over which you may see the British flag + waving (in imitation of Windsor Castle) when the master of the shop is at + home. 34. Next to protection from external hostility, the two necessities + in a city are of food and water supply;—the latter essentially + constant. You can store food and forage, but water must flow freely. Hence + the Fountain and the Mercato become the centres of civil architecture. + </p> + <p> + Premising thus much, I will ask you to look once more at this cloister of + the Campo Santo of Pisa. + </p> + <p> + 35. On first entering the place, its quiet, its solemnity, the perspective + of its aisles, and the conspicuous grace and precision of its traceries, + combine to give you the sensation of having entered a true Gothic + cloister. And if you walk round it hastily, and, glancing only at a fresco + or two, and the confused tombs erected against them, return to the + uncloistered sunlight of the piazza, you may quite easily carry away with + you, and ever afterwards retain, the notion that the Campo Santo of Pisa + is the same kind of thing as the cloister of Westminster Abbey. + </p> + <p> + 36. I will beg you to look at the building, thus photographed, more + attentively. The "long-drawn aisle" is here, indeed,—but where is + the "fretted vault"? + </p> + <p> + A timber roof, simple as that of a country barn, and of which only the + horizontal beams catch the eye, connects an entirely plain outside wall + with an interior one, pierced by round-headed openings; in which are + inserted pieces of complex tracery, as foreign in conception to the rest + of the work as if the Pisan armata had gone up the Rhine instead of to + Crete, pillaged South Germany, and cut these pieces of tracery out of the + windows of some church in an advanced stage of fantastic design at + Nuremberg or Frankfort. + </p> + <p> + 37. If you begin to question, hereupon, who was the Italian robber, + whether of marble or thought, and look to your Vasari, you find the + building attributed to John the Pisan; {1}—and you suppose the son + to have been so pleased by his father's adoption of Gothic forms that he + must needs borrow them, in this manner, ready made, from the Germans, and + thrust them into his round arches, or wherever else they would go. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: The present traceries are of fifteenth century work, founded + on Giovanni's design.} + </p> + <p> + We will look at something more of his work, however, before drawing such + conclusion. + </p> + <p> + 38. In the centres of the great squares of Siena and Perugia, rose, + obedient to engineers' art, two perennial fountains Without engineers' + art, the glens which cleave the sand-rock of Siena flow with living water; + and still, if there be a hell for the forger in Italy, he remembers + therein the sweet grotto and green wave of Fonte Branda. But on the very + summit of the two hills, crested by their great civic fortresses, and in + the centres of their circuit of walls, rose the two guided wells; each in + basin of goodly marble, sculptured—at Perugia, by John of Pisa, at + Siena, by James of Quercia. + </p> + <p> + 39. It is one of the bitterest regrets of my life (and I have many which + some men would find difficult to bear,) that I never saw, except when I + was a youth, and then with sealed eyes, Jacopo della Quercia's fountain. + {1} The Sienese, a little while since, tore it down, and put up a model of + it by a modern carver. In like manner, perhaps, you will some day knock + the Elgin marbles to pieces, and commission an Academician to put up new + ones,—the Sienese doing worse than that (as if the Athenians were <i>themselves</i> + to break their Phidias' work). + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: I observe that Charles Dickens had the fortune denied to me. + "The market-place, or great Piazza, is a large square, with a great + broken-nosed fountain in it." ("Pictures from Italy.")} + </p> + <p> + But the fountain of John of Pisa, though much injured, and glued together + with asphalt, is still in its place. + </p> + <p> + 40. I will now read to you what Vasari first says of him, and it. (I. 67.) + "Nicholas had, among other sons, one called John, who, because he always + followed his father, and, under his discipline, intended (bent himself to, + with a will,) sculpture and architecture, in a few years became not only + equal to his father, but in some things superior to him; wherefore + Nicholas, being now old, retired himself into Pisa, and living quietly + there, left the government of everything to his son. Accordingly, when + Pope Urban IV. died in Perugia, sending was made for John, who, going + there, made the tomb of that Pope of marble, the which, together with that + of Pope Martin IV., was afterwards thrown down, when the Perugians + </p> + <p> + {Illustration: PLATE III.—THE FOUNTAIN OF PERUGIA.} + </p> + <p> + enlarged their vescovado; so that only a few relics are seen sprinkled + about the church. And the Perugians, having at the same time brought from + the mountain of Pacciano, two miles distant from the city, through canals + of lead, a most abundant water, by means of the invention and industry of + a friar of the order of St. Silvester, it was given to John the Pisan to + make all the ornaments of this fountain, as well of bronze as of marble. + On which he set hand to it, and made there three orders of vases, two of + marble and one of bronze. The first is put upon twelve degrees of + twelve-faced steps; the second is upon some columns which put it upon a + level with the first one;" (that is, in the middle of it,) "and the third, + which is of bronze, rests upon three figures which have in the middle of + them some griffins, of bronze too, which pour water out on every side." + </p> + <p> + 41. Many things we have to note in this passage, but first I will show you + the best picture I can of the thing itself. + </p> + <p> + The best I can; the thing itself being half destroyed, and what remains so + beautiful that no one can now quite rightly draw it; but Mr. Arthur + Severn, (the son of Keats's Mr. Severn,) was with me, looking reverently + at those remains, last summer, and has made, with help from the sun, this + sketch for you (Plate III.); entirely true and effective as far as his + time allowed. + </p> + <p> + Half destroyed, or more, I said it was,—Time doing grievous work on + it, and men worse. You heard Vasari saying of it, that it stood on twelve + degrees of twelve-faced steps. These—worn, doubtless, into little + more than a rugged slope—have been replaced by the moderns with four + circular steps, and an iron railing; {1} the bas-reliefs have been carried + off from the panels of the second vase, and its fair marble lips choked + with asphalt:—of what remains, you have here a rough but true image. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: In Mr. Severn's sketch, the form of the original foundation + is approximately restored.} + </p> + <p> + In which you see there is not a trace of Gothic feeling or design of any + sort. No crockets, no pinnacles, no foils, no vaultings, no grotesques in + sculpture. Panels between pillars, panels carried on pillars, sculptures + in those panels like the Metopes of the Parthenon; a Greek vase in the + middle, and griffins in the middle of that. Here is your font, not at all + of Saint John, but of profane and civil-engineering John. This is <i>his</i> + manner of baptism of the town of Perugia. + </p> + <p> + 42. Thus early, it seems, the antagonism of profane Greek to + ecclesiastical Gothic declares itself. It seems as if in Perugia, as in + London, you had the fountains in Trafalgar Square against Queen Elinor's + Cross; or the viaduct and railway station contending with the Gothic + chapel, which the master of the large manufactory close by has erected, + because he thinks pinnacles and crockets have a pious influence; and will + prevent his workmen from asking for shorter hours, or more wages. + </p> + <p> + 43. It <i>seems</i> only; the antagonism is quite of another kind,—or, + rather, of many other kinds. But note at once how complete it is—how + utterly this Greek fountain of Perugia, and the round arches of Pisa, are + opposed to the school of design which gave the trefoils to Niccola's + pulpit, and the traceries to Giovanni's Campo Santo. + </p> + <p> + The antagonism, I say, is of another kind than ours; but deep and wide; + and to explain it, I must pass for a time to apparently irrelevant topics. + </p> + <p> + You were surprised, I hope, (if you were attentive enough to catch the + points in what I just now read from Vasari,) at my venturing to bring + before you, just after I had been using violent language against the + Sienese for breaking up the work of Quercia, that incidental sentence + giving account of the much more disrespectful destruction, by the + Perugians, of the tombs of Pope Urban IV., and Martin IV. Sending was made + for John, you see, first, when Pope Urban IV. died in Perugia—whose + tomb was to be carved by John; the Greek fountain being a secondary + business. But the tomb was so well destroyed, afterwards, that only a few + relics remained scattered here and there. + </p> + <p> + The tomb, I have not the least doubt, was Gothic;—and the breaking + of it to pieces was not in order to restore it afterwards, that a living + architect might get the job of restoration. Here is a stone out of one of + Giovanni Pisano's loveliest Gothic buildings, which I myself saw with my + own eyes dashed out, that a modern builder might be paid for putting in + another. But Pope Urban's tomb was not destroyed to such end. There was no + qualm of the belly, driving the hammer,—qualm of the conscience + probably; at all events, a deeper or loftier antagonism than one on points + of taste, or economy. + </p> + <p> + 44. You observed that I described this Greek profane manner of design as + properly belonging to <i>civil</i> buildings, as opposed not only to + ecclesiastical buildings, but to military ones. Justice, or Righteousness, + and Veracity, are the characters of Greek art. These <i>may</i> be opposed + to religion, when religion becomes fantastic; but they <i>must</i> be + opposed to war, when war becomes unjust. And if, perchance, fantastic + religion and unjust war happen to go hand in hand, your Greek artist is + likely to use his hammer against them spitefully enough. + </p> + <p> + 45. His hammer, or his Greek fire. Hear now this example of the + engineering ingenuities of our Pisan papa, in his younger days. + </p> + <p> + "The Florentines having begun, in Niccola's time, to throw down many + towers, which had been built in a barbarous manner through the whole city; + either that the people might be less hurt, by their means, in the fights + that often took place between the Guelphs and Ghibellines, or else that + there might be greater security for the State, it appeared to them that it + would be very difficult to ruin the Tower of the Death-watch, which was in + the place of St. John, because it had its walls built with such a grip in + them that the stones could not be stirred with the pickaxe, and also + because it was of the loftiest; whereupon Nicholas, causing the tower to + be cut, at the foot of it, all the length of one of its sides; and closing + up the cut, as he made it, with short (wooden) under-props, about a yard + long, and setting fire to them, when the props were burned, the tower + fell, and broke itself nearly all to pieces: which was held a thing so + ingenious and so useful for such affairs, that it has since passed into a + custom, so that when it is needful, in this easiest manner, any edifice + may be thrown down." + </p> + <p> + 46. 'When it is needful.' Yes; but when is that? If instead of the towers + of the Death-watch in the city, one could ruin the towers of the + Death-watch of evil pride and evil treasure in men's hearts, there would + be need enough for such work both in Florence and London. But the walls of + those spiritual towers have still stronger 'grip' in them, and are + fireproof with a vengeance. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Le mure me parean die ferro fosse, + . . . e el mi dixe, il fuoco eterno + Chentro laffoca, le dimostra rosse." +</pre> + <p> + But the towers in Florence, shattered to fragments by this ingenious + engineer, and the tombs in Perugia, which his son will carve, only that + they also may be so well destroyed that only a few relics remain, + scattered up and down the church,—are these, also, only the iron + towers, and the red-hot tombs, of the city of Dis? + </p> + <p> + Let us see. + </p> + <p> + 47. In order to understand the relation of the tradesmen and working men, + including eminently the artist, to the general life of the thirteenth + century, I must lay before you the clearest elementary charts I can of the + course which the fates of Italy were now appointing for her. + </p> + <p> + My first chart must be geographical. I want you to have a clearly + dissected and closely fitted notion of the natural boundaries of her + states, and their relations to surrounding ones. Lay hold first, firmly, + of your conception of the valleys of the Po and the Arno, running counter + to each other—opening east and opening west,—Venice at the end + of the one, Pisa at the end of the other. + </p> + <p> + 48. These two valleys—the hearts of Lombardy and Etruria—virtually + contain the life of Italy. They are entirely different in character: + Lombardy, essentially luxurious and worldly, at this time rude in art, but + active; Etruria, religious, intensely imaginative, and inheriting refined + forms of art from before the days of Porsenna. + </p> + <p> + 49. South of these, in mid-Italy, you have Romagna,—the valley of + the Tiber. In that valley, decayed Rome, with her lust of empire + inextinguishable;—no inheritance of imaginative art, nor power of + it; dragging her own ruins hourly into more fantastic ruin, and defiling + her faith hourly with more fantastic guilt. + </p> + <p> + South of Romagna, you have the kingdoms of Calabria and Sicily,—-Magna + Graecia, and Syracuse, in decay;——strange spiritual fire from + the Saracenic east still lighting the volcanic land, itself laid all in + ashes. + </p> + <p> + 50. Conceive Italy then always in these four masses: Lombardy, Etruria, + Romagna, Calabria. + </p> + <p> + Now she has three great external powers to deal with: the western, France—the + northern, Germany—the eastern, Arabia. On her right the Frank; on + her left the Saracen; above her, the Teuton. And roughly, the French are a + religious chivalry; the Germans a profane chivalry; the Saracens an + infidel chivalry. What is best of each is benefiting Italy; what is worst, + afflicting her. And in the time we are occupied with, all are afflicting + her. + </p> + <p> + What Charlemagne, Barbarossa, or Saladin did to teach her, you can trace + only by carefullest thought. But in this thirteenth century all these + three powers are adverse to her, as to each other. Map the methods of + their adversity thus:—- + </p> + <p> + 51. Germany, (profane chivalry,) is vitally adverse to the Popes; + endeavouring to establish imperial and knightly power against theirs. It + is fiercely, but frankly, covetous of Italian territory, seizes all it can + of Lombardy and Calabria, and with any help procurable either from robber + Christians or robber Saracens, strives, in an awkward manner, and by open + force, to make itself master of Rome, and all Italy. + </p> + <p> + 52. France, all surge and foam of pious chivalry, lifts herself in fitful + rage of devotion, of avarice, and of pride. She is the natural ally of the + church; makes her own monks the proudest of the Popes; raises Avignon into + another Rome; prays and pillages insatiably; pipes pastoral songs of + innocence, and invents grotesque variations of crime; gives grace to the + rudeness of England, and venom to the cunning of Italy. She is a chimera + among nations, and one knows not whether to admire most the valour of + Guiscard, the virtue of St. Louis or the villany of his brother. + </p> + <p> + 53. The Eastern powers—Greek, Israelite, Saracen—are at once + the enemies of the Western, their prey, and their tutors. + </p> + <p> + They bring them methods of ornament and of merchandise, and stimulate in + them the worst conditions of pugnacity, bigotry, and rapine. That is the + broad geographical and political relation of races. Next, you must + consider the conditions of their time. + </p> + <p> + 54. I told you, in my second lecture on Engraving, that before the twelfth + century the nations were too savage to be Christian, and after the + fifteenth too carnal to be Christian. + </p> + <p> + The delicacy of sensation and refinements of imagination necessary to + understand Christianity belong to the mid period when men risen from a + life of brutal hardship are not yet fallen to one of brutal luxury. You + can neither comprehend the character of Christ while you are chopping + flints for tools, and gnawing raw bones for food; nor when you have ceased + to do anything with either tools or hands, and dine on gilded capons. In + Dante's lines, beginning + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "I saw Bellincion Berti walk abroad + In leathern girdle, with a clasp of bone," +</pre> + <p> + you have the expression of his sense of the increasing luxury of the age, + already sapping its faith. But when Bellincion Berti walked abroad in + skins not yet made into leather, and with the bones of his dinner in a + heap at his door, instead of being cut into girdle clasps, he was just as + far from capacity of being a Christian. + </p> + <p> + 55. The following passage, from Carlyle's "Chartism," expresses better + than any one else has done, or is likely to do it, the nature of this + Christian era, (extending from the twelfth to the sixteenth century,) in + England,—the like being entirely true of it elsewhere:— + </p> + <p> + "In those past silent centuries, among those silent classes, much had been + going on. Not only had red deer in the New and other forests been got + preserved and shot; and treacheries {1} of Simon de Montfort, wars of Red + and White Roses, battles of Crecy, battles of Bosworth, and many other + battles, been got transacted and adjusted; but England wholly, not without + sore toil and aching bones to the millions of sires and the millions of + sons of eighteen generations, had been got drained and tilled, covered + with yellow harvests, beautiful and rich in possessions. The mud-wooden + Caesters and Chesters had become steepled, tile-roofed, compact towns. + Sheffield had taken to the manufacture of Sheffield whittles. Worstead + could from wool spin yarn, and knit or weave the same into stockings or + breeches for men. England had property valuable to the auctioneer; but the + accumulate manufacturing, commercial, economic skill which lay impalpably + warehoused in English hands and heads, what auctioneer could estimate? + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: Perhaps not altogether so, any more than Oliver's dear papa + Carlyle. We may have to read <i>him</i> also, otherwise than the British + populace have yet read, some day.} + </p> + <p> + "Hardly an Englishman to be met with but could do something; some + cunninger thing than break his fellow-creature's head with battle-axes. + The seven incorporated trades, with their million guild-brethren, with + their hammers, their shuttles, and tools, what an army,—fit to + conquer that land of England, as we say, and hold it conquered! Nay, + strangest of all, the English people had acquired the faculty and habit of + thinking,—even of believing; individual conscience had unfolded + itself among them;—Conscience, and Intelligence its handmaid. {1} + Ideas of innumerable kinds were circulating among these men; witness one + Shakspeare, a wool-comber, poacher or whatever else, at Stratford, in + Warwickshire, who happened to write books!—the finest human figure, + as I apprehend, that Nature has hitherto seen fit to make of our widely + Teutonic clay. Saxon, Norman, Celt, or Sarmat, I find no human soul so + beautiful, these fifteen hundred known years;—our supreme modern + European man. Him England had contrived to realize: were there not ideas? + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: Observe Carlyle's order of sequence. Perceptive Reason is the + Handmaid of Conscience, not Conscience hers. If you resolve to do right, + you will soon do wisely; but resolve only to do wisely, and you will never + do right.} + </p> + <p> + "Ideas poetic and also Puritanic, that had to seek utterance in the + notablest way! England had got her Shakspeare, but was now about to get + her Milton and Oliver Cromwell. This, too, we will call a new expansion, + hard as it might be to articulate and adjust; this, that a man could + actually have a conscience for his own behoof, and not for his priest's + only; that his priest, be he who he might, would henceforth have to take + that fact along with him." + </p> + <p> + 56. You observe, in this passage, account is given you of two things—(A) + of the development of a powerful class of tradesmen and artists; and, (B) + of the development of an individual conscience. + </p> + <p> + In the savage times you had simply the hunter, digger, and robber; now you + have also the manufacturer and salesman. The ideas of ingenuity with the + hand, of fairness in exchange, have occurred to us. We can do something + now with our fingers, as well as with our fists; and if we want our + neighbours' goods, we will not simply carry them off, as of old, but offer + him some of ours in exchange. + </p> + <p> + 57. Again; whereas before we were content to let our priests do for us all + they could, by gesticulating, dressing, sacrificing, or beating of drums + and blowing of trumpets; and also direct our steps in the way of life, + without any doubt on our part of their own perfect acquaintance with it,—we + have now got to do something for ourselves—to think something for + ourselves; and thus have arrived in straits of conscience which, so long + as we endeavour to steer through them honestly, will be to us indeed a + quite secure way of life, and of all living wisdom. + </p> + <p> + 58. Now the centre of this new freedom of thought is in Germany; and the + power of it is shown first, as I told you in my opening lecture, in the + great struggle of Frederick II. with Rome. And German freedom of thought + had certainly made some progress, when it had managed to reduce the Pope + to disguise himself as a soldier, ride out of Rome by moonlight, and + gallop his thirty-four miles to the seaside before + </p> + <p> + {Illustration: PLATE IV.—NORMAN IMAGERY.} + </p> + <p> + summer dawn. Here, clearly, is quite a new state of things for the Holy + Father of Christendom to consider, during such wholesome horse-exercise. + </p> + <p> + 59. Again; the refinements of new art are represented by France—centrally + by St. Louis with his Sainte Chapelle. Happily, I am able to lay on your + table to-day—having placed it three years ago in your educational + series—a leaf of a Psalter, executed for St. Louis himself. He and + his artists are scarcely out of their savage life yet, and have no notion + of adorning the Psalms better than by pictures of long-necked cranes, + long-eared rabbits, long-tailed lions, and red and white goblins putting + their tongues out. {1} But in refinement of touch, in beauty of colour, in + the human faculties of order and grace, they are long since, evidently, + past the flint and bone stage,—refined enough, now,—subtle + enough, now, to learn anything that is pretty and fine, whether in + theology or any other matter. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: I cannot go to the expense of engraving this most subtle + example; but Plate IV. shows the average conditions of temper and + imagination in religious ornamental work of the time.} + </p> + <p> + 60. Lastly, the new principle of Exchange is represented by Lombardy and + Venice, to such purpose that your Merchant and Jew of Venice, and your + Lombard of Lombard Street, retain some considerable influence on your + minds, even to this day. + </p> + <p> + And in the exact midst of all such transition, behold, Etruria with her + Pisans—her Florentines,—receiving, resisting, and reigning + over all: pillaging the Saracens of their marbles—binding the French + bishops in silver chains;—shattering the towers of German tyranny + into small pieces,—building with strange jewellery the belfry tower + for newly-conceived Christianity;—and, in sacred picture, and sacred + song, reaching the height, among nations, most passionate, and most pure. + </p> + <p> + I must close my lecture without indulging myself yet, by addition of + detail; requesting you, before we next meet, to fix these general outlines + in your minds, so that, without disturbing their distinctness, I may trace + in the sequel the relations of Italian Art to these political and + religious powers; and determine with what force of passionate sympathy, or + fidelity of resigned obedience, the Pisan artists, father and son, + executed the indignation of Florence and fulfilled the piety of Orvieto. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0005" id="link2H_4_0005"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LECTURE III. SHIELD AND APRON. + </h2> + <p> + 61. I laid before you, in my last lecture, first lines of the chart of + Italian history in the thirteenth century, which I hope gradually to fill + with colour, and enrich, to such degree as may be sufficient for all + comfortable use. But I indicated, as the more special subject of our + immediate study, the nascent power of liberal thought, and liberal art, + over dead tradition and rude workmanship. + </p> + <p> + To-day I must ask you to examine in greater detail the exact relation of + this liberal art to the illiberal elements which surrounded it. + </p> + <p> + 62. You do not often hear me use that word "Liberal" in any favourable + sense. I do so now, because I use it also in a very narrow and exact + sense. I mean that the thirteenth century is, in Italy's year of life, her + 17th of March. In the light of it, she assumes her toga virilis; and it is + sacred to her god Liber. + </p> + <p> + 63. To her god <i>Liber</i>,—observe: not Dionusos, still less + Bacchus, but her own ancient and simple deity. And if you have read with + some care the statement I gave you, with Carlyle's help, of the moment and + manner of her change from savageness to dexterity, and from rudeness to + refinement of life, you will hear, familiar as the lines are to you, the + invocation in the first Georgic with a new sense of its meaning:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Vos, O clarissima mundi + Lumina, labentem coelo quae ducitis annum, + Liber, et alma Ceres; vestro si munere tellus + Chaoniam pingui glandem mutavit arista, + Poculaqu' inventis Acheloia miscuit uvis, + Munera vestra cano." +</pre> + <p> + These gifts, innocent, rich, full of life, exquisitely beautiful in order + and grace of growth, I have thought best to symbolize to you, in the + series of types of the power of the Greek gods, placed in your educational + series, by the blossom of the wild strawberry; which in rising from its + trine cluster of trine leaves,—itself as beautiful as a white rose, + and always single on its stalk, like an ear of corn, yet with a succeeding + blossom at its side, and bearing a fruit which is as distinctly a group of + seeds as an ear of corn itself, and yet is the pleasantest to taste of all + the pleasant things prepared by nature for the food of men, {1}—may + accurately symbolize, and help you to remember, the conditions of this + liberal and delightful, yet entirely modest and orderly, art, and thought. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: I am sorry to pack my sentences together in this confused + way. But I have much to say; and cannot always stop to polish or adjust it + as I used to do.} + </p> + <p> + 64. You will find in the fourth of my inaugural lectures, at the 98th + paragraph, this statement,—much denied by modern artists and + authors, but nevertheless quite unexceptionally true,—that the + entire vitality of art depends upon its having for object either to <i>state + a true thing</i>, or <i>adorn a serviceable one</i>. The two functions of + art in Italy, in this entirely liberal and virescent phase of it,—virgin + art, we may call it, retaining the most literal sense of the words virga + and virgo,—are to manifest the doctrines of a religion which now, + for the first time, men had soul enough to understand; and to adorn + edifices or dress, with which the completed politeness of daily life might + be invested, its convenience completed, and its decorous and honourable + pride satisfied. + </p> + <p> + 65. That pride was, among the men who gave its character to the century, + in honourableness of private conduct, and useful magnificence of public + art. Not of private or domestic art: observe this very particularly. + </p> + <p> + "Such was the simplicity of private manners,"—(I am now quoting + Sismondi, but with the fullest ratification that my knowledge enables me + to give,)—"and the economy of the richest citizens, that if a city + enjoyed repose only for a few years, it doubled its revenues, and found + itself, in a sort, encumbered with its riches. The Pisans knew neither of + the luxury of the table, nor that of furniture, nor that of a number of + servants; yet they were sovereigns of the whole of Sardinia, Corsica, and + Elba, had colonies at St. Jean d'Acre and Constantinople, and their + merchants in those cities carried on the most extended commerce with the + Saracens and Greeks." {1} + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: Sismondi; French translation, Brussels, 1838; vol. ii., p. + 275.} + </p> + <p> + 66. "And in that time," (I now give you my own translation of Giovanni + Villani,) "the citizens of Florence lived sober, and on coarse meats, and + at little cost; and had many customs and playfulnesses which were blunt + and rude; and they dressed themselves and their wives with coarse cloth; + many wore merely skins, with no lining, and <i>all</i> had only leathern + buskins; {1} and the Florentine ladies, plain shoes and stockings with no + ornaments; and the best of them were content with a close gown of coarse + scarlet of Cyprus, or camlet girded with an old-fashioned clasp-girdle; + and a mantle over all, lined with vaire, with a hood above; and that, they + threw over their heads. The women of lower rank were dressed in the same + manner, with coarse green Cambray cloth; fifty pounds was the ordinary + bride's dowry, and a hundred or a hundred and fifty would in those times + have been held brilliant, ('isfolgorata,' dazzling, with sense of + dissipation or extravagance;) and most maidens were twenty or more before + they married. Of such gross customs were then the Florentines; but of good + faith, and loyal among themselves and in their state; and in their coarse + life, and poverty, did more and braver things than are done in our days + with more refinement and riches." + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: I find this note for expansion on the margin of my lecture, + but had no time to work it out:—'This lower class should be either + barefoot, or have strong shoes—wooden clogs good. Pretty Boulogne + sabot with purple stockings. Waterloo Road—little girl with her hair + in curlpapers,—a coral necklace round her neck—the neck bare—and + her boots of thin stuff, worn out, with her toes coming through, and rags + hanging from her heels,—a profoundly accurate type of English + national and political life. Your hair in curlpapers—borrowing tongs + from every foreign nation, to pinch you into manners. The rich + ostentatiously wearing coral about the bare neck; and the poor—cold + as the stones and indecent.'} + </p> + <p> + 67. I detain you a moment at the words "scarlet of Cyprus, or camlet." + </p> + <p> + Observe that camelot (camelet) from <i>kamaelotae</i>, camel's skin, is a + stuff made of silk and camel's hair originally, afterwards of silk and + wool. At Florence, the camel's hair would always have reference to the + Baptist, who, as you know, in Lippi's picture, wears the camel's skin + itself, made into a Florentine dress, such as Villani has just described, + "col tassello sopra," with the hood above. Do you see how important the + word "Capulet" is becoming to us, in its main idea? + </p> + <p> + 68. Not in private nor domestic art, therefore, I repeat to you, but in + useful magnificence of public art, these citizens expressed their pride:—and + that public art divided itself into two branches—civil, occupied + upon ethic subjects of sculpture and painting; and religious, occupied + upon scriptural or traditional histories, in treatment of which, + nevertheless, the nascent power and liberality of thought were apparent, + not only in continual amplification and illustration of scriptural story + by the artist's own invention, but in the acceptance of profane mythology, + as part of the Scripture, or tradition, given by Divine inspiration. + </p> + <p> + 69. Nevertheless, for the provision of things necessary in domestic life, + there developed itself, together with the group of inventive artists + exercising these nobler functions, a vast body of craftsmen, and, + literally, <i>man</i>ufacturers, workers by hand, who associated + themselves, as chance, tradition, or the accessibility of material + directed, in towns which thenceforward occupied a leading position in + commerce, as producers of a staple of excellent, or perhaps inimitable, + quality; and the linen or cambric of Cambray, the lace of Mechlin, the + wool of Worstead, and the steel of Milan, implied the tranquil and + hereditary skill of multitudes, living in wealthy industry, and humble + honour. + </p> + <p> + 70. Among these artisans, the weaver, the ironsmith, the goldsmith, the + carpenter, and the mason necessarily took the principal rank, and on their + occupations the more refined arts were wholesomely based, so that the five + businesses may be more completely expressed thus: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The weaver and embroiderer, + The ironsmith and armourer, + The goldsmith and jeweller, + The carpenter and engineer, + The stonecutter and painter. +</pre> + <p> + You have only once to turn over the leaves of Lionardo's sketch book, in + the Ambrosian Library, to see how carpentry is connected with engineering,—the + architect was always a stonecutter, and the stonecutter not often + practically separate, as yet, from the painter, and never so in general + conception of function. You recollect, at a much later period, Kent's + description of Cornwall's steward: + </p> + <p> + "KENT. You cowardly rascal!—nature disclaims in thee, a tailor made + thee! + </p> + <p> + CORNWALL. Thou art a strange fellow—a tailor make a man? + </p> + <p> + KENT. Ay, sir; a stonecutter, or a painter, could not have made him so + ill; though they had been but two hours at the trade." + </p> + <p> + 71. You may consider then this group of artizans with the merchants, as + now forming in each town an important Tiers Etat, or Third State of the + people, occupied in service, first, of the ecclesiastics, who in monastic + bodies inhabited the cloisters round each church; and, secondly, of the + knights, who, with their retainers, occupied, each family their own fort, + in allied defence of their appertaining streets. + </p> + <p> + 72. A Third Estate, indeed; but adverse alike to both the others, to + Montague as to Capulet, when they become disturbers of the public peace; + and having a pride of its own,—hereditary still, but consisting in + the inheritance of skill and knowledge rather than of blood,—which + expressed the sense of such inheritance by taking its name habitually from + the master rather than the sire; and which, in its natural antagonism to + dignities won only by violence, or recorded only by heraldry, you may + think of generally as the race whose bearing is the Apron, instead of the + shield. + </p> + <p> + 73. When, however, these two, or in perfect subdivision three, bodies of + men, lived in harmony,—the knights remaining true to the State, the + clergy to their faith, and the workmen to their craft,—conditions of + national force were arrived at, under which all the great art of the + middle ages was accomplished. The pride of the knights, the avarice of the + priests, and the gradual abasement of character in the craftsman, changing + him from a citizen able to wield either tools in peace or weapons in war, + to a dull tradesman, forced to pay mercenary troops to defend his shop + door, are the direct causes of common ruin towards the close of the + sixteenth century. + </p> + <p> + 74. But the deep underlying cause of the decline in national character + itself, was the exhaustion of the Christian faith. None of its practical + claims were avouched either by reason or experience; and the imagination + grew weary of sustaining them in despite of both. Men could not, as their + powers of reflection became developed, steadily conceive that the sins of + a life might be done away with, by finishing it with Mary's name on the + lips; nor could tradition of miracle for ever resist the personal + discovery, made by each rude disciple by himself, that he might pray to + all the saints for a twelvemonth together, and yet not get what he asked + for. + </p> + <p> + 75. The Reformation succeeded in proclaiming that existing Christianity + was a lie; but substituted no theory of it which could be more rationally + or credibly sustained; and ever since, the religion of educated persons + throughout Europe has been dishonest or ineffectual; it is only among the + labouring peasantry that the grace of a pure Catholicism, and the patient + simplicities of the Puritan, maintain their imaginative dignity, or assert + their practical use. + </p> + <p> + 76. The existence of the nobler arts, however, involves the harmonious + life and vital faith of the three classes whom we have just distinguished; + and that condition exists, more or less disturbed, indeed, by the vices + inherent in each class, yet, on the whole, energetically and productively, + during the twelfth, thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries. But + our present subject being Architecture only, I will limit your attention + altogether to the state of society in the great age of architecture, the + thirteenth century. A great age in all ways; but most notably so in the + correspondence it presented, up to a just and honourable point, with the + utilitarian energy of our own days. + </p> + <p> + 77. The increase of wealth, the safety of industry, and the conception of + more convenient furniture of life, to which we must attribute the rise of + the entire artist class, were accompanied, in that century, by much + enlargement in the conception of useful public works: and—not by <i>private</i> + enterprise,—that idle persons might get dividends out of the public + pocket,—but by <i>public</i> enterprise,—each citizen paying + down at once his share of what was necessary to accomplish the benefit to + the State,—great architectural and engineering efforts were made for + the common service. Common, observe; but not, in our present sense, + republican. One of the most ludicrous sentences ever written in the + blindness of party spirit is that of Sismondi, in which he declares, + thinking of these public works only, that 'the architecture of the + thirteenth century is entirely republican.' The architecture of the + thirteenth century is, in the mass of it, simply baronial or + ecclesiastical; it is of castles, palaces, or churches; but it is true + that splendid civic works were also accomplished by the vigour of the + newly risen popular power. + </p> + <p> + "The canal named Naviglio Graude, which brings the waters of the Ticino to + Milan, traversing a distance of thirty miles, was undertaken in 1179, + recommended in 1257, and, soon after, happily terminated; in it still + consists the wealth of a vast extent of Lombardy. At the same time the + town of Milan rebuilt its walls, which were three miles round, and had + sixteen marble gates, of magnificence which might have graced the capital + of all Italy. The Genovese, in 1276 and 1283, built their two splendid + docks, and the great wall of their quay; and in 1295 finished the noble + aqueduct which brings pure and abundant waters to their city from a great + distance among their mountains. There is not a single town in Italy which + at the same time did not undertake works of this kind; and while these + larger undertakings were in progress, stone bridges were built across the + rivers, the streets and piazzas were paved with large slabs of stone, and + every free government recognized the duty of providing for the convenience + of the citizens." {1} + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: Simondi, vol ii. chap. 10.} + </p> + <p> + 78. The necessary consequence of this enthusiasm in useful building, was + the formation of a vast body of craftsmen and architects; corresponding in + importance to that which the railway, with its associated industry, has + developed in modern times, but entirely different in personal character, + and relation to the body politic. + </p> + <p> + Their personal character was founded on the accurate knowledge of their + business in all respects; the ease and pleasure of unaffected invention; + and the true sense of power to do everything better than it had ever been + yet done, coupled with general contentment in life, and in its vigour and + skill. + </p> + <p> + It is impossible to overrate the difference between such a condition of + mind, and that of the modern artist, who either does not know his business + at all, or knows it only to recognize his own inferiority to every former + workman of distinction. + </p> + <p> + 79. Again: the political relation of these artificers to the State was + that of a caste entirely separate from the noblesse; {1} paid for their + daily work what was just, and competing with each other to supply the best + article they could for the money. And it is, again, impossible to overrate + the difference between such a social condition, and that of the artists of + to-day, struggling to occupy a position of equality in wealth with the + noblesse,—paid irregular and monstrous prices by an entirely + ignorant and selfish public; and competing with each other to supply the + worst article they can for the money. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: The giving of knighthood to Jacopo della Quercia for his + lifelong service to Siena was not the elevation of a dexterous workman, + but grace to a faithful citizen.} + </p> + <p> + I never saw anything so impudent on the walls of any exhibition, in any + country, as last year in London. It was a daub professing to be a "harmony + in pink and white" (or some such nonsense;) absolute rubbish, and which + had taken about a quarter of an hour to scrawl or daub—it had no + pretence to be called painting. The price asked for it was two hundred and + fifty guineas. + </p> + <p> + 80. In order to complete your broad view of the elements of social power + in the thirteenth century, you have now farther to understand the position + of the country people, who maintained by their labour these three classes, + whose action you can discern, and whose history you can read; while, of + those who maintained them, there is no history, except of the annual + ravage of their fields by contending cities or nobles;—and, finally, + that of the higher body of merchants, whose influence was already + beginning to counterpoise the prestige of noblesse in Florence, and who + themselves constituted no small portion of the noblesse of Venice. + </p> + <p> + The food-producing country was for the most part still possessed by the + nobles; some by the ecclesiastics; but a portion, I do not know how large, + was in the hands of peasant proprietors, of whom Sismondi gives this, to + my mind, completely pleasant and satisfactory, though, to his, very + painful, account:— + </p> + <p> + "They took no interest in public affairs; they had assemblies of their + commune at the village in which the church of their parish was situated, + and to which they retreated to defend themselves in case of war; they had + also magistrates of their own choice; but all their interests appeared to + them enclosed in the circle of their own commonality; they did not meddle + with general politics, and held it for their point of honour to remain + faithful, through all revolutions, to the State of which they formed a + part, obeying, without hesitation, its chiefs, whoever they were, and by + whatever title they occupied their places." + </p> + <p> + 81. Of the inferior agricultural labourers, employed on the farms of the + nobles and richer ecclesiastics, I find nowhere due notice, nor does any + historian seriously examine their manner of life. Liable to every form of + robbery and oppression, I yet regard their state as not only morally but + physically happier than that of riotous soldiery, or the lower class of + artizans, and as the safeguard of every civilized nation, through all its + worst vicissitudes of folly and crime. Nature has mercifully appointed + that seed must be sown, and sheep folded, whatever lances break, or + religions fail; and at this hour, while the streets of Florence and Verona + are full of idle politicians, loud of tongue, useless of hand and + treacherous of heart, there still may be seen in their market-places, + standing, each by his heap of pulse or maize, the grey-haired labourers, + silent, serviceable, honourable, keeping faith, untouched by change, to + their country and to Heaven. {1} + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: Compare "Sesame and Lilies," sec. 38, p. 58. (P. 86 of the + small edition of 1882.)} + </p> + <p> + 82. It is extremely difficult to determine in what degree the feelings or + intelligence of this class influenced the architectural design of the + thirteenth century;—how far afield the cathedral tower was intended + to give delight, and to what simplicity of rustic conception Quercia or + Ghiberti appealed by the fascination of their Scripture history. You may + at least conceive, at this date, a healthy animation in all men's minds, + and the children of the vineyard and sheepcote crowding the city on its + festa days, and receiving impulse to busier, if not nobler, education, in + its splendour. {1} + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: Of detached abbeys, see note on Education of Joan of Arc, + "Sesame and Lilies," sec. 82, p. 106. (P. 158 of the small edition of + 1882.)} + </p> + <p> + 83. The great class of the merchants is more difficult to define; but you + may regard them generally as the examples of whatever modes of life might + be consistent with peace and justice, in the economy of transfer, as + opposed to the military license of pillage. + </p> + <p> + They represent the gradual ascendancy of foresight, prudence, and order in + society, and the first ideas of advantageous national intercourse. Their + body is therefore composed of the most intelligent and temperate natures + of the time,—uniting themselves, not directly for the purpose of + making money, but to obtain stability for equal institutions, security of + property, and pacific relations with neighbouring states. Their guilds + form the only representatives of true national council, unaffected, as the + landed proprietors were, by merely local circumstances and accidents. + </p> + <p> + 84. The strength of this order, when its own conduct was upright, and its + opposition to the military body was not in avaricious cowardice, but in + the resolve to compel justice and to secure peace, can only be understood + by you after an examination of the great changes in the government of + Florence during the thirteenth century, which, among other minor + achievements interesting to us, led to that destruction of the Tower of + the Death-watch, so ingeniously accomplished by Niccola Pisano. This + change, and its results, will be the subject of my next lecture. I must + to-day sum, and in some farther degree make clear, the facts already laid + before you. + </p> + <p> + 85. We have seen that the inhabitants of every great Italian state may be + divided, and that very stringently, into the five classes of knights, + priests, merchants, artists, and peasants. No distinction exists between + artist and artizan, except that of higher genius or better conduct; the + best artist is assuredly also the best artizan; and the simplest workman + uses his invention and emotion as well as his fingers. The entire body of + artists is under the orders (as shopmen are under the orders of their + customers), of the knights, priests, and merchants,—the knights for + the most part demanding only fine goldsmiths' work, stout armour, and rude + architecture; the priests commanding both the finest architecture and + painting, and the richest kinds of decorative dress and jewellery,—while + the merchants directed works of public use, and were the best judges of + artistic skill. The competition for the Baptistery gates of Florence is + before the guild of merchants; nor is their award disputed, even in + thought, by any of the candidates. + </p> + <p> + 86. This is surely a fact to be taken much to heart by our present + communities of Liverpool and Manchester. They probably suppose, in their + modesty, that lords and clergymen are the proper judges of art, and + merchants can only, in the modern phrase, 'know what they like,' or follow + humbly the guidance of their golden-crested or flat-capped superiors. But + in the great ages of art, neither knight nor pope shows signs of true + power of criticism. The artists crouch before them, or quarrel with them, + according to their own tempers. To the merchants they submit silently, as + to just and capable judges. And look what men these are, who submit. + Donatello, Ghiberti, Quercia, Luca! If men like these submit to the + merchant, who shall rebel? + </p> + <p> + 87. But the still franker, and surer, judgment of innocent pleasure was + awarded them by all classes alike: and the interest of the public was the + <i>final </i>rule of right,—that public being always eager to see, + and earnest to learn. For the stories told by their artists formed, they + fully believed, a Book of Life; and every man of real genius took up his + function of illustrating the scheme of human morality and salvation, as + naturally, and faithfully, as an English mother of to-day giving her + children their first lessons in the Bible. In this endeavour to teach they + almost unawares taught themselves; the question "How shall I represent + this most clearly?" became to themselves, presently, "How was this most + likely to have happened?" and habits of fresh and accurate thought thus + quickly enlivened the formalities of the Greek pictorial theology; + formalities themselves beneficent, because restraining by their severity + and mystery the wantonness of the newer life. Foolish modern critics have + seen nothing in the Byzantine school but a barbarism to be conquered and + forgotten. But that school brought to the art-scholars of the thirteenth + century, laws which had been serviceable to Phidias, and symbols which had + been beautiful to Homer: and methods and habits of pictorial scholarship + which gave a refinement of manner to the work of the simplest craftsman, + and became an education to the higher artists which no discipline of + literature can now bestow, developed themselves in the effort to decipher, + and the impulse to re-interpret, the Eleusinian divinity of Byzantine + tradition. + </p> + <p> + 88. The words I have just used, "pictorial scholarship," and "pictorial + theology," remind me how strange it must appear to you that in this sketch + of the intellectual state of Italy in the thirteenth century I have taken + no note of literature itself, nor of the fine art of Music with which it + was associated in minstrelsy. The corruption of the meaning of the word + "clerk," from "a chosen person" to "a learned one," partly indicates the + position of literature in the war between the golden crest and scarlet + cap; but in the higher ranks, literature and music became the grace of the + noble's life, or the occupation of the monk's, without forming any + separate class, or exercising any materially visible political power. + Masons or butchers might establish a government,—but never + troubadours: and though a good knight held his education to be imperfect + unless he could write a sonnet and sing it, he did not esteem his castle + to be at the mercy of the "editor" of a manuscript. He might indeed owe + his life to the fidelity of a minstrel, or be guided in his policy by the + wit of a clown; but he was not the slave of sensual music, or vulgar + literature, and never allowed his Saturday reviewer to appear at table + without the cock's comb. + </p> + <p> + 89. On the other hand, what was noblest in thought or saying was in those + times as little attended to as it is now. I do not feel sure that, even in + after times, the poem of Dante has had any political effect on Italy; but + at all events, in his life, even at Verona, where he was treated most + kindly, he had not half so much influence with Can Grande as the rough + Count of Castelbarco, not one of whose words was ever written, or now + remains; and whose portrait, by no means that of a man of literary genius, + almost disfigures, by its plainness, the otherwise grave and perfect + beauty of his tomb. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0006" id="link2H_4_0006"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LECTURE IV. PARTED PER PALE. + </h2> + <p> + 90. The chart of Italian intellect and policy which I have endeavoured to + put into form in the last three lectures, may, I hope, have given you a + clear idea of the subordinate, yet partly antagonistic, position which the + artist, or merchant,—whom in my present lecture I shall class + together,—occupied, with respect to the noble and priest. As an + honest labourer, he was opposed to the violence of pillage, and to the + folly of pride: as an honest thinker, he was likely to discover any latent + absurdity in the stories he had to represent in their nearest likelihood; + and to be himself moved strongly by the true meaning of events which he + was striving to make ocularly manifest. The painter terrified himself with + his own fiends, and reproved or comforted himself by the lips of his own + saints, far more profoundly than any verbal preacher; and thus, whether as + craftsman or inventor, was likely to be foremost in defending the laws of + his city, or directing its reformation. + </p> + <p> + 91. The contest of the craftsman with the pillaging soldier is typically + represented by the war of the Lombard League with Frederick II.; and that + of the craftsman with the hypocritical priest, by the war of the Pisans + with Gregory IX. (1241). But in the present lecture I wish only to fix + your attention on the revolutions in Florence, which indicated, thus + early, the already established ascendancy of the moral forces which were + to put an end to open robber-soldiership; and at least to compel the + assertion of some higher principle in war, if not, as in some distant day + may be possible, the cessation of war itself. + </p> + <p> + The most important of these revolutions was virtually that of which I + before spoke to you, taking place in mid-thirteenth century, in the year + l250,—a very memorable one for Christendom, and the very crisis of + vital change in its methods of economy, and conceptions of art. + </p> + <p> + 92. Observe, first, the exact relations at that time of Christian and + Profane Chivalry. St. Louis, in the winter of 1248-9, lay in the isle of + Cyprus, with his crusading army. He had trusted to Providence for + provisions; and his army was starving. The profane German emperor, + Frederick II., was at war with Venice, but gave a safe-conduct to the + Venetian ships, which enabled them to carry food to Cyprus, and to save + St. Louis and his crusaders. Frederick had been for half his life + excommunicate,—and the Pope (Innocent IV.) at deadly spiritual and + temporal war with him;—spiritually, because he had brought Saracens + into Apulia; temporally, because the Pope wanted Apulia for himself. St. + Louis and his mother both wrote to Innocent, praying him to be reconciled + to the kind heretic who had saved the whole crusading army. But the Pope + remained implacably thundrous; and Frederick, weary of quarrel, stayed + quiet in one of his Apulian castles for a year. The repose of infidelity + is seldom cheerful, unless it be criminal. Frederick had much to repent + of, much to regret, nothing to hope, and nothing to do. At the end of his + year's quiet he was attacked by dysentery, and so made his final peace + with the Pope, and heaven,—aged fifty-six. + </p> + <p> + 93. Meantime St. Louis had gone on into Egypt, had got his army defeated, + his brother killed, and himself carried captive. You may be interested in + seeing, in the leaf of his psalter which I have laid on the table, the + death of that brother set down in golden letters, between the common + letters of ultramarine, on the eighth of February. + </p> + <p> + 94. Providence, defied by Frederick, and trusted in by St. Louis, made + such arrangements for them both; Providence not in anywise regarding the + opinions of either king, but very much regarding the facts, that the one + had no business in Egypt, nor the other in Apulia. + </p> + <p> + No two kings, in the history of the world, could have been happier, or + more useful, than these two might have been, if they only had had the + sense to stay in their own capitals, and attend to their own affairs. But + they seem only to have been born to show what grievous results, under the + power of discontented imagination, a Christian could achieve by faith, and + a philosopher by reason. {1} + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: It must not be thought that this is said in disregard of the + nobleness of either of these two glorious Kings. Among the many designs of + past years, one of my favorites was to write a life of Frederick II. But I + hope that both his, and that of Henry II. of England, will soon be written + now, by a man who loves them as well as I do, and knows them far better.} + </p> + <p> + 95. The death of Frederick II. virtually ended the soldier power in + Florence; and the mercantile power assumed the authority it thenceforward + held, until, in the hands of the Medici, it destroyed the city. + </p> + <p> + We will now trace the course and effects of the three revolutions which + closed the reign of War, and crowned the power of Peace. + </p> + <p> + 96. In the year 1248, while St. Louis was in Cyprus, I told you Frederick + was at war with Venice. He was so because she stood, if not as the leader, + at least as the most important ally, of the great Lombard mercantile + league against the German military power. + </p> + <p> + That league consisted essentially of Venice, Milan, Bologna, and Genoa, in + alliance with the Pope; the Imperial or Ghibelline towns were, Padua and + Verona under Ezzelin; Mantua, Pisa, and Siena. I do not name the minor + towns of north Italy which associated themselves with each party: get only + the main localities of the contest well into your minds. It was all + concentrated in the furious hostility of Genoa and Pisa; Genoa fighting + really very piously for the Pope, as well as for herself; Pisa for her own + hand, and for the Emperor as much as suited her. The mad little sea falcon + never caught sight of another water-bird on the wing, but she must hawk at + it; and as an ally of the Emperor, balanced Venice and Genoa with her + single strength. And so it came to pass that the victory of either the + Guelph or Ghibelline party depended on the final action of Florence. + </p> + <p> + 97. Florence meanwhile was fighting with herself, for her own amusement. + She was nominally at the head of the Guelphic League in Tuscany; but this + only meant that she hated Siena and Pisa, her southern and western + neighbours. She had never declared openly against the Emperor. On the + contrary, she always recognized his authority, in an imaginative manner, + as representing that of the Caesars. She spent her own energy chiefly in + street-fighting,—the death of Buondelmonti in 1215 having been the + root of a series of quarrels among her nobles which gradually took the + form of contests of honour; and were a kind of accidental tournaments, + fought to the death, because they could not be exciting or dignified + enough on any other condition. And thus the manner of life came to be + customary, which you have accurately, with its consequences, pictured by + Shakspeare. Samson bites his thumb at Abraham, and presently the streets + are impassable in battle. The quarrel in the Canongate between the Leslies + and Seytons, in Scott's 'Abbot,' represents the same temper; and marks + also, what Shakspeare did not so distinctly, because it would have + interfered with the domestic character of his play, the connection of + these private quarrels with political divisions which paralyzed the entire + body of the State.—Yet these political schisms, in the earlier days + of Italy, never reached the bitterness of Scottish feud, {1} because they + were never so sincere. Protestant and Catholic Scotsmen faithfully + believed each other to be servants of the devil; but the Guelph and + Ghibelline of Florence each respected, in the other, the fidelity to the + Emperor, or piety towards the Pope, which he found it convenient, for the + time, to dispense with in his own person. The street fighting was + therefore more general, more chivalric, more good-humoured; a word of + offence set all the noblesse of the town on fire; every one rallied to his + post; fighting began at once in half a dozen places of recognized + convenience, but ended in the evening; and, on the following day, the + leaders determined in contended truce who had fought best, buried their + dead triumphantly, and better fortified any weak points, which the events + of the previous day had exposed at their palace corners. Florentine + dispute was apt to centre itself about the gate of St. Peter, {2} the + tower of the cathedral, or the fortress-palace of the Uberti, (the family + of Dante's Bellincion Berti and of Farinata), which occupied the site of + the present Palazzo Vecchio. But the streets of Siena seem to have + afforded better barricade practice. They are as steep as they are narrow—extremely + both; and the projecting stones on their palace fronts, which were left, + in building, to sustain, on occasion, the barricade beams across the + streets, are to this day important features in their architecture. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: Distinguish always the personal from the religious feud; + personal feud is more treacherous and violent in Italy than in Scotland; + but not the political or religious feud, unless involved with vast + material interests.} + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 2: Sismondi, vol. ii., chap. ii.; G. Villani, vi., 33.} + </p> + <p> + 98. Such being the general state of matters in Florence, in this year + 1248, Frederick writes to the Uberti, who headed the Ghibellines, to + engage them in serious effort to bring the city distinctly to the Imperial + side. He was besieging Parma; and sent his natural son, Frederick, king of + Antioch, with sixteen hundred German knights, to give the Ghibellines + assured preponderance in the next quarrel. + </p> + <p> + The Uberti took arms before their arrival; rallied all their Ghibelline + friends into a united body, and so attacked and carried the Guelph + barricades, one by one, till their antagonists, driven together by local + defeat, stood in consistency as complete as their own, by the gate of St. + Peter, 'Scheraggio.' Young Frederick, with his German riders, arrived at + this crisis; the Ghibellines opening the gates to him; the Guelphs, + nevertheless, fought at their outmost barricade for four days more; but at + last, tired, withdrew from the city, in a body, on the night of Candlemas, + 2nd February, 1248; leaving the Ghibellines and their German friends to + work their pleasure,—who immediately set themselves to throw down + the Guelph palaces, and destroyed six-and-thirty of them, towers and all, + with the good help of Niccola Pisano,—for this is the occasion of + that beautiful piece of new engineering of his. + </p> + <p> + 99. It is the first interference of the Germans in Florentine affairs + which belongs to the real cycle of modern history. Six hundred years + later, a troop of German riders entered Florence again, to restore its + Grand Duke; and our warmhearted and loving English poetess, looking on + from Casa Guidi windows, gives the said Germans many hard words, and + thinks her darling Florentines entirely innocent in the matter. But if she + had had clear eyes, (yeux de lin {1} the Romance of the Rose calls them,) + she would have seen that white-coated cavalry with its heavy guns to be + nothing more than the rear-guard of young Frederick of Antioch; and that + Florence's own Ghibellines had opened her gates to them. Destiny little + regards cost of time; she does her justice at that telescopic distance + just as easily and accurately as close at hand. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: Lynx.} + </p> + <p> + 100. "Frederick of <i>Antioch</i>." Note the titular coincidence. The + disciples were called Christians first in Antioch; here we have our + lieutenant of Antichrist also named from that town. The anti-Christian + Germans got into Florence upon Sunday morning; the Guelphs fought on till + Wednesday, which was Candlemas;—the Tower of the Death-watch was + thrown down next day. It was so called because it stood on the Piazza of + St John; and all dying people in Florence called on St. John for help; and + looked, if it might be, to the top of this highest and best-built of + towers. The wicked anti-Christian Ghibellines, Nicholas of Pisa helping, + cut the side of it "so that the tower might fall on the Baptistery. But as + it pleased God, for better reverencing of the blessed St. John, the tower, + which was a hundred and eighty feet high, as it was coming down, plainly + appeared to eschew the holy church, and turned aside, and fell right + across the square; at which all the Florentines marvelled, (pious or + impious,) and the <i>people</i> (anti-Ghibelline) were greatly delighted." + </p> + <p> + 101. I have no doubt that this story is apocryphal, not only in its + attribution of these religious scruples to the falling tower; but in its + accusation of the Ghibellines as having definitely intended the + destruction of the Baptistery. It is only modern reformers who feel the + absolute need of enforcing their religious opinions in so practical a + manner. Such a piece of sacrilege would have been revolting to Farinata; + how much more to the group of Florentines whose temper is centrally + represented by Dante's, to all of whom their "bel San Giovanni" was dear, + at least for its beauty, if not for its sanctity. And Niccola himself was + too good a workman to become the instrument of the destruction of so noble + a work,—not to insist on the extreme probability that he was also + too good an engineer to have had his purpose, if once fixed, thwarted by + any tenderness in the conscience of the collapsing tower. The tradition + itself probably arose after the rage of the exiled Ghibellines had half + consented to the destruction, on political grounds, of Florence itself; + but the form it took is of extreme historical value, indicating thus early + at least the suspected existence of passions like those of the Cromwellian + or Garibaldian soldiery in the Florentine noble; and the distinct + character of the Ghibelline party as not only anti-Papal, but profane. + </p> + <p> + 102. Upon the castles, and the persons of their antagonists, however, the + pride, or fear, of the Ghibellines had little mercy; and in their day of + triumph they provoked against themselves nearly every rational as well as + religious person in the commonwealth. They despised too much the force of + the newly-risen popular power, founded on economy, sobriety, and common + sense; and, alike by impertinence and pillage, increased the irritation of + the civil body; until, as aforesaid, on the 20th October, 1250, all the + rich burgesses of Florence took arms; met in the square before the church + of Santa Croce, ("where," says Sismondi, "the republic of the dead is + still assembled today,") thence traversed the city to the palace of the + Ghibelline podesta; forced him to resign; named Uberto of Lucca in his + place, under the title of Captain of the People; divided themselves into + twenty companies, each, in its own district of the city, having its + captain {1} and standard; and elected a council of twelve ancients, + constituting a seniory or signoria, to deliberate on and direct public + affairs. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: 'Corporal,' literally'.} + </p> + <p> + 103. What a perfectly beautiful republican movement! thinks Sismondi, + seeing, in all this, nothing but the energy of a multitude; and entirely + ignoring the peculiar capacity of this Florentine mob,—capacity of + two virtues, much forgotten by modern republicanism,—order, namely; + and obedience; together with the peculiar instinct of this Florentine + multitude, which not only felt itself to need captains, but knew where to + find them. + </p> + <p> + 104. Hubert of Lucca—How came they, think you, to choose <i>him </i>out + of a stranger city, and that a poorer one than their own? Was there no + Florentine then, of all this rich and eager crowd, who was fit to govern + Florence? + </p> + <p> + I cannot find any account of this Hubert, Bright mind, of Ducca; Villani + says simply of him, "Fu il primo capitano di Firenze." + </p> + <p> + They hung a bell for him in the Campanile of the Lion, and gave him the + flag of Florence to bear; and before the day was over, that 20th of + October, he had given every one of the twenty companies their flags also. + And the bearings of the said gonfalons were these. I will give you this + heraldry as far as I can make it out from Villani; it will be very useful + to us afterwards; I leave the Italian when I cannot translate it:— + </p> + <p> + 105. A. Sesto, (sixth part of the city,) of the other side of Arno. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Gonfalon 1. Gules; a ladder, argent. + 2. Argent; a scourge, sable. + 3. Azure; (una piazza bianca con + nicchi vermigli). + 4. Gules; a dragon, vert. +</pre> + <p> + B. Sesto of St. Peter Scheraggio. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 1. Azure; a chariot, or. + 2. Or; a bull, sable. + 3. Argent; a lion rampant, sable. + 4. (A lively piece, "pezza gagliarda") + Barry of (how many?) pieces, + argent and sable. +</pre> + <p> + You may as well note at once of this kind of bearing, called 'gagliarda' + by Villani, that these groups of piles, pales, bends, and bars, were + called in English heraldry 'Restrial bearings,' "in respect of their + strength and solid substance, which is able to abide the stresse and force + of any triall they shall be put unto." {1} And also that, the number of + bars being uncertain, I assume the bearing to be 'barry,' that is, having + an even number of bars; had it been odd, as of seven bars, it should have + been blazoned, argent; three bars, sable; or, if so divided, sable, three + bars argent. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: Guillim, sect. ii., chap. 3.} + </p> + <p> + This lively bearing was St. Pulinari's. + </p> + <p> + C. Sesto of Borgo. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 1. Or; a viper, vert. + 2. Argent; a needle, (?) (aguglia) + sable. + 3. Vert; a horse unbridled; + draped, argent, a cross, + gules. +</pre> + <p> + D. Sesto of St. Brancazio. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 1. Vert; a lion rampant, proper. + 2. Argent; a lion rampant, gules. + 3. Azure; a lion rampant, argent. +</pre> + <p> + E. Sesto of the Cathedral gates. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 1. Azure; a lion (passant?) or. + 2. Or; a dragon, vert. + 3. Argent; a lion rampant, + azure, crowned, or. +</pre> + <p> + F. Sesto of St. Peter's gates. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 1. Or; two keys, gules. + 2. An Italian (or more definitely + a Greek and Etruscan bearing; + I do not know how to + blazon it;) concentric bands, + argent and sable. This is + one of the remains of the + Greek expressions of storm; + hail, or the Trinacrian limbs, + being put on the giant's + shields also. It is connected + besides with the Cretan + labyrinth, and the circles of + the Inferno. + 3. Parted per fesse, gules and + vai (I don't know if vai + means grey—not a proper + heraldic colour—or vaire). +</pre> + <p> + 106. Of course Hubert of Lucca did not determine these bearings, but took + them as he found them, and appointed them for standards; {1} he did the + same for all the country parishes, and ordered them to come into the city + at need. "And in this manner the old people of Florence ordered itself; + and for more strength of the people, they ordered and began to build the + palace which is behind the Badia,—that is to say, the one which is + of dressed stone, with the tower; for before there was no palace of the + commune in Florence, but the signory abode sometimes in one part of the + town, sometimes in another. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: We will examine afterwards the heraldry of the trades, chap, + xi., Villani.} + </p> + <p> + 107. "And as the people had now taken state and signory on themselves, + they ordered, for greater strength of the people, that all the towers of + Florence—and there were many 180 feet high {1}—should be cut + down to 75 feet, and no more; and so it was done, and with the stones of + them they walled the city on the other side Arno." + </p> + <p> + {Footnote: 120 braccia.} + </p> + <p> + 108. That last sentence is a significant one. Here is the central + expression of the true burgess or townsman temper,—resolute + maintenance of fortified peace. These are the walls which modern + republicanism throws down, to make boulevards over their ruins. + </p> + <p> + 109. Such new order being taken, Florence remained quiet for full two + months. On the 13th of December, in the same year, died the Emperor + Frederick II.; news of his death did not reach Florence till the 7th + January, 1251. It had chanced, according to Villani, that on the actual + day of his death, his Florentine vice-regent, Rinieri of Montemerlo, was + killed by a piece of the vaulting {1} of his room falling on him as he + slept. And when the people heard of the Emperor's death, "which was most + useful and needful for Holy Church, and for our commune," they took the + fall of the roof on his lieutenant as an omen of the extinction of + Imperial authority, and resolved to bring home all their Guelphic exiles, + and that the Ghibellines should be forced to make peace with them. Which + was done, and the peace really lasted for full six months; when, a quarrel + chancing with Ghibelline Pistoja, the Florentines, under a Milanese + podesta, fought their first properly communal and commercial battle, with + great slaughter of Pistojese. Naturally enough, but very unwisely, the + Florentine Ghibellines declined to take part in this battle; whereupon the + people, returning flushed with victory, drove them all out, and + established pure Guelph government in Florence, changing at the same time + the flag of the city from gules, a lily argent, to argent, a lily gules; + but the most ancient bearing of all, simply parted per pale, argent and + gules, remained always on their carroccio of battle,—"Non si muto + mai." + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: "Una volta ch' era sopra la camera."} + </p> + <p> + 110. "Non si muto mai." Villani did not know how true his words were. That + old shield of Florence, parted per pale, argent and gules, (or our own + Saxon Oswald's, parted per pale, or and purpure,) are heraldry changeless + in sign; declaring the necessary balance, in ruling men, of the Rational + and Imaginative powers; pure Alp, and glowing cloud. + </p> + <p> + Church and State—Pope and Emperor—Clergy and Laity,—all + these are partial, accidental—too often, criminal—oppositions; + but the bodily and spiritual elements, seemingly adverse, remain in + everlasting harmony, + </p> + <p> + Not less the new bearing of the shield, the red fleur-de-lys, has another + meaning. It is red, not as ecclesiastical, but as free. Not of Guelph + against Ghibelline, but of Labourer against Knight. No more his serf, but + his minister. His duty no more 'servitium,' but 'ministerium,' 'mestier.' + We learn the power of word after word, as of sign after sign, as we follow + the traces of this nascent art. I have sketched for you this lily from the + base of the tower of Giotto. You may judge by the subjects of the + sculpture beside it that it was built just in this fit of commercial + triumph; for all the outer bas-reliefs are of trades. + </p> + <p> + 111. Draw that red lily then, and fix it in your minds as the sign of the + great change in the temper of Florence, and in her laws, in mid-thirteenth + century; and remember also, when you go to Florence and see that mighty + tower of the Palazzo Vecchio (noble still, in spite of the calamitous and + accursed restorations which have smoothed its rugged outline, and effaced + with modern vulgarisms its lovely sculpture)—terminating the shadowy + perspectives of the Uffizii, or dominant over the city seen from Fésole or + Bellosguardo,—that, as the tower of Giotto is the notablest monument + in the world of the Religion of Europe, so, on this tower of the Palazzo + Vecchio, first shook itself to the winds the Lily standard of her liberal,—because + honest,—commerce. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0007" id="link2H_4_0007"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LECTURE V. PAX VOBISCUM. + </h2> + <p> + 112. My last lecture ended with a sentence which I thought, myself, rather + pretty, and quite fit for a popular newspaper, about the 'lily standard of + liberal commerce.' But it might occur, and I hope did occur, to some of + you, that it would have been more appropriate if the lily had changed + colour the other way, from red to white, (instead of white to red,) as a + sign of a pacific constitution and kindly national purpose. + </p> + <p> + 113. I believe otherwise, however; and although the change itself was for + the sake of change merely, you may see in it, I think, one of the + historical coincidences which contain true instruction for us. + </p> + <p> + Quite one of the chiefest art-mistakes and stupidities of men has been + their tendency to dress soldiers in red clothes, and monks, or pacific + persons, in black, white, or grey ones. At least half of that mental bias + of young people, which sustains the wickedness of war among us at this + day, is owing to the prettiness of uniforms. Make all Hussars black, all + Guards black, all troops of the line black; dress officers and men, alike, + as you would public executioners; and the number of candidates for + commissions will be greatly diminished. Habitually, on the contrary, you + dress these destructive rustics and their officers in scarlet and gold, + but give your productive rustics no costume of honour or beauty; you give + your peaceful student a costume which he tucks up to his waist, because he + is ashamed of it; and dress your pious rectors, and your sisters of + charity, in black, as if it were <i>their</i> trade instead of the + soldier's to send people to hell, and their own destiny to arrive there. + </p> + <p> + 114. But the investiture of the lily of Florence with scarlet is a symbol,—unintentional, + observe, but not the less notable,—of the recovery of human sense + and intelligence in this matter. The reign of war was past; this was the + sign of it;—the red glow, not now of the Towers of Dis, but of the + Carita, "che appena fora dentro al fuoco nota." And a day is coming, be + assured, when the kings of Europe will dress their peaceful troops + beautifully; will clothe their peasant girls "in scarlet, with other + delights," and "put on ornaments of gold upon <i>their</i> apparel;" when + the crocus and the lily will not be the only living things dressed + daintily in our land, and the glory of the wisest monarchs be indeed, in + that their people, like themselves, shall be, at least in some dim + likeness, "arrayed like one of these." + </p> + <p> + 115. But as for the immediate behaviour of Florence herself, with her new + standard, its colour was quite sufficiently significant in that old + symbolism, when the first restrial bearing was drawn by dying fingers + dipped in blood. The Guelphic revolution had put her into definite + political opposition with her nearest, and therefore,—according to + the custom and Christianity of the time,—her hatefullest, + neighbours,—Pistoja, Pisa, Siena, and Volterra. What glory might not + be acquired, what kind purposes answered, by making pacific mercantile + states also of those benighted towns! Besides, the death of the Emperor + had thrown his party everywhere into discouragement; and what was the use + of a flag which flew no farther than over the new palazzo? + </p> + <p> + 116. Accordingly, in the next year, the pacific Florentines began by + ravaging the territory of Pistoja; then attacked the Pisans at Pontadera, + and took 3000 prisoners; and finished by traversing, and eating up all + that could be ate in, the country of Siena; besides beating the Sienese + under the castle of Montalcino. Returning in triumph after these + benevolent operations, they resolved to strike a new piece of money in + memory of them,—the golden Florin! + </p> + <p> + 117. This coin I have placed in your room of study, to be the first of the + series of coins which I hope to arrange for you, not chronologically, but + for the various interest, whether as regards art or history, which they + should possess in your general studies. "The Florin of Florence," (says + Sismondi), "through all the monetary revolutions of all neighbouring + countries, and while the bad faith of governments adulterated their coin + from one end of Europe to the other, has always remained the same; it is, + to-day," (I don't know when, exactly, he wrote this,—but it doesn't + matter), "of the same weight, and bears the same name and the same stamp, + which it did when it was struck in 1252." It was gold of the purest title + (24 carats), weighed the eighth of an ounce, and carried, as you see, on + one side the image of St. John Baptist, on the other the Fleur-de-lys. It + is the coin which Chaucer takes for the best representation of beautiful + money in the Pardoner's Tale: this, in his judgment, is the fairest mask + of Death. Villani's relation of its moral and commercial effect at Tunis + is worth translating, being in the substance of it, I doubt not, true. + </p> + <p> + 118. "And these new florins beginning to scatter through the world, some + of them got to Tunis, in Barbary; and the King of Tunis, who was a worthy + and wise lord, was greatly pleased with them, and had them tested; and + finding them of fine gold, he praised them much, and had the legend on + them interpreted to him,—to wit, on one side 'St. John Baptist,' on + the other 'Florentia.' So seeing they were pieces of Christian money, he + sent for the Pisan merchants, who were free of his port, and much before + the King (and also the Florentines traded in Tunis through Pisan agents),—{see + these hot little Pisans, how they are first everywhere,}—and asked + of them what city it was among the Christians which made the said florins. + And the Pisans answered in spite and envy, 'They are our land Arabs.' The + King answered wisely, "It does not appear to me Arab's money; you Pisans, + what golden money have <i>you</i> got?" Then they were confused, and knew + not what to answer. So he asked if there was any Florentine among them. + And there was found a merchant from the other-side-Arno, by name Peter + Balducci, discreet and wise. The King asked him of the state and being of + Florence, of which the Pisans made their Arabs,—who answered him + wisely, showing the power and magnificence of Florence; and how Pisa, in + comparison, was not, either in land or people, the half of Florence; and + that they had no golden money; and that the gold of which those florins + had been made was gained by the Florentines above and beyond them, by many + victories. Wherefore the said Pisans were put to shame, and the King, both + by reason of the florin, and for the words of our wise citizen, made the + Florentines free, and appointed for them their own Fondaco, and church, in + Tunis, and gave them privileges like the Pisans. And this we know for a + truth from the same Peter, having been in company with him at the office + of the Priors." + </p> + <p> + 119. I cannot tell you what the value of the piece was at this time: the + sentence with which Sismondi concludes his account of it being only useful + as an example of the total ignorance of the laws of currency in which many + even of the best educated persons at the present day remain. + </p> + <p> + "Its value," he says always the same, "answers to eleven francs forty + centimes of France." + </p> + <p> + But all that can be scientifically said of any piece of money is that it + contains a given weight of a given metal. Its value in other coins, other + metals, or other general produce, varies not only from day to day, but + from instant to instant. + </p> + <p> + 120. With this coin of Florence ought in justice to be ranked the Venetian + zecchin; {1} but of it I can only thus give you account in another place,—for + I must at once go on now to tell you the first use I find recorded, as + being made by the Florentines of their new money. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: In connection with the Pisans' insulting intention by their + term of Arabs, remember that the Venetian 'zecca,' (mint) came from the + Arabic 'sehk,' the steel die used in coinage.} + </p> + <p> + They pursued in the years 1253 and 1254 their energetic promulgation of + peace. They ravaged the lands of Pistoja so often, that the Pistojese + submitted themselves, on condition of receiving back their Guelph exiles, + and admitting a Florentine garrison into Pistoja. Next they attacked Monte + Reggione, the March-fortress of the Sienese; and pressed it so vigorously + that Siena was fain to make peace too, on condition of ceasing her + alliance with the Ghibellines. Next they ravaged the territory of + Volterra: the townspeople, confident in the strength of their rock + fortress, came out to give battle; the Florentines beat them up the hill, + and entered the town gates with the fugitives. + </p> + <p> + 121. And, for note to this sentence, in my long-since-read volume of + Sismondi, I find a cross-fleury at the bottom of the page, with the date + 1254 underneath it; meaning that I was to remember that year as the + beginning of Christian warfare. For little as you may think it, and + grotesquely opposed as this ravaging of their neighbours' territories may + seem to their pacific mission, this Florentine army is fighting in + absolute good faith. Partly self-deceived, indeed, by their own ambition, + and by their fiery natures, rejoicing in the excitement of battle, they + have nevertheless, in this their "year of victories,"—so they ever + afterwards called it,—no occult or malignant purpose. At least, + whatever is occult or malignant is also unconscious; not now in cruel, but + in kindly jealousy of their neighbours, and in a true desire to + communicate and extend to them the privileges of their own new artizan + government, the Trades of Florence have taken arms. They are justly proud + of themselves; rightly assured of the wisdom of the change they have made; + true to each other for the time, and confident in the future. No army ever + fought in better cause, or with more united heart. And accordingly they + meet with no check, and commit no error; from tower to tower of the field + fortresses,—from gate to gate of the great cities,—they march + in one continuous and daily more splendid triumph, yet in gentle and + perfect discipline; and now, when they have entered Volterra with her + fugitives, after stress of battle, not a drop of blood is shed, nor a + single house pillaged, nor is any other condition of peace required than + the exile of the Ghibelline nobles. You may remember, as a symbol of the + influence of Christianity in this result, that the Bishop of Volterra, + with his clergy, came out in procession to meet them as they began to run + {1} the streets, and obtained this mercy; else the old habits of pillage + would have prevailed. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: Corsona la citta senza contesto niuno."—<i>Villani.</i>} + </p> + <p> + 122. And from Volterra, the Florentine army entered on the territory of + Pisa; and now with so high prestige, that the Pisans at once sent + ambassadors to them with keys in their hands, in token of submission. And + the Florentines made peace with them, on condition that the Pisans should + let the Florentine merchandize pass in and out without tax;—should + use the same weights as Florence,—the same cloth measure,—and + the same alloy of money. + </p> + <p> + 123. You see that Mr. Adam Smith was not altogether the originator of the + idea of free trade; and six hundred years have passed without bringing + Europe generally to the degree of mercantile intelligence, as to weights + and currency, which Florence had in her year of victories. + </p> + <p> + The Pisans broke this peace two years afterwards, to help the Emperor + Manfred; whereupon the Florentines attacked them instantly again; defeated + them on the Serchio, near Lucca; entered the Pisan territory by the Val di + Serchio; and there, cutting down a great pine tree, struck their florins + on the stump of it, putting, for memory, under the feet of the St. John, a + trefoil "in guise of a little tree." And note here the difference between + artistic and mechanical coinage. The Florentines, using pure gold, and + thin, can strike their coin anywhere, with only a wooden anvil, and their + engraver is ready on the instant to make such change in the stamp as may + record any new triumph. Consider the vigour, popularity, pleasantness of + an art of coinage thus ductile to events, and easy in manipulution. + </p> + <p> + 124. It is to be observed also that a thin gold coinage like that of the + English angel, and these Italian zecchins, is both more convenient and + prettier than the massive gold of the Greeks, often so small that it drops + through the fingers, and, if of any size, inconveniently large in value. + </p> + <p> + 125. It was in the following year, 1255, that the Florentines made the + noblest use of their newly struck florins, so far as I know, ever recorded + in any history; and a Florentine citizen made as noble refusal of them. + You will find the two stories in Giovanni Villani, Book 6th, chapters 61, + 62. One or two important facts are added by Sismondi, but without + references. I take his statement as on the whole trustworthy, using + Villani's authority wherever it reaches; one or two points I have farther + to explain to you myself as I go on. + </p> + <p> + 126. The first tale shows very curiously the mercenary and independent + character of warfare, as it now was carried on by the great chiefs, + whether Guelph or Ghibelline. The Florentines wanted to send a troop of + five hundred horse to assist Orvieto, a Guelph town, isolated on its rock, + and at present harrassed upon it. They gave command of this troop to the + Knight Guido Guerra de' Conti Guidi, and he and his riders set out for + Orvieto by the Umbrian road, through Arezzo, which was at peace with + Florence, though a Ghibelline town. The Guelph party within the town asked + help from the passing Florentine battalion; and Guido Guerra, without any + authority for such action, used the troop of which he was in command in + their favour, and drove out the Ghibellines. Sismondi does not notice what + is quite one of the main points in the matter, that this troop of horse + must have been mainly composed of Count Guido's own retainers, and not of + Florentine citizens, who would not have cared to leave their business on + such a far-off quest as this help to Orvieto. However, Arezzo is thus + brought over to the Florentine interest; and any other Italian state would + have been sure, while it disclaimed the Count's independent action, to + keep the advantage of it. Not so Florence. She is entirely resolved, in + these years of victory, to do justice to all men so far she understands + it; and in this case it will give her some trouble to do it, and worse,—cost + her some of her fine new florins. For her counter-mandate is quite + powerless with Guido Guerra. He has taken Arezzo mainly with his own men, + and means to stay there, thinking that the Florentines, if even they do + not abet him, will take no practical steps against him. But he does not + know this newly risen clan of military merchants, who quite clearly + understand what honesty means, and will put themselves out of their way to + keep their faith. Florence calls out her trades instantly, and with gules, + a dragon vert, and or, a bull sable, they march, themselves, angrily up + the Val d'Arno, replace the adverse Ghibellines in Arezzo, and send Master + Guido de' Conti Guido about his business. But the prettiest and most + curious part of the whole story is their equity even to him, after he had + given them all this trouble. They entirely recognize the need he is under + of getting meat, somehow, for the mouths of these five hundred riders of + his; also they hold him still their friend, though an unmanageable one; + and admit with praise what of more or less patriotic and Guelphic + principle may be at the root of his disobedience. So when he claims twelve + thousand lire,—roughly, some two thousand pounds of money at present + value,—from the Guelphs of Arezzo for his service, and the Guelphs, + having got no good of it, owing to this Florentine interference, object to + paying him, the Florentines themselves lend them the money,—and are + never paid a farthing of it back. + </p> + <p> + 127. There is a beautiful "investment of capital" for your modern merchant + to study! No interest thought of, and little hope of ever getting back the + principal. And yet you will find that there were no mercantile "panics," + in Florence in those days, nor failing bankers, {1} nor "clearings out of + this establishment—any reasonable offer accepted." + </p> + <p> + {Footnote: Some account of the state of modern British business in this + kind will be given, I hope, in some number of "Fors Clavigera" for this + year, 1874.} + </p> + <p> + 128. But the second story, of a private Florentine citizen, is better + still. + </p> + <p> + In that campaign against Pisa in which the florins were struck on the root + of pine, the conditions of peace had been ratified by the surrender to + Florence of the Pisan fortress of Mutrona, which commanded a tract of + seaboard below Pisa, of great importance for the Tuscan trade. The + Florentines had stipulated for the right not only of holding, but of + destroying it, if they chose; and in their Council of Ancients, after long + debate, it was determined to raze it, the cost of its garrison being + troublesome, and the freedom of seaboard all that the city wanted. But the + Pisans feeling the power that the fortress had against them in case of + future war, and doubtful of the issue of council at Florence, sent a + private negotiator to the member of the Council of Ancients who was known + to have most influence, though one of the poorest of them, Aldobrandino + Ottobuoni; and offered him four thousand golden florins if he would get + the vote passed to raze Mutrona. The vote <i>had</i> passed the evening + before. Aldobrandino dismissed the Pisan ambassador in silence, returned + instantly into the council, and without saying anything of the offer that + had been made to him, got them to reconsider their vote, and showed them + such reason for keeping Mutrona in its strength, that the vote for its + destruction was rescinded. "And note thou, oh reader," says Villani, "the + virtue of such a citizen, who, not being rich in substance, had yet such + continence and loyalty for his state." + </p> + <p> + 129. You might, perhaps, once, have thought me detaining you needlessly + with these historical details, little bearing, it is commonly supposed, on + the subject of art. But you are, I trust, now in some degree persuaded + that no art, Florentine or any other, can be understood without knowing + these sculptures and mouldings of the national soul. You remember I first + begun this large digression when it became a question with us why some of + Giovanni Pisano's sepulchral work had been destroyed at Perugia. And now + we shall get our first gleam of light on the matter, finding similar + operations carried on in Florence. For a little while after this speech in + the Council of Ancients, Aldobrandino died, and the people, at public + cost, built him a tomb of marble, "higher than any other" in the church of + Santa Reparata, engraving on it these verses, which I leave you to + construe, for I cannot:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Fons est supremus Aldobrandino amoenus. + Ottoboni natus, a bono civita datus. +</pre> + <p> + Only I suppose the pretty word 'amoenus' may be taken as marking the + delightfulness and sweetness of character which had won all men's love, + more, even, than their gratitude. + </p> + <p> + 130. It failed of its effect, however, on the Tuscan aristocratic mind. + For, when, after the battle of the Arbia, the Ghibellines had again their + own way in Florence, though Ottobuoni had been then dead three years, they + beat down his tomb, pulled the dead body out of it, dragged it—by + such tenure as it might still possess—through the city, and threw + the fragments of it into ditches. It is a memorable parallel to the + treatment of the body of Cromwell by our own Cavaliers; and indeed it + seems to me one of the highest forms of laudatory epitaph upon a man, that + his body should be thus torn from its rest. For he can hardly have spent + his life better than in drawing on himself the kind of enmity which can so + be gratified; and for the most loving of lawgivers, as of princes, the + most enviable and honourable epitaph has always been + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + {Greek: "<i>oide plitai anton emisoun anton</i>." +</pre> + <p> + 131. Not but that pacific Florence, in her pride of victory, was beginning + to show unamiableness of temper also, on her so equitable side. It is + perhaps worth noticing, for the sake of the name of Correggio, that in + 1257, when Matthew Correggio, of Parma, was the Podesta of Florence, the + Florentines determined to destroy the castle and walls of Poggibonzi, + suspected of Ghibelline tendency, though the Poggibonzi people came with + "coregge in collo," leathern straps round their necks, to ask that their + cattle might be spared. And the heartburnings between the two parties went + on, smouldering hotter and hotter, till July, 1258, when the people having + discovered secret dealings between the Uberti and the Emperor Manfred, and + the Uberti refusing to obey citation to the popular tribunals, the trades + ran to arms, attacked the Uberti palace, killed a number of their people, + took prisoner, Uberto of the Uberti, Hubert of the Huberts, or Bright-mind + of the Bright-minds, with 'Mangia degl' Infangati, ('Gobbler {1} of the + dirty ones' this knight's name sounds like,)—and after they had + confessed their guilt, beheaded them in St. Michael's corn-market; and all + the rest of the Uberti and Ghibelline families were driven out of + Florence, and their palaces pulled down, and the walls towards Siena built + with the stones of them; and two months afterwards, the people suspecting + the Abbot of Vallombrosa of treating with the Ghibellines, took him, and + tortured him; and he confessing under torture, "at the cry of the people, + they beheaded him in the square of St. Apollinare." For which unexpected + piece of clangorous impiety the Florentines were excommunicated, besides + drawing upon themselves the steady enmity of Pavia, the Abbot's native + town; "and indeed people say the Abbot was innocent, though he belonged to + a great Ghibelline house. And for this sin, and for many others done by + the wicked people, many wise persons say that God, for Divine judgment, + permitted upon the said people the revenge and slaughter of Monteaperti." + </p> + <p> + {Footnote: At least, the compound 'Mangia-pane,' 'munch-bread,' stands + still for a good-for-nothing fellow.} + </p> + <p> + 132. The sentence which I have last read introduces, as you must at once + have felt, a new condition of things. Generally, I have spoken of the + Ghibellines as infidel, or impious; and for the most part they represent, + indeed, the resistance of kingly to priestly power. But, in this action of + Florence, we have the rise of another force against the Church, in the end + to be much more fatal to it, that of popular intelligence and popular + passion. I must for the present, however, return to our immediate + business; and ask you to take note of the effect, on actually existing + Florentine architecture, of the political movements of the ten years we + have been studying. + </p> + <p> + 133. In the revolution of Candlemas, 1248, the successful Ghibellines + throw down thirty-six of the Guelph palaces. + </p> + <p> + And in the revolution of July, 1258, the successful Guelphs throw down <i>all</i> + the Ghibelline palaces. + </p> + <p> + Meantime the trades, as against the Knights Castellans, have thrown down + the tops of all the towers above seventy-five feet high. + </p> + <p> + And we shall presently have a proposal, after the battle of the Arbia, to + throw down Florence altogether. + </p> + <p> + 134. You think at first that this is remarkably like the course of + republican reformations in the present day? But there is a wide + difference. In the first place, the palaces and towers are not thrown down + in mere spite or desire of ruin, but after quite definite experience of + their danger to the State, and positive dejection of boiling lead and + wooden logs from their machicolations upon the heads below. In the second + place, nothing is thrown down without complete certainty on the part of + the overthrowers that they are able, and willing, to build as good or + better things instead; which, if any like conviction exist in the minds of + modern republicans, is a wofully ill-founded one: and lastly, these + abolitions of private wealth were coincident with a widely spreading + disposition to undertake, as I have above noticed, works of public + utility, <i>from which no dividends were to be received by any of the + shareholders</i>; and for the execution of which the <i>builders received + no commission on the cost</i>, but payment at the rate of so much a day, + carefully adjusted to the exertion of real power and intelligence. + </p> + <p> + 135. We must not, therefore, without qualification blame, though we may + profoundly regret, the destructive passions of the thirteenth century. The + architecture of the palaces thus destroyed in Florence contained examples + of the most beautiful round-arched work that had been developed by the + Norman schools; and was in some cases adorned with a barbaric splendour, + and fitted into a majesty of strength which, so far as I can conjecture + the effect of it from the few now existing traces, must have presented + some of the most impressive aspects of street edifice ever existent among + civil societies. + </p> + <p> + 136. It may be a temporary relief for you from the confusion of following + the giddy successions of Florentine temper, if I interrupt, in this place, + my history of the city by some inquiry into technical points relating to + the architecture of these destroyed palaces. Their style is familiar to + us, indeed, in a building of which it is difficult to believe the early + date,—the leaning tower of Pisa. The lower stories of it are of the + twelfth century, and the open arcades of the cathedrals of Pisa and Lucca, + as well as the lighter construction of the spire of St. Niccol, at Pisa, + (though this was built in continuation of the older style by Niccola + himself,) all represent to you, though in enriched condition, the general + manner of buidling in palaces of the Norman period in Val d'Arno. That of + the Tosinghi, above the old market in Florence, is especially mentioned by + Villani, as more than a hundred feet in height, entirely built with little + pillars, (colonnelli,) of marble. On their splendid masonry was founded + the exquisiteness of that which immediately succeeded them, of which the + date is fixed by definite examples both in Verona and Florence, and which + still exists in noble masses in the retired streets and courts of either + city; too soon superseded, in the great thoroughfares, by the effeminate + and monotonous luxury of Venetian renaissance, or by the heaps of quarried + stone which rise into the ruggedness of their native cliffs, in the Pitti + and Strozzi palaces. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0008" id="link2H_4_0008"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LECTURE VI. MARBLE COUCHANT. + </h2> + <p> + 137. I told you in my last lecture that the exquisiteness of Florentine + thirteenth century masonry was founded on the strength and splendour of + that which preceded it. + </p> + <p> + I use the word 'founded' in a literal as well as figurative sense. While + the merchants, in their year of victories, threw down the walls of the + war-towers, they as eagerly and diligently set their best craftsmen to + lift higher the walls of their churches. For the most part, the Early + Norman or Basilican forms were too low to please them in their present + enthusiasm. Their pride, as well as their piety, desired that these stones + of their temples might be goodly; and all kinds of junctions, insertions, + refittings, and elevations were undertaken; which, the genius of the + people being always for mosaic, are so perfectly executed, and mix up + twelfth and thirteenth century work in such intricate harlequinade, that + it is enough to drive a poor antiquary wild. + </p> + <p> + 138. I have here in my hand, however, a photograph of a small church, + which shows you the change at a glance, and attests it in a notable + manner. + </p> + <p> + You know Hubert of Lucca was the first captain of the Florentine people, + and the march in which they struck their florin on the pine trunk was + through Lucca, on Pisa. + </p> + <p> + Now here is a little church in Lucca, of which the lower half of the + façade is of the twelfth century, and the top, built by the Florentines, + in the thirteenth, and sealed for their own by two fleur-de-lys, let into + its masonry. The most important difference, marking the date, is in the + sculpture of the heads which carry the archivolts. But the most palpable + difference is in the Cyclopean simplicity of irregular bedding in the + lower story; and the delicate bands of alternate serpentine and marble, + which follow the horizontal or couchant placing of the stones above. + </p> + <p> + 139. Those of you who, interested in English Gothic, have visited Tuscany, + are, I think, always offended at first, if not in permanence, by these + horizontal stripes of her marble walls. Twenty-two years ago I quoted, in + vol. i. of the "Stones of Venice," Professor Willis's statement that "a + practice more destructive of architectural grandeur could hardly be + conceived;" and I defended my favourite buildings against that judgement, + first by actual comparison in the plate opposite the page, of a piece of + them with an example of our modern grandeur; secondly, (vol. i., chap. + v.,) by a comparison of their aspect with that of the building of the + grandest piece of wall in the Alps,—that Matterhorn in which you all + have now learned to take some gymnastic interest; and thirdly, (vol. i., + chap. xxvi.,) by reference to the use of barred colours, with delight, by + Giotto and all subsequent colourists. + </p> + <p> + 140. But it did not then occur to me to ask, much as I always disliked the + English Perpendicular, what would have been the effect on the spectator's + mind, had the buildings been striped vertically instead of horizontally; + nor did I then know, or in the least imagine, how much <i>practical</i> + need there was for reference from the structure of the edifice to that of + the cliff; and how much the permanence, as well as propriety, of structure + depended on the stones being <i>couchant</i> in the wall, as they had been + in the quarry: to which subject I wish to-day to direct your attention. + </p> + <p> + 141. You will find stated with as much clearness as I am able, in the + first and fifth lectures in "Aratra Pentelíci," the principles of + architectural design to which, in all my future teaching, I shall have + constantly to appeal; namely, that architecture consists distinctively in + the adaptation of form to resist force;—that, practically, it may be + always thought of as doing this by the ingenious adjustment of various + pieces of solid material; that the perception of this ingenious + adjustment, or structure, is to be always joined with our admiration of + the superadded ornament; and that all delightful ornament is the honouring + of such useful structures; but that the beauty of the ornament itself is + independent of the structure, and arrived at by powers of mind of a very + different class from those which are necessary to give skill in + architecture proper. + </p> + <p> + 142. During the course of this last summer I have been myself very + directly interested in some of the quite elementary processes of true + architecture. I have been building a little pier into Coniston Lake, and + various walls and terraces in a steeply sloping garden, all which had to + be constructed of such rough stones as lay nearest. Under the dextrous + hands of a neighbour farmer's son, the pier projected, and the walls rose, + as if enchanted; every stone taking its proper place, and the loose dyke + holding itself as firmly upright as if the gripping cement of the + Florentine towers had fastened it. My own better acquaintance with the + laws of gravity and of statics did not enable me, myself, to build six + inches of dyke that would stand; and all the decoration possible under the + circumstances consisted in turning the lichened sides of the stones + outwards. And yet the noblest conditions of building in the world are + nothing more than the gradual adornment, by play of the imagination, of + materials first arranged by this natural instinct of adjustment. You must + not lose sight of the instinct of building, but you must not think the + play of the imagination depends upon it. Intelligent laying of stones is + always delightful; but the fancy must not be limited to its contemplation. + </p> + <p> + {Illustration: PLATE V.—DOOR OF THE BAPTISTERY. PISA.} + </p> + <p> + 143. In the more elaborate architecture of my neighbourhood, I have taken + pleasure these many years; one of the first papers I ever wrote on + architecture was a study of the Westmoreland cottage;—properly, + observe, the cottage of West-mereland, of the land of western lakes. Its + principal feature is the projecting porch at its door, formed by two rough + slabs of Coniston slate, set in a blunt gable; supported, if far + projecting, by two larger masses for uprights. A disciple of Mr. Pugin + would delightedly observe that the porch of St. Zeno at Verona was nothing + more than the decoration of this construction; but you do not suppose that + the first idea of putting two stones together to keep off rain was all on + which the sculptor of St. Zeno wished to depend for your entertainment. + </p> + <p> + 144. Perhaps you may most clearly understand the real connection between + structure and decoration by considering all architecture as a kind of + book, which must be properly bound indeed, and in which the illumination + of the pages has distinct reference in all its forms to the breadth of the + margins and length of the sentences; but is itself free to follow its own + quite separate and higher objects of design. + </p> + <p> + 145. Thus, for instance, in the architecture which Niccola was occupied + upon, when a boy, under his Byzantine master. Here is the door of the + Baptistery at Pisa, again by Mr. Severn delightfully enlarged for us from + a photograph. {1} The general idea of it is a square-headed opening in a + solid wall, faced by an arch carried on shafts. And the ornament does + indeed follow this construction so that the eye catches it with ease,—but + under what arbitrary conditions! In the square door, certainly the + side-posts of it are as important members as the lintel they carry; but + the lintel is carved elaborately, and the side-posts left blank. Of the + facing arch and shaft, it would be similarly difficult to say whether the + sustaining vertical, or sustained curve, were the more important member of + the construction; but the decorator now reverses the distribution of his + care, adorns the vertical member with passionate elaboration, and runs a + narrow band, of comparatively uninteresting work, round the arch. Between + this outer shaft and inner door is a square pilaster, of which the + architect carves one side, and lets the other alone. It is followed by a + smaller shaft and arch, in which he reverses his treatment of the outer + order by cutting the shaft delicately and the arch deeply. Again, whereas + in what is called the decorated construction of English Gothic, the + pillars would have been left plain and the spandrils deep cut,—here, + are we to call it decoration of the construction, when the pillars are + carved and the spandrils left plain? Or when, finally, either these + spandril spaces on each side of the arch, or the corresponding slopes of + the gable, are loaded with recumbent figures by the sculptors of the + renaissance, are we to call, for instance, Michael Angelo's Dawn and + Twilight, only the decorations of the sloping plinths of a tomb, or trace + to a geometrical propriety the subsequent rule in Italy that no window + could be properly complete for living people to look out of, without + having two stone people sitting on the corners of it above? I have heard + of charming young ladies occasionally, at very crowded balls, sitting on + the stairs,—would you call them, in that case, only decorations of + the construction of the staircase? + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: Plate 5 is from the photograph itself; the enlarged drawing + showed the arrangement of parts more clearly, but necessarily omitted + detail which it is better here to retain.} + </p> + <p> + 146. You will find, on consideration, the ultimate fact to be that to + which I have just referred you;—my statement in "Aratra," that the + idea of a construction originally useful is retained in good architecture, + through all the amusement of its ornamentation; as the idea of the proper + function of any piece of dress ought to be retained through its changes in + form or embroidery. A good spire or porch retains the first idea of a roof + usefully covering a space, as a Norman high cap or elongated Quaker's + bonnet retains the original idea of a simple covering for the head; and + any extravagance of subsequent fancy may be permitted, so long as the + notion of use is not altogether lost. A girl begins by wearing a plain + round hat to shade her from the sun; she ties it down over her ears on a + windy day; presently she decorates the edge of it, so bent, with flowers + in front, or the riband that ties it with a bouquet at the side, and it + becomes a bonnet. This decorated construction may be discreetly changed, + by endless fashion, so long as it does not become a clearly useless riband + round the middle of the head, or a clearly useless saucer on the top of + it. + </p> + <p> + 147. Again, a Norman peasant may throw up the top of her cap into a peak, + or a Bernese one put gauze wings at the side of it, and still be dressed + with propriety, so long as her hair is modestly confined, and her ears + healthily protected, by the matronly safeguard of the real construction. + She ceases to be decorously dressed only when the material becomes too + flimsy to answer such essential purpose, and the flaunting pendants or + ribands can only answer the ends of coquetry or ostentation. Similarly, an + architect may deepen or enlarge, in fantastic exaggeration, his original + Westmoreland gable into Rouen porch, and his original square roof into + Coventry spire; but he must not put within his splendid porch, a little + door where two persons cannot together get in, nor cut his spire away into + hollow filigree, and mere ornamental perviousness to wind and rain. + </p> + <p> + 148. Returning to our door at Pisa, we shall find these general questions + as to the distribution of ornament much confused with others as to its + time and style. We are at once, for instance, brought to a pause as to the + degree in which the ornamentation was once carried out in the doors + themselves. Their surfaces were, however, I doubt not, once recipients of + the most elaborate ornament, as in the Baptistery of Florence; and in + later bronze, by John of Bologna, in the door of the Pisan cathedral + opposite this one. And when we examine the sculpture and placing of the + lintel, which at first appeared the most completely Greek piece of + construction of the whole, we find it so far advanced in many Gothic + characters, that I once thought it a later interpolation cutting the inner + pilasters underneath their capitals, while the three statues set on it are + certainly, by several tens of years, later still. + </p> + <p> + 149. How much ten years did at this time, one is apt to forget; and how + irregularly the slower minds of the older men would surrender themselves, + sadly, or awkwardly, to the vivacities of their pupils. The only wonder is + that it should be usually so easy to assign conjectural dates within + twenty or thirty years; but, at Pisa, the currents of tradition and + invention run with such cross eddies, that I often find myself utterly at + fault. In this lintel, for instance, there are two pieces separated by a + narrower one, on which there has been an inscription, of which in my + enlarged plate you may trace, though, I fear, not decipher, the few + letters that remain. The uppermost of these stones is nearly pure in its + Byzantine style; the lower, already semi-Gothic. Both are exquisite of + their kind, and we will examine them closely; but first note these points + about the stones of them. We are discussing work at latest of the + thirteenth century. Our loss of the inscription is evidently owing to the + action of the iron rivets which have been causelessly used at the two + horizontal joints. There was nothing whatever in the construction to make + these essential, and, but for this error, the entire piece of work, as + delicate as an ivory tablet, would be as intelligible to-day as when it + was laid in its place. {1} + </p> + <p> + {Footnote: Plates 6 and 7 give, in greater clearness, the sculpture of + this lintel, for notes on which see Appendix.} + </p> + <p> + 150. <i>Laid</i>. I pause upon this word, for it is an important one. And + I must devote the rest of this lecture to consideration merely of what + follows from the difference between laying a stone and setting it up, + whether we regard sculpture or construction. The subject is so wide, I + scarcely know how to approach it. Perhaps it will be the pleasantest way + to begin if I read you a letter from one of yourselves to me. A very + favourite pupil, who travels third class always, for sake of better + company, wrote to me the other day: "One of my fellow-travellers, who was + a builder, or else a master mason, told me that the way in which red + sandstone buildings last depends entirely on the way in which the stone is + laid. It must lie as it does in the quarry; but he said that very few + workmen could always tell the difference between the joints of planes of + cleavage and the—something else which I couldn't catch,—by + which he meant, I suppose planes of stratification. He said too that some + people, though they were very particular + </p> + <p> + {Illustration: PLATE VI.—THE STORY OF ST. JOHN. ADVENT.} + </p> + <p> + {Illustration: PLATE VII.—THE STORY OF ST. JOHN. DEPARTURE.} + </p> + <p> + about having the stone laid well, allowed blocks to stand in the rain the + wrong way up, and that they never recovered one wetting. The stone of the + same quarry varies much, and he said that moss will grow immediately on + good stone, but not on bad. How curious,—nature helping the best + workman!" Thus far my favourite pupil. + </p> + <p> + 151. 'Moss will grow on the best stone.' The first thing your modern + restorer would do is to scrape it off; and with it, whatever knitted + surface, half moss root, protects the interior stone. Have you ever + considered the infinite functions of protection to mountain form exercised + by the mosses and lichens? It will perhaps be refreshing to you after our + work among the Pisan marbles and legends, if we have a lecture or two on + moss. Meantime I need not tell you that it would not be a satisfactory + natural arrangement if moss grew on marble, and that all fine workmanship + in marble implies equal exquisiteness of surface and edge. + </p> + <p> + 152. You will observe also that the importance of laying the stone in the + building as it lay in its bed was from the first recognised by all good + northern architects, to such extent that to lay stones 'en delit,' or in a + position out of their bedding, is a recognized architectural term in + France, where all structural building takes its rise; and in that form of + 'delit' the word gets most curiously involved with the Latin delictum and + deliquium. It would occupy the time of a whole lecture if I entered into + the confused relations of the words derived from lectus, liquidus, + delinquo, diliquo, and deliquesco; and of the still more confused, but + beautifully confused, (and enriched by confusion,) forms of idea, whether + respecting morality or marble, arising out of the meanings of these words: + the notions of a bed gathered or strewn for the rest, whether of rocks or + men; of the various states of solidity and liquidity connected with + strength, or with repose; and of the duty of staying quiet in a place, or + under a law, and the mischief of leaving it, being all fastened in the + minds of early builders, and of the generations of men for whom they + built, by the unescapable bearing of geological laws on their life; by the + ease or difficulty of splitting rocks, by the variable consistency of the + fragments split, by the innumerable questions occurring practically as to + bedding and cleavage in every kind of stone, from tufo to granite, and by + the unseemly, or beautiful, destructive, or protective, effects of + decomposition. {1} The same processes of time which cause your Oxford + oolite to flake away like the leaves of a mouldering book, only warm with + a glow of perpetually deepening gold the marbles of Athens and Verona; and + the same laws of chemical change which reduce the granites of Dartmoor to + porcelain clay, bind the sands of Coventry into stones which can be built + up halfway to the sky. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: This passage cannot but seem to the reader loose and + fantastic. I have elaborate notes, and many an unwritten thought, on these + matters, but no time or strength to develop them. The passage is not + fantastic, but the rapid index of what I know to be true in all the named + particulars. But compare, for mere rough illustration of what I mean, the + moral ideas relating to the stone of Jacob's pillow, or the tradition of + it, with those to which French Flamboyant Gothic owes its character.} + </p> + <p> + 153. But now, as to the matter immediately before us, observe what a + double question arises about laying stones as they lie in the quarry. + First, how <i>do</i> they lie in the quarry? Secondly, how can we lay them + so in every part of our building? + </p> + <p> + A. How do they lie in the quarry? Level, perhaps, at Stonesfield and + Coventry; but at an angle of 45° at Carrara; and for aught I know, of 90° + in Paros or Pentelicus. Also, the <i>bedding</i> is of prime importance at + Coventry, but the <i>cleavage</i> at Coniston. {1} + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: There are at least four definite cleavages at Coniston, + besides joints. One of these cleavages furnishes the Coniston slate of + commerce; another forms the ranges of Wetherlam and Yewdale crag; a third + cuts these ranges to pieces, striking from north-west to south-east; and a + fourth into other pieces, from north-east to south-west.} + </p> + <p> + B. And then, even if we know what the quarry bedding is, how are we to + keep it always in our building? You may lay the stones of a wall carefully + level, but how will you lay those of an arch? You think these, perhaps, + trivial, or merely curious questions. So far from it, the fact that while + the bedding in Normandy is level, that at Carrara is steep, and that the + forces which raised the beds of Carrara crystallized them also, so that + the cleavage which is all-important in the stones of my garden wall is of + none in the duomo of Pisa,—simply determined the possibility of the + existence of Pisan sculpture at all, and regulated the whole life and + genius of Nicholas the Pisan and of Christian art. And, again, the fact + that you can put stones in true bedding in a wall, but cannot in an arch, + determines the structural transition from classical to Gothic + architecture. + </p> + <p> + 154. The <i>structural</i> transition, observe; only a part, and that not + altogether a coincident part, of the <i>moral</i> transition. Read + carefully, if you have time, the articles 'Pierre' and 'Meneau' in M. + Violet le Duc's Dictionary of Architecture, and you will know everything + that is of importance in the changes dependent on the mere qualities of <i>matter</i>. + I must, however, try to set in your view also the relative acting + qualities of <i>mind</i>. + </p> + <p> + You will find that M. Violet le Duc traces all the forms of Gothic tracery + to the geometrical and practically serviceable development of the stone + 'chassis,' chasing, or frame, for the glass. For instance, he attributes + the use of the cusp or 'redent' in its more complex forms, to the + necessity, or convenience, of diminishing the space of glass which the + tracery grasps; and he attributes the reductions of the mouldings in the + tracery bar under portions of one section, to the greater facility thus + obtained by the architect in directing his workmen. The plan of a window + once given, and the moulding-section,—all is said, thinks M. Violet + le Duc. Very convenient indeed, for modern architects who have commission + on the cost. But certainly not necessary, and perhaps even inconvenient, + to Niccola Pisano, who is himself his workman, and cuts his own traceries, + with his apron loaded with dust. + </p> + <p> + 155. Again, the <i>re</i>dent—the 'tooth within tooth' of a French + tracery—may be necessary, to bite its glass. But the cusp, cuspis, + spiny or spearlike point of a thirteenth century illumination, is not in + the least necessary to transfix the parchment. Yet do you suppose that the + structural convenience of the redent entirely effaces from the mind of the + designer the aesthetic characters which he seeks in the cusp? If you could + for an instant imagine this, you would be undeceived by a glance either at + the early redents of Amiens, fringing hollow vaults, or the late redents + of Rouen, acting as crockets on the <i>outer</i> edges of pediments. 156. + Again: if you think of the tracery in its <i>bars</i>, you call the cusp a + redent; but if you think of it in the <i>openings</i>, you call the + apertures of it foils. Do you suppose that the thirteenth century builder + thought only of the strength of the bars of his enclosure, and never of + the beauty of the form he enclosed? You will find in my chapter on the + Aperture, in the "Stones of Venice," full development of the aesthetic + laws relating to both these forms, while you may see, in Professor + Willis's 'Architecture of the Middle Ages,' a beautiful analysis of the + development of tracery from the juxtaposition of aperture; and in the + article 'Meneau,' just quoted of M. Violet le Duc, an equally beautiful + analysis of its development from the masonry of the chassis. You may at + first think that Professor Willis's analysis is inconsistent with M. + Violet le Duc's. But they are no more inconsistent than the accounts of + the growth of a human being would be, if given by two anatomists, of whom + one had examined only the skeleton and the other only the respiratory + system; and who, therefore, supposed—the first, that the animal had + been made only to leap, and the other only to sing. I don't mean that + either of the writers I name are absolutely thus narrow in their own + views, but that, so far as inconsistency appears to exist between them, it + is of that partial kind only. + </p> + <p> + 157. And for the understanding of our Pisan traceries we must introduce a + third element of similarly distinctive nature. We must, to press our + simile a little farther, examine the growth of the animal as if it had + been made neither to leap, nor to sing, but only to think. We must observe + the transitional states of its nerve power; that is to say, in our window + tracery we must consider not merely how its ribs are built, (or how it + stands,) nor merely how its openings are shaped, or how it breathes; but + also what its openings are made to light, or its shafts to receive, of + picture or image. As the limbs of the building, it may be much; as the + lungs of the building, more. As the <i>eyes</i> {1} of the building, what? + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: I am ashamed to italicize so many words; but these passages, + written for oral delivery, can only be understood if read with oral + emphasis. This is the first aeries of lectures which I have printed as + they were to be spoken; and it is a great mistake.} + </p> + <p> + 158. Thus you probably have a distinct idea—those of you at least + who are interested in architecture—of the shape of the windows in + Westminster Abbey, in the Cathedral of Chartres, or in the Duomo of Milan. + Can any of you, I should like to know, make a guess at the shape of the + windows in the Sistine Chapel, the Stanze of the Vatican, the Scuola di + San Rocco, or the lower church of Assisi? The soul or anima of the first + three buildings is in their windows; but of the last three, in their + walls. + </p> + <p> + All these points I may for the present leave you to think over for + yourselves, except one, to which I must ask yet for a few moments your + further attention. + </p> + <p> + 159. The trefoils to which I have called your attention in Niccola's + pulpit are as absolutely without structural office in the circles as in + the panels of the font beside it. But the circles are drawn with evident + delight in the lovely circular line, while the trefoil is struck out by + Niccola so roughly that there is not a true compass curve or section in + any part of it. + </p> + <p> + Roughly, I say. Do you suppose I ought to have said carelessly? So far + from it, that if one sharper line or more geometric curve had been given, + it would have caught the eye too strongly, and drawn away the attention + from the sculpture. But imagine the feeling with which a French master + workman would first see these clumsy intersections of curves. It would be + exactly the sensation with which a practical botanical draughtsman would + look at a foliage background of Sir Joshua Reynolds. + </p> + <p> + But Sir Joshua's sketched leaves would indeed imply some unworkmanlike + haste. We must not yet assume the Pisan master to have allowed himself in + any such. His mouldings may be hastily cut, for they are, as I have just + said, unnecessary to his structure, and disadvantageous to his decoration; + but he is not likely to be careless about arrangements necessary for + strength. His mouldings may be cut hastily, but do you think his <i>joints</i> + will be? + </p> + <p> + 160. What subject of extended inquiry have we in this word, ranging from + the cementless clefts between the couchant stones of the walls of the + kings of Rome, whose iron rivets you had but the other day placed in your + hands by their discoverer, through the grip of the stones of the Tower of + the Death-watch, to the subtle joints in the marble armour of the + Florentine Baptistery! + </p> + <p> + Our own work must certainly be left with a rough surface at this place, + and we will fit the edges of it to our next piece of study as closely as + we may. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0009" id="link2H_4_0009"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LECTURE VII. MARBLE RAMPANT. + </h2> + <p> + 161. I closed my last lecture at the question respecting Nicholas's + masonry. His mouldings may be careless, but do you think his joints will + be? + </p> + <p> + I must remind you now of the expression as to the building of the communal + palace—"of <i>dressed</i> stones" {1}—as opposed to the Tower + of the Death-watch, in which the grip of cement had been so good. + Virtually, you will find that the schools of structural architecture are + those which use cement to bind + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: "Pietre conce." The portion of the has-reliefs of Orvieto, + given in the opposite plate, will show the importance of the jointing. + Observe the way in which the piece of stone with the three principal + figures is dovetailed above the extended band, and again in the rise above + the joint of the next stone on the right, the sculpture of the wings being + carried across the junction. I have chosen this piece on purpose, because + the loss of the broken fragment, probably broken by violence, and the only + serious injury which the sculptures have received, serves to show the + perfection of the uninjured surface, as compared with northern sculpture + of the same date. I have thought it well to show at the same time the + modern German engraving of the subject, respecting which see Appendix.} + </p> + <p> + {Illustration: PLATE VIII.—"THE CHARGE TO ADAM." GIOVANNI PISANO.} + </p> + <p> + their materials together, and in which, therefore, balance of <i>weight</i> + becomes a continual and inevitable question. But the schools of sculptural + architecture are those in which stones are fitted without cement, in + which, therefore, the question of <i>fitting</i> or adjustment is + continual and inevitable, but the sustainable weight practically + unlimited. + </p> + <p> + 162. You may consider the Tower of the Death-watch as having been knit + together like the mass of a Roman brick wall. + </p> + <p> + But the dressed stone work of the thirteenth century is the hereditary + completion of such block-laying, as the Parthenon in marble; or, in tufo, + as that which was shown you so lately in the walls of Romulus; and the + decoration of that system of couchant stone is by the finished grace of + mosaic or sculpture. + </p> + <p> + 163. It was also pointed out to you by Mr. Parker that there were two + forms of Cyclopean architecture; one of level blocks, the other of + polygonal,—contemporary, but in localities affording different + material of stone. + </p> + <p> + I have placed in this frame examples of the Cyclopean horizontal, and the + Cyclopean polygonal, architecture of the thirteenth century. And as Hubert + of Lucca was the master of the new buildings at Florence, I have chosen + the Cyclopean horizontal from his native city of Lucca; and as our + Nicholas and John brought their new Gothic style into practice at Orvieto, + I have chosen the Cyclopean polygonal from their adopted city of Orvieto. + </p> + <p> + Both these examples of architecture are early thirteenth century work, the + beginnings of its new and Christian style, but beginnings with which + Nicholas and John had nothing to do; they were part of the national work + going on round them. + </p> + <p> + 164. And this example from Lucca is of a very important class indeed. It + is from above the east entrance gate of Lucca, which bears the cross above + it, as the doors of a Christian city should. Such a city is, or ought to + be, a place of peace, as much as any monastery. + </p> + <p> + This custom of placing the cross above the gate is Byzantine-Christian; + and here are parallel instances of its treatment from Assisi. The lamb + with the cross is given in the more elaborate arch of Verona. + </p> + <p> + 165. But farther. The mosaic of this cross is so exquisitely fitted that + no injury has been received by it to this day from wind or weather. And + the horizontal dressed stones are laid so daintily that not an edge of + them has stirred; and, both to draw your attention to their beautiful + fitting, and as a substitute for cement, the architect cuts his uppermost + block so as to dovetail into the course below. + </p> + <p> + Dovetail, I say deliberately. This is stone carpentry, in which the + carpenter despises glue. I don't say he won't use glue, and glue of the + best, but he feels it to be a nasty thing, and that it spoils his wood or + marble. None, at least, he determines shall be seen outside, and his + laying of stones shall be so solid and so adjusted that, take all the + cement away, his wall shall yet stand. + </p> + <p> + Stonehenge, the Parthenon, the walls of the Kings, this gate of Lucca, + this window of Orvieto, and this tomb at Verona, are all built on the + Cyclopean principle. They will stand without cement, and no cement shall + be seen outside. Mr. Burgess and I actually tried the experiment on this + tomb. Mr. Burgess modelled every stone of it in clay, put them together, + and it stood. + </p> + <p> + 166. Now there are two most notable characteristics about this Cyclopean + architecture to which I beg your close attention. + </p> + <p> + The first: that as the laying of stones is so beautiful, their joints + become a subject of admiration, and great part of the architectural + ornamentation is in the beauty of lines of separation, drawn as finely as + possible. Thus the separating lines of the bricks at Siena, of this gate + at Lucca, of the vault at Verona, of this window at Orvieto, and of the + contemporary refectory at Furness Abbey, are a main source of the pleasure + you have in the building. Nay, they are not merely engravers' lines, but, + in finest practice, they are mathematical lines—length without + breadth. Here in my hand is a little shaft of Florentine mosaic executed + at the present day. The separations between the stones are, in dimension, + mathematical lines. And the two sides of the thirteenth century porch of + St. Anastasia at Verona are built in this manner,—so exquisitely, + that for some time, my mind not having been set at it, I passed them by as + painted! + </p> + <p> + 167. That is the first character of the Florentine Cyclopean But secondly; + as the joints are so firm, and as the building must never stir or settle + after it is built, the sculptor may trust his work to two stones set side + by side, or one above another, and carve continuously over the whole + surface, disregarding the joints, if he so chooses. + </p> + <p> + Of the degree of precision with which Nicholas of Pisa and his son + adjusted their stones, you may judge by this rough sketch of a piece of + St. Mary's of the Thorn, in which the design is of panels enclosing very + delicately sculptured heads; and one would naturally suppose that the + enclosing panels would be made of jointed pieces, and the heads carved + separately and inserted. But the Pisans would have considered that unsafe + masonry,—liable to the accident of the heads being dropped out, or + taken away. John of Pisa did indeed use such masonry, of necessity, in his + fountain; and the bas-reliefs <i>have</i> been taken away. But here one + great block of marble forms part of two panels, and the mouldings and head + are both carved in the solid, the joint running just behind the neck. + </p> + <p> + 168. Such masonry is, indeed, supposing there were no fear of thieves, + gratuitously precise in a case of this kind, in which the ornamentation is + in separate masses, and might be separately carved. But when the + ornamentation is current, and flows or climbs along the stone in the + manner of waves or plants, the concealment of the joints of the pieces of + marble becomes altogether essential. And here we enter upon a most curious + group of associated characters in Gothic as opposed to Greek architecture. + </p> + <p> + 169. If you have been able to read the article to which I referred you, + 'Meneau,' in M. Violet le Duc's dictionary, you know that one great + condition of the perfect Gothic structure is that the stones shall be 'en + de-lit,' set up on end. The ornament then, which on the reposing or + couchant stone was current only, on the erected stone begins to climb + also, and becomes, in the most heraldic sense of the term, rampant. + </p> + <p> + In the heraldic sense, I say, as distinguished from the still wider + original sense of advancing with a stealthy, creeping, or clinging motion, + as a serpent on the ground, and a cat, or a vine, up a tree-stem. And + there is one of these reptile, creeping, or rampant things, which is the + first whose action was translated into marble, and otherwise is of + boundless importance in the arts and labours of man. + </p> + <p> + 170. You recollect Kingsley's expression,—now hackneyed, because + admired for its precision,—the '<i>crawling foam</i>,' of waves + advancing on sand. Tennyson has somewhere also used, with equal truth, the + epithet 'climbing' of the spray of breakers against vertical rock. {1} In + either instance, the sea action is literally 'rampant'; and the course of + a great breaker, whether in its first proud likeness to a rearing horse, + or in the humble and subdued gaining of the outmost verge of its foam on + the sand, or the intermediate spiral whorl which gathers into a lustrous + precision, like that of a polished shell, the grasping force of a giant, + you have the most vivid sight and embodiment of literally rampant energy; + which the Greeks expressed in their symbolic Poseidon, Scylla, and + sea-horse, by the head and crest of the man, dog, or horse, with the body + of the serpent; and of which you will find the slower image, in + vegetation, rendered both by the spiral tendrils of grasping or climbing + plants, and the perennial gaining of the foam or the lichen upon barren + shores of stone. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote: Perhaps I am thinking of Lowell, not Tennyson; I have not time + to look.} + </p> + <p> + 171. If you will look to the thirtieth chapter of vol. i. in the new + edition of the "Stones of Venice," which, by the gift of its publishers, I + am enabled to lay on your table to be placed in your library, you will + find one of my first and most eager statements of the necessity of + inequality or change in form, made against the common misunderstanding of + Greek symmetry, and illustrated by a woodcut of the spiral ornament on the + treasury of Atreus at Mycenae. All that is said in that chapter respecting + nature and the ideal, I now beg most earnestly to recommend and ratify to + you; but although, even at that time, I knew more of Greek art than my + antagonists, my broken reading has given me no conception of the range of + its symbolic power, nor of the function of that more or less formal spiral + line, as expressive, not only of the waves of the sea, but of the zones of + the whirlpool, the return of the tempest, and the involution of the + labyrinth. And although my readers say that I wrote then better than I + write now, I cannot refer you to the passage without asking you to pardon + in it what I now hold to be the petulance and vulgarity of expression, + disgracing the importance of the truth it contains. A little while ago, + without displeasure, you permitted me to delay you by the account of a + dispute on a matter of taste between my father and me, in which he was + quietly and unavailingly right. It seems to me scarcely a day, since, with + boyish conceit, I resisted his wise entreaties that I would re-word this + clause; and especially take out of it the description of a sea-wave as + "laying a great white tablecloth of foam" all the way to the shore. Now, + after an interval of twenty years, I refer you to the passage, repentant + and humble as far as regards its style, which people sometimes praised, + but with absolue re-assertion of the truth and value of its contents, + which people always denied. As natural form is varied, so must beautiful + ornament be varied. You are not an artist by reproving nature into + deathful sameness, but by animating your copy of her into vital variation. + But I thought at that time that only Goths were rightly changeful. I never + thought Greeks were. Their reserved variation escaped me, or I thought it + accidental. Here, however, is a coin of the finest Greek workmanship, + which shows you their mind in this matter unmistakably. Here are the waves + of the Adriatic round a knight of Tarentum, and there is no doubt of their + variableness. + </p> + <p> + 172. This pattern of sea-wave, or river whirlpool, entirely sacred in the + Greek mind, and the {Greek: *bostruchos*} or similarly curling wave in + flowing hair, are the two main sources of the spiral form in lambent or + rampant decoration. Of such lambent ornament, the most important piece is + the crocket, of which I rapidly set before you the origin. + </p> + <p> + 173. Here is a drawing of the gable of the bishop's throne in the upper + church at Assisi, of the exact period when the mosaic workers of the + thirteenth century at Rome adopted rudely the masonry of the north. + Briefly, this is a Greek temple pediment, in which, doubtful of their + power to carve figures beautiful enough, they cut a trefoiled hold for + ornament, and bordered the edges with harlequinade of mosaic. They then + call to their help the Greek sea-waves, and let the surf of the Ægean + climb along the slopes, and toss itself at the top into a fleur-de-lys. + Every wave is varied in outline and proportionate distance, though cut + with a precision of curve like that of the sea itself. From this root we + are able—but it must be in a lecture on crockets only—to trace + the succeeding changes through the curl of Richard II.'s hair, and the + crisp leaves of the forests of Picardy, to the knobbed extravagances of + expiring Gothic. But I must to-day let you compare one piece of perfect + Gothic work with the perfect Greek. + </p> + <p> + 174. There is no question in my own mind, and, I believe, none in that of + any other long-practised student of mediæval art, that in pure structural + Gothic the church of St. Urbain at Troyes is without rival in Europe. Here + is a rude sketch of its use of the crocket in the spandrils of its + external tracery, and here are the waves of the Greek sea round the son of + Poseidon. Seventeen hundred years are between them, but the same mind is + in both. I wonder how many times seventeen hundred years Mr. Darwin will + ask, to retrace the Greek designer of this into his primitive ape; or how + many times six hundred years of such improvements as we have made on the + church of St. Urbain, will be needed in order to enable our descendants to + regard the designers of that, as only primitive apes. + </p> + <p> + 175. I return for a moment to my gable at Assisi. You see that the crest + of the waves at the top form a rude likeness of a fleur-de-lys. There is, + however, in this form no real intention of imitating a flower, any more + than in the meeting of the tails of these two Etruscan griffins. The + notable circumstance in this piece of Gothic is its advanced form of + crocket, and its prominent foliation, with nothing in the least + approaching to floral ornament. + </p> + <p> + 176. And now, observe this very curious fact in the personal character of + two contemporary artists. See the use of my manually graspable flag. Here + is John of Pisa,—here Giotto. They are contemporary for twenty + years;—but these are the prime of Giotto's life, and the last of + John's life: virtually, Giotto is the later workman by full twenty years. + </p> + <p> + But Giotto always uses severe geometrical mouldings, and disdains all + luxuriance of leafage to set off interior sculpture. + </p> + <p> + John of Pisa not only adopts Gothic tracery, but first allows himself + enthusiastic use of rampant vegetation;—and here in the façade of + Orvieto, you have not only perfect Gothic in the sentiment of Scripture + history, but such luxurious ivy ornamentation as you cannot afterwards + match for two hundred years. Nay, you can scarcely match it then—for + grace of line, only in the richest flamboyant of France. + </p> + <p> + 177. Now this fact would set you, if you looked at art from its aesthetic + side only, at once to find out what German artists had taught Giovanni + Pisano. There <i>were</i> Germans teaching him,—some teaching him + many things; and the intense conceit of the modern German artist imagines + them to have taught him all things. + </p> + <p> + But he learnt his luxuriance, and Giotto his severity, in another school. + The quality in both is Greek; and altogether moral. The grace and the + redundance of Giovanui are the first strong manifestation of those + characters in the Italian mind which culminate in the Madonnas of Luini + and the arabesques of Raphael. The severity of Giotto belongs to him, on + the contrary, not only as one of the strongest practical men who ever + lived on this solid earth, but as the purest and firmest reformer of the + discipline of the Christian Church, of whose writings any remains exist. + </p> + <p> + 178. Of whose writings, I say; and you look up, as doubtful that he has + left any. Hieroglyphics, then, let me say instead; or, more accurately + still, hierographics. St. Francis, in what he wrote and said, taught much + that was false. But Giotto, his true disciple, nothing but what was true. + And where <i>he</i> uses an arabesque of foliage, depend upon it it will + be to purpose—not redundant. I return for the time to our soft and + luxuriant John of Pisa. + </p> + <p> + 179. Soft, but with no unmanly softness; luxuriant, but with no unmannered + luxury. To him you owe as to their first sire in art, the grace of + Ghiberti, the tenderness of Raphael, the awe of Michael Angelo. + Second-rate qualities in all the three, but precious in their kind, and + learned, as you shall see, essentially from this man. Second-rate he also, + but with most notable gifts of this inferior kind. He is the Canova of the + thirteenth century; but the Canova of the thirteenth, remember, was + necessarily a very different person from the Canova of the eighteenth. + </p> + <p> + The Cauova of the eighteenth century mimicked Greek grace for the delight + of modern revolutionary sensualists. The Canova of the thirteenth century + brought living Gothic truth into the living faith of his own time. + </p> + <p> + Greek truth, and Gothic 'liberty,'—in that noble sense of the word, + derived from the Latin 'liber,' of which I have already spoken, and which + in my next lecture I will endeavour completely to develope. Meanwhile let + me show you, as far as I can, the architecture itself about which these + subtle questions arise. + </p> + <p> + 180. Here are five frames, containing the best representations I can get + for you of the façade of the cathedral of Orvieto. I must remind you, + before I let you look at them, of the reason why that cathedral was built; + for I have at last got to the end of the parenthesis which began in my + second lecture, on the occasion of our hearing that John of Pisa was sent + for to Perugia, to carve the tomb of Pope Urban IV.; and we must now know + who this Pope was. + </p> + <p> + 181. He was a Frenchman, born at that Troyes, in Champagne, which I gave + you as the centre of French architectural skill, and Royalist character. + He was born in the lowest class of the people, rose like Wolsey; became + Bishop of Verdun; then, Patriarch of Jerusalem; returned in the year 1261, + from his Patriarchate, to solicit the aid of the then Pope, Alexander IV., + against the Saracen. I do not know on what day he arrived in Rome; but on + the 25th of May, Alexander died, and the Cardinals, after three months' + disputing, elected the suppliant Patriarch to be Pope himself. + </p> + <p> + 182. A man with all the fire of France in him, all the faith, and all the + insolence; incapable of doubting a single article of his creed, or + relaxing one tittle of his authority; destitute alike of reason and of + pity; and absolutely merciless either to an infidel, or an enemy. The + young Prince Manfred, bastard son of Frederick II., now representing the + main power of the German empire, was both; and against him the Pope + brought into Italy a religious French knight, of character absolutely like + his own, Charles of Anjou. + </p> + <p> + 183. The young Manfred, now about twenty years old, was as good a soldier + as he was a bad Christian; and there was no safety for Urban at Rome. The + Pope seated himself on a worthy throne for a thirteenth-century St. Peter. + Fancy the rock of Edinburgh Castle, as steep on all sides as it is to the + west; and as long as the Old Town; and you have the rock of Orvieto. + </p> + <p> + 184. Here, enthroned against the gates of hell, in unassailable fortitude, + and unfaltering faith, sat Urban; the righteousness of his cause presently + to be avouched by miracle, notablest among those of the Roman Church. + Twelve miles east of his rock, beyond the range of low Apennine, shone the + quiet lake, the Loch Leven of Italy, from whose island the daughter of + Theodoric needed not to escape—Fate seeking her there; and in a + little chapel on its shore a Bohemian priest, infected with Northern + infidelity, was brought back to his allegiance by seeing the blood drop + from the wafer in his hand. And the Catholic Church recorded this heavenly + testimony to her chief mystery, in the Festa of the Corpus Domini, and the + Fabric of Orvieto. + </p> + <p> + 185. And sending was made for John, and for all good labourers in marble; + but Urban never saw a stone of the great cathedral laid. His citation of + Manfred to appear in his presence to answer for his heresy, was fixed + against the posts of the doors of the old Duomo. But Urban had dug the + foundation of the pile to purpose, and when he died at Perugia, still + breathed, from his grave, calamity to Manfred, and made from it glory to + the Church. He had secured the election of a French successor; from the + rock of Orvieto the spirit of Urban led the French chivalry, when Charles + of Anjou saw the day of battle come, so long desired. Manfred's Saracens, + with their arrows, broke his first line; the Pope's legate blessed the + second, and gave them absolution of all their sins, for their service to + the Church. They charged for Orvieto with their old cry of 'Mont-Joie, + Chevaliers!' and before night, while Urban lay sleeping in his carved tomb + at Perugia, the body of Manfred lay only recognizable by those who loved + him, naked among the slain. + </p> + <p> + 186. Time wore on and on. The Suabian power ceased in Italy; between white + and red there was now no more contest;—the matron of the Church, + scarlet-robed, reigned, ruthless, on her seven hills. Time wore on; and, a + hundred years later, now no more the power of the kings, but the power of + the people,—rose against her. St. Michael, from the corn market,—Or + San Michele,—the commercial strength of Florence, on a question of + free trade in corn. And note, for a little bye piece of botany, that in + Val d'Arno lilies grow among the corn instead of poppies. The purple + gladiolus glows through all its green fields in early spring. + </p> + <p> + 187. A question of free trade in corn, then, arose between Florence and + Rome. The Pope's legate in Bologna stopped the supply of polenta, the + Florentines depending on that to eat with their own oil. Very wicked, you + think, of the Pope's legate, acting thus against quasi-Protestant + Florence? Yes; just as wicked as the—not quasi-Protestants—but + intensely positive Protestants, of Zurich, who tried to convert the + Catholic forest-cantons by refusing them salt. Christendom has been + greatly troubled about bread and salt: the then Protestant Pope, + Zuinglius, was killed at the battle of Keppel, and the Catholic cantons + therefore remain Catholic to this day; while the consequences of this + piece of protectionist economy at Bologna are equally interesting and + direct. + </p> + <p> + 188. The legate of Bologna, not content with stopping the supplies of + maize to Florence, sent our own John Hawkwood, on the 24th June, 1375, to + burn all the maize the Florentines had got growing; and the abbot of + Montemaggiore sent a troop of Perugian religious gentlemen-riders to + ravage similarly the territory of Siena. Whereupon, at Florence, the + Gonfalonier of Justice, Aloesio Aldobrandini, rose in the Council of + Ancients and proposed, as an enterprise worthy of Florentine generosity, + the freedom of all the peoples who groaned under the tyranny of the + Church. And Florence, Siena, Pisa, Lucca, and Arezzo,—all the great + cities of Etruria, the root of religion in Italy,—joined against the + tyranny of religion. Strangely, this Etrurian league is not now to restore + Tarquin to Rome, but to drive the Roman Tarquin into exile. The story of + Lucretia had been repeated in Perugia; but the Umbrian Lucretia had died, + not by suicide, but by falling on the pavement from the window through + which she tried to escape. And the Umbrian Sextus was the Abbot of + Montemaggiore's nephew. + </p> + <p> + 189. Florence raised her fleur-de-lys standard: and, in ten days, eighty + cities of Romagua were free, out of the number of whose names I will read + you only these—Urbino, Foligno, Spoleto, Narni, Camerino, + Toscanella, Perugia, Orvieto. + </p> + <p> + And while the wind and the rain still beat the body of Manfred, by the + shores of the Rio Verde, the body of Pope Urban was torn from its tomb, + and not one stone of the carved work thereof left upon another. 190. I + will only ask you to-day to notice farther that the Captain of Florence, + in this war, was a 'Conrad of Suabia,' and that she gave him, beside her + own flag, one with only the word 'Libertas' inscribed on it. + </p> + <p> + I told you that the first stroke of the bell on the Tower of the Lion + began the carillon for European civil and religious liberty. But perhaps, + even in the fourteenth century, Florence did not understand, by that word, + altogether the same policy which is now preached in France, Italy, and + England. + </p> + <p> + What she did understand by it, we will try to ascertain in the course of + next lecture. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0010" id="link2H_4_0010"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LECTURE VIII. FRANCHISE. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 191. In my first lecture of this course, you remember that I showed +you the Lion of St. Mark's with Niccola Pisano's, calling the one +an evangelical-preacher lion, and the other a real, and naturally +affectionate, lioness. +</pre> + <p> + And the one I showed you as Byzantine, the other as Gothic. + </p> + <p> + So that I thus called the Greek art pious, and the Gothic profane. + </p> + <p> + Whereas in nearly all our ordinary modes of thought, and in all my own + general references to either art, we assume Greek or classic work to be + profane, and Gothic, pious, or religious. + </p> + <p> + 192. Very short reflection, if steady and clear, will both show you how + confused our ideas are usually on this subject, and how definite they may + within certain limits become. + </p> + <p> + First of all, don't confuse piety with Christianity. There are pious + Greeks and impious Greeks; pious Turks and impious Turks; pious Christians + and impious Christians; pious modern infidels and impious modern infidels. + In case you do not quite know what piety really means, we will try to know + better in next lecture; for the present, understand that I mean distinctly + to call Greek art, in the true sense of the word, pious, and Gothic, as + opposed to it, profane. + </p> + <p> + 193. But when I oppose these two words, Gothic and Greek, don't run away + with the notion that I necessarily mean to oppose <i>Christian</i> and + Greek. You must not confuse Gothic blood in a man's veins, with Christian + feeling in a man's breast. There are unconverted and converted Goths; + unconverted and converted Greeks. The Greek and Gothic temper is equally + opposed, where the name of Christ has never been uttered by either, or + when every other name is equally detested by both. + </p> + <p> + I want you to-day to examine with me that essential difference between + Greek and Gothic temper, irrespective of creed, to which I have referred + in my preface to the last edition of the "Stones of Venice," saying that + the Byzantines gave law to Norman license. And I must therefore ask your + patience while I clear your minds from some too prevalent errors as to the + meaning of those two words, law and license. + </p> + <p> + 194. There is perhaps no more curious proof of the disorder which + impatient and impertinent science is introducing into classical thought + and language, than the title chosen by the Duke of Argyll for his + interesting study of Natural History—'The Reign of Law.' Law cannot + reign. If a natural law, it admits no disobedience, and has nothing to put + right. If a human one, it can compel no obedience, and has no power to + prevent wrong. A king only can reign;—a person, that is to say, who, + conscious of natural law, enforces human law so far as it is just. + </p> + <p> + 195. Kinghood is equally necessary in Greek dynasty, and in Gothic. + Theseus is every inch a king, as well as Edward III. But the laws which + they have to enforce on their own and their companions' humanity are + opposed to each other as much as their dispositions are. + </p> + <p> + The function of a Greek king was to enforce labour. + </p> + <p> + That of a Gothic king, to restrain rage. + </p> + <p> + The laws of Greece determine the wise methods of labour; and the laws of + France determine the wise restraints of passion. + </p> + <p> + For the sins of Greece are in Indolence, and its pleasures; and the sins + of France are in fury, and its pleasures. + </p> + <p> + 196. You are now again surprised, probably, at hearing me oppose France + typically to Greece. More strictly, I might oppose only a part of France,—Normandy. + But it is better to say, France, {1} as embracing the seat of the + established Norman power in the Island of our Lady; and the province in + which it was crowned,—Champagne. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: "Normandie, la franche." "France, la solue;" (chanson de + Roland). One of my good pupils referred me to this ancient and glorious + French song.} + </p> + <p> + France is everlastingly, by birth, name, and nature, the country of the + Franks, or free persons; and the first source of European frankness, or + franchise. The Latin for franchise is libertas. But the modern or + Cockney-English word liberty,—Mr. John Stuart Mill's,—is not + the equivalent of libertas; and the modern or Cockney-French word liberté,—M. + Victor Hugo's,—is not the equivalent of franchise. + </p> + <p> + 197. The Latin for franchise, I have said, is libertas; the Greek is + {Greek: *eleupheria*}. In the thoughts of all three nations, the idea is + precisely the same, and the word used for the idea by each nation + therefore accurately translates the word of the other: {Greek: + *eleupheria*}—libertas—franchise—reciprocally translate + each other. Leonidas is characteristically {Greek: *eleupheros*} among + Greeks; Publicola, characteristically liber, among Romans; Edward III. and + the Black Prince, characteristically frank among French. And that common + idea, which the words express, as all the careful scholars among you will + know, is, with all the three nations, mainly of deliverance from the + slavery of passion. To be {Greek: *eleupheros*}, liber, or franc, is first + to have learned how to rule our own passions; and then, certain that our + own conduct is right, to persist in that conduct against all resistance, + whether of counter-opinion, counter pain, or counter-pleasure. To be + defiant alike of the mob's thought, of the adversary's threat, and the + harlot's temptation,—this is in the meaning of every great nation to + be free; and the one condition upon which that freedom can be obtained is + pronounced to you in a single verse of the 119th Psalm, "I will walk at + liberty, for I seek Thy precepts." + </p> + <p> + 198. Thy precepts:—Law, observe, being dominant over the Gothic as + over the Greek king, but a quite different law. Edward III. feeling no + anger against the Sieur de Ribaumont, and crowning him with his own pearl + chaplet, is obeying the law of love, <i>restraining</i> anger; but + Theseus, slaying the Minotaur, is obeying the law of justice, and <i>enforcing</i> + anger. + </p> + <p> + The one is acting under the law of the charity, {Greek: *charis*} or grace + of God; the other under the law of His judgment. The two together fulfil + His {Greek: *krisis*} and {Greek: *agapae*}. + </p> + <p> + 199. Therefore the Greek dynasties are finally expressed in the kinghoods + of Minos, Rhadamanthus, and Aeacus, who judge infallibly, and divide + arithmetically. But the dynasty of the Gothic king is in equity and + compassion, and his arithmetic is in largesse, + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Whose moste joy was, I wis, + When that she gave, and said, Have this." +</pre> + <p> + So that, to put it in shortest terms of all, Greek law is of Stasy, and + Gothic of Ecstasy; there is no limit to the freedom of the Gothic hand or + heart, and the children are most in the delight and the glory of liberty + when they most seek their Father's precepts. + </p> + <p> + 200. The two lines I have just quoted are, as you probably remember, from + Chaucer's translation of the French Romance of the Rose, out of which I + before quoted to you the description of the virtue of Debonnaireté. Now + that Debonnaireté of the Painted Chamber of Westminster is the typical + figure used by the French sculptors and painters for 'franchise,' + frankness, or Frenchness; but in the Painted Chamber, Debonnaireté, high + breeding, 'out of goodnestedness,' or gentleness, is used, as an English + king's English, of the Norman franchise. Here, then, is our own royalty,—let + us call it Englishness, the grace of our proper kinghood;—and here + is French royalty, the grace of French kinghood—Frenchness, rudely + but sufficiently drawn by M. Didron from the porch of Chartres. She has + the crown of fleur-de-lys, and William the Norman's shield. + </p> + <p> + 201. Now this grace of high birth, the grace of his or her Most Gracious + Majesty, has her name at Chartres written beside her, in Latin. Had it + been in Greek, it would have been {Greek: *elevtheria*}. Being in Latin, + what do you think it must be necessarily?—Of course, Libertas. Now + M. Didron is quite the best writer on art that I know,—full of sense + and intelligence; but of course, as a modern Frenchman,—one of a + nation for whom the Latin and Gothic ideas of libertas have entirely + vanished,—he is not on his guard against the trap here laid for him. + He looks at the word libertas through his spectacles;—can't + understand, being a thoroughly good antiquary, {1} how such a virtue, or + privilege, could honestly be carved with approval in the twelfth century;—rubs + his spectacles; rubs the inscription, to make sure of its every letter; + stamps it, to make surer still;—and at last, though in a greatly + bewildered state of mind, remains convinced that here is a sculpture of + 'La Liberte' in the twelfth century. "C'est bien la liberte!" "On lit + parfaitement libertas." + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: Historical antiquary; not art-antiquary I must limitedly say, + however. He has made a grotesque mess of his account of the Ducal Palace + of Venice, through his ignorance of the technical characters of + sculpture.} + </p> + <p> + 202. Not so, my good M. Didron!—a very different personage, this; of + whom more, presently, though the letters of her name are indeed so + plainly, 'Libertas, at non liberalitas,' liberalitas being the Latin for + largesse, not for franchise. + </p> + <p> + This, then, is the opposition between the Greek and Gothic dynasties, in + their passionate or vital nature; in the <i>animal</i> and <i>inbred</i> + part of them;—Classic and romantic, Static and exstatic. But now, + what opposition is there between their divine natures? Between Theseus and + Edward III., as warriors, we now know the difference; but between Theseus + and Edward III, as theologians; as dreaming and discerning creatures, as + didactic kings,—engraving letters with the point of the sword, + instead of thrusting men through with it,—changing the club into the + ferula, and becoming schoolmasters as well as kings; what is, thus, the + difference between them? + </p> + <p> + Theologians I called them. Philologians would be a better word,—lovers + of the {Greek: *Logos*}, or Word, by which the heavens and earth were + made. What logos, <i>about</i> this Logos, have they learned, or can they + teach? + </p> + <p> + 203. I showed you, in my first lecture, the Byzantine Greek lion, as + descended by true unblemished line from the Nemean Greek; but with this + difference: Heracles kills the beast, and makes a helmet and cloak of his + skin; the Greek St. Mark converts the beast, and makes an evangelist of + him. + </p> + <p> + Is not that a greater difference, think you, than one of mere decadence? + </p> + <p> + This 'maniera goffa e sproporzionata' of Vasari is not, then, merely the + wasting away of former leonine strength into thin rigidities of death? + There is another change going on at the same time,—body perhaps + subjecting itself to spirit. + </p> + <p> + I will not teaze you with farther questions. The facts are simple enough. + Theseus and Heracles have their religion, sincere and sufficient,—a + religion of lion-killers, minotaur-killers, very curious and rude; + Eleusinian mystery mingled in it, inscrutable to us now,—partly + always so, even to them. + </p> + <p> + 204. Well; the Greek nation, in process of time, loses its manliness,—becomes + Graeculus instead of Greek. But though effeminate and feeble, it inherits + all the subtlety of its art, all the cunning of its mystery; and it is + converted to a more spiritual religion. Nor is it altogether degraded, + even by the diminution of its animal energy. Certain spiritual phenomena + are possible to the weak, which are hidden from the strong;—nay, the + monk may, in his order of being, possess strength denied to the warrior. + Is it altogether, think you, by blundering, or by disproportion in + intellect or in body, that Theseus becomes St. Athanase? For that is the + kind of change which takes place, from the days of the great King of + Athens, to those of the great Bishop of Alexandria, in the thought and + theology, or, summarily, in the spirit of the Greek. + </p> + <p> + Now we have learned indeed the difference between the Gothic knight and + the Greek knight; but what will be the difference between the Gothic saint + and Greek saint? + </p> + <p> + Franchise of body against constancy of body. + </p> + <p> + Franchise of thought, then, against constancy of thought. + </p> + <p> + Edward III. against Theseus. + </p> + <p> + And the Frank of Assisi against St. Athanase. + </p> + <p> + 205. Utter franchise, utter gentleness in theological thought. Instead of, + 'This is the faith, which except a man believe faithfully, he cannot be + saved,' 'This is the love, which if a bird or an insect keep faithfully, + <i>it</i> shall be saved.' + </p> + <p> + Gentlemen, you have at present arrived at a phase of natural science in + which, rejecting alike the theology of the Byzantine, and the affection of + the Frank, you can only contemplate a bird as flying under the reign of + law, and a cricket as singing under the compulsion of caloric. + </p> + <p> + I do not know whether you yet feel that the position of your boat on the + river also depends entirely on the reign of law, or whether, as your + churches and concert-rooms are privileged in the possession of organs + blown by steam, you are learning yourselves to sing by gas, and expect the + Dies Irae to the announced by a steam-trumpet. But I can very positively + assure you that, in my poor domain of imitative art, not all the + mechanical or gaseous forces of the world, nor all the laws of the + universe, will enable you either to see a colour, or draw a line, without + that singular force anciently called the soul, which it was the function + of the Greek to discipline in the duty of the servants of God, and of the + Goth to lead into the liberty of His children. + </p> + <p> + 206. But in one respect I wish you were more conscious of the existence of + law than you appear to be. The difference which I have pointed out to you + as existing between these great nations, exists also between two orders of + intelligence among men, of which the one is usually called Classic, the + other Romantic. Without entering into any of the fine distinctions between + these two sects, this broad one is to be observed as constant: that the + writers and painters of the Classic school set down nothing but what is + known to be true, and set it down in the perfectest manner possible in + their way, and are thenceforward authorities from whom there is no appeal. + Romantic writers and painters, on the contrary, express themselves under + the impulse of passions which may indeed lead them to the discovery of new + truths, or to the more delightful arrangement or presentment of things + already known: but their work, however brilliant or lovely, remains + imperfect, and without authority. It is not possible, of course, to + separate these two orders of men trenchantly: a classic writer may + sometimes, whatever his care, admit an error, and a romantic one may reach + perfection through enthusiasm. But, practically, you may separate the two + for your study and your education; and, during your youth, the business of + us your masters is to enforce on you the reading, for school work, only of + classical books: and to see that your minds are both informed of the + indisputable facts they contain, and accustomed to act with the infallible + accuracy of which they set the example. + </p> + <p> + 207. I have not time to make the calculation, but I suppose that the daily + literature by which we now are principally nourished, is so large in issue + that though St. John's "even the world itself could not contain the books + which should be written" may be still hyperbole, it is nevertheless + literally true that the world might be <i>wrapped</i> in the books which + are written; and that the sheets of paper covered with type on any given + subject, interesting to the modern mind, (say the prospects of the + Claimant,) issued in the form of English morning papers during a single + year, would be enough literally to pack the world in. + </p> + <p> + 208. Now I will read you fifty-two lines of a classical author, which, + once well read and understood, contain more truth than has been told you + all this year by this whole globe's compass of print. + </p> + <p> + Fifty-two lines, of which you will recognize some as hackneyed, and see + little to admire in others. But it is not possible to put the statements + they contain into better English, nor to invalidate one syllable of the + statements they contain. {1} + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: 'The Deserted Village,' line 251 to 302.} + </p> + <p> + 209. Even those, and there may be many here, who would dispute the truth + of the passage, will admit its exquisite distinctness and construction. If + it be untrue, that is merely because I have not been taught by my modern + education to recognize a classical author; but whatever my mistakes, or + yours, may be, there <i>are</i> certain truths long known to all rational + men, and indisputable. You may add to them, but you cannot diminish them. + And it is the business of a University to determine what books of this + kind exist, and to enforce the understanding of them. + </p> + <p> + 210. The classical and romantic arts which we have now under examination + therefore consist,—the first, in that which represented, under + whatever symbols, truths respecting the history of men, which it is proper + that all should know; while the second owes its interest to passionate + impulse or incident. This distinction holds in all ages, but the + distinction between the franchise of Northern, and the constancy of + Byzantine, art, depends partly on the unsystematic play of emotion in the + one, and the appointed sequence of known fact or determined judgment in + the other. + </p> + <p> + You will find in the beginning of M. Didron's book, already quoted, an + admirable analysis of what may be called the classic sequence of Christian + theology, as written in the sculpture of the Cathedral of Chartres. You + will find in the treatment of the façade of Orvieto the beginning of the + development of passionate romance,—the one being grave sermon + writing; the other, cheerful romance or novel writing: so that the one + requires you to think, the other only to feel or perceive; the one is + always a parable with a meaning, the other only a story with an + impression. + </p> + <p> + 211. And here I get at a result concerning Greek art, which is very + sweeping and wide indeed. That it is all parable, but Gothic, as distinct + from it, literal. So absolutely does this hold, that it reaches down to + our modern school of landscape. You know I have always told you Turner + belonged to the Greek school. Precisely as the stream of blood coming from + under the throne of judgment in the Byzantine mosaic of Torcello is a sign + of condemnation, his scarlet clouds are used by Turner as a sign of death; + and just as on an Egyptian tomb the genius of death lays the sun down + behind the horizon, so in his Cephalus and Procris, the last rays of the + sun withdraw from the forest as the nymph expires. + </p> + <p> + And yet, observe, both the classic and romantic teaching may be equally + earnest, only different in manner. But from classic art, unless you + understand it, you may get nothing; from romantic art, even if you don't + understand it, you get at least delight. + </p> + <p> + 212. I cannot show the difference more completely or fortunately than by + comparing Sir Walter Scott's type of libertas, with the franchise of + Chartres Cathedral, or Debonnaireté of the Painted Chamber. + </p> + <p> + At Chartres, and Westminster, the high birth is shown by the crown; the + strong bright life by the flowing hair; the fortitude by the conqueror's + shield; and the truth by the bright openness of the face: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "She was not brown, nor dull of hue, + But white as snowe, fallen newe." +</pre> + <p> + All these are symbols, which, if you cannot read, the image is to you only + an uninteresting stiff figure. But Sir Walter's Franchise, Diana Vernon, + interests you at once in personal aspect and character. She is no symbol + to you; but if you acquaint yourself with her perfectly, you find her + utter frankness, governed by a superb self-command; her spotless truth, + refined by tenderness; her fiery enthusiasm, subdued by dignity; and her + fearless liberty, incapable of doing wrong, joining to fulfil to you, in + sight and presence, what the Greek could only teach by signs. + </p> + <p> + 213. I have before noticed—though I am not sure that you have yet + believed my statement of it—the significance of Sir Walter's as of + Shakspeare's names; Diana 'Vernon, semper viret,' gives you the conditions + of purity and youthful strength or spring which imply the highest state of + libertas. By corruption of the idea of purity, you get the modern heroines + of London Journal—or perhaps we may more fitly call it 'Cockney-daily'—literature. + You have one of them in perfection, for instance, in Mr. Charles Reade's + 'Griffith Gaunt'—"Lithe, and vigorous, and one with her great white + gelding;" and liable to be entirely changed in her mind about the + destinies of her life by a quarter of an hour's conversation with a + gentleman unexpectedly handsome; the hero also being a person who looks at + people whom he dislikes, with eyes "like a dog's in the dark;" and both + hero and heroine having souls and intellects also precisely corresponding + to those of a dog's in the dark, which is indeed the essential picture of + the practical English national mind at this moment,—happy if it + remains doggish,—Circe not usually being content with changing + people into dogs only. For the Diana Vernon of the Greek is Artemis + Laphria, who is friendly to the dog; not to the swine. Do you see, by the + way, how perfectly the image is carried out by Sir Walter in putting his + Diana on the border country? "Yonder blue hill is in Scotland," she says + to her cousin,—not in the least thinking less of him for having been + concerned, it may be, in one of Bob Roy's forays. And so gradually you get + the idea of Norman franchise carried out in the free-rider or free-booter; + not safe from degradation on that side also; but by no means of swinish + temper, or foraging, as at present the British speculative public, only + with the snout. + </p> + <p> + 214. Finally, in the most soft and domestic form of virtue, you have + Wordsworth's ideal: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Her household motions light and free, + And steps of virgin liberty." +</pre> + <p> + The distinction between these northern types of feminine virtue, and the + figures of Alcestis, Antigone, or Iphigenia, lies deep in the spirit of + the art of either country, and is carried out into its most unimportant + details. We shall find in the central art of Florence at once the + thoughtfulness of Greece and the gladness of England, associated under + images of monastic severity peculiar to herself. + </p> + <p> + And what Diana Vernon is to a French ballerine dancing the Cancan, the + 'libertas' of Chartres and Westminster is to the 'liberty' of M. Victor + Hugo and Mr. John Stuart Mill. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0011" id="link2H_4_0011"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LECTURE IX. THE TYRRHENE SEA. + </h2> + <p> + 215. We may now return to the points of necessary history, having our + ideas fixed within accurate limits as to the meaning of the word Liberty; + and as to the relation of the passions which separated the Guelph and + Ghibelline to those of our own days. + </p> + <p> + The Lombard or Guelph league consisted, after the accession of Florence, + essentially of the three great cities—Milan, Bologna, and Florence; + the Imperial or Ghibelline league, of Verona, Pisa, and Siena. Venice and + Genoa, both nominally Guelph, are in furious contention always for sea + empire while Pisa and Genoa are in contention, not so much for empire, as + honour. Whether the trade of the East was to go up the Adriatic, or round + by the Gulf of Genoa, was essentially a mercantile question; but whether, + of the two ports in sight of each other, Pisa or Genoa was to be the Queen + of the Tyrrhene Sea, was no less distinctly a personal one than which of + two rival beauties shall preside at a tournament. + </p> + <p> + 216. This personal rivalry, so far as it was separated from their + commercial interests, was indeed mortal, but not malignant. The quarrel + was to be decided to the death, but decided with honour; and each city had + four observers permittedly resident in the other, to give account of all + that was done there in naval invention and armament. + </p> + <p> + 217. Observe, also, in the year 1251, when we quitted our history, we left + Florence not only Guelph, as against the Imperial power, (that is to say, + the body of her knights who favoured the Pope and Italians, in dominion + over those who favoured Manfred and the Germans), but we left her also + definitely with her apron thrown over her shield; and the tradesmen and + craftsmen in authority over the knight, whether German or Italian, Papal + or Imperial. + </p> + <p> + That is in 1251. Now in these last two lectures I must try to mark the + gist of the history of the next thirty years. The Thirty Years' War, this, + of the middle ages, infinitely important to all ages; first observe, + between Guelph and Ghibelline, ending in the humiliation of the + Ghibelline; and, secondly, between Shield and Apron, or, if you like + better, between Spear and Hammer, ending in the breaking of the Spear. + </p> + <p> + 218. The first decision of battle, I say, is that between Guelph and + Ghibelline, headed by two men of precisely oppposite characters, Charles + of Anjou and Manfred of Suabia. That I may be able to define the + opposition of their characters intelligibly, I must first ask your + attention to some points of general scholarship. I said in my last lecture + that, in this one, it would be needful for us to consider what piety was, + if we happened not to know; or worse than that, it may be, not + instinctively to feel. Such want of feeling is indeed not likely in you, + being English-bred; yet as it is the modern cant to consider all such + sentiment as useless, or even shameful, we shall be in several ways + advantaged by some examination of its nature. Of all classical writers, + Horace is the one with whom English gentlemen have on the average most + sympathy; and I believe, therefore, we shall most simply and easily get at + our point by examining the piety of Horace. + </p> + <p> + 219. You are perhaps, for the moment, surprised, whatever might have been + admitted of Æneas, to hear Horace spoken of as a pious person. But of + course when your attention is turned to the matter you will recollect many + lines in which the word 'pietas' occurs, of which you have only hitherto + failed to allow the force because you supposed Horace did not mean what he + said. + </p> + <p> + 220. But Horace always and altogether means what he says. It is just + because—whatever his faults may have been—he was not a + hypocrite, that English gentlemen are so fond of him. "Here is a frank + fellow, anyhow," they say, "and a witty one." Wise men know that he is + also wise. True men know that he is also true. But pious men, for want of + attention, do not always know that he is pious. + </p> + <p> + One great obstacle to your understanding of him is your having been forced + to construct Latin verses, with introduction of the word 'Jupiter' always, + at need, when you were at a loss for a dactyl. You always feel as if + Horace only used it also when he wanted a dactyl. + </p> + <p> + 221. Get quit of that notion wholly. All immortal writers speak out of + their hearts. Horace spoke out of the abundance of his heart, and tells + you precisely what he is, as frankly as Montaigne. Note then, first, how + modest he is: "Ne parva Tyrrhenum per aequor, vela darem;—Operosa + parvus, carmina fingo." Trust him in such words; he absolutely means them; + knows thoroughly that he cannot sail the Tyrrhene Sea,—knows that he + cannot float on the winds of Matinum,—can only murmur in the sunny + hollows of it among the heath. + </p> + <p> + But note, secondly, his pride: "Exegi monumentum sere perennius." He is + not the least afraid to say that. He did it; knew he had done it; said he + had done it; and feared no charge of arrogance. + </p> + <p> + 222. Note thirdly, then, his piety, and accept his assured speech of it: + "Dis pietas mea, et Musa, cordi est." He is perfectly certain of that + also; serenely tells you so; and you had better believe him. Well for you, + if you can believe him; for to believe him, you must understand him first; + and I can tell you, you won't arrive at that understanding by looking out + the word 'pietas' in your White-and-Riddle. If you do you will find those + tiresome contractions, Etym. Dub., stop your inquiry very briefly, as you + go back; if you go forward, through the Italian pieta, you will arrive + presently in another group of ideas, and end in misericordia, mercy, and + pity. You must not depend on the form of the word; you must find out what + it stands for in Horace's mind, and in Virgil's. More than race to the + Roman; more than power to the statesman; yet helpless beside the grave,—"Non, + Torquate, genus, non te facundia, non te, Restitvet pietas." + </p> + <p> + Nay, also what it stands for as an attribute, not only of men, but of + gods; nor of those only as merciful, but also as avenging. Against Æneas + himself, Dido invokes the waves of the Tyrrhene Sea, "si quid pia numina + possunt." Be assured there is no getting at the matter by dictionary or + context. To know what love means, you must love; to know what piety means, + you must be pious. + </p> + <p> + 223. Perhaps you dislike the word, now, from its vulgar use. You may have + another if you choose, a metaphorical one,—close enough it seems to + Christianity, and yet still absolutely distinct from it,—{Greek: + *christos*}. Suppose, as you watch the white bloom of the olives of Val + d'Arno and Val di Nievole, which modern piety and economy suppose were + grown by God only to supply you with fine Lucca oil, you were to consider, + instead, what answer you could make to the Socratio question, {Greek: + *pothen un tis tovto to chrisma labot*}. {1} + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: Xem. Conviv., ii.} + </p> + <p> + 224. I spoke to you first of Horace's modesty. All piety begins in + modesty. You must feel that you are a very little creature, and that you + had better do as you are bid. You will then begin to think what you are + bid to do, and who bids it. And you will find, unless you are very unhappy + indeed, that there is always a quite clear notion of right and wrong in + your minds, which you can either obey or disobey, at your pleasure. Obey + it simply and resolutely; it will become clearer to you every day: and in + obedience to it, you will find a sense of being in harmony with nature, + and at peace with God, and all His creatures. You will not understand how + the peace comes, nor even in what it consists. It is the peace that passes + understanding;—it is just as visionary and imaginative as love is, + and just as real, and just as necessary to the life of man. It is the only + source of true cheerfulness, and of true common sense; and whether you + believe the Bible, or don't,—or believe the Koran, or don't—or + believe the Vedas, or don't—it will enable you to believe in God, + and please Him, and be such a part of the {Greek: *eudokia*} of the + universe as your nature fits you to be, in His sight, faithful in awe to + the powers that are above you, and gracious in regard to the creatures + that are around. + </p> + <p> + 225. I will take leave on this head to read one more piece of Carlyle, + bearing much on present matters. "I hope also they will attack earnestly, + and at length extinguish and eradicate, this idle habit of 'accounting for + the moral sense,' as they phrase it. A most singular problem;—instead + of bending every thought to have more, and ever more, of 'moral sense,' + and therewith to irradiate your own poor soul, and all its work, into + something of divineness, as the one thing needful to you in this world! A + very futile problem that other, my friends; futile, idle, and far worse; + leading to what moral ruin, you little dream of! The moral sense, thank + God, is a thing you never will 'account for;' that, if you could think of + it, is the perennial miracle of man; in all times, visibly connecting poor + transitory man, here on this bewildered earth, with his Maker who is + eternal in the heavens. By no greatest happiness principle, greatest + nobleness principle, or any principle whatever, will you make that in the + least clearer than it already is;—forbear, I say, or you may darken + it away from you altogether! 'Two things,' says the memorable Kant, + deepest and most logical of metaphysical thinkers, 'two things strike me + dumb: the infinite starry heavens; and the sense of right and wrong in + man.' Visible infinites, both; say nothing of them; don't try to 'account + for them;' for you can say nothing wise." + </p> + <p> + 226. Very briefly, I must touch one or two further relative conditions in + this natural history of the soul. I have asked you to take the + metaphorical, but distinct, word '{Greek: *chrisma*}' rather than the + direct but obscure one 'piety'; mainly because the Master of your religion + chose the metaphorical epithet for the perpetual one of His own life and + person. + </p> + <p> + But if you will spend a thoughtful hour or two in reading the scripture, + which pious Greeks read, not indeed on daintily printed paper, but on + daintily painted clay,—if you will examine, that is to say, the + scriptures of the Athenian religion, on their Pan-Athenaic vases, in their + faithful days, you will find that the gift of the literal {Greek: + *chrisma*}, or anointing oil, to the victor in the kingly and visible + contest of life, is signed always with the image of that spirit or goddess + of the air who was the source of their invisible life. And let me, before + quitting this part of my subject, give you one piece of what you will find + useful counsel. If ever from the right apothecary, or {Greek: + muropolaes}', you get any of that {Greek: *chrisma*},—don't be + careful, when you set it by, of looking for dead dragons or dead dogs in + it. But look out for the dead flies. + </p> + <p> + 227. Again; remember, I only quote St. Paul as I quote Xenophon to you; + but I expect you to get some good from both. As I want you to think what + Xenophon means by '{Greek: *manteia*},' so I want you to consider also + what St. Paul means by '{Greek: *prophetia*}.' He tells you to prove all + things,—to hold fast what is good, and not to despise + 'prophesyings.' + </p> + <p> + 228. Now it is quite literally probable, that this world, having now for + some five hundred years absolutely refused to do as it is plainly bid by + every prophet that ever spoke in any nation, and having reduced itself + therefore to Saul's condition, when he was answered neither by Urim nor by + prophets, may be now, while you sit there, receiving necromantic answers + from the witch of Endor. But with that possibility you have no concern. + There is a prophetic power in your own hearts, known to the Greeks, known + to the Jews, known to the Apostles, and knowable by you. If it is now + silent to you, do not despise it by tranquillity under that privation; if + it speaks to you, do not despise it by disobedience. + </p> + <p> + 229. Now in this broad definition of Pietas, as reverence to sentimental + law, you will find I am supported by all classical authority and use of + this word. For the particular meaning of which I am next about to use the + word Religion, there is no such general authority, nor can there be, for + any limited or accurate meaning of it. The best authors use the word in + various senses; and you must interpret each writer by his own context. I + have myself continually used the term vaguely. I shall endeavour, + henceforward, to use it under limitations which, willing always to accept, + I shall only transgress by carelessness, or compliance with some + particular use of the word by others. The power in the word, then, which I + wish you now to notice, is in its employment with respect to doctrinal + divisions. You do not say that one man is of one piety, and another of + another; but you do, that one man is of one religion, and another of + another. + </p> + <p> + 230. The religion of any man is thus properly to be interpreted, as the + feeling which binds him, irrationally, to the fulfilment of duties, or + acceptance of beliefs, peculiar to a certain company of which he forms a + member, as distinct from the rest of the world. 'Which binds him <i>irrationally</i>,' + I say;—by a feeling, at all events, apart from reason, and often + superior to it; such as that which brings back the bee to its hive, and + the bird to her nest. + </p> + <p> + A man's religion is the form of mental rest, or dwelling-place, which, + partly, his fathers have gained or built for him, and partly, by due + reverence to former custom, he has built for himself; consisting of + whatever imperfect knowledge may have been granted, up to that time, in + the land of his birth, of the Divine character, presence, and dealings; + modified by the circumstances of surrounding life. + </p> + <p> + It may be, that sudden accession of new knowledge may compel him to cast + his former idols to the moles and to the bats. But it must be some very + miraculous interposition indeed which can justify him in quitting the + religion of his forefathers; and, assuredly, it must be an unwise + interposition which provokes him to insult it. + </p> + <p> + 231. On the other hand, the value of religious ceremonial, and the virtue + of religious truth, consist in the meek fulfilment of the one as the fond + habit of a family; and the meek acceptance of the other, as the narrow + knowledge of a child. And both are destroyed at once, and the ceremonial + or doctrinal prejudice becomes only an occasion of sin, if they make us + either wise in our own conceit, or violent in our methods of proselytism. + Of those who will compass sea and land to make one proselyte, it is too + generally true that they are themselves the children of hell, and make + their proselytes twofold more so. + </p> + <p> + 232. And now I am able to state to you, in terms so accurately defined + that you cannot misunderstand them, that we are about to study the results + in Italy of the victory of an impious Christian over a pious Infidel, in a + contest which, if indeed principalities of evil spirit are ever permitted + to rule over the darkness of this world, was assuredly by them wholly + provoked, and by them finally decided. The war was not actually ended + until the battle of Tagliacozzo, fought in August, 1268; but you need not + recollect that irregular date, or remember it only as three years after + the great battle of Welcome, Benevento; which was the decisive one. + Recollect, therefore, securely: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 1250. The First Trades Revolt in Florence. + 1260. Battle of the Arbia. + 1265. Battle of Welcome. +</pre> + <p> + Then between the battle of Welcome and of Tagliacozzo, (which you might + almost English in the real meaning of it as the battle of Hart's Death: + 'cozzo' is a butt or thrust with the horn, and you may well think of the + young Conradin as a wild hart or stag of the hills)—between those + two battles, in 1266, comes the second and central revolt of the trades in + Florence, of which I have to speak in next lecture. + </p> + <p> + 233. The two German princes who perished in these two battles—Manfred + of Tarentum, and his nephew and ward Conradin—are the natural son, + and the legitimate grandson of Frederick II.: they are also the last + assertors of the infidel German power in south Italy against the Church; + and in alliance with the Saracens; such alliance having been maintained + faithfully ever since Frederick II.'s triumphal entry into Jerusalem, and + cornation as its king. Not only a great number of Manfred's forts were + commanded by Saracen governors, but he had them also appointed over civil + tribunals. My own impression is that he found the Saracens more just and + trustworthy than the Christians; but it is proper to remember the + allegations of the Church against the whole Suabian family; namely, that + Manfred had smothered his father Frederick under cushions at Ferentino; + and that, of Frederick's sons, Conrad had poisoned Henry, and Manfred had + poisoned Conrad. You will, however, I believe, find the Prince Manfred one + of the purest representatives of northern chivalry. Against his nephew, + educated in all knightly accomplishment by his mother, Elizabeth of + Bavaria, nothing could be alleged by his enemies, even when resolved on + his death, but the splendour of his spirit and the brightness of his + youth. + </p> + <p> + 234. Of the character of their enemy, Charles of Anjou, there will remain + on your minds, after careful examination of his conduct, only the doubt + whether I am justified in speaking of him as Christian against Infidel. + But you will cease to doubt this when you have entirely entered into the + conditions of this nascent Christianity of the thirteenth century. You + will find that while men who desire to be virtuous receive it as the + mother of virtues, men who desire to be criminal receive it as the + forgiver of crimes; and that therefore, between Ghibelline or Infidel + cruelty, and Guelph or Christian cruelty, there is always this difference,—that + the Infidel cruelty is done in hot blood, and the Christian's in cold. I + hope (in future lectures on the architecture of Pisa) to illustrate to you + the opposition between the Ghibelline Conti, counts, and the Guelphic + Visconti, viscounts or "against counts," which issues, for one thing, in + that, by all men blamed as too deliberate, death of the Count Ugolino + della Gherardesca. The Count Ugolino was a traitor, who entirely deserved + death; but another Count of Pisa, entirely faithful to the Ghibelline + cause, was put to death by Charles of Anjou, not only in cold blood, but + with resolute infliction of Ugolino's utmost grief;—not in the + dungeon, but in the full light of day—his son being first put to + death before his eyes. And among the pieces of heraldry most significant + in the middle ages, the asp on the shield of the Guelphic viscounts is to + be much remembered by you as a sign of this merciless cruelty of mistaken + religion; mistaken, but not in the least hypocritical. It has perfect + confidence in itself, and can answer with serenity for all its deeds. The + serenity of heart never appears in the guilty Infidels; they die in + despair or gloom, greatly satisfactory to adverse religious minds. + </p> + <p> + 235. The French Pope, then, Urban of Troyes, had sent for Charles of + Anjou; who would not have answered his call, even with all the strength of + Anjou and Provence, had not Scylla of the Tyrrhene Sea been on his side. + Pisa, with eighty galleys (the Sicilian fleet added to her own), watched + and defended the coasts of Rome. An irresistible storm drove her fleet to + shelter; and Charles, in a single ship, reached the mouth of the Tiber, + and found lodgings at Rome in the convent of St. Paul. His wife meanwhile + spent her dowry in increasing his land army, and led it across the Alps. + How he had got his wife, and her dowry, we must hear in Villani's words, + as nearly as I can give their force in English, only, instead of the + English word pilgrim, I shall use the Italian 'romeo' for the sake both of + all English Juliets, and that you may better understand the close of the + sixth canto of the Paradise. + </p> + <p> + 236. "Now the Count Raymond Berenger had for his inheritance all Provence + on this side Rhone; and he was a wise and courteous signor, and of noble + state, and virtuous; and in his time they did honourable things; and to + his court came by custom all the gentlemen of Provence, and France, and + Catalonia, for his courtesy and noble state; and there they made many + cobbled verses, and Provençal songs of great sentences." + </p> + <p> + 237. I must stop to tell you that 'cobbled' or 'coupled' verses mean + rhymes, as opposed to the dull method of Latin verse; for we have now got + an ear for jingle, and know that dove rhymes to love. Also, "songs of + great sentences" mean didactic songs, containing much in little, (like the + new didactic Christian painting,) of which an example (though of a later + time) will give you a better idea than any description. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Vraye foy de necessité, + Non tant seulement d'equité, + Nous fait de Dieu sept choses croire: + C'est sa doulce nativité, + Son baptesme d'humilité, + Et sa mort, digne de mémoire: + Son descens en la chartre noire, + Et sa resurrection, voire; + S'ascencion d'auctorité, + La venue judicatoire, + Ou ly bons seront mis en gloire, + Et ly mals en adversité." +</pre> + <p> + 238. "And while they were making these cobbled verses and harmonious + creeds, there came a romeo to court, returning from the shrine of St. + James." I must stop again just to say that he ought to have been called a + pellegrino, not a romeo, for the three kinds of wanderers are,—Palmer, + one who goes to the Holy Land; Pilgrim, one who goes to Spain; and Romeo, + one who goes to Rome. Probably this romeo had been to both. "He stopped at + Count Raymond's court, and was so wise and worthy (valoroso), and so won + the Count's grace, that he made him his master and guide in all things. + Who also, maintaining himself in honest and religious customs of life, in + a little time, by his industry and good sense, doubled the Count's + revenues three times over, maintaining always a great and honoured court. + Now the Count had four daughters, and no son; and by the sense and + provision of the good romeo—(I can do no better than translate + 'procaccio' provision, but it is only a makeshift for the word derived + from procax, meaning the general talent of prudent impudence, in getting + forward; 'forwardness,' has a good deal of the true sense, only diluted;)—well, + by the sense and—progressive faculty, shall we say?—of the + good pilgrim, he first married the eldest daughter, by means of money, to + the good King Louis of France, saying to the Count, 'Let me alone,—Lascia-mi-fare—and + never mind the expense, for if you marry the first one well, I'll marry + you all the others cheaper, for her relationship." + </p> + <p> + 239. "And so it fell out, sure enough; for incontinently the King of + England (Henry III.) because he was the King of France's relation, took + the next daughter, Eleanor, for very little money indeed; next, his + natural brother, elect King of the Romans, took the third; and, the + youngest still remaining unmarried,—says the good romeo, 'Now for + this one, I will you to have a strong man for son-in-law, who shall be thy + heir;'—and so he brought it to pass. For finding Charles, Count of + Anjou, brother of the King Louis, he said to Raymond, "'Give her now to + him, for his fate is to be the best man in the world,'—prophesying + of him. And so it was done. And after all this it came to pass, by envy + which ruins all good, that the barons of Provence became jealous of the + good romeo, and accused him to the Count of having ill-guided his goods, + and made Raymond demand account of them. Then the good romeo said, 'Count, + I have served thee long, and have put thee from little state into mighty, + and for this, by false counsel of thy people, thou art little grateful. I + came into thy court a poor romeo; I have lived honestly on thy means; now, + make to be given to me my little mule and my staff and my wallet, as I + came, and I will make thee quit of all my service.' The Count would not he + should go; but for nothing would he stay; and so he came, and so he + departed, that no one ever knew whence he had come, nor whither he went. + It was the thought of many that he was indeed a sacred spirit." + </p> + <p> + 240. This pilgrim, you are to notice, is put by Dante in the orb of + justice, as a just servant; the Emperor Justinian being the image of a + just ruler. Justinian's law-making turned out well for England; but the + good romeo's match-making ended ill for it; and for Borne, and Naples + also. For Beatrice of Provence resolved to be a queen like her three + sisters, and was the prompting spirit of Charles's expedition to Italy. + She was crowned with him, Queen of Apulia and Sicily, on the day of the + Epiphany, 1265; she and her husband bringing gifts that day of magical + power enough; and Charles, as soon as the feast of coronation was over, + set out to give battle to Manfred and his Saracens. "And this Charles," + says Villani, "was wise, and of sane counsel; and of prowess in arms, and + fierce, and much feared and redoubted by all the kings in the world;—magnanimous + and of high purposes; fearless in the carrying forth of every great + enterprise; firm in every adversity; a verifier of his every word; + speaking little,—doing much; and scarcely ever laughed, and then but + a little; sincere, and without flaw, as a religious and catholic person; + stern in justice, and fierce in look; tall and nervous in person, olive + coloured, and with a large nose, and well he appeared a royal majesty more + than other men. Much he watched, and little he slept; and used to say that + so much time as one slept, one lost; generous to his men-at-arms, but + covetous to acquire land, signory, and coin, come how it would, to furnish + his enterprises and wars: in courtiers, servants of pleasure, or jocular + persons, he delighted never." + </p> + <p> + 241. To this newly crowned and resolute king, riding south from Rome, + Manfred, from his vale of Nocera under Mount St. Augelo, sends to offer + conditions of peace. Jehu the son of Nimshi is not swifter of answer to + Ahaziah's messenger than the fiery Christian king, in his 'What hast thou + to do with peace?' Charles answers the messengers with his own lips: "Tell + the Sultan of Nocera, this day I will put him in hell, or he shall put me + in paradise." + </p> + <p> + 242. Do not think it the speech of a hypocrite. Charles was as fully + prepared for death that day as ever Scotch Covenanter fighting for his + Holy League; and as sure that death would find him, if it found, only to + glorify and bless. Balfour of Burley against Claverhouse is not more + convinced in heart that he draws the sword of the Lord and of Gideon. But + all the knightly pride of Claverhouse himself is knit together, in + Charles, with fearless faith, and religious wrath. "This Saracen scum, led + by a bastard German,—traitor to his creed, usurper among his race,—dares + it look me, a Christian knight, a prince of the house of France, in the + eyes? Tell the Sultan of Nocera, to-day I put him in hell, or he puts me + in paradise." + </p> + <p> + They are not passionate words neither; any more than hypocritical ones. + They are measured, resolute, and the fewest possible. He never wasted + words, nor showed his mind, but when he meant it should be known. + </p> + <p> + 243. The messenger returned, thus answered; and the French king rode on + with his host. Manfred met him in the plain of Grandella, before + Benevento. I have translated the name of the fortress 'Welcome.' It was + altered, as you may remember, from Maleventum, for better omen; perhaps, + originally, only {Greek: *maloeis*}—a rock full of wild goats?—associating + it thus with the meaning of Tagliacozzo. + </p> + <p> + 244. Charles divided his army into four companies. The captain of his own + was our English Guy de Montfort, on whom rested the power and the fate of + his grandfather, the pursuer of the Waldensian shepherds among the rocks + of the wild goats. The last, and it is said the goodliest, troop was of + the exiled Guelphs of Florence, under Guido Guerra, whose name you already + know. "These," said Manfred, as he watched them ride into their ranks, + "cannot lose to-day." He meant that if he himself was the victor, he would + restore these exiles to their city. The event of the battle was decided by + the treachery of the Count of Caserta, Manfred's brother-in-law. At the + end of the day only a few knights remained with him, whom he led in the + last charge. As he helmed himself, the crest fell from his helmet. "Hoc + est signum Dei," he said,—so accepting what he saw to be the purpose + of the Ruler of all things; not claiming God as his friend. not asking + anything of Him, as if His purpose could be changed; not fearing Him as an + enemy; but accepting simply His sign that the appointed day of death was + come. He rode into the battle armed like a nameless soldier, and lay + unknown among the dead. + </p> + <p> + 245. And in him died all southern Italy. Never, after that day's + treachery, did her nobles rise, or her people prosper. + </p> + <p> + Of the finding of the body of Manfred, and its casting forth, accursed, + you may read, if you will, the story in Dante. I trace for you to-day + rapidly only the acts of Charles after this victory, and its consummation, + three years later, by the defeat of Conradin. + </p> + <p> + The town of Benevento had offered no resistance to Charles, but he gave it + up to pillage, and massacred its inhabitants. The slaughter, + indiscriminate, continued for eight days; the women and children were + slain with the men, being of Saracen blood. Manfred's wife, Sybil of + Epirus, his children, and all his barons, died, or were put to death, in + the prisons of Provence. With the young Conrad, all the faithful + Ghibel-line knights of Pisa were put to death. The son of Frederick of + Antioch, who drove the Guelphs from Florence, had his eyes torn out, and + was hanged, he being the last child of the house of Suabia. Twenty-four of + the barons of Calabria were executed at Gallipoli, and at Home. Charles + cut off the feet of those who had fought for Conrad; then—fearful + lest they should be pitied—shut them into a house of wood, and + burned them. His lieutenant in Sicily, William of the Standard, besieged + the town of Augusta, which defended itself with some fortitude, but was + betrayed, and all its inhabitants, (who must have been more than three + thousand, for there were a thousand able to bear arms,) massacred in cold + blood; the last of them searched for in their hiding-places, when the + streets were empty, dragged to the sea-shore, then beheaded, and their + bodies thrown into the sea. Throughout Calabria the Christian judges of + Charles thus forgave his enemies. And the Mohammedan power and heresy + ended in Italy, and she became secure in her Catholic creed. + </p> + <p> + 246. Not altogether secure under French dominion. After fourteen years of + misery, Sicily sang her angry vespers, and a Calabrian admiral burnt the + fleet of Charles before his eyes, where Scylla rules her barking Salamis. + But the French king died in prayerful peace, receiving the sacrament with + these words of perfectly honest faith, as he reviewed his past life: "Lord + God, as I truly believe that you are my Saviour, so I pray you to have + mercy on my soul; and as I truly made the conquest of Sicily more to serve + the Holy Church than for my own covetousness, so I pray you to pardon my + sins." + </p> + <p> + 247. You are to note the two clauses of this prayer. He prays absolute + mercy, on account of his faith in Christ; but remission of purgatory, in + proportion to the quantity of good work he has done, or meant to do, as + against evil. You are so much wiser in these days, you think, not + believing in purgatory; and so much more benevolent,—not massacring + women and children. But we must not be too proud of not believing in + purgatory, unless we are quite sure of our real desire to be purified: and + as to our not massacring children, it is true that an English gentleman + will not now himself willingly put a knife into the throat either of a + child or a lamb; but he will kill any quantity of children by disease in + order to increase his rents, as unconcernedly as he will eat any quantity + of mutton. And as to absolute massacre, I do not suppose a child feels so + much pain in being killed as a full-grown man, and its life is of less + value to it. No pain either of body or thought through which you could put + an infant, would be comparable to that of a good son, or a faithful lover, + dying slowly of a painful wound at a distance from a family dependent upon + him, or a mistress devoted to him. But the victories of Charles, and the + massacres, taken in sum, would not give a muster-roll of more than twenty + thousand dead; men, women, and children counted all together. On the + plains of France, since I first began to speak to you on the subject of + the arts of peace, at least five hundred thousand men, in the prime of + life, have been massacred by the folly of one Christian emperor, the + insolence of another, and the mingling of mean rapacity with meaner + vanity, which Christian nations now call 'patriotism.' + </p> + <p> + 248. But that the Crusaders, (whether led by St. Louis or by his brother,) + who habitually lived by robbery, and might be swiftly enraged to murder, + were still too savage to conceive the spirit or the character of this + Christ whose cross they wear, I have again and again alleged to you; not, + I imagine, without question from many who have been accustomed to look to + these earlier ages as authoritative in doctrine, if not in example. We + alike err in supposing them more spiritual or more dark, than our own. + They had not yet attained to the knowledge which we have despised, nor + dispersed from their faith the shadows with which we have again + overclouded ours. + </p> + <p> + Their passions, tumultuous and merciless as the Tyrrhene Sea, raged indeed + with the danger, but also with the uses, of naturally appointed storm; + while ours, pacific in corruption, languish in vague maremma of misguided + pools; and are pestilential most surely as they retire. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0012" id="link2H_4_0012"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LECTURE X. FLEUR DE LYS. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 249. Through all the tempestuous winter which during the period of +history we have been reviewing, weakened, in their war with the opposed +rocks of religious or knightly pride, the waves of the Tuscan Sea, +there has been slow increase of the Favonian power which is to bring +fruitfulness to the rock, peace to the wave. The new element which is +introduced in the thirteenth century, and perfects for a little time the +work of Christianity, at least in some few chosen souls, is the law of +Order and Charity, of intellectual and moral virtue, which it now became +the function of every great artist to teach, and of every true citizen +to maintain. +</pre> + <p> + 250. I have placed on your table one of the earliest existing engravings + by a Florentine hand, representing the conception which the national mind + formed of this spirit of order and tranquillity, "Cosmico," or the Equity + of Kosmos, not by senseless attraction, but by spiritual thought and law. + He stands pointing with his left hand to the earth, set only with tufts of + grass; in his right hand he holds the ordered system of the universe—heaven + and earth in one orb;—the heaven made cosmic by the courses of its + stars; the earth cosmic by + </p> + <p> + {Illustration: PLATE IX.—THE CHARGE TO ADAM. MODERN ITALIAN. } + </p> + <p> + the seats of authority and fellowship,—castles on the hills and + cities in the plain. + </p> + <p> + 251. The tufts of grass under the feet of this figure will appear to you, + at first, grotesquely formal. But they are only the simplest expression, + in such herbage, of the subjection of all vegetative force to this law of + order, equity, or symmetry, which, made by the Greek the principal method + of his current vegetative sculpture, subdues it, in the hand of Cora or + Triptolemus, into the merely triple sceptre, or animates it, in Florence, + to the likeness of the Fleur-de-lys. + </p> + <p> + 252. I have already stated to you that if any definite flower is meant by + these triple groups of leaves, which take their authoritatively typical + form in the crowns of the Cretan and Laciuian Hera, it is not the violet, + but the purple iris; or sometimes, as in Pindar's description of the birth + of Ismus, the yellow water-flag, which you know so well in spring, by the + banks of your Oxford streams. {1} But, in general, it means simply the + springing of beautiful and orderly vegetation in fields upon which the dew + falls pure. It is the expression, therefore, of peace on the redeemed and + cultivated earth, and of the pleasure of heaven in the uncareful happiness + of men clothed without labour, and fed without fear. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: In the catalogues of the collection of drawings in this room, + and in my "Queen of the Air" you will find all that I would ask you to + notice about the various names and kinds of the flower, and their symbolic + use.—Note only, with respect to our present purpose, that while the + true white lily is placed in the hands of the Angel of the Annunciation + even by Florentine artists, in their general design, the fleur-de-lys is + given to him by Giovaiini Pisano on the façade of Orvieto; and that the + flower in the crown-circlets of European kings answers, as I stated to you + in my lecture on the Corona, to the Narcissus fillet of early Greece; the + crown of abundance and rejoicing.} + </p> + <p> + 253. In the passage, so often read by us, which announces the advent of + Christianity as the dawn of peace on earth, we habitually neglect great + part of the promise, owing to the false translation of the second clause + of the sentence. I cannot understand how it should be still needful to + point out to you here in Oxford that neither the Greek words {Greek: *"en + anthriopois evdokia,"*} nor those of the vulgate, "in terra pax hominibus + bonæ voluntatis," in the slightest degree justify our English words, + "goodwill to men." + </p> + <p> + Of God's goodwill to men, and to all creatures, for ever, there needed no + proclamation by angels. But that men should be able to please <i>Him</i>,—that + their wills should be made holy, and they should not only possess peace in + themselves, but be able to give joy to their God, in the sense in which He + afterwards is pleased with His own baptized Son;—this was a new + thing for Angels to declare, and for shepherds to believe. + </p> + <p> + 254. And the error was made yet more fatal by its repetition in a passage + of parallel importance,—the thanksgiving, namely, offered by Christ, + that His Father, while He had hidden what it was best to know, not from + the wise and prudent, but from some among the wise and prudent, and had + revealed it unto babes; not 'for so it seemed good' in His sight, but + 'that there might be well pleasing in His sight,'—namely, that the + wise and simple might equally live in the necessary knowledge, and enjoyed + presence, of God. And if, having accurately read these vital passages, you + then as carefully consider the tenour of the two songs of human joy in the + birth of Christ, the Magnificat, and the Nunc dimittis, you will find the + theme of both to be, not the newness of blessing, but the equity which + disappoints the cruelty and humbles the strength of men; which scatters + the proud in the imagination of their hearts; which fills the hungry with + good things; and is not only the glory of Israel, but the light of the + Gentiles. + </p> + <p> + 255. As I have been writing these paragraphs, I have been checking myself + almost at every word,—wondering, Will they be restless on their + seats at this, and thinking all the while that they did not come here to + be lectured on Divinity? You may have been a little impatient,—how + could it well be otherwise? Had I been explaining points of anatomy, and + showing you how you bent your necks and straightened your legs, you would + have thought me quite in my proper function; because then, when you went + with a party of connoisseurs through the Vatican, you could point out to + them the insertion of the clavicle in the Apollo Belvidere; and in the + Sistine Chapel the perfectly accurate delineation of the tibia in the legs + of Christ. Doubtless; but you know I am lecturing at present on the goffi, + and not on Michael Angelo; and the goffi are very careless about clavicles + and shin-bones; so that if, after being lectured on anatomy, you went into + the Campo Santo of Pisa, you would simply find nothing to look at, except + three tolerably well-drawn skeletons. But if after being lectured on + theology, you go into the Campo Santo of Pisa, you will find not a little + to look at, and to remember. + </p> + <p> + 256. For a single instance, you know Michael Angelo is admitted to have + been so far indebted to these goffi as to borrow from the one to whose + study of mortality I have just referred, Orcagna, the gesture of his + Christ in the Judgment, He borrowed, however, accurately speaking, the + position only, not the gesture; nor the meaning of it. {1} You all + remember the action of Michael Angelo's Christ,—the right hand + raised as if in violence of reprobation; and the left closed across His + breast, as refusing all mercy. The action is one which appeals to persons + of very ordinary sensations, and is very naturally adopted by the + Renaissance painter, both for its popular effect, and its capabilities for + the exhibition of his surgical science. But the old painter-theologian, + though indeed he showed the right hand of Christ lifted, and the left hand + laid across His breast, had another meaning in the actions. The fingers of + the left hand are folded, in both the figures; but in Michael Angelo's as + if putting aside an appeal; in Orcagna's, the fingers are bent to draw + back the drapery from the right side. The right hand is raised by Michael + Angelo as in anger; by Orcagna, only to show the wounded palm. And as, to + the believing disciples, He showed them His hands and His side, so that + they were glad,—so, to the unbelievers, at their judgment, He shows + the wounds in hand and side. They shall look on Him whom they pierced. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote: I found all this in M. Didron's Iconographie, above quoted; I + had never noticed the difference between the two figures myself.} + </p> + <p> + 257. And thus, as we follow our proposed examination of the arts of the + Christian centuries, our understanding of their work will be absolutely + limited by the degree of our sympathy with the religion which our fathers + have bequeathed to us. You cannot interpret classic marbles without + knowing and loving your Pindar and Æschylus, neither can you interpret + Christian pictures without knowing and loving your Isaiah and Matthew. And + I shall have continually to examine texts of the one as I would verses of + the other; nor must you retract yourselves from the labour in suspicion + that I desire to betray your scepticism, or undermine your positivism, + because I recommend to you the accurate study of books which have hitherto + been the light of the world. + </p> + <p> + 258. The change, then, in the minds of their readers at this date, which + rendered it possible for them to comprehend the full purport of + Christianity, was in the rise of the new desire for equity and rest, + amidst what had hitherto been mere lust for spoil, and joy in battle. The + necessity for justice was felt in the now extending commerce; the desire + of rest in the now pleasant and fitly furnished habitation; and the energy + which formerly could only be satisfied in strife, now found enough both of + provocation and antagonism in the invention of art, and the forces of + nature. I have in this course of lectures endeavoured to fasten your + attention on the Florentine Revolution of 1250, because its date is so + easily memorable, and it involves the principles of every subsequent one, + so as to lay at once the foundations of whatever greatness Florence + afterwards achieved by her mercantile and civic power. But I must not + close even this slight sketch of the central history of Val d'Aruo without + requesting you, as you find time, to associate in your minds, with this + first revolution, the effects of two which followed it, being indeed + necessary parts of it, in the latter half of the century. + </p> + <p> + 259. Remember then that the first, in 1250, is embryonic; and the + significance of it is simply the establishment of order, and justice + against violence and iniquity. It is equally against the power of knights + and priests, so far as either are unjust,—not otherwise. + </p> + <p> + When Manfred fell at Benevento, his lieutenant, the Count Guido Novello, + was in command of Florence. He was just, but weak; and endeavoured to + temporize with the Guelphs. His effort ought to be notable to you, because + it was one of the wisest and most far-sighted ever made in Italy; but it + failed for want of resolution, as the gentlest and best men are too apt to + fail. He brought from Bologna two knights of the order—then recently + established—of joyful brethren; afterwards too fatally corrupted, + but at this time pure in purpose. They constituted an order of chivalry + which was to maintain peace, obey the Church, and succour widows and + orphans; but to be bound by no monastic vows. Of these two knights, he + chose one Guelph, the other Ghibelline; and under their balanced power + Gruido hoped to rank the forces of the civil, manufacturing, and trading + classes, divided into twelve corporations of higher and lower arts. {1} + But the moment this beautiful arrangement was made, all parties—Guelph, + Ghibelline, and popular,—turned unanimously against Count Guido + Novello. The benevolent but irresolute captain indeed gathered his men + into the square of the Trinity; but the people barricaded the streets + issuing from it; and Guido, heartless, and unwilling for civil warfare, + left the city with his Germans in good order. And so ended the incursion + of the infidel Tedeschi for this time. The Florentines then dismissed the + merry brothers whom the Tedeschi had set over them, and besought help from + Orvieto and Charles of Anjou; who sent them Guy de Montfort and eight + hundred French riders; the blessing of whose presence thus, at their own + request, was granted them on Easter Day, 1267. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote: The seven higher arts were, Lawyers, Physicians, Bankers, + Merchants of Foreign Goods, Wool Manufacturers, Silk Manufacturers, + Furriers. The five lower arts were, Retail Sellers of Cloth, Butchers, + Shoemakers, Masons and Carpenters, Smiths.} + </p> + <p> + On Candlemas, if you recollect, 1251, they open their gates to the + Germans; and on Easter, 1267, to the French. + </p> + <p> + 260. Remember, then, this revolution, as coming between the battles of + Welcome and Tagliacozzo; and that it expresses the lower revolutionary + temper of the trades, with English and French assistance. Its immediate + result was the appointment of five hundred and sixty lawyers, woolcombers, + and butchers, to deliberate upon all State questions,—under which + happy ordinances you will do well, in your own reading, to leave Florence, + that you may watch, for a while, darling little Pisa, all on fire for the + young Conradin. She sent ten vessels across the Gulf of Genoa to fetch + him; received his cavalry in her plain of Sarzana; and putting five + thousand of her own best sailors into thirty ships, sent them to do what + they could, all down the coast of Italy. Down they went; startling Gaeta + with an attack as they passed; found Charles of Anjou's French and + Sicilian fleet at Messina, fought it, beat it, and burned twenty-seven of + its ships. + </p> + <p> + 261. Meantime, the Florentines prospered as they might with their + religious-democratic constitution,—until the death, in the odour of + sanctity, of Charles of Anjou, and of that Pope Martin IV. whose tomb was + destroyed with Urban's at Perugia. Martin died, as you may remember, of + eating Bolsena eels,—that being his share in the miracles of the + lake; and you will do well to remember at the same time, that the price of + the lake eels was three soldi a pound; and that Niccola of Pisa worked at + Siena for six soldi a day, and his son Giovanni for four. + </p> + <p> + 262. And as I must in this place bid farewell, for a time, to Niccola and + to his son, let me remind you of the large commission which the former + received on the occasion of the battle of Tagliacozzo, and its subsequent + massacres, when the victor, Charles, having to his own satisfaction + exterminated the seed of infidelity, resolves, both in thanksgiving, and + for the sake of the souls of the slain knights for whom some hope might + yet be religiously entertained, to found an abbey on the battle-field. In + which purpose he sent for Niccola to Naples, and made him build on the + field of Tagliacozzo, a church and abbey of the richest; and caused to be + buried therein the infinite number of the bodies of those who died in that + battle day; ordering farther, that, by many monks, prayer should be made + for their souls, night and day. In which fabric the king was so pleased + with Niccola's work that he rewarded and honoured him highly. + </p> + <p> + 263. Do you not begin to wonder a little more what manner of man this + Nicholas was, who so obediently throws down the towers which offend the + Ghibelliues, and so skilfully puts up the pinnacles which please the + Guelphs? A passive power, seemingly, he;—plastic in the hands of any + one who will employ him to build, or to throw down. On what exists of + evidence, demonstrably in these years here is the strongest brain of + Italy, thus for six shilling a day doing what it is bid. + </p> + <p> + 264. I take farewell of him then, for a little time, ratifying to you, as + far as my knowledge permits, the words of my first master in Italian art, + Lord Lindsay. + </p> + <p> + "In comparing the advent of Niccola Pisano to that of the sun at his + rising, I am conscious of no exaggeration; on the contrary, it is the only + simile by which I can hope to give you an adequate impression of his + brilliancy and power relatively to the age in which he flourished. Those + sons of Erebus, the American Indians, fresh from their traditional + subterranean world, and gazing for the first time on the gradual dawning + of the day in the East, could not have been more dazzled, more astounded, + when the sun actually appeared, than the popes and podestas, friars and + freemasons must have been in the thirteenth century, when from among the + Biduinos, Bonannos, and Antealmis of the twelfth, Niccola emerged in his + glory, sovereign and supreme, a fount of light, diffusing warmth and + radiance over Christendom. It might be too much to parallel him in actual + genius with Dante and Shakspeare; they stand alone and unapproachable, + each on his distinct pinnacle of the temple of Christian song; and yet + neither of them can boast such extent and durability of influence, for + whatever of highest excellence has been achieved in sculpture and + painting, not in Italy only, but throughout Europe, has been in obedience + to the impulse he primarily gave, and in following up the principle which + he first struck out. + </p> + <p> + "His latter days were spent in repose at Pisa, but the precise year of his + death is uncertain; Vasari fixes it in 1275; it could not have been much + later. He was buried in the Campo Santo. Of his personal character we, + alas! know nothing; even Shakspeare is less a stranger to us. But that it + was noble, simple, and consistent, and free from the petty foibles that + too frequently beset genius, may be fairly presumed from the works he has + left behind him, and from the eloquent silence of tradition." + </p> + <p> + 265. Of the circumstances of Niccola Pisano's death, or the ceremonials + practised at it, we are thus left in ignorance. + </p> + <p> + The more exemplary death of Charles of Aujou took place on the 7th of + January, then, 1285; leaving the throne of Naples to a boy of twelve; and + that of Sicily, to a Prince of Spain. Various discord, between French, + Spanish, and Calabrese vices, thenceforward paralyzes South Italy, and + Florence becomes the leading power of the Guelph faction. She had been + inflamed and pacified through continual paroxysms of civil quarrel during + the decline of Charles's power; but, throughout, the influence of the + nobles declines, by reason of their own folly and insolence; while the + people, though with no small degree of folly and insolence on their own + side, keep hold of their main idea of justice. In the meantime, similar + assertions of law against violence, and the nobility of useful occupation, + as compared with that of idle rapine, take place in Bologna, Siena, and + even at Rome, where Bologna sends her senator, Branca Leone, (short for + Branca-di-Leone, Lion's Grip,) whose inflexible and rightly guarded reign + of terror to all evil and thievish persons, noble or other, is one of the + few passages of history during the middle ages, in which the real power of + civic virtue may be seen exercised without warping by party spirit, or + weakness of vanity or fear. + </p> + <p> + 266. And at last, led by a noble, Giano della Bella, the people of + Florence write and establish their final condemnation of noblesse living + by rapine, those 'Ordinamenti della Giustizia,' which practically excluded + all idle persons from government, and determined that the priors, or + leaders of the State, should be priors, or leaders of its arts and + productive labour; that its head 'podesta' or 'power' should be the + standard-bearer of justice; and its council or parliament composed of + charitable men, or good men: "boni viri," in the sense from which the + French formed their noun 'bonte.' + </p> + <p> + The entire governing body was thus composed, first, of the Podestas, + standard-bearer of justice; then of his military captain; then of his + lictor, or executor; then of the twelve priors of arts and liberties—properly, + deliberators on the daily occupations, interests, and pleasures of the + body politic;—and, finally, of the parliament of "kind men," whose + business was to determine what kindness could be shown to other states, by + way of foreign policy. + </p> + <p> + 267. So perfect a type of national government has only once been reached + in the history of the human race. And in spite of the seeds of evil in its + own impatience, and in the gradually increasing worldliness of the + mercantile body; in spite of the hostility of the angry soldier, and the + malignity of the sensual priest, this government gave to Europe the entire + cycle of Christian art, properly so called, and every highest Master of + labour, architectural, scriptural, or pictorial, practised in true + understanding of the faith of Christ;—Orcagna, Giotto, Brunelleschi, + Lionardo, Luini as his pupil, Lippi, Luca, Angelico, Botticelli, and + Michael Angelo. + </p> + <p> + 268. I have named two men, in this group, whose names are more familiar to + your ears than any others, Angelico and Michael Angelo;—who yet are + absent from my list of those whose works I wish you to study, being both + extravagant in their enthusiasm,—the one for the nobleness of the + spirit, and the other for that of the flesh. I name them now, because the + gifts each had were exclusively Florentine; in whatever they have become + to the mind of Europe since, they are utterly children of the Val d'Arno. + </p> + <p> + 269. You are accustomed, too carelessly, to think of Angelico as a child + of the Church, rather than of Florence. He was born in l387,—just + eleven years, that is to say, after the revolt of Florence <i>against</i> + the Church, and ten after the endeavour of the Church to recover her power + by the massacres of Faenza and Cesena. A French and English army of + pillaging riders were on the other side of the Alps,—six thousand + strong; the Pope sent for it; Robert Cardinal of Geneva brought it into + Italy. The Florentines fortified their Apennines against it; but it took + winter quarters at Cesena, where the Cardinal of Geneva massacred five + thousand persons in a day, and the children and sucklings were literally + dashed against the stones. + </p> + <p> + 270. That was the school which the Christian Church had prepared for their + brother Angelica. But Fèsole, secluding him in the shade of her mount of + Olives, and Florence revealing to him the true voice of his Master, in the + temple of St. Mary of the Flower, taught him his lesson of peace on earth, + and permitted him his visions of rapture in heaven. And when the massacre + of Cesena was found to have been in vain, and the Church was compelled to + treat with the revolted cities who had united to mourn for her victories, + Florence sent her a living saint, Catherine of Siena, for her political + Ambassador. + </p> + <p> + 271. Of Michael Angelo I need not tell you: of the others, we will read + the lives, and think over them one by one; the great fact which I have + written this course of lectures to enforce upon your minds is the + dependence of all the arts on the virtue of the State, and its kindly + order. + </p> + <p> + The absolute mind and state of Florence, for the seventy years of her + glory, from 1280 to 1350, you find quite simply and literally described in + the ll2th Psalm, of which I read you the descriptive verses, in the words + in which they sang it, from this typically perfect manuscript of the time:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Gloria et divitie in domo ejus, justitia ejus manet in seculum seculi. + Exortum est in tenebris lumen reotis, misericors, et miserator, et +Justus. Jocundus homo, qui miseretur, et commodat: disponet sermones suos in +judicio. Dispersit, dedit pauperibus; justitia ejus manet in seculum seculi; + cornu ejus exaltabitur in gloria. +</pre> + <p> + I translate simply, praying you to note as the true one, the <i>literal</i> + meaning of every word:— + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Glory and riches are in his house. His justice remains for ever. + Light is risen in darkness for the straightforward people. + He is merciful in heart, merciful in deed, and just. + A jocund man; who is merciful, and lends. + He will dispose his words in judgment. + He hath dispersed. He hath given to the poor. His justice remain! + for ever. His horn shall be exalted in glory. +</pre> + <p> + 272. With vacillating, but steadily prevailing effort, the Florentines + maintained this life and character for full half a century. + </p> + <p> + You will please now look at my staff of the year 1300, {Footnote: Page 33 + in my second lecture on Engraving.} adding the names of Dante and Orcagna, + having each their separate masterful or prophetic function. + </p> + <p> + That is Florence's contribution to the intellectual work of the world + during these years of justice. Now, the promise of Christianity is given + with lesson from the fleur-de-lys: Seek ye first the royalty of God, and + His justice, "and all these things," material wealth, "shall be added unto + you." It is a perfectly clear, perfectly literal,—never failing and + never unfulfilled promise. There is no instance in the whole cycle of + history of its not being accomplished,—fulfilled to the uttermost, + with full measure, pressed down, and running over. + </p> + <p> + 273. Now hear what Florence was, and what wealth she had got by her + justice. In the year 1330, before she fell, she had within her walls a + hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants, of whom all the men—(laity)—between + the ages of fifteen and seventy, were ready at an instant to go out to + war, under their banners, in number twenty-four thousand. The army of her + entire territory was eighty thousand; and within it she counted fifteen + hundred noble, families, every one absolutely submissive to her gonfalier + of justice. She had within her walls a hundred and ten churches, seven + priories, and thirty hospitals for the sick and poor; of foreign guests, + on the average, fifteen hundred, constantly. From eight to ten thousand + children were taught to read in her schools. The town was surrounded by + some fifty square miles of uninterrupted garden, of olive, corn, vine, + lily, and rose. + </p> + <p> + And the monetary existence of England and France depended upon her wealth. + Two of her bankers alone had lent Edward III. of England five millions of + money (in sterling value of this present hour). + </p> + <p> + 274. On the 10th of March, 1337, she was first accused, with truth, of + selfish breach of treaties. On the l0th of April, all her merchants in + France were imprisoned by Philip Valois; and presently afterwards Edward + of England failed, quite in your modern style, for his five millions. + These money losses would have been nothing to her; but on the 7th of + August, the captain of her army, Pietro de' Rossi of Parma, the + unquestioned best knight in Italy, received a chance spear-stroke before + Monselice, and died next day. He was the Bayard of Italy; and greater than + Bayard, because living in a nobler time. He never had failed in any + military enterprise, nor ever stained success with cruelty or shame. Even + the German troops under him loved him without bounds. To his companions he + gave gifts with such largesse, that his horse and armour were all that at + any time he called his own. Beautiful and pure as Sir Galahad, all that + was brightest in womanhood watched and honoured him. + </p> + <p> + And thus, 8th August, 1337, he went to his own place.—To-day I trace + the fall of Florence no more. + </p> + <p> + I will review the points I wish you to remember; and briefly meet, so far + as I can, the questions which I think should occur to you. + </p> + <p> + 275. I have named Edward III. as our heroic type of Franchise. And yet I + have but a minute ago spoken of him as 'failing' in quite your modern + manner. I must correct my expression:—he had no intent of failing + when he borrowed; and did not spend his money on himself. Nevertheless, I + gave him as an example of frankness; but by no means of honesty. He is + simply the boldest and royalest of Free Riders; the campaign of Crecy is, + throughout, a mere pillaging foray. And the first point I wish you to + notice is the difference in the pecuniary results of living by robbery, + like Edward III., or by agriculture and just commerce, like the town of + Florence. That Florence can lend five millions to the King of England, and + loose them with little care, is the result of her olive gardens and her + honesty. Now hear the financial phenomena attending military exploits, and + a life of pillage. + </p> + <p> + 276. I give you them in this precise year, 1338, in which the King of + England failed to the Florentines. + </p> + <p> + "He obtained from the prelates, barons, and knights of the + </p> + <p> + {Illustration: PLATE X.—THE NATIVITY. GIOVANNI PISANO. } + </p> + <p> + shires, one half of their wool for this year—a very valuable and + extraordinary grant. He seized all the tin "(above-ground, you mean Mr. + Henry!)" in Cornwall and Devonshire, took possession of the lands of all + priories alien, and of the money, jewels, and valuable effects of the + Lombard merchants. He demanded certain quantities of bread, corn, oats, + and bacon, from each county; borrowed their silver plate from many abbeys, + as well as great sums of money both abroad and at home; and pawned his + crown for fifty thousand florins." {1} + </p> + <p> + {Footnote 1: Henry's "History of England," book iv., chap. i.} + </p> + <p> + He pawns his queen's jewels next year; and finally summons all the + gentlemen of England who had forty pounds a year, to come and receive the + honour of knighthood, or pay to be excused! + </p> + <p> + 277. II. The failures of Edward, or of twenty Edwards, would have done + Florence no harm, had she remained true to herself, and to her + neighbouring states. Her merchants only fall by their own increasing + avarice; and above all by the mercantile form of pillage, usury. The idea + that money could beget money, though more absurd than alchemy, had yet an + apparently practical and irresistibly tempting confirmation in the wealth + of villains, and the success of fools. Alchemy, in its day, led to pure + chemistry; and calmly yielded to the science it had fostered. But all + wholesome indignation against usurers was prevented, in the Christian + mind, by wicked and cruel religious hatred of the race of Christ. In the + end, Shakspeare himself, in his fierce effort against the madness, + suffered himself to miss his mark by making his usurer a Jew: the + Franciscan institution of the Mount of Pity failed before the lust of + Lombardy, and the logic of Augsburg; and, to this day, the worship of the + Immaculate Virginity of Money, mother of the Omnipotence of Money, is the + Protestant form of Madonna worship. + </p> + <p> + 278. III. The usurer's fang, and the debtor's shame, might both have been + trodden down under the feet of Italy, had her knights and her workmen + remained true to each other. But the brotherhoods of Italy were not of + Cain to Abel—but of Cain to Cain. Every man's sword was against his + fellow. Pisa sank before Genoa at Meloria, the Italian Ægos-Potamos; Genoa + before Venice in the war of Chiozza, the Italian siege of Syracuse. + Florence sent her Brunelleschi to divert the waves of Serchio against the + walls of Lucca; Lucca her Castruccio, to hold mock tournaments before the + gates of vanquished Florence. The weak modern Italian reviles or bewails + the acts of foreign races, as if his destiny had depended upon these; let + him at least assume the pride, and bear the grief, of remembering that, + among all the virgin cities of his country, there has not been one which + would not ally herself with a stranger, to effect a sister's ruin. + </p> + <p> + 279. Lastly. The impartiality with which I have stated the acts, so far as + known to me, and impulses, so far as discernible by me, of the contending + Church and Empire, cannot but give offence, or provoke suspicion, in the + minds of those among you who are accustomed to hear the cause of Religion + supported by eager disciples, or attacked by confessed enemies. My + confession of hostility would be open, if I were an enemy indeed; but I + have never possessed the knowledge, and have long ago been cured of the + pride, which makes men fervent in witness for the Church's virtue, or + insolent in declamation against her errors. The will of Heaven, which + grants the grace and ordains the diversities of Religion, needs no + defence, and sustains no defeat, by the humours of men; and our first + business in relation to it is to silence our wishes, and to calm our + fears. If, in such modest and disciplined temper, you arrange your + increasing knowledge of the history of mankind, you will have no final + difficulty in distinguishing the operation of the Master's law from the + consequences of the disobedience to it which He permits; nor will you + respect the law less, because, accepting only the obedience of love, it + neither hastily punishes, nor pompously rewards, with what men think + reward or chastisement. Not always under the feet of Korah the earth is + rent; not always at the call of Elijah the clouds gather; but the guarding + mountains for ever stand round about Jerusalem; and the rain, miraculous + evermore, makes green the fields for the evil and the good. + </p> + <p> + 280. And if you will fix your minds only on the conditions of human life + which the Giver of it demands, "He hath shown thee, oh man, what is good, + and what doth thy Lord require of thee, but to do justice, and to love + mercy, and to walk humbly with thy God," you will find that such obedience + is always acknowledged by temporal blessing. If, turning from the manifest + miseries of cruel ambition, and manifest wanderings of insolent belief, + you summon to your thoughts rather the state of unrecorded multitudes, who + laboured in silence, and adored in humility, widely as the snows of + Christendom brought memory of the Birth of Christ, or her spring sunshine, + of His Resurrection, you may know that the promise of the Bethlehem angels + has been literally fulfilled; and will pray that your English fields, + joyfully as the banks of Arno, may still dedicate their pure lilies to St. + Mary of the Flower. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE" id="link2H_APPE"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX. (NOTES ON THE PLATES ILLUSTRATING THIS VOLUME.) + </h2> + <p> + In the delivery of the preceding Lectures, some account was given of the + theologic design of the sculptures by Giovanni Pisano at Orvieto, which I + intended to have printed separately, and in more complete form, in this + Appendix. But my strength does not now admit of my fulfilling the half of + my intentions, and I find myself, at present, tired, and so dead in + feeling, that I have no quickness in interpretation, or skill in + description of emotional work. I must content myself, therefore, for the + time, with a short statement of the points which I wish the reader to + observe in the Plates, and which were left unnoticed in the text. + </p> + <p> + The frontispiece is the best copy I can get, in permanent materials, of a + photograph of the course of the Arno, through Pisa, before the old banks + were destroyed. Two arches of the Ponte-a-Mare which was carried away in + the inundation of 1870, are seen in the distance; the church of La Spina, + in its original position overhanging the river; and the buttressed and + rugged walls of the mediaeval shore. Never more, any of these, to be seen + in reality, by living eyes. + </p> + <p> + PLATE I.—A small portion of a photograph of Nicolo Pisano's + Adoration of the Magi, on the pulpit of the Pisan Baptistery. The + intensely Greek character of the heads, and the severely impetuous + chiselling (learned from Late Roman rapid work), which drives the lines of + the drapery nearly straight, may be seen better in a fragment of this + limited measure than in the crowded massing of the entire subject. But it + may be observed also that there is both a thoughtfulness and a tenderness + in the features, whether of the Virgin or the attendant angel, which + already indicate an aim beyond that of Greek art. + </p> + <p> + PLATE II—The Pulpit of the Baptistery (of which the preceding plate + represents a portion). I have only given this general view for convenience + of reference. Beautiful photographs of the subject on a large scale are + easily attainable. + </p> + <p> + PLATE III.—The Fountain of Perugia. Executed from a sketch by Mr. + Arthur Severn. The perspective of the steps is not quite true; we both + tried to get it right, but found that it would be a day or two's work, to + little purpose, and so let them go at hazard. The inlaid pattern behind is + part of the older wall of the cathedral; the late door is of course + inserted. + </p> + <p> + PLATE IV., LETTER E.—From Norman Bible in the British Museum; + showing the moral temper which regulated common ornamentation in the + twelfth century. + </p> + <p> + PLATE V.—Door of the Baptistery at Pisa. The reader must note that, + although these plates are necessarily, in fineness of detail, inferior to + the photographs from which they are taken, they have the inestimable + advantage of permanence, and will not fade away into spectres when the + book is old. I am greatly puzzled by the richness of the current + ornamentation on the main pillars, as opposed to the general severity of + design. I never can understand how the men who indulged in this flowing + luxury of foliage were so stern in their masonry and figure-draperies. + </p> + <p> + PLATE VI.—Part of the lintel of the door represented on Plate V., + enlarged. I intended, in the Lecture on Marble Couchant, to have insisted, + at some length, on the decoration of the lintel and side-posts, as one of + the most important phases of mystic ecclesiastical sculpture. But I find + the materials furnished by Lucca, Pisa, and Florence, for such an essay + are far too rich to be examined cursorily; the treatment even of this + single lintel could scarcely be enough explained in the close of the + Lecture. I must dwell on some points of it now. + </p> + <p> + Look back to Section 175 in "Aratra Pentelici," giving statement of the + four kinds of relief in sculpture. The uppermost of these plinths is of + the kind I have called 'round relief'; you might strike it out on a coin. + The lower is 'foliate relief'; it looks almost as if the figures had been + cut out of one layer of marble, and laid against another behind it. + </p> + <p> + The uppermost, at the distance of my diagram, or in nature itself, would + scarcely be distinguished at a careless glance from an egg-and-arrow + moulding. You could not have a more simple or forcible illustration of my + statement in the first chapter of "Aratra," that the essential business of + sculpture is to produce a series of agreeable bosses or rounded surfaces; + to which, if possible, some meaning may afterwards be attached. In the + present instance, every egg becomes an angel, or evangelist, and every + arrow a lily, or a wing. {1} The whole is in the most exquisitely finished + Byzantine style. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote: In the contemporary south door of the Duomo of Genoa, the Greek + moulding is used without any such transformation.} + </p> + <p> + I am not sure of being right in my interpretation of the meaning of these + figures; but I think there can be little question about it. There are + eleven altogether; the three central, Christ with His mother and St. + Joseph; then, two evangelists, with two alternate angels, on each side. + Each of these angels carries a rod, with a fleur-de-lys termination; their + wings decorate the intermediate ridges (formed, in a pure Greek moulding, + by the arrows); and, behind the heads of all the figures, there is now a + circular recess; once filled, I doubt not, by a plate of gold. The Christ, + and the Evangelists, all carry books, of which each has a mosaic, or + intaglio ornament, in the shape of a cross. I could not show you a more + severe or perfectly representative piece of <i>architectural</i> + sculpture. + </p> + <p> + The heads of the eleven figures are as simply decorative as the ball + flowers are in our English Gothic tracery; the slight irregularity + produced by different gesture and character giving precisely the sort of + change which a good designer wishes to see in the parts of a consecutive + ornament. + </p> + <p> + The moulding closes at each extremity with a palm-tree, correspondent in + execution with those on coins of Syracuse; for the rest, the interest of + it consists only in these slight variations of attitude by which the + figures express wonder or concern at some event going on in their + presence. They are looking down; and I do not doubt, are intended to be + the heavenly witnesses of the story engraved on the stone below,—The + Life and Death of the Baptist. + </p> + <p> + The lower stone on which this is related, is a model of skill in Fiction, + properly so called. In Fictile art, in Fictile history, it is equally + exemplary. 'Feigning' or 'affecting' in the most exquisite way by + fastening intensely on the principal points. + </p> + <p> + Ask yourselves what are the principal points to be insisted on, in the + story of the Baptist. + </p> + <p> + He came, "preaching the Baptism of Repentance for the remission of sins." + That is his Advice, or Order-preaching. + </p> + <p> + And he came, "to bear witness of the Light." "Behold the Lamb of God, + which taketh away the sins of the world." That is his declaration, or + revelation-preaching. + </p> + <p> + And the end of his own life is in the practice of this preaching—if + you will think of it—under curious difficulties in both kinds. + Difficulties in putting away sin—difficulties in obtaining sight. + The first half of the stone begins with the apocalyptic preaching. Christ, + represented as in youth, is set under two trees, in the wilderness. St. + John is scarcely at first seen; he is only the guide, scarcely the + teacher, of the crowd of peoples, nations, and languages, whom he leads, + pointing them to the Christ. Without doubt, all these figures have + separate meaning. I am too ignorant to interpret it; but observe + generally, they are the thoughtful and wise of the earth, not its ruffians + or rogues. This is not, by any means, a general amnesty to blackguards, + and an apocalypse to brutes, which St. John is preaching. These are quite + the best people he can find to call, or advise. You see many of them carry + rolls of paper in their hands, as he does himself. In comparison with the + books of the upper cornice, these have special meaning, as throughout + Byzantine design. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + "Adverte quod patriarchæ et prophetse pinguntur cum rotulis + in manibus; quidam vero apostoli cum libris, et quidam + cum rotulis. Nempe quia ante Christi adventum fides figurative + ostendebatur, et quoad multa, in se implicita erat. Ad + quod ostendendum patriarchse et prophetæ pinguntur cum rotulis, + per quos quasi qusedam imperfecta cognitio design atur; + quia vero apostoli a Christo perfecte edocti suut, ideo libris, + per quos designatur perfecta cognitio, uti possunt." +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + WILLIAM DURANDUS, quoted by Didron, p. 305. +</pre> + <p> + PLATE VII.—Next to this subject of the preaching comes the Baptism: + and then, the circumstances of St. John's death. First, his declaration to + Herod, "It is not lawful for thee to have thy brother's wife:" on which he + is seized and carried to prison:—next, Herod's feast,—the + consultation between daughter and mother, "What shall I ask?"—the + martyrdom, and burial by the disciples. The notable point in the treatment + of all these subjects is the quiet and mystic Byzantine dwelling on + thought rather than action. In a northern sculpture of this subject, the + daughter of Herodias would have been assuredly dancing; and most probably, + casting a somersault. With the Byzantine, the debate in her mind is the + only subject of interest, and he carves above, the evil angels, laying + their hands on the heads, first of Herod and Herodias, and then of + Herodias and her daughter. + </p> + <p> + PLATE VIII.—The issuing of commandment not to eat of the tree of + knowledge. (Orvieto Cathedral.) + </p> + <p> + This, with Plates X. and XII., will give a sufficiently clear conception + to any reader who has a knowledge of sculpture, of the principles of + Giovanni Pisano's design. I have thought it well worth while to publish + opposite two of them, facsimiles of the engravings which profess to + represent them in Gruiier's monograph {1} of the Orvieto sculptures; for + these outlines will, once for all, and better than any words, show my + pupils what is the real virue of mediaeval work,—the power which we + medievalists rejoice in it for. Precisely the qualities which are <i>not</i> + in the modern drawings, are the essential virtues of the early sculpture. + If you like the Gruner outlines best, you need not trouble yourself to go + to Orvieto, or anywhere else in Italy. Sculpture, such as those outlines + represent, can be supplied to you by the acre, to order, in any modern + academician's atelier. But if you like the strange, rude, quaint, Gothic + realities (for these photographs are, up to a certain point, a vision of + the reality) best; then, don't study mediaeval art under the direction of + modern illustrators. Look at it—for however short a time, where you + can find it—veritable and untouched, however mouldered or shattered. + And abhor, as you would the mimicry of your best friend's manners by a + fool, all restorations and improving copies. For remember, none but fools + think they can restore—none, but worse fools, that they can improve. + </p> + <p> + {Footnote: The drawings are by some Italian draughtsman, whose name it is + no business of mine to notice.} + </p> + <p> + Examine these outlines, then, with extreme care, and point by point. The + things which they have refused or lost, are the things you have to love, + in Giovanni Pisano. + </p> + <p> + I will merely begin the task of examination, to show you how to set about + it. Take the head of the commanding Christ. Although inclined forward from + the shoulders in the advancing motion of the whole body, the head itself + is not stooped; but held entirely upright, the line of forehead sloping + backwards. The command is given in calm authority; not in mean anxiety. + But this was not expressive enough for the copyist,—"How much better + <i>I</i> can show what is meant!" thinks he. So he puts the line of + forehead and nose upright; projects the brow out of its straight line; and + the expression then becomes,—"Now, be very careful, and mind what I + say." Perhaps you like this 'improved' action better? Be it so; only, it + is not Giovanni Pisano's design; but the modern Italian's. + </p> + <p> + Next, take the head of Eve. It is much missed in the photograph—nearly + all the finest lines lost—but enough is got to show Giovanni's mind. + </p> + <p> + It appears, he liked long-headed people, with sharp chins and straight + noses. It might be very wrong of him; but that was his taste. So much so, + indeed, that Adam and Eve have, + </p> + <p> + {Illustration: PLATE XI.—THE NATIVITY. MODERN ITALIAN.} + </p> + <p> + both of them, heads not much shorter than one-sixth of their entire + height. + </p> + <p> + Your modern Academy pupil, of course, cannot tolerate this monstrosity. He + indulgently corrects Giovanni, and Adam and Eve have entirely orthodox + one-eighth heads, by rule of schools. + </p> + <p> + But how of Eve's sharp-cut nose and pointed chin, thin lips, and look of + quiet but rather surprised attention—not specially reverent, but + looking keenly out from under her eyelids, like a careful servant + receiving an order? + </p> + <p> + Well—those are all Giovanni's own notions;—not the least + classical, nor scientific, nor even like a pretty, sentimental modern + woman. Like a Florentine woman—in Giovanni's time—it may be; + at all events, very certainly, what Giovanni thought proper to carve. + </p> + <p> + Now examine your modern edition. An entirely proper Greco-Roman academy + plaster bust, with a proper nose, and proper mouth, and a round chin, and + an expression of the most solemn reverence; always, of course, of a + classical description. Very fine, perhaps. But not Giovanni. + </p> + <p> + After Eve's head, let us look at her feet. Giovanni has his own positive + notions about those also. Thin and bony, to excess, the right, undercut + all along, so that the profile looks as thin as the mere elongated line on + an Etruscan vase; and the right showing the five toes all well separate, + nearly straight, and the larger ones almost as long as fingers! the shin + bone above carried up in as severe and sharp a curve as the edge of a + sword. + </p> + <p> + Now examine the modern copy. Beautiful little fleshy, Venus-de'-Medici + feet and toes—no undercutting to the right foot,—the left + having the great-toe properly laid over the second, according to the + ordinances of schools and shoes, and a well-developed academic and + operatic calf and leg. Again charming, of course. But only according to + Mr. Gibson or Mr. Power—not according to Giovanni. + </p> + <p> + Farther, and finally, note the delight with which Giovanni has dwelt, + though without exaggeration, on the muscles of the breast and ribs in the + Adam; while he has subdued all away into virginal severity in Eve. And + then note, and with conclusive admiration, how in the exact and only place + where the poor modern fool's anatomical knowledge should have been shown, + the wretch loses his hold of it! How he has entirely missed and effaced + the grand Greek pectoral muscles of Giovanni's Adam, but has studiously + added what mean fleshliness he could to the Eve; and marked with black + spots the nipple and navel, where Giovanni left only the severe marble in + pure light. + </p> + <p> + These instances are enough to enable you to detect the insolent changes in + the design of Giovanni made by the modern Academy-student in so far as + they relate to form absolute. I must farther, for a few moments, request + your attention to the alterations made in the light and shade. + </p> + <p> + You may perhaps remember some of the passages. They occur frequently, both + in my inaugural lectures, and in "Aratra Pentelici," in which I have + pointed out the essential connection between the schools of sculpture and + those of chiaroscuro. I have always spoken of the Greek, or essentially + sculpture-loving schools, as chiaroscurist; always of the Gothic, or + colour-loving schools, as non-chiaroscurist. And in one place, (I have not + my books here, and cannot refer to it,) I have even defined sculpture as + light-and-shade drawing with the chisel. Therefore, the next point you + have to look to, after the absolute characters of form, is the mode in + which the sculptor has placed his shadows, both to express these, and to + force the eye to the points of his composition which he wants looked at. + You cannot possibly see a more instructive piece of work, in these + respects, than Giovanni's design of the Nativity, Plate X. So far as I yet + know Christian art, this is the central type of the treatment of the + subject; it has all the intensity and passion of the earliest schools, + together with a grace of repose which even in Ghiberti's beautiful + Nativity, founded upon it, has scarcely been increased, but rather lost in + languor. The motive of the design is the frequent one among all the early + masters; the Madonna lifts the covering from the cradle to show the Child + to one of the servants, who starts forward adoring. All the light and + shade is disposed + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + {Illustration: PLATE XII.—THE ANNUNCIATION AND VISITATION.} +</pre> + <p> + to fix the eye on these main actions. First, one intense deeply-cut mass + of shadow, under the pointed arch, to throw out the head and lifted hand + of the Virgin. A vulgar sculptor would have cut all black behind the head; + Giovanni begins with full shadow; then subdues it with drapery absolutely + quiet in fall; then lays his fullest possible light on the head, the hand, + and the edge of the lifted veil. + </p> + <p> + He has undercut his Madonna's profile, being his main aim, too delicately + for time to spare; happily the deep-cut brow is left, and the exquisitely + refined line above, of the veil and hair. The rest of the work is + uninjured, and the sharpest edges of light are still secure. You may note + how the passionate action of the servant is given by the deep shadows + under and above her arm, relieving its curves in all their length, and by + the recess of shade under the cheek and chin, which lifts the face. + </p> + <p> + Now take your modern student's copy, and look how <i>he</i> has placed his + lights and shades. You see, they go as nearly as possible exactly where + Giovanni's <i>don't</i>. First, pure white under this Gothic arch, where + Giovanni has put his fullest dark. Secondly, just where Giovanni has used + his whole art of chiselling, to soften his stone away, and show the + wreaths of the Madonna's hair lifting her veil behind, the accursed modern + blockhead carves his shadow straight down, because he thinks that will be + more in the style of Michael Angelo. Then he takes the shadows away from + behind the profile, and from under the chin, and from under the arm, and + puts in two grand square blocks of dark at the ends of the cradle, that + you may be safe to look at that, instead of the Child. Next, he takes it + all away from under the servant's arms, and lays it all behind above the + calf of her leg. Then, not having wit enough to notice Giovanni's + undulating surface beneath the drapery of the bed on the left, he limits + it with a hard parallel-sided bar of shade, and insists on the vertical + fold under the Madonna's arm, which Giovanni has purposely cut flat that + it may not interfere with the arm above; finally, the modern animal has + missed the only pieces of womanly form which Giovanni admitted, the + rounded right arm and softly revealed breast; and absolutely removed, as + if it were no part of the composition, the horizontal incision at the base + of all—out of which the first folds of the drapery rise. + </p> + <p> + I cannot give you any better example, than this modern Academy-work, of + the total ignorance of the very first meaning of the word 'Sculpture' into + which the popular schools of existing art are plunged. I will not insist, + now, on the uselessness, or worse, of their endeavours to represent the + older art, and of the necessary futility of their judgment of it. The + conclusions to which I wish to lead you on these points will be the + subject of future lectures, being of too great importance for examination + here. But you cannot spend your time in more profitable study than by + examining and comparing, touch for touch, the treatment of light and + shadow in the figures of the Christ and sequent angels, in Plates VIII. + and IX., as we have partly examined those of the subject before us; and in + thus assuring yourself of the uselessness of trusting to any ordinary + modern copyists, for anything more than the rudest chart or map—and + even that inaccurately surveyed—of ancient design. + </p> + <p> + The last plate given in this volume contains the two lovely subjects of + the Annunciation and Visitation, which, being higher from the ground, are + better preserved than the groups represented in the other plates. They + will be found to justify, in subtlety of chiselling, the title I gave to + Giovanni, of the Canova of the thirteenth century. + </p> + <p> + I am obliged to leave without notice, at present, the branch of ivy, given + in illustration of the term 'marble rampant,' at the base of Plate VIII. + The foliage of Orvieto can only be rightly described in connection with + the great scheme of leaf-ornamentation which ascended from the ivy of the + Homeric period in the sculptures of Cyprus, to the roses of Botticelli, + and laurels of Bellini and Titian. + </p> + <div style="height: 6em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Val d'Arno, by John Ruskin + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VAL D'ARNO *** + +***** This file should be named 8523-h.htm or 8523-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/8/5/2/8523/ + + +Text file produced by Tiffany Vergon, ckirschner and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team + +The HTML file produced by David Widger + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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