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diff --git a/8390-0.txt b/8390-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..b485f46 --- /dev/null +++ b/8390-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,3189 @@ +The Project Gutenberg eBook of Buddhism and Buddhists in China, by Lewis Hodous + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at +www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you +will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before +using this eBook. + +Title: Buddhism and Buddhists in China + +Author: Lewis Hodous + +Release Date: July 6, 2003 [eBook #8390] +[Most recently updated: January 22, 2023] + +Language: English + +Produced by: Lee Dawei, V-M Osterman and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA *** + + + + +BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA + +by LEWIS HODOUS, D.D. + + + + +Contents + + PREFACE + CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY + CHAPTER II. THE ENTRANCE OF BUDDHISM INTO CHINA + CHAPTER III. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM AS THE PREDOMINATING RELIGION OF CHINA + 1. The World of Invisible Spirits + 2. The Universal Sense of Ancestor Control + 3. Degenerate Taoism + 4. The Organizing Value of Confucianism + 5. Buddhism an Inclusive Religion + CHAPTER IV. BUDDHISM AND THE PEASANT + 1. The Monastery of Kushan + 2. Monasteries Control Fêng-shui + 3. Prayer for Rain + (a) The altar + (b) The prayer service + (c) Its Meaning + 4. Monasteries are Supported because They Control Fêng-shui + CHAPTER V. BUDDHISM AND THE FAMILY + 1. Kuan Yin, the Giver of Children and Protector of Women + 2. Kuan Yin, the Model of Local Mother-Goddesses + 3. Exhortations on Family Virtues + 4. Services for the Dead + CHAPTER VI. BUDDHISM AND SOCIAL LIFE + 1. How the Laity is Trained in Buddhist Ideas + 2. Effect of Ideals of Mercy and Universal Love + 3. Relation to Confucian Ideal + 4. The Embodiment of Buddhist Ideals in the Vegetarian Sects + 5. Pilgrimages + CHAPTER VII. BUDDHISM AND THE FUTURE LIFE + 1. The Buddhist Purgatory + 2. Its Social Value + 3. The Buddhist Heaven + 4. The Harmonization of These Ideas with Ancestor Worship + CHAPTER VIII. THE SPIRITUAL VALUES EMPHASIZED BY BUDDHISM IN CHINA + 1. The Threefold Classification of Men under Buddhism + 2. Salvation for the Common Man + 3. The Place of Faith + 4. Salvation of the Second Class + 5. Salvation for the Highest Class + 6. Heaven and Purgatory + 7. Sin + 8. Nirvana + 9. The Philosophical Background + 10. What Buddhism Has to Give + CHAPTER IX. PRESENT-DAY BUDDHISM + 1. Periods of Buddhist History + 2. The Progress of the Last Twenty-five Years + 3. Present Activities + (a) The reconstruction of monasteries + (b) Accessions + (c) Publications + (d) Lectures + (e) Buddhist societies + (f) Signs of social ambition + 4. The Attitude of Tibetan Lamas + 5. The Buddhist World Versus the Christian World + CHAPTER X. THE CHRISTIAN APPROACH TO BUDDHISTS + 1. Questions which Buddhists Ask + 2. Knowledge and Sympathy + 3. Emphasis on the Æsthetic in Christianity + 4. Emphasis on the Mystical in Christianity + 5. Emphasis on the Social Elements in Christianity + 6. Emphasis on the Person of Jesus Christ + (a) As a Historical Character + (b) As the Revealer + (c) As the Saviour + (d) As the Eternal Son of God + 7. How Christianity Expresses Itself in Buddhist Minds + 8. Christianity’s Constructive Values + APPENDIX ONE, Hints for the Preliminary Study of Buddhism in China + APPENDIX TWO, A Brief Bibliography + + + + +PREFACE + + +This volume is the third to be published of a series on “The World’s Living +Religions,” projected in 1920 by the Board of Missionary Preparation of the +Foreign Missions Conference of North America. The series seeks to introduce +Western readers to the real religious life of each great national area of the +non-Christian world. + +Buddhism is a religion which must be viewed from many angles. Its original +form, as preached by Gautama in India and developed in the early years +succeeding, and as embodied in the sacred literature of early Buddhism, is not +representative of the actual Buddhism of any land today. The faithful student +of Buddhist literature would be as far removed from understanding the working +activities of a busy center of Buddhism in Burmah, Tibet or China today as a +student of patristic literature would be from appreciating the Christian life +of London or New York City. + +Moreover Buddhism, like Christianity, has been affected by national conditions. +It has developed at least three markedly different types, requiring, therefore, +as many distinct volumes of this series for its fair interpretation and +presentation. The volume on the Buddhism of Southern Asia by Professor Kenneth +J. Saunders was published in May, 1923; this volume on the Buddhism of China by +Professor Hodous will be the second to appear; a third on the Buddhism of +Japan, to be written by Dr. R. C. Armstrong, will be published in 1924. Each of +these is needed in order that the would be student of Buddhism as practiced in +those countries should be given a true, impressive and friendly picture of what +he will meet. + +A missionary no less than a professional student of Buddhism needs to approach +that religion with a real appreciation of what it aims to do for its people and +does do. No one can come into contact with the best that Buddhism offers +without being impressed by its serenity, assurance and power. + +Professor Hodous has written this volume on Buddhism in China out of the ripe +experience and continuing studies of sixteen years of missionary service in +Foochow, the chief city of Fukien Province, China, one of the important centers +of Buddhism. His local studies were supplemented by the results of broader +research and study in northern China. No other available writer on the subject +has gone so far as he in reproducing the actual thinking of a trained Buddhist +mind in regard to the fundamentals of religion. At the same time he has taken +pains to exhibit and to interpret the religious life of the peasant as affected +by Buddhism. He has sought to be absolutely fair to Buddhism, but still to +express his own conviction that the best that is in Buddhism is given far more +adequate expression in Christianity. + +The purpose of each volume in this series is impressionistic rather than +definitely educational. They are not textbooks for the formal study of +Buddhism, but introductions to its study. They aim to kindle interest and to +direct the activity of the awakened student along sound lines. For further +study each volume amply provides through directions and literature in the +appendices. It seeks to help the student to discriminate, to think in terms of +a devotee of Buddhism when he compares that religion with Christianity. It +assumes, however, that Christianity is the broader and deeper revelation of God +and the world of today. + +Buddhism in China undoubtedly includes among its adherents many high-minded, +devout, and earnest souls who live an idealistic life. Christianity ought to +make a strong appeal to such minds, taking from them none of the joy or +assurance or devotion which they possess, but promoting a deeper, better +balanced interpretation of the active world, a nobler conception of God, a +stronger sense of sinfulness and need, and a truer idea of the full meaning of +incarnation and revelation. + +It is our hope that this fresh contribution to the understanding of Buddhism as +it is today may be found helpful to readers everywhere. + +The Editors. + +_New York city, December, 1923._ + +The Committee of Reference and Counsel of the Foreign Missions Conference of +North America has authorized the publication of this series. The author of each +volume is alone responsible for the opinions expressed, unless otherwise +stated. + + + + +BUDDHISM AND BUDDHISTS IN CHINA + + + + +I +INTRODUCTORY + + +A well known missionary of Peking, China, was invited one day by a Buddhist +acquaintance to attend the ceremony of initiation for a class of one hundred +and eighty priests and some twenty laity who had been undergoing preparatory +instruction at the stately and important Buddhist monastery. The beautiful +courts of the temple were filled by a throng of invited guests and spectators, +waiting to watch the impressive procession of candidates, acolytes, attendants +and high officials, all in their appropriate vestments. No outsider was +privileged to witness the solemn taking by each candidate for the priesthood of +the vow to “keep the Ten Laws,” followed by the indelible branding of his +scalp, truly a “baptism of fire.” Less private was the initiation of the lay +brethren and _sisters,_ more lightly branded on the right wrist, while all +about intoned “Na Mah Pen Shih Shih Chia Mou Ni Fo.” (I put my trust in my +original Teacher, Säkyamuni, Buddha.) + +The missionary was deeply impressed by the serenity and devotion of the +worshipers and by the dignity and solemnity of the service. The last candidate +to rise and receive the baptism of branding was a young married woman of +refined appearance, attended by an elderly lady, evidently her mother, who +watched with an expression of mingled devotion, insight and pride her +daughter’s initiation and welcomed her at the end of the process with radiant +face, as a daughter, now, in a spiritual as well as a physical sense. At that +moment an attendant, noting the keen interest of the missionary, said to him +rather flippantly, “Would you not like to have your arm branded, too?” “I +might,” he replied, “just out of curiosity, but I could not receive the +branding as a believer in the Buddha. I am a Christian believer. To be branded +without inward faith would be an insult to your religion as well as treachery +to my own, would it not? Is not real religion a matter of the heart?” + +The old lady, who had overheard with evident disapproval the remark of the +attendant, turned to the missionary at once and said, “Is that the way you +Westerners, you Christians, speak of your faith? Is the reality of religion for +you also an inward experience of the heart?” And with that began an interesting +interchange of conversation, each party discovering that in the heart of the +other was a genuine longing for God that overwhelmed all the artificial, +material distinctions and the human devices through which men have limited to +particular and exclusive paths their way of search, and drew these two pilgrims +on the way toward God into a common and very real fellowship of the spirit. + +A Buddhist monk was passing by a mission building in another city’ of China +when his attention was suddenly drawn to the Svastika and other Buddhist +symbols which the architect had skilfully used in decorating the building. His +face brightened as he said to his companion: “I did not know that Christians +had any appreciation of beauty in their religion.” + +These incidents reveal aspects of the alchemy of the soul by which the real +devotee of one religion perceives values which are dear to him in another +religion. The good which he has attained in his old religion enables him to +appropriate the better in the new religion. A converted monk, explaining his +acceptance of Christianity, said: “I found in Jesus Christ the great +Bodhisattva, my Saviour, who brings to fruition the aspirations awakened in me +by Buddhism.” + +Just as it has been said that they do not know England who know England only, +so it may be said with equal truth that they do not know Christianity who know +it and no other faith. There are many in China like the old lady at the temple, +who have found in Buddhism something of that spiritual satisfaction and +stimulus which true Christianity affords, in fuller measure. The recognition of +such religious values by the student or the missionary furnishes a sound +foundation for the building of a truer spirituality among such devotees. + +As will be seen in what follows, religion in China is at first sight a mixed +affair. From the standpoint of cruder household superstitions an average +Chinese family may be regarded as Taoists; the principles by which its members +seek to guide their lives individually and socially may be called Confucian; +their attitude of worship and their hopes for the future make them Buddhists. +The student would not be far afield when he credits the religious aspirations +of the Chinese today to Buddhism, regarding Confucianism as furnishing the +ethical system to which they submit and Taoism as responsible for many +superstitious practices. But the Buddhism found in China differs radically from +that of Southern Asia, as will be made clear by the following sketch of its +introduction into the Flowery Kingdom and its subsequent history. + + + + +II +THE ENTRANCE OF BUDDHISM INTO CHINA + + +Buddhism was not an indigenous religion of China. Its founder was Gautama of +India in the sixth century B.C. Some centuries later it found its way into +China by way of central Asia. There is a tradition that as early as 142 B.C. +Chang Ch’ien, an ambassador of the Chinese emperor, Wu Ti, visited the +countries of central Asia, where he first learned about the new religion which +was making such headway and reported concerning it to his master. A few years +later the generals of Wu Ti captured a gold image of the Buddha which the +emperor set up in his palace and worshiped, but he took no further steps. + +According to Chinese historians Buddhism was officially recognized in China +about 67 A.D. A few years before that date, the emperor, Ming-Ti, saw in a +dream a large golden image with a halo hovering above his palace. His advisers, +some of whom were no doubt already favorable to the new religion, interpreted +the image of the dream to be that of Buddha, the great sage of India, who was +inviting his adhesion. Following their advice the emperor sent an embassy to +study into Buddhism. It brought back two Indian monks and a quantity of +Buddhist classics. These were carried on a white horse and so the monastery +which the emperor built for the monks and those who came after them was called +the White Horse Monastery. Its tablet is said to have survived to this day. + +This dream story is worth repeating because it goes to show that Buddhism was +not only known at an early date, but was favored at the court of China. In +fact, the same history which relates the dream contains the biography of an +official who became an adherent of Buddhism a few years before the dream took +place. This is not at all surprising, because an acquaintance with Buddhism was +the inevitable concomitant of the military campaigning, the many embassies and +the wide-ranging trade of those centuries. But the introduction of Buddhism +into China was especially promoted by reason of the current policy of the +Chinese government of moving conquered populations in countries west of China +into China proper, The vanquished peoples brought their own religion along with +them. At one time what is now the province of Shansi was populated in this way +by the Hsiung-nu, many of whom were Buddhists. + +The introduction and spread of Buddhism were hastened by the decline of +Confucianism and Taoism. The Han dynasty (206 B. C.-221 A. D.) established a +government founded on Confucianism. It reproduced the classics destroyed in the +previous dynasty and encouraged their study; it established the state worship +of Confucius; it based its laws and regulations upon the ideals and principles +advocated by Confucius. The great increase of wealth and power under this +dynasty led to a gradual deterioration in the character of the rulers and +officials. The rigid Confucian regulations became burdensome to the people who +ceased to respect their leaders. Confucianism lost its hold as the complete +solution of the problems of life. At the same time Taoism had become a +veritable jumble of meaningless and superstitious rites which served to support +a horde of ignorant, selfish priests. The high religious ideals of the earlier +Taoist mystics were abandoned for a search after the elixir of life during +fruitless journeys to the isles of the Immortals which were supposed to be in +the Eastern Sea. + +At this juncture there arose in North China a sect of men called the Purists +who advocated a return from the vagaries of Taoism and the irritating rules of +Confucianism to the simple life practised by the Taoist mystics. When these +thoughtful and earnest minded men came into contact with Buddhism they were +captivated by it. It had all they were claiming for Taoist mysticism and more. +They devoted their literary ability and religious fervor to the spreading of +the new religion and its success was in no small measure due to their efforts. +As a result of this early association the tenets of the two religions seemed so +much alike that various emperors called assemblies of Buddhists and Taoists +with the intention of effecting a union of the two religions into one. If the +emperor was under the influence of Buddhism he tried to force all Taoists to +become Buddhists. If he was favorable to Taoism he tried to make all Buddhists +become Taoists. + +But such mandates were as unsuccessful as other similar schemes have been. In +the third century A. D. after the Han dynasty had ended, China was broken up +into several small kingdoms which contended for supremacy, so that for about +four hundred years the whole country was in a state of disunion. One of the +strong dynasties of this period, the Northern Wei (386-535 A. D.), was +distinctly loyal to Buddhism. During its continuance Buddhism prospered +greatly. Although Chinese were not permitted to become monks until 335 A. D., +still Buddhism made rapid advances and in the fourth century, when that +restriction was removed, about nine-tenths of the people of northwestern China +had become Buddhists. Since then Buddhism has been an established factor in +Chinese life. + + + + +III +THE ESTABLISHMENT OF BUDDHISM AS THE PREDOMINATING RELIGION OF CHINA + + +Even the historical influences noted above do not account entirely for the +spread of Buddhism in China. In order to understand this and the place which +Buddhism occupies, we need to review briefly the different forms which religion +takes in China and to note how Buddhism has related itself to them. + +_1. The World of Invisible Spirits_ + +The Chinese believe _in_ a surrounding-world of spirits, whose origin is +exceedingly various. They touch life at every point. There are spirits which +are guardians of the soil, tree spirits, mountain demons, fire gods, the +spirits of animals, of mountains, of rivers, seas and stars, of the heavenly +bodies and of many forms of active life. These spirits to the Chinese mind, of +today are a projection, a sort of spiritual counterpart, of the many sided +interests, practical or otherwise, of the groups and communities by whom they +are worshipped. There are other spirits which mirror the ideals of the groups +by which they are worshipped. Some of them may have been incarnated in the +lives of great leaders. There are spirits which are mere animations, occasional +spirits, associated with objects crossing the interests of men, but not +constant enough to attain a definite, independent life as spiritual beings. +Thus surrounding the average Chinese peasant there is a densely populated +spirit world affecting in all kinds of ways his, daily existence. This other +world is the background which must be kept in mind by one who would understand +or attempt to guide Chinese religious experience. It is the basis on which all +organized forms of religious activity are built. The nearest of these to his +heart is the proper regard for his ancestors. + +_2. The Universal Sense_ of _Ancestor Control_ + +The ancestral control of family life occupies so large and important a place in +Chinese thought and practice that ancestor worship has been called the original +religion of the Chinese. It is certain that the earliest Confucian records +recognize ancestor worship; but doubtless it antedated them, growing up out of +the general religious consciousness of the people. The discussion of that +origin in detail cannot be taken up here. It may be followed in the literature +noted in the appendix or in the volume of this series entitled “Present-Day +Confucianism.” Ancestor worship is active today, however, because the Chinese +as a people believe that these ancestors control in a very real way the good or +evil fortunes of their descendants, because this recognition of ancestors +furnishes a potent means of promoting family unity and social ethics, and, most +of all, because a happy future life is supposed to be dependent upon +descendants who will faithfully minister to the dead. Since each one desires +such a future he is faithful in promoting the observance of the obligation. +Consequently, ancestor worship, like the previously mentioned belief in the +invisible spiritual world, underlies all other religious developments. No +family is so obscure or poor that it does not submit to the ritual or +discipline which is supposed to ensure the favor of the spirits belonging to +the community. Likewise, every such family is loyal to the supposed needs of +its deceased ancestors. In a very intimate way these beliefs are interwoven +with the private and social morality of every family or group in Chinese +society, and must be taken into account by any one who seeks to bring a +religious message to the Chinese people. + +_3. Degenerate Taoism_ + +Taoism is that system of Chinese religious thought and practice, beginning +about the fifth century B. C., which was originally based on the teachings of +Lao Tzu and developed in the writings of Lieh Tzu and Chuang Tzu and found in +the Tao Tê Ching. It is really in this original form a philosophy of some +merit. According to its teaching the Tao is the great impersonal background of +the world from which all things proceed as beams from the sun, and to which all +beings return. In contrast to the present, transient, changing world the Tao is +unchangeable and quiet. Originally the Taoists emphasized quiescence, a life in +accordance with nature, as a means of assimilating themselves to the Tao, +believing that in this way they would obtain length of days, eternal life and +especially the power to become superior to natural conditions. + +There is a movement today among Chinese scholars in favor of a return to this +original highest form of Taoism. It appeals to them as a philosophy of life; an +answer to its riddles. Among the masses of the people, however, Taoism +manifests itself in a ritual of extreme superstition. It recommends magic +tricks and curious superstitions as a means of prolonging life. It expresses +itself very largely in these degrading practices which few Chinese will defend, +but which are yet very commonly practiced. + +_4. The Organizing Value of Confucianism_ + +Confucianism brought organization into these hazy conceptions of life and duty. +It took for granted this spiritual-unspiritual background of animism, +ancestor-worship and Taoism, but reshaped and adapted it as a whole so that it +might fit into that proper organization of the state and nation which was one +of its great objectives. Just as Confucianism related the family to the +village, the village to the district, and the district to the state, so it +organized the spiritual world into a hierarchy with Shang Ti as its head. This +hierarchy was developed along the lines of the organization mentioned above. +Under Shang Ti were the five cosmic emperors, one for each of the four quarters +and one for heaven above, under whom were the gods of the soil, the mountains, +rivers, seas, stars, the sun and moon, the ancestors and the gods of special +groups. Each of the deities in the various ranks had duties to those above and +rights with reference to those below. These duties and rights, as they affected +the individual, were not only expressed in law but were embodied in ceremony +and music, in daily religious life and practice in such a way that each +individual had reason to feel that he was a functioning agent in this grand +Confucian universe. If any one failed to do his part, the whole universe would +suffer. So thoroughly has this idea been adopted by the Chinese people that +every one joins in forcing an individual, however reluctant or careless, to +perform his part of each ceremony as it has been ordered from high antiquity. + +The emperor alone worshipped the supreme deity, Shang Ti; the great officers of +state, according to the dignity of their office, were related to subordinate +gods and required to show them adequate respect and reverence. Confucius and a +long line of noted men following him were semi-deified [Footnote: Confucius was +by imperial decree deified in 1908.] and highly reverenced by the literati, the +class from which the officers of state were as a rule obtained, in connection +with their duties, and as an expression of their ideals. To the common people +were left the ordinary local deities, while all classes, of course, each in its +own fashion reverenced, cherished and obeyed their ancestors. It should be +remarked at this point that Confucianism of this official character has broken +down, not only under the impact of modern ideas, but under the longing of the +Chinese for a universal deity. The people turn to Heaven and to the Pearly +Emperor, the popular counterpart of Shang Ti. + +Viewed from another angle, Confucianism is an elaborate system of ethics. In +writings which are virtually the scriptures of the Chinese people Confucius and +his successors have set forth the principles which should govern the life of a +people who recognize this spiritual universe and system. These ethics have +grown out of a long and, in some respects, a sound experience. Much can be said +in their favor. The essential weaknesses of the Confucian system of ethics lie +in its sectional and personal loyalties and its monarchical basis. The spirit +of democracy is a deadly foe to Confucianism. Another element of weakness is +its excessive dependence upon the past. Confucius reached ultimate wisdom by +the study of the best that had been attained before his day. He looked backward +rather than forward. Consequently a modern, broadly educated Confucianist finds +himself in an anomalous position. He does not need absolutely to reject the +wisdom which Confucianism embodies, but he can no longer accept it as a sound, +reliable and indisputable scheme of thought and action. Yet its simple ethical +principles and its social relationships are basal in the lives of the vast +masses of the Chinese. + +_5. Buddhism an Inclusive Religion._ + +Upon this, confused jumble of spiritism, superstition, loyalty to ancestors and +submission to a divine hierarchy Buddhism was superimposed. It quickly +dominated all because of its superior excellence. The form of Buddhism which +became established in China was not, to be sure, like the Buddhism preached by +Gautama and his disciples, or like that form of Buddhism which had taken root +in Burma or Ceylon. Except in name, the Buddhism of Southern Asia and the +Buddhism which developed in China were virtually two distinct types of +religion. The Buddhism of Burma and Ceylon was of the conservative Hînayâna +(“Little Vehicle” of salvation) school, while that of China was of the +progressive Mahâyâna (“Great Vehicle” of salvation) school. Their differences +are so marked as to be worthy of a careful statement. + +The Hinayana, which is today the type of Buddhism in Ceylon, Burma and Siam, +has always clung closely to tradition as expressed in the original Buddhist +scriptures. Its basic ideas were that life is on the whole a time of suffering, +that the cause of this sorrow is desire or ignorance, and that there is a +possible deliverance from it. This deliverance or salvation is to be attained +by following the eightfold path, namely, right knowledge, aspiration, speech, +conduct, means of livelihood, endeavor, mindfulness and meditation. To the +beatific state to be ultimately attained Gautama gave the name Nirvana, +explained by his followers variously either as an utter extinction of +personality or as a passionless peace, a general state of well-being free from +all evil desire or clinging to life and released from the chain of +transmigration. Hinayana Buddhism appeals to the individual as affording a way +of escape from evil desire and its consequences by acquiring knowledge, by +constant discipline, and by a devotedness of the life to religious ends through +membership in the monastic order which Buddha established. It encourages, +however, a personal salvation worked out by the individual alone. + +The Mahâyâna school of Buddhists accept the general ideas of the Hinayana +regarding life and salvation, but so change the spirit and objectives as to +make Buddhism into what is virtually another religion. It does not confine +salvation to the few who can retire from the world and give themselves wholly +to good works, but opens Buddhahood to all. The “saint” of Hinayana Buddhism is +the _arhat_ who is intent on saving himself. The saint of Mahâyâna +Buddhism is the candidate for Buddhahood (Bodhisattva) who defers his entrance +into the bliss of deliverance in order to save others. Mahâyâna Buddhism is +progressive. It encourages missionary enterprise and was a secret of the +remarkable spread of Buddhism over Asia. Moreover, while the Hînayâna school +recognizes no god or being to whom worship is given, the Mahâyanâ came to +regard Gautama himself as a god and salvation as life in a heavenly world of +pure souls. Thus the Mahâyâna type of thinking constitutes a bridge between +Hînayâna Buddhism and Christianity. In fact, a recent writer has declared that +Hînayâna Buddhists are verging toward these more spiritual conceptions. +[Footnote: See Saunders, _Buddhism and Buddhists in Southern Asia,_ pp. +10, 20.] + +After the death of Sâkyamuni [Footnote: Sâkyamuni is the name by which Gautama, +the Buddha, is familiarly known in China.] Buddhism broke up into a number of +sects usually said to be eighteen in number. When Buddhism came to China some +of these sects were introduced, but they assumed new forms in their Chinese +environment. Besides the sects brought, from India the Chinese developed +several strong sects of their own. Usually they speak of ten sects although the +number is far larger, if the various subdivisions are included. + +To indicate the manifold differences between these groups in Buddhism would +take us far afield and would not be profitable. It will be of interest, +however, to consider some of the chief sects. One of the sects introduced from +India is the Pure Land or the Ching T’u which holds before the believer the +“Western Paradise” gained through faith in Amitâbha. Any one, no matter what +his life may have been, may enter the Western Paradise by repeating the name of +Amitâbha. This sect is widespread in China. In Japan there are two branches of +it known as the Nishi-Hongwanji and the Higashi-Hongwanji with their head +monasteries in Kyoto. They are the most progressive sects in Japan and are +carrying on missionary work in China, the Hawaiian Islands and in the United +States. + +Another strong sect is the Meditative sect or the Ch’an Men (Zen in Japan). +This was introduced by Bodhidharma, or Tamo, who arrived in the capital of +China in the year 520 A.D. On his arrival the emperor Wu Ti tried to impress +the sage with his greatness saying: “We have built temples, multiplied the +Scriptures, encouraged many to join the Order: is not there much merit in all +this?” “None,” was the blunt reply. “But what say the holy books? Do they not +promise rewards for such deeds?” “There is nothing holy.” “But you, yourself, +are you not one of the holy ones?” “I don’t know.” “Who are you?” “I don’t +know.” Thus introduced, the great man proceeded to open his missionary-labors +by sitting down opposite a wall arid gazing at it for the next nine years. From +this he has been called the “wall-gazer.” He and his successors promulgated the +doctrine that neither the scriptures, the ritual nor the organization, in fact +nothing outward had any value in the attainment of enlightenment. They held +that the heart of the universe is Buddha and that apart from the heart or the +thought all is unreal. They thought themselves back into the universal Buddha +and then found the Buddha heart in all nature. Thus they awakened the spirit +which permeated nature, art and literature and made the whole world kin with +the spirit of the Buddha. + +“The golden light upon the sunkist peaks, +The water murmuring in the pebbly creeks, +Are Buddha. In the stillness, hark, he speaks!” + + +[Footnote: K. J. Saunders in _Epochs of Buddhist History._] + +Such pantheism and quietism often lead to a confusion in moral relations, but +these mystics were quite correct in their morals because they checked up their +mysticism with the moral system of the Buddha. + +Still another important sect originated in the sixth century A. D. on Chinese +soil, namely, the T’ien T’ai (Japanese Tendai), so called because it started in +a monastery situated on the beautiful T’ien T’ai mountains south of Ningpo. +Chih K’ai, the founder, realized that Buddhism contained a great mass of +contradictory teachings and practice, all attributed to the Buddha. He sought +for a harmonizing principle and found it in the arbitrary theory that these +teachings were given to different people on five different occasions and hence +the discrepancies. The practical message of this sect has been that all beings +have the Buddha heart and that the Buddha loves all beings, so that all beings +may attain salvation, which consists in the full realization of the Buddha +heart latent in them. + +There was a time when these sects were very active and flourishing in China. At +the present time the various tendencies for which they stood have been adopted +by Buddhism as a whole and the various sectaries, though still keeping the name +of the sect, live peacefully in the same monastery. All the monasteries +practice meditation, believe in the paradise of Amitâbha, and are enjoying the +ironic calm advocated by the T’ien T’ai. While the struggle among the sects of +China has been followed by a calm which resembles stagnation, those in Japan +are very active and the reader is referred to the volume of this series on +Japanese Buddhism for further treatment of the subject. + +When Buddhism entered China it brought with it a new world. It was new +_practical_ and new spiritually. It brought a knowledge unknown before +regarding the heavenly bodies, regarding nature and regarding medicine, and a +practice vastly above the realm of magical arts. In addition to these practical +benefits, Buddhism proclaimed a new spiritual universe far more real and +extensive than any of which the Chinese had dreamed, and peopled with spiritual +beings having characteristics entirely novel. In comparison with this new +universe or series of universes which Indian imagination had created, the +Chinese universe was wooden and geometric. Since it was an organized system and +a greater rather than a different one, the Chinese people readily accepted it +and made it their own. + +Buddhism not only enlarged the universe and gave the individual a range of +opportunity hitherto unsuspected, but it introduced a scheme of religious +practice, or rather several of them, enabling the individual devotee to attain +a place in this spiritual universe through his own efforts. These “ways” of +salvation were quite in harmony with Chinese ideas. They resembled what had +already been a part of the national practice and so were readily adopted and +adapted by the Chinese. + +Buddhism rendered a great service to the Chinese through its new estimate of +the individual. Ancient China scarcely recognized the individual. He was merged +in the family and the clan. Taoists, to be sure, talked of “immortals” and +Confucianism exhibited its typical personality, or “princely man,” but these +were thought of as supermen, as ideals. The classics of China had very little +to say about the common people. The great common crowd was submerged. Buddhism, +on the other hand, gave every individual a distinct place in the great wheel +_dharma,_ the law, and made it possible for him to reach the very highest +goal of salvation. This introduced a genuinely new element into the social and +family life of the Chinese people. + +Buddhism was so markedly superior to any one of the four other methods of +expressing the religious life, that it quickly won practical recognition as the +real religion of China. Confucianism may be called the doctrine of the learned +classes. It formulates their principles of life, but it is in no strict sense a +popular religion. It is rather a state ritual, or a scheme of personal and +social ethics. Taoism recognizes the immediate influence of the spirit world, +but it ministers only to local ideals and needs. In the usages of family and +community life, ancestor worship has a definite place, but an occasional one. +Buddhism was able to leave untouched each of these expressions of Chinese +personal and social life, and yet it went far beyond them in ministering to +religious development. Its ideas of being, of moral responsibility and of +religious relationships furnished a new psychology which with all its +imperfections far surpassed that of the Chinese. Buddhism’s organization was so +satisfying and adaptable that not only was it taken over readily by the +Chinese, but it has also persisted in China without marked changes since its +introduction. Most of all it stressed personal salvation and promised an escape +from the impersonal world of distress and hunger which surrounds the average +Chinese into a heaven ruled by Amitâbha [Footnote: Amitâbha, meaning “infinite +light,” is the Sanskrit name of one of the Buddhas moat highly revered in +China. The usual Chinese equivalent is Omi-To-Fo.] the Merciful. The +obligations of Buddhism are very definite and universally recognized. It +enforces high standards of living, but has added significance because it draws +each devotee into a sort of fellowship with the divine, and mates not this life +alone, but this life plus a future life, the end of human activity. Buddhism, +therefore, really expresses the deepest religious life of the people of China. + +It will be worth while to note some illustrations of the conviction of the +Chinese people that there are three religions to which they owe allegiance and +yet that these are essentially one. They often say, “The three teachings are +the whole teaching.” An old scholar is reported to have remarked, “The three +roads are different, but they lead to the same source.” A common story reports +that Confucius was asked in the other world about drinking wine, which +Buddhists forbid but Taoists permit. Confucius replied: “If I do not drink I +become a Buddha. If I drink I become an Immortal. Well, if there is wine, I +shall drink; if there is none, I shall abstain.” This expresses +characteristically the Chinese habit of adaptation. Such a decision sounds +quite up to date. + +The Ethical Culture Society of Peking, recently organized, has upon its walls +pictures of Buddha, Lao Tzu, Confucius and Christ. Its members claim to worship +Shang Ti as the god of all religions. An offshoot of this society, the T’ung +Shan She, associates the three founders very closely with Christ. It claims to +have a deeper revelation of Christ than the Christians themselves. A new +organization, the Tao Yuan, plans to harmonize the three old religions with +Mohammedanism and Christianity. + +Buddhism has consistently and continually striven to bring about a unity of +religion in China by interpenetrating Confucianism and Taoism. Quite early the +Buddhists invented the story that the Bodhisattva Ju T’ung was really Confucius +incarnate. There was at one time a Buddhist temple to Confucius in the province +of Shantung. The Buddhists also gave out the story that Bodhisattva Kas’yapa +was the incarnation of Lao Tzu, the founder of Taoism. An artist painted Lao +Tzu transformed into a Buddha, seated in a lotus bud with a halo about his +head. In front of the Buddha was Confucius doing reverence. A Chinese scholar, +asked for his opinion about the picture, said: “Buddha should be seated; Lao +Tzu should be standing at the side looking askance at Buddha; and Confucius +should be grovelling on the floor.” + +A monument dating from 543 A. D., illustrates this tendency of Buddhism to +represent its own superiority in Chinese religious life. At the top of the +monument is Brahma, lower down is Sâkyamuni with his disciples, Ananda and +Kas’yapa on one face, and on the other Sâkyamuni again, conversing with Buddha +Prabhutaratna and worshipped by monks and Bodhisattvas. On the pedestal are +Confucian and Taoist deities, ten in number. Thus Buddhism sought to rank +itself clearly above the other two religions. From the early days Buddhism +regarded itself as their superior and began the processes of interpenetration +and absorption. In consequence the values originally inherent in Buddhism have +come to be regarded as the natural possession of the Chinese. It does express +their religious life, especially in South China, where outward manifestations +of religion are perhaps more marked than in the north. + + + + +IV +BUDDHISM AND THE PEASANT + + +In order that, one may realize the place that Buddhism holds in the religious +life of the Chinese people as a whole, he must turn to the organizations +through which it functions. It is sometimes difficult to estimate the place of +Buddhism in China, because it so interpenetrates the whole cultural and social +life of the people. It becomes their “way.” To see how it touches the life of +the average man or woman in various ways will, therefore, be illuminating. The +most outstanding evidence of devotion are the many monasteries which dot the +land in all Buddhist countries. China is less dominated by them than other +lands, yet they form a very important reason for the persistence and strength +of Buddhism there. One of the famous old shrines will represent them as a class +and give evidence of their importance. + +_1. The Monastery of Kushan_ + +Kushan Monastery, located about four hours’ ride by sedan-chair from Foochow, +is a famous shrine of South China. It occupies a large amphitheater about +fifteen hundred feet above the plain, part way up Kushan, the “Drum Mountain,” +some three thousand feet high. From the top of the mountain on clear days with +the help of a glass the blue shores of Formosa may be seen on the eastern +horizon. The spacious monastery buildings are surrounded by a grove of noble +trees, in which squirrels, pheasants, chipmunks and snakes enjoy an undisturbed +life. + +The ascent to the monastery begins on the bank of the Min River. At the foot of +the mountain in a large temple the traveler may obtain mountain chairs carried +by two or more coolies. The road, paved with granite slabs cut from the +mountain side, consists of a series of stone stairs, which zig-zag up the +mountain under the shadow of ancient pine trees. Every turn brings to view a +bit of landscape carpeted with rice, or a distant view where mountains and sky +meet. A brook rushes by the side of the road. Here it breaks into a beautiful +waterfall. There it gurgles’ in a deep ravine. The sides of the road are +covered with large granite blocks which, loosened from the mountain side by +earthquakes, have disposed themselves promiscuously. Their blackened, +weather-beaten sides are incised with Chinese characters. One of them bears the +words: “We put our trust in Amitâbha.” Another immortalizes the sentiments of +some great official who has made the pilgrimage to the mountain. Near the +monastery stand the sombre dagobas where repose the ashes of former abbots and +monastery officials. Not far away on the other side of the road, hidden by +trees, is the crematory where the last remains of the brethren are consumed by +the flames. + +As one approaches the monastery he hears the regular sounds of a bell tolled by +a water-wheel, reminding the faithful of Buddha’s law. He sees monks strolling +leisurely about and lay brethren carrying wood, cultivating the gardens, or +tending the animals released by pious devotees to heap up merit for themselves +in the next world. Just inside the main gate is a large fish pond, where +goldfish of great size struggle with one another, and with the lazy turtles, +for the round hard cakes purchased from the monks by the merit-seeking devotee. + +The monastery itself consists of a large group of buildings erected about +stone-paved courts, rising in terraces on the mountain side. The large court at +the entrance leads to the “Hall of the Four Kings.” As one enters the spacious +door, he _is_ faced by a jolly, almost naked image of the “Laughing +Buddha.” This is Maitrêya, the Mea siah of the Buddhists, who will return to +the world five thousand years after the departure of Sâkyamuni. In the northern +monasteries Maitrêya is often represented as reaching a height when standing of +seventy feet or more, which indicates the stature to which man will attain when +he returns to earth. On each side of the visitor are two immense images of the +Deva kings. In Brahman cosmogony they were the guardians of the world. In this +entrance hall of the Buddhist monastery they stand as guardians of the Buddhist +faith. In the same hall looking toward the open court beyond is Wei To, another +guardian deity of Buddhism. Somewhere near by is Kuan Ti, the god worshipped by +the soldiers and merchants. Although a Confucian god, he was early adopted by +Buddhist monks into their pantheon and made the guardian of their Order. + +Beyond this entrance hall is a large stone-paved court. On the right side is a +bell-tower whose bell is tolled by a monk who has kept the vow of silence for +fourteen years. On the left is a drum-tower. On the right one finds a series of +small shrines. A passage way leads to the library where numerous Buddhist +writings repose in lacquered cases, some of them written in their own blood by +devout monks. On the same side are guest halls, the dining room for three +hundred monks, and the spacious, well equipped kitchen with running water piped +from a reservoir in the hills above. A store where books, images and the simple +requirements of the monks can be obtained is just above the dining room. On the +left side of the court are large buildings used as dormitories far the monks, +storerooms, and for housing the great printing establishment with its thousands +of wooden blocks on which are carved passages from the Buddhist scriptures. +Here also are kept the coffins in which the monks are to be burned. + +On a terrace above the north side of the court rises the main hall, called the +“Hall of the Triratna,” the Buddhist Trinity, where three gilded images are +seated on a lotus flower with halos covering their backs and heads. The center +image is that of Sâkyamuni, the Buddha. On his right is Yao Shih, the Buddha of +medicine, and on the left, Amitâbha. Quite often these images are said to +represent the Buddha, the Law and the Community of Monks. On the altar are +candlesticks and a fine incense burner from which curls of smoke arise. An +immense lamp hangs from the ceiling. In the rear are banners with praises to +Buddha given by pious devotees. The floor is tiled and covered with round mats +made of palm fiber on which the monks kneel during worship. Before the mats are +low stands for books. On each side of this main hall are the images of nine +Buddhist saints (_arhats_), eighteen in all. Behind this large temple +opens another court and on a terrace above it stands the hall of the Law with +the images of Kuan Yin, the goddess of Mercy, and the twenty-four devas. Here +also are small images of viceroys and patrons of the monastery. + +The hillsides are dotted with numerous temples and shrines. There is one to +Chu-Hsi, the great philosopher of the Sung dynasty, who was born in Fukien. In +it are preserved a few characters indited by his hand. On the west side of the +monastery are large buildings for the housing of animals released by +merit-seeking devotees. Here cows, hogs, goats, chickens, geese and ducks spend +their old age without fear of beginning their transmigration by forming the +main portion of a Chinese feast. + +The monastery is governed by an abbot, usually a man of good business ability, +elected by the monks. Under him are the officers of the two wings or groups of +attendants. One set looks after the spiritual interests, of the monks; +the-other takes care of their material needs: The monks have worship about two +o’clock in the morning and again at about four in the afternoon. The rest of +the long day they spend in meditation, or study, in strolling about the +mountain side or in sleep. Their life is separated from all stirring contact +with the life of the world. + +_2. Monasteries Control Fêng-shui_ + +This monastery with its appointments is a good type of the monasteries all over +China. It was founded at the request of the inhabitants of the neighborhood, +because the dragons of the region used to cause much damage to the crops in the +surrounding country. A holy monk came, founded the monastery, and by his good +influence so curbed the dragons that the country-side has enjoyed peace ever +since and the monastery has prospered. Since the fourth century of our era +records show that by the building of monasteries in strategic place’s holy +monks brought rains and prosperity to various regions, or prevented floods and +calamities from damaging the villages. In other words the monasteries are +regarded as the controllers of _fêng-shui_ (wind and water). According to +the Chinese philosophy winds and water are spiritual forces and may be so +controlled by other spiritual forces that instead of bringing harm they will +confer benefit upon the people. Floods and dry seasons are so frequent in China +that any institution holding out the promise of regulating them would become +firmly established in the affection of the people. The monasteries have taken +this place. + +One of the picturesque features of a Chinese landscape is the pagoda. These +structures were introduced in the early stages of Buddhism to enshrine the +relics of Buddha. It was said that Buddha’s body consisted of eighty thousand +parts, hence numerous pagodas were erected to shelter these relics. Inasmuch as +a pagoda contained the relics of Buddha, it possessed magic power and so came +to play a great part in the control of the winds and the rains. The pagoda in +China has an odd number of stories varying from three to thirteen. The odd +numbers belong to the positive principle in nature which is superior to the +negative principle. The pagoda plays quite a part in the festivals of the +people. On certain occasions the stories are hung with lanterns and the pagodas +are visited by numerous throngs. + +_3. Prayer for Rain_ + +Prayers for rain afford such a common illustration of the relation of Buddhism +to the life of the peasant that a detailed presentation of such a service may +be of seal value. + +During a prolonged drought in some district of China, when the heat opens +gaping cracks in the fields and the grain is drying up, the populace may visit +their highest official and apprise him of the dire situation. He often forbids +the slaughter of all animals for three days and, in case rain has not thereby +come, he goes in person or sends a deputy to the nearest monastery to direct +the monks to pray for rain. + +_(a) The Altar._—On such an occasion the great hall of the Law may be used +for the ceremony. Quite often a special altar is erected in an enclosure near +the monastery on a platform one foot high and twenty-five feet on each side, +overspread by a tent of green cloth. In the center seats are arranged for the +presiding monk and his assistants. On each of the four sides of the altar is +placed an image of the Dragon King who is supposed to control the rain. If an +image is not obtainable a piece of paper inscribed with the name of the dragon +may be used. Flowers, fruits and incense are spread before the images. On the +doors of the tent are painted dragons with clouds. The tent and altar are green +and the monks wear green garments, because green belongs to the spring and +suggests rain. For this ceremony the monks prepare themselves by abstinence and +cleansing. The presiding monk is one of high moral character and religious +fervor. While some monks recite appropriate sutras, two others look after the +offerings, the incense, and the sprinkling of water during the ceremony to +suggest the coming of rain. The services continue day and night, being +conducted by groups of monks in succession. + +_(b) The Prayer Service._—The ceremonial is opened by a chant as follows: + +“Pearly dew of the jade heavens, golden waves of Buddha’s ocean, scatter the +lotus flowers on a thousand thousand worlds of suffering, that the heart of +mercy may wash away great calamity, that a drop may become a flood, that a drop +may purify mountains and rivers. + +“We put our trust in the Bodhisattvas and Mahâsattvas that purify the earth.” + +The chant ended, a monk takes a bowl of water and repeats thrice: “We put our +trust in the great merciful Kuan Yin Bodhisattva.” Then follows the chant: + +“The Bodhisattva’s sweet dew of the willow is able to make one drop spread over +the ten directions. It washes away the rank odors and dirt. It keeps the altars +clean and pure. The mysterious words of the doctrine will be reverently +repeated.” + +This chant ended, the monks intone incantations of Kuan Yin, quite +unintelligible even to them, but of magical value. While these are being +uttered, the presiding monk and his attendants walk around the altar, while one +of them with a branch sprinkles water on the floor. This symbolizes the +cleansing of the altar and of the monks from all impurities which might render +the ritual ineffective. When the perambulating monks have returned to their +place, while the sprinkler continues his duties, the monks repeat the words: +“We put our trust in the sweet dew kings, Bodhisattvas and Mahâsattvas.” + +The Bodhisattvas have now come to the purified altar and while the abbot offers +incense to them, the monks repeat the words: + +“The fields are destroyed so that they resemble the back of a tortoise. The +demons of drought produce calamity. The dark people [Footnote: A term denoting +the Chinese.] pray earnestly while crops are being destroyed. We pray that +abundant, limpid liquid may descend to purify and refresh the whole world. The +clouds of incense rise.” + +This plaint is repeated thrice and is followed by an invocation: + +“Wholeheartedly we cast ourselves to the earth, O Triratna, who dost exist +eternally in the realm of _dharma_ of the ten directions.” + +The leader remains quiet a long time with his eyes closed, visualizing the +Buddhas, the Bodhisattvas, the dragon kings, and the saints, all with their +heavenly eyes and ears knowing that this region is afflicted with drought, that +an altar has been constructed and that all have come to make petition. This +meditation is regarded as of chief importance. It is followed by an +announcement to the effect that the sutra praying for rain was given by the +Buddha, that a drought is afflicting the land, that the altar has been erected +in accordance with the regulations and that prayer is being made for rain. But +fearing that something may have been overlooked, the magic formula of “the king +of light who turns the wheel” is read seven times so as to remedy such +oversight. + +The altar having thus been cleansed of all impurities, the rain sutra is opened +and the one hundred and eighty-eight dragon kings are urged by name in groups +of ten to take action. The formula is as follows: + +“We with our whole heart invite such and such dragon kings to come. We desire +that the heart and wisdom which knows others intuitively will move the spirits +above to obey the Buddha, to take pity on the people below and to come to our +province and send down sweet rain.” + +When the dragons have all been duly invited, the monks chant suitable magical +formulas, while the leader sits in meditation visualizing these dragon kings +and their tender solicitude for the people in distress. The monastery bell is +sounded and the wooden fish is beaten, while drums and cymbals add their +effect. The whole is intended to draw the attention of the dragon kings to the +drought. Then the fifty-four Buddhas are invited in a similar manner in groups +of ten, the sixth group consisting of four. A similar form of address is used +and similar magical formulas are recited with the noisy accompaniment. The +ceremony concludes by the expression of the hope that the three jewels (Buddha, +the Law and the Community of Monks) and the dragon kings will grant the rain. + +Upon the altar are four copies of an announcement to the dragon kings and +Buddhas. On the first day three copies are sent to them through the flames, one +to the Buddhas, one to the dragon kings and one to the devas. One copy is read +daily and then sent up at the thanksgiving ceremony. The announcement is as +follows: + +“We put our trust in the limitless, reverent ocean clouds, the dragons of +august virtue and all their host, all dragon kings and holy saints. Their +august virtue is difficult to measure. In accord with the command of Buddha +they send liquid rain. May their quiet mercy descend to the altar; may they +send down purity and freshness, spreading over the ten directions. We put our +trust in the company of dragon kings of the clouds, the saints and the +Bodhisattvas.” + +The offerings are made only in the morning inasmuch as the Buddhas, following +ancient custom, are not supposed to eat after the noonday meal. Great care is +taken that the altar shall not be desecrated by any one who eats meat or drinks +wine. The magic formulas of great mercy are uttered or the name of Kuan Yin is +repeated a thousand times. The monks, take turn in these services which +continue day and night until rain comes. + +_(c) Its Meaning._—In the religious consciousness of the people is the +idea that the drought is a punishment for sin. The altar is made pure and +acceptable and sin is removed in various symbolic ways. This fits in with the +idea that man is an intimate part of the world order. His sin disturbs the +order of nature. Heaven manifests displeasures by sending down calamities upon +men. Men should cease their wrongdoing which disturbs the natural order and +should also wash away the effects of their sins. The services for rain with +their magic formulas help to clear away the consequences of sin and to +predispose Heaven to grant its blessings again. + +_4. Monasteries Are Supported Because They Control Fêng-shui_ + +The prayers for rain are an important part of the Chinese peasant’s world +order. Drought is the manifestation of Heaven’s displeasure at the infraction +of Heaven’s laws. It calls for self-examination and repentance. Thus the +monastery opens up the windows of the universal order as this touches the +humble tiller of the soil. + +The Buddhist monasteries not only hold services in time of drought, but also in +time of flood and at times when plagues of grasshoppers afflict the land, or +when diseases afflict human beings. Their adoption of Chinese customs led them +to have special ceremonies at the eclipse of the sun and moon, although they +knew the cause of the eclipse. Peasants and officials support the monastery +because of these services regulating the wind and water influences and through +them bringing the people into harmonious relation with the great world of +spirits. + + + + +V +BUDDHISM AND THE FAMILY + + +One of the criticisms of the Chinese against Buddhism is that it is opposed to +filial piety. According to Mencius the greatest unfilial act is to leave no +progeny. In spite of this charge Buddhism has done much for the family. It has +taken over the ethics of the family, filial piety, obedience and respect for +elders, and has made them a part of its system. Transgression of these +fundamental duties is visited by dire punishments in the next world. The +faithful observance is followed not only by the rewards of the Confucian +system, but results in the greatest rewards in the future life. + +_1. Kuan Yin, the Giver of Children and Protector of Women_ + +Buddhism has done more. Out of its atmosphere of love and mercy toward all +beings has developed Kuan Yin, the ideal of Chinese womanhood, the goddess of +Mercy, who embodies the Chinese ideal of beauty, filial piety and compassion +toward the weak and suffering. She is especially the goddess of women, being +interested in all their affairs. Her image is found in almost every household +and her temples have a place in every part of China. + +A brief history of this deity will enable us to understand the significance of +the cult. Kuan Yin started as a male god in India, called Avalôkitêsvara, who +was worshipped from the third to the seventh century of our era. He was the +protector of sailors and people in danger. In the course of time, either in +China or in India, the god became a goddess. Some think that this was due to +the influence of Christianity. In China both forms survive, though the goddess +is better known. A Buddhist once said that a Bodhisattva is neither male nor +female and appears in whatever form is convenient. + +Kuan Yin is a very popular goddess. Her experiences in Hades are dramatically +presented by traveling theatrical companies. Her deeds of mercy are portrayed +in art. Her well known story runs as follows: + +Kuan Yin was the daughter of the ruler of a prosperous kingdom located +somewhere near the island of Sumatra. Her birth was announced to the queen by a +dream. The little girl ate no meat nor milk. Her disposition was very good. Her +intelligence was most extraordinary. Once she read anything she never forgot +it. + +At the age of sixteen her father tried to betroth her to a young prince. She +refused and decided to give herself to a life of fasting and abstinence. +Angered b-v her obstinacy the father ordered her to take off her court dress +and jewels, to put on the garb of a servant and to carry water for the garden. +The garden never looked so beautiful. The daughter also looked well and showed +no signs of weariness, because the gods assisted her in her work. + +Relenting a little the king sent an older sister to urge Kuan Yin to accept the +husband he had found for her. When she refused, he sent her to a monastery and +charged the abbess to treat her harshly, so that she might be forced to return +home. Expecting to win the king’s favor, the abbess put the most unpleasant +tasks on the girl. But again the gods assisted her and made her work light, so +that her tasks were always well done and the young woman was cheerful. + +One day the report came to the king that his daughter was associating with a +young monk discussing heterodox doctrines and that she had given birth to a +child. This news so enraged the king that he burned the monastery, killing many +monks. The princess was captured and brought before him. Inasmuch as she was +obdurate, the king ordered her to be executed. The executioner’s sword, +however, broke into a thousand pieces without doing her any injury. The king +then ordered her to be strangled. A golden image sixteen feet high appeared on +the spot. The princess laughed and cried: “Where there was no image, an image +appeared. I see the real form. When body flesh is strangled, then appear the +lights of ten thousand roads.” She went to purgatory and purgatory at once +changed into paradise. Yama, in order to save his purgatory, sent her back to +the world. She appeared at Puto, an island off the coast of Chekiang near +Ningpo. Here she rescued sailors and performed many miracles for people in +distress. + +In the meantime the father, who had committed many sins, became sick. His +allotted time of life had been shortened by twenty years. Moreover, an ulcer +grew on his body for every one of the five hundred monks he had killed when he +burned the monastery. A miserable, loathsome old man, he came to an old monk, +who was really the princess in disguise, and asked for help. The monk told him +that an eye and an arm of a blood relative made into medicine was the only cure +for his trouble. The two living daughters were willing to make such an +offering, but their husbands would not permit them to do so. The old monk urged +the monarch to take up a life of abstinence, to rebuild the monastery he had +burned, and to provide money for services to take the five hundred monks whom +he had killed through purgatory. He also said that a nun in the convent would +offer an arm and an eye. When the monarch entered the monastery, he found +hanging before the incense burner an arm and an eye. These were boiled, mixed +with medicine and rubbed on the king’s body. He soon became well. Further +inquiry revealed that these members belonged to his daughter. + +This is the story of the most popular goddess in China. She is worshipped by +her devotees on the first and fifteenth of every month, on the nineteenth of +the sixth month, when she became a Bodhisattva, and on the nineteenth of the +ninth month, when she put on the necklace. A month after marriage every young +bride is presented with an image of the Goddess of Mercy, an incense-burner and +candlesticks. + +This goddess is worshipped whenever trouble comes to man or woman. Her names +signify her willingness to listen to all prayers. She is the “one who regards +the voice,” i.e., prayer; “one who hears the prayers of the world;” “one who +regards and exists by himself as sovereign;” “the ancestor of Buddha who +regards prayer;” “one who frees from fear;” “Buddha the august king;” “the +great white robed scholar;” “great compassion and mercy.” + +_2. Kuan Yin, the Model of Local Mother-Goddesses_ + +This conception is the creation of the social and religious consciousness of +the women in China. It reveals their aspirations for mercy, compassion, filial +piety and for the beauty that crowns a well developed character. Such an ideal +does not mean that these have been realized in all the numerous homes of the +Chinese, but it manifests their sense of such an ideal to be realized in life +and their ardent longing for its realization. + +Mother-goddesses are found all over China and they have all of them been +influenced by Kuan Yin. Some of them have originated with actual women who were +deified after death. Here is the story of one of these goddesses who presides +over the censer in a small temple in Formosa. She was born in the province of +Kuangtung. At the age of seven she was adopted by a family as the future wife +of their eighteen-year-old son. One day while crossing a river he was drowned. +This was a great blow to her. When she was fourteen years old the father of the +family died. The two women, thus left alone, wept bitterly day and night. The +comfort of relatives was of little avail. The mother was becoming emaciated +with grief. The daughter, unable to bear the strain any longer, washed herself, +burned incense before the ancestral tablet of her betrothed, and then took this +vow: + +“I am willing to remain a virgin, to apply myself to carrying water and working +at the mortar and to serve my mother-in-law. If I cherish any other purpose and +change my chastity and obedience, may Heaven slay me and earth annihilate me.” + +When the mother heard this vow she stopped her weeping. Inasmuch as they had no +uncle to look after them, they worked day and night. A relative of her future +husband gave her one of his sons as an adopted son. The child died after a few +months. This was a great grief. Then the mother died. The daughter sold her +possessions to obtain money for a proper burial. She had only a coarse mourning +cloth for her dress. After a while she adopted a child as her son. When he grew +up she found him a wife who served her as faithfully as she had served her +mother-in-law. When she was eighty years old, she dreamed that the golden maid +and jade messenger of Kuan Yin stood beside her saying: “The court of Heaven +has ordered you to become a god (shên).” She died soon after this. She said of +herself: + +“Shang Ti took compassion upon me during my life, because with a firm heart I +kept my chastity and served my mother-in-law with complete obedience. Therefore +he gave me the office of Kuan Pin. I have performed my duties in several +places. Now I am transferred to Formosa.” + +This story and many others like it mirror the moral ideals of the women of +China in the midst of their struggles for help and light and guidance. + +_3. Exhortations on Family Virtues_ + +The Buddhists issue a large number of tracts. These are very commonly paid for +by devotees who make a vow that, if their parent becomes well, they will pay +for the printing of several hundred or thousand of these tracts for free +distribution. In these tracts are usually many stories illustrating the rewards +of filial piety. The story is told in one of them about a Mrs. Chin whose +father-in-law being ill was unable to sleep for sixty days. His condition grew +worse. Mrs. Chin knelt before Kuan Yin’s altar, cut out a piece of flesh from +her arm and cooked it with the father’s food. His health at once improved and +he lived to the age of seventy-seven. Another story is told in the same tract +of a woman who cut out a piece of her liver and gave it as medicine to her +mother-in-law. + +These Buddhist tracts take up all the moral habits which make the family and +clan strong and stable and surround them by the highest sanctions. A tract +picked up in a Buddhist temple at Hangchow purports to be the revelation of the +will of Buddha. It urges sixteen virtues. The first is filial piety. The tract +says: + +“Filial piety is the chief of all virtues. Heaven and Earth honor filial piety. +There is no greater sin than to cherish unfilial thoughts. The spirits know the +beginning of such thoughts. Heaven openly rewards a heart that is filial.” + +The second one mentioned is another important family virtue, namely, reverence: + +“The saints, sages, immortals and Buddhas are the outgrowth of reverence. The +greatest sin is to lack reverence for father and mother. When brothers lack +reverence for one another, they harm the hands and feet. When husband and wife +lack reverence, the harmony of the household is ruined. When friends do not +have reverence, they bring about calamity.” + +Then follow similar exhortations on sincerity, justice, self-restraint, +forbearance, benevolence, generosity, absence of pride, covetousness, lying, +adultery, mutual love, self-denial, hope for the consolations of religion and +for an undivided heart ruled by peace. These are virtues quite essential to the +integrity of the family. They are taught, not in the abstract but by the +exhibition of shining examples, by vivid representations of the rewards both +here and hereafter, and by pictures of awful punishments. So by precept and +example, by threat of punishment here and hereafter and by declaration of +reward in the future Buddhism has tried to maintain the family virtues of the +Confucian system and has attempted to permeate them by the spirit of sacrifice. +Still it has always been the sacrifice of the weak for the strong, of the young +for the aged, of the low for the high, of women for men. + +_4. Services for the Dead_ + +Buddhism very early took over the relatively simple services for the dead and +developed them into an elaborate ritual which made very vivid the spiritual +universe which Buddhism introduced. In the sixth century a service was held in +behalf of the father-in-law of Emperor Ning Ti (516-528 A. D.) for seven times +every seven days. He feasted a thousand monks every day, and caused seven +persons to become monks. On the hundredth day after the death he feasted ten +thousand monks and caused twenty-seven persons to become monks. + +Since that time services on every seventh day after the decease until the +forty-ninth day, when a grand finale ends the ceremonies, have been very +popular. + +The object of such services is to conduct the soul of the dead through +purgatory, in order that it may return to life or enter the Western Paradise. +This is done by making a pleasing offering to the guardians and officers of +purgatory, and to the gods and Bodhisattvas whose mercy saves people. Numerous +missives are consigned to the flames, informing the rulers of the nether world +about the soul of the dead; offerings of gold and silver, of various articles +of apparel, of trunks, houses, and servants are made, all, however, made out of +bamboo frames covered with paper. Various powerful incantations are recited +which force open the gates of purgatory and let the soul out. + +The services may be crowded into one day or they may be held on every seventh +day until the forty-ninth day, i.e., seven sevens. Various explanations are +given’ for these services. + +During the first week the soul of the dead arrives at the “Demon Gate Barrier.” +Here money is demanded by the demons on the ground that in his last +transmigration the deceased borrowed money. Accordingly large quantities of +silver shoes [Footnote: The silver used for this purpose is molded, in +accordance with ancient usage, in the shape of shoes and carried about in that +form by merchants.] must be sent to the dead so that he may settle all claims +and avoid beating and inconvenience. During the second week the soul arrives at +a place where he is weighed. If the evil outweighs the good, the soul is sawn +asunder and ground to powder. In the third week he comes to the “Bad Dog” +village. Here good people pass unharmed, but the evil are torn by the fierce +beasts until the blood flows. In the fourth week the soul is confronted with a +large mirror in which he sees his evil deeds and their consequences, seeing +himself degraded in the next transmigration to a beast. In the fifth week the +soul views the scenes in his own village. + +In the sixth week he reaches the bridge which spans the “Inevitable River.” +This bridge is 100,000 feet high and one and three-tenths of an inch wide. It +is crossed by riding astride as on a horse. Beneath rushes the whirl-pool +filled with serpents darting their heads to and fro. At the foot of the bridge +lictors force unwilling travelers to ascend. The good do not cross this bridge, +but are led by “golden youth” to gold and silver bridges which cross the stream +on either side of this “Bridge of Sighs.” + +In the seventh week the soul is taken first to Mrs. Wang who dispenses a drink +which blots out all memories of the earthly life. Then the individual enters +the great wheel of transmigration. This is divided into eighty-one sections +from which one hundred and eight thousand small and tortuous paths radiate out +into the four continents of the world. The soul is directed along one of these +paths and is duly reborn in the world as an animal or as a human being or +passes on into the Western Paradise. + +In imitation of this bridge a bridge is built of tables in front of the home of +the dead. At the end the tables are placed upside down and a lantern placed on +each table-leg. At night this bridge is illuminated. A company of monks repeat +their prayers and incantations, while others mount upon the bridge to +impersonate devils. The pious son with the tablet of his deceased parent comes +to take his father over the bridge. When his way is disputed by the demons, he +falls on his knees and begs and gives them money, negotiating the passage at +last with the aid of a large quantity of silver. + +Another ceremony is the breaking through purgatory. Five supplications duly +signed are addressed to the proper authorities, four being suspended at each of +the four sides of the table and one at the center. Tiles are then placed over +the table or on the ground. After incantations have been repeated to the +accompaniment of the sounding of the bell and the wooden fish, the +supplications are burned and the tiles are broken as a symbol of breaking +through purgatory and of releasing the soul. + +Thus Buddhism has taken over the most important function of ancestor worship, +has extended it and made it more significant to each individual as well as to +the family. + + + + +VI +BUDDHISM AND SOCIAL LIFE + + +_1. How the Laity is Trained in Buddhist Ideas_ + +A common way of emphasizing moral ideas among the people by Buddhist teachers +is the use of tracts purporting to have a divine origin. The following gives +the substance of such a tract: + +Not long ago in the province of Shantung, there was a sharp and sudden clap of +thunder. After the frightened people had collected their wits, they discovered +a small book written in red in front of the house of a certain Mr. Li. Mr. Li +picked up the book, copied it and read it reverently. He gave a copy to Mr. Ma, +the prefect, but Mr. Ma did not believe in the book. Thereupon Maitrêya, the +Messiah of the Buddhists, spoke from the sky as follows: + +“These are the years of the final age. The people under heaven do not reverence +Heaven and Earth, they are not filial to father and mother, they do not respect +their superiors. They cheat the fatherless, impose upon the widow, oppress the +weak; they use large weights for themselves and small measures for others. They +injure the good. They covet for their own profit. They cheat men of money, use +the five grains carelessly, kill the cow that draws the plow. This volume is +sent for their special benefit. If they recite it they will avoid trouble. If +they disbelieve, the years with the cyclical character _Ping_ and +_Ting_ will have fields without men to plant them and houses without men +to live in them. In the fifth month of these years evil serpents will infest +the whole country. In the eighth and ninth months the bodies of evil men will +fill the land. + +“Those who believe this book and propagate its teachings will not encounter the +ten sorrows of the age: war, fire, no peace day and night, separation of man +and wife, the scattering of the sons and daughters, evil men spread over the +country, dead bones unburied, clothing with no one to wear it, rice with no one +to eat it, and the difficulty of ever seeing a peaceful year. Sâkyamuni +foreseeing this final age sent down this volume in Shantung. The Goddess of +Mercy saw the sorrows of all living beings. Maitrêya commanded the two runners +of T’ai Shan, the god of the Eastern Mountain, to investigate the conduct of +men and as a first punishment to increase the price of rice, and then besides +the ten sorrows already mentioned above, to inflict the punishments of flood, +fire, wind, thunder, tigers, snakes, sword, disease, famine and cold. The rule +of Sâkyamuni which has lasted twelve thousand years is now fulfilled, and +Maitrêya succeeds to his place.” + +These sorrows may be escaped by reciting this sutra whose substance we find +above. If it is repeated three times the person will escape the calamity of +fire and water. If one man passes it on to ten men and ten men pass it on to a +hundred, they will escape the calamities of sword, disease and imprisonment, +and receive blessings which cannot be measured. He who in addition to repeating +the sutra practices abstinence will insure peace for himself. He who presents +one hundred copies to others will insure his personal peace. He who presents a +thousand copies will insure the peace of his family. He who is attacked by +disease, may escape it by taking five cash of the reign of Shun Chih (1644-1661 +A. D.), the first emperor of the Ch’ing dynasty, one mace of the seed of +cypress, one mace of the bark of mulberry, boil in one bowl of water until only +eight-tenths of the water remain, drink and he will become well. + +In this way the five Buddhist commandments for the laity not to kill any living +creature, not to steal, not to commit adultery, not to lie, and not to use +intoxicating liquor are propagated and made real to the common man. The method +is quite efficient. Whole provinces have been put into a panic by such +prophecies. + +_2. Effect of Ideals of Mercy and Universal Love_ + +The command not to kill any living being has had considerable influence in +China. There are volumes of stories telling of the punishments which will be +visited upon those who disobey and of the rewards of those who release living +animals. Every monastery has a special place for animals thus released by pious +devotees. + +There is a popular story about a fishmonger of the T’ang dynasty who was taken +sick and during his illness dreamed that he was taken to purgatory. His body +was aflame with fire and pained him as though he were being roasted. Flying +fiery chariots with darting flames swept around him and burned his body. Ten +thousand fish strove with one another to get a bite of his flesh. The ruler of +the lower regions accused him of killing many fish and hence his punishment. +For a number of days he was hanging between life and death. His relatives were +urged to perform some works of penance. They had his fishing implements burned. +With reverent hearts they made two images of Kuan Yin, presented offerings and +repented. The whole family performed abstinence, stopped killing living things, +printed and gave away over a hundred copies of the Diamond Sutra, and ferried +over a large number of souls through purgatory. As a result of their efforts +the sick man became well. + +The following comment was made on the above story by a scholar. If its premises +are granted, the conclusion is inevitable: + +“If the fiery chariots are seal, why does not man see them? If they are false, +how is it that man feels the pain? But where do the fiery chariots come from? +They come from the heart and head of the one who kills fish. The fire in the +heart (heart belongs to the element fire) causes destruction. The chariot fire +also causes destruction.” + +This attitude of mercy has been extended to human beings. There are numerous +tracts against the drowning of little girls in those regions where this custom +is prevalent. One tells the following story: + +In the province of Kwangtung there lived a Mrs. Chang who daily burned incense +and repeated Buddha’s name. One day she and her husband died. Much to their +surprise and consternation Yama (the potentate of hell) decided that Mr. Chang +must become a pig and Mrs. Chang a dog. Mrs. Chang accordingly went to Yama and +said, “During life we honored Buddha and so why should we become animals after +death?” Yama said, “What use is it to honor Buddha? During life you drowned +three girls whom I sent into life. People with the face of a man and the heart +of a beast, should they not be punished?” The husband accordingly took on a +pig’s skin and the wife a dog’s. Then by a dream they revealed to their brother +Chang number two that, although they repeated Buddha’s name, they were not +permitted to be reborn as men, because they had drowned little girls. + +Perhaps the extent of this spirit, of mercy and its possibilities may be +illustrated by the reverence for the ox. While there is a great deal of cruelty +in China to animals and men, it is rarely that one sees an ox abused. Up to the +advent of the foreigner an ox was not killed for meat. In many places in China +today the slaughter of an ox would bring the punishments of the law upon the +butcher. No doubt this reverence is due to the great Indian reverence for the +cow. The law of kindness has been extended to other animals, taking the rather +spectacular form of releasing a few decrepit animals and allowing them to spend +their last days in a monastery compound. There are many kindly things done in +China. The dead are buried, the sick are provided with medicine. Every year +numerous wadded garments are given away to poor people. Various groups carrying +on a humble ministry of helpfulness have found a real inspiration in the ideals +held before them in Buddhism, the rewards promised and punishments threatened. + +_3. Relation to Confucian Ideals_ + +Why have not these ideals exercised a larger influence in China? The answer is +quite simple. The activities of the monks have been strenuously opposed by the +Confucian state system. The philosopher, Chang Nan-hsüan, a contemporary of +Chu-Hsi, states concisely for us the differences betwen Confucianism and +Buddhism in his comment on a passage in the _Book of Records._ + +“Strong drink is a thing intended to be-used in offering sacrifices and +entertaining guests,—such employment of it is what Heaven has prescribed. But +men by their abuse of such drink come to lose their virtue and destroy their +persons—such employment of it is what Heaven has annexed its terrors to. The +Buddhists, hating the use of things where Heaven sends down its terrors, put +away as well the use of them which Heaven has prescribed. + +“For instance, in the use of meats and drinks, there is such a thing as wildly +abusing and destroying the creatures of Heaven. The Buddhists, disliking this, +confine themselves to a vegetable diet, while we only abjure wild abuse and +destruction. In the use of clothes, again, there is such a thing as wasteful +extravagance. The Buddhists, disliking this, will have no clothes but those of +a dark and sad color, while we only condemn extravagance. They, further, +through dislike of criminal connection between the sexes, would abolish the +relation between husband and wife, while we denounce only the criminal +connection. + +“The Buddhists, disliking the excesses to which the evil desires of men lead, +would put away, along with them, the actions which are in accordance with the +justice of heavenly principles, while we, the orthodox, put away the evil +desires of men, whereupon what are called heavenly principles are the more +brightly seen. Suppose the case of a stream of water. The Buddhists, through +dislike of its being foul with mud, proceed to dam it up with earth. They do +not consider that when the earth has dammed up the stream, the supply of water +will be cut off. It is not so with us, the orthodox. We seek only to cleanse +away the mud and sand, so that the pure water may be available for use. This is +the difference between the Buddhists and the Learned School.” [Footnote: _Shu +King,_ Pt. V, Bk. X, p. 122.] + +This statement reveals at once the opposition of the sect of the Learned and +the influence which Buddhism exerted upon its members. + +Buddhism while enjoying occasional favor from the state was often zealously +persecuted. In 819 Han Yü issued his celebrated act of accusation. In 845 the +emperor Wu Tsung issued his decree of secularization. At that time 4600 +monasteries and 40,000 smaller establishments were pulled down and 265,000 +monks and nuns were sent back to lay life. Their rich lands were confiscated. +Under the Ming dynasty, as well as under the Ch’ing dynasty, Buddhism enjoyed a +precarious existence. Whether Buddhism would have improved the moral conditions +of the Chinese; if it had been given a free hand, is difficult to affirm. Still +its failure is at least partly due to the opposition of Confucian orthodoxy. + +_4. The Embodiment of Buddhist Ideals in the Vegetarian sects_ + +The state persecutions of Buddhism forced it to leave temporarily its +institutional life and trust itself to the people. These persecutions were +usually followed by a revival of piety and religion among the people. The +Buddhist teachers gathered about themselves a large number of lay devotees who +formed societies which practice religious rites in secret. These sects have +preserved the genuine Buddhist piety, not only in times of persecution, but at +times when the Buddhist organization under imperial favor was departing from +its simplicity. + +A number of these sects have continued under different names for several +centuries. For example, the Tsai Li, a society now enjoying a quiet existence +in North China, is successor to the White Lotus society. The latter started in +the fifth century. Its members sought salvation in the Pure Land of Amitabha. +In the eleventh century it enjoyed imperial favor. During the Mongol dynasty it +fought against the throne with rebels and placed one of its leaders, Chu +Yüan-chang, a monk, on the throne, who became the founder of the Ming dynasty. +The sect was soon proscribed and its members persecuted by the government. +During the Ch’ing dynasty it took part in a rebellion and was ruthlessly +exterminated. At present it goes under the name of _Tsai Li,_ i.e., within +the Li or principles of the three religions. It is a mediator among the three +religions. + +There are thirty-one organizations of this sect in Peking and branches +throughout North China. The society forbids the use of wine and opium, though +it does not forbid the use of meat. It usually has a Buddhist image, Kuan Yin +or some other. It uses Buddhist prayers and incantations. The outstanding +doctrines held during its long history have been the hope of salvation in the +Western Heaven of Amitâbha, the early coming of Maitrêya, the Buddhist Messiah, +and the large use of magic formulas and incantations. + +Another sect which embodies Buddhist ideals is the Chin Tan, the sect of the +philosopher’s stone or pill of immortality. Its founder was the writer of the +Nestorian tablet and so the sect is related to Christianity. It exalts the +teaching of universal love. This is one of several examples of a supposed +contact between Buddhism and Christianity. + +These sects of which the two above are examples are present in all parts of +China. They obey the five Buddhist commandments for laymen. The members spend +much time in fasting and prayer, and in the repetition of Buddhist books. Their +lives as a rule are simple and sincere. They are preparing for rebirth in the +land of Amitâbha, or are expecting the early coming of the Buddhist Messiah to +set this world right. In the meantime, by means of incantations, personal +regimen and cooperative action they are doing all they can to usher in a better +state. + +_5. Pilgrimages_ + +Pilgrimages are very popular in China. The famous Buddhist shrines are Wu T’ai +Shan in Shansi, Puto on the coast of Chekiang, Chiu Hua Shan in Anhwei, and +Omei Shan in Szechuan. These, one on each side of China, represent the four +elements of Buddhist science, wind, water, fire and earth. They are also the +centers of the worship of the four great Bodhisattvas, Wenshu, Kuan Yin, +Titsang and Puhsien. Besides these large centers there are many others to which +pilgrims direct their footsteps. + +In the spring of the year, when the god of spring covers the earth with a green +mantle, when the sky and winds call, many start on their pilgrimage. Many go +singly and laboriously, kneeling and bowing every few steps. Others go in happy +companies, chaperoned by a pious, village dame, who has organized the group. +Some go because their turn has come. They are members of a guild which has a +fund devoted to pilgrimages by its members. Some go for the performance of a +vow made to Kuan Yin, when the father was sick unto death and the goddess +prolonged his life. To others it is the culmination of a pious life. All go for +the joy which travel in the spring gives. + +Puto, an island off the coast of Chekiang, is the goal of many pilgrims from +all parts of China. In, the monasteries on the island are about two thousand +monks. In the pilgrim season this number is increased to ten thousand monks and +thousands of lay pilgrims. + +A group of pilgrims was going along merrily. The sun was bright, lighting up +the white caps on the deep blue sea. Spring was rioting all about. One member +was an abbot from Hangchow. A small, humble-looking man with a few straggling +long hairs where the mustache usually grows, was a lay Buddhist from Wuchang. +One was a bright young monk from Tientsin. Last, but almost omnipresent and +always bubbling over, was a servant of the abbot from Hangchow. He was in the +presence of divinity and his whole life was heightened for the time being. “Why +did you come!” they were asked. “We came to worship the holy mother, Kuan Yin.” +When they entered a shrine each purchased three sticks, of incense and two +candles and reverently placed them before the image of the goddess, kneeling +and bowing. Then they sat and partook of the tea offered by the attendant. +After paying a small gratuity, they went on to the next shrine. + +On the way a large black snake as thick as an arm lazily crossed over the road. +They stood, reverent and awestruck, until he disappeared in the grass, +remarking that this was a good omen. When crossing a sand dune piled up by the +winds the abbot from Hangchow remarked that this was called the flying sand, +wafted there by the goddess who took pity on some travelers who had been +compelled to cross a narrow strait in order to come to a cave. This cave, +called Fan Yin Tung, is one of the rifts made by an earthquake and washed out +by wind and waves. Below it rushes the tide; from above the sun sends down a +few rays. Each pilgrim after offering incense looks into the darkness to see +whether he can behold in the dark cavern an image of some Buddha. One sees Kuan +Yin and is acclaimed as having had a good vision. Another sees the Laughing +Buddha. All exclaim that he has been the most fortunate of all, for this Buddha +is the Messiah to come and he who beholds him will be blessed. So from place to +place they wander, chatting and seeing the sights of the island. Thus thousands +are doing in various parts of China, and in this way strengthening the hold of +Buddhism upon themselves and their communities. + + + + +VII +BUDDHISM AND THE FUTURE LIFE + + +Before the advent of Buddhism the Chinese had only a vague idea regarding life +after death. The Land and Water Classic mentions the Tu Shuo mountain in the +Eastern Sea, under which spirits of the dead live, the entrance guarded by two +spirits, Shên Tu and Yü Lei, who are in general control of the demons. In some +parts of China the names or pictures, of these spirits are placed on the doors +of a house to guard it. The Taoists early developed the idea of a western +paradise presided over by the Queen of the West, located at first in the K’un +Lun mountains and later in the islands of the Eastern Sea. This heaven, +however, was limited to Taoist hermits and mystics. Buddhism made a complete +purgatory and heaven known to every one in China. + +_1. The Buddhist Purgatory_ + +This is really Buddhism’s most noteworthy addition to China’s religious +equipment; Buddhism lays much stress upon the experiences of a soul immediately +after death. Its punishments are well known to every individual. The temple of +the City Guardian found in every walled city has a replica of the court in +purgatory over which he presides. In the temples of T’ai Shan there is an +elaborate exhibit of the tortures inflicted on culprits in purgatory. Every +funeral service conducted by Buddhists or Taoists is intended to conduct the +soul of the dead through purgatory and pictures vividly the progressive +experiences from the first seventh day to the seventh seventh day. On the the +seventh month, on the fifteenth day [about August] a special service is held +for the souls of the dead in purgatory. Furthermore, every community has a +general service [about October] for the souls of those who died a violent death +or who have no one to look after them. During the war many services were thus +held for those who died on the battlefields of Europe. At such services the +scenes in purgatory are vividly portrayed by pictures and figures. The temples +distribute tracts with pictures of purgatory so that women may see them and +understand. On the stage are often acted powerful plays whose scenes are laid +in Hades. This propaganda is perhaps the most efficient of its kind. + +Purgatory is depicted as consisting of ten courts each surrounded by small +hells, where the soul undergoes punishment and cleansing. The fifth court, +which may be taken as an example of the other courts, is in charge of Yen Lo or +Yama. Yama was once in charge of the first court, but his tender heart pitied +the souls who came before him and sent them back to earth. Because of this +leniency he was placed in charge of the fifth court. + +When a soul has passed through the first four courts and it has been discovered +that there is no good conduct to its credit, it is led to the fifth court and +examined every seven days regarding past conduct. In order to get back to the +world of men, it eagerly promises to complete various unfinished vows, such as +to repair monasteries, schools, bridges, or roads, to clean wells, to deepen +rivers, to distribute good books, to release animals, to take care of aged +parents, or to bury them suitably. But it is plainly told that the gods know +its artifices, and that now these unfinished tasks can never be completed. The +gods have reached the unanimous opinion that no injustice is being done. +Accordingly there is no appeal, but each soul is led by attendants with bulls’ +heads and horses’ faces to a tower whence they may see their native village. +Its front is in the shape of a bow with a perimeter of twenty-seven miles; its +height is four hundred and ninety feet. It is guarded by walls of sword trees. + +Good men, whose deeds of omission are balanced by the good they have done, +return to life. Only souls judged to be evil see their village from this tower. +These can see their own families moving about, and can hear their conversation. +They realize how they disobeyed the teachings of their elders. They see that +the earthly goods for which they have struggled are of no value. Their +plottings rise up with lurid reality. They see how they planned a new marriage +although already married, how they appropriated fields, state property, and +falsified accounts, putting the blame on persons who were dead. While they +observe their village they behold their erstwhile friends touch their coffin +and inwardly rejoice. They hear themselves called selfish and insincere. But +their punishment does not stop here. They behold their children punished by +magistrates, their women afflicted with strange diseases, their daughters +ravished, their sons led astray, their property taken away, the ancestral house +burned and their business ruined. From this tower all passes before them as a +lurid dream and they are stricken in heart. + +About the fifth court are sixteen small hells where the soul is punished. In +each one are stakes buried in the ground and fierce animals. The hands and feet +of the guilty one are bound to a stake, his body is opened with small knives, +and his heart and intestines quickly devoured. + +In each of these sixteen hells is a certain type of sinner: (1) Those who do +not reverence the gods and demons and who doubt the existence of rewards and +punishments; (2) those who hurt and kill living beings; (3) those who break +their vows to do good; (4) those who resort to heterodox practices and vainly +hope to attain eternal life; (5) those who upbraid good men, fear the wicked +and hate men because they do not die speedily; (6) those who strive with other +people and then put the blame upon them; (7) men who force women; and women who +seduce young men, and all who have libidinous desires; (8) those who gain +profit for themselves by injuring others; (9) the stingy and those who +absolutely disregard others, whether alive or dead, giving them no help in dire +need, when they can do so without injury to themselves; (10) those who steal +and put the crime upon others; (11) those who requite favors with hate; (12) +those whose hearts are perverse and poisonous, who instigate others to do wrong +even if they may not have carried out their suggestion; (13) those who tempt +others by deceit; (14) those who involve others in their squabbles and in +gambling and then themselves win out; (15) those who stubbornly persist in +their false ideas, do not repent, and slander others; (16) those who hate good +and virtuous men. + +Besides these sixteen sorts of sinners the fifth court deals with other types +of wicked people; those who do not believe in rewards and punishments after +death, who hinder good causes, who burn incense without a sincere heart, speak +of the sins of others, who burn books that urge men to be good and worship the +Great Dipper, but persist in eating meat; those who hate men; who repeat sutras +and incantations, and take part in religious ceremonies, but do not fast +beforehand; who slander the Buddhist and Taoist religions; who know how to +read, but refuse to read the ancient and modern exhortations regarding rewards +and punishments; who dig into graves and destroy their marks, who purposely set +fire to trees and underbrush, or are careless with fire in their own houses; +who shoot arrows at animals with the intent, to kill; who urge and tempt the +sick and weak to enter into contests of any kind with themselves; who throw +tiles and stones over neighboring walls, poison fish in the river, fire guns, +or make nets or traps for birds; who sow salt on the ground, who do not bury +dead eats and snakes very deep and thus cause death to those who dig; who cause +men to dig the frozen ground in winter or spring (the vapors of earth chill +such diggers to death); who tear down adjoining walls and compel their +neighbors to move the kitchen stove; who appropriate public highways, lands, +close wells and stop gutters. + +Those who have committed any of the above sins are taken, to the tower whence +they can see their own village and then are consigned to the great crying hell, +Râurava, that is, the fourth of the Buddhist hot hells. [Footnote: Buddhism +distinguishes hot and cold hells. In a country like India severe cold is a +serious torture.] Thence they go to their respective small hells. When their +time has expired, they are examined in order to see whether they have any other +sins which need punishment. + +Those who have committed any of the above sins may not only escape punishment, +but may have their punishment in the sixth court lessened, if they fast +regularly on the eighth day of the first month and take a vow not to commit +these sins. Some sins, however, cannot be arranged for in such a way, such as +the killing of living beings and hurting them; the associating with heretics; +committing fornication with women and then poisoning them; committing adultery, +violence, envy, or injuring the good name of others; stealing, requiting favors +with hatred, and hearing exhortation but not repenting. These are major sins. + +_2. Its Social Value_ + +The social value of purgatory is quite plain from the description of the fifth +court and of the sinners who are punished therein. Purgatory is the social +mirror of China, wherein the consequences of all unsocial acts are pictured in +such a vivid way as to deter the individual from committing them. It is +effective in China, not only because of the realistic presentation, but because +the opinion of the community is against such acts and in favor of repressing +them on every occasion. + +_3. The Buddhist Heaven._ + +Buddhism brought into China not only a fully developed purgatory but also a +heaven which all may enter. The sovereign of the western heaven is Amitâbha (or +in Chinese O-mi-to-fo), with whom Kuan Yin, the goddess of Mercy, is usually +associated. Amitâbha is explained as meaning “boundless age.” The original +meaning is “boundless light,” which suggests a Persian origin with Mannichean +influences. The translations of the Amitâbha sutras were wholly made by natives +of central Asia. + +Amitâbha is one of the thousand Buddhas; he is regarded as the reflex of +Sakyamuni and is connected also in his earthly incarnation with a monk called +Dharmâkara. This monk desired to become a Buddha. This wish he presented to +Lôkês’vararâja asking him to teach him as to what a Buddha and a Buddha country +ought to be. Lôkês’vararâja imparted this knowledge. Then the monk after +meditation returned having made forty-eight vows that he would not become a +Buddha, until all living beings should attain salvation in his heaven. + +The eighteenth vow expresses his ideal: + +“O Bhagavat, if those beings who have directed their thought towards the +highest perfect knowledge in other worlds, and who, after having heard my name, +when I have obtained Bodhi (knowledge), have meditated on me with serene +thoughts; if at the moment of their death, after having approached them +surrounded by an assembly of monks, I should not stand before them worshipped +by them, that is, so that their thoughts should not be troubled, then may I not +obtain the highest perfect knowledge.” + +A few extracts from the _Amitâbha Vyûha Sûtra_ will illustrate the +Buddhist idea of life in this Pure Land: + +“In the western region beyond one hundred thousand myriads of Buddhist lands +there is a world. Great Happiness by name. This land has a Buddha called +Amitâbha. The living beings there do not suffer any pain, but enjoy all +happiness. Therefore, it is called the land of Pure Delight … the land of Pure +Delight has seven precious fountains full of water containing the eight +virtues. The bottom of these fountains is covered with golden sand. On four +sides there are steps made of gold, silver, crystal and glass, precious stones, +red pearls, and highly polished agates. In the pools are variously colored, +light emitting lotus flowers as large as cart wheels, delicate, admirable, +odorous and pure…” + +“The Buddha of this land makes heavenly music. It is covered with gold. Morning +and evening during six hours it rains the wonderful celestial flowers +(Erythrina Indica). All the inhabitants of this land on clear mornings after +dressing offer these celestial flowers to the hundred thousand myriads of +Buddhas of the regions who return to their country at meal time. When they have +eaten they go away again.” + +“This country possesses every kind of wonderful varicolored birds, the white +egret, the peacock, the parrot, the s’rarika (a long legged bird), the +Kalavingka (a sweet voiced bird) … All these birds, morning and evening during +the six hours, utter forth a beautiful harmonious sound. Their song produces +the five _indrya_ (roots of faith, energy, memory, ecstatic meditation, +wisdom), the five _bala_ (the powers of faith, energy, memory, meditation +and wisdom), the seven _bodhyanga_ (the seven degrees of intelligence, +memory, discrimination, energy, tranquillity, ecstatic contemplation, +indifference), and the eight portions of the correct path _marga,_ (the +possession of correct views, decision and purity of thought and will, the +ability of reproducing any sound uttered in the universe, vow of poverty, +asceticism, attainment of meditative abstraction of self-control, religious +recollectedness, honesty and virtue), and such doctrines. When all beings of +this land have heard the music, they declare their faithfulness to the Buddha, +Dharma and the Sangha (the Buddha, the Law and the community of monks).” + +As to those who enter this land it says: + +“All living beings who hear this should make a vow to be born in that land. How +can they reach the Pure Land? All very good men will gather in that place … He +whose blessedness and virtue are great can be born into that country. If there +is a good man or woman who, on hearing of Amitâbha, takes this name and holds +it in his mind one, two, three, four, five, six, or seven days, and his whole +heart is not distracted, to that man at death Amitâbha will appear. His heart +will not be disturbed. He will at once enter into life in the land of Pure +Delight of Amitâbha. I see this blessing and hence utter these words. Those +living beings who hear these words should make a vow to be born in that land.” + +_4. The Harmonization of These Ideas with Ancestor Worship_ + +The extension of life beyond the grave in purgatory, or in the Pure Land and +through transmigration was readily accepted in China. Both the new ideas and +the disciplines through which to realize them were eagerly adopted, and have +held their place to this day. In other lands the creation of a heaven and a +hades has weakened the grip of ancestor worship and ultimately displaced it. In +China the opposite result has obtained, due, no doubt, to the fact that the +family system and along with it the supreme duty of filial piety were fostered +by the state and Buddhism and its teachings were permitted only in so far as +they bolstered it up. Another reason lies in the agricultural basis of China’s +civilization, reenforced by the great difficulty of communication, which tended +to make the family system dominant in China. Today, the improvement of +communication and the introduction of the industrial system of the West with +the individual emphasis of modern education are factors which are weakening the +family system and with it ancestral worship. + + + + +VIII +THE SPIRITUAL VALUES EMPHASIZED BY BUDDHISM IN CHINA + + +Near the House of Parliament in Peking is located a small monastery dedicated +to the goddess of Mercy, Kuan Yin. Before her image the incense burners send +forth curling clouds of smoke. The walls are decorated with old paintings of +gods and goddesses. The temple with its courtyard has the appearance of +prosperity. Its neat reception room, with its tables, chairs and clock, shows +the influence of the modern world. + +Here a monk in the prime of life spent a few months recently lecturing on +Buddhism to members of parliament and to scholars from various parts of China. +Frequently the writer used to drop in of an afternoon to discuss Buddhism and +its outlook. Usually a simple repast concluded these conversations, the +substance of which forms the greater part of this section. + +_1. The Threefold Classification of Men Under Buddhism_ + +“What does Buddhism do for men?” + +“There are in the world at least three classes of men. The lowest class live +among material things, they are occupied with possessions. Their life is +entangled in the crude and coarse materials which they regard as real. A +second, higher class, regard ideas as realities. They are not entangled in the +maze of things, but are confused by ideas, ascribing reality to them. The third +and highest class are those who by meditation have freed themselves from the +thraldom of ideas and can enter the sixteen heavens.” + +_2. Salvation for the Common Man_ + +“What can Buddhism do for the lowest class?” + +“For this class Buddhism has the ten prohibitions. Every man has in him ten +evils, which must be driven out. Three have to do with evil in the body, +namely, not to steal, not to kill, not to commit adultery; four belong to the +mouth, lying, exaggeration, abuse, and ambiguous talk; three belong to the +mind, covetousness, malice, and unbelief.” + +“Is not this entirely negative?” + +“Yes, but it is necessary, for during the process of eliminating these evil +deeds, man acquires patience and equanimity. Buddhism does not stop with the +prohibitions. The believer must practice the ten charitable deeds. Not only +must he remove the desire to kill living beings, but he must cultivate the +desire to save all beings. Not only must he not steal, but he must assist men +with his money. Not only must he not give himself to lasciviousness, but he +must treat all men with propriety. So each prohibition involves a positive +impulse to virtue, which is quite as essential as the refraining from evil.” + +“What energizing power does Buddhism provide?” + +“First, is purgatory with its terrors. The evil man, seeing the consequences of +his acts upon himself, becomes afraid to do them and does that which is good. +Then there is transmigration with the danger of transmigration into beasts and +insects. Again, there are the rewards in the paradise of Amitâbha. Moreover, +there is even the possibility not only of saving one’s self, but by accumulated +merit of saving one’s parents and relatives and shortening their stay in +purgatory.” + +_3. The Place of Faith_ + +“Can any man enter the western paradise of Amitâbha?” + +“Yes, it is open to all men. The sutra says: ‘If there be any one who commits +evil deeds, and even completes the ten evil actions, the five deadly sins and +the like; that man, being himself stupid and guilty of many crimes, deserves to +fall into a miserable path of existence and suffer endless pains during many +long ages. On the eve of death he may meet a good and learned teacher who, +soothing and encouraging him in various ways, will preach to him the excellent +Law and teach him the remembrance of Buddha, but being harassed by pains’, he +will have no time to think of Buddha.’” + +“What hope has such a man?” + +“Even such a man has hope. The sutra says: ‘Some good friend will say to him: +Even if thou canst not exercise the remembrance of Buddha, utter the name of +Buddha Amitabha.’ Let him do so serenely with his voice uninterrupted; let him +be (continually) thinking of Buddha, until he has completed ten times the +thought, repeating ‘Namah O-mi-to-fo,’ I put my trust in Buddha! On the +strength of (his merit of) uttering Buddha’s name he will, during every +repetition expiate the sins which involve him in births and deaths during +eighty millions of long ages. He will, while dying, see a golden lotus-flower, +like the disk of the sun, appearing before his eyes; in a moment he will be +born in the world of highest happiness. After twelve greater ages the +lotus-flower will unfold; thereupon the Bodhisattvas, Avalôkitësvaras and +Mahasattva’s, raising their voices in great compassion, will preach to him in +detail the real state of all the elements of nature and the law of the +expiation of sins.” + +“Does faith save such a man?” + +“Yes, not his own faith, but the faith which prompted the vow of Amitabha. +Amitâbha’s faith in the possibility of his salvation gives him supreme +confidence that he will attain salvation. All he needs is to have the desire to +be born in that paradise and to repeat the name of Amitabha.” + +_4. Salvation of the Second Class_ + +“How do those of the second class attain salvation?” + +“The men of the second class regard ideas as realities. They are not entangled +in the maze of things, but are confused by ideas, regarding them as real. These +men do not need images and outward sanctions, but they need heaven and +purgatory though regarding them as ideas. By performing the ten good deeds they +will obtain a quiet heart, having no fear, and become saints and sages. Among +men, saints and sages occupy a high rank, but not so among Buddhists. By merit +of good works merely they enter the planes of sensuous desire, the six +celestial worlds located immediately above the earth.” + +_5. Salvation for the Highest Class_ + +“And the third class?” + +“This class has many ranks. There are those who by the practice of meditation +(four _dkyanas_) [Footnote: Dhyana means contemplation. In later times +under the influence of the idea of transmigration heavens were imagined which +corresponded to the degrees of contemplation.] can enter the sixteen heavens +conditioned by form. By the practice of the four _arûpa-dhyânas_ +[Footnote: That degree of abstract contemplation from which all sensations are +absent.] they enter the four highest heavens free from all sensuous desires and +not conditioned by form. These heavens are the anteroom of Nirvana.” + +“What is the driving power in all this?” + +“It is _vîrya_ or energy.” + +_6. Heaven and Purgatory_ + +“Do heaven and purgatory exist?” + +“Heaven and purgatory are in the minds and hearts of men. Really heaven is in +the mind of Amitâbha and purgatory exists in the illusioned brains of men.” + +“Does anything exist?” + +“Nâgârjuna says: ‘There is no production, no destruction, no annihilation, no +persistence, no unity, no plurality, no coming in and no going forth.’” + +_7. Sin_ + +“Does sin exist?” + +“In the mind of the real Buddhist sin and virtue are different aspects of the +all. Sin is illusion; virtue is illusion, There is a higher unity in which they +are reconciled.” + +_8. Nirvâna_ + +_“Do you know of any one who attained Nirvâna?”_ + +“Yes, I have experienced it. It is not a state beyond the grave. It is a state +into which one can enter here.” + +“Can you express this experience in words?” + +“Impossible. I can only indicate the shore of this great ocean. At first I was +in great distress and agony, as though carrying the illusions of the world. +Then came a great peace and calm, ineffable, serene, and surpassing the power +of language to express.” + +_9. The Philosophical Background_ + +“What is behind this universe!” + +“Underlying this universe of phenomena and change there is a unity. It is the +basis of all being. It is within all being and all being rests in it. It is +because of this common background that men are able to apprehend it. This +universal basis we call _dharma,_ or law. Its characteristics are that +everything born grows old, is subject to disease and death; that the teachings +of Buddha purify the mind and enable it to obtain supreme enlightenment; that +all Buddhas by treading the same way of perfection will attain the highest +freedom.” + +“You speak of the Buddhist Trinity.” + +“Yes, we have the Dharmakâya. This is the essence-body, the ground of all +being, taking many forms, Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, spirits, angels, men and even +demons. It is impersonal, all-pervasive. It may be called the first person. The +second person is the Sambhogakâya, the body of bliss. This is the heavenly +manifestation of Buddha. The third person is the Nirmânakâya. This is the +projection of the body of bliss on earth.” + +Some identify this trinity with that of the Christian faith. While there is a +resemblance, we should note that the first person of the Buddhist trinity would +correspond to God as the absolute or the impersonal background of universal +Being. The second corresponds to the glorified Christ and the third to the +historic Jesus. There is no counterpart either to God the Father or to the Holy +Spirit. + +“Do you believe in the salvation of all beings?” + +“Yes, all have the Buddha heart. All living beings will finally become +Buddhas.” + +Then turning to a friend of mine the speaker said: “What have you done in +Buddhism?” The friend answered: “I have written and translated many books.” “I +do not mean that,” he answered. “What _work_ have you done?” The friend +confessed that he had not done much else. Then he said: “Every morning when you +awake, reflect deeply and profoundly upon your state before you were born. +Think back to that state where your soul was merged with Buddha. Find yourself +in that state and you will find ineffable enlightenment and joy.” + +The sun was setting behind the Western hills. The blare of trumpets sounded on +the city wall. Outside of the door was the whirling sound of Peking returning +home from its mundane tasks and joys. We joined the rushing, restless crowd and +still we felt the calm of another world. Has not Christianity a message of balm +and peace for these sons of the East who are so sensitive to the touch of the +eternal and sublime? + +_10. What Buddhism Has to Give_ + +An important government official obliged to deal with many vexatious requests +and demands declared: “I could not get through my day’s work, if I did not +spend an hour every day in meditation, just as Buddha did when he became +enlightened.” He was asked what he did when he meditated or prayed. “Nothing at +all.” “Well, about what do you think?” “Of nothing at all. I stop thinking when +I engage in religious meditation. Life makes me think too much. I should lose +my sanity, if I did not stop thinking and enter into the ‘void’, whence we all +came and into which we all are going to drop back.” + +His Christian inquirer still was unsatisfied by the Buddhist’s description of +his prayer life, and pressed further for details. “What happens when you +meditate or pray?” + +“Nothing happens, I tell you, except, that I experience a peace which the +passing world cannot give and which the passing world cannot altogether take +away. The secret of religion is simply to realize that everything is passing +away. When you accept that fact, then you become really free. The Christian +world seemed to have been tremendously impressed by the slogan of the French +soldiers at Verdun, ‘They shall not pass!’ Perhaps the German soldiers did not +pass just then or there. But the French soldiers themselves are all passing +away. And everything in the world is passing away. What our Buddhist religion +teaches us is: ‘Let it pass!’ You cannot keep anything for very long. And +prayer or meditation is simply to practice yourself in that thought +deliberately. Oh, it is a wonderful peace when you fully believe that gospel, +and enter into it every day. Vanity of vanities, everything is vanity! Why +worry? We do altogether too much worrying. To pray means simply to quit +worrying, to quit thinking, to enter into the indescribably passionless peace +of Nirvana.” + +Here seemed to be an ardent Buddhist. When asked what he thought as the +difference between a Buddhist and a Christian, he answered promptly: + +“Yes, there is my wife. She is a very good woman. All the neighbors come to +her, when there is any one sick or in trouble. So I say to her: ‘Wife, I should +think you would make a first-class Christian.’ But I think she lets herself be +worried by altogether too many troubles. She is all the time thinking and +fussing and planning. To be sure, it is mostly about other people, But then she +does have the children and the house and the relatives and friends and +neighbors to look after. Perhaps she really cannot be a Buddhist. Perhaps it is +all a matter of temperament. Oh, but I tell you it is great to be a Buddhist, +because it gives you such a wonderful peace.” + + + + +IX +PRESENT-DAY BUDDHISM: + + +_1. Periods of Buddhist History_ + +The history of Buddhism in China may be divided into four periods. Buddhism +entered China, as we have seen, in the second century B.C. The first period, +that of the translation and propagation of the faith, ended in 420 A.D. The +second period, that of interpenetration, lasted to the beginning of the T’ang +dynasty, 618 A.D. The third, the period of establishment, ended with the close +of the five dynasties, in 960 A.D. The fourth period, that of decay, has +extended to the present day. + +_2. The Progress of the Last Twenty-five Years_ + +There are signs of a revival of Buddhism in China. Whether this is a tide, or a +wave, only the future can reveal. In 1893 Dharmapala, an Indian monk, stopped +in Shanghai on his way back from the Congress of Religions in Chicago. It was +his purpose to make a tour of China, to arouse the Chinese Buddhists to send +missionaries to India to restore Buddhism there, and then to start a propaganda +throughout the whole world. He addressed the monks of Shanghai. Dr. Edkins, the +veteran missionary, acted as his interpreter. Dharmapala was surrounded by a +horde of curious monks who were more interested in his strange appearance and +in the cost of his garments than they were in his great ideals. They were also +feeling the iron heel of the Confucian government and at once inquired about +the attitude of the government toward such an innovation. Dharmapala did not go +beyond Shanghai. + +Japanese Buddhists, especially the members of the Hongwanji sect, have taken a +deep interest in Chinese Buddhists. Count Otani once visited the chief +monasteries of China. Numerous Japanese Buddhists have made such visits. In +1902, the Empress Dowager, fired by a reforming zeal, decided to confiscate +Buddhist property and to use the proceeds for the spread of modern education. +The Buddhist monasteries put themselves under the protection of Japanese monks +in order to hold their property. When by 1906 the Empress Dowager saw the +consequences of her edict, she at once issued a new edict, reversing the former +one, and the Japanese monks took their departure. + +The Japanese Buddhists have been fired by missionary zeal for China. In many of +the large cities of China are the temples of the Hongwanji sect. Established +primarily for the Japanese, these temples are intended to serve as points of +departure for a nation-wide missionary work. The twenty-one demands made upon +China included two significant items in the last group which the Chinese +refused to sign: “Art. 2: Japanese hospitals, churches and schools in the +interior of China shall be granted the right of owning land.” “Art. 7: China +agrees that Japanese subjects shall have the right of missionary propaganda in +China.” + +Under Japanese influence there was established in 1907 at Nanking, under the +leadership of Yang, a lay Buddhist devotee, a school for the training of +Buddhist missionaries. The students were to go to Japan for further training, +and the more promising ones were to study in India. This project was +discontinued after the death of Yang on account of the lack of funds. + +When the republic was established Buddhism felt a wave of reform. The +monasteries established schools for monks and children. A magazine was +published which appeared irregularly for several numbers and then stopped. A +national organization was formed with headquarters at Peking. A survey of +monasteries was begun. The activities in lecturing and propaganda were +increased, but Yuan Shih-kai issued twenty-seven regulations for the control of +Buddhist monasteries, which markedly dampened the ardor of the reformers. + +The world war which accentuated the spirit of nationalism had the added effect +of stirring up Buddhist enthusiasm. There are at present signs of new activity +among them in China. + +_3. Present Activities_ + +While Buddhism may be standing still or even dying in certain parts of China, +it is showing signs of new life in the provinces of Kiangsu and Chekiang and in +the large cities. Such revival in centers subject to the influence of the +modern world shows that Buddhism in China as in Japan has sufficient vitality +to adjust itself to modern conditions. Let us consider some of these +activities. + +_(a) The Reconstruction of Monasteries._—During the T’ai Ping rebellion, +which devastated China in 1850-1865, the monasteries suffered with the towns. +Not only were the monasteries burned to the ground, but their means of support +were taken away and the monks were scattered. There are still many of these +ruined monasteries in the Yangtze valley and in southern and western China. +Quite a number of them have been rebuilt. Perhaps the most notable example is +that at Changchow which was destroyed during the rebellion. Today it is the +largest monastery in China, having about two thousand monks. In Fukien several +new monasteries have been built in the last few decades. In the provinces of +Chekiang and Kiangsu, in the large cities and about Peking there are building +activities, showing that the monasteries are feeling a new wave of prosperity. + +T’ai Hsu, one of the leaders’ of modern Buddhism, is holding up an ideal +program for Buddhism in this time of reconstruction. He proposes that there +should be 576 central monasteries, 4608 preaching places, 72 Buddhist hospitals +and 72 orphanages. + +_(b) Accessions._—Regarding the number of monks it is almost impossible to +obtain any reliable figures. A conservative estimate, based upon partial +returns, makes the number of monks about 400,000 and that of nuns about 10,000. +The impression among the Buddhists is that the number of monks is increasing. +That is quite probable in view of the rebuilding and repairing which is now in +progress. + +More significant is the number of accessions from the learned class. Many +officials, disheartened by the present confused political situation, have +sought refuge in the monasteries. Some of them are now abbots of monasteries +and are using their influence to build them up. All over China there are +Confucian scholars who are giving themselves to the study of Buddhism and to +meditation. Some of the Chinese students who have studied in Buddhist +universities in Japan are propagating Buddhism by lecture and pen. + +_(c) Publications._—Quite as significant is the increase in the +publication of Buddhist literature of all kinds. Many of the monasteries have +printing departments where they publish the sutras needed for their own use. In +addition, there are eight or more publishing centers where Buddhist literature +is printed. The most famous are Yang’s establishment at Nanking, the Buddhist +Press in Yangchow and that in Peking. In these establishments about nine +hundred different works are being published. The most noteworthy recent +publication has been that of the Chinese Buddhist Tripitaka in Shanghai. + +Among these publications are a few modern issues. The Chung Hua Book Company +has published several works on Buddhism. Other books have been issued for the +sake of harmonizing Buddhism with western science and philosophy. In this +enterprise Japanese influence is visible. In 1921 a Shanghai press published a +dictionary of Buddhist terms containing 3302 pages, based on the Japanese +Dictionary of Buddhism. Other works also show the influence of Japanese +scholarship. + +Among the publications have appeared two magazines. One published at Ningpo, is +called “New Buddhism.” This is struggling and may have to succumb. The other is +known as the “Sound of the Sea Tide,” now published in Hankow. Moreover, in all +the large cities there are Buddhist bookshops where only Buddhist works are +sold. These all report a good business. This literary activity reveals an +interest among the reading classes of China. Few such books are purchased by +the monks. The Chinese scholars read them for their style and for their deep +philosophy, but also for light and for help in the present distracting +political situation of their country. + +_(d) Lectures._—Along with publication goes the spread of Buddhism by +lectures in the monasteries and the cities of China. A few years ago Buddhist +sermons, however serious, were only listened to by monks and by a few pious +devotees. Today such addresses are advertised and are usually well attended by +the intellectuals. Often many women are found listening. Monks like T’ai Hsü +and Yuan Ying have a national reputation. Not only monks, but laymen trained in +Japan are delivering lectures on the Buddhist sutras. The favorites are the +Awakening of Faith and the Suddharma Pundarika sutra. + +_(e) Buddhist Societies._—With the lectures goes the organization of +Buddhist societies for all sorts of purposes. There is a central society in +Peking which has branches in every province. The connection is rather loose. +Buddhism has never been in favor of centralization. Nor for that matter would +the government have allowed it. The chief ends aimed at by these societies are +fellowship, devotion, study, propagation, and service. Such societies, often +short lived, are springing up in many quarters. They meet for lectures on +Buddhism or to conduct a study class in some of the sutras. Occasionally the +more ambitious conduct an institute for several months. Some spend part of the +time in meditation together. Several schools for children are supported by +these societies. They also encourage work of a religious nature among +prisoners, distributing tracts and holding services. Such activities are +especially appreciated by those who are to suffer the death penalty. The +societies are also doing publishing work. The two magazines are supported by +the members of the larger societies. + +_(f) Signs of Social Ambition._—Social work is a prominent feature of some +of these Buddhist societies. They have raised money for famine stricken +regions, have opened orphanages, and assist in Red Cross work. One of the +largest Chinese institutions for ministering to people who are sick and in +trouble is located at Hankow. Around a central Buddhist temple is a +modern-built hospital, an orphanage and several schools for poor children. It +may not maintain western standards of efficiency, but it certainly represents +the outreach of modern Buddhism. + +Perhaps their most far-reaching advance has been made because of the +realization that leaders are needed and that they must be trained. Several +schools for this purpose have sprung into existence. Such schools are +necessarily very primitive and are struggling with the difficulties of finding +an adequate staff and equipment and of obtaining the best type of students. + +Another sign of new life has been the making of programs for the future +development of Buddhism. One of the most comprehensive appeared a short time +ago. For the individual it proposes the cultivation of love, mercy, equality, +freedom, progressiveness, an established faith, patience and endurance. For all +men it proposes (1) an education according to capacity; (2) a trade suited to +ability; (3) an opportunity to develop one’s powers; (4) a chance for +enlightenment for all. For society it urges the cultivation of cooperation, +social service, sacrifice for the social weal, and the social consciousness in +the individual. On behalf of the country it urges patriotism, participation in +the government, and cooperation in international movements. For the world it +advocates universal progress. As to the universe it specifies as a goal the +bringing of men into harmony with spiritual realities, the enlightenment of all +and the realization of the spiritual universe. + +A Buddhist writer sums up the aims of new Buddhism as follows: + +“Formerly Buddhism desired to escape the sinful world. Today Buddhism not only +desires to escape this world of sin, but longs to transform this world of sin +into a new world dominated by the ideals of Buddhism. Formerly Buddhism was +occupied with erecting and perfecting its doctrines and polity as an +organization. Today it not only hopes to perfect the doctrines and polity, but +desires to spread the doctrines and ideals abroad so as to help mankind to +become truly cultured.” + +_4. The Attitude of Tibetan Lamas_ + +Not only the Chinese Buddhists, but the Lamas of Mongolia and Tibet are feeling +the impulses of the new age. Quite recently an exhibition was held in the Lama +temple at Peking which attracted thousands of visitors. Its object was to +obtain money to repair the temple, and thus to give its work a fresh impulse. +That these impulses are not necessarily hostile to Christianity is shown by a +letter written by the Kurung Tsering Lama of Kokonor district to the Rev. T. +Sörensen of Szechuan: + +“I, your humble servant, have seen several copies of the Scriptures and, having +read them carefully, they certainly made me believe in Christ. I understand a +little of the outstanding principles and the doctrinal teaching of the One Son, +but as to the Holy Spirit’s nature and essence, and as to the origin of this +religion, I am not at all clear, and it is therefore important that the +doctrinal principles of this religion should be fully explained, so as to +enlighten the unintelligent and people of small mental ability. + +“The teaching of the science of medicine and astrology is also very important. +It is therefore evident if we want this blessing openly manifested, we must +believe in the religion of the only Son of God. Being in earnest, I therefore +pray you from my heart not to consider this letter lightly. With a hundred +salutations.” + +Enclosed with this letter was a poem written in most elegant language. + +“O thou Supreme God and most precious Father, The truth above all religions, +The Ruler of all animate and inanimate worlds! Greater than wisdom, separated +from birth and death, Is his son Christ the Lord shining in glory among endless +beings. Incomprehensible wonder, miraculously made! In this teaching I myself +also believe—As your spirit is with heaven united, My soul undivided is seeking +the truth Jesus the Savior’s desire fulfilling, For the coming of the Kingdom +of Heaven I am praying. Happiness to all.” + +_5. The Buddhist World Versus the Christian World_ + +Looking back over the last twenty-five years we see rising quite distinctly a +Buddhist world growing conscious of itself, of its past history and of its +mission to the world. This Buddhist, world has much more of a program than it +had twenty-five years ago. Its object is to unite the Mahayâna and the Hînayâna +branches of Buddhism and to spread Buddhist propaganda over the world. At +present the leadership of this movement is in Japan. It is in part a political +movement. There is no question that Christianity is not at all pleasing to the +Japanese militarists. It is regarded by them as the advance post of western +industrialism and political ambition. Quite naturally such leaders desire to +make the Buddhist world a unit. It is also a social movement. The spirit of the +Japanese Buddhist has been brought to consciousness by the new position of +Japan. Japan is seeking to take its place in the world as a first rate power. +By this not only will Japan’s industry and commerce profit, but its spiritual +values must also be adapted to the world. The movement then has its spiritual +side. Japanese travelers and people are going to all parts of the world. They +carry with them the religious ideals which have been shaped by Buddhism. +Buddhism in the past was one of the great religions of salvation with an +inspiring missionary message. It is again awakening to this task of +evangelization. Under the leadership of Japanese scholars and religious +statesmen the Japanese are seeking to unite the Buddhist world so that it shall +become a force in the new world. Japan is thus trying to give back what it has +received in the past. + +At present in Buddhist countries there is a strong force working against this +movement. Nationalism is a new force to be reckoned with. Still even with the +spirit of nationalism permeating every group, the Buddhist world is getting +together and will strive to make its contribution to the life of the whole +world. + + + + +X +THE CHRISTIAN APPROACH TO BUDDHISTS + + +_1. Questions Which Buddhists Ask_ + +Buddhists are approaching Christianity. In many places a spirit of inquiry and +interest in the Christian religion is met. It is not necessary that there +should be a Buddhist world permanently over against a Christian world. The +questions which Buddhists ask a missionary indicate an interest in vital +themes. Some of them are as follows: + +We put our trust in the three Precious Ones. In what do you trust? Is not your +Shang Ti (name for God used in China) a being lower than Buddha and just a +little higher than a Bodhisattva? Is not Shang Ti the tribal god of the Jews? +Do you believe in the existence of _purgatory?_ What sufferings will those +endure who do not live a virtuous life? Do you believe in the reality of the +Western Paradise? How can one enter it? There being three kinds of merit, by +what method is the great merit accumulated? How is the middle and the small +merit accumulated? What are the fruits of these proportions of merit and what +are they like? Tell me how to believe Christ. What work of meditation do you +perform? Is not Buddhism more democratic than Christianity, because it holds +out the possibility of Buddhahood to all beings? Is not Buddhism more +inclusive, because it provides for the salvation of all beings? + +_2. Knowledge and Sympathy_ + +These questions make it plain that the worker who is to deal with Buddhists +should have a broad background of general culture. He must be thoroughly +humanized. He should have a good knowledge of the history of philosophy and +religion, including the work of the modern philosophers. A knowledge of the +life of Buddha and of the doctrines of the Hînayâna or Southern Buddhism, as +well as the tenets of the Mahayâna should be in his possession. The psychology +of religion should interpenetrate his historical learning; the best methods of +pedagogy should guide his approach to men. Of course he must speak the language +of the Buddhist, not only the spiritual language, but his everyday patois. He +will find it an advantage to know some Sanskrit. While this requirement is not +very urgent at present, it will rapidly become a necessity for doing the best +work. + +This knowledge should be interpenetrated by a genuine sympathy, that is, +imagination tinged with emotion. The worker should be able to view doctrines, +values and actions from the point of view of the Buddhist and his past history. +He must have a genuine interest in and a great capacity for friendship. The +Buddhists are very human, responding to friendship very quickly. Such +friendship forms a link between the man and the larger friendship of Christ. + +_3. Emphasis on the Aesthetic in Christianity_ + +A Chinese Christian leader described his idea of a church as a place removed +from the din of the street, approached by a walk flanked with trees and flowers +and adorned within by symbols speaking to the heart of the Chinese. He longed +for the mystic silence and the beauty of holiness which would open the windows +of the world of spiritual reality and throw its light upon the problems of +life. He was asked, “Would you adapt some of the symbols of the Chinese +religions?” He said, “Many of those symbols are neutral. They suggest religious +emotion. Their character depends upon the content which the occasion puts into +them. If the content is Christian then the symbols and emotions will become +Christian.” + +Christianity is a religion of beauty. The beautiful in architecture, symbol and +ritual, expressing the spiritual universe of the past, present and future, +makes a strong appeal to the Chinese heart. It may well be emphasized in the +future as never before. + +_4. Emphasis on the Mystical in Christianity_ + +Not long ago a Buddhist in one of the large cities of China was converted. He +found great joy in the experience which revived him and gathered into unity the +broken fragments of his life. He attended church regularly and participated in +the prayer meetings. Gradually he discovered that he was not being nourished. +He felt his joy slipping away from him and his divided life reinstating itself. +He went to Buddhism for consolation. He is not hostile to the church. He +appreciates the help he received, but he said that he came for consolation and +peace and found the same—hard orthodoxy and morality so familiar to him in +Confucianism. + +While the case of this man may have individual peculiarities, it may be made +the starting point for a discussion of the situation in many churches in China. +The early message to the Chinese was doctrinal. The false notion of many gods +had to be displaced by the idea of the one true God. With this idea of the true +God a few other tenets of the Christian religion are often held as dogmatic +propositions to be repeated when questions are asked. The great sin preached is +the worship of idols. + +The second part of the Christian message is salvation by faith in Jesus Christ. +This salvation is other-worldly to a large extent. The extreme emphasis upon it +has made of the church an insurance society, membership in which insures bliss +in the world beyond. + +The third part of the message has been concerned with moral acts, abstinence +from opium (liquor and tobacco in some churches), polygamy, and the gross sins. +Attendance upon church services, contribution for the support of the church, +and the refusal to contribute to idolatry have also been required. + +The emphasis to a large extent was doctrinal, moral and individual. The result +has been a body of people free from the gross sins, but also innocent of the +great virtues and individualistic in their outlook upon this world and the +next. This emphasis is needed, but in addition there should be the cultivation +of the presence of God in the soul by appropriate means. The Christian Church +of China should develop a technique of the spiritual life suited to the East. +The formation of habits of devotion should be emphasized. Intercessory prayer +should be given a larger place. Contemplation and meditation should be regarded +not merely as an escape from the turmoil and strife of the world, but as a +preparation for the highest life of service and sacrifice. Buddhist mysticism +united the whole universe and was the great foundation of Chinese art, +literature and morality. The spiritual world of Christianity must likewise seep +through into the very thought of Asia and inspire the new art, literature and +morality which will be the world expression of a Christian universe. + +_5. Emphasis on the Social Elements in Christianity_ + +To the aesthetic and mystical emphasis must be attached a social emphasis. +Buddhism is often criticized as not being social. It is a highly socialized +religion. It has had a large influence upon social life in the East. This +social life is different from ours. We see its wrongs and weaknesses. Likewise +do the Buddhists see the materialism and injustice of our social life. +Christianity must relate itself to the modern world as it is rising in China +and seek not merely to remedy a few wrongs or heal a few diseases, but must +release the healing stream into the social life of the East. This will be done +and is being done through the Church community which has become conscious of +itself, realizing its needs and wants, seeking in an intelligent and systematic +way to rehabilitate itself. It is not so much the external unrelated efforts +that accomplish the thing needed, but it is rather the community life stirred +by ideals and fired by a new dynamic which begins the work of reformation. + +_6. Emphasis on the Person of Jesus Christ_ + +_(a) As a Historical Character._—The great asset of the missionary among +Buddhists is the historical person of Christ. In contrast to many of the +Bodhisattvas, the saviours of the Buddhists, Jesus is a historical character. +His life among men was the life of God among men. + +_(b) As the Revealer._—God is like Christ. Christ reveals God as the +complete, the perfect person. He possessed the pure spiritual personality. The +chief characteristic of this personality is love. This love conscious of itself +finds its highest joy in the well-being of others. This love of God produced +human life which, springing from the lowest form, broke through the material +elements and is capable of attaining the highest development. + +Christ reveals to man his heavenly relationship. Man created in the likeness of +God stands in the highest relation of one person to another through love. He +likens this relation to that of father and son. He lifts man to the fellowship +with the divine. Yet such a fellowship that man preserves his personality. + +Christ reveals man in his relation to men as a brother and the form of love +which shall control the relation of man to God as well as man to man. + +Christ revealed and founded the Kingdom, a society of the saved, dominated by +the spirit of the founder and making this spirit of love and service the +organizing power in the world. + +_(c) As the Saviour._—Mahayâna Buddhism emphasized saviourhood. Christ is +the saviour of men. In Buddhism the stress is placed upon the merit of the +saviour and the saved. There is no question that merit has some value. Yet +Christ does not save us by merit, nor do we help to save one another by merit. +Salvation is a moral and spiritual process. It is concerned with the biology of +the soul. The salvation that we preach is not the salvation by knowledge, or +meditation, or merit, but by the interpenetration of Christ’s spirit in ours, +by the mystic and moral union of our life with his. As Paul says: “That I may +know Him and the power of His resurrection and the fellowship of His +suffering.” Yet He is not the saviour of the individual alone. He saves the +community, the church. Only as His spirit permeates and dominates the community +does he find his true self and the real salvation. + +_(d) As the Eternal Son, of God._—The Mahayâna system does not emphasize +the historicity of Amitabha or of the Bodhisattvas. Spiritual truth is the +development of the soul. It is not limited by time and place. Likewise +Christianity must emphasize the eternal character of Jesus Christ. “The Logos +existed in the very beginning, the Logos was with God, the Logos was God.” To +the Mahâyânist this spiritual history is more real than any fact conditioned by +time and place. + +The Christian worker must learn to understand the import of the Gospel of John. +He must see in Jesus Christ “The real Light, which enlightens every man.” He +must be able to convince himself that the Christ is the fulfillment of the +highest aspirations of the Mahâyâna system. + +_7. How Christianity Expresses Itself in Buddhist Minds_ + +In 1920 a number of Buddhist monks, under the leadership of Rev. K. L. Reichelt +formed a Christian brotherhood. The members of this small brotherhood decided +that they must subscribe to vows and they took the four following: + +“I promise before the Almighty and Omniscient God, that I with my whole heart +will surrender myself to the true Trinity, God the Father, the Son and the Holy +Spirit. I will with my whole heart have faith in Jesus Christ as the Saviour of +the world who gives completion to the profoundest and best objects of the +higher Buddhism. I will live in this faith now and ever after. + +“I promise solemnly before God with my whole heart to devote myself to the +study of the true doctrine and break wholly with the evil manners of the world +and show forth in my public and private life that I am truly united with +Christ. + +“I promise that I in every respect will try so to educate myself that I can be +of use in the work of God on earth. I will with undivided heart devote myself +to the great work; to lead my brethren in the Buddhist Association forward to +the understanding of Christ as the only One, who gives completion to the +highest and profoundest ideas of Higher Buddhism. + +“I promise that until my last hour I will work so that out of our Christian +Brotherhood there may grow forth a strong church of Christ among Buddhists. I +will not permit any evil thing to grow in my heart, which could divide the +brotherhood, but will always try to promote the progress of every member in the +knowledge of the holy obligations laid down in these vows and our +constitution.” + +Such men ought, to make choice Christians. + +_8. Christianity’s Constructive Values_ + +Buddhism in the course of its long history developed certain religious ideas +and values which we find in Christianity. It faced the fact of sin and placed +it in the heart. It diagnosed the fundamental instincts of men, sex-appetite, +will-to-achieve, and pugnacity. These must be overcome. It regards them as +delusions which must be eliminated. Christianity also deals with these +instincts. It is under no delusion as to their strength. There are certain +tendencies in Christianity which have tried to annihilate them. The central +tendency of Christianity, however, recognizing their power for good, seeks to +sublimate them and make them serve the individual and society. This attitude of +the two religions toward these instincts is fundamentally different. The +attitude of Christianity has been justified even in Buddhist lands where the +religious life of the people has followed the same line that Christianity +advocates. + +Early Buddhism tried to dissolve man’s personality. Later Buddhism corrected +this and perhaps has appealed too much to the desire on the part of the +individual to enter a heaven which is merely a replica of the earth. +Christianity starts with a personal God and holds up before the believer the +goal of perfection for his own personality. It finds man without a self and +confers a real selfhood upon him. + +Early Buddhism taught that salvation is accomplished by the individual alone. +It denies the possibility and the necessity of help from a divine source. +Subsequent history has proved this to have been wrong. In India, Buddhism has +been displaced by Hinduism, and in China, and Japan, the Mahâyâna has developed +the idea of salvation through another. The great stream of Buddhism has +recognized that man by himself is helpless. He must have the help of a divine +power in order to obtain salvation. Christianity asserts that salvation is +possible only through the intervention of God. The incarnation, the life, death +and resurrection of Jesus and his work in the world through the Holy Spirit on +the one hand are the expression of God’s solicitude for man, and, on the other +hand, correspond to the deep need which men of all ages have felt, for a power +above themselves. From the early stages of magic to the highest reaches of +religion we find this constant factor recognized by human groups all over the +world. They bear witness to a power above themselves to whom they continually +appeal. In Christianity we find this main tendency enunciated most clearly. The +individual cannot save himself. Mankind cannot save itself. Both must rely upon +the assistance of the divine power which started this universe on its way and +which is the ever present creative force. + +Christianity, moreover, has established the community of believers including +all classes and conditions of men. Herein each one may realize himself. Herein +also he may realize the kind of community which is friendly to his highest +aspirations for himself. Herein he has the opportunity to transmute the +instincts above mentioned into forces which make for the larger development of +his own person and the well-being of the community. + +Accordingly, as Christians face Buddhists, they can do so with the +consciousness that this great religion has been reaching out after the light +which shines brightly in our Christian religion. They have the assurance not +only that they have a message which brings fulfilment to the ideas of the +Mahâyâna, but also that it has prepared the way for the hearts of the Chinese +to receive the highest message of Christianity. + + + + +APPENDIX I +HINTS FOR THE PRELIMINARY STUDY OF BUDDHISM IN CHINA + + +The student should read and inwardly digest the booklet of K. J. Saunders. + +He should follow the directions given in Appendix One of that book, This +procedure is important because the Hînayâna Buddhism and the life of Buddha are +the background of Buddhism in China. + +Then he may take Hackmann’s _Buddhism as a Religion_ (No. 15). This will +give a general orientation. This may be followed with R. F. Johnston’s +_Buddhist China_ (No. _20_). Along with this he may read Suzuki’s +_Awakening of Faith_ (No. 32), and also his _Outlines of Mahâyanâ +Buddhism (No._ 33). McGovern’s _Introduction to Mahâyanâ Buddhism (No._ +23) will illuminate the philosophical background of Buddhism, and Eliot’s +_Hinduism and Buddhism_ (No. 13) will add historical perspective. + +The translation of _Mahdydna Sutras_ by Beal and in the Sacred Books of +the East will give him some of the sources for the doctrines held in China. He +may begin as the Buddhist missionaries did with the sutra of the Forty-two +sections and then take up the Diamond Sutra, and then completing the sutras in +Vol. 59 and the Catena of Buddhist Scriptures. + +For the study of the ethical side he will find De Groot’s _Le Code du +Mahâyâna en Chine_ very helpful. For the study of the sects Eliot, Vol. III, +pp. 303-320 _Northern Buddhism_ (No. 14) will be helpful. + +In all his study he will find Eitel’s _Handbook of Chinese Buddhism_ (No. +12) indispensable. He must, however, make a Chinese index in order to be able +to use the book. + +Contact with monks will be helpful and is quite necessary in order to +appreciate the human problems of the work. + + + + +APPENDIX II +A BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY + + +1. BEAL, S. _Abstract of Four Lectures_ upon _Buddhist Literature_ in +_China._ London, Triibner, 1882. + +Lecture II, on “Method of Buddha’s Teaching in the Vinaya Pitaka,” and Lecture +IV, on “Coincidences Between Buddhism and Other Religions,” especially +desirable. + +2. —— _Buddhism in China,_ London, S. P. C. K, 1884. + +The best comprehensive account of Chinese Buddhism, written by an authority. + +3. —— _Catena of Buddhist Scriptures,_ from the Chinese. London, Triibner, +1871. + +A good introduction to Chinese Buddhism from the sources. + +4. —— _The Romantic Legend of Sâkya Buddha._ London, Triibner, 1875. + +Recounts Buddha’s history from the beginning to the conversion of the Kâsyapas +and others. + +5. —— _Texts from the Buddhist Canon Commonly Known_ as _D_ +hammapada. London, Triibner, 1878. Pocket edition, 1902. + +These “Scriptural Texts,” translated from the Chinese and abridged, are usually +connected with some event in Buddha’s history. This translation has Indian +anecdotes, illustrating the verses. + +6. COULING, S., editor. _The Encyclopaedia Sinica._ Shanghai, Kelly & +Walsh, 1917. + +Contains, on pages 67-75, a number of brief articles upon Buddhism in China. + +7. DE QROOT, J. J. M. _Religion of the Chinese._ New York, Macmillan, +1900. + +Pages 164-223 contain a summary of the main facts about Chinese Buddhism by an +authority. + +8. —— _Sectarianism and Religious Persecution in China._ 2 vols. J. +Müller, Amsterdam, 1903-1904. + +Treats from sources Confucianism’s persecution of Buddhism and other sects. See +Vol. II. Index, under Buddhism, p. 572. + +9. DORE, HENEI. _Researches into Chinese Superstitions._ 6 vols. Tusewei +Press, 1914-1920. + +A well illustrated miscellany of superstitions of all Chinese religions showing +indistinctly their interpenetration by Buddhism. For Buddhism proper, see Vol. +VI, pp. 89-233. + +10. EDKINS, J. _Chinese Buddhism._ 2d edition. London, Trübner, 1893. + +A very full account of Buddhism as seen by a Sinologue of the last generation. + +11. EITEL, E. J. _Buddhism: Its Historical, Theoretical and Popular +Aspects._ Hongkong, Lane, Crawford and Co., 1884. + +Written by an observant scholar and descriptive of Buddhism of South China +especially. + +12. —— _Handbook of Chinese Buddhism._ Presbyterian Mission Press, +Shanghai. + +This is a Sanskrit-Chinese dictionary, a reprint of the second edition of 1888 +without the Chinese index necessary for identifying Chinese Buddhist terms. + +13. ELIOT, SIR CHARLES. _Hinduism and Buddhism, An Historical Sketch._ 3 +vols. Edward Arnold and Co., 1921. + +This is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of Buddhism by an experienced +student. The parts especially related to Chinese Buddhism are Vol. II, pp. +3-106; Vol. Ill, 223-335. + +14. JETTY, A. _Gods of Northern Buddhism._ Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1914. + +This work is helpful in identifying images in the temples, though unfortunately +few of those given are Chinese. + +15. HACKMANN, H. _Buddhism as a Religion._ London, Probsthain, 1910. + +Gives a general view of Buddhism from first-hand investigation. For Chinese +Buddhism see pp. 200-257. + +16. HASTINGS, JAMES. _The Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics._ New York, +Scribners, 1908. + +Articles Asvaghosa, Bodhisattva, China (Buddhism in), Mahâyâna Missions +(Buddhist). + +17. HUME, R. E. _The Living Religions of the World._ New York, Scribners, +1924. + +A clear comparative study of these religions in the light of Christian +standards. + +18. INGLIS, J. W. “Christian Element in Chinese Buddhism.” _International +Review of Missions,_ Vol. V, 1916, pp. 587-602. An excellent article by a +veteran missionary and scholar of Manchuria. + +19. JOHNSON, S. _Oriental Religions … China._ Boston, Houghton, Osgood +Co., 1878. + +Pages 800-833 give a comprehensive summary by a student of comparative +religion. + +20. JOHNSTON, R. F. _Buddhist_ China. New York, Dutton, 1913. + +A well-written, interesting book. The author knows his subject, and is held in +high esteem by Buddhists in China. + +21. KEITH, A. BERRIEDALE. _Buddhist Philosophy in India and Ceylon._ +Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1923. + +A study of the historic development of the Buddhistic philosophy in India and +Ceylon which throws much light on the Mahâyâna. + +22. LODGE, J. E. _Chinese Buddhist Art._ Asia, Vol. XIX, June, 1919. + +Some of the choicest half-tones illustrating its character accompanied by +interesting descriptions. + +23. McGOVERN, W. M. _An Introduction of Mahâyâna Buddhism._ Dutton, 1922. + +Though written from the point of view of Japanese Buddhism it gives a good +treatment of metaphysical and psychological aspects of the Mahâyâna system. + +24. MÜLLER, F. MAX. _Sacred Books of the East._ Vol. XLIX, Buddhist, +Mahâyâna Texts. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1894. + +A book of sources necessary for understanding Northern Buddhism. + +25. PARKER, E. H. _China and Religion._ New York, Dutton, 1905. + +A sketch of Buddhism by a scholar long resident in China is found in Chapter +IV. + +26. PAUL, C. T. _The Presentation of Christianity to Buddhists._ New York, +Board of Missionary Preparation, 1924. + +A carefully prepared study of Buddhism from the viewpoint of missionaries +working in Buddhist lands. + +27. REICHELT, K. L. “Special Work Among Chinese Buddhists.” _Chinese +Recorder,_ Vol. LI, 1920, July issue, pp. 491-497. + +An article by a pioneer in work among Buddhists, of rare insight and sympathy. + +28. RICHARD, T. _The Awakening of Faith in the Mahâyâna Doctrine._ 2d +edition. Shanghai, 1918. + +A loose translation by a very large-hearted and sympathetic student with an +irenic spirit. See 32 below. + +29. RICHARD, T. _Guide to Buddhahood; Being a Standard Manual of Chinese +Buddhism._ Shanghai., 1907. + +30. SAUNDERS, K. J. _Epochs of Buddhist History_ (Haskell Lectures), +Chicago University Press, 1922. + +A good summary of the main developments in Buddhism. + +31. STAUFFER, M. T. _The Christian Occupation of China._ Shanghai +Continuation Committee, 1922. + +The introductory section contains articles upon China’s religions. + +32. SUZUKI, T. A’svaghosa’s _Awakening of Faith in the Mahâyâna._ Chicago, +Open Court Publishing Co., 1900. + +A far more accurate translation of this work than No. 28 above. + +33. —— Outlines of _Mahâyâna Buddhism._ Chicago, Open Court Publishing +Co., 1908. + +While written from the Japanese point of view it is necessary to the +understanding of Chinese Buddhism. + +34. WATTERS, T. “Buddhism in China.” _Chinese Recorder,_ Vol. II, 1870, +pp. 1-7, 38-43, 64-68, 81-88, 117-122, 145-150, Shanghai. + +A valuable series of articles by an excellent Chinese scholar, discussing the +history, persecutions, and various Buddhas of China. + +35. WEI, F. C. M. “Salvation by Faith as Taught by the Pure Land Sect.” +_Chinese Recorder,_ Vol. LI, 1920, pp. 395-401, 485-491. + +A good article on the sect whose ideas have spread over China and Japan. + +36. WIEGER, L. _Bouddhisme Chinois,_ 2 vols. Ho-Kien-Fou, Roman Catholic +Press, 1910-1913. + +This contains the Chinese text and French translation of the life of Buddha as +known to China; also the ritual observed in ordination. 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