diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/ehlai10.txt | 32581 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | old/ehlai10.zip | bin | 0 -> 586868 bytes |
2 files changed, 32581 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/old/ehlai10.txt b/old/ehlai10.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..471f43d --- /dev/null +++ b/old/ehlai10.txt @@ -0,0 +1,32581 @@ +*The Project Gutenberg Etext of Edison, His Life and Inventions* + + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world, be sure to check +the copyright laws for your country before posting these files!! + +Please take a look at the important information in this header. +We encourage you to keep this file on your own disk, keeping an +electronic path open for the next readers. Do not remove this. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**Etexts Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*These Etexts Prepared By Hundreds of Volunteers and Donations* + +Information on contacting Project Gutenberg to get Etexts, and +further information is included below. We need your donations. + + +Edison, His Life and Inventions + +by Frank Lewis Dyer and Thomas Commerford Martin + + +February, 1997 [Etext #820] + + +*The Project Gutenberg Etext of Edison, His Life and Inventions* +*****This file should be named ehlai10.txt or ehlai10.zip****** + +Corrected EDITIONS of our etexts get a new NUMBER, ehlai11.txt. +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, ehlai10a.txt. + + +Scanned by Charles Keller with OmniPage Professional OCR software + + +We are now trying to release all our books one month in advance +of the official release dates, for time for better editing. + +Please note: neither this list nor its contents are final till +midnight of the last day of the month of any such announcement. +The official release date of all Project Gutenberg Etexts is at +Midnight, Central Time, of the last day of the stated month. A +preliminary version may often be posted for suggestion, comment +and editing by those who wish to do so. To be sure you have an +up to date first edition [xxxxx10x.xxx] please check file sizes +in the first week of the next month. Since our ftp program has +a bug in it that scrambles the date [tried to fix and failed] a +look at the file size will have to do, but we will try to see a +new copy has at least one byte more or less. + + +Information about Project Gutenberg (one page) + +We produce about two million dollars for each hour we work. The +fifty hours is one conservative estimate for how long it we take +to get any etext selected, entered, proofread, edited, copyright +searched and analyzed, the copyright letters written, etc. This +projected audience is one hundred million readers. If our value +per text is nominally estimated at one dollar then we produce $2 +million dollars per hour this year as we release thirty-two text +files per month: or 400 more Etexts in 1996 for a total of 800. +If these reach just 10% of the computerized population, then the +total should reach 80 billion Etexts. We will try add 800 more, +during 1997, but it will take all the effort we can manage to do +the doubling of our library again this year, what with the other +massive requirements it is going to take to get incorporated and +establish something that will have some permanence. + +The Goal of Project Gutenberg is to Give Away One Trillion Etext +Files by the December 31, 2001. [10,000 x 100,000,000=Trillion] +This is ten thousand titles each to one hundred million readers, +which is only 10% of the present number of computer users. 2001 +should have at least twice as many computer users as that, so it +will require us reaching less than 5% of the users in 2001. + + +We need your donations more than ever! + + +All donations should be made to "Project Gutenberg" + + +For these and other matters, please mail to: + +Project Gutenberg +P. O. Box 2782 +Champaign, IL 61825 + +When all other email fails try our Executive Director: +Michael S. Hart <hart@pobox.com> + +We would prefer to send you this information by email +(Internet, Bitnet, Compuserve, ATTMAIL or MCImail). + +****** +If you have an FTP program (or emulator), please +FTP directly to the Project Gutenberg archives: +[Mac users, do NOT point and click. . .type] + +ftp uiarchive.cso.uiuc.edu +login: anonymous +password: your@login +cd etext/etext90 through /etext97 +or cd etext/articles [get suggest gut for more information] +dir [to see files] +get or mget [to get files. . .set bin for zip files] +GET INDEX?00.GUT +for a list of books +and +GET NEW GUT for general information +and +MGET GUT* for newsletters. + +**Information prepared by the Project Gutenberg legal advisor** +(Three Pages) + + +***START**THE SMALL PRINT!**FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS**START*** +Why is this "Small Print!" statement here? You know: lawyers. +They tell us you might sue us if there is something wrong with +your copy of this etext, even if you got it for free from +someone other than us, and even if what's wrong is not our +fault. So, among other things, this "Small Print!" statement +disclaims most of our liability to you. It also tells you how +you can distribute copies of this etext if you want to. + +*BEFORE!* YOU USE OR READ THIS ETEXT +By using or reading any part of this PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm +etext, you indicate that you understand, agree to and accept +this "Small Print!" statement. If you do not, you can receive +a refund of the money (if any) you paid for this etext by +sending a request within 30 days of receiving it to the person +you got it from. If you received this etext on a physical +medium (such as a disk), you must return it with your request. + +ABOUT PROJECT GUTENBERG-TM ETEXTS +This PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm etext, like most PROJECT GUTENBERG- +tm etexts, is a "public domain" work distributed by Professor +Michael S. Hart through the Project Gutenberg (the "Project"). +Among other things, this means that no one owns a United States +copyright on or for this work, so the Project (and you!) can copy +and distribute it in the United States without permission and +without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth +below, apply if you wish to copy and distribute this etext +under the Project's "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark. + +To create these etexts, the Project expends considerable +efforts to identify, transcribe and proofread public domain +works. Despite these efforts, the Project's etexts and any +medium they may be on may contain "Defects". Among other +things, Defects may take the form of incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other +intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged +disk or other etext medium, a computer virus, or computer +codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment. + +LIMITED WARRANTY; DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES +But for the "Right of Replacement or Refund" described below, +[1] the Project (and any other party you may receive this +etext from as a PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm etext) disclaims all +liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including +legal fees, and [2] YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE OR +UNDER STRICT LIABILITY, OR FOR BREACH OF WARRANTY OR CONTRACT, +INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE +OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE +POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. + +If you discover a Defect in this etext within 90 days of +receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) +you paid for it by sending an explanatory note within that +time to the person you received it from. If you received it +on a physical medium, you must return it with your note, and +such person may choose to alternatively give you a replacement +copy. If you received it electronically, such person may +choose to alternatively give you a second opportunity to +receive it electronically. + +THIS ETEXT IS OTHERWISE PROVIDED TO YOU "AS-IS". NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, ARE MADE TO YOU AS +TO THE ETEXT OR ANY MEDIUM IT MAY BE ON, INCLUDING BUT NOT +LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A +PARTICULAR PURPOSE. + +Some states do not allow disclaimers of implied warranties or +the exclusion or limitation of consequential damages, so the +above disclaimers and exclusions may not apply to you, and you +may have other legal rights. + +INDEMNITY +You will indemnify and hold the Project, its directors, +officers, members and agents harmless from all liability, cost +and expense, including legal fees, that arise directly or +indirectly from any of the following that you do or cause: +[1] distribution of this etext, [2] alteration, modification, +or addition to the etext, or [3] any Defect. + +DISTRIBUTION UNDER "PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm" +You may distribute copies of this etext electronically, or by +disk, book or any other medium if you either delete this +"Small Print!" and all other references to Project Gutenberg, +or: + +[1] Only give exact copies of it. Among other things, this + requires that you do not remove, alter or modify the + etext or this "small print!" statement. You may however, + if you wish, distribute this etext in machine readable + binary, compressed, mark-up, or proprietary form, + including any form resulting from conversion by word pro- + cessing or hypertext software, but only so long as + *EITHER*: + + [*] The etext, when displayed, is clearly readable, and + does *not* contain characters other than those + intended by the author of the work, although tilde + (~), asterisk (*) and underline (_) characters may + be used to convey punctuation intended by the + author, and additional characters may be used to + indicate hypertext links; OR + + [*] The etext may be readily converted by the reader at + no expense into plain ASCII, EBCDIC or equivalent + form by the program that displays the etext (as is + the case, for instance, with most word processors); + OR + + [*] You provide, or agree to also provide on request at + no additional cost, fee or expense, a copy of the + etext in its original plain ASCII form (or in EBCDIC + or other equivalent proprietary form). + +[2] Honor the etext refund and replacement provisions of this + "Small Print!" statement. + +[3] Pay a trademark license fee to the Project of 20% of the + net profits you derive calculated using the method you + already use to calculate your applicable taxes. If you + don't derive profits, no royalty is due. Royalties are + payable to "Project Gutenberg Association within the 60 + days following each date you prepare (or were legally + required to prepare) your annual (or equivalent periodic) + tax return. + +WHAT IF YOU *WANT* TO SEND MONEY EVEN IF YOU DON'T HAVE TO? +The Project gratefully accepts contributions in money, time, +scanning machines, OCR software, public domain etexts, royalty +free copyright licenses, and every other sort of contribution +you can think of. Money should be paid to "Project Gutenberg +Association". + +*END*THE SMALL PRINT! FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS*Ver.04.29.93*END* + + + + +Scanned by Charles Keller with OmniPage Professional OCR software + + + + + +EDISON +HIS LIFE AND INVENTIONS + +BY + +FRANK LEWIS DYER +GENERAL COUNSEL FOR THE EDISON LABORATORY +AND ALLIED INTERESTS + +AND + +THOMAS COMMERFORD MARTIN +EX-PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN INSTITUTE +OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS + + + +CONTENTS + + INTRODUCTION +I. THE AGE OF ELECTRICITY +II. EDISON'S PEDIGREE +III. BOYHOOD AT PORT HURON, MICHIGAN +IV. THE YOUNG TELEGRAPH OPERATOR +V. ARDUOUS YEARS IN THE CENTRAL WEST +VI. WORK AND INVENTION IN BOSTON +VII. THE STOCK TICKER +VIII. AUTOMATIC, DUPLEX, AND QUADRUPLEX TELEGRAPHY +IX. THE TELEPHONE, MOTOGRAPH, AND MICROPHONE +X. THE PHONOGRAPH +XI. THE INVENTION OF THE INCANDESCENT LAMP +XII. MEMORIES OF MENLO PARK +XIII. A WORLD-HUNT FOR FILAMENT MATERIAL +XIV. INVENTING A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF LIGHTING +XV. INTRODUCTION OF THE EDISON ELECTRIC LIGHT +XVI. THE FIRST EDISON CENTRAL STATION +XVII. OTHER EARLY STATIONS--THE METER +XVIII. THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY +XIX. MAGNETIC ORE MILLING WORK +XX. EDISON PORTLAND CEMENT +XXI. MOTION PICTURES +XXII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EDISON STORAGE BATTERY +XXIII. MISCELLANEOUS INVENTIONS +XXIV. EDISON'S METHOD IN INVENTING +XXV. THE LABORATORY AT ORANGE AND THE STAFF +XXVI. EDISON IN COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURE +XXVII. THE VALUE OF EDISON'S INVENTIONS TO THE WORLD +XXVIII. THE BLACK FLAG +XXIX. THE SOCIAL SIDE OF EDISON + APPENDIX + LIST OF UNITED STATES PATENTS + FOREIGN PATENTS + INDEX + + + + +INTRODUCTION + +PRIOR to this, no complete, authentic, and authorized +record of the work of Mr. Edison, during an active life, +has been given to the world. That life, if there is anything +in heredity, is very far from finished; and while it continues +there will be new achievement. + +An insistently expressed desire on the part of the +public for a definitive biography of Edison was the +reason for the following pages. The present authors +deem themselves happy in the confidence reposed in +them, and in the constant assistance they have enjoyed +from Mr. Edison while preparing these pages, +a great many of which are altogether his own. This +co-operation in no sense relieves the authors of +responsibility as to any of the views or statements of +their own that the book contains. They have realized +the extreme reluctance of Mr. Edison to be made the +subject of any biography at all; while he has felt that, +if it must be written, it were best done by the hands +of friends and associates of long standing, whose judgment +and discretion he could trust, and whose intimate +knowledge of the facts would save him from +misrepresentation. + +The authors of the book are profoundly conscious +of the fact that the extraordinary period of electrical +development embraced in it has been prolific of great +men. They have named some of them; but there +has been no idea of setting forth various achievements +or of ascribing distinctive merits. This treatment +is devoted to one man whom his fellow-citizens +have chosen to regard as in many ways representative +of the American at his finest flowering in +the field of invention during the nineteenth century. + +It is designed in these pages to bring the reader face +to face with Edison; to glance at an interesting childhood +and a youthful period marked by a capacity for +doing things, and by an insatiable thirst for knowledge; +then to accompany him into the great creative +stretch of forty years, during which he has done so +much. This book shows him plunged deeply into +work for which he has always had an incredible +capacity, reveals the exercise of his unsurpassed +inventive ability, his keen reasoning powers, his +tenacious memory, his fertility of resource; follows +him through a series of innumerable experiments, +conducted methodically, reaching out like rays of +search-light into all the regions of science and nature, +and finally exhibits him emerging triumphantly from +countless difficulties bearing with him in new arts +the fruits of victorious struggle. + +These volumes aim to be a biography rather than +a history of electricity, but they have had to cover so +much general ground in defining the relations and +contributions of Edison to the electrical arts, that they +serve to present a picture of the whole development +effected in the last fifty years, the most fruitful that +electricity has known. The effort has been made to +avoid technique and abstruse phrases, but some +degree of explanation has been absolutely necessary +in regard to each group of inventions. The task of +the authors has consisted largely in summarizing +fairly the methods and processes employed by Edison; +and some idea of the difficulties encountered by +them in so doing may be realized from the fact that +one brief chapter, for example,--that on ore milling-- +covers nine years of most intense application and +activity on the part of the inventor. It is something +like exhibiting the geological eras of the earth in an +outline lantern slide, to reduce an elaborate series +of strenuous experiments and a vast variety of +ingenious apparatus to the space of a few hundred +words. + +A great deal of this narrative is given in Mr. Edison's +own language, from oral or written statements +made in reply to questions addressed to him with +the object of securing accuracy. A further large part +is based upon the personal contributions of many +loyal associates; and it is desired here to make grateful +acknowledgment to such collaborators as Messrs. +Samuel Insull, E. H. Johnson, F. R. Upton, R. N +Dyer, S. B. Eaton, Francis Jehl, W. S. Andrews, W. +J. Jenks, W. J. Hammer, F. J. Sprague, W. S. Mallory, +an, C. L. Clarke, and others, without whose aid +the issuance of this book would indeed have been +impossible. In particular, it is desired to acknowledge +indebtedness to Mr. W. H. Meadowcroft not only for +substantial aid in the literary part of the work, but +for indefatigable effort to group, classify, and summarize +the boundless material embodied in Edison's +note-books and memorabilia of all kinds now kept +at the Orange laboratory. Acknowledgment must +also be made of the courtesy and assistance of Mrs. +Edison, and especially of the loan of many interesting +and rare photographs from her private collection. + + + + +EDISON + +HIS LIFE AND INVENTIONS + +CHAPTER I + +THE AGE OF ELECTRICITY + +THE year 1847 marked a period of great territorial +acquisition by the American people, with incalculable +additions to their actual and potential wealth. +By the rational compromise with England in the dispute +over the Oregon region, President Polk had secured +during 1846, for undisturbed settlement, three +hundred thousand square miles of forest, fertile land, +and fisheries, including the whole fair Columbia Valley. +Our active "policy of the Pacific" dated from +that hour. With swift and clinching succession came +the melodramatic Mexican War, and February, 1848, +saw another vast territory south of Oregon and west +of the Rocky Mountains added by treaty to the United +States. Thus in about eighteen months there had +been pieced into the national domain for quick development +and exploitation a region as large as the +entire Union of Thirteen States at the close of the War +of Independence. Moreover, within its boundaries +was embraced all the great American gold-field, just +on the eve of discovery, for Marshall had detected the +shining particles in the mill-race at the foot of the +Sierra Nevada nine days before Mexico signed away +her rights in California and in all the vague, remote +hinterland facing Cathayward. + +Equally momentous were the times in Europe, where +the attempt to secure opportunities of expansion as +well as larger liberty for the individual took quite +different form. The old absolutist system of government +was fast breaking up, and ancient thrones were +tottering. The red lava of deep revolutionary fires +oozed up through many glowing cracks in the political +crust, and all the social strata were shaken. That the +wild outbursts of insurrection midway in the fifth +decade failed and died away was not surprising, for +the superincumbent deposits of tradition and convention +were thick. But the retrospect indicates that +many reforms and political changes were accomplished, +although the process involved the exile of not a few +ardent spirits to America, to become leading statesmen, +inventors, journalists, and financiers. In 1847, +too, Russia began her tremendous march eastward into +Central Asia, just as France was solidifying her first +gains on the littoral of northern Africa. In England +the fierce fervor of the Chartist movement, with its +violent rhetoric as to the rights of man, was sobering +down and passing pervasively into numerous practical +schemes for social and political amelioration, constituting +in their entirety a most profound change +throughout every part of the national life. + +Into such times Thomas Alva Edison was born, and +his relations to them and to the events of the past +sixty years are the subject of this narrative. Aside +from the personal interest that attaches to the picturesque +career, so typically American, there is a broader +aspect in which the work of the "Franklin of the +Nineteenth Century" touches the welfare and progress +of the race. It is difficult at any time to determine +the effect of any single invention, and the investigation +becomes more difficult where inventions of the +first class have been crowded upon each other in rapid +and bewildering succession. But it will be admitted +that in Edison one deals with a central figure of the +great age that saw the invention and introduction in +practical form of the telegraph, the submarine cable, +the telephone, the electric light, the electric railway, +the electric trolley-car, the storage battery, the electric +motor, the phonograph, the wireless telegraph; and +that the influence of these on the world's affairs has +not been excelled at any time by that of any other +corresponding advances in the arts and sciences. +These pages deal with Edison's share in the great +work of the last half century in abridging distance, +communicating intelligence, lessening toil, improving +illumination, recording forever the human voice; and +on behalf of inventive genius it may be urged that its +beneficent results and gifts to mankind compare with +any to be credited to statesman, warrior, or creative +writer of the same period. + +Viewed from the standpoint of inventive progress, +the first half of the nineteenth century had passed +very profitably when Edison appeared--every year +marked by some notable achievement in the arts and +sciences, with promise of its early and abundant fruition +in commerce and industry. There had been +exactly four decades of steam navigation on American +waters. Railways were growing at the rate of +nearly one thousand miles annually. Gas had become +familiar as a means of illumination in large cities. +Looms and tools and printing-presses were everywhere +being liberated from the slow toil of man-power. +The first photographs had been taken. Chloroform, +nitrous oxide gas, and ether had been placed at the +service of the physician in saving life, and the revolver, +guncotton, and nitroglycerine added to the agencies +for slaughter. New metals, chemicals, and elements +had become available in large numbers, gases had +been liquefied and solidified, and the range of useful +heat and cold indefinitely extended. The safety-lamp +had been given to the miner, the caisson to the bridge- +builder, the anti-friction metal to the mechanic for +bearings. It was already known how to vulcanize +rubber, and how to galvanize iron. The application of +machinery in the harvest-field had begun with the +embryonic reaper, while both the bicycle and the +automobile were heralded in primitive prototypes. The +gigantic expansion of the iron and steel industry was +foreshadowed in the change from wood to coal in the +smelting furnaces. The sewing-machine had brought +with it, like the friction match, one of the most profound +influences in modifying domestic life, and making +it different from that of all preceding time. + +Even in 1847 few of these things had lost their +novelty, most of them were in the earlier stages of +development. But it is when we turn to electricity +that the rich virgin condition of an illimitable new +kingdom of discovery is seen. Perhaps the word +"utilization" or "application" is better than discovery, +for then, as now, an endless wealth of phenomena +noted by experimenters from Gilbert to +Franklin and Faraday awaited the invention that +could alone render them useful to mankind. The +eighteenth century, keenly curious and ceaselessly active +in this fascinating field of investigation, had not, +after all, left much of a legacy in either principles or +appliances. The lodestone and the compass; the +frictional machine; the Leyden jar; the nature of conductors +and insulators; the identity of electricity and +the thunder-storm flash; the use of lightning-rods; +the physiological effects of an electrical shock--these +constituted the bulk of the bequest to which philosophers +were the only heirs. Pregnant with possibilities +were many of the observations that had been +recorded. But these few appliances made up the +meagre kit of tools with which the nineteenth century +entered upon its task of acquiring the arts and conveniences +now such an intimate part of "human nature's +daily food" that the average American to-day +pays more for his electrical service than he does for +bread. + +With the first year of the new century came Volta's +invention of the chemical battery as a means of producing +electricity. A well-known Italian picture represents +Volta exhibiting his apparatus before the +young conqueror Napoleon, then ravishing from the +Peninsula its treasure of ancient art and founding an +ephemeral empire. At such a moment this gift of de- +spoiled Italy to the world was a noble revenge, setting +in motion incalculable beneficent forces and agencies. +For the first time man had command of a steady supply +of electricity without toil or effort. The useful +results obtainable previously from the current of a +frictional machine were not much greater than those +to be derived from the flight of a rocket. While the +frictional appliance is still employed in medicine, it +ranks with the flint axe and the tinder-box in industrial +obsolescence. No art or trade could be founded +on it; no diminution of daily work or increase of daily +comfort could be secured with it. But the little battery +with its metal plates in a weak solution proved +a perennial reservoir of electrical energy, safe and +controllable, from which supplies could be drawn at will. +That which was wild had become domesticated; regular +crops took the place of haphazard gleanings from +brake or prairie; the possibility of electrical starvation +was forever left behind. + +Immediately new processes of inestimable value +revealed themselves; new methods were suggested. +Almost all the electrical arts now employed made +their beginnings in the next twenty-five years, and +while the more extensive of them depend to-day on +the dynamo for electrical energy, some of the most +important still remain in loyal allegiance to the older +source. The battery itself soon underwent modifications, +and new types were evolved--the storage, +the double-fluid, and the dry. Various analogies +next pointed to the use of heat, and the thermoelectric +cell emerged, embodying the application of +flame to the junction of two different metals. Davy, +of the safety-lamp, threw a volume of current across +the gap between two sticks of charcoal, and the voltaic +arc, forerunner of electric lighting, shed its bright +beams upon a dazzled world. The decomposition of +water by electrolytic action was recognized and made +the basis of communicating at a distance even +before the days of the electromagnet. The ties +that bind electricity and magnetism in twinship of +relation and interaction were detected, and Faraday's +work in induction gave the world at once the +dynamo and the motor. "Hitch your wagon to a +star," said Emerson. To all the coal-fields and all +the waterfalls Faraday had directly hitched the wheels +of industry. Not only was it now possible to convert +mechanical energy into electricity cheaply and in +illimitable quantities, but electricity at once showed +its ubiquitous availability as a motive power. Boats +were propelled by it, cars were hauled, and even papers +printed. Electroplating became an art, and telegraphy +sprang into active being on both sides of the +Atlantic. + +At the time Edison was born, in 1847, telegraphy, +upon which he was to leave so indelible an imprint, +had barely struggled into acceptance by the public. +In England, Wheatstone and Cooke had introduced a +ponderous magnetic needle telegraph. In America, in +1840, Morse had taken out his first patent on an electromagnetic +telegraph, the principle of which is dominating +in the art to this day. Four years later the +memorable message "What hath God wrought!" was +sent by young Miss Ellsworth over his circuits, and +incredulous Washington was advised by wire of the +action of the Democratic Convention in Baltimore in +nominating Polk. By 1847 circuits had been strung +between Washington and New York, under private +enterprise, the Government having declined to buy +the Morse system for $100,000. Everything was crude +and primitive. The poles were two hundred feet apart +and could barely hold up a wash-line. The slim, bare, +copper wire snapped on the least provocation, and the +circuit was "down" for thirty-six days in the first six +months. The little glass-knob insulators made seductive +targets for ignorant sportsmen. Attempts to insulate +the line wire were limited to coating it with tar +or smearing it with wax for the benefit of all the bees +in the neighborhood. The farthest western reach of +the telegraph lines in 1847 was Pittsburg, with three- +ply iron wire mounted on square glass insulators with +a little wooden pentroof for protection. In that office, +where Andrew Carnegie was a messenger boy, the +magnets in use to receive the signals sent with the aid +of powerful nitric-acid batteries weighed as much as +seventy-five pounds apiece. But the business was +fortunately small at the outset, until the new device, +patronized chiefly by lottery-men, had proved its +utility. Then came the great outburst of activity. +Within a score of years telegraph wires covered the +whole occupied country with a network, and the first +great electrical industry was a pronounced success, +yielding to its pioneers the first great harvest of +electrical fortunes. It had been a sharp struggle for bare +existence, during which such a man as the founder of +Cornell University had been glad to get breakfast in +New York with a quarter-dollar picked up on Broadway. + + + +CHAPTER II + +EDISON'S PEDIGREE + +THOMAS ALVA EDISON was born at Milan +Ohio, February 11, 1847. The State that rivals +Virginia as a "Mother of Presidents" has evidently +other titles to distinction of the same nature. For +picturesque detail it would not be easy to find any +story excelling that of the Edison family before it +reached the Western Reserve. The story epitomizes +American idealism, restlessness, freedom of individual +opinion, and ready adjustment to the surrounding +conditions of pioneer life. The ancestral Edisons +who came over from Holland, as nearly as can be +determined, in 1730, were descendants of extensive +millers on the Zuyder Zee, and took up patents +of land along the Passaic River, New Jersey, +close to the home that Mr. Edison established in +the Orange Mountains a hundred and sixty years +later. They landed at Elizabethport, New Jersey, +and first settled near Caldwell in that State, where +some graves of the family may still be found. President +Cleveland was born in that quiet hamlet. It is +a curious fact that in the Edison family the +pronunciation of the name has always been with the +long "e" sound, as it would naturally be in the +Dutch language. The family prospered and must +have enjoyed public confidence, for we find the name +of Thomas Edison, as a bank official on Manhattan +Island, signed to Continental currency in 1778. +According to the family records this Edison, great- +grandfather of Thomas Alva, reached the extreme +old age of 104 years. But all was not well, and, as +has happened so often before, the politics of father +and son were violently different. The Loyalist movement +that took to Nova Scotia so many Americans +after the War of Independence carried with it John, +the son of this stalwart Continental. Thus it came +about that Samuel Edison, son of John, was born at +Digby, Nova Scotia, in 1804. Seven years later John +Edison who, as a Loyalist or United Empire emigrant, +had become entitled under the laws of Canada to a +grant of six hundred acres of land, moved westward +to take possession of this property. He made his +way through the State of New York in wagons drawn +by oxen to the remote and primitive township of +Bayfield, in Upper Canada, on Lake Huron. Although +the journey occurred in balmy June, it was necessarily +attended with difficulty and privation; but the new +home was situated in good farming country, and once +again this interesting nomadic family settled down. + +John Edison moved from Bayfield to Vienna, Ontario, +on the northern bank of Lake Erie. Mr. Edison +supplies an interesting reminiscence of the old man +and his environment in those early Canadian days. +"When I was five years old I was taken by my father +and mother on a visit to Vienna. We were driven +by carriage from Milan, Ohio, to a railroad, then to a +port on Lake Erie, thence by a canal-boat in a tow +of several to Port Burwell, in Canada, across the lake, +and from there we drove to Vienna, a short distance +away. I remember my grandfather perfectly as he +appeared, at 102 years of age, when he died. In the +middle of the day he sat under a large tree in front +of the house facing a well-travelled road. His head +was covered completely with a large quantity of very +white hair, and he chewed tobacco incessantly, nodding +to friends as they passed by. He used a very +large cane, and walked from the chair to the house, +resenting any assistance. I viewed him from a distance, +and could never get very close to him. I remember +some large pipes, and especially a molasses +jug, a trunk, and several other things that came from +Holland." + +John Edison was long-lived, like his father, and +reached the ripe old age of 102, leaving his son +Samuel charged with the care of the family destinies, +but with no great burden of wealth. Little is known +of the early manhood of this father of T. A. Edison +until we find him keeping a hotel at Vienna, marrying +a school-teacher there (Miss Nancy Elliott, in 1828), +and taking a lively share in the troublous politics of +the time. He was six feet in height, of great bodily +vigor, and of such personal dominance of character +that he became a captain of the insurgent forces +rallying under the banners of Papineau and Mackenzie. +The opening years of Queen Victoria's reign +witnessed a belated effort in Canada to emphasize +the principle that there should not be taxation without +representation; and this descendant of those +who had left the United States from disapproval of +such a doctrine, flung himself headlong into its +support. + +It has been said of Earl Durham, who pacified +Canada at this time and established the present system +of government, that he made a country and marred +a career. But the immediate measures of repression +enforced before a liberal policy was adopted were +sharp and severe, and Samuel Edison also found his +own career marred on Canadian soil as one result of +the Durham administration. Exile to Bermuda with +other insurgents was not so attractive as the perils of +a flight to the United States. A very hurried +departure was effected in secret from the scene of +trouble, and there are romantic traditions of his +thrilling journey of one hundred and eighty-two +miles toward safety, made almost entirely without +food or sleep, through a wild country infested with +Indians of unfriendly disposition. Thus was the +Edison family repatriated by a picturesque political +episode, and the great inventor given a birthplace on +American soil, just as was Benjamin Franklin when +his father came from England to Boston. Samuel +Edison left behind him, however, in Canada, several +brothers, all of whom lived to the age of ninety or +more, and from whom there are descendants in the +region. + +After some desultory wanderings for a year or two +along the shores of Lake Erie, among the prosperous +towns then springing up, the family, with its Canadian +home forfeited, and in quest of another resting-place, +came to Milan, Ohio, in 1842. That pretty little +village offered at the moment many attractions as a +possible Chicago. The railroad system of Ohio was +still in the future, but the Western Reserve had +already become a vast wheat-field, and huge quantities +of grain from the central and northern counties +sought shipment to Eastern ports. The Huron +River, emptying into Lake Erie, was navigable within +a few miles of the village, and provided an admirable +outlet. Large granaries were established, and proved +so successful that local capital was tempted into the +project of making a tow-path canal from Lockwood +Landing all the way to Milan itself. The quaint old +Moravian mission and quondam Indian settlement of +one hundred inhabitants found itself of a sudden +one of the great grain ports of the world, and bidding +fair to rival Russian Odessa. A number of grain +warehouses, or primitive elevators, were built along +the bank of the canal, and the produce of the region +poured in immediately, arriving in wagons drawn by +four or six horses with loads of a hundred bushels. +No fewer than six hundred wagons came clattering in, +and as many as twenty sail vessels were loaded with +thirty-five thousand bushels of grain, during a single +day. The canal was capable of being navigated by +craft of from two hundred to two hundred and fifty +tons burden, and the demand for such vessels soon +led to the development of a brisk ship-building industry, +for which the abundant forests of the region +supplied the necessary lumber. An evidence of the +activity in this direction is furnished by the fact +that six revenue cutters were launched at this port +in these brisk days of its prime. + +Samuel Edison, versatile, buoyant of temper, and +ever optimistic, would thus appear to have pitched +his tent with shrewd judgment. There was plenty +of occupation ready to his hand, and more than one +enterprise received his attention; but he devoted +his energies chiefly to the making of shingles, for +which there was a large demand locally and along +the lake. Canadian lumber was used principally in +this industry. The wood was imported in "bolts" +or pieces three feet long. A bolt made two shingles; +it was sawn asunder by hand, then split and shaved. +None but first-class timber was used, and such shingles +outlasted far those made by machinery with their +cross-grain cut. A house in Milan, on which some +of those shingles were put in 1844, was still in excellent +condition forty-two years later. Samuel Edison +did well at this occupation, and employed several +men, but there were other outlets from time to time +for his business activity and speculative disposition. + +Edison's mother was an attractive and highly +educated woman, whose influence upon his disposition +and intellect has been profound and lasting. +She was born in Chenango County, New York, in 1810, +and was the daughter of the Rev. John Elliott, a +Baptist minister and descendant of an old Revolutionary +soldier, Capt. Ebenezer Elliott, of Scotch +descent. The old captain was a fine and picturesque +type. He fought all through the long War of Independence +--seven years--and then appears to have +settled down at Stonington, Connecticut. There, at +any rate, he found his wife, "grandmother Elliott," +who was Mercy Peckham, daughter of a Scotch +Quaker. Then came the residence in New York +State, with final removal to Vienna, for the old +soldier, while drawing his pension at Buffalo, lived +in the little Canadian town, and there died, over +100 years old. The family was evidently one of considerable +culture and deep religious feeling, for two +of Mrs. Edison's uncles and two brothers were also +in the same Baptist ministry. As a young woman +she became a teacher in the public high school at +Vienna, and thus met her husband, who was residing +there. The family never consisted of more than three +children, two boys and a girl. A trace of the Canadian +environment is seen in the fact that Edison's +elder brother was named William Pitt, after the +great English statesman. Both his brother and the +sister exhibited considerable ability. William Pitt +Edison as a youth was so clever with his pencil that +it was proposed to send him to Paris as an art student. +In later life he was manager of the local +street railway lines at Port Huron, Michigan, in +which he was heavily interested. He also owned a +good farm near that town, and during the ill-health +at the close of his life, when compelled to spend much +of the time indoors, he devoted himself almost entirely +to sketching. It has been noted by intimate +observers of Thomas A. Edison that in discussing +any project or new idea his first impulse is to take +up any piece of paper available and make drawings +of it. His voluminous note-books are a mass of +sketches. Mrs-Tannie Edison Bailey, the sister, had, +on the other hand, a great deal of literary ability, +and spent much of her time in writing. + +The great inventor, whose iron endurance and +stern will have enabled him to wear down all his +associates by work sustained through arduous days +and sleepless nights, was not at all strong as a child, +and was of fragile appearance. He had an abnormally +large but well-shaped head, and it is said that +the local doctors feared he might have brain trouble. +In fact, on account of his assumed delicacy, he was +not allowed to go to school for some years, and even +when he did attend for a short time the results were +not encouraging--his mother being hotly indignant +upon hearing that the teacher had spoken of him to +an inspector as "addled." The youth was, indeed, +fortunate far beyond the ordinary in having a +mother at once loving, well-informed, and ambitious, +capable herself, from her experience as a teacher, of +undertaking and giving him an education better than +could be secured in the local schools of the day. +Certain it is that under this simple regime studious +habits were formed and a taste for literature developed +that have lasted to this day. If ever there was a +man who tore the heart out of books it is Edison, +and what has once been read by him is never forgotten +if useful or worthy of submission to the test +of experiment. + +But even thus early the stronger love of mechanical +processes and of probing natural forces manifested +itself. Edison has said that he never saw a statement +in any book as to such things that he did +not involuntarily challenge, and wish to demonstrate +as either right or wrong. As a mere child the busy +scenes of the canal and the grain warehouses were of +consuming interest, but the work in the ship-building +yards had an irresistible fascination. His questions +were so ceaseless and innumerable that the penetrating +curiosity of an unusually strong mind was regarded +as deficiency in powers of comprehension, and +the father himself, a man of no mean ingenuity and +ability, reports that the child, although capable of +reducing him to exhaustion by endless inquiries, was +often spoken of as rather wanting in ordinary acumen. +This apparent dulness is, however, a quite common +incident to youthful genius. + +The constructive tendencies of this child of whom +his father said once that he had never had any boyhood +days in the ordinary sense, were early noted in +his fondness for building little plank roads out of the +debris of the yards and mills. His extraordinarily +retentive memory was shown in his easy acquisition +of all the songs of the lumber gangs and canal men +before he was five years old. One incident tells how +he was found one day in the village square copying +laboriously the signs of the stores. A highly characteristic +event at the age of six is described by his +sister. He had noted a goose sitting on her eggs +and the result. One day soon after, he was missing. +By-and-by, after an anxious search, his father found +him sitting in a nest he had made in the barn, filled +with goose-eggs and hens' eggs he had collected, trying +to hatch them out. + +One of Mr. Edison's most vivid recollections goes +back to 1850, when as a child three of four years old +he saw camped in front of his home six covered +wagons, "prairie schooners," and witnessed their +departure for California. The great excitement over +the gold discoveries was thus felt in Milan, and these +wagons, laden with all the worldly possessions of +their owners, were watched out of sight on their long +journey by this fascinated urchin, whose own discoveries +in later years were to tempt many other +argonauts into the auriferous realms of electricity. + +Another vivid memory of this period concerns his +first realization of the grim mystery of death. He +went off one day with the son of the wealthiest man +in the town to bathe in the creek. Soon after they +entered the water the other boy disappeared. Young +Edison waited around the spot for half an hour or +more, and then, as it was growing dark, went home +puzzled and lonely, but silent as to the occurrence. +About two hours afterward, when the missing boy +was being searched for, a man came to the Edison +home to make anxious inquiry of the companion with +whom he had last been seen. Edison told all the +circumstances with a painful sense of being in some +way implicated. The creek was at once dragged, and +then the body was recovered. + +Edison had himself more than one narrow escape. +Of course he fell in the canal and was nearly drowned; +few boys in Milan worth their salt omitted that +performance. On another occasion he encountered a +more novel peril by falling into the pile of wheat in +a grain elevator and being almost smothered. Holding +the end of a skate-strap for another lad to shorten +with an axe, he lost the top of a finger. Fire also +had its perils. He built a fire in a barn, but the +flames spread so rapidly that, although he escaped +himself, the barn was wholly destroyed, and he was +publicly whipped in the village square as a warning +to other youths. Equally well remembered is a dangerous +encounter with a ram that attacked him while +he was busily engaged digging out a bumblebee's +nest near an orchard fence. The animal knocked +him against the fence, and was about to butt him +again when he managed to drop over on the safe side +and escape. He was badly hurt and bruised, and no +small quantity of arnica was needed for his wounds. + +Meantime little Milan had reached the zenith of +its prosperity, and all of a sudden had been deprived +of its flourishing grain trade by the new Columbus, +Sandusky & Hocking Railroad; in fact, the short +canal was one of the last efforts of its kind in this +country to compete with the new means of transportation. +The bell of the locomotive was everywhere +ringing the death-knell of effective water haulage, +with such dire results that, in 1880, of the 4468 +miles of American freight canal, that had cost $214,000,000, +no fewer than 1893 miles had been abandoned, +and of the remaining 2575 miles quite a large +proportion was not paying expenses. The short +Milan canal suffered with the rest, and to-day lies +well-nigh obliterated, hidden in part by vegetable +gardens, a mere grass-grown depression at the foot +of the winding, shallow valley. Other railroads also +prevented any further competition by the canal, for +a branch of the Wheeling & Lake Erie now passes +through the village, while the Lake Shore & Michigan +Southern runs a few miles to the south. + +The owners of the canal soon had occasion to +regret that they had disdained the overtures of +enterprising railroad promoters desirous of reaching +the village, and the consequences of commercial isolation +rapidly made themselves felt. It soon became +evident to Samuel Edison and his wife that the cozy +brick home on the bluff must be given up and the +struggle with fortune resumed elsewhere. They were +well-to-do, however, and removing, in 1854, to Port +Huron, Michigan, occupied a large colonial house +standing in the middle of an old Government fort +reservation of ten acres overlooking the wide expanse +of the St. Clair River just after it leaves Lake Huron. +It was in many ways an ideal homestead, toward +which the family has always felt the strongest attachment, +but the association with Milan has never +wholly ceased. The old house in which Edison was +born is still occupied (in 1910) by Mr. S. O. Edison, +a half-brother of Edison's father, and a man of marked +inventive ability. He was once prominent in the +iron-furnace industry of Ohio, and was for a time +associated in the iron trade with the father of the +late President McKinley. Among his inventions may +be mentioned a machine for making fuel from wheat +straw, and a smoke-consuming device. + +This birthplace of Edison remains the plain, substantial +little brick house it was originally: one- +storied, with rooms finished on the attic floor. Being +built on the hillside, its basement opens into the rear +yard. It was at first heated by means of open coal +grates, which may not have been altogether adequate +in severe winters, owing to the altitude and the north- +eastern exposure, but a large furnace is one of the +more modern changes. Milan itself is not materially +unlike the smaller Ohio towns of its own time or +those of later creation, but the venerable appearance +of the big elm-trees that fringe the trim lawns tells +of its age. It is, indeed, an extremely neat, snug little +place, with well-kept homes, mostly of frame construction, +and flagged streets crossing each other at +right angles. There are no poor--at least, everybody +is apparently well-to-do. While a leisurely atmosphere +pervades the town, few idlers are seen. Some +of the residents are engaged in local business; some +are occupied in farming and grape culture; others are +employed in the iron-works near-by, at Norwalk. +The stores and places of public resort are gathered +about the square, where there is plenty of room for +hitching when the Saturday trading is done at that +point, at which periods the fitful bustle recalls the +old wheat days when young Edison ran with curiosity +among the six and eight horse teams that had brought +in grain. This square is still covered with fine +primeval forest trees, and has at its centre a handsome +soldiers' monument of the Civil War, to which +four paved walks converge. It is an altogether pleasant +and unpretentious town, which cherishes with no +small amount of pride its association with the name +of Thomas Alva Edison. + +In view of Edison's Dutch descent, it is rather +singular to find him with the name of Alva, for the +Spanish Duke of Alva was notoriously the worst +tyrant ever known to the Low Countries, and his +evil deeds occupy many stirring pages in Motley's +famous history. As a matter of fact, Edison was +named after Capt. Alva Bradley, an old friend of his +father, and a celebrated ship-owner on the Lakes. +Captain Bradley died a few years ago in wealth, while +his old associate, with equal ability for making money, +was never able long to keep it (differing again from +the Revolutionary New York banker from whom his +son's other name, "Thomas," was taken). + + + +CHAPTER III + +BOYHOOD AT PORT HURON, MICHIGAN + +THE new home found by the Edison family at +Port Huron, where Alva spent his brief boyhood +before he became a telegraph operator and roamed +the whole middle West of that period, was unfortunately +destroyed by fire just after the close of the +Civil War. A smaller but perhaps more comfortable +home was then built by Edison's father on some +property he had bought at the near-by village of +Gratiot, and there his mother spent the remainder +of her life in confirmed invalidism, dying in 1871. +Hence the pictures and postal cards sold largely to +souvenir-hunters as the Port Huron home do not +actually show that in or around which the events +now referred to took place. + +It has been a romance of popular biographers, based +upon the fact that Edison began his career as a +newsboy, to assume that these earlier years were +spent in poverty and privation, as indeed they usually +are by the "newsies" who swarm and shout their +papers in our large cities. While it seems a pity to +destroy this erroneous idea, suggestive of a heroic +climb from the depths to the heights, nothing could +be further from the truth. Socially the Edison family +stood high in Port Huron at a time when there +was relatively more wealth and general activity than +to-day. The town in its pristine prime was a great +lumber centre, and hummed with the industry of +numerous sawmills. An incredible quantity of lumber +was made there yearly until the forests near-by +vanished and the industry with them. The wealth +of the community, invested largely in this business +and in allied transportation companies, was accumulated +rapidly and as freely spent during those days +of prosperity in St. Clair County, bringing with it a +high standard of domestic comfort. In all this the +Edisons shared on equal terms. + +Thus, contrary to the stories that have been so +widely published, the Edisons, while not rich by any +means, were in comfortable circumstances, with a +well-stocked farm and large orchard to draw upon +also for sustenance. Samuel Edison, on moving to +Port Huron, became a dealer in grain and feed, and +gave attention to that business for many years. But +he was also active in the lumber industry in the +Saginaw district and several other things. It was +difficult for a man of such mercurial, restless +temperament to stay constant to any one occupation; +in fact, had he been less visionary he would have +been more prosperous, but might not have had a son +so gifted with insight and imagination. One instance +of the optimistic vagaries which led him incessantly +to spend time and money on projects that would not +have appealed to a man less sanguine was the +construction on his property of a wooden observation +tower over a hundred feet high, the top of which was +reached toilsomely by winding stairs, after the pay- + +ment of twenty-five cents. It is true that the tower +commanded a pretty view by land and water, but +Colonel Sellers himself might have projected this +enterprise as a possible source of steady income. At +first few visitors panted up the long flights of steps +to the breezy platform. During the first two months +Edison's father took in three dollars, and felt extremely +blue over the prospect, and to young Edison and his +relatives were left the lonely pleasures of the lookout +and the enjoyment of the telescope with which it +was equipped. But one fine day there came an excursion +from an inland town to see the lake. They +picnicked in the grove, and six hundred of them went +up the tower. After that the railroad company began +to advertise these excursions, and the receipts +each year paid for the observatory. + +It might be thought that, immersed in business +and preoccupied with schemes of this character, Mr. +Edison was to blame for the neglect of his son's +education. But that was not the case. The conditions +were peculiar. It was at the Port Huron public +school that Edison received all the regular scholastic +instruction he ever enjoyed--just three months. +He might have spent the full term there, but, as +already noted, his teacher had found him "addled." +He was always, according to his own recollection, +at the foot of the class, and had come almost to regard +himself as a dunce, while his father entertained +vague anxieties as to his stupidity. The truth of the +matter seems to be that Mrs. Edison, a teacher of uncommon +ability and force, held no very high opinion +of the average public-school methods and results, and +was both eager to undertake the instruction of her +son and ambitious for the future of a boy whom she +knew from pedagogic experience to be receptive and +thoughtful to a very unusual degree. With her he +found study easy and pleasant. The quality of culture +in that simple but refined home, as well as the +intellectual character of this youth without schooling, +may be inferred from the fact that before he +had reached the age of twelve he had read, with his +mother's help, Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman +Empire, Hume's History of England, Sears' History of +the World, Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy, and the +Dictionary of Sciences; and had even attempted to +struggle through Newton's Principia, whose mathematics +were decidedly beyond both teacher and +student. Besides, Edison, like Faraday, was never +a mathematician, and has had little personal use for +arithmetic beyond that which is called "mental." +He said once to a friend: "I can always hire some +mathematicians, but they can't hire me." His father, +by-the-way, always encouraged these literary tastes, +and paid him a small sum for each new book mastered. +It will be noted that fiction makes no showing +in the list; but it was not altogether excluded +from the home library, and Edison has all his life +enjoyed it, particularly the works of such writers as +Victor Hugo, after whom, because of his enthusiastic +admiration--possibly also because of his imagination--he +was nicknamed by his fellow-operators, +"Victor Hugo Edison." + +Electricity at that moment could have no allure +for a youthful mind. Crude telegraphy represented +what was known of it practically, and about that the +books read by young Edison were not redundantly +informational. Even had that not been so, the +inclinations of the boy barely ten years old were +toward chemistry, and fifty years later there is seen +no change of predilection. It sounds like heresy to +say that Edison became an electrician by chance, +but it is the sober fact that to this pre-eminent and +brilliant leader in electrical achievement escape into +the chemical domain still has the aspect of a delightful +truant holiday. One of the earliest stories about +his boyhood relates to the incident when he induced +a lad employed in the family to swallow a large +quantity of Seidlitz powders in the belief that the +gases generated would enable him to fly. The agonies +of the victim attracted attention, and Edison's +mother marked her displeasure by an application of +the switch kept behind the old Seth Thomas "grandfather +clock." The disastrous result of this experiment +did not discourage Edison at all, as he attributed +failure to the lad rather than to the motive +power. In the cellar of the Edison homestead young +Alva soon accumulated a chemical outfit, constituting +the first in a long series of laboratories. The word +"laboratory" had always been associated with +alchemists in the past, but as with "filament" this +untutored stripling applied an iconoclastic practicability +to it long before he realized the significance of +the new departure. Goethe, in his legend of Faust, +shows the traditional or conventional philosopher in +his laboratory, an aged, tottering, gray-bearded +investigator, who only becomes youthful upon dia- +bolical intervention, and would stay senile without +it. In the Edison laboratory no such weird transformation +has been necessary, for the philosopher had +youth, fiery energy, and a grimly practical determination +that would submit to no denial of the goal +of something of real benefit to mankind. Edison and +Faust are indeed the extremes of philosophic thought +and accomplishment. + +The home at Port Huron thus saw the first Edison +laboratory. The boy began experimenting when he +was about ten or eleven years of age. He got a copy +of Parker's School Philosophy, an elementary book on +physics, and about every experiment in it he tried. +Young Alva, or "Al," as he was called, thus early +displayed his great passion for chemistry, and in the +cellar of the house he collected no fewer than two +hundred bottles, gleaned in baskets from all parts of +the town. These were arranged carefully on shelves +and all labelled "Poison," so that no one else would +handle or disturb them. They contained the chemicals +with which he was constantly experimenting. +To others this diversion was both mysterious and +meaningless, but he had soon become familiar with +all the chemicals obtainable at the local drug stores, +and had tested to his satisfaction many of the statements +encountered in his scientific reading. Edison +has said that sometimes he has wondered how it was +he did not become an analytical chemist instead of +concentrating on electricity, for which he had at first +no great inclination. + +Deprived of the use of a large part of her cellar, +tiring of the "mess" always to be found there, and +somewhat fearful of results, his mother once told the +boy to clear everything out and restore order. The +thought of losing all his possessions was the cause +of so much ardent distress that his mother relented, +but insisted that he must get a lock and key, and +keep the embryonic laboratory closed up all the time +except when he was there. This was done. From +such work came an early familiarity with the nature +of electrical batteries and the production of current +from them. Apparently the greater part of his spare +time was spent in the cellar, for he did not share to +any extent in the sports of the boys of the +neighborhood, his chum and chief companion, Michael +Oates, being a lad of Dutch origin, many years older, +who did chores around the house, and who could be +recruited as a general utility Friday for the experiments +of this young explorer--such as that with the +Seidlitz powders. + +Such pursuits as these consumed the scant pocket- +money of the boy very rapidly. He was not in regular +attendance at school, and had read all the books +within reach. It was thus he turned newsboy, overcoming +the reluctance of his parents, particularly +that of his mother, by pointing out that he could by +this means earn all he wanted for his experiments +and get fresh reading in the shape of papers and +magazines free of charge. Besides, his leisure hours +in Detroit he would be able to spend at the public +library. He applied (in 1859) for the privilege of +selling newspapers on the trains of the Grand Trunk +Railroad, between Port Huron and Detroit, and obtained +the concession after a short delay, during +which he made an essay in his task of selling newspapers. + +Edison had, as a fact, already had some commercial +experience from the age of eleven. The ten acres of +the reservation offered an excellent opportunity for +truck-farming, and the versatile head of the family +could not avoid trying his luck in this branch of +work. A large "market garden" was laid out, in +which Edison worked pretty steadily with the help of +the Dutch boy, Michael Oates--he of the flying +experiment. These boys had a horse and small wagon +intrusted to them, and every morning in the season +they would load up with onions, lettuce, peas, etc., +and go through the town. + +As much as $600 was turned over to Mrs. Edison +in one year from this source. The boy was indefatigable +but not altogether charmed with agriculture. +"After a while I tired of this work, as hoeing +corn in a hot sun is unattractive, and I did not +wonder that it had built up cities. Soon the Grand +Trunk Railroad was extended from Toronto to Port +Huron, at the foot of Lake Huron, and thence to +Detroit, at about the same time the War of the +Rebellion broke out. By a great amount of persistence +I got permission from my mother to go on the +local train as a newsboy. The local train from Port +Huron to Detroit, a distance of sixty-three miles, +left at 7 A.M. and arrived again at 9.30 P.M. After +being on the train for several months, I started two +stores in Port Huron--one for periodicals, and the +other for vegetables, butter, and berries in the season. +These were attended by two boys who shared in the +profits. The periodical store I soon closed, as the +boy in charge could not be trusted. The vegetable +store I kept up for nearly a year. After the railroad +had been opened a short time, they put on an express +which left Detroit in the morning and returned in +the evening. I received permission to put a newsboy +on this train. Connected with this train was +a car, one part for baggage and the other part for +U. S. mail, but for a long time it was not used. Every +morning I had two large baskets of vegetables from +the Detroit market loaded in the mail-car and sent +to Port Huron, where the boy would take them to +the store. They were much better than those grown +locally, and sold readily. I never was asked to pay +freight, and to this day cannot explain why, except +that I was so small and industrious, and the nerve to +appropriate a U. S. mail-car to do a free freight business +was so monumental. However, I kept this up +for a long time, and in addition bought butter from +the farmers along the line, and an immense amount +of blackberries in the season. I bought wholesale +and at a low price, and permitted the wives of the +engineers and trainmen to have the benefit of the +discount. After a while there was a daily immigrant +train put on. This train generally had from seven +to ten coaches filled always with Norwegians, all +bound for Iowa and Minnesota. On these trains I +employed a boy who sold bread, tobacco, and stick +candy. As the war progressed the daily newspaper +sales became very profitable, and I gave up the vegetable +store." + +The hours of this occupation were long, but the +work was not particularly heavy, and Edison soon +found opportunity for his favorite avocation--chemical +experimentation. His train left Port Huron at +7 A.M., and made its southward trip to Detroit in +about three hours. This gave a stay in that city +from 10 A.M. until the late afternoon, when the train +left, arriving at Port Huron about 9.30 P.M. The +train was made up of three coaches--baggage, smoking, +and ordinary passenger or "ladies." The baggage-car +was divided into three compartments--one +for trunks and packages, one for the mail, and one for +smoking. In those days no use was made of the +smoking-compartment, as there was no ventilation, +and it was turned over to young Edison, who not only +kept papers there and his stock of goods as a "candy +butcher," but soon had it equipped with an extraordinary +variety of apparatus. There was plenty of +leisure on the two daily runs, even for an industrious +boy, and thus he found time to transfer his laboratory +from the cellar and re-establish it on the train. + +His earnings were also excellent--so good, in fact, +that eight or ten dollars a day were often taken in, +and one dollar went every day to his mother. Thus +supporting himself, he felt entitled to spend any other +profit left over on chemicals and apparatus. And +spent it was, for with access to Detroit and its large +stores, where he bought his supplies, and to the public +library, where he could quench his thirst for technical +information, Edison gave up all his spare time +and money to chemistry. Surely the country could +have presented at that moment no more striking example +of the passionate pursuit of knowledge under +difficulties than this newsboy, barely fourteen years +of age, with his jars and test-tubes installed on a +railway baggage-car. + +Nor did this amazing equipment stop at batteries +and bottles. The same little space a few feet square +was soon converted by this precocious youth into a +newspaper office. The outbreak of the Civil War +gave a great stimulus to the demand for all newspapers, +noticing which he became ambitious to publish +a local journal of his own, devoted to the news +of that section of the Grand Trunk road. A small +printing-press that had been used for hotel bills of +fare was picked up in Detroit, and type was also +bought, some of it being placed on the train so that +composition could go on in spells of leisure. To one +so mechanical in his tastes as Edison, it was quite +easy to learn the rudiments of the printing art, and +thus the Weekly Herald came into existence, of which +he was compositor, pressman, editor, publisher, and +newsdealer. Only one or two copies of this journal +are now discoverable, but its appearance can be +judged from the reduced facsimile here shown. The +thing was indeed well done as the work of a youth +shown by the date to be less than fifteen years old. +The literary style is good, there are only a few trivial +slips in spelling, and the appreciation is keen of what +would be interesting news and gossip. The price was +three cents a copy, or eight cents a month for regular +subscribers, and the circulation ran up to over +four hundred copies an issue. This was by no means +the result of mere public curiosity, but attested the +value of the sheet as a genuine newspaper, to which +many persons in the railroad service along the line +were willing contributors. Indeed, with the aid of +the railway telegraph, Edison was often able to print +late news of importance, of local origin, that the distant +regular papers like those of Detroit, which he +handled as a newsboy, could not get. It is no wonder +that this clever little sheet received the approval +and patronage of the English engineer Stephenson +when inspecting the Grand Trunk system, and was +noted by no less distinguished a contemporary than +the London Times as the first newspaper in the world +to be printed on a train in motion. The youthful +proprietor sometimes cleared as much as twenty to +thirty dollars a month from this unique journalistic +enterprise. + +But all this extra work required attention, and +Edison solved the difficulty of attending also to the +newsboy business by the employment of a young +friend, whom he trained and treated liberally as an +understudy. There was often plenty of work for +both in the early days of the war, when the news of +battle caused intense excitement and large sales of +papers. Edison, with native shrewdness already so +strikingly displayed, would telegraph the station +agents and get them to bulletin the event of the day +at the front, so that when each station was reached +there were eager purchasers waiting. He recalls in +particular the sensation caused by the great battle +of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, in April, 1862, in +which both Grant and Sherman were engaged, in +which Johnston died, and in which there was a ghastly +total of 25,000 killed and wounded. + +In describing his enterprising action that day, Edison +says that when he reached Detroit the bulletin- +boards of the newspaper offices were surrounded with +dense crowds, which read awestricken the news that +there were 60,000 killed and wounded, and that the +result was uncertain. "I knew that if the same +excitement was attained at the various small towns +along the road, and especially at Port Huron, the sale +of papers would be great. I then conceived the idea +of telegraphing the news ahead, went to the operator +in the depot, and by giving him Harper's Weekly and +some other papers for three months, he agreed to +telegraph to all the stations the matter on the bulletin-board. +I hurriedly copied it, and he sent it, requesting +the agents to display it on the blackboards +used for stating the arrival and departure of trains. I +decided that instead of the usual one hundred papers +I could sell one thousand; but not having sufficient +money to purchase that number, I determined in my +desperation to see the editor himself and get credit. +The great paper at that time was the Detroit Free +Press. I walked into the office marked "Editorial" +and told a young man that I wanted to see the editor +on important business--important to me, anyway, +I was taken into an office where there were two men, +and I stated what I had done about telegraphing, +and that I wanted a thousand papers, but only had +money for three hundred, and I wanted credit. One +of the men refused it, but the other told the first +spokesman to let me have them. This man, I afterward +learned, was Wilbur F. Storey, who subsequently +founded the Chicago Times, and became celebrated in +the newspaper world. By the aid of another boy I +lugged the papers to the train and started folding +them. The first station, called Utica, was a small +one where I generally sold two papers. I saw a +crowd ahead on the platform, and thought it some +excursion, but the moment I landed there was a rush +for me; then I realized that the telegraph was a great +invention. I sold thirty-five papers there. The next +station was Mount Clemens, now a watering-place, +but then a town of about one thousand. I usually +sold six to eight papers there. I decided that if I +found a corresponding crowd there, the only thing +to do to correct my lack of judgment in not getting +more papers was to raise the price from five cents to +ten. The crowd was there, and I raised the price. At +the various towns there were corresponding crowds. +It had been my practice at Port Huron to jump from +the train at a point about one-fourth of a mile from +the station, where the train generally slackened +speed. I had drawn several loads of sand to this +point to jump on, and had become quite expert. The +little Dutch boy with the horse met me at this point. +When the wagon approached the outskirts of the +town I was met by a large crowd. I then yelled: +`Twenty-five cents apiece, gentlemen! I haven't +enough to go around!' I sold all out, and made what +to me then was an immense sum of money." + +Such episodes as this added materially to his income, +but did not necessarily increase his savings, +for he was then, as now, an utter spendthrift so long +as some new apparatus or supplies for experiment +could be had. In fact, the laboratory on wheels soon +became crowded with such equipment, most costly +chemicals were bought on the instalment plan, and +Fresenius' Qualitative Analysis served as a basis for +ceaseless testing and study. George Pullman, who +then had a small shop at Detroit and was working +on his sleeping-car, made Edison a lot of wooden +apparatus for his chemicals, to the boy's delight. +Unfortunately a sudden change came, fraught with +disaster. The train, running one day at thirty miles +an hour over a piece of poorly laid track, was thrown +suddenly out of the perpendicular with a violent +lurch, and, before Edison could catch it, a stick of +phosphorus was jarred from its shelf, fell to the +floor, and burst into flame. The car took fire, and +the boy, in dismay, was still trying to quench the +blaze when the conductor, a quick-tempered Scotchman, +who acted also as baggage-master, hastened to +the scene with water and saved his car. On the arrival +at Mount Clemens station, its next stop, Edison +and his entire outfit, laboratory, printing-plant, and +all, were promptly ejected by the enraged conductor, +and the train then moved off, leaving him on the platform, +tearful and indignant in the midst of his beloved +but ruined possessions. It was lynch law of a +kind; but in view of the responsibility, this action of +the conductor lay well within his rights and duties. + +It was through this incident that Edison acquired +the deafness that has persisted all through his life, +a severe box on the ears from the scorched and angry +conductor being the direct cause of the infirmity. +Although this deafness would be regarded as a great +affliction by most people, and has brought in its train +other serious baubles, Mr. Edison has always regarded +it philosophically, and said about it recently: +"This deafness has been of great advantage to me +in various ways. When in a telegraph office, I could +only hear the instrument directly on the table at +which I sat, and unlike the other operators, I was not +bothered by the other instruments. Again, in +experimenting on the telephone, I had to improve the +transmitter so I could hear it. This made the telephone +commercial, as the magneto telephone receiver +of Bell was too weak to be used as a transmitter +commercially. It was the same with the phonograph. +The great defect of that instrument was the +rendering of the overtones in music, and the hissing +consonants in speech. I worked over one year, +twenty hours a day' Sundays and all, to get the word +`specie ' perfectly recorded and reproduced on the +phonograph. When this was done I knew that +everything else could be done which was a fact. +Again, my nerves have been preserved intact. Broadway +is as quiet to me as a country village is to a +person with normal hearing." + +Saddened but not wholly discouraged, Edison soon +reconstituted his laboratory and printing-office at +home, although on the part of the family there was +some fear and objection after this episode, on the score +of fire. But Edison promised not to bring in anything +of a dangerous nature. He did not cease the +publication of the Weekly Herald. On the contrary, +he prospered in both his enterprises until persuaded +by the "printer's devil" in the office of the +Port Huron Commercial to change the character of + his journal, enlarge it, and issue it under the name +of Paul Pry, a happy designation for this or kindred +ventures in the domain of society journalism. No +copies of Paul Pry can now be found, but it is +known that its style was distinctly personal, that +gossip was its specialty, and that no small offence +was given to the people whose peculiarities or peccadilloes +were discussed in a frank and breezy style by +the two boys. In one instance the resentment of +the victim of such unsought publicity was so intense +he laid hands on Edison and pitched the startled +young editor into the St. Clair River. The name of +this violator of the freedom of the press was thereafter +excluded studiously from the columns of Paul +Pry, and the incident may have been one of those +which soon caused the abandonment of the paper. +Edison had great zest in this work, and but for the +strong influences in other directions would probably +have continued in the newspaper field, in which he +was, beyond question, the youngest publisher and +editor of the day. + +Before leaving this period of his career, it is to be +noted that it gave Edison many favorable opportunities. +In Detroit he could spend frequent hours +in the public library, and it is matter of record that +he began his liberal acquaintance with its contents +by grappling bravely with a certain section and trying +to read it through consecutively, shelf by shelf, +regardless of subject. In a way this is curiously +suggestive of the earnest, energetic method of "frontal +attack" with which the inventor has since addressed +himself to so many problems in the arts and sciences. + +The Grand Trunk Railroad machine-shops at Port +Huron were a great attraction to the boy, who appears +to have spent a good deal of his time there. He who +was to have much to do with the evolution of the +modern electric locomotive was fascinated by the +mechanism of the steam locomotive; and whenever +he could get the chance Edison rode in the cab with +the engineer of his train. He became thoroughly +familiar with the intricacies of fire-box, boiler, valves, +levers, and gears, and liked nothing better than to +handle the locomotive himself during the run. On +one trip, when the engineer lay asleep while his eager +substitute piloted the train, the boiler "primed," +and a deluge overwhelmed the young driver, who +stuck to his post till the run and the ordeal were +ended. Possibly this helped to spoil a locomotive +engineer, but went to make a great master of the new +motive power. "Steam is half an Englishman," said +Emerson. The temptation is strong to say that workaday +electricity is half an American. Edison's own +account of the incident is very laughable: "The engine +was one of a number leased to the Grand Trunk by +the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy. It had bright brass +bands all over, the woodwork beautifully painted, +and everything highly polished, which was the custom +up to the time old Commodore Vanderbilt +stopped it on his roads. After running about fifteen +miles the fireman couldn't keep his eyes open (this +event followed an all-night dance of the trainmen's +fraternal organization), and he agreed to permit me +to run the engine. I took charge, reducing the speed +to about twelve miles an hour, and brought the +train of seven cars to her destination at the Grand +Trunk junction safely. But something occurred which +was very much out of the ordinary. I was very much +worried about the water, and I knew that if it got +low the boiler was likely to explode. I hadn't gone +twenty miles before black damp mud blew out of the +stack and covered every part of the engine, including +myself. I was about to awaken the fireman to find +out the cause of this when it stopped. Then I approached +a station where the fireman always went out +to the cowcatcher, opened the oil-cup on the steam- +chest, and poured oil in. I started to carry out the +procedure when, upon opening the oil-cup, the steam +rushed out with a tremendous noise, nearly knocking +me off the engine. I succeeded in closing the oil-cup +and got back in the cab, and made up my mind that +she would pull through without oil. I learned afterward +that the engineer always shut off steam when +the fireman went out to oil. This point I failed to +notice. My powers of observation were very much improved +after this occurrence. Just before I reached +the junction another outpour of black mud occurred, +and the whole engine was a sight--so much so that +when I pulled into the yard everybody turned to see +it, laughing immoderately. I found the reason of the +mud was that I carried so much water it passed over +into the stack, and this washed out all the accumulated +soot." + +One afternoon about a week before Christmas Edison's +train jumped the track near Utica, a station +on the line. Four old Michigan Central cars with +rotten sills collapsed in the ditch and went all to +pieces, distributing figs, raisins, dates, and candies +all over the track and the vicinity. Hating to see so +much waste, Edison tried to save all he could by eating +it on the spot, but as a result "our family doctor had +the time of his life with me in this connection." + +An absurd incident described by Edison throws a +vivid light on the free-and-easy condition of early railroad +travel and on the Southern extravagance of the +time. "In 1860, just before the war broke out there +came to the train one afternoon, in Detroit, two fine- +looking young men accompanied by a colored servant. +They bought tickets for Port Huron, the terminal point +for the train. After leaving the junction just outside +of Detroit, I brought in the evening papers. When I +came opposite the two young men, one of them said: +`Boy, what have you got?' I said: `Papers.' `All +right.' He took them and threw them out of the +window, and, turning to the colored man, said: +`Nicodemus, pay this boy.' I told Nicodemus the +amount, and he opened a satchel and paid me. The +passengers didn't know what to make of the transaction. +I returned with the illustrated papers and +magazines. These were seized and thrown out of +the window, and I was told to get my money of +Nicodemus. I then returned with all the old magazines +and novels I had not been able to sell, thinking +perhaps this would be too much for them. I was +small and thin, and the layer reached above my head, +and was all I could possibly carry. I had prepared a +list, and knew the amount in case they bit again. +When I opened the door, all the passengers roared +with laughter. I walked right up to the young men. +One asked me what I had. I said `Magazines and +novels.' He promptly threw them out of the window, +and Nicodemus settled. Then I came in with +cracked hickory nuts, then pop-corn balls, and, finally, +molasses candy. All went out of the window. I felt +like Alexander the Great!--I had no more chance! I +had sold all I had. Finally I put a rope to my trunk, +which was about the size of a carpenter's chest, and +started to pull this from the baggage-car to the +passenger-car. It was almost too much for my +strength, but at last I got it in front of those men. +I pulled off my coat, shoes, and hat, and laid them +on the chest. Then he asked: `What have you got, +boy?' I said: `Everything, sir, that I can spare that is +for sale.' The passengers fairly jumped with laughter. +Nicodemus paid me $27 for this last sale, and threw +the whole out of the door in the rear of the car. These +men were from the South, and I have always retained +a soft spot in my heart for a Southern gentleman." + +While Edison was a newsboy on the train a request +came to him one day to go to the office of E. B. Ward +& Company, at that time the largest owners of steamboats +on the Great Lakes. The captain of their largest +boat had died suddenly, and they wanted a message +taken to another captain who lived about fourteen +miles from Ridgeway station on the railroad. This +captain had retired, taken up some lumber land, and +had cleared part of it. Edison was offered $15 by +Mr. Ward to go and fetch him, but as it was a wild +country and would be dark, Edison stood out for +$25, so that he could get the companionship of another +lad. The terms were agreed to. Edison arrived +at Ridgeway at 8.30 P.M., when it was raining and as +dark as ink. Getting another boy with difficulty to +volunteer, he launched out on his errand in the pitch- +black night. The two boys carried lanterns, but the +road was a rough path through dense forest. The +country was wild, and it was a usual occurrence to +see deer, bear, and coon skins nailed up on the sides +of houses to dry. Edison had read about bears, but +couldn't remember whether they were day or night +prowlers. The farther they went the more apprehensive +they became, and every stump in the ravished +forest looked like a bear. The other lad proposed +seeking safety up a tree, but Edison demurred on +the plea that bears could climb, and that the message +must be delivered that night to enable the captain to +catch the morning train. First one lantern went +out, then the other. "We leaned up against a tree +and cried. I thought if I ever got out of that scrape +alive I would know more about the habits of animals +and everything else, and be prepared for all kinds of +mischance when I undertook an enterprise. However, +the intense darkness dilated the pupils of our +eyes so as to make them very sensitive, and we could +just see at times the outlines of the road. Finally, +just as a faint gleam of daylight arrived, we entered +the captain's yard and delivered the message. In +my whole life I never spent such a night of horror +as this, but I got a good lesson." + +An amusing incident of this period is told by Edison. +"When I was a boy," he says, "the Prince of Wales, +the late King Edward, came to Canada (1860). Great +preparations were made at Sarnia, the Canadian town +opposite Port Huron. About every boy, including myself, +went over to see the affair. The town was draped +in flags most profusely, and carpets were laid on the +cross-walks for the prince to walk on. There were +arches, etc. A stand was built raised above the general +level, where the prince was to be received by the +mayor. Seeing all these preparations, my idea of +a prince was very high; but when he did arrive I +mistook the Duke of Newcastle for him, the duke +being a fine-looking man. I soon saw that I was mistaken: +that the prince was a young stripling, and did +not meet expectations. Several of us expressed our +belief that a prince wasn't much, after all, and said +that we were thoroughly disappointed. For this one +boy was whipped. Soon the Canuck boys attacked +the Yankee boys, and we were all badly licked. I, +myself, got a black eye. That has always prejudiced +me against that kind of ceremonial and folly." It is +certainly interesting to note that in later years the +prince for whom Edison endured the ignominy of a +black eye made generous compensation in a graceful +letter accompanying the gold Albert Medal awarded +by the Royal Society of Arts. + +Another incident of the period is as follows: "After +selling papers in Port Huron, which was often not +reached until about 9.30 at night, I seldom got home +before 11.00 or 11.30. About half-way home from the +station and the town, and within twenty-five feet of +the road in a dense wood, was a soldiers' graveyard +where three hundred soldiers were buried, due to a +cholera epidemic which took place at Fort Gratiot, +near by, many years previously. At first we used +to shut our eyes and run the horse past this graveyard, +and if the horse stepped on a twig my heart +would give a violent movement, and it is a wonder +that I haven't some valvular disease of that organ. +But soon this running of the horse became monotonous, +and after a while all fears of graveyards absolutely +disappeared from my system. I was in the +condition of Sam Houston, the pioneer and founder +of Texas, who, it was said, knew no fear. Houston +lived some distance from the town and generally went +home late at night, having to pass through a dark +cypress swamp over a corduroy road. One night, to +test his alleged fearlessness, a man stationed himself +behind a tree and enveloped himself in a sheet. He +confronted Houston suddenly, and Sam stopped and +said: `If you are a man, you can't hurt me. If you +are a ghost, you don't want to hurt me. And if you are +the devil, come home with me; I married your sister!' " + +It is not to be inferred, however, from some of +the preceding statements that the boy was of an +exclusively studious bent of mind. He had then, as +now, the keen enjoyment of a joke, and no particular +aversion to the practical form. An incident of the +time is in point. "After the breaking out of the war +there was a regiment of volunteer soldiers quartered at +Fort Gratiot, the reservation extending to the boundary +line of our house. Nearly every night we would +hear a call, such as `Corporal of the Guard, No. 1.' +This would be repeated from sentry to sentry until +it reached the barracks, when Corporal of the Guard, +No. 1, would come and see what was wanted. I and +the little Dutch boy, after returning from the town +after selling our papers, thought we would take a +hand at military affairs. So one night, when it was +very dark, I shouted for Corporal of the Guard, No. 1. +The second sentry, thinking it was the terminal +sentry who shouted, repeated it to the third, and so +on. This brought the corporal along the half mile, +only to find that he was fooled. We tried him three +nights; but the third night they were watching, and +caught the little Dutch boy, took him to the lock-up +at the fort, and shut him up. They chased me to +the house. I rushed for the cellar. In one small +apartment there were two barrels of potatoes and a +third one nearly empty. I poured these remnants +into the other barrels, sat down, and pulled the barrel +over my head, bottom up. The soldiers had awakened +my father, and they were searching for me with +candles and lanterns. The corporal was absolutely +certain I came into the cellar, and couldn't see how I +could have gotten out, and wanted to know from +my father if there was no secret hiding-place. On +assurance of my father, who said that there was not, +he said it was most extraordinary. I was glad when +they left, as I was cramped, and the potatoes were +rotten that had been in the barrel and violently +offensive. The next morning I was found in bed, +and received a good switching on the legs from my +father, the first and only one I ever received from +him, although my mother kept a switch behind the +old Seth Thomas clock that had the bark worn off. +My mother's ideas and mine differed at times, +especially when I got experimenting and mussed up +things. The Dutch boy was released next morning." + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE YOUNG TELEGRAPH OPERATOR + +"WHILE a newsboy on the railroad," says Edison, +"I got very much interested in electricity, +probably from visiting telegraph offices with a chum +who had tastes similar to mine." It will also have +been noted that he used the telegraph to get items +for his little journal, and to bulletin his special news +of the Civil War along the line. The next step was +natural, and having with his knowledge of chemistry +no trouble about "setting up" his batteries, the +difficulties of securing apparatus were chiefly those +connected with the circuits and the instruments. +American youths to-day are given, if of a mechanical +turn of mind, to amateur telegraphy or telephony, +but seldom, if ever, have to make any part of the +system constructed. In Edison's boyish days it was +quite different, and telegraphic supplies were hard to +obtain. But he and his "chum" had a line between +their homes, built of common stove-pipe wire. The insulators +were bottles set on nails driven into trees and +short poles. The magnet wire was wound with rags for +insulation, and pieces of spring brass were used for +keys. With an idea of securing current cheaply, +Edison applied the little that he knew about static +electricity, and actually experimented with cats, +which he treated vigorously as frictional machines +until the animals fled in dismay, and Edison had +learned his first great lesson in the relative value of +sources of electrical energy. The line was made to +work, however, and additional to the messages that +the boys interchanged, Edison secured practice in an +ingenious manner. His father insisted on 11.30 as +proper bedtime, which left but a short interval after +the long day on the train. But each evening, when +the boy went home with a bundle of papers that had +not been sold in the town, his father would sit up +reading the "returnables." Edison, therefore, on +some excuse, left the papers with his friend, but +suggested that he could get the news from him by +telegraph, bit by bit. The scheme interested his +father, and was put into effect, the messages being +written down and handed over for perusal. This +yielded good practice nightly, lasting until 12 and 1 +o'clock, and was maintained for some time until Mr. +Edison became willing that his son should stay up +for a reasonable time. The papers were then brought +home again, and the boys amused themselves to their +hearts' content until the line was pulled down by a +stray cow wandering through the orchard. Meantime +better instruments had been secured, and the +rudiments of telegraphy had been fairly mastered. + +The mixed train on which Edison was employed as +newsboy did the way-freight work and shunting at +the Mount Clemens station, about half an hour being +usually spent in the work. One August morning, in +1862, while the shunting was in progress, and a laden +box-car had been pushed out of a siding, Edison, who +was loitering about the platform, saw the little son +of the station agent, Mr. J. U. Mackenzie, playing +with the gravel on the main track along which the +car without a brakeman was rapidly approaching. +Edison dropped his papers and his glazed cap, and +made a dash for the child, whom he picked up and +lifted to safety without a second to spare, as the wheel +of the car struck his heel; and both were cut about the +face and hands by the gravel ballast on which they +fell. The two boys were picked up by the train-hands +and carried to the platform, and the grateful father +at once offered to teach the rescuer, whom he knew +and liked, the art of train telegraphy and to make +an operator of him. It is needless to say that the +proposal was eagerly accepted. + +Edison found time for his new studies by letting +one of his friends look after the newsboy work on the +train for part of the trip, reserving to himself the run +between Port Huron and Mount Clemens. That he +was already well qualified as a beginner is evident +from the fact that he had mastered the Morse code +of the telegraphic alphabet, and was able to take to +the station a neat little set of instruments he had +just finished with his own hands at a gun-shop in +Detroit. This was probably a unique achievement +in itself among railway operators of that day or of +later times. The drill of the student involved chiefly +the acquisition of the special signals employed in +railway work, including the numerals and abbreviations +applied to save time. Some of these have passed +into the slang of the day, "73" being well known as +a telegrapher's expression of compliments or good +wishes, while "23" is an accident or death message, +and has been given broader popular significance as +a general synonym for "hoodoo." All of this came +easily to Edison, who had, moreover, as his Herald +showed, an unusual familiarity with train movement +along that portion of the Grand Trunk road. + +Three or four months were spent pleasantly and +profitably by the youth in this course of study, and +Edison took to it enthusiastically, giving it no less +than eighteen hours a day. He then put up a little +telegraph line from the station to the village, a distance +of about a mile, and opened an office in a drug +store; but the business was naturally very small. +The telegraph operator at Port Huron knowing of his +proficiency, and wanting to get into the United States +Military Telegraph Corps, where the pay in those days +of the Civil War was high, succeeded in convincing +his brother-in-law, Mr. M. Walker, that young Edison +could fill the position. Edison was, of course, well +acquainted with the operators along the road and at +the southern terminal, and took up his new duties +very easily. The office was located in a jewelry store, +where newspapers and periodicals were also sold. +Edison was to be found at the office both day and +night, sleeping there. "I became quite valuable to +Mr. Walker. After working all day I worked at the +office nights as well, for the reason that `press report' +came over one of the wires until 3 A.M., and I would +cut in and copy it as well as I could, to become more +rapidly proficient. The goal of the rural telegraph +operator was to be able to take press. Mr. Walker +tried to get my father to apprentice me at $20 per +month, but they could not agree. I then applied for +a job on the Grand Trunk Railroad as a railway +operator, and was given a place, nights, at Stratford +Junction, Canada." Apparently his friend Mackenzie +helped him in the matter. The position carried +a salary of $25 per month. No serious objections +were raised by his family, for the distance from Port +Huron was not great, and Stratford was near Bayfield, +the old home from which the Edisons had come, +so that there were doubtless friends or even relatives +in the vicinity. This was in 1863. + +Mr. Walker was an observant man, who has since +that time installed a number of waterworks systems +and obtained several patents of his own. He describes +the boy of sixteen as engrossed intensely in +his experiments and scientific reading, and somewhat +indifferent, for this reason, to his duties as operator. +This office was not particularly busy, taking from +$50 to $75 a month, but even the messages taken +in would remain unsent on the hook while Edison +was in the cellar below trying to solve some chemical +problem. The manager would see him studying +sometimes an article in such a paper as the Scientific +American, and then disappearing to buy a few sundries +for experiments. Returning from the drug +store with his chemicals, he would not be seen again +until required by his duties, or until he had found out +for himself, if possible, in this offhand manner, +whether what he had read was correct or not. When +he had completed his experiment all interest in it +was lost, and the jars and wires would be left to any +fate that might befall them. In like manner Edison +would make free use of the watchmaker's tools that +lay on the little table in the front window, and would +take the wire pliers there without much thought as +to their value as distinguished from a lineman's +tools. The one idea was to do quickly what he +wanted to do; and the same swift, almost headlong +trial of anything that comes to hand, while the fervor +of a new experiment is felt, has been noted at all +stages of the inventor's career. One is reminded of +Palissy's recklessness, when in his efforts to make the +enamel melt on his pottery he used the very furniture +of his home for firewood. + +Mr. Edison remarks the fact that there was very +little difference between the telegraph of that time +and of to-day, except the general use of the old Morse +register with the dots and dashes recorded by indenting +paper strips that could be read and checked +later at leisure if necessary. He says: "The telegraph +men couldn't explain how it worked, and I +was always trying to get them to do so. I think they +couldn't. I remember the best explanation I got +was from an old Scotch line repairer employed by the +Montreal Telegraph Company, which operated the +railroad wires. He said that if you had a dog like +a dachshund, long enough to reach from Edinburgh +to London, if you pulled his tail in Edinburgh he would +bark in London. I could understand that, but I +never could get it through me what went through the +dog or over the wire." To-day Mr. Edison is just as +unable to solve the inner mystery of electrical +transmission. Nor is he alone. At the banquet given to +celebrate his jubilee in 1896 as professor at Glasgow +University, Lord Kelvin, the greatest physicist of our +time, admitted with tears in his eyes and the note of +tragedy in his voice, that when it came to explaining +the nature of electricity, he knew just as little as +when he had begun as a student, and felt almost as +though his life had been wasted while he tried to +grapple with the great mystery of physics. + +Another episode of this period is curious in its +revelation of the tenacity with which Edison has +always held to some of his oldest possessions with a +sense of personal attachment. "While working at +Stratford Junction," he says, "I was told by one of +the freight conductors that in the freight-house at +Goodrich there were several boxes of old broken-up +batteries. I went there and found over eighty cells +of the well-known Grove nitric-acid battery. The +operator there, who was also agent, when asked by +me if I could have the electrodes of each cell, made +of sheet platinum, gave his permission readily, thinking +they were of tin. I removed them all, amounting +to several ounces. Platinum even in those days +was very expensive, costing several dollars an ounce, +and I owned only three small strips. I was overjoyed +at this acquisition, and those very strips and +the reworked scrap are used to this day in my laboratory +over forty years later." + +It was at Stratford that Edison's inventiveness was +first displayed. The hours of work of a night operator +are usually from 7 P.M. to 7 A.M., and to insure attention +while on duty it is often provided that the +operator every hour, from 9 P.M. until relieved by the +day operator, shall send in the signal "6" to the +train dispatcher's office. Edison revelled in the +opportunity for study and experiment given him by his +long hours of freedom in the daytime, but needed +sleep, just as any healthy youth does. Confronted +by the necessity of sending in this watchman's signal +as evidence that he was awake and on duty, he constructed +a small wheel with notches on the rim, and +attached it to the clock in such a manner that the +night-watchman could start it when the line was +quiet, and at each hour the wheel revolved and sent +in accurately the dots required for "sixing." The +invention was a success, the device being, indeed, +similar to that of the modern district messenger box; +but it was soon noticed that, in spite of the regularity +of the report, "Sf" could not be raised even if a train +message were sent immediately after. Detection and +a reprimand came in due course, but were not taken +very seriously. + +A serious occurrence that might have resulted in +accident drove him soon after from Canada, although +the youth could hardly be held to blame for it. +Edison says: "This night job just suited me, as I +could have the whole day to myself. I had the faculty +of sleeping in a chair any time for a few minutes at +a time. I taught the night-yardman my call, so I +could get half an hour's sleep now and then between +trains, and in case the station was called the watchman +would awaken me. One night I got an order +to hold a freight train, and I replied that I would. +I rushed out to find the signalman, but before I could +find him and get the signal set, the train ran past. +I ran to the telegraph office, and reported that I could +not hold her. The reply was: `Hell!' The train dispatcher, +on the strength of my message that I would +hold the train, had permitted another to leave the +last station in the opposite direction. There was +a lower station near the junction where the day +operator slept. I started for it on foot. The night +was dark, and I fell into a culvert and was knocked +senseless." Owing to the vigilance of the two engineers +on the locomotives, who saw each other approaching +on the straight single track, nothing more +dreadful happened than a summons to the thoughtless +operator to appear before the general manager at +Toronto. On reaching the manager's office, his trial +for neglect of duty was fortunately interrupted by +the call of two Englishmen; and while their conversation +proceeded, Edison slipped quietly out of the +room, hurried to the Grand Trunk freight depot, +found a conductor he knew taking out a freight train +for Sarnia, and was not happy until the ferry-boat +from Sarnia had landed him once more on the Michigan +shore. The Grand Trunk still owes Mr. Edison +the wages due him at the time he thus withdrew +from its service, but the claim has never been pressed. + +The same winter of 1863-64, while at Port Huron, +Edison had a further opportunity of displaying his +ingenuity. An ice-jam had broken the light telegraph +cable laid in the bed of the river across to +Sarnia, and thus communication was interrupted. +The river is three-quarters of a mile wide, and could +not be crossed on foot; nor could the cable be repaired. +Edison at once suggested using the steam whistle of +the locomotive, and by manipulating the valve con- +versed the short and long outbursts of shrill sound +into the Morse code. An operator on the Sarnia shore +was quick enough to catch the significance of the +strange whistling, and messages were thus sent in +wireless fashion across the ice-floes in the river. It +is said that such signals were also interchanged by +military telegraphers during the war, and possibly +Edison may have heard of the practice; but be that +as it may, he certainly showed ingenuity and resource +in applying such a method to meet the necessity. +It is interesting to note that at this point the Grand +Trunk now has its St. Clair tunnel, through which the +trains are hauled under the river-bed by electric +locomotives. + +Edison had now begun unconsciously the roaming +and drifting that took him during the next five years +all over the Middle States, and that might well have +wrecked the career of any one less persistent and +industrious. It was a period of his life corresponding +to the Wanderjahre of the German artisan, and +was an easy way of gratifying a taste for travel +without the risk of privation. To-day there is little +temptation to the telegrapher to go to distant parts +of the country on the chance that he may secure a +livelihood at the key. The ranks are well filled everywhere, +and of late years the telegraph as an art or +industry has shown relatively slight expansion, owing +chiefly to the development of telephony. Hence, if vacancies +occur, there are plenty of operators available, +and salaries have remained so low as to lead to one or +two formidable and costly strikes that unfortunately +took no account of the economic conditions of demand +and supply. But in the days of the Civil War there +was a great dearth of skilful manipulators of the key. +About fifteen hundred of the best operators in the +country were at the front on the Federal side alone, +and several hundred more had enlisted. This created +a serious scarcity, and a nomadic operator going to any +telegraphic centre would be sure to find a place open +waiting for him. At the close of the war a majority +of those who had been with the two opposed armies +remained at the key under more peaceful surroundings, +but the rapid development of the commercial +and railroad systems fostered a new demand, and +then for a time it seemed almost impossible to train +new operators fast enough. In a few years, however, +the telephone sprang into vigorous existence, +dating from 1876, drawing off some of the most +adventurous spirits from the telegraph field; and the +deterrent influence of the telephone on the telegraph +had made itself felt by 1890. The expiration of the +leading Bell telephone patents, five years later, +accentuated even more sharply the check that had +been put on telegraphy, as hundreds and thousands +of "independent" telephone companies were then +organized, throwing a vast network of toll lines over +Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and other States, and +affording cheap, instantaneous means of communication +without any necessity for the intervention of an +operator. + +It will be seen that the times have changed radically +since Edison became a telegrapher, and that in +this respect a chapter of electrical history has been +definitely closed. There was a day when the art +offered a distinct career to all of its practitioners, +and young men of ambition and good family were +eager to begin even as messenger boys, and were +ready to undergo a severe ordeal of apprenticeship +with the belief that they could ultimately attain positions +of responsibility and profit. At the same time +operators have always been shrewd enough to regard +the telegraph as a stepping-stone to other careers +in life. A bright fellow entering the telegraph service +to-day finds the experience he may gain therein +valuable, but he soon realizes that there are not +enough good-paying official positions to "go around," +so as to give each worthy man a chance after he has +mastered the essentials of the art. He feels, therefore, +that to remain at the key involves either stagnation +or deterioration, and that after, say, twenty-five years +of practice he will have lost ground as compared with +friends who started out in other occupations. The +craft of an operator, learned without much difficulty, +is very attractive to a youth, but a position at the +key is no place for a man of mature years. His services, +with rare exceptions, grow less valuable as he +advances in age and nervous strain breaks him down. +On the contrary, men engaged in other professions +find, as a rule, that they improve and advance with +experience, and that age brings larger rewards and +opportunities. + +The list of well-known Americans who have been +graduates of the key is indeed an extraordinary one, +and there is no department of our national life in +which they have not distinguished themselves. The +contrast, in this respect, between them and their +European colleagues is highly significant. In Europe +the telegraph systems are all under government +management, the operators have strictly limited +spheres of promotion, and at the best the transition +from one kind of employment to another is not +made so easily as in the New World. But in the +United States we have seen Rufus Bullock become +Governor of Georgia, and Ezra Cornell Governor of +New York. Marshall Jewell was Postmaster-General +of President Grant's Cabinet, and Daniel Lamont was +Secretary of State in President Cleveland's. Gen. +T. T. Eckert, past-President of the Western Union +Telegraph Company, was Assistant Secretary of War +under President Lincoln; and Robert J. Wynne, afterward +a consul-general, served as Assistant Postmaster +General. A very large proportion of the presidents +and leading officials of the great railroad systems are +old telegraphers, including Messrs. W. C. Brown, +President of the New York Central Railroad, and +Marvin Hughitt, President of the Chicago & North +western Railroad. In industrial and financial life +there have been Theodore N. Vail, President of the +Bell telephone system; L. C. Weir, late President of +the Adams Express; A. B. Chandler, President of the +Postal Telegraph and Cable Company; Sir W. Van +Home, identified with Canadian development; Robert +C. Clowry, President of the Western Union Telegraph +Company; D. H. Bates, Manager of the Baltimore & +Ohio telegraph for Robert Garrett; and Andrew +Carnegie, the greatest ironmaster the world has ever +known, as well as its greatest philanthropist. In +journalism there have been leaders like Edward Rose- + +water, founder of the Omaha Bee; W. J. Elverson, of +the Philadelphia Press; and Frank A. Munsey, publisher +of half a dozen big magazines. George Kennan +has achieved fame in literature, and Guy Carleton +and Harry de Souchet have been successful as dramatists. +These are but typical of hundreds of men +who could be named who have risen from work at the +key to become recognized leaders in differing spheres +of activity. + +But roving has never been favorable to the formation +of steady habits. The young men who thus +floated about the country from one telegraph office +to another were often brilliant operators, noted for +speed in sending and receiving, but they were undisciplined, +were without the restraining influences of +home life, and were so highly paid for their work that +they could indulge freely in dissipation if inclined +that way. Subjected to nervous tension for hours +together at the key, many of them unfortunately +took to drink, and having ended one engagement in +a city by a debauch that closed the doors of the +office to them, would drift away to the nearest town, +and there securing work, would repeat the performance. +At one time, indeed, these men were so numerous +and so much in evidence as to constitute a type +that the public was disposed to accept as representative +of the telegraphic fraternity; but as the conditions +creating him ceased to exist, the "tramp +operator" also passed into history. It was, however, +among such characters that Edison was very largely +thrown in these early days of aimless drifting, to learn +something perhaps of their nonchalant philosophy of +life, sharing bed and board with them under all kinds +of adverse conditions, but always maintaining a stoic +abstemiousness, and never feeling other than a keen +regret at the waste of so much genuine ability and +kindliness on the part of those knights errant of the +key whose inevitable fate might so easily have been +his own. + +Such a class or group of men can always be presented +by an individual type, and this is assuredly +best embodied in Milton F. Adams, one of Edison's +earliest and closest friends, to whom reference will +be made in later chapters, and whose life has been +so full of adventurous episodes that he might well be +regarded as the modern Gil Blas. That career is +certainly well worth the telling as "another story," +to use the Kipling phrase. Of him Edison says: +"Adams was one of a class of operators never satisfied +to work at any place for any great length of +time. He had the `wanderlust.' After enjoying hospitality +in Boston in 1868-69, on the floor of my hall- +bedroom, which was a paradise for the entomologist, +while the boarding-house itself was run on the banting +system of flesh reduction, he came to me one day +and said: `Good-bye, Edison; I have got sixty cents, +and I am going to San Francisco.' And he did go. +How, I never knew personally. I learned afterward +that he got a job there, and then within a week they +had a telegraphers' strike. He got a big torch and +sold patent medicine on the streets at night to support +the strikers. Then he went to Peru as partner +of a man who had a grizzly bear which they proposed +entering against a bull in the bull-ring in that city. +The grizzly was killed in five minutes, and so the +scheme died. Then Adams crossed the Andes, and +started a market-report bureau in Buenos Ayres. +This didn't pay, so he started a restaurant in Pernambuco, +Brazil. There he did very well, but something +went wrong (as it always does to a nomad), so +he went to the Transvaal, and ran a panorama called +`Paradise Lost' in the Kaffir kraals. This didn't +pay, and he became the editor of a newspaper; then +went to England to raise money for a railroad in Cape +Colony. Next I heard of him in New York, having +just arrived from Bogota, United States of Colombia, +with a power of attorney and $2000 from a native +of that republic, who had applied for a patent for +tightening a belt to prevent it from slipping on a +pulley--a device which he thought a new and great +invention, but which was in use ever since machinery +was invented. I gave Adams, then, a position as salesman +for electrical apparatus. This he soon got tired +of, and I lost sight of him." Adams, in speaking of +this episode, says that when he asked for transportation +expenses to St. Louis, Edison pulled out of his +pocket a ferry ticket to Hoboken, and said to his +associates: "I'll give him that, and he'll get there +all right." This was in the early days of electric +lighting; but down to the present moment the peregrinations +of this versatile genius of the key have +never ceased in one hemisphere or the other, so that +as Mr. Adams himself remarked to the authors in +April, 1908: "The life has been somewhat variegated, +but never dull." + +The fact remains also that throughout this period +Edison, while himself a very Ishmael, never ceased +to study, explore, experiment. Referring to this beginning +of his career, he mentions a curious fact that +throws light on his ceaseless application. "After I +became a telegraph operator," he says, "I practiced +for a long time to become a rapid reader of print, and +got so expert I could sense the meaning of a whole +line at once. This faculty, I believe, should be taught +in schools, as it appears to be easily acquired. Then +one can read two or three books in a day, whereas if +each word at a time only is sensed, reading is laborious." + + + +CHAPTER V + +ARDUOUS YEARS IN THE CENTRAL WEST + +IN 1903, when accepting the position of honorary +electrician to the International Exposition held in +St. Louis in 1904, to commemorate the centenary of +the Louisiana Purchase, Mr. Edison spoke in his +letter of the Central West as a "region where as a +young telegraph operator I spent many arduous years +before moving East." The term of probation thus +referred to did not end until 1868, and while it lasted +Edison's wanderings carried him from Detroit to New +Orleans, and took him, among other cities, to Indianapolis, +Cincinnati, Louisville, and Memphis, some of +which he visited twice in his peregrinations to secure +work. From Canada, after the episodes noted in the +last chapter, he went to Adrian, Michigan, and of +what happened there Edison tells a story typical of +his wanderings for several years to come. "After +leaving my first job at Stratford Junction, I got a +position as operator on the Lake Shore & Michigan +Southern at Adrian, Michigan, in the division superintendent's +office. As usual, I took the `night trick,' +which most operators disliked, but which I preferred, +as it gave me more leisure to experiment. I had obtained +from the station agent a small room, and had +established a little shop of my own. One day the day +operator wanted to get off, and I was on duty. About +9 o'clock the superintendent handed me a despatch +which he said was very important, and which I must +get off at once. The wire at the time was very busy, +and I asked if I should break in. I got orders to do +so, and acting under those orders of the superintendent, +I broke in and tried to send the despatch; but +the other operator would not permit it, and the struggle +continued for ten minutes. Finally I got possession +of the wire and sent the message. The superintendent +of telegraph, who then lived in Adrian and +went to his office in Toledo every day, happened that +day to be in the Western Union office up-town--and +it was the superintendent I was really struggling +with! In about twenty minutes he arrived livid with +rage, and I was discharged on the spot. I informed +him that the general superintendent had told me to +break in and send the despatch, but the general +superintendent then and there repudiated the whole +thing. Their families were socially close, so I was +sacrificed. My faith in human nature got a slight +jar." + +Edison then went to Toledo and secured a position +at Fort Wayne, on the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne & +Chicago Railroad, now leased to the Pennsylvania +system. This was a "day job," and he did not like +it. He drifted two months later to Indianapolis, +arriving there in the fall of 1864, when he was at first +assigned to duty at the Union Station at a salary +of $75 a month for the Western Union Telegraph +Company, whose service he now entered, and with +which he has been destined to maintain highly im- +portent and close relationships throughout a large +part of his life. Superintendent Wallick appears to +have treated him generously and to have loaned him +instruments, a kindness that was greatly appreciated, +for twenty years later the inventor called on his old +employer, and together they visited the scene where +the borrowed apparatus had been mounted on a +rough board in the depot. Edison did not stay long +in Indianapolis, however, resigning in February, 1865, +and proceeding to Cincinnati. The transfer was possibly +due to trouble caused by one of his early inventions +embodying what has been characterized by +an expert as "probably the most simple and ingenious +arrangement of connections for a repeater." +His ambition was to take "press report," but finding, +even after considerable practice, that he "broke" +frequently, he adjusted two embossing Morse registers +--one to receive the press matter, and the other to repeat +the dots and dashes at a lower speed, so that the +message could be copied leisurely. Hence he could +not be rushed or "broken" in receiving, while he +could turn out "copy" that was a marvel of neatness +and clearness. All was well so long as ordinary conditions +prevailed, but when an unusual pressure occurred +the little system fell behind, and the newspapers complained +of the slowness with which reports were delivered +to them. It is easy to understand that with +matter received at a rate of forty words per minute +and worked off at twenty-five words per minute a +serious congestion or delay would result, and the +newspapers were more anxious for the news than they +were for fine penmanship. + +Of this device Mr. Edison remarks: "Together we +took press for several nights, my companion keeping +the apparatus in adjustment and I copying. The +regular press operator would go to the theatre or +take a nap, only finishing the report after 1 A.M. One +of the newspapers complained of bad copy toward +the end of the report--that, is from 1 to 3 A.M., and +requested that the operator taking the report up to +1 A.M.--which was ourselves--take it all, as the copy +then was perfectly unobjectionable. This led to an +investigation by the manager, and the scheme was +forbidden. + +"This instrument, many years afterward, was applied +by me for transferring messages from one wire to +any other wire simultaneously, or after any interval +of time. It consisted of a disk of paper, the indentations +being formed in a volute spiral, exactly as in +the disk phonograph to-day. It was this instrument +which gave me the idea of the phonograph while working +on the telephone." + +Arrived in Cincinnati, where he got employment in +the Western Union commercial telegraph department +at a wage of $60 per month, Edison made the +acquaintance of Milton F. Adams, already referred to +as facile princeps the typical telegrapher in all his +more sociable and brilliant aspects. Speaking of that +time, Mr. Adams says: "I can well recall when Edison +drifted in to take a job. He was a youth of about +eighteen years, decidedly unprepossessing in dress and +rather uncouth in manner. I was twenty-one, and +very dudish. He was quite thin in those days, and +his nose was very prominent, giving a Napoleonic +look to his face, although the curious resemblance did +not strike me at the time. The boys did not take to +him cheerfully, and he was lonesome. I sympathized +with him, and we became close companions. As an +operator he had no superiors and very few equals. +Most of the time he was monkeying with the batteries +and circuits, and devising things to make the work of +telegraphy less irksome. He also relieved the monotony +of office-work by fitting up the battery circuits +to play jokes on his fellow-operators, and to deal with +the vermin that infested the premises. He arranged +in the cellar what he called his `rat paralyzer,' a very +simple contrivance consisting of two plates insulated +from each other and connected with the main battery. +They were so placed that when a rat passed over +them the fore feet on the one plate and the hind feet +on the other completed the circuit and the rat departed +this life, electrocuted." + +Shortly after Edison's arrival at Cincinnati came +the close of the Civil War and the assassination of +President Lincoln. It was natural that telegraphers +should take an intense interest in the general struggle, +for not only did they handle all the news relating to +it, but many of them were at one time or another personal +participants. For example, one of the operators +in the Cincinnati office was George Ellsworth, +who was telegrapher for Morgan, the famous Southern +Guerrilla, and was with him when he made his raid +into Ohio and was captured near the Pennsylvania +line. Ellsworth himself made a narrow escape by +swimming the Ohio River with the aid of an army +mule. Yet we can well appreciate the unimpression- +able way in which some of the men did their work, +from an anecdote that Mr. Edison tells of that awful +night of Friday, April 14, 1865: "I noticed," he says, +"an immense crowd gathering in the street outside +a newspaper office. I called the attention of the +other operators to the crowd, and we sent a messenger +boy to find the cause of the excitement. He returned +in a few minutes and shouted `Lincoln's shot.' Instinctively +the operators looked from one face to another +to see which man had received the news. All +the faces were blank, and every man said he had not +taken a word about the shooting. `Look over your +files,' said the boss to the man handling the press +stuff. For a few moments we waited in suspense, +and then the man held up a sheet of paper containing +a short account of the shooting of the President. The +operator had worked so mechanically that he had +handled the news without the slightest knowledge of +its significance." Mr. Adams says that at the time +the city was en fete on account of the close of the +war, the name of the assassin was received by telegraph, +and it was noted with a thrill of horror that it +was that of a brother of Edwin Booth and of Junius +Brutus Booth--the latter of whom was then playing +at the old National Theatre. Booth was hurried +away into seclusion, and the next morning the city +that had been so gay over night with bunting was +draped with mourning. + +Edison's diversions in Cincinnati were chiefly those +already observed. He read a great deal, but spent +most of his leisure in experiment. Mr. Adams remarks: +"Edison and I were very fond of tragedy. +Forrest and John McCullough were playing at the +National Theatre, and when our capital was sufficient +we would go to see those eminent tragedians alternate +in Othello and Iago. Edison always enjoyed Othello +greatly. Aside from an occasional visit to the Loewen +Garden `over the Rhine,' with a glass of beer and +a few pretzels, consumed while listening to the excellent +music of a German band, the theatre was the +sum and substance of our innocent dissipation." + +The Cincinnati office, as a central point, appears to +have been attractive to many of the clever young +operators who graduated from it to positions of larger +responsibility. Some of them were conspicuous for +their skill and versatility. Mr. Adams tells this interesting +story as an illustration: "L. C. Weir, or Charlie, +as he was known, at that time agent for the Adams +Express Company, had the remarkable ability of taking +messages and copying them twenty-five words +behind the sender. One day he came into the operating- +room, and passing a table he heard Louisville +calling Cincinnati. He reached over to the key and +answered the call. My attention was arrested by the +fact that he walked off after responding, and the +sender happened to be a good one. Weir coolly asked +for a pen, and when he sat down the sender was just +one message ahead of him with date, address, and +signature. Charlie started in, and in a beautiful, +large, round hand copied that message. The sender +went right along, and when he finished with six messages +closed his key. When Weir had done with the +last one the sender began to think that after all there +had been no receiver, as Weir did not `break,' but +simply gave his O. K. He afterward became president +of the Adams Express, and was certainly a wonderful +operator." The operating-room referred to +was on the fifth floor of the building with no elevators. + +Those were the early days of trade unionism in +telegraphy, and the movement will probably never +quite die out in the craft which has always shown so +much solidarity. While Edison was in Cincinnati a +delegation of five union operators went over from +Cleveland to form a local branch, and the occasion +was one of great conviviality. Night came, but the +unionists were conspicuous by their absence, although +more circuits than one were intolerant of delay and +clamorous for attention---eight local unionists being +away. The Cleveland report wire was in special +need, and Edison, almost alone in the office, devoted +himself to it all through the night and until 3 o'clock +the next morning, when he was relieved. + +He had previously been getting $80 a month, and +had eked this out by copying plays for the theatre. +His rating was that of a "plug" or inferior operator; +but he was determined to lift himself into the class of +first-class operators, and had kept up the practice of +going to the office at night to "copy press," acting +willingly as a substitute for any operator who wanted +to get off for a few hours--which often meant all +night. Speaking of this special ordeal, for which he +had thus been unconsciously preparing, Edison says: +"My copy looked fine if viewed as a whole, as I could +write a perfectly straight line across the wide sheet, +which was not ruled. There were no flourishes, but +the individual letters would not bear close inspection. +When I missed understanding a word, there was no +time to think what it was, so I made an illegible one +to fill in, trusting to the printers to sense it. I knew +they could read anything, although Mr. Bloss, an +editor of the Inquirer, made such bad copy that one +of his editorials was pasted up on the notice-board in +the telegraph office with an offer of one dollar to any +man who could `read twenty consecutive words.' Nobody +ever did it. When I got through I was too +nervous to go home, so waited the rest of the night +for the day manager, Mr. Stevens, to see what was to +be the outcome of this Union formation and of my +efforts. He was an austere man, and I was afraid +of him. I got the morning papers, which came out +at 4 A. M., and the press report read perfectly, which +surprised me greatly. I went to work on my regular +day wire to Portsmouth, Ohio, and there was +considerable excitement, but nothing was said to me, +neither did Mr. Stevens examine the copy on the +office hook, which I was watching with great interest. +However, about 3 P. M. he went to the hook, grabbed +the bunch and looked at it as a whole without examining +it in detail, for which I was thankful. Then he +jabbed it back on the hook, and I knew I was all +right. He walked over to me, and said: `Young +man, I want you to work the Louisville wire nights; +your salary will be $125.' Thus I got from the plug +classification to that of a `first-class man.' " + +But no sooner was this promotion secured than he +started again on his wanderings southward, while his +friend Adams went North, neither having any difficulty +in making the trip. "The boys in those days +had extraordinary facilities for travel. As a usual +thing it was only necessary for them to board a train +and tell the conductor they were operators. Then +they would go as far as they liked. The number of +operators was small, and they were in demand +everywhere." It was in this way Edison made his way +south as far as Memphis, Tennessee, where the telegraph +service at that time was under military law, +although the operators received $125 a month. Here +again Edison began to invent and improve on existing +apparatus, with the result of having once more +to "move on." The story may be told in his own +terse language: "I was not the inventor of the auto +repeater, but while in Memphis I worked on one. +Learning that the chief operator, who was a protege +of the superintendent, was trying in some way to put +New York and New Orleans together for the first +time since the close of the war, I redoubled my efforts, +and at 2 o'clock one morning I had them speaking +to each other. The office of the Memphis Avalanche +was in the same building. The paper got wind of it +and sent messages. A column came out in the morning +about it; but when I went to the office in the +afternoon to report for duty I was discharged with +out explanation. The superintendent would not even +give me a pass to Nashville, so I had to pay my fare. +I had so little money left that I nearly starved at +Decatur, Alabama, and had to stay three days before +going on north to Nashville. Arrived in that city, I +went to the telegraph office, got money enough to +buy a little solid food, and secured a pass to Louisville. +I had a companion with me who was also out +of a job. I arrived at Louisville on a bitterly cold +day, with ice in the gutters. I was wearing a linen +duster and was not much to look at, but got a position +at once, working on a press wire. My travelling +companion was less successful on account of his +`record.' They had a limit even in those days when +the telegraph service was so demoralized." + +Some reminiscences of Mr. Edison are of interest +as bearing not only upon the "demoralized" telegraph +service, but the conditions from which the +New South had to emerge while working out its +salvation. "The telegraph was still under military +control, not having been turned over to the original +owners, the Southern Telegraph Company. In addition +to the regular force, there was an extra force +of two or three operators, and some stranded ones, +who were a burden to us, for board was high. One of +these derelicts was a great source of worry to me, +personally. He would come in at all hours and either +throw ink around or make a lot of noise. One night +he built a fire in the grate and started to throw pistol +cartridges into the flames. These would explode, and +I was twice hit by the bullets, which left a black-and- +blue mark. Another night he came in and got from +some part of the building a lot of stationery with +`Confederate States' printed at the head. He was +a fine operator, and wrote a beautiful hand. He +would take a sheet of this paper, write capital `A, +and then take another sheet and make the `A' differently; +and so on through the alphabet; each time +crumpling the paper up in his hand and throwing +it on the floor. He would keep this up until the room +was filled nearly flush with the table. Then he would +quit. + +"Everything at that time was `wide open.' +Disorganization reigned supreme. There was no head +to anything. At night myself and a companion would +go over to a gorgeously furnished faro-bank and get +our midnight lunch. Everything was free. There +were over twenty keno-rooms running. One of them +that I visited was in a Baptist church, the man with +the wheel being in the pulpit, and the gamblers in +the pews. + +"While there the manager of the telegraph office +was arrested for something I never understood, and +incarcerated in a military prison about half a mile +from the office. The building was in plain sight from +the office, and four stories high. He was kept strictly +incommunicado. One day, thinking he might be confined +in a room facing the office, I put my arm out +of the window and kept signalling dots and dashes +by the movement of the arm. I tried this several +times for two days. Finally he noticed it, and putting +his arm through the bars of the window he established +communication with me. He thus sent several messages +to his friends, and was afterward set free." + +Another curious story told by Edison concerns a +fellow-operator on night duty at Chattanooga Junction, +at the time he was at Memphis: "When it was +reported that Hood was marching on Nashville, one +night a Jew came into the office about 11 o'clock in +great excitement, having heard the Hood rumor. He, +being a large sutler, wanted to send a message to save +his goods. The operator said it was impossible--that +orders had been given to send no private messages. +Then the Jew wanted to bribe my friend, who steadfastly +refused for the reason, as he told the Jew, that +he might be court-martialled and shot. Finally the +Jew got up to $800. The operator swore him to +secrecy and sent the message. Now there was no +such order about private messages, and the Jew, finding +it out, complained to Captain Van Duzer, chief of +telegraphs, who investigated the matter, and while he +would not discharge the operator, laid him off +indefinitely. Van Duzer was so lenient that if an +operator were discharged, all the operator had to do +was to wait three days and then go and sit on the +stoop of Van Duzer's office all day, and he would be +taken back. But Van Duzer swore he would never +give in in this case. He said that if the operator had +taken $800 and sent the message at the regular rate, +which was twenty-five cents, it would have been all +right, as the Jew would be punished for trying to +bribe a military operator; but when the operator took +the $800 and then sent the message deadhead, he +couldn't stand it, and he would never relent." + +A third typical story of this period deals with a +cipher message for Thomas. Mr. Edison narrates it +as follows: "When I was an operator in Cincinnati +working the Louisville wire nights for a time, one +night a man over on the Pittsburg wire yelled out: +`D. I. cipher,' which meant that there was a cipher +message from the War Department at Washington +and that it was coming--and he yelled out `Louisville.' +I started immediately to call up that place. +It was just at the change of shift in the office. I +could not get Louisville, and the cipher message began +to come. It was taken by the operator on the other +table direct from the War Department. It was for +General Thomas, at Nashville. I called for about +twenty minutes and notified them that I could not +get Louisville. I kept at it for about fifteen minutes +longer, and notified them that there was still no +answer from Louisville. They then notified the War +Department that they could not get Louisville. Then +we tried to get it by all kinds of roundabout ways, +but in no case could anybody get them at that office. +Soon a message came from the War Department to +send immediately for the manager of the Cincinnati +office. He was brought to the office and several +messages were exchanged, the contents of which, of course, +I did not know, but the matter appeared to be very +serious, as they were afraid of General Hood, of the +Confederate Army, who was then attempting to march +on Nashville; and it was very important that this +cipher of about twelve hundred words or so should +be got through immediately to General Thomas. I +kept on calling up to 12 or 1 o'clock, but no Louisville. +About 1 o'clock the operator at the Indianapolis +office got hold of an operator on a wire which ran +from Indianapolis to Louisville along the railroad, +who happened to come into his office. He arranged +with this operator to get a relay of horses, and the +message was sent through Indianapolis to this operator +who had engaged horses to carry the despatches to +Louisville and find out the trouble, and get the +despatches through without delay to General Thomas. +In those days the telegraph fraternity was rather +demoralized, and the discipline was very lax. It was +found out a couple of days afterward that there were +three night operators at Louisville. One of them had +gone over to Jeffersonville and had fallen off a horse +and broken his leg, and was in a hospital. By a +remarkable coincidence another of the men had been +stabbed in a keno-room, and was also in hospital +while the third operator had gone to Cynthiana to +see a man hanged and had got left by the train." + +I think the most important line of +investigation is the production of +Electricity direct from carbon. + Edison + + + +Young Edison remained in Louisville for about +two years, quite a long stay for one with such nomadic +instincts. It was there that he perfected the peculiar +vertical style of writing which, beginning with him in +telegraphy, later became so much of a fad with teachers +of penmanship and in the schools. He says of this form +of writing, a current example of which is given above: +"I developed this style in Louisville while taking press +reports. My wire was connected to the `blind' side +of a repeater at Cincinnati, so that if I missed a word +or sentence, or if the wire worked badly, I could not +break in and get the last words, because the Cincinnati +man had no instrument by which he could +hear me. I had to take what came. When I got the +job, the cable across the Ohio River at Covington, +connecting with the line to Louisville, had a variable +leak in it, which caused the strength of the signalling +current to make violent fluctuations. I obviated this +by using several relays, each with a different adjustment, +working several sounders all connected with +one sounding-plate. The clatter was bad, but I could +read it with fair ease. When, in addition to this infernal +leak, the wires north to Cleveland worked badly, +it required a large amount of imagination to get +the sense of what was being sent. An imagination +requires an appreciable time for its exercise, and as +the stuff was coming at the rate of thirty-five to forty +words a minute, it was very difficult to write down +what was coming and imagine what wasn't coming. +Hence it was necessary to become a very rapid writer, +so I started to find the fastest style. I found that the +vertical style, with each letter separate and without +any flourishes, was the most rapid, and that the +smaller the letter the greater the rapidity. As I took +on an average from eight to fifteen columns of news +report every day, it did not take long to perfect this +method." Mr. Edison has adhered to this characteristic +style of penmanship down to the present +time. + +As a matter of fact, the conditions at Louisville +at that time were not much better than they had been +at Memphis. The telegraph operating-room was in +a deplorable condition. It was on the second story +of a dilapidated building on the principal street of +the city, with the battery-room in the rear; behind +which was the office of the agent of the Associated +Press. The plastering was about one-third gone from +the ceiling. A small stove, used occasionally in the +winter, was connected to the chimney by a tortuous +pipe. The office was never cleaned. The switchboard +for manipulating the wires was about thirty- +four inches square. The brass connections on it were +black with age and with the arcing effects of lightning, +which, to young Edison, seemed particularly partial +to Louisville. "It would strike on the wires," he +says, "with an explosion like a cannon-shot, making +that office no place for an operator with heart-disease." +Around the dingy walls were a dozen tables, the ends +next to the wall. They were about the size of those +seen in old-fashioned country hotels for holding +the wash-bowl and pitcher. The copper wires +connecting the instruments to the switchboard were +small, crystallized, and rotten. The battery-room +was filled with old record-books and message bundles, +and one hundred cells of nitric-acid battery, arranged +on a stand in the centre of the room. This stand, as +well as the floor, was almost eaten through by the +destructive action of the powerful acid. Grim and +uncompromising as the description reads, it was +typical of the equipment in those remote days of +the telegraph at the close of the war. + +Illustrative of the length to which telegraphers +could go at a time when they were so much in de- +mand, Edison tells the following story: "When I took +the position there was a great shortage of operators. +One night at 2 A.M. another operator and I were on +duty. I was taking press report, and the other man +was working the New York wire. We heard a heavy +tramp, tramp, tramp on the rickety stairs. Suddenly +the door was thrown open with great violence, +dislodging it from one of the hinges. There appeared in +the doorway one of the best operators we had, who +worked daytime, and who was of a very quiet +disposition except when intoxicated. He was a great +friend of the manager of the office. His eyes were +bloodshot and wild, and one sleeve had been torn +away from his coat. Without noticing either of us +he went up to the stove and kicked it over. The +stove-pipe fell, dislocated at every joint. It was half +full of exceedingly fine soot, which floated out and +filled the room completely. This produced a +momentary respite to his labors. When the atmosphere +had cleared sufficiently to see, he went around +and pulled every table away from the wall, piling +them on top of the stove in the middle of the room. +Then he proceeded to pull the switchboard away from +the wall. It was held tightly by screws. He succeeded, +finally, and when it gave way he fell with +the board, and striking on a table cut himself so that +he soon became covered with blood. He then went +to the battery-room and knocked all the batteries off +on the floor. The nitric acid soon began to combine +with the plaster in the room below, which was the +public receiving-room for messengers and bookkeepers. +The excess acid poured through and ate up +the account-books. After having finished everything +to his satisfaction, he left. I told the other operator +to do nothing. We would leave things just as they +were, and wait until the manager came. In the +mean time, as I knew all the wires coming through to +the switchboard, I rigged up a temporary set of +instruments so that the New York business could be cleared +up, and we also got the remainder of the press matter. +At 7 o'clock the day men began to appear. They +were told to go down-stairs and wait the coming of +the manager. At 8 o'clock he appeared, walked +around, went into the battery-room, and then came +to me, saying: `Edison, who did this?' I told him +that Billy L. had come in full of soda-water and +invented the ruin before him. He walked backward +and forward, about a minute, then coming up to my +table put his fist down, and said: `If Billy L. ever +does that again, I will discharge him.' It was needless +to say that there were other operators who took +advantage of that kind of discipline, and I had many +calls at night after that, but none with such destructive +effects." + +This was one aspect of life as it presented itself to +the sensitive and observant young operator in Louisville. +But there was another, more intellectual side, +in the contact afforded with journalism and its leaders, +and the information taken in almost unconsciously +as to the political and social movements of the time. +Mr. Edison looks back on this with great satisfaction. +"I remember," he says, "the discussions between the +celebrated poet and journalist George D. Prentice, +then editor of the Courier-Journal, and Mr. Tyler, of +the Associated Press. I believe Prentice was the +father of the humorous paragraph of the American +newspaper. He was poetic, highly educated, and a +brilliant talker. He was very thin and small. I do +not think he weighed over one hundred and twenty +five pounds. Tyler was a graduate of Harvard, and +had a very clear enunciation, and, in sharp contrast +to Prentice, he was a large man. After the paper had +gone to press, Prentice would generally come over to +Tyler's office and start talking. Having while in +Tyler's office heard them arguing on the immortality +of the soul, etc., I asked permission of Mr. Tyler if, +after finishing the press matter, I might come in and +listen to the conversation, which I did many times +after. One thing I never could comprehend was that +Tyler had a sideboard with liquors and generally +crackers. Prentice would pour out half a glass of +what they call corn whiskey, and would dip the +crackers in it and eat them. Tyler took it sans food. +One teaspoonful of that stuff would put me to sleep." + +Mr. Edison throws also a curious side-light on the +origin of the comic column in the modern American +newspaper, the telegraph giving to a new joke or a +good story the ubiquity and instantaneity of an important +historical event. "It was the practice of the +press operators all over the country at that time, when +a lull occurred, to start in and send jokes or stories +the day men had collected; and these were copied +and pasted up on the bulletin-board. Cleveland was +the originating office for `press,' which it received +from New York, and sent it out simultaneously to +Milwaukee, Chicago, Toledo, Detroit, Pittsburg, +Columbus, Dayton, Cincinnati, Indianapolis, Vincennes, +Terre Haute, St. Louis, and Louisville. +Cleveland would call first on Milwaukee, if he had +anything. If so, he would send it, and Cleveland +would repeat it to all of us. Thus any joke or story +originating anywhere in that area was known the +next day all over. The press men would come in +and copy anything which could be published, which +was about three per cent. I collected, too, quite a +large scrap-book of it, but unfortunately have lost it." + +Edison tells an amusing story of his own pursuits +at this time. Always an omnivorous reader, he had +some difficulty in getting a sufficient quantity of +literature for home consumption, and was in the habit +of buying books at auctions and second-hand stores. +One day at an auction-room he secured a stack of +twenty unbound volumes of the North American +Review for two dollars. These he had bound and delivered +at the telegraph office. One morning, when +he was free as usual at 3 o'clock, he started off at a +rapid pace with ten volumes on his shoulder. He +found himself very soon the subject of a fusillade. +When he stopped, a breathless policeman grabbed him +by the throat and ordered him to drop his parcel and +explain matters, as a suspicious character. He opened +the package showing the books, somewhat to the +disgust of the officer, who imagined he had caught a +burglar sneaking away in the dark alley with his +booty. Edison explained that being deaf he had +heard no challenge, and therefore had kept moving; +and the policeman remarked apologetically that it +was fortunate for Edison he was not a better shot. + +The incident is curiously revelatory of the character +of the man, for it must be admitted that while literary +telegraphers are by no means scarce, there are very +few who would spend scant savings on back numbers +of a ponderous review at an age when tragedy, beer, +and pretzels are far more enticing. Through all his +travels Edison has preserved those books, and has +them now in his library at Llewellyn Park, on Orange +Mountain, New Jersey. + +Drifting after a time from Louisville, Edison made +his way as far north as Detroit, but, like the famous +Duke of York, soon made his way back again. Possibly +the severer discipline after the happy-go-lucky +regime in the Southern city had something to do with +this restlessness, which again manifested itself, however, +on his return thither. The end of the war had +left the South a scene of destruction and desolation, +and many men who had fought bravely and well +found it hard to reconcile themselves to the grim +task of reconstruction. To them it seemed better to +"let ill alone" and seek some other clime where +conditions would be less onerous. At this moment a +great deal of exaggerated talk was current as to the +sunny life and easy wealth of Latin America, and +under its influences many "unreconstructed" Southerners +made their way to Mexico, Brazil, Peru, or the +Argentine. Telegraph operators were naturally in +touch with this movement, and Edison's fertile imagination +was readily inflamed by the glowing idea of +all these vague possibilities. Again he threw up his +steady work and, with a couple of sanguine young +friends, made his way to New Orleans. They had the +notion of taking positions in the Brazilian Government +telegraphs, as an advertisement had been inserted +in some paper stating that operators were +wanted. They had timed their departure from Louisville +so as to catch a specially chartered steamer, +which was to leave New Orleans for Brazil on a +certain day, to convey a large number of Confederates +and their families, who were disgusted with the +United States and were going to settle in Brazil, +where slavery still prevailed. Edison and his friends +arrived in New Orleans just at the time of the great +riot, when several hundred negroes were killed, and +the city was in the hands of a mob. The Government +had seized the steamer chartered for Brazil, in order +to bring troops from the Yazoo River to New Orleans +to stop the rioting. The young operators therefore +visited another shipping-office to make inquiries as +to vessels for Brazil, and encountered an old Spaniard +who sat in a chair near the steamer agent's desk, and +to whom they explained their intentions. He had +lived and worked in South America, and was very +emphatic in his assertion, as he shook his yellow, bony +finger at them, that the worst mistake they could +possibly make would be to leave the United States. +He would not leave on any account, and they as +young Americans would always regret it if they forsook +their native land, whose freedom, climate, and +opportunities could not be equalled anywhere on the +face of the globe. Such sincere advice as this could +not be disdained, and Edison made his way North +again. One cannot resist speculation as to what might +have happened to Edison himself and to the develop- +ment of electricity had he made this proposed plunge +into the enervating tropics. It will be remembered +that at a somewhat similar crisis in life young Robert +Burns entertained seriously the idea of forsaking +Scotland for the West Indies. That he did not go +was certainly better for Scottish verse, to which he +contributed later so many immortal lines; and it was +probably better for himself, even if he died a gauger. +It is simply impossible to imagine Edison working +out the phonograph, telephone, and incandescent +lamp under the tropical climes he sought. Some years +later he was informed that both his companions had +gone to Vera Cruz, Mexico, and had died there of +yellow fever. + +Work was soon resumed at Louisville, where the +dilapidated old office occupied at the close of the war +had been exchanged for one much more comfortable +and luxurious in its equipment. As before, Edison +was allotted to press report, and remembers very +distinctly taking the Presidential message and veto of +the District of Columbia bill by President Johnson. +As the matter was received over the wire he paragraphed +it so that each printer had exactly three +lines, thus enabling the matter to be set up very +expeditiously in the newspaper offices. This earned +him the gratitude of the editors, a dinner, and all the +newspaper "exchanges" he wanted. Edison's accounts +of the sprees and debauches of other night +operators in the loosely managed offices enable one to +understand how even a little steady application to +the work in hand would be appreciated. On one +occasion Edison acted as treasurer for his bibulous +companions, holding the stakes, so to speak, in order +that the supply of liquor might last longer. One of +the mildest mannered of the party took umbrage at +the parsimony of the treasurer and knocked him +down, whereupon the others in the party set upon +the assailant and mauled him so badly that he had +to spend three weeks in hospital. At another time +two of his companions sharing the temporary +hospitality of his room smashed most of the furniture, +and went to bed with their boots on. Then his kindly +good-nature rebelled. "I felt that this was running +hospitality into the ground, so I pulled them out and left +them on the floor to cool off from their alcoholic trance." + +Edison seems on the whole to have been fairly +comfortable and happy in Louisville, surrounding himself +with books and experimental apparatus, and even +inditing a treatise on electricity. But his very thirst +for knowledge and new facts again proved his undoing. +The instruments in the handsome new offices +were fastened in their proper places, and operators +were strictly forbidden to remove them, or to use the +batteries except on regular work. This prohibition +meant little to Edison, who had access to no other +instruments except those of the company. "I went +one night," he says, "into the battery-room to obtain +some sulphuric acid for experimenting. The carboy +tipped over, the acid ran out, went through to the +manager's room below, and ate up his desk and all the +carpet. The next morning I was summoned before +him, and told that what the company wanted was +operators, not experimenters. I was at liberty to +take my pay and get out." + +The fact that Edison is a very studious man, an +insatiate lover and reader of books, is well known to +his associates; but surprise is often expressed at his +fund of miscellaneous information. This, it will be +seen, is partly explained by his work for years as a +"press" reporter. He says of this: "The second +time I was in Louisville, they had moved into a new +office, and the discipline was now good. I took the +press job. In fact, I was a very poor sender, and +therefore made the taking of press report a specialty. +The newspaper men allowed me to come over after +going to press at 3 A.M. and get all the exchanges I +wanted. These I would take home and lay at the +foot of my bed. I never slept more than four or five +hours' so that I would awake at nine or ten and read +these papers until dinner-time. I thus kept posted, +and knew from their activity every member of Congress, +and what committees they were on; and all +about the topical doings, as well as the prices of +breadstuffs in all the primary markets. I was in a +much better position than most operators to call on +my imagination to supply missing words or sentences, +which were frequent in those days of old, rotten +wires, badly insulated, especially on stormy nights. +Upon such occasions I had to supply in some cases +one-fifth of the whole matter--pure guessing--but I +got caught only once. There had been some kind of +convention in Virginia, in which John Minor Botts +was the leading figure. There was great excitement +about it, and two votes had been taken in the +convention on the two days. There was no doubt that +the vote the next day would go a certain way. A +very bad storm came up about 10 o'clock, and my +wire worked very badly. Then there was a cessation +of all signals; then I made out the words `Minor +Botts.' The next was a New York item. I filled in +a paragraph about the convention and how the vote +had gone, as I was sure it would. But next day I +learned that instead of there being a vote the +convention had adjourned without action until the day +after." In like manner, it was at Louisville that Mr. +Edison got an insight into the manner in which great +political speeches are more frequently reported than +the public suspects. "The Associated Press had a +shorthand man travelling with President Johnson +when he made his celebrated swing around the circle +in a private train delivering hot speeches in defence +of his conduct. The man engaged me to write out +the notes from his reading. He came in loaded and +on the verge of incoherence. We started in, but about +every two minutes I would have to scratch out whole +paragraphs and insert the same things said in another +and better way. He would frequently change words, +always to the betterment of the speech. I couldn't +understand this, and when he got through, and I had +copied about three columns, I asked him why those +changes, if he read from notes. `Sonny,' he said, +`if these politicians had their speeches published as +they deliver them, a great many shorthand writers +would be out of a job. The best shorthanders and +the holders of good positions are those who can take +a lot of rambling, incoherent stuff and make a rattling +good speech out of it.' " + +Going back to Cincinnati and beginning his second +term there as an operator, Edison found the office +in new quarters and with greatly improved management. +He was again put on night duty, much to his +satisfaction. He rented a room in the top floor of an +office building, bought a cot and an oil-stove, a foot +lathe, and some tools. He cultivated the acquaintance +of Mr. Sommers, superintendent of telegraph of +the Cincinnati & Indianapolis Railroad, who gave +him permission to take such scrap apparatus as he +might desire, that was of no use to the company. +With Sommers on one occasion he had an opportunity +to indulge his always strong sense of humor. "Sommers +was a very witty man," he says, "and fond of +experimenting. We worked on a self-adjusting telegraph +relay, which would have been very valuable if +we could have got it. I soon became the possessor +of a second-hand Ruhmkorff induction coil, which, +although it would only give a small spark, would +twist the arms and clutch the hands of a man so that +he could not let go of the apparatus. One day we +went down to the round-house of the Cincinnati & +Indianapolis Railroad and connected up the long wash- +tank in the room with the coil, one electrode being +connected to earth. Above this wash-room was a +flat roof. We bored a hole through the roof, and +could see the men as they came in. The first man +as he entered dipped his hands in the water. The +floor being wet he formed a circuit, and up went his +hands. He tried it the second time, with the same +result. He then stood against the wall with a +puzzled expression. We surmised that he was waiting +for somebody else to come in, which occurred +shortly after--with the same result. Then they went +out, and the place was soon crowded, and there was +considerable excitement. Various theories were +broached to explain the curious phenomenon. We +enjoyed the sport immensely." It must be remembered +that this was over forty years ago, when there +was no popular instruction in electricity, and when +its possibilities for practical joking were known to +very few. To-day such a crowd of working-men +would be sure to include at least one student of a +night school or correspondence course who would +explain the mystery offhand. + +Note has been made of the presence of Ellsworth +in the Cincinnati office, and his service with the +Confederate guerrilla Morgan, for whom he tapped +Federal wires, read military messages, sent false ones, +and did serious mischief generally. It is well known +that one operator can recognize another by the way +in which he makes his signals--it is his style of +handwriting. Ellsworth possessed in a remarkable degree +the skill of imitating these peculiarities, and thus he +deceived the Union operators easily. Edison says +that while apparently a quiet man in bearing, Ellsworth, +after the excitement of fighting, found the +tameness of a telegraph office obnoxious, and that he +became a bad "gun man" in the Panhandle of Texas, +where he was killed. "We soon became acquainted," +says Edison of this period in Cincinnati, "and he +wanted me to invent a secret method of sending +despatches so that an intermediate operator could not +tap the wire and understand it. He said that if it +could be accomplished, he could sell it to the Govern- +ment for a large sum of money. This suited me, and +I started in and succeeded in making such an +instrument, which had in it the germ of my quadruplex +now used throughout the world, permitting the despatch +of four messages over one wire simultaneously. +By the time I had succeeded in getting the apparatus +to work, Ellsworth suddenly disappeared. Many +years afterward I used this little device again for the +same purpose. At Menlo Park, New Jersey, I had +my laboratory. There were several Western Union +wires cut into the laboratory, and used by me in +experimenting at night. One day I sat near an instrument +which I had left connected during the night. +I soon found it was a private wire between New York +and Philadelphia, and I heard among a lot of stuff +a message that surprised me. A week after that I +had occasion to go to New York, and, visiting the +office of the lessee of the wire, I asked him if he hadn't +sent such and such a message. The expression that +came over his face was a sight. He asked me how I +knew of any message. I told him the circumstances, +and suggested that he had better cipher such +communications, or put on a secret sounder. The result +of the interview was that I installed for him my old +Cincinnati apparatus, which was used thereafter for +many years." + +Edison did not make a very long stay in Cincinnati +this time, but went home after a while to Port Huron. +Soon tiring of idleness and isolation he sent "a cry +from Macedonia" to his old friend "Milt" Adams, +who was in Boston, and whom he wished to rejoin if +he could get work promptly in the East. + +Edison himself gives the details of this eventful +move, when he went East to grow up with the new +art of electricity. "I had left Louisville the second +time, and went home to see my parents. After +stopping at home for some time, I got restless, and +thought I would like to work in the East. Knowing +that a former operator named Adams, who had worked +with me in the Cincinnati office, was in Boston, I wrote +him that I wanted a job there. He wrote back that +if I came on immediately he could get me in the +Western Union office. I had helped out the Grand +Trunk Railroad telegraph people by a new device +when they lost one of the two submarine cables they +had across the river, making the remaining cable +act just as well for their purpose, as if they had two. +I thought I was entitled to a pass, which they +conceded; and I started for Boston. After leaving +Toronto a terrific blizzard came up and the train got +snowed under in a cut. After staying there twenty- +four hours, the trainmen made snowshoes of fence- +rail splints and started out to find food, which they did +about a half mile away. They found a roadside inn, +and by means of snowshoes all the passengers were +taken to the inn. The train reached Montreal four +days late. A number of the passengers and myself +went to the military headquarters to testify in favor of +a soldier who was on furlough, and was two days late, +which was a serious matter with military people, I +learned. We willingly did this, for this soldier was +a great story-teller, and made the time pass quickly. +I met here a telegraph operator named Stanton, +who took me to his boarding-house, the most cheer- +less I have ever been in. Nobody got enough to eat; +the bedclothes were too short and too thin; it was +28 degrees below zero, and the wash-water was frozen +solid. The board was cheap, being only $1.50 per +week. + +"Stanton said that the usual live-stock accompaniment +of operators' boarding-houses was absent; +he thought the intense cold had caused them +to hibernate. Stanton, when I was working in Cincinnati, +left his position and went out on the Union +Pacific to work at Julesburg, which was a cattle town +at that time and very tough. I remember seeing him +off on the train, never expecting to see him again. +Six months afterward, while working press wire in +Cincinnati, about 2 A.M., there was flung into the middle +of the operating-room a large tin box. It made +a report like a pistol, and we all jumped up startled. +In walked Stanton. `Gentlemen,' he said `I have +just returned from a pleasure trip to the land beyond +the Mississippi. All my wealth is contained in my +metallic travelling case and you are welcome to it.' +The case contained one paper collar. He sat down, +and I noticed that he had a woollen comforter around +his neck with his coat buttoned closely. The night +was intensely warm. He then opened his coat and +revealed the fact that he had nothing but the bare +skin. `Gentlemen,' said he, `you see before you an +operator who has reached the limit of impecuniosity.' " +Not far from the limit of impecuniosity was Edison +himself, as he landed in Boston in 1868 after this +wintry ordeal. + +This chapter has run to undue length, but it must +not close without one citation from high authority +as to the service of the military telegraph corps so +often referred to in it. General Grant in his +Memoirs, describing the movements of the Army of +the Potomac, lays stress on the service of his +telegraph operators, and says: "Nothing could be more +complete than the organization and discipline of this +body of brave and intelligent men. Insulated wires +were wound upon reels, two men and a mule detailed +to each reel. The pack-saddle was provided with a +rack like a sawbuck, placed crosswise, so that the +wheel would revolve freely; there was a wagon provided +with a telegraph operator, battery, and instruments +for each division corps and army, and for my +headquarters. Wagons were also loaded with light +poles supplied with an iron spike at each end to hold +the wires up. The moment troops were in position +to go into camp, the men would put up their wires. +Thus in a few minutes' longer time than it took a +mule to walk the length of its coil, telegraphic +communication would be effected between all the +headquarters of the army. No orders ever had to be given +to establish the telegraph." + + + +CHAPTER VI + +WORK AND INVENTION IN BOSTON + +MILTON ADAMS was working in the office of the +Franklin Telegraph Company in Boston when +he received Edison's appeal from Port Huron, and +with characteristic impetuosity at once made it his +business to secure a position for his friend. There +was no opening in the Franklin office, so Adams went +over to the Western Union office, and asked the manager, +Mr. George F. Milliken, if he did not want an +operator who, like young Lochinvar, came out of the +West. "What kind of copy does he make?" was the +cautious response. "I passed Edison's letter through +the window for his inspection. Milliken read it, and +a look of surprise came over his countenance as he +asked me if he could take it off the line like that. I +said he certainly could, and that there was nobody +who could stick him. Milliken said that if he was that +kind of an operator I could send for him, and I wrote +to Edison to come on, as I had a job for him in the +main office of the Western Union." Meantime Edison +had secured his pass over the Grand Trunk Railroad, +and spent four days and nights on the journey, suffering +extremes of cold and hunger. Franklin's arrival +in Philadelphia finds its parallel in the very modest +debut of Adams's friend in Boston. + +It took only five minutes for Edison to get the +"job," for Superintendent Milliken, a fine type of +telegraph official, saw quickly through the superficialities, +and realized that it was no ordinary young +operator he was engaging. Edison himself tells the +story of what happened. "The manager asked me +when I was ready to go to work. `Now,' I replied +I was then told to return at 5.30 P.M., and punctually +at that hour I entered the main operating-room and +was introduced to the night manager. The weather +being cold, and being clothed poorly, my peculiar +appearance caused much mirth, and, as I afterward +learned, the night operators had consulted together +how they might `put up a job on the jay from the +woolly West.' I was given a pen and assigned to +the New York No. 1 wire. After waiting an hour, +I was told to come over to a special table and take a +special report for the Boston Herald, the conspirators +having arranged to have one of the fastest senders +in New York send the despatch and `salt' the new +man. I sat down unsuspiciously at the table, and +the New York man started slowly. Soon he increased +his speed, to which I easily adapted my +pace. This put my rival on his mettle, and he put +on his best powers, which, however, were soon reached. +At this point I happened to look up, and saw the +operators all looking over my shoulder, with their +faces shining with fun and excitement. I knew then +that they were trying to put up a job on me, but +kept my own counsel. The New York man then +commenced to slur over his words, running them together +and sticking the signals; but I had been used +to this style of telegraphy in taking report, and was +not in the least discomfited. Finally, when I thought +the fun had gone far enough, and having about completed +the special, I quietly opened the key and remarked, +telegraphically, to my New York friend: +`Say, young man, change off and send with your +other foot.' This broke the New York man all up, +and he turned the job over to another man to finish." + +Edison had a distaste for taking press report, due +to the fact that it was steady, continuous work, and +interfered with the studies and investigations that +could be carried on in the intervals of ordinary +commercial telegraphy. He was not lazy in any sense. +While he had no very lively interest in the mere +routine work of a telegraph office, he had the profoundest +curiosity as to the underlying principles of +electricity that made telegraphy possible, and he +had an unflagging desire and belief in his own ability +to improve the apparatus he handled daily. The +whole intellectual atmosphere of Boston was favorable +to the development of the brooding genius in +this shy, awkward, studious youth, utterly indifferent +to clothes and personal appearance, but ready to +spend his last dollar on books and scientific +paraphernalia. It is matter of record that he did once +buy a new suit for thirty dollars in Boston, but the +following Sunday, while experimenting with acids in +his little workshop, the suit was spoiled. "That is +what I get for putting so much money in a new suit," +was the laconic remark of the youth, who was more +than delighted to pick up a complete set of Faraday's +works about the same time. Adams says that when +Edison brought home these books at 4 A.M. he read +steadily until breakfast-time, and then he remarked, +enthusiastically: "Adams, I have got so much to do +and life is so short, I am going to hustle." And +thereupon he started on a run for breakfast. Edison +himself says: "It was in Boston I bought Faraday's +works. I think I must have tried about everything +in those books. His explanations were simple. He +used no mathematics. He was the Master Experimenter. +I don't think there were many copies of +Faraday's works sold in those days. The only people +who did anything in electricity were the +telegraphers and the opticians making simple school +apparatus to demonstrate the principles." One of +these firms was Palmer & Hall, whose catalogue of +1850 showed a miniature electric locomotive made +by Mr. Thomas Hall, and exhibited in operation the +following year at the Charitable Mechanics' Fair in +Boston. In 1852 Mr. Hall made for a Dr. A. L. Henderson, +of Buffalo, New York, a model line of railroad +with electric-motor engine, telegraph line, and electric +railroad signals, together with a figure operating the +signals at each end of the line automatically. This +was in reality the first example of railroad trains +moved by telegraph signals, a practice now so common +and universal as to attract no comment. To +show how little some fundamental methods can change +in fifty years, it may be noted that Hall conveyed the +current to his tiny car through forty feet of rail, +using the rail as conductor, just as Edison did more +than thirty years later in his historic experiments +for Villard at Menlo Park; and just as a large pro- +portion of American trolley systems do at this present +moment. + +It was among such practical, investigating folk as +these that Edison was very much at home. Another +notable man of this stamp, with whom Edison was +thrown in contact, was the late Mr. Charles Williams, +who, beginning his career in the electrical field in +the forties, was at the height of activity as a maker +of apparatus when Edison arrived in the city; and +who afterward, as an associate of Alexander Graham +Bell, enjoyed the distinction of being the first +manufacturer in the world of telephones. At his Court +Street workshop Edison was a frequent visitor. Telegraph +repairs and experiments were going on constantly, +especially on the early fire-alarm telegraphs[1] +of Farmer and Gamewell, and with the aid of one of the +men there--probably George Anders--Edison worked +out into an operative model his first invention, a vote- +recorder, the first Edison patent, for which papers +were executed on October 11, 1868, and which was +taken out June 1, 1869, No. 90,646. The purpose of +this particular device was to permit a vote in the +National House of Representatives to be taken in a +minute or so, complete lists being furnished of all +members voting on the two sides of any question +Mr. Edison, in recalling the circumstances, says: +"Roberts was the telegraph operator who was the +financial backer to the extent of $100. The invention +when completed was taken to Washington. I think it +was exhibited before a committee that had something +to do with the Capitol. The chairman of the committee, +after seeing how quickly and perfectly it +worked, said: `Young man, if there is any invention +on earth that we don't want down here, it is this. +One of the greatest weapons in the hands of a minority +to prevent bad legislation is filibustering on +votes, and this instrument would prevent it.' I saw +the truth of this, because as press operator I had taken +miles of Congressional proceedings, and to this day +an enormous amount of time is wasted during each +session of the House in foolishly calling the members' +names and recording and then adding their +votes, when the whole operation could be done in +almost a moment by merely pressing a particular +button at each desk. For filibustering purposes, +however, the present methods are most admirable." +Edison determined from that time forth to devote +his inventive faculties only to things for which there +was a real, genuine demand, something that subserved +the actual necessities of humanity. This first +patent was taken out for him by the late Hon. Carroll +D. Wright, afterward U. S. Commissioner of Labor, +and a well-known publicist, then practicing patent law +in Boston. He describes Edison as uncouth in manner, +a chewer rather than a smoker of tobacco, but +full of intelligence and ideas. + + +[1] The general scheme of a fire-alarm telegraph system embodies +a central office to which notice can be sent from any number of +signal boxes of the outbreak of a fire in the district covered by +the box, the central office in turn calling out the nearest fire +engines, and warning the fire department in general of the +occurrence. Such fire alarms can be exchanged automatically, or +by operators, and are sometimes associated with a large fire-alarm +bell or whistle. Some boxes can be operated by the passing public; +others need special keys. The box mechanism is usually of +the ratchet, step-by-step movement, familiar in district messenger +call-boxes. + + + +Edison's curiously practical, though imaginative, +mind demanded realities to work upon, things that +belong to "human nature's daily food," and he soon +harked back to telegraphy, a domain in which he +was destined to succeed, and over which he was to +reign supreme as an inventor. He did not, however, +neglect chemistry, but indulged his tastes in that +direction freely, although we have no record that this +work was anything more, at that time, than the +carrying out of experiments outlined in the books. +The foundations were being laid for the remarkable +chemical knowledge that later on grappled successfully +with so many knotty problems in the realm of +chemistry; notably with the incandescent lamp and +the storage battery. Of one incident in his chemical +experiments he tells the following story: "I had read +in a scientific paper the method of making nitroglycerine, +and was so fired by the wonderful properties +it was said to possess, that I determined to make +some of the compound. We tested what we considered +a very small quantity, but this produced such +terrible and unexpected results that we became +alarmed, the fact dawning upon us that we had a very +large white elephant in our possession. At 6 A.M. I +put the explosive into a sarsaparilla bottle, tied a +string to it, wrapped it in a paper, and gently let it +down into the sewer, corner of State and Washington +Streets." The associate in this was a man whom he +had found endeavoring to make electrical apparatus +for sleight-of-hand performances. + +In the Boston telegraph office at that time, as perhaps +at others, there were operators studying to en- +ter college; possibly some were already in attendance +at Harvard University. This condition was not unusual +at one time; the first electrical engineer graduated +from Columbia University, New York, followed +up his studies while a night operator, and came out +brilliantly at the head of his class. Edison says of +these scholars that they paraded their knowledge +rather freely, and that it was his delight to go to the +second-hand book stores on Cornhill and study up +questions which he could spring upon them when he +got an occasion. With those engaged on night duty +he got midnight lunch from an old Irishman called +"the Cake Man," who appeared regularly with his +wares at 12 midnight. "The office was on the +ground floor, and had been a restaurant previous to +its occupation by the Western Union Telegraph +Company. It was literally loaded with cockroaches, +which lived between the wall and the board running +around the room at the floor, and which came after +the lunch. These were such a bother on my table that +I pasted two strips of tinfoil on the wall at my desk, +connecting one piece to the positive pole of the big +battery supplying current to the wires and the negative +pole to the other strip. The cockroaches moving +up on the wall would pass over the strips. The moment +they got their legs across both strips there was +a flash of light and the cockroaches went into gas. +This automatic electrocuting device attracted so much +attention, and got half a column in an evening paper, +that the manager made me stop it." The reader will +remember that a similar plan of campaign against +rats was carried out by Edison while in the West. + +About this time Edison had a narrow escape from +injury that might easily have shortened his career, +and he seems to have provoked the trouble more or +less innocently by using a little elementary chemistry. +"After being in Boston several months," he says, +"working New York wire No. 1, I was requested to +work the press wire, called the `milk route,' as there +were so many towns on it taking press simultaneously. +New York office had reported great delays on the +wire, due to operators constantly interrupting, or +`breaking,' as it was called, to have words repeated +which they had failed to get; and New York claimed +that Boston was one of the worst offenders. It was +a rather hard position for me, for if I took the report +without breaking, it would prove the previous Boston +operator incompetent. The results made the +operator have some hard feelings against me. He +was put back on the wire, and did much better after +that. It seems that the office boy was down on this +man. One night he asked me if I could tell him how +to fix a key so that it would not `break,' even if the +circuit-breaker was open, and also so that it could not +be easily detected. I told him to jab a penful of +ink on the platinum points, as there was sugar enough +to make it sufficiently thick to hold up when the +operator tried to break--the current still going through +the ink so that he could not break. + +"The next night about 1 A.M. this operator, on the +press wire, while I was standing near a House printer +studying it, pulled out a glass insulator, then used +upside down as a substitute for an ink-bottle, and +threw it with great violence at me, just missing my +head. It would certainly have killed me if it had +not missed. The cause of the trouble was that this +operator was doing the best he could not to break, +but being compelled to, opened his key and found he +couldn't. The press matter came right along, and +he could not stop it. The office boy had put the ink +in a few minutes before, when the operator had +turned his head during a lull. He blamed me instinctively +as the cause of the trouble. Later on we +became good friends. He took his meals at the same +emaciator that I did. His main object in life seemed +to be acquiring the art of throwing up wash-pitchers +and catching them without breaking them. About +one-third of his salary was used up in paying for +pitchers." + +One day a request reached the Western Union +Telegraph office in Boston, from the principal of a +select school for young ladies, to the effect that she +would like some one to be sent up to the school to +exhibit and describe the Morse telegraph to her +"children." There has always been a warm interest +in Boston in the life and work of Morse, who was born +there, at Charlestown, barely a mile from the birthplace +of Franklin, and this request for a little lecture +on Morse's telegraph was quite natural. Edison, who +was always ready to earn some extra money for his +experiments, and was already known as the best- +informed operator in the office, accepted the +invitation. What happened is described by Adams as +follows: "We gathered up a couple of sounders, a +battery, and sonic wire, and at the appointed time +called on her to do the stunt. Her school-room was +about twenty by twenty feet, not including a small +platform. We rigged up the line between the two +ends of the room, Edison taking the stage while I +was at the other end of the room. All being in +readiness, the principal was told to bring in her +children. The door opened and in came about twenty +young ladies elegantly gowned, not one of whom was +under seventeen. When Edison saw them I thought +he would faint. He called me on the line and asked +me to come to the stage and explain the mysteries of +the Morse system. I replied that I thought he was in +the right place, and told him to get busy with his talk +on dots and dashes. Always modest, Edison was so +overcome he could hardly speak, but he managed +to say, finally, that as his friend Mr. Adams was +better equipped with cheek than he was, we would +change places, and he would do the demonstrating +while I explained the whole thing. This caused the +bevy to turn to see where the lecturer was. I went +on the stage, said something, and we did some +telegraphing over the line. I guess it was satisfactory; +we got the money, which was the main point to us." +Edison tells the story in a similar manner, but insists +that it was he who saved the situation. "I managed +to say that I would work the apparatus, and Mr. +Adams would make the explanations. Adams was so +embarrassed that he fell over an ottoman. The girls +tittered, and this increased his embarrassment until he +couldn't say a word. The situation was so desperate +that for a reason I never could explain I started in +myself and talked and explained better than I ever did +before or since. I can talk to two or three persons; +but when there are more they radiate some unknown +form of influence which paralyzes my vocal cords. +However, I got out of this scrape, and many times +afterward when I chanced with other operators to meet +some of the young ladies on their way home from +school, they would smile and nod, much to the +mystification of the operators, who were ignorant of +this episode." + +Another amusing story of this period of impecuniosity +and financial strain is told thus by Edison: "My +friend Adams was working in the Franklin Telegraph +Company, which competed with the Western Union. +Adams was laid off, and as his financial resources had +reached absolute zero centigrade, I undertook to let +him sleep in my hall bedroom. I generally had hall +bedrooms, because they were cheap and I needed +money to buy apparatus. I also had the pleasure of +his genial company at the boarding-house about a +mile distant, but at the sacrifice of some apparatus. +One morning, as we were hastening to breakfast, we +came into Tremont Row, and saw a large crowd in +front of two small `gents' furnishing goods stores. +We stopped to ascertain the cause of the excitement. +One store put up a paper sign in the display window +which said: `Three-hundred pairs of stockings received +this day, five cents a pair--no connection with the +store next door.' Presently the other store put up +a sign stating they had received three hundred pairs, +price three cents per pair, and stated that they had +no connection with the store next door. Nobody +went in. The crowd kept increasing. Finally, when +the price had reached three pairs for one cent, Adams +said to me: `I can't stand this any longer; give me +a cent.' I gave him a nickel, and he elbowed his way +in; and throwing the money on the counter, the +store being filled with women clerks, he said: `Give +me three pairs.' The crowd was breathless, and the +girl took down a box and drew out three pairs of +baby socks. `Oh!' said Adams, `I want men's size.' +`Well, sir, we do not permit one to pick sizes for that +amount of money.' And the crowd roared; and this +broke up the sales." + +It has generally been supposed that Edison did not +take up work on the stock ticker until after his arrival +a little later in New York; but he says: "After the +vote-recorder I invented a stock ticker, and started +a ticker service in Boston; had thirty or forty +subscribers, and operated from a room over the Gold +Exchange. This was about a year after Callahan +started in New York." To say the least, this evidenced +great ability and enterprise on the part of +the youth. The dealings in gold during the Civil +War and after its close had brought gold indicators +into use, and these had soon been followed by "stock +tickers," the first of which was introduced in New +York in 1867. The success of this new but still +primitively crude class of apparatus was immediate. +Four manufacturers were soon busy trying to keep +pace with the demands for it from brokers; and the +Gold & Stock Telegraph Company formed to exploit +the system soon increased its capital from $200,000 +to $300,000, paying 12 per cent. dividends on the +latter amount. Within its first year the capital was +again increased to $1,000,000, and dividends of 10 +per cent. were paid easily on that sum also. It is +needless to say that such facts became quickly known +among the operators, from whose ranks, of course, +the new employees were enlisted; and it was a common +ambition among the more ingenious to produce +a new ticker. From the beginning, each phase of +electrical development--indeed, each step in +mechanics--has been accompanied by the well-known +phenomenon of invention; namely, the attempt of the +many to perfect and refine and even re-invent where +one or two daring spirits have led the way. The +figures of capitalization and profit just mentioned +were relatively much larger in the sixties than they +are to-day; and to impressionable young operators +they spelled illimitable wealth. Edison was, how +ever, about the only one in Boston of whom history +makes record as achieving any tangible result in this +new art; and he soon longed for the larger telegraphic +opportunity of New York. His friend, Milt Adams, +went West with quenchless zest for that kind of roving +life and aimless adventure of which the serious +minded Edison had already had more than enough. +Realizing that to New York he must look for further +support in his efforts, Edison, deep in debt for his +embryonic inventions, but with high hope and +courage, now made the next momentous step in his +career. He was far riper in experience and practice +of his art than any other telegrapher of his age, and +had acquired, moreover, no little knowledge of the +practical business of life. Note has been made above +of his invention of a stock ticker in Boston, and of +his establishing a stock-quotation circuit. This was +by no means all, and as a fitting close to this chapter +he may be quoted as to some other work and its perils +in experimentation: "I also engaged in putting up +private lines, upon which I used an alphabetical dial +instrument for telegraphing between business +establishments, a forerunner of modern telephony. This +instrument was very simple and practical, and any +one could work it after a few minutes' explanation. +I had these instruments made at Mr. Hamblet's, who +had a little shop where he was engaged in experimenting +with electric clocks. Mr. Hamblet was the +father and introducer in after years of the Western +Union Telegraph system of time distribution. My +laboratory was the headquarters for the men, and +also of tools and supplies for those private lines. +They were put up cheaply, as I used the roofs of +houses, just as the Western Union did. It never +occurred to me to ask permission from the owners; +all we did was to go to the store, etc., say we were +telegraph men, and wanted to go up to the wires on +the roof; and permission was always granted. + +"In this laboratory I had a large induction coil +which I had borrowed to make some experiments with. +One day I got hold of both electrodes of the coil, and +it clinched my hand on them so that I couldn't let +go. The battery was on a shelf. The only way I +could get free was to back off and pull the coil, so +that the battery wires would pull the cells off the shelf +and thus break the circuit. I shut my eyes and +pulled, but the nitric acid splashed all over my face +and ran down my back. I rushed to a sink, which +was only half big enough, and got in as well as I could +and wiggled around for several minutes to permit +the water to dilute the acid and stop the pain. My +face and back were streaked with yellow; the skin +was thoroughly oxidized. I did not go on the street +by daylight for two weeks, as the appearance of my +face was dreadful. The skin, however, peeled off, +and new skin replaced it without any damage." + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE STOCK TICKER + + +"THE letters and figures used in the language of +the tape," said a well-known Boston stock +speculator, "are very few, but they spell ruin in +ninety-nine million ways." It is not to be inferred, +however, that the modern stock ticker has anything +to do with the making or losing of fortunes. There +were regular daily stock-market reports in London +newspapers in 1825, and New York soon followed the +example. As far back as 1692, Houghton issued in +London a weekly review of financial and commercial +transactions, upon which Macaulay based the lively +narrative of stock speculation in the seventeenth +century, given in his famous history. That which +the ubiquitous stock ticker has done is to give +instantaneity to the news of what the stock market is +doing, so that at every minute, thousands of miles +apart, brokers, investors, and gamblers may learn +the exact conditions. The existence of such facilities +is to be admired rather than deplored. News is vital +to Wall Street, and there is no living man on whom +the doings in Wall Street are without effect. The +financial history of the United States and of the world, +as shown by the prices of government bonds and +general securities, has been told daily for forty years +on these narrow strips of paper tape, of which thousands +of miles are run yearly through the "tickers" +of New York alone. It is true that the record of the +chattering little machine, made in cabalistic abbreviations +on the tape, can drive a man suddenly to the +very verge of insanity with joy or despair; but if +there be blame for that, it attaches to the American +spirit of speculation and not to the ingenious mechanism +which reads and registers the beating of the +financial pulse. + +Edison came first to New York in 1868, with his +early stock printer, which he tried unsuccessfully to +sell. He went back to Boston, and quite undismayed +got up a duplex telegraph. "Toward the end +of my stay in Boston," he says, "I obtained a loan +of money, amounting to $800, to build a peculiar +kind of duplex telegraph for sending two messages +over a single wire simultaneously. The apparatus +was built, and I left the Western Union employ and +went to Rochester, New York, to test the apparatus +on the lines of the Atlantic & Pacific Telegraph between +that city and New York. But the assistant at +the other end could not be made to understand anything, +notwithstanding I had written out a very +minute description of just what to do. After trying +for a week I gave it up and returned to New York +with but a few cents in my pocket." Thus he who +has never speculated in a stock in his life was destined +to make the beginnings of his own fortune by providing +for others the apparatus that should bring to the +eye, all over a great city, the momentary fluctuations +of stocks and bonds. No one could have been in +direr poverty than he when the steamboat landed +him in New York in 1869. He was in debt, and his +few belongings in books and instruments had to be +left behind. He was not far from starving. Mr. +W. S. Mallory, an associate of many years, quotes +directly from him on this point: "Some years ago +we had a business negotiation in New York which +made it necessary for Mr. Edison and me to visit the +city five or six times within a comparatively short +period. It was our custom to leave Orange about +11 A.M., and on arrival in New York to get our lunch +before keeping the appointments, which were usually +made for two o'clock. Several of these lunches were +had at Delmonico's, Sherry's, and other places of +similar character, but one day, while en route, Mr. +Edison said: `I have been to lunch with you several +times; now to-day I am going to take you to lunch +with me, and give you the finest lunch you ever had.' +When we arrived in Hoboken, we took the downtown +ferry across the Hudson, and when we arrived +on the Manhattan side Mr. Edison led the way to +Smith & McNell's, opposite Washington Market, and +well known to old New Yorkers. We went inside and +as soon as the waiter appeared Mr. Edison ordered +apple dumplings and a cup of coffee for himself. He +consumed his share of the lunch with the greatest +possible pleasure. Then, as soon as he had finished, +he went to the cigar counter and purchased cigars. +As we walked to keep the appointment he gave me +the following reminiscence: When he left Boston and +decided to come to New York he had only money +enough for the trip. After leaving the boat his first +thought was of breakfast; but he was without money +to obtain it. However, in passing a wholesale tea- +house he saw a man tasting tea, so he went in and +asked the `taster' if he might have some of the tea. +This the man gave him, and thus he obtained his first +breakfast in New York. He knew a telegraph operator +here, and on him he depended for a loan to tide +him over until such time as he should secure a position. +During the day he succeeded in locating this operator, +but found that he also was out of a job, and that the +best he could do was to loan him one dollar, which +he did. This small sum of money represented both +food and lodging until such time as work could be +obtained. Edison said that as the result of the time +consumed and the exercise in walking while he found +his friend, he was extremely hungry, and that he gave +most serious consideration as to what he should buy +in the way of food, and what particular kind of food +would be most satisfying and filling. The result was +that at Smith & McNell's he decided on apple dumplings +and a cup of coffee, than which he never ate anything +more appetizing. It was not long before he +was at work and was able to live in a normal manner." + +During the Civil War, with its enormous increase +in the national debt and the volume of paper money, +gold had gone to a high premium; and, as ever, by its +fluctuations in price the value of all other commodities +was determined. This led to the creation of a +"Gold Room" in Wall Street, where the precious +metal could be dealt in; while for dealings in stocks +there also existed the "Regular Board," the "Open +Board," and the "Long Room." Devoted to one, +but the leading object of speculation, the "Gold +Room" was the very focus of all the financial and +gambling activity of the time, and its quotations +governed trade and commerce. At first notations in +chalk on a blackboard sufficed, but seeing their +inadequacy, Dr. S. S. Laws, vice-president and actual +presiding officer of the Gold Exchange, devised and +introduced what was popularly known as the "gold +indicator." This exhibited merely the prevailing +price of gold; but as its quotations changed from +instant to instant, it was in a most literal sense "the +cynosure of neighboring eyes." One indicator looked +upon the Gold Room; the other opened toward the +street. Within the exchange the face could easily be +seen high up on the west wall of the room, and the +machine was operated by Mr. Mersereau, the official +registrar of the Gold Board. + +Doctor Laws, who afterward became President of +the State University of Missouri, was an inventor of +unusual ability and attainments. In his early youth +he had earned his livelihood in a tool factory; and, +apparently with his savings, he went to Princeton, +where he studied electricity under no less a teacher +than the famous Joseph Henry. At the outbreak of +the war in 1861 he was president of one of the +Presbyterian synodical colleges in the South, whose +buildings passed into the hands of the Government. +Going to Europe, he returned to New York in 1863, +and, becoming interested with a relative in financial +matters, his connection with the Gold Exchange soon +followed, when it was organized. The indicating +mechanism he now devised was electrical, controlled +at central by two circuit-closing keys, and was a +prototype of all the later and modern step-by-step printing +telegraphs, upon which the distribution of financial +news depends. The "fraction" drum of the indicator +could be driven in either direction, known as +the advance and retrograde movements, and was +divided and marked in eighths. It geared into a +"unit" drum, just as do speed-indicators and +cyclometers. Four electrical pulsations were required to +move the drum the distance between the fractions. +The general operation was simple, and in normally +active times the mechanism and the registrar were +equal to all emergencies. But it is obvious that the +record had to be carried away to the brokers' offices +and other places by messengers; and the delay, +confusion, and mistakes soon suggested to Doctor Laws +the desirability of having a number of indicators at +such scattered points, operated by a master transmitter, +and dispensing with the regiments of noisy +boys. He secured this privilege of distribution, and, +resigning from the exchange, devoted his exclusive +attention to the "Gold Reporting Telegraph," which +he patented, and for which, at the end of 1866, he +had secured fifty subscribers. His indicators were +small oblong boxes, in the front of which was a long +slot, allowing the dials as they travelled past, inside, +to show the numerals constituting the quotation; +the dials or wheels being arranged in a row +horizontally, overlapping each other, as in modern fare +registers which are now seen on most trolley cars. +It was not long before there were three hundred +subscribers; but the very success of this device brought +competition and improvement. Mr. E. A. Callahan, +an ingenious printing-telegraph operator, saw that +there were unexhausted possibilities in the idea, and +his foresight and inventiveness made him the father +of the "ticker," in connection with which he was +thus, like Laws, one of the first to grasp and exploit +the underlying principle of the "central station" as +a universal source of supply. The genesis of his +invention Mr. Callahan has told in an interesting way: +"In 1867, on the site of the present Mills Building on +Broad Street, opposite the Stock Exchange of today, +was an old building which had been cut up to +subserve the necessities of its occupants, all engaged +in dealing in gold and stocks. It had one main entrance +from the street to a hallway, from which entrance +to the offices of two prominent broker firms +was obtained. Each firm had its own army of boys, +numbering from twelve to fifteen, whose duties were +to ascertain the latest quotations from the different +exchanges. Each boy devoted his attention to some +particularly active stock. Pushing each other to +get into these narrow quarters, yelling out the prices +at the door, and pushing back for later ones, the +hustle made this doorway to me a most undesirable +refuge from an April shower. I was simply whirled +into the street. I naturally thought that much of +this noise and confusion might be dispensed with, and +that the prices might be furnished through some +system of telegraphy which would not require the +employment of skilled operators. The conception of +the stock ticker dates from this incident." + +Mr. Callahan's first idea was to distribute gold +quotations, and to this end he devised an "indicator." +It consisted of two dials mounted separately, each +revolved by an electromagnet, so that the desired +figures were brought to an aperture in the case +enclosing the apparatus, as in the Laws system. Each +shaft with its dial was provided with two ratchet +wheels, one the reverse of the other. One was used in +connection with the propelling lever, which was provided +with a pawl to fit into the teeth of the reversed +ratchet wheel on its forward movement. It was thus +made impossible for either dial to go by momentum +beyond its limit. Learning that Doctor Laws, with +the skilful aid of F. L. Pope, was already active in the +same direction, Mr. Callahan, with ready wit, transformed +his indicator into a "ticker" that would make +a printed record. The name of the "ticker" came +through the casual remark of an observer to whom +the noise was the most striking feature of the +mechanism. Mr. Callahan removed the two dials, and, +substituting type wheels, turned the movements face +to face, so that each type wheel could imprint its +characters upon a paper tape in two lines. Three +wires stranded together ran from the central office +to each instrument. Of these one furnished the current +for the alphabet wheel, one for the figure wheel, +and one for the mechanism that took care of the +inking and printing on the tape. Callahan made the +further innovation of insulating his circuit wires, +although the cost was then forty times as great as +that of bare wire. It will be understood that +electromagnets were the ticker's actuating agency. The +ticker apparatus was placed under a neat glass shade +and mounted on a shelf. Twenty-five instruments +were energized from one circuit, and the quotations +were supplied from a "central" at 18 New Street. +The Gold & Stock Telegraph Company was promptly +organized to supply to brokers the system, which +was very rapidly adopted throughout the financial +district of New York, at the southern tip of Manhattan +Island. Quotations were transmitted by the +Morse telegraph from the floor of the Stock Exchange +to the "central," and thence distributed to the +subscribers. Success with the "stock" news system was +instantaneous. + +It was at this juncture that Edison reached New +York, and according to his own statement found +shelter at night in the battery-room of the Gold +Indicator Company, having meantime applied for a +position as operator with the Western Union. He +had to wait a few days, and during this time he seized +the opportunity to study the indicators and the complicated +general transmitter in the office, controlled +from the keyboard of the operator on the floor of the +Gold Exchange. What happened next has been the +basis of many inaccurate stories, but is dramatic +enough as told in Mr. Edison's own version: "On the +third day of my arrival and while sitting in the office, +the complicated general instrument for sending on all +the lines, and which made a very great noise, suddenly +came to a stop with a crash. Within two minutes +over three hundred boys--a boy from every broker +in the street--rushed up-stairs and crowded the long +aisle and office, that hardly had room for one hundred, +all yelling that such and such a broker's wire was out +of order and to fix it at once. It was pandemonium, +and the man in charge became so excited that he lost +control of all the knowledge he ever had. I went to +the indicator, and, having studied it thoroughly, knew +where the trouble ought to be, and found it. One of +the innumerable contact springs had broken off and +had fallen down between the two gear wheels and +stopped the instrument; but it was not very noticeable. +As I went out to tell the man in charge what +the matter was, Doctor Laws appeared on the scene, +the most excited person I had seen. He demanded +of the man the cause of the trouble, but the man was +speechless. I ventured to say that I knew what the +trouble was, and he said, `Fix it! Fix it! Be quick!' +I removed the spring and set the contact wheels at +zero; and the line, battery, and inspecting men all +scattered through the financial district to set the +instruments. In about two hours things were working +again. Doctor Laws came in to ask my name and +what I was doing. I told him, and he asked me to +come to his private office the following day. His +office was filled with stacks of books all relating to +metaphysics and kindred matters. He asked me a +great many questions about the instruments and his +system, and I showed him how he could simplify +things generally. He then requested that I should +call next day. On arrival, he stated at once that +he had decided to put me in charge of the whole +plant, and that my salary would be $300 per month! +This was such a violent jump from anything I had +ever seen before, that it rather paralyzed me for a +while, I thought it was too much to be lasting, but +I determined to try and live up to that salary if +twenty hours a day of hard work would do it. I +kept this position, made many improvements, devised +several stock tickers, until the Gold & Stock +Telegraph Company consolidated with the Gold Indicator +Company." Certainly few changes in fortune +have been more sudden and dramatic in any +notable career than this which thus placed an ill- +clad, unkempt, half-starved, eager lad in a position +of such responsibility in days when the fluctuations +in the price of gold at every instant meant fortune or +ruin to thousands. + +Edison, barely twenty-one years old, was a keen +observer of the stirring events around him. "Wall +Street" is at any time an interesting study, but it +was never at a more agitated and sensational period +of its history than at this time. Edison's arrival in +New York coincided with an active speculation in +gold which may, indeed, be said to have provided him +with occupation; and was soon followed by the attempt +of Mr. Jay Gould and his associates to corner +the gold market, precipitating the panic of Black +Friday, September 24, 1869. Securing its import +duties in the precious metal and thus assisting to +create an artificial stringency in the gold market, the +Government had made it a practice to relieve the +situation by selling a million of gold each month. +The metal was thus restored to circulation. In some +manner, President Grant was persuaded that general +conditions and the movement of the crops would be +helped if the sale of gold were suspended for a time; +and, this put into effect, he went to visit an old +friend in Pennsylvania remote from railroads and +telegraphs. The Gould pool had acquired control of +$10,000,000 in gold, and drove the price upward +rapidly from 144 toward their goal of 200. On Black +Friday they purchased another $28,000,000 at 160, +and still the price went up. The financial and +commercial interests of the country were in panic; but +the pool persevered in its effort to corner gold, with +a profit of many millions contingent on success. +Yielding to frantic requests, President Grant, who +returned to Washington, caused Secretary Boutwell, +of the Treasury, to throw $4,000,000 of gold into the +market. Relief was instantaneous, the corner was +broken, but the harm had been done. Edison's remarks +shed a vivid side-light on this extraordinary +episode: "On Black Friday," he says, "we had a +very exciting time with the indicators. The Gould +and Fisk crowd had cornered gold, and had run the +quotations up faster than the indicator could follow. +The indicator was composed of several wheels; on +the circumference of each wheel were the numerals; +and one wheel had fractions. It worked in the same +way as an ordinary counter; one wheel made ten +revolutions, and at the tenth it advanced the adjacent +wheel; and this in its turn having gone ten revolutions, +advanced the next wheel, and so on. On the +morning of Black Friday the indicator was quoting +150 premium, whereas the bids by Gould's agents in +the Gold Room were 165 for five millions or any part. +We had a paper-weight at the transmitter (to speed +it up), and by one o'clock reached the right quotation. +The excitement was prodigious. New Street, +as well as Broad Street, was jammed with excited +people. I sat on the top of the Western Union telegraph +booth to watch the surging, crazy crowd. One +man came to the booth, grabbed a pencil, and +attempted to write a message to Boston. The first +stroke went clear off the blank; he was so excited that +he had the operator write the message for him. Amid +great excitement Speyer, the banker, went crazy and +it took five men to hold him; and everybody lost their +head. The Western Union operator came to me and +said: `Shake, Edison, we are O. K. We haven't got +a cent.' I felt very happy because we were poor. +These occasions are very enjoyable to a poor man; +but they occur rarely." + +There is a calm sense of detachment about this +description that has been possessed by the narrator +even in the most anxious moments of his career. He +was determined to see all that could be seen, and, +quitting his perch on the telegraph booth, sought the +more secluded headquarters of the pool forces. "A +friend of mine was an operator who worked in the +office of Belden & Company, 60 Broadway, which +were headquarters for Fisk. Mr. Gould was up-town +in the Erie offices in the Grand Opera House. The firm +on Broad Street, Smith, Gould & Martin, was the other +branch. All were connected with wires. Gould seemed +to be in charge, Fisk being the executive down-town. +Fisk wore a velvet corduroy coat and a very peculiar +vest. He was very chipper, and seemed to be light- +hearted and happy. Sitting around the room were +about a dozen fine-looking men. All had the complexion +of cadavers. There was a basket of cham- +pagne. Hundreds of boys were rushing in paying +checks, all checks being payable to Belden & Company. +When James Brown, of Brown Brothers & +Company, broke the corner by selling five million +gold, all payments were repudiated by Smith, Gould +& Martin; but they continued to receive checks at +Belden & Company's for some time, until the Street +got wind of the game. There was some kind of conspiracy +with the Government people which I could +not make out, but I heard messages that opened my +eyes as to the ramifications of Wall Street. Gold fell +to 132, and it took us all night to get the indicator +back to that quotation. All night long the streets +were full of people. Every broker's office was brilliantly +lighted all night, and all hands were at work. +The clearing-house for gold had been swamped, and +all was mixed up. No one knew if he was bankrupt +or not." + +Edison in those days rather liked the modest coffee- +shops, and mentions visiting one. "When on the +New York No. 1 wire, that I worked in Boston, there +was an operator named Jerry Borst at the other end. +He was a first-class receiver and rapid sender. We +made up a scheme to hold this wire, so he changed +one letter of the alphabet and I soon got used to it; +and finally we changed three letters. If any operator +tried to receive from Borst, he couldn't do it, so Borst +and I always worked together. Borst did less talking +than any operator I ever knew. Never having seen +him, I went while in New York to call upon him. I +did all the talking. He would listen, stroke his +beard, and say nothing. In the evening I went over +to an all-night lunch-house in Printing House Square +in a basement--Oliver's. Night editors, including +Horace Greeley, and Henry Raymond, of the New +York Times, took their midnight lunch there. When +I went with Borst and another operator, they pointed +out two or three men who were then celebrated in the +newspaper world. The night was intensely hot and +close. After getting our lunch and upon reaching the +sidewalk, Borst opened his mouth, and said: `That's +a great place; a plate of cakes, a cup of coffee, and +a Russian bath, for ten cents.' This was about fifty +per cent. of his conversation for two days." + +The work of Edison on the gold-indicator had +thrown him into close relationship with Mr. Franklin +L. Pope, the young telegraph engineer then associated +with Doctor Laws, and afterward a distinguished +expert and technical writer, who became +President of the American Institute of Electrical +Engineers in 1886. Each recognized the special ability +of the other, and barely a week after the famous +events of Black Friday the announcement of their +partnership appeared in the Telegrapher of October +1, 1869. This was the first "professional card," if +it may be so described, ever issued in America by a +firm of electrical engineers, and is here reproduced. +It is probable that the advertisement, one of the largest +in the Telegrapher, and appearing frequently, was +not paid for at full rates, as the publisher, Mr. J. N. +Ashley, became a partner in the firm, and not altogether +a "sleeping one" when it came to a division +of profits, which at times were considerable. In +order to be nearer his new friend Edison boarded with +Pope at Elizabeth, New Jersey, for some time, living +"the strenuous life" in the performance of his duties. +Associated with Pope and Ashley, he followed up his +work on telegraph printers with marked success. +"While with them I devised a printer to print gold +quotations instead of indicating them. The lines were +started, and the whole was sold out to the Gold & +Stock Telegraph Company. My experimenting was +all done in the small shop of a Doctor Bradley, +located near the station of the Pennsylvania Railroad +in Jersey City. Every night I left for Elizabeth on +the 1 A.M. train, then walked half a mile to Mr. Pope's +house and up at 6 A.M. for breakfast to catch the +7 A.M. train. This continued all winter, and many +were the occasions when I was nearly frozen in the +Elizabeth walk." This Doctor Bradley appears to +have been the first in this country to make electrical +measurements of precision with the galvanometer, +but was an old-school experimenter who would work +for years on an instrument without commercial value. +He was also extremely irascible, and when on one +occasion the connecting wire would not come out of +one of the binding posts of a new and costly galvanometer, +he jerked the instrument to the floor and then +jumped on it. He must have been, however, a man +of originality, as evidenced by his attempt to age +whiskey by electricity, an attempt that has often +since been made. "The hobby he had at the time +I was there," says Edison, "was the aging of raw +whiskey by passing strong electric currents through +it. He had arranged twenty jars with platinum +electrodes held in place by hard rubber. When all +was ready, he filled the cells with whiskey, connected +the battery, locked the door of the small room in +which they were placed, and gave positive orders +that no one should enter. He then disappeared for +three days. On the second day we noticed a terrible +smell in the shop, as if from some dead animal. The +next day the doctor arrived and, noticing the smell, +asked what was dead. We all thought something +had got into his whiskey-room and died. He opened +it and was nearly overcome. The hard rubber he +used was, of course, full of sulphur, and this being +attacked by the nascent hydrogen, had produced +sulphuretted hydrogen gas in torrents, displacing all +of the air in the room. Sulphuretted hydrogen is, +as is well known, the gas given off by rotten eggs." + +Another glimpse of this period of development is +afforded by an interesting article on the stock-reporting +telegraph in the Electrical World of March 4, 1899, +by Mr. Ralph W. Pope, the well-known Secretary of +the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, who +had as a youth an active and intimate connection +with that branch of electrical industry. In the course +of his article he mentions the curious fact that Doctor +Laws at first, in receiving quotations from the Exchanges, +was so distrustful of the Morse system that +he installed long lines of speaking-tube as a more +satisfactory and safe device than a telegraph wire. +As to the relations of that time Mr. Pope remarks: +"The rivalry between the two concerns resulted in +consolidation, Doctor Laws's enterprise being +absorbed by the Gold & Stock Telegraph Company, +while the Laws stock printer was relegated to the +scrap-heap and the museum. Competition in the +field did not, however, cease. Messrs. Pope and +Edison invented a one-wire printer, and started a +system of `gold printers' devoted to the recording +of gold quotations and sterling exchange only. It +was intended more especially for importers and +exchange brokers, and was furnished at a lower price +than the indicator service.... The building and +equipment of private telegraph lines was also entered +upon. This business was also subsequently absorbed +by the Gold & Stock Telegraph Company, which was +probably at this time at the height of its prosperity. +The financial organization of the company was peculiar +and worthy of attention. Each subscriber for +a machine paid in $100 for the privilege of securing +an instrument. For the service he paid $25 weekly. +In case he retired or failed, he could transfer his +`right,' and employees were constantly on the alert +for purchasable rights, which could be disposed of +at a profit. It was occasionally worth the profit to +convince a man that he did not actually own the +machine which had been placed in his office.... The +Western Union Telegraph Company secured a majority +of its stock, and Gen. Marshall Lefferts was +elected president. A private-line department was +established, and the business taken over from Pope, +Edison, and Ashley was rapidly enlarged." + +At this juncture General Lefferts, as President of +the Gold & Stock Telegraph Company, requested +Edison to go to work on improving the stock ticker, +furnishing the money; and the well-known "Universal" +ticker, in wide-spread use in its day, was one +result. Mr. Edison gives a graphic picture of the +startling effect on his fortunes: "I made a great many +inventions; one was the special ticker used for many +years outside of New York in the large cities. This +was made exceedingly simple, as they did not have +the experts we had in New York to handle anything +complicated. The same ticker was used on the London +Stock Exchange. After I had made a great number +of inventions and obtained patents, the General +seemed anxious that the matter should be closed up. +One day I exhibited and worked a successful device +whereby if a ticker should get out of unison in a +broker's office and commence to print wild figures, +it could be brought to unison from the central station, +which saved the labor of many men and much trouble +to the broker. He called me into his office, and said: +`Now, young man, I want to close up the matter of +your inventions. How much do you think you should +receive?' I had made up my mind that, taking into +consideration the time and killing pace I was working +at, I should be entitled to $5000, but could get along +with $3000. When the psychological moment arrived, +I hadn't the nerve to name such a large sum, +so I said: `Well, General, suppose you make me an +offer.' Then he said: `How would $40,000 strike +you?' This caused me to come as near fainting as I +ever got. I was afraid he would hear my heart beat. +I managed to say that I thought it was fair. `All +right, I will have a contract drawn; come around in +three days and sign it, and I will give you the money.' +I arrived on time, but had been doing some considerable +thinking on the subject. The sum seemed to +be very large for the amount of work, for at that time +I determined the value by the time and trouble, and +not by what the invention was worth to others. I +thought there was something unreal about it. However, +the contract was handed to me. I signed without +reading it." Edison was then handed the first +check he had ever received, one for $40,000 drawn +on the Bank of New York, at the corner of William +and Wall Streets. On going to the bank and passing +in the check at the wicket of the paying teller, some +brief remarks were made to him, which in his deafness +he did not understand. The check was handed +back to him, and Edison, fancying for a moment that +in some way he had been cheated, went outside "to +the large steps to let the cold sweat evaporate." He +then went back to the General, who, with his secretary, +had a good laugh over the matter, told him the check +must be endorsed, and sent with him a young man +to identify him. The ceremony of identification +performed with the paying teller, who was quite merry +over the incident, Edison was given the amount in +bundles of small bills "until there certainly seemed +to be one cubic foot." Unaware that he was the victim +of a practical joke, Edison proceeded gravely to +stow away the money in his overcoat pockets and all +his other pockets. He then went to Newark and sat +up all night with the money for fear it might be +stolen. Once more he sought help next morning, +when the General laughed heartily, and, telling the +clerk that the joke must not be carried any further, +enabled him to deposit the currency in the bank and +open an account. + +Thus in an inconceivably brief time had Edison +passed from poverty to independence; made a deep +impression as to his originality and ability on +important people, and brought out valuable inventions; +lifting himself at one bound out of the ruck of +mediocrity, and away from the deadening drudgery of the +key. Best of all he was enterprising, one of the +leaders and pioneers for whom the world is always +looking; and, to use his own criticism of himself, he +had "too sanguine a temperament to keep money +in solitary confinement." With quiet self-possession +he seized his opportunity, began to buy machinery, +rented a shop and got work for it. Moving quickly +into a larger shop, Nos. 10 and 12 Ward Street, +Newark, New Jersey, he secured large orders from +General Lefferts to build stock tickers, and employed +fifty men. As business increased he put on a night +force, and was his own foreman on both shifts. Half +an hour of sleep three or four times in the twenty- +four hours was all he needed in those days, when one +invention succeeded another with dazzling rapidity, +and when he worked with the fierce, eruptive energy +of a great volcano, throwing out new ideas incessantly +with spectacular effect on the arts to which they +related. It has always been a theory with Edison that +we sleep altogether too much; but on the other hand +he never, until long past fifty, knew or practiced the +slightest moderation in work or in the use of strong +coffee and black cigars. He has, moreover, while +of tender and kindly disposition, never hesitated to +use men up as freely as a Napoleon or Grant; seeing +only the goal of a complete invention or perfected de- +vice, to attain which all else must become subsidiary. +He gives a graphic picture of his first methods as a +manufacturer: "Nearly all my men were on piece +work, and I allowed them to make good wages, and +never cut until the pay became absurdly high as they +got more expert. I kept no books. I had two hooks. +All the bills and accounts I owed I jabbed on one +hook; and memoranda of all owed to myself I put +on the other. When some of the bills fell due, and +I couldn't deliver tickers to get a supply of money, I +gave a note. When the notes were due, a messenger +came around from the bank with the note and a +protest pinned to it for $1.25. Then I would go to +New York and get an advance, or pay the note if I +had the money. This method of giving notes for +my accounts and having all notes protested I kept +up over two years, yet my credit was fine. Every +store I traded with was always glad to furnish goods, +perhaps in amazed admiration of my system of doing +business, which was certainly new." After a while +Edison got a bookkeeper, whose vagaries made him +look back with regret on the earlier, primitive method. +"The first three months I had him go over the books +to find out how much we had made. He reported +$3000. I gave a supper to some of my men to celebrate +this, only to be told two days afterward that +he had made a mistake, and that we had lost $500; and +then a few days after that he came to me again and +said he was all mixed up, and now found that we had +made over $7000." Edison changed bookkeepers, but +never thereafter counted anything real profit until he +had paid all his debts and had the profits in the bank. + +The factory work at this time related chiefly to +stock tickers, principally the "Universal," of which +at one time twelve hundred were in use. Edison's +connection with this particular device was very +close while it lasted. In a review of the ticker art, +Mr. Callahan stated, with rather grudging praise, +that "a ticker at the present time (1901) would be +considered as impracticable and unsalable if it were +not provided with a unison device," and he goes on +to remark: "The first unison on stock tickers was +one used on the Laws printer.[2] It was a crude and +unsatisfactory piece of mechanism and necessitated +doubling of the battery in order to bring it into action. +It was short-lived. The Edison unison comprised a +lever with a free end travelling in a spiral or worm +on the type-wheel shaft until it met a pin at the end +of the worm, thus obstructing the shaft and leaving +the type-wheels at the zero-point until released by +the printing lever. This device is too well known to +require a further description. It is not applicable +to any instrument using two independently moving +type-wheels; but on nearly if not all other instruments +will be found in use." The stock ticker has +enjoyed the devotion of many brilliant inventors-- +G. M. Phelps, H. Van Hoevenbergh, A. A. Knudson, +G. B. Scott, S. D. Field, John Burry--and remains in +extensive use as an appliance for which no substitute +or competitor has been found. In New York the +two great stock exchanges have deemed it necessary +to own and operate a stock-ticker service for the sole +benefit of their members; and down to the present +moment the process of improvement has gone on, +impelled by the increasing volume of business to be +reported. It is significant of Edison's work, now +dimmed and overlaid by later advances, that at the +very outset he recognized the vital importance of +interchangeability in the construction of this delicate +and sensitive apparatus. But the difficulties of these +early days were almost insurmountable. Mr. R. W. +Pope says of the "Universal" machines that they were +simple and substantial and generally satisfactory, +but adds: "These instruments were supposed to have +been made with interchangeable parts; but as a +matter of fact the instances in which these parts +would fit were very few. The instruction-book prepared +for the use of inspectors stated that `The parts +should not be tinkered nor bent, as they are accurately +made and interchangeable.' The difficulties encountered +in fitting them properly doubtless gave rise to a +story that Mr. Edison had stated that there were three +degrees of interchangeability. This was interpreted to +mean: First, the parts will fit; second, they will almost +fit; third, they do not fit, and can't be made to fit." + + +[2] This I invented as well.--T. A. E. + + +This early shop affords an illustration of the manner +in which Edison has made a deep impression on the +personnel of the electrical arts. At a single bench +there worked three men since rich or prominent. +One was Sigmund Bergmann, for a time partner with +Edison in his lighting developments in the United +States, and now head and principal owner of electrical +works in Berlin employing ten thousand men. The +next man adjacent was John Kruesi, afterward engineer +of the great General Electric Works at +Schenectady. A third was Schuckert, who left the +bench to settle up his father's little estate at Nuremberg, +stayed there and founded electrical factories, +which became the third largest in Germany, their +proprietor dying very wealthy. "I gave them a good +training as to working hours and hustling," says their +quondam master; and this is equally true as applied +to many scores of others working in companies bearing +the Edison name or organized under Edison +patents. It is curiously significant in this connection +that of the twenty-one presidents of the national +society, the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, +founded in 1884, eight have been intimately +associated with Edison--namely, Norvin Green and +F. L. Pope, as business colleagues of the days of which +we now write; while Messrs. Frank J. Sprague, T. C. +Martin, A. E. Kennelly, S. S. Wheeler, John W. +Lieb, Jr., and Louis A. Ferguson have all been at one +time or another in the Edison employ. The remark +was once made that if a famous American teacher +sat at one end of a log and a student at the other end, +the elements of a successful university were present. +It is equally true that in Edison and the many men +who have graduated from his stern school of endeavor, +America has had its foremost seat of electrical +engineering. + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +AUTOMATIC, DUPLEX, AND QUADRUPLEX +TELEGRAPHY + +WORK of various kinds poured in upon the young +manufacturer, busy also with his own schemes +and inventions, which soon began to follow so many +distinct lines of inquiry that it ceases to be easy or +necessary for the historian to treat them all in +chronological sequence. Some notion of his ceaseless +activity may be formed from the fact that he started no +fewer than three shops in Newark during 1870-71, +and while directing these was also engaged by the +men who controlled the Automatic Telegraph Company +of New York, which had a circuit to Washington, +to help it out of its difficulties. "Soon after +starting the large shop (10 and 12 Ward Street, +Newark), I rented shop-room to the inventor of a +new rifle. I think it was the Berdan. In any event, +it was a rifle which was subsequently adopted by the +British Army. The inventor employed a tool-maker +who was the finest and best tool-maker I had ever +seen. I noticed that he worked pretty near the +whole of the twenty-four hours. This kind of application +I was looking for. He was getting $21.50 per +week, and was also paid for overtime. I asked him +if he could run the shop. `I don't know; try me!' he +said. `All right, I will give you $60 per week to run +both shifts.' He went at it. His executive ability +was greater than that of any other man I have yet +seen. His memory was prodigious, conversation +laconic, and movements rapid. He doubled the production +inside three months, without materially increasing +the pay-roll, by increasing the cutting speeds +of tools, and by the use of various devices. When in +need of rest he would lie down on a work-bench, +sleep twenty or thirty minutes, and wake up fresh. +As this was just what I could do, I naturally conceived +a great pride in having such a man in charge +of my work. But almost everything has trouble connected +with it. He disappeared one day, and although +I sent men everywhere that it was likely he +could be found, he was not discovered. After two +weeks he came into the factory in a terrible condition +as to clothes and face. He sat down and, turning to +me, said: `Edison, it's no use, this is the third time; +I can't stand prosperity. Put my salary back and +give me a job.' I was very sorry to learn that it was +whiskey that spoiled such a career. I gave him an +inferior job and kept him for a long time." + +Edison had now entered definitely upon that career +as an inventor which has left so deep an imprint on +the records of the United States Patent Office, where +from his first patent in 1869 up to the summer of 1910 +no fewer than 1328 separate patents have been applied +for in his name, averaging thirty-two every +year, and one about every eleven days; with a +substantially corresponding number issued. The +height of this inventive activity was attained +about 1882, in which year no fewer than 141 pat- +ents were applied for, and seventy-five granted to +him, or nearly nine times as many as in 1876, when +invention as a profession may be said to have been +adopted by this prolific genius. It will be understood, +of course, that even these figures do not represent +the full measure of actual invention, as in every +process and at every step there were many discoveries +that were not brought to patent registration, but +remained "trade secrets." And furthermore, that in +practically every case the actual patented invention +followed from one to a dozen or more gradually developing +forms of the same idea. + +An Englishman named George Little had brought +over a system of automatic telegraphy which worked +well on a short line, but was a failure when put upon +the longer circuits for which automatic methods are +best adapted. The general principle involved in +automatic or rapid telegraphs, except the photographic +ones, is that of preparing the message in +advance, for dispatch, by perforating narrow strips of +paper with holes--work which can be done either by +hand-punches or by typewriter apparatus. A certain +group of perforations corresponds to a Morse +group of dots and dashes for a letter of the alphabet. +When the tape thus made ready is run rapidly through +a transmitting machine, electrical contact occurs +wherever there is a perforation, permitting the current +from the battery to flow into the line and thus +transmit signals correspondingly. At the distant end +these signals are received sometimes on an ink-writing +recorder as dots and dashes, or even as typewriting +letters; but in many of the earlier systems, like that +of Bain, the record at the higher rates of speed was +effected by chemical means, a tell-tale stain being +made on the travelling strip of paper by every spurt +of incoming current. Solutions of potassium iodide +were frequently used for this purpose, giving a sharp, +blue record, but fading away too rapidly. + +The Little system had perforating apparatus operated +by electromagnets; its transmitting machine +was driven by a small electromagnetic motor; and +the record was made by electrochemical decomposition, +the writing member being a minute platinum +roller instead of the more familiar iron stylus. Moreover, +a special type of wire had been put up for the +single circuit of two hundred and eighty miles between +New York and Washington. This is believed to have +been the first "compound" wire made for telegraphic +or other signalling purposes, the object being to secure +greater lightness with textile strength and high +conductivity. It had a steel core, with a copper ribbon +wound spirally around it, and tinned to the core wire. +But the results obtained were poor, and in their +necessity the parties in interest turned to Edison. + +Mr. E. H. Johnson tells of the conditions: "Gen. +W. J. Palmer and some New York associates had +taken up the Little automatic system and had expended +quite a sum in its development, when, thinking +they had reduced it to practice, they got Tom +Scott, of the Pennsylvania Railroad to send his +superintendent of telegraph over to look into and +report upon it. Of course he turned it down. The +syndicate was appalled at this report, and in this +extremity General Palmer thought of the man who +had impressed him as knowing it all by the telling +of telegraphic tales as a means of whiling away lonesome +hours on the plains of Colorado, where they +were associated in railroad-building. So this man-- +it was I--was sent for to come to New York and +assuage their grief if possible. My report was that +the system was sound fundamentally, that it contained +the germ of a good thing, but needed working +out. Associated with General Palmer was one Col. +Josiah C. Reiff, then Eastern bond agent for the +Kansas Pacific Railroad. The Colonel was always +resourceful, and didn't fail in this case. He knew of +a young fellow who was doing some good work for +Marshall Lefferts, and who it was said was a genius +at invention, and a very fiend for work. His name +was Edison, and he had a shop out at Newark, New +Jersey. He came and was put in my care for the +purpose of a mutual exchange of ideas and for a report +by me as to his competency in the matter. This was +my introduction to Edison. He confirmed my views +of the automatic system. He saw its possibilities, +as well as the chief obstacles to be overcome--viz., +the sluggishness of the wire, together with the need +of mechanical betterment of the apparatus; and he +agreed to take the job on one condition--namely, +that Johnson would stay and help, as `he was a man +with ideas.' Mr. Johnson was accordingly given +three months' leave from Colorado railroad-building, +and has never seen Colorado since." + +Applying himself to the difficulties with wonted +energy, Edison devised new apparatus, and solved +the problem to such an extent that he and his as- +sistants succeeded in transmitting and recording one +thousand words per minute between New York and +Washington, and thirty-five hundred words per +minute to Philadelphia. Ordinary manual transmission +by key is not in excess of forty to fifty words +a minute. Stated very briefly, Edison's principal +contribution to the commercial development of the +automatic was based on the observation that in a +line of considerable length electrical impulses become +enormously extended, or sluggish, due to a +phenomenon known as self-induction, which with +ordinary Morse work is in a measure corrected +by condensers. But in the automatic the aim was +to deal with impulses following each other from +twenty-five to one hundred times as rapidly as in +Morse lines, and to attempt to receive and record +intelligibly such a lightning-like succession of signals would +have seemed impossible. But Edison discovered that +by utilizing a shunt around the receiving instrument, +with a soft iron core, the self-induction would produce +a momentary and instantaneous reversal of the +current at the end of each impulse, and thereby give +an absolutely sharp definition to each signal. This +discovery did away entirely with sluggishness, and +made it possible to secure high speeds over lines of +comparatively great lengths. But Edison's work on +the automatic did not stop with this basic suggestion, +for he took up and perfected the mechanical construction +of the instruments, as well as the perforators, +and also suggested numerous electrosensitive +chemicals for the receivers, so that the automatic +telegraph, almost entirely by reason of his individual +work, was placed on a plane of commercial practicability. +The long line of patents secured by him +in this art is an interesting exhibit of the development +of a germ to a completed system, not, as is +usually the case, by numerous inventors working +over considerable periods of time, but by one man +evolving the successive steps at a white heat of +activity. + +This system was put in commercial operation, but +the company, now encouraged, was quite willing to +allow Edison to work out his idea of an automatic +that would print the message in bold Roman letters +instead of in dots and dashes; with consequent gain +in speed in delivery of the message after its receipt +in the operating-room, it being obviously necessary +in the case of any message received in Morse characters +to copy it in script before delivery to the recipient. +A large shop was rented in Newark, equipped with +$25,000 worth of machinery, and Edison was given +full charge. Here he built their original type of +apparatus, as improved, and also pushed his experiments +on the letter system so far that at a test, between +New York and Philadelphia, three thousand words +were sent in one minute and recorded in Roman type. +Mr. D. N. Craig, one of the early organizers of the +Associated Press, became interested in this company, +whose president was Mr. George Harrington, formerly +Assistant Secretary of the United States Treasury. + +Mr. Craig brought with him at this time--the early +seventies--from Milwaukee a Mr. Sholes, who had a +wooden model of a machine to which had been given the +then new and unfamiliar name of "typewriter." Craig +was interested in the machine, and put the model in +Edison's hands to perfect. "This typewriter proved a +difficult thing," says Edison, "to make commercial. +The alignment of the letters was awful. One letter +would be one-sixteenth of an inch above the others; +and all the letters wanted to wander out of line. I +worked on it till the machine gave fair results.[3] Some +were made and used in the office of the Automatic +company. Craig was very sanguine that some day all +business letters would be written on a typewriter. +He died before that took place; but it gradually +made its way. The typewriter I got into commercial +shape is now known as the Remington. About this +time I got an idea I could devise an apparatus by +which four messages could simultaneously be sent +over a single wire without interfering with each other. +I now had five shops, and with experimenting on this +new scheme I was pretty busy; at least I did not +have ennui." + + +[3] See illustration on opposite page, showing reproduction of the +work done with this machine. + + +A very interesting picture of Mr. Edison at this time +is furnished by Mr. Patrick B. Delany, a well-known +inventor in the field of automatic and multiplex +telegraphy, who at that time was a chief operator of the +Franklin Telegraph Company at Philadelphia. His +remark about Edison that "his ingenuity inspired +confidence, and wavering financiers stiffened up when +it became known that he was to develop the automatic" +is a noteworthy evidence of the manner in +which the young inventor had already gained a firm +footing. He continues: "Edward H. Johnson was +brought on from the Denver & Rio Grande Railway +to assist in the practical introduction of automatic +telegraphy on a commercial basis, and about this +time, in 1872, I joined the enterprise. Fairly good +results were obtained between New York and Washington, +and Edison, indifferent to theoretical difficulties, +set out to prove high speeds between New +York and Charleston, South Carolina, the compound +wire being hitched up to one of the Southern & +Atlantic wires from Washington to Charleston for +the purpose of experimentation. Johnson and I +went to the Charleston end to carry out Edison's +plans, which were rapidly unfolded by telegraph +every night from a loft on lower Broadway, New +York. We could only get the wire after all business +was cleared, usually about midnight, and for months, +in the quiet hours, that wire was subjected to more +electrical acrobatics than any other wire ever +experienced. When the experiments ended, Edison's +system was put into regular commercial operation +between New York and Washington; and did fine +work. If the single wire had not broken about every +other day, the venture would have been a financial +success; but moisture got in between the copper ribbon +and the steel core, setting up galvanic action +which made short work of the steel. The demonstration +was, however, sufficiently successful to impel +Jay Gould to contract to pay about $4,000,000 in stock +for the patents. The contract was never completed so +far as the $4,000,000 were concerned, but Gould made +good use of it in getting control of the Western Union." + +One of the most important persons connected with +the automatic enterprise was Mr. George Harrington, +to whom we have above referred, and with whom Mr. +Edison entered into close confidential relations, so +that the inventions made were held jointly, under a +partnership deed covering "any inventions or +improvements that may be useful or desired in +automatic telegraphy." Mr. Harrington was assured at +the outset by Edison that while the Little perforator +would give on the average only seven or eight words +per minute, which was not enough for commercial +purposes, he could devise one giving fifty or sixty +words, and that while the Little solution for the +receiving tape cost $15 to $17 per gallon, he could +furnish a ferric solution costing only five or six cents +per gallon. In every respect Edison "made good," +and in a short time the system was a success, "Mr. +Little having withdrawn his obsolete perforator, his +ineffective resistance, his costly chemical solution, to +give place to Edison's perforator, Edison's resistance +and devices, and Edison's solution costing a few cents +per gallon. But," continues Mr. Harrington, in a +memorable affidavit, "the inventive efforts of Mr. +Edison were not confined to automatic telegraphy, +nor did they cease with the opening of that line to +Washington." They all led up to the quadruplex. + +Flattered by their success, Messrs. Harrington and +Reiff, who owned with Edison the foreign patents for +the new automatic system, entered into an arrangement +with the British postal telegraph authorities +for a trial of the system in England, involving its +probable adoption if successful. Edison was sent to +England to make the demonstration, in 1873, reporting +there to Col. George E. Gouraud, who had been +an associate in the United States Treasury with Mr. +Harrington, and was now connected with the new +enterprise. With one small satchel of clothes, three +large boxes of instruments, and a bright fellow- +telegrapher named Jack Wright, he took voyage on the +Jumping Java, as she was humorously known, of +the Cunard line. The voyage was rough and the +little Java justified her reputation by jumping all +over the ocean. "At the table," says Edison, "there +were never more than ten or twelve people. I wondered +at the time how it could pay to run an ocean +steamer with so few people; but when we got into +calm water and could see the green fields, I was +astounded to see the number of people who appeared. +There were certainly two or three hundred. I learned +afterward that they were mostly going to the Vienna +Exposition. Only two days could I get on deck, and +on one of these a gentleman had a bad scalp wound +from being thrown against the iron wall of a small +smoking-room erected over a freight hatch." + +Arrived in London, Edison set up his apparatus at +the Telegraph Street headquarters, and sent his companion +to Liverpool with the instruments for that +end. The condition of the test was that he was to +send from Liverpool and receive in London, and to +record at the rate of one thousand words per minute, +five hundred words to be sent every half hour for six +hours. Edison was given a wire and batteries to +operate with, but a preliminary test soon showed that +he was going to fail. Both wire and batteries were +poor, and one of the men detailed by the authorities +to watch the test remarked quietly, in a friendly way: +"You are not going to have much show. They are +going to give you an old Bridgewater Canal wire that +is so poor we don't work it, and a lot of `sand batteries' +at Liverpool."[4] The situation was rather depressing +to the young American thus encountering, +for the first time, the stolid conservatism and opposition +to change that characterizes so much of official +life and methods in Europe. "I thanked him," says +Edison, "and hoped to reciprocate somehow. I knew +I was in a hole. I had been staying at a little hotel +in Covent Garden called the Hummums! and got +nothing but roast beef and flounders, and my imagination +was getting into a coma. What I needed was +pastry. That night I found a French pastry shop +in High Holborn Street and filled up. My imagination +got all right. Early in the morning I saw +Gouraud, stated my case, and asked if he would stand +for the purchase of a powerful battery to send to +Liverpool. He said `Yes.' I went immediately to +Apps on the Strand and asked if he had a powerful +battery. He said he hadn't; that all that he had +was Tyndall's Royal Institution battery, which he +supposed would not serve. I saw it--one hundred +cells--and getting the price--one hundred guineas-- +hurried to Gouraud. He said `Go ahead.' I telegraphed +to the man in Liverpool. He came on, got +the battery to Liverpool, set up and ready, just two +hours before the test commenced. One of the principal +things that made the system a success was that +the line was put to earth at the sending end through +a magnet, and the extra current from this, passed to +the line, served to sharpen the recording waves. This +new battery was strong enough to pass a powerful +current through the magnet without materially +diminishing the strength of the line current." + + +[4] The sand battery is now obsolete. In this type, the cell +containing the elements was filled with sand, which was kept moist +with an electrolyte. + + +The test under these more favorable circumstances +was a success. "The record was as perfect as copper +plate, and not a single remark was made in the `time +lost' column." Edison was now asked if he thought +he could get a greater speed through submarine cables +with this system than with the regular methods, and +replied that he would like a chance to try it. For +this purpose, twenty-two hundred miles of Brazilian +cable then stored under water in tanks at the Greenwich +works of the Telegraph Construction & Maintenance +Company, near London, was placed at his +disposal from 8 P.M. until 6 A.M. "This just suited +me, as I preferred night-work. I got my apparatus +down and set up, and then to get a preliminary idea +of what the distortion of the signal would be, I sent +a single dot, which should have been recorded upon my +automatic paper by a mark about one-thirty-second of +an inch long. Instead of that it was twenty-seven feet +long! If I ever had any conceit, it vanished from +my boots up. I worked on this cable more than two +weeks, and the best I could do was two words per +minute, which was only one-seventh of what the +guaranteed speed of the cable should be when laid. +What I did not know at the time was that a coiled +cable, owing to induction, was infinitely worse than +when laid out straight, and that my speed was as +good as, if not better than, with the regular system; +but no one told me this." While he was engaged on +these tests Colonel Gouraud came down one night to +visit him at the lonely works, spent a vigil with him, +and toward morning wanted coffee. There was only +one little inn near by, frequented by longshoremen and +employees from the soap-works and cement-factories +--a rough lot--and there at daybreak they went as +soon as the other customers had left for work. "The +place had a bar and six bare tables, and was simply +infested with roaches. The only things that I ever +could get were coffee made from burnt bread, with +brown molasses-cake. I ordered these for Gouraud. +The taste of the coffee, the insects, etc., were too +much. He fainted. I gave him a big dose of gin, +and this revived him. He went back to the works +and waited until six when the day men came, and +telegraphed for a carriage. He lost all interest in +the experiments after that, and I was ordered back +to America." Edison states, however, that the automatic +was finally adopted in England and used for +many years; indeed, is still in use there. But they +took whatever was needed from his system, and he +"has never had a cent from them." + +Arduous work was at once resumed at home on +duplex and quadruplex telegraphy, just as though +there had been no intermission or discouragement +over dots twenty-seven feet long. A clue to his activity +is furnished in the fact that in 1872 he had +applied for thirty-eight patents in the class of teleg- +raphy, and twenty-five in 1873; several of these +being for duplex methods, on which he had experimented. +The earlier apparatus had been built several +years prior to this, as shown by a curious little +item of news that appeared in the Telegrapher of +January 30, 1869: "T. A. Edison has resigned his +situation in the Western Union office, Boston, and will +devote his time to bringing out his inventions." +Oh, the supreme, splendid confidence of youth! Six +months later, as we have seen, he had already made +his mark, and the same journal, in October, 1869, +could say: "Mr. Edison is a young man of the highest +order of mechanical talent, combined with good +scientific electrical knowledge and experience. He +has already invented and patented a number of +valuable and useful inventions, among which may +be mentioned the best instrument for double transmission +yet brought out." Not bad for a novice of +twenty-two. It is natural, therefore, after his +intervening work on indicators, stock tickers, automatic +telegraphs, and typewriters, to find him harking back +to duplex telegraphy, if, indeed, he can be said to have +dropped it in the interval. It has always been one of +the characteristic features of Edison's method of +inventing that work in several lines has gone forward +at the same time. No one line of investigation has +ever been enough to occupy his thoughts fully; or +to express it otherwise, he has found rest in turning +from one field of work to another, having absolutely +no recreations or hobbies, and not needing them. It +may also be said that, once entering it, Mr. Edison +has never abandoned any field of work. He may +change the line of attack; he may drop the subject +for a time; but sooner or later the note-books or the +Patent Office will bear testimony to the reminiscent +outcropping of latent thought on the matter. His +attention has shifted chronologically, and by process +of evolution, from one problem to another, and some +results are found to be final; but the interest of the +man in the thing never dies out. No one sees more +vividly than he the fact that in the interplay of the +arts one industry shapes and helps another, and that +no invention lives to itself alone. + +The path to the quadruplex lay through work on +the duplex, which, suggested first by Moses G. Farmer +in 1852, had been elaborated by many ingenious +inventors, notably in this country by Stearns, before +Edison once again applied his mind to it. The different +methods of such multiple transmission--namely, +the simultaneous dispatch of the two communications +in opposite directions over the same wire, or the +dispatch of both at once in the same direction--gave +plenty of play to ingenuity. Prescott's Elements of +the Electric Telegraph, a standard work in its day, +described "a method of simultaneous transmission +invented by T. A. Edison, of New Jersey, in 1873," +and says of it: "Its peculiarity consists in the fact +that the signals are transmitted in one direction by +reversing the polarity of a constant current, and in +the opposite direction by increasing or decreasing +the strength of the same current." Herein lay the +germ of the Edison quadruplex. It is also noted that +"In 1874 Edison invented a method of simultaneous +transmission by induced currents, which has given +very satisfactory results in experimental trials." Interest +in the duplex as a field of invention dwindled, +however, as the quadruplex loomed up, for while +the one doubled the capacity of a circuit, the latter +created three "phantom wires," and thus quadruplexed +the working capacity of any line to which +it was applied. As will have been gathered from the +above, the principle embodied in the quadruplex is +that of working over the line with two currents from +each end that differ from each other in strength or +nature, so that they will affect only instruments +adapted to respond to just such currents and no +others; and by so arranging the receiving apparatus +as not to be affected by the currents transmitted from +its own end of the line. Thus by combining instruments +that respond only to variation in the strength +of current from the distant station, with instruments +that respond only to the change in the direction of +current from the distant station, and by grouping a +pair of these at each end of the line, the quadruplex +is the result. Four sending and four receiving operators +are kept busy at each end, or eight in all. Aside +from other material advantages, it is estimated that +at least from $15,000,000 to $20,000,000 has been +saved by the Edison quadruplex merely in the cost +of line construction in America. + +The quadruplex has not as a rule the same working +efficiency that four separate wires have. This is due +to the fact that when one of the receiving operators +is compelled to "break" the sending operator for any +reason, the "break" causes the interruption of the +work of eight operators, instead of two, as would be +the case on a single wire. The working efficiency of +the quadruplex, therefore, with the apparatus in good +working condition, depends entirely upon the skill +of the operators employed to operate it. But this +does not reflect upon or diminish the ingenuity required +for its invention. Speaking of the problem +involved, Edison said some years later to Mr. Upton, +his mathematical assistant, that "he always considered +he was only working from one room to another. +Thus he was not confused by the amount of wire and +the thought of distance." + +The immense difficulties of reducing such a system +to practice may be readily conceived, especially when +it is remembered that the "line" itself, running across +hundreds of miles of country, is subject to all manner +of atmospheric conditions, and varies from moment +to moment in its ability to carry current, and also +when it is borne in mind that the quadruplex requires +at each end of the line a so-called "artificial line," +which must have the exact resistance of the working +line and must be varied with the variations in resistance +of the working line. At this juncture other +schemes were fermenting in his brain; but the +quadruplex engrossed him. "This problem was of most +difficult and complicated kind, and I bent all my +energies toward its solution. It required a peculiar +effort of the mind, such as the imagining of eight +different things moving simultaneously on a mental +plane, without anything to demonstrate their +efficiency." It is perhaps hardly to be wondered at +that when notified he would have to pay 12 1/2 per cent. +extra if his taxes in Newark were not at once paid, +he actually forgot his own name when asked for it +suddenly at the City Hall, lost his place in the line, +and, the fatal hour striking, had to pay the surcharge +after all! + +So important an invention as the quadruplex could +not long go begging, but there were many difficulties +connected with its introduction, some of which are +best described in Mr. Edison's own words: "Around +1873 the owners of the Automatic Telegraph Company +commenced negotiations with Jay Gould for +the purchase of the wires between New York and +Washington, and the patents for the system, then in +successful operation. Jay Gould at that time controlled +the Atlantic & Pacific Telegraph Company, +and was competing with the Western Union and +endeavoring to depress Western Union stock on the +Exchange. About this time I invented the quadruplex. +I wanted to interest the Western Union Telegraph +Company in it, with a view of selling it, but +was unsuccessful until I made an arrangement with +the chief electrician of the company, so that he could +be known as a joint inventor and receive a portion of +the money. At that time I was very short of money, +and needed it more than glory. This electrician +appeared to want glory more than money, so it was an +easy trade. I brought my apparatus over and was +given a separate room with a marble-tiled floor, +which, by-the-way, was a very hard kind of floor to +sleep on, and started in putting on the finishing +touches. + +"After two months of very hard work, I got a +detail at regular times of eight operators, and we +got it working nicely from one room to another over +a wire which ran to Albany and back. Under certain +conditions of weather, one side of the quadruplex +would work very shakily, and I had not succeeded +in ascertaining the cause of the trouble. On a certain +day, when there was a board meeting of the company, +I was to make an exhibition test. The day arrived. +I had picked the best operators in New York, and +they were familiar with the apparatus. I arranged +that if a storm occurred, and the bad side got shaky, +they should do the best they could and draw freely +on their imaginations. They were sending old messages. +About 1, o'clock everything went wrong, as +there was a storm somewhere near Albany, and the +bad side got shaky. Mr. Orton, the president, and +Wm. H. Vanderbilt and the other directors came in. +I had my heart trying to climb up around my oesophagus. +I was paying a sheriff five dollars a day to +withhold judgment which had been entered against +me in a case which I had paid no attention to; and if +the quadruplex had not worked before the president, +I knew I was to have trouble and might lose my +machinery. The New York Times came out next +day with a full account. I was given $5000 as part +payment for the invention, which made me easy, and +I expected the whole thing would be closed up. But +Mr. Orton went on an extended tour just about that +time. I had paid for all the experiments on the +quadruplex and exhausted the money, and I was +again in straits. In the mean time I had introduced +the apparatus on the lines of the company, where it +was very successful. + +"At that time the general superintendent of the +Western Union was Gen. T. T. Eckert (who had been +Assistant Secretary of War with Stanton). Eckert +was secretly negotiating with Gould to leave the +Western Union and take charge of the Atlantic & +Pacific--Gould's company. One day Eckert called +me into his office and made inquiries about money +matters. I told him Mr. Orton had gone off and left +me without means, and I was in straits. He told me +I would never get another cent, but that he knew a +man who would buy it. I told him of my arrangement +with the electrician, and said I could not sell +it as a whole to anybody; but if I got enough for it, +I would sell all my interest in any SHARE I might have. +He seemed to think his party would agree to this. I +had a set of quadruplex over in my shop, 10 and 12 +Ward Street, Newark, and he arranged to bring him +over next evening to see the apparatus. So the next +morning Eckert came over with Jay Gould and +introduced him to me. This was the first time I had +ever seen him. I exhibited and explained the +apparatus, and they departed. The next day Eckert +sent for me, and I was taken up to Gould's house, +which was near the Windsor Hotel, Fifth Avenue. +In the basement he had an office. It was in the +evening, and we went in by the servants' entrance, +as Eckert probably feared that he was watched. +Gould started in at once and asked me how much I +wanted. I said: `Make me an offer.' Then he said: +`I will give you $30,000.' I said: `I will sell any +interest I may have for that money,' which was something +more than I thought I could get. The next +morning I went with Gould to the office of his lawyers, +Sherman & Sterling, and received a check for +$30,000, with a remark by Gould that I had got the +steamboat Plymouth Rock, as he had sold her for +$30,000 and had just received the check. There +was a big fight on between Gould's company and the +Western Union, and this caused more litigation. +The electrician, on account of the testimony involved, +lost his glory. The judge never decided the case, +but went crazy a few months afterward." It was +obviously a characteristically shrewd move on the +part of Mr. Gould to secure an interest in the quadruplex, +as a factor in his campaign against the Western +Union, and as a decisive step toward his control of +that system, by the subsequent merger that included +not only the Atlantic & Pacific Telegraph Company, +but the American Union Telegraph Company. + +Nor was Mr. Gould less appreciative of the value of +Edison's automatic system. Referring to matters +that will be taken up later in the narrative, Edison +says: "After this Gould wanted me to help install the +automatic system in the Atlantic & Pacific company, +of which General Eckert had been elected president, +the company having bought the Automatic Telegraph +Company. I did a lot of work for this company +making automatic apparatus in my shop at Newark. +About this time I invented a district messenger call- +box system, and organized a company called the +Domestic Telegraph Company, and started in to install +the system in New York. I had great difficulty +in getting subscribers, having tried several canvassers, +who, one after the other, failed to get sub- +scribers. When I was about to give it up, a test +operator named Brown, who was on the Automatic +Telegraph wire between New York and Washington, +which passed through my Newark shop, asked permission +to let him try and see if he couldn't get subscribers. +I had very little faith in his ability to get +any, but I thought I would give him a chance, as he +felt certain of his ability to succeed. He started in, +and the results were surprising. Within a month he +had procured two hundred subscribers, and the company +was a success. I have never quite understood +why six men should fail absolutely, while the seventh +man should succeed. Perhaps hypnotism would +account for it. This company was sold out to the +Atlantic & Pacific company." As far back as 1872, +Edison had applied for a patent on district messenger +signal boxes, but it was not issued until +January, 1874, another patent being granted in +September of the same year. In this field of telegraph +application, as in others, Edison was a very early +comer, his only predecessor being the fertile and +ingenious Callahan, of stock-ticker fame. The first +president of the Gold & Stock Telegraph Company, +Elisha W. Andrews, had resigned in 1870 in order to +go to England to introduce the stock ticker in London. +He lived in Englewood, New Jersey, and the +very night he had packed his trunk the house was +burglarized. Calling on his nearest friend the next +morning for even a pair of suspenders, Mr. Andrews +was met with regrets of inability, because the burglars +had also been there. A third and fourth friend in +the vicinity was appealed to with the same dishearten- +ing reply of a story of wholesale spoliation. Mr. +Callahan began immediately to devise a system of +protection for Englewood; but at that juncture a +servant-girl who had been for many years with a +family on the Heights in Brooklyn went mad suddenly +and held an aged widow and her daughter as +helpless prisoners for twenty-four hours without +food or water. This incident led to an extension of +the protective idea, and very soon a system was +installed in Brooklyn with one hundred subscribers. +Out of this grew in turn the district messenger system, +for it was just as easy to call a messenger as to sound +a fire-alarm or summon the police. To-day no large +city in America is without a service of this character, +but its function was sharply limited by the introduction +of the telephone. + +Returning to the automatic telegraph it is interesting +to note that so long as Edison was associated with +it as a supervising providence it did splendid work, +which renders the later neglect of automatic or +"rapid telegraphy" the more remarkable. Reid's +standard Telegraph in America bears astonishing testimony +on this point in 1880, as follows: "The Atlantic +& Pacific Telegraph Company had twenty-two +automatic stations. These included the chief cities +on the seaboard, Buffalo, Chicago, and Omaha. The +through business during nearly two years was largely +transmitted in this way. Between New York and +Boston two thousand words a minute have been sent. +The perforated paper was prepared at the rate of +twenty words per minute. Whatever its demerits +this system enabled the Atlantic & Pacific company +to handle a much larger business during 1875 and 1876 +than it could otherwise have done with its limited +number of wires in their then condition." Mr. Reid +also notes as a very thorough test of the perfect +practicability of the system, that it handled the +President's message, December 3, 1876, of 12,600 words +with complete success. This long message was filed +at Washington at 1.05 and delivered in New York at +2.07. The first 9000 words were transmitted in +forty-five minutes. The perforated strips were prepared +in thirty minutes by ten persons, and duplicated +by nine copyists. But to-day, nearly thirty- +five years later, telegraphy in America is still +practically on a basis of hand transmission! + +Of this period and his association with Jay Gould, +some very interesting glimpses are given by Edison. +"While engaged in putting in the automatic system, +I saw a great deal of Gould, and frequently went +uptown to his office to give information. Gould had +no sense of humor. I tried several times to get off +what seemed to me a funny story, but he failed to see +any humor in them. I was very fond of stories, and +had a choice lot, always kept fresh, with which I +could usually throw a man into convulsions. One +afternoon Gould started in to explain the great future +of the Union Pacific Railroad, which he then controlled. +He got a map, and had an immense amount +of statistics. He kept at it for over four hours, and +got very enthusiastic. Why he should explain to me, +a mere inventor, with no capital or standing, I couldn't +make out. He had a peculiar eye, and I made up +my mind that there was a strain of insanity some- +where. This idea was strengthened shortly afterward +when the Western Union raised the monthly +rental of the stock tickers. Gould had one in his +house office, which he watched constantly. This he +had removed, to his great inconvenience, because the +price had been advanced a few dollars! He railed over +it. This struck me as abnormal. I think Gould's +success was due to abnormal development. He certainly +had one trait that all men must have who want +to succeed. He collected every kind of information +and statistics about his schemes, and had all the +data. His connection with men prominent in official +life, of which I was aware, was surprising to me. His +conscience seemed to be atrophied, but that may be +due to the fact that he was contending with men +who never had any to be atrophied. He worked incessantly +until 12 or 1 o'clock at night. He took no +pride in building up an enterprise. He was after +money, and money only. Whether the company +was a success or a failure mattered not to him. After +he had hammered the Western Union through his +opposition company and had tired out Mr. Vanderbilt, +the latter retired from control, and Gould went +in and consolidated his company and controlled the +Western Union. He then repudiated the contract +with the Automatic Telegraph people, and they never +received a cent for their wires or patents, and I lost +three years of very hard labor. But I never had any +grudge against him, because he was so able in his line, +and as long as my part was successful the money with +me was a secondary consideration. When Gould got +the Western Union I knew no further progress in +telegraphy was possible, and I went into other lines." +The truth is that General Eckert was a conservative +--even a reactionary--and being prejudiced like many +other American telegraph managers against "machine +telegraphy," threw out all such improvements. + +The course of electrical history has been variegated +by some very remarkable litigation; but none +was ever more extraordinary than that referred to +here as arising from the transfer of the Automatic +Telegraph Company to Mr. Jay Gould and the +Atlantic & Pacific Telegraph Company. The terms +accepted by Colonel Reiff from Mr. Gould, on December +30, 1874, provided that the purchasing telegraph +company should increase its capital to $15,000,000, +of which the Automatic interests were to receive +$4,000,000 for their patents, contracts, etc. The +stock was then selling at about 25, and in the later +consolidation with the Western Union "went in" +at about 60; so that the real purchase price was not +less than $1,000,000 in cash. There was a private +arrangement in writing with Mr. Gould that he was +to receive one-tenth of the "result" to the Automatic +group, and a tenth of the further results secured +at home and abroad. Mr. Gould personally bought +up and gave money and bonds for one or two individual +interests on the above basis, including that +of Harrington, who in his representative capacity +executed assignments to Mr. Gould. But payments +were then stopped, and the other owners were left +without any compensation, although all that belonged +to them in the shape of property and patents +was taken over bodily into Atlantic & Pacific hands, +and never again left them. Attempts at settlement +were made in their behalf, and dragged wearily, +due apparently to the fact that the plans were +blocked by General Eckert, who had in some +manner taken offence at a transaction effected +without his active participation in all the details. +Edison, who became under the agreement the electrician +of the Atlantic & Pacific Telegraph Company, +has testified to the unfriendly attitude assumed toward +him by General Eckert, as president. In a +graphic letter from Menlo Park to Mr. Gould, dated +February 2, 1877, Edison makes a most vigorous and +impassioned complaint of his treatment, "which, +acting cumulatively, was a long, unbroken +disappointment to me"; and he reminds Mr. Gould of +promises made to him the day the transfer had been +effected of Edison's interest in the quadruplex. The +situation was galling to the busy, high-spirited young +inventor, who, moreover, "had to live"; and it led +to his resumption of work for the Western Union +Telegraph Company, which was only too glad to get +him back. Meantime, the saddened and perplexed +Automatic group was left unpaid, and it was not +until 1906, on a bill filed nearly thirty years before, +that Judge Hazel, in the United States Circuit Court for +the Southern District of New York, found strongly +in favor of the claimants and ordered an accounting. +The court held that there had been a most wrongful +appropriation of the patents, including alike those +relating to the automatic, the duplex, and the quadruplex, +all being included in the general arrangement +under which Mr. Gould had held put his tempting +bait of $4,000,000. In the end, however, the complainant +had nothing to show for all his struggle, +as the master who made the accounting set the +damages at one dollar! + +Aside from the great value of the quadruplex, +saving millions of dollars, for a share in which Edison +received $30,000, the automatic itself is described +as of considerable utility by Sir William Thomson +in his juror report at the Centennial Exposition of +1876, recommending it for award. This leading +physicist of his age, afterward Lord Kelvin, was an +adept in telegraphy, having made the ocean cable +talk, and he saw in Edison's "American Automatic," +as exhibited by the Atlantic & Pacific company, a +most meritorious and useful system. With the aid +of Mr. E. H. Johnson he made exhaustive tests, carrying +away with him to Glasgow University the surprising +records that he obtained. His official report +closes thus: "The electromagnetic shunt with soft +iron core, invented by Mr. Edison, utilizing Professor +Henry's discovery of electromagnetic induction in a +single circuit to produce a momentary reversal of the +line current at the instant when the battery is thrown +off and so cut off the chemical marks sharply at the +proper instant, is the electrical secret of the great +speed he has achieved. The main peculiarities of +Mr. Edison's automatic telegraph shortly stated in +conclusion are: (1) the perforator; (2) the contact- +maker; (3) the electromagnetic shunt; and (4) the +ferric cyanide of iron solution. It deserves award as +a very important step in land telegraphy." The attitude +thus disclosed toward Mr. Edison's work was +never changed, except that admiration grew as fresh +inventions were brought forward. To the day of his +death Lord Kelvin remained on terms of warmest +friendship with his American co-laborer, with whose +genius he thus first became acquainted at Philadelphia +in the environment of Franklin. + +It is difficult to give any complete idea of the activity +maintained at the Newark shops during these +anxious, harassed years, but the statement that at +one time no fewer than forty-five different inventions +were being worked upon, will furnish some notion of +the incandescent activity of the inventor and his +assistants. The hours were literally endless; and +upon one occasion, when the order was in hand for +a large quantity of stock tickers, Edison locked his +men in until the job had been finished of making +the machine perfect, and "all the bugs taken out," +which meant sixty hours of unintermitted struggle +with the difficulties. Nor were the problems and inventions +all connected with telegraphy. On the contrary, +Edison's mind welcomed almost any new suggestion +as a relief from the regular work in hand. +Thus: "Toward the latter part of 1875, in the Newark +shop, I invented a device for multiplying copies of +letters, which I sold to Mr. A. B. Dick, of Chicago, +and in the years since it has been universally introduced +throughout the world. It is called the `Mimeograph.' +I also invented devices for and introduced +paraffin paper, now used universally for wrapping up +candy, etc." The mimeograph employs a pointed +stylus, used as in writing with a lead-pencil, which +is moved over a kind of tough prepared paper placed +on a finely grooved steel plate. The writing is thus +traced by means of a series of minute perforations in +the sheet, from which, as a stencil, hundreds of copies +can be made. Such stencils can be prepared on +typewriters. Edison elaborated this principle in two +other forms--one pneumatic and one electric--the +latter being in essence a reciprocating motor. Inside +the barrel of the electric pen a little plunger, carrying +the stylus, travels to and fro at a very high rate +of speed, due to the attraction and repulsion of the +solenoid coils of wire surrounding it; and as the hand +of the writer guides it the pen thus makes its record +in a series of very minute perforations in the paper. +The current from a small battery suffices to energize +the pen, and with the stencil thus made hundreds of +copies of the document can be furnished. As a matter +of fact, as many as three thousand copies have been +made from a single mimeographic stencil of this +character. + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE TELEPHONE, MOTOGRAPH, AND MICROPHONE + +A VERY great invention has its own dramatic history. +Episodes full of human interest attend +its development. The periods of weary struggle, the +daring adventure along unknown paths, the clash of +rival claimants, are closely similar to those which +mark the revelation and subjugation of a new continent. +At the close of the epoch of discovery it is +seen that mankind as a whole has made one more +great advance; but in the earlier stages one watched +chiefly the confused vicissitudes of fortune of the +individual pioneers. The great modern art of telephony +has had thus in its beginnings, its evolution, +and its present status as a universal medium of +intercourse, all the elements of surprise, mystery, +swift creation of wealth, tragic interludes, and colossal +battle that can appeal to the imagination and hold +public attention. And in this new electrical industry, +in laying its essential foundations, Edison has +again been one of the dominant figures. + +As far back as 1837, the American, Page, discovered +the curious fact that an iron bar, when magnetized +and demagnetized at short intervals of time, emitted +sounds due to the molecular disturbances in the +mass. Philipp Reis, a simple professor in Germany, +utilized this principle in the construction of apparatus +for the transmission of sound; but in the grasp of +the idea he was preceded by Charles Bourseul, a +young French soldier in Algeria, who in 1854, under +the title of "Electrical Telephony," in a Parisian +illustrated paper, gave a brief and lucid description as +follows: + + +"We know that sounds are made by vibrations, and +are made sensible to the ear by the same vibrations, which +are reproduced by the intervening medium. But the intensity +of the vibrations diminishes very rapidly with the +distance; so that even with the aid of speaking-tubes and +trumpets it is impossible to exceed somewhat narrow +limits. Suppose a man speaks near a movable disk +sufficiently flexible to lose none of the vibrations of the +voice; that this disk alternately makes and breaks the +connection with a battery; you may have at a distance +another disk which will simultaneously execute the same +vibrations.... Any one who is not deaf and dumb may +use this mode of transmission, which would require no +apparatus except an electric battery, two vibrating disks, +and a wire." + +This would serve admirably for a portrayal of the +Bell telephone, except that it mentions distinctly +the use of the make-and-break method (i. e., where +the circuit is necessarily opened and closed as in +telegraphy, although, of course, at an enormously +higher rate), which has never proved practical. + +So far as is known Bourseul was not practical +enough to try his own suggestion, and never made +a telephone. About 1860, Reis built several forms +of electrical telephonic apparatus, all imitating in +some degree the human ear, with its auditory tube, +tympanum, etc., and examples of the apparatus were +exhibited in public not only in Germany, but in +England. There is a variety of testimony to the +effect that not only musical sounds, but stray words +and phrases, were actually transmitted with mediocre, +casual success. It was impossible, however, to maintain +the devices in adjustment for more than a few +seconds, since the invention depended upon the +make-and-break principle, the circuit being made and +broken every time an impulse-creating sound went +through it, causing the movement of the diaphragm +on which the sound-waves impinged. Reis himself +does not appear to have been sufficiently interested +in the marvellous possibilities of the idea to follow +it up--remarking to the man who bought his telephonic +instruments and tools that he had shown the +world the way. In reality it was not the way, although +a monument erected to his memory at Frankfort +styles him the inventor of the telephone. As +one of the American judges said, in deciding an early +litigation over the invention of the telephone, a hundred +years of Reis would not have given the world +the telephonic art for public use. Many others after +Reis tried to devise practical make-and-break telephones, +and all failed; although their success would +have rendered them very valuable as a means of +fighting the Bell patent. But the method was a good +starting-point, even if it did not indicate the real +path. If Reis had been willing to experiment with +his apparatus so that it did not make-and-break, he +would probably have been the true father of the +telephone, besides giving it the name by which it is +known. It was not necessary to slam the gate open +and shut. All that was required was to keep the +gate closed, and rattle the latch softly. Incidentally +it may be noted that Edison in experimenting with +the Reis transmitter recognized at once the defect +caused by the make-and-break action, and sought +to keep the gap closed by the use, first, of one drop +of water, and later of several drops. But the water +decomposed, and the incurable defect was still there. + +The Reis telephone was brought to America by +Dr. P. H. Van der Weyde, a well-known physicist in +his day, and was exhibited by him before a technical +audience at Cooper Union, New York, in 1868, and +described shortly after in the technical press. The +apparatus attracted attention, and a set was secured +by Prof. Joseph Henry for the Smithsonian Institution. +There the famous philosopher showed and explained +it to Alexander Graham Bell, when that +young and persevering Scotch genius went to get +help and data as to harmonic telegraphy, upon which +he was working, and as to transmitting vocal sounds. +Bell took up immediately and energetically the idea +that his two predecessors had dropped--and reached +the goal. In 1875 Bell, who as a student and teacher +of vocal physiology had unusual qualifications for +determining feasible methods of speech transmission, +constructed his first pair of magneto telephones for +such a purpose. In February of 1876 his first telephone +patent was applied for, and in March it was +issued. The first published account of the modern +speaking telephone was a paper read by Bell before +the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in Bos- +ton in May of that year; while at the Centennial +Exposition at Philadelphia the public first gained +any familiarity with it. It was greeted at once with +scientific acclaim and enthusiasm as a distinctly new +and great invention, although at first it was regarded +more as a scientific toy than as a commercially valuable +device. + +By an extraordinary coincidence, the very day that +Bell's application for a patent went into the United +States Patent Office, a caveat was filed there by +Elisha Gray, of Chicago, covering the specific idea of +transmitting speech and reproducing it in a telegraphic +circuit "through an instrument capable of +vibrating responsively to all the tones of the human +voice, and by which they are rendered audible." Out +of this incident arose a struggle and a controversy +whose echoes are yet heard as to the legal and moral +rights of the two inventors, the assertion even being +made that one of the most important claims of Gray, +that on a liquid battery transmitter, was surreptitiously +"lifted" into the Bell application, then covering +only the magneto telephone. It was also asserted +that the filing of the Gray caveat antedated by a few +hours the filing of the Bell application. All such issues +when brought to the American courts were brushed +aside, the Bell patent being broadly maintained in +all its remarkable breadth and fullness, embracing +an entire art; but Gray was embittered and chagrined, +and to the last expressed his belief that the +honor and glory should have been his. The path of +Gray to the telephone was a natural one. A Quaker +carpenter who studied five years at Oberlin College, +he took up electrical invention, and brought out +many ingenious devices in rapid succession in the +telegraphic field, including the now universal needle +annunciator for hotels, etc., the useful telautograph, +automatic self-adjusting relays, private-line printers +--leading up to his famous "harmonic" system. +This was based upon the principle that a sound +produced in the presence of a reed or tuning-fork +responding to the sound, and acting as the armature of +a magnet in a closed circuit, would, by induction, +set up electric impulses in the circuit and cause a +distant magnet having a similarly tuned armature to +produce the same tone or note. He also found that +over the same wire at the same time another series +of impulses corresponding to another note could be +sent through the agency of a second set of magnets +without in any way interfering with the first series +of impulses. Building the principle into apparatus, +with a keyboard and vibrating "reeds" before his +magnets, Doctor Gray was able not only to transmit +music by his harmonic telegraph, but went so far as +to send nine different telegraph messages at the +same instant, each set of instruments depending on +its selective note, while any intermediate office could +pick up the message for itself by simply tuning its +relays to the keynote required. Theoretically the +system could be split up into any number of notes +and semi-tones. Practically it served as the basis +of some real telegraphic work, but is not now in use. +Any one can realize, however, that it did not take so +acute and ingenious a mind very long to push forward +to the telephone, as a dangerous competitor +with Bell, who had also, like Edison, been working +assiduously in the field of acoustic and multiple telegraphs. +Seen in the retrospect, the struggle for the +goal at this moment was one of the memorable incidents +in electrical history. + +Among the interesting papers filed at the Orange +Laboratory is a lithograph, the size of an ordinary +patent drawing, headed "First Telephone on Record." +The claim thus made goes back to the period +when all was war, and when dispute was hot and rife +as to the actual invention of the telephone. The +device shown, made by Edison in 1875, was actually +included in a caveat filed January 14, 1876, a month +before Bell or Gray. It shows a little solenoid +arrangement, with one end of the plunger attached to +the diaphragm of a speaking or resonating chamber. +Edison states that while the device is crudely capable +of use as a magneto telephone, he did not invent it +for transmitting speech, but as an apparatus for +analyzing the complex waves arising from various +sounds. It was made in pursuance of his investigations +into the subject of harmonic telegraphs. He +did not try the effect of sound-waves produced by +the human voice until Bell came forward a few months +later; but he found then that this device, made in +1875, was capable of use as a telephone. In his testimony +and public utterances Edison has always given +Bell credit for the discovery of the transmission of +articulate speech by talking against a diaphragm +placed in front of an electromagnet; but it is only +proper here to note, in passing, the curious fact that +he had actually produced a device that COULD talk, +prior to 1876, and was therefore very close to Bell, +who took the one great step further. A strong +characterization of the value and importance of the work +done by Edison in the development of the carbon +transmitter will be found in the decision of Judge +Brown in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals, +sitting in Boston, on February 27, 1901, declaring +void the famous Berliner patent of the Bell telephone +system.[5] + + +[5] See Federal Reporter, vol. 109, p. 976 et seq. + + +Bell's patent of 1876 was of an all-embracing character, +which only the make-and-break principle, if +practical, could have escaped. It was pointed out +in the patent that Bell discovered the great principle +that electrical undulations induced by the vibrations +of a current produced by sound-waves can be +represented graphically by the same sinusoidal curve +that expresses the original sound vibrations themselves; +or, in other words, that a curve representing +sound vibrations will correspond precisely to a curve +representing electric impulses produced or generated +by those identical sound vibrations--as, for example, +when the latter impinge upon a diaphragm acting +as an armature of an electromagnet, and which by +movement to and fro sets up the electric impulses by +induction. To speak plainly, the electric impulses +correspond in form and character to the sound vibration +which they represent. This reduced to a patent +"claim" governed the art as firmly as a papal bull +for centuries enabled Spain to hold the Western +world. The language of the claim is: "The method +of and apparatus for transmitting vocal or other +sounds telegraphically as herein described, by causing +electrical undulations similar in form to the vibrations +of the air accompanying the said vocal or other +sounds substantially as set forth." It was a long +time, however, before the inclusive nature of this +grant over every possible telephone was understood +or recognized, and litigation for and against the +patent lasted during its entire life. At the outset, +the commercial value of the telephone was little +appreciated by the public, and Bell had the greatest +difficulty in securing capital; but among far-sighted +inventors there was an immediate "rush to the gold +fields." Bell's first apparatus was poor, the results +being described by himself as "unsatisfactory and +discouraging," which was almost as true of the +devices he exhibited at the Philadelphia Centennial. +The new-comers, like Edison, Berliner, Blake, Hughes, +Gray, Dolbear, and others, brought a wealth of ideas, +a fund of mechanical ingenuity, and an inventive +ability which soon made the telephone one of the +most notable gains of the century, and one of the +most valuable additions to human resources. The +work that Edison did was, as usual, marked by +infinite variety of method as well as by the power to +seize on the one needed element of practical success. +Every one of the six million telephones in use in the +United States, and of the other millions in use through +out the world, bears the imprint of his genius, as at +one time the instruments bore his stamped name. +For years his name was branded on every Bell telephone +set, and his patents were a mainstay of what +has been popularly called the "Bell monopoly." +Speaking of his own efforts in this field, Mr. Edison +says: + +"In 1876 I started again to experiment for the +Western Union and Mr. Orton. This time it was the +telephone. Bell invented the first telephone, which +consisted of the present receiver, used both as a +transmitter and a receiver (the magneto type). It +was attempted to introduce it commercially, but it +failed on account of its faintness and the extraneous +sounds which came in on its wires from various +causes. Mr. Orton wanted me to take hold of it and +make it commercial. As I had also been working on +a telegraph system employing tuning-forks, +simultaneously with both Bell and Gray, I was pretty +familiar with the subject. I started in, and soon +produced the carbon transmitter, which is now +universally used. + +"Tests were made between New York and Philadelphia, +also between New York and Washington, +using regular Western Union wires. The noises were +so great that not a word could be heard with the Bell +receiver when used as a transmitter between New +York and Newark, New Jersey. Mr. Orton and +W. K. Vanderbilt and the board of directors witnessed +and took part in the tests. The Western +Union then put them on private lines. Mr. Theodore +Puskas, of Budapest, Hungary, was the first man +to suggest a telephone exchange, and soon after +exchanges were established. The telephone department +was put in the hands of Hamilton McK. Twombly, +Vanderbilt's ablest son-in-law, who made a success +of it. The Bell company, of Boston, also started an +exchange, and the fight was on, the Western Union +pirating the Bell receiver, and the Boston company +pirating the Western Union transmitter. About this +time I wanted to be taken care of. I threw out hints +of this desire. Then Mr. Orton sent for me. He had +learned that inventors didn't do business by the +regular process, and concluded he would close it +right up. He asked me how much I wanted. I had +made up my mind it was certainly worth $25,000, +if it ever amounted to anything for central-station +work, so that was the sum I had in mind to stick to +and get--obstinately. Still it had been an easy job, +and only required a few months, and I felt a little +shaky and uncertain. So I asked him to make me +an offer. He promptly said he would give me +$100,000. `All right,' I said. `It is yours on one +condition, and that is that you do not pay it all at +once, but pay me at the rate of $6000 per year for +seventeen years'--the life of the patent. He seemed +only too pleased to do this, and it was closed. My +ambition was about four times too large for my +business capacity, and I knew that I would soon +spend this money experimenting if I got it all at +once, so I fixed it that I couldn't. I saved seventeen +years of worry by this stroke." + +Thus modestly is told the debut of Edison in the +telephone art, to which with his carbon transmitter +he gave the valuable principle of varying the resistance +of the transmitting circuit with changes in the +pressure, as well as the vital practice of using the +induction coil as a means of increasing the effective +length of the talking circuit. Without these, modern +telephony would not and could not exist.[6] But Edison, +in telephonic work, as in other directions, was +remarkably fertile and prolific. His first inventions +in the art, made in 1875-76, continue through many +later years, including all kinds of carbon instruments +--the water telephone, electrostatic telephone, +condenser telephone, chemical telephone, various +magneto telephones, inertia telephone, mercury telephone, +voltaic pile telephone, musical transmitter, and +the electromotograph. All were actually made and +tested. + + +[6] Briefly stated, the essential difference between Bell's +telephone and Edison's is this: With the former the sound vibrations +impinge upon a steel diaphragm arranged adjacent to the pole of +a bar electromagnet, whereby the diaphragm acts as an armature, +and by its vibrations induces very weak electric impulses +in the magnetic coil. These impulses, according to Bell's theory, +correspond in form to the sound-waves, and passing over the line +energize the magnet coil at the receiving end, and by varying the +magnetism cause the receiving diaphragm to be similarly vibrated +to reproduce the sounds. A single apparatus is therefore used at +each end, performing the double function of transmitter and receiver. +With Edison's telephone a closed circuit is used on which +is constantly flowing a battery current, and included in that circuit +is a pair of electrodes, one or both of which is of carbon. +These electrodes are always in contact with a certain initial +pressure, so that current will be always flowing over the circuit. +One of the electrodes is connected with the diaphragm on which +the sound-waves impinge, and the vibration of this diaphragm +causes the pressure between the electrodes to be correspondingly +varied, and thereby effects a variation in the current, resulting in +the production of impulses which actuate the receiving magnet. +In other words, with Bell's telephone the sound-waves themselves +generate the electric impulses, which are hence extremely +faint. With the Edison telephone, the sound-waves actuate an +electric valve, so to speak, and permit variations in a current of +any desired strength. + +A second distinction between the two telephones is this: With +the Bell apparatus the very weak electric impulses generated by +the vibration of the transmitting diaphragm pass over the entire +line to the receiving end, and in consequence the permissible +length of line is limited to a few miles under ideal conditions. +With Edison's telephone the battery current does not flow on +the main line, but passes through the primary circuit of an +induction coil, by which corresponding impulses of enormously +higher potential are sent out on the main line to the receiving +end. In consequence, the line may be hundreds of miles in +length. No modern telephone system in use to-day lacks these +characteristic features--the varying resistance and the induction +coil. + + +The principle of the electromotograph was utilized +by Edison in more ways than one, first of all in telegraphy +at this juncture. The well-known Page patent, +which had lingered in the Patent Office for years, had +just been issued, and was considered a formidable +weapon. It related to the use of a retractile spring +to withdraw the armature lever from the magnet of +a telegraph or other relay or sounder, and thus controlled +the art of telegraphy, except in simple circuits. +"There was no known way," remarks Edison, +"whereby this patent could be evaded, and its +possessor would eventually control the use of what +is known as the relay and sounder, and this was vital +to telegraphy. Gould was pounding the Western +Union on the Stock Exchange, disturbing its railroad +contracts, and, being advised by his lawyers that +this patent was of great value, bought it. The moment +Mr. Orton heard this he sent for me and explained +the situation, and wanted me to go to work +immediately and see if I couldn't evade it or discover +some other means that could be used in case Gould +sustained the patent. It seemed a pretty hard job, +because there was no known means of moving a +lever at the other end of a telegraph wire except by +the use of a magnet. I said I would go at it that +night. In experimenting some years previously, I +had discovered a very peculiar phenomenon, and that +was that if a piece of metal connected to a battery +was rubbed over a moistened piece of chalk resting +on a metal connected to the other pole, when the +current passed the friction was greatly diminished. +When the current was reversed the friction was greatly +increased over what it was when no current was +passing. Remembering this, I substituted a piece of +chalk rotated by a small electric motor for the magnet, +and connecting a sounder to a metallic finger +resting on the chalk, the combination claim of Page +was made worthless. A hitherto unknown means was +introduced in the electric art. Two or three of the +devices were made and tested by the company's expert. +Mr. Orton, after he had me sign the patent +application and got it in the Patent Office, wanted +to settle for it at once. He asked my price. Again +I said: `Make me an offer.' Again he named $100,000. +I accepted, providing he would pay it at the +rate of $6000 a year for seventeen years. This was +done, and thus, with the telephone money, I received +$12,000 yearly for that period from the Western +Union Telegraph Company." + +A year or two later the motograph cropped up again +in Edison's work in a curious manner. The telephone +was being developed in England, and Edison had +made arrangements with Colonel Gouraud, his old +associate in the automatic telegraph, to represent his +interests. A company was formed, a large number +of instruments were made and sent to Gouraud in +London, and prospects were bright. Then there came +a threat of litigation from the owners of the Bell +patent, and Gouraud found he could not push the +enterprise unless he could avoid using what was asserted +to be an infringement of the Bell receiver. +He cabled for help to Edison, who sent back word +telling him to hold the fort. "I had recourse again," +says Edison, "to the phenomenon discovered by me +years previous, that the friction of a rubbing electrode +passing over a moist chalk surface was varied by +electricity. I devised a telephone receiver which +was afterward known as the `loud-speaking telephone,' +or `chalk receiver.' There was no magnet, +simply a diaphragm and a cylinder of compressed +chalk about the size of a thimble. A thin spring +connected to the centre of the diaphragm extended +outwardly and rested on the chalk cylinder, and was +pressed against it with a pressure equal to that which +would be due to a weight of about six pounds. The +chalk was rotated by hand. The volume of sound +was very great. A person talking into the carbon +transmitter in New York had his voice so amplified +that he could be heard one thousand feet away in +an open field at Menlo Park. This great excess of +power was due to the fact that the latter came from +the person turning the handle. The voice, instead +of furnishing all the power as with the present receiver, +merely controlled the power, just as an engineer +working a valve would control a powerful +engine. + +"I made six of these receivers and sent them in +charge of an expert on the first steamer. They were +welcomed and tested, and shortly afterward I shipped +a hundred more. At the same time I was ordered to +send twenty young men, after teaching them to become +expert. I set up an exchange, around the +laboratory, of ten instruments. I would then go out +and get each one out of order in every conceivable +way, cutting the wires of one, short-circuiting another, +destroying the adjustment of a third, putting +dirt between the electrodes of a fourth, and so on. +A man would be sent to each to find out the trouble. +When he could find the trouble ten consecutive +times, using five minutes each, he was sent to London. +About sixty men were sifted to get twenty. +Before all had arrived, the Bell company there, seeing +we could not be stopped, entered into negotiations +for consolidation. One day I received a cable from +Gouraud offering `30,000' for my interest. I cabled +back I would accept. When the draft came I was +astonished to find it was for L30,000. I had thought +it was dollars." + +In regard to this singular and happy conclusion, +Edison makes some interesting comments as to the +attitude of the courts toward inventors, and the +difference between American and English courts. "The +men I sent over were used to establish telephone +exchanges all over the Continent, and some of them +became wealthy. It was among this crowd in London +that Bernard Shaw was employed before he became +famous. The chalk telephone was finally discarded +in favor of the Bell receiver--the latter being +more simple and cheaper. Extensive litigation with +new-comers followed. My carbon-transmitter patent +was sustained, and preserved the monopoly of the +telephone in England for many years. Bell's patent +was not sustained by the courts. Sir Richard Webster, +now Chief-Justice of England, was my counsel, +and sustained all of my patents in England for many +years. Webster has a marvellous capacity for understanding +things scientific; and his address before the +courts was lucidity itself. His brain is highly organized. +My experience with the legal fraternity is +that scientific subjects are distasteful to them, and +it is rare in this country, on account of the system of +trying patent suits, for a judge really to reach the +meat of the controversy, and inventors scarcely ever +get a decision squarely and entirely in their favor. +The fault rests, in my judgment, almost wholly with +the system under which testimony to the extent of +thousands of pages bearing on all conceivable subjects, +many of them having no possible connection +with the invention in dispute, is presented to an over- +worked judge in an hour or two of argument supported +by several hundred pages of briefs; and the +judge is supposed to extract some essence of justice +from this mass of conflicting, blind, and misleading +statements. It is a human impossibility, no matter +how able and fair-minded the judge may be. In +England the case is different. There the judges are +face to face with the experts and other witnesses. +They get the testimony first-hand and only so much as +they need, and there are no long-winded briefs and +arguments, and the case is decided then and there, +a few months perhaps after suit is brought, instead of +many years afterward, as in this country. And in +England, when a case is once finally decided it is +settled for the whole country, while here it is not so. +Here a patent having once been sustained, say, in +Boston, may have to be litigated all over again in +New York, and again in Philadelphia, and so on for +all the Federal circuits. Furthermore, it seems to +me that scientific disputes should be decided by some +court containing at least one or two scientific men-- +men capable of comprehending the significance of +an invention and the difficulties of its accomplishment +--if justice is ever to be given to an inventor. +And I think, also, that this court should have the +power to summon before it and examine any recognized +expert in the special art, who might be able to +testify to FACTS for or against the patent, instead of +trying to gather the truth from the tedious essays +of hired experts, whose depositions are really nothing +but sworn arguments. The real gist of patent suits +is generally very simple, and I have no doubt that +any judge of fair intelligence, assisted by one or more +scientific advisers, could in a couple of days at the +most examine all the necessary witnesses; hear all +the necessary arguments, and actually decide an ordinary +patent suit in a way that would more nearly +be just, than can now be done at an expenditure of +a hundred times as much money and months and +years of preparation. And I have no doubt that +the time taken by the court would be enormously +less, because if a judge attempts to read the bulky +records and briefs, that work alone would require +several days. + +"Acting as judges, inventors would not be very apt +to correctly decide a complicated law point; and on +the other hand, it is hard to see how a lawyer can +decide a complicated scientific point rightly. Some +inventors complain of our Patent Office, but my own +experience with the Patent Office is that the examiners +are fair-minded and intelligent, and when they +refuse a patent they are generally right; but I think +the whole trouble lies with the system in vogue in the +Federal courts for trying patent suits, and in the fact, +which cannot be disputed, that the Federal judges, +with but few exceptions, do not comprehend complicated +scientific questions. To secure uniformity +in the several Federal circuits and correct errors, it +has been proposed to establish a central court of +patent appeals in Washington. This I believe in; +but this court should also contain at least two scientific +men, who would not be blind to the sophistry of +paid experts.[7] Men whose inventions would have +created wealth of millions have been ruined and +prevented from making any money whereby they could +continue their careers as creators of wealth for the +general good, just because the experts befuddled the +judge by their misleading statements." + + +[7] As an illustration of the perplexing nature of expert evidence in +patent cases, the reader will probably be interested in perusing +the following extracts from the opinion of Judge Dayton, in the +suit of Bryce Bros. Co. vs. Seneca Glass Co., tried in the United +States Circuit Court, Northern District of West Virginia, reported +in The Federal Reporter, 140, page 161: + +"On this subject of the validity of this patent, a vast amount +of conflicting, technical, perplexing, and almost hypercritical +discussion and opinion has been indulged, both in the testimony and +in the able and exhaustive arguments and briefs of counsel. +Expert Osborn for defendant, after setting forth minutely his +superior qualifications mechanical education, and great experience, +takes up in detail the patent claims, and shows to his own +entire satisfaction that none of them are new; that all of them +have been applied, under one form or another, in some twenty- +two previous patents, and in two other machines, not patented, +to-wit, the Central Glass and Kuny Kahbel ones; that the whole +machine is only `an aggregation of well-known mechanical elements +that any skilled designer would bring to his use in the +construction of such a machine.' This certainly, under ordinary +conditions, would settle the matter beyond peradventure; for +this witness is a very wise and learned man in these things, and +very positive. But expert Clarke appears for the plaintiff, and +after setting forth just as minutely his superior qualifications, +mechanical education, and great experience, which appear fully +equal in all respects to those of expert Osborn, proceeds to take +up in detail the patent claims, and shows to his entire satisfaction +that all, with possibly one exception, are new, show inventive +genius, and distinct advances upon the prior art. In the most +lucid, and even fascinating, way he discusses all the parts of this +machine, compares it with the others, draws distinctions, points +out the merits of the one in controversy and the defects of all +the others, considers the twenty-odd patents referred to by +Osborn, and in the politest, but neatest, manner imaginable shows +that expert Osborn did not know what he was talking about, and +sums the whole matter up by declaring this `invention of Mr. +Schrader's, as embodied in the patent in suit, a radical and wide +departure, from the Kahbel machine' (admitted on all sides to be +nearest prior approach to it), `a distinct and important advance +in the art of engraving glassware, and generally a machine for +this purpose which has involved the exercise of the inventive +faculty in the highest degree.' + +"Thus a more radical and irreconcilable disagreement between +experts touching the same thing could hardly be found. So it is +with the testimony. If we take that for the defendant, the Central +Glass Company machine, and especially the Kuny Kahbel +machine, built and operated years before this patent issued, and +not patented, are just as good, just as effective and practical, as +this one, and capable of turning out just as perfect work and as +great a variety of it. On the other hand, if we take that produced +by the plaintiff, we are driven to the conclusion that these +prior machines, the product of the same mind, were only progressive +steps forward from utter darkness, so to speak, into full +inventive sunlight, which made clear to him the solution of the +problem in this patented machine. The shortcomings of the +earlier machines are minutely set forth, and the witnesses for the +plaintiff are clear that they are neither practical nor profitable. + +"But this is not all of the trouble that confronts us in this +case. Counsel of both sides, with an indomitable courage that +must command admiration, a courage that has led them to a vast +amount of study, investigation, and thought, that in fact has +made them all experts, have dissected this record of 356 closely +printed pages, applied all mechanical principles and laws to the +facts as they see them, and, besides, have ransacked the law- +books and cited an enormous number of cases, more or less in +point, as illustration of their respective contentions. The courts +find nothing more difficult than to apply an abstract principle to +all classes of cases that may arise. The facts in each case so +frequently create an exception to the general rule that such rule +must be honored rather in its breach than in its observance. +Therefore, after a careful examination of these cases, it is no +criticism of the courts to say that both sides have found abundant +and about an equal amount of authority to sustain their +respective contentions, and, as a result, counsel have submitted, +in briefs, a sum total of 225 closely printed pages, in which they +have clearly, yet, almost to a mathematical certainty, demonstrated +on the one side that this Schrader machine is new and +patentable, and on the other that it is old and not so. Under +these circumstances, it would be unnecessary labor and a fruitless +task for me to enter into any further technical discussion of the +mechanical problems involved, for the purpose of seeking to convince +either side of its error. In cases of such perplexity as this +generally some incidents appear that speak more unerringly than +do the tongues of the witnesses, and to some of these I purpose +to now refer." + + + +Mr. Bernard Shaw, the distinguished English author, +has given a most vivid and amusing picture of this +introduction of Edison's telephone into England, describing +the apparatus as "a much too ingenious invention, +being nothing less than a telephone of such +stentorian efficiency that it bellowed your most private +communications all over the house, instead of +whispering them with some sort of discretion." Shaw, +as a young man, was employed by the Edison Telephone +Company, and was very much alive to his +surroundings, often assisting in public demonstra- +tions of the apparatus "in a manner which I am +persuaded laid the foundation of Mr. Edison's +reputation." The sketch of the men sent over from +America is graphic: "Whilst the Edison Telephone +Company lasted it crowded the basement of a high +pile of offices in Queen Victoria Street with American +artificers. These deluded and romantic men gave +me a glimpse of the skilled proletariat of the United +States. They sang obsolete sentimental songs with +genuine emotion; and their language was frightful +even to an Irishman. They worked with a ferocious +energy which was out of all proportion to the actual +result achieved. Indomitably resolved to assert their +republican manhood by taking no orders from a tall- +hatted Englishman whose stiff politeness covered +his conviction that they were relatively to himself +inferior and common persons, they insisted on being +slave-driven with genuine American oaths by a +genuine free and equal American foreman. They +utterly despised the artfully slow British workman, +who did as little for his wages as he possibly could; +never hurried himself; and had a deep reverence for +one whose pocket could be tapped by respectful +behavior. Need I add that they were contemptuously +wondered at by this same British workman as +a parcel of outlandish adult boys who sweated themselves +for their employer's benefit instead of looking +after their own interest? They adored Mr. Edison as +the greatest man of all time in every possible department +of science, art, and philosophy, and execrated +Mr. Graham Bell, the inventor of the rival telephone, +as his Satanic adversary; but each of them had (or +intended to have) on the brink of completion an improvement +on the telephone, usually a new transmitter. +They were free-souled creatures, excellent +company, sensitive, cheerful, and profane; liars, +braggarts, and hustlers, with an air of making slow +old England hum, which never left them even when, +as often happened, they were wrestling with difficulties +of their own making, or struggling in no- +thoroughfares, from which they had to be retrieved +like stray sheep by Englishmen without imagination +enough to go wrong." + +Mr. Samuel Insull, who afterward became private +secretary to Mr. Edison, and a leader in the development +of American electrical manufacturing and the +central-station art, was also in close touch with the +London situation thus depicted, being at the time +private secretary to Colonel Gouraud, and acting for +the first half hour as the amateur telephone operator +in the first experimental exchange erected in Europe. +He took notes of an early meeting where the affairs of +the company were discussed by leading men like Sir +John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) and the Right Hon. +E. P. Bouverie (then a cabinet minister), none of +whom could see in the telephone much more than an +auxiliary for getting out promptly in the next morning's +papers the midnight debates in Parliament. "I +remember another incident," says Mr. Insull. "It +was at some celebration of one of the Royal Societies +at the Burlington House, Piccadilly. We had a telephone +line running across the roofs to the basement +of the building. I think it was to Tyndall's laboratory +in Burlington Street. As the ladies and gentle- +men came through, they naturally wanted to look +at the great curiosity, the loud-speaking telephone: in +fact, any telephone was a curiosity then. Mr. and +Mrs. Gladstone came through. I was handling the +telephone at the Burlington House end. Mrs. Gladstone +asked the man over the telephone whether he +knew if a man or woman was speaking; and the +reply came in quite loud tones that it was a +man!" + +With Mr. E. H. Johnson, who represented Edison, +there went to England for the furtherance of this +telephone enterprise, Mr. Charles Edison, a nephew of +the inventor. He died in Paris, October, 1879, not +twenty years of age. Stimulated by the example of +his uncle, this brilliant youth had already made a +mark for himself as a student and inventor, and when +only eighteen he secured in open competition the contract +to install a complete fire-alarm telegraph system +for Port Huron. A few months later he was eagerly +welcomed by his uncle at Menlo Park, and after working +on the telephone was sent to London to aid in its +introduction. There he made the acquaintance of +Professor Tyndall, exhibited the telephone to the +late King of England; and also won the friendship +of the late King of the Belgians, with whom he took +up the project of establishing telephonic communication +between Belgium and England. At the time +of his premature death he was engaged in installing +the Edison quadruplex between Brussels and Paris, +being one of the very few persons then in Europe +familiar with the working of that invention. + +Meantime, the telephonic art in America was +undergoing very rapid development. In March, +1878, addressing "the capitalists of the Electric +Telephone Company" on the future of his invention, +Bell outlined with prophetic foresight and remarkable +clearness the coming of the modern telephone +exchange. Comparing with gas and water distribution, +he said: "In a similar manner, it is conceivable +that cables of telephone wires could be laid underground +or suspended overhead communicating by +branch wires with private dwellings, country houses, +shops, manufactories, etc., uniting them through the +main cable with a central office, where the wire could +be connected as desired, establishing direct +communication between any two places in the city.... +Not only so, but I believe, in the future, wires will +unite the head offices of telephone companies in different +cities; and a man in one part of the country +may communicate by word of mouth with another +in a distant place." + +All of which has come to pass. Professor Bell also +suggested how this could be done by "the employ of +a man in each central office for the purpose of connecting +the wires as directed." He also indicated the +two methods of telephonic tariff--a fixed rental and +a toll; and mentioned the practice, now in use on +long-distance lines, of a time charge. As a matter +of fact, this "centralizing" was attempted in May, +1877, in Boston, with the circuits of the Holmes +burglar-alarm system, four banking-houses being thus +interconnected; while in January of 1878 the Bell +telephone central-office system at New Haven, Connecticut, +was opened for business, "the first fully +equipped commercial telephone exchange ever established +for public or general service." + +All through this formative period Bell had adhered +to and introduced the magneto form of telephone, +now used only as a receiver, and very poorly adapted +for the vital function of a speech-transmitter. From +August, 1877, the Western Union Telegraph Company +worked along the other line, and in 1878, +with its allied Gold & Stock Telegraph Company, it +brought into existence the American Speaking Telephone +Company to introduce the Edison apparatus, +and to create telephone exchanges all over the country. +In this warfare, the possession of a good battery +transmitter counted very heavily in favor of the +Western Union, for upon that the real expansion of +the whole industry depended; but in a few months +the Bell system had its battery transmitter, too, +tending to equalize matters. Late in the same year +patent litigation was begun which brought out clearly +the merits of Bell, through his patent, as the original +and first inventor of the electric speaking telephone; +and the Western Union Telegraph Company made +terms with its rival. A famous contract bearing +date of November 10, 1879, showed that under the +Edison and other controlling patents the Western +Union Company had already set going some eighty- +five exchanges, and was making large quantities of +telephonic apparatus. In return for its voluntary +retirement from the telephonic field, the Western +Union Telegraph Company, under this contract, received +a royalty of 20 per cent. of all the telephone +earnings of the Bell system while the Bell patents +ran; and thus came to enjoy an annual income of +several hundred thousand dollars for some years, based +chiefly on its modest investment in Edison's work. +It was also paid several thousand dollars in cash for +the Edison, Phelps, Gray, and other apparatus on +hand. It secured further 40 per cent. of the stock +of the local telephone systems of New York and +Chicago; and last, but by no means least, it exacted +from the Bell interests an agreement to stay out of +the telegraph field. + +By March, 1881, there were in the United States +only nine cities of more than ten thousand inhabitants, +and only one of more than fifteen thousand, +without a telephone exchange. The industry thrived +under competition, and the absence of it now had a +decided effect in checking growth; for when the +Bell patent expired in 1893, the total of telephone sets +in operation in the United States was only 291,253. +To quote from an official Bell statement: + + +"The brief but vigorous Western Union competition +was a kind of blessing in disguise. The very fact that +two distinct interests were actively engaged in the work +of organizing and establishing competing telephone +exchanges all over the country, greatly facilitated the +spread of the idea and the growth of the business, and +familiarized the people with the use of the telephone as a +business agency; while the keenness of the competition, +extending to the agents and employees of both companies, +brought about a swift but quite unforeseen and unlooked- +for expansion in the individual exchanges of the larger +cities, and a corresponding advance in their importance, +value, and usefulness." + +The truth of this was immediately shown in 1894, +after the Bell patents had expired, by the tremendous +outburst of new competitive activity, in "independent" +country systems and toll lines through +sparsely settled districts--work for which the Edison +apparatus and methods were peculiarly adapted, yet +against which the influence of the Edison patent +was invoked. The data secured by the United States +Census Office in 1902 showed that the whole industry +had made gigantic leaps in eight years, and had +2,371,044 telephone stations in service, of which +1,053,866 were wholly or nominally independent of +the Bell. By 1907 an even more notable increase +was shown, and the Census figures for that year +included no fewer than 6,118,578 stations, of which +1,986,575 were "independent." These six million +instruments every single set employing the principle +of the carbon transmitter--were grouped into 15,527 +public exchanges, in the very manner predicted by +Bell thirty years before, and they gave service in the +shape of over eleven billions of talks. The outstanding +capitalized value of the plant was $814,616,004, +the income for the year was nearly $185,000,000, and +the people employed were 140,000. If Edison had +done nothing else, his share in the creation of such +an industry would have entitled him to a high place +among inventors. + +This chapter is of necessity brief in its reference to +many extremely interesting points and details; and +to some readers it may seem incomplete in its references +to the work of other men than Edison, whose +influence on telephony as an art has also been con- +siderable. In reply to this pertinent criticism, it +may be pointed out that this is a life of Edison, and +not of any one else; and that even the discussion of +his achievements alone in these various fields +requires more space than the authors have at their +disposal. The attempt has been made, however, to +indicate the course of events and deal fairly with the +facts. The controversy that once waged with great +excitement over the invention of the microphone, +but has long since died away, is suggestive of the +difficulties involved in trying to do justice to everybody. +A standard history describes the microphone +thus: + + +"A form of apparatus produced during the early days +of the telephone by Professor Hughes, of England, for +the purpose of rendering faint, indistinct sounds distinctly +audible, depended for its operation on the changes that +result in the resistance of loose contacts. This apparatus +was called the microphone, and was in reality but one of +the many forms that it is possible to give to the telephone +transmitter. For example, the Edison granular transmitter +was a variety of microphone, as was also Edison's +transmitter, in which the solid button of carbon was employed. +Indeed, even the platinum point, which in the +early form of the Reis transmitter pressed against the +platinum contact cemented to the centre of the diaphragm, +was a microphone." + +At a time when most people were amazed at the idea +of hearing, with the aid of a "microphone," a fly walk +at a distance of many miles, the priority of invention +of such a device was hotly disputed. Yet without +desiring to take anything from the credit of the +brilliant American, Hughes, whose telegraphic apparatus +is still in use all over Europe, it may be +pointed out that this passage gives Edison the attribution +of at least two original forms of which those +suggested by Hughes were mere variations and modifications. +With regard to this matter, Mr. Edison +himself remarks: "After I sent one of my men over +to London especially, to show Preece the carbon +transmitter, and where Hughes first saw it, and +heard it--then within a month he came out with the +microphone, without any acknowledgment whatever. +Published dates will show that Hughes came along +after me." + +There have been other ways also in which Edison +has utilized the peculiar property that carbon possesses +of altering its resistance to the passage of current, +according to the pressure to which it is subjected, +whether at the surface, or through closer union +of the mass. A loose road with a few inches of dust +or pebbles on it offers appreciable resistance to the +wheels of vehicles travelling over it; but if the surface +is kept hard and smooth the effect is quite different. +In the same way carbon, whether solid or +in the shape of finely divided powder, offers a high +resistance to the passage of electricity; but if the +carbon is squeezed together the conditions change, +with less resistance to electricity in the circuit. +For his quadruplex system, Mr. Edison utilized this +fact in the construction of a rheostat or resistance +box. It consists of a series of silk disks saturated +with a sizing of plumbago and well dried. The disks +are compressed by means of an adjustable screw; and +in this manner the resistance of a circuit can be varied +over a wide range. + +In like manner Edison developed a "pressure" or +carbon relay, adapted to the transference of signals +of variable strength from one circuit to another. An +ordinary relay consists of an electromagnet inserted +in the main line for telegraphing, which brings a local +battery and sounder circuit into play, reproducing +in the local circuit the signals sent over the main line. +The relay is adjusted to the weaker currents likely to +be received, but the signals reproduced on the sounder +by the agency of the relay are, of course, all of equal +strength, as they depend upon the local battery, +which has only this steady work to perform. In +cases where it is desirable to reproduce the signals in +the local circuit with the same variations in strength +as they are received by the relay, the Edison carbon +pressure relay does the work. The poles of the +electromagnet in the local circuit are hollowed out +and filled up with carbon disks or powdered plumbago. +The armature and the carbon-tipped poles of +the electromagnet form part of the local circuit; and +if the relay is actuated by a weak current the armature +will be attracted but feebly. The carbon being only +slightly compressed will offer considerable resistance +to the flow of current from the local battery, and +therefore the signal on the local sounder will be weak. +If, on the contrary, the incoming current on the main +line be strong, the armature will be strongly attracted, +the carbon will be sharply compressed, the resistance +in the local circuit will be proportionately lowered, +and the signal heard on the local sounder will be a +loud one. Thus it will be seen, by another clever +juggle with the willing agent, carbon, for which he +has found so many duties, Edison is able to transfer +or transmit exactly, to the local circuit, the main-line +current in all its minutest variations. + +In his researches to determine the nature of the +motograph phenomena, and to open up other sources +of electrical current generation, Edison has worked +out a very ingenious and somewhat perplexing piece +of apparatus known as the "chalk battery." It consists +of a series of chalk cylinders mounted on a shaft +revolved by hand. Resting against each of these +cylinders is a palladium-faced spring, and similar +springs make contact with the shaft between each +cylinder. By connecting all these springs in circuit +with a galvanometer and revolving the shaft rapidly, +a notable deflection is obtained of the galvanometer +needle, indicating the production of electrical energy. +The reason for this does not appear to have been +determined. + +Last but not least, in this beautiful and ingenious +series, comes the "tasimeter," an instrument of most +delicate sensibility in the presence of heat. The +name is derived from the Greek, the use of the apparatus +being primarily to measure extremely minute +differences of pressure. A strip of hard rubber with +pointed ends rests perpendicularly on a platinum +plate, beneath which is a carbon button, under which +again lies another platinum plate. The two plates +and the carbon button form part of an electric circuit +containing a battery and a galvanometer. The +hard-rubber strip is exceedingly sensitive to heat. +The slightest degree of heat imparted to it causes it +to expand invisibly, thus increasing the pressure contact +on the carbon button and producing a variation +in the resistance of the circuit, registered immediately +by the little swinging needle of the galvanometer. +The instrument is so sensitive that with a delicate +galvanometer it will show the impingement of the +heat from a person's hand thirty feet away. The +suggestion to employ such an apparatus in astronomical +observations occurs at once, and it may be +noted that in one instance the heat of rays of light +from the remote star Arcturus gave results. + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE PHONOGRAPH + +AT the opening of the Electrical Show in New +York City in October, 1908, to celebrate the +jubilee of the Atlantic Cable and the first quarter +century of lighting with the Edison service on +Manhattan Island, the exercises were all conducted by +means of the Edison phonograph. This included the +dedicatory speech of Governor Hughes, of New York; +the modest remarks of Mr. Edison, as president; the +congratulations of the presidents of several national +electric bodies, and a number of vocal and instrumental +selections of operatic nature. All this was +heard clearly by a very large audience, and was +repeated on other evenings. The same speeches were +used again phonographically at the Electrical Show +in Chicago in 1909--and now the records are +preserved for reproduction a hundred or a thousand +years hence. This tour de force, never attempted +before, was merely an exemplification of the value of +the phonograph not only in establishing at first hand +the facts of history, but in preserving the human +voice. What would we not give to listen to the very +accents and tones of the Sermon on the Mount, the +orations of Demosthenes, the first Pitt's appeal for +American liberty, the Farewell of Washington, or the +Address at Gettysburg? Until Edison made his wonderful +invention in 1877, the human race was entirely +without means for preserving or passing on to posterity +its own linguistic utterances or any other vocal +sound. We have some idea how the ancients looked +and felt and wrote; the abundant evidence takes us +back to the cave-dwellers. But all the old languages +are dead, and the literary form is their embalmment. +We do not even know definitely how Shakespeare's +and Goldsmith's plays were pronounced on the stage +in the theatres of the time; while it is only a guess +that perhaps Chaucer would sound much more modern +than he scans. + +The analysis of sound, which owes so much to +Helmholtz, was one step toward recording; and the +various means of illustrating the phenomena of sound +to the eye and ear, prior to the phonograph, were all +ingenious. One can watch the dancing little flames +of Koenig, and see a voice expressed in tongues of +fire; but the record can only be photographic. In +like manner, the simple phonautograph of Leon Scott, +invented about 1858, records on a revolving cylinder +of blackened paper the sound vibrations transmitted +through a membrane to which a tiny stylus is attached; +so that a human mouth uses a pen and inscribes +its sign vocal. Yet after all we are just as +far away as ever from enabling the young actors at +Harvard to give Aristophanes with all the true, subtle +intonation and inflection of the Athens of 400 B.C. +The instrument is dumb. Ingenuity has been shown +also in the invention of "talking-machines," like +Faber's, based on the reed organ pipe. These autom- +ata can be made by dexterous manipulation to jabber +a little, like a doll with its monotonous "ma-ma," or +a cuckoo clock; but they lack even the sterile utility +of the imitative art of ventriloquism. The real great +invention lies in creating devices that shall be able +to evoke from tinfoil, wax, or composition at any +time to-day or in the future the sound that once was +as evanescent as the vibrations it made on the air. + +Contrary to the general notion, very few of the +great modern inventions have been the result of a +sudden inspiration by which, Minerva-like, they have +sprung full-fledged from their creators' brain; but, +on the contrary, they have been evolved by slow and +gradual steps, so that frequently the final advance +has been often almost imperceptible. The Edison +phonograph is an important exception to the general +rule; not, of course, the phonograph of the present +day with all of its mechanical perfection, but as an +instrument capable of recording and reproducing +sound. Its invention has been frequently attributed +to the discovery that a point attached to a telephone +diaphragm would, under the effect of sound-waves, +vibrate with sufficient force to prick the finger. The +story, though interesting, is not founded on fact; +but, if true, it is difficult to see how the discovery in +question could have contributed materially to the +ultimate accomplishment. To a man of Edison's perception +it is absurd to suppose that the effect of the +so-called discovery would not have been made as a +matter of deduction long before the physical sensation +was experienced. As a matter of fact, the invention +of the phonograph was the result of pure reason. +Some time prior to 1877, Edison had been experimenting +on an automatic telegraph in which the +letters were formed by embossing strips of paper +with the proper arrangement of dots and dashes. +By drawing this strip beneath a contact lever, the +latter was actuated so as to control the circuits and +send the desired signals over the line. It was observed +that when the strip was moved very rapidly +the vibration of the lever resulted in the production +of an audible note. With these facts before him, +Edison reasoned that if the paper strip could be imprinted +with elevations and depressions representative +of sound-waves, they might be caused to actuate a +diaphragm so as to reproduce the corresponding +sounds. The next step in the line of development +was to form the necessary undulations on the strip, +and it was then reasoned that original sounds themselves +might be utilized to form a graphic record by +actuating a diaphragm and causing a cutting or indenting +point carried thereby to vibrate in contact +with a moving surface, so as to cut or indent the +record therein. Strange as it may seem, therefore, +and contrary to the general belief, the phonograph +was developed backward, the production of the sounds +being of prior development to the idea of actually +recording them. + +Mr. Edison's own account of the invention of the +phonograph is intensely interesting. "I was +experimenting," he says, "on an automatic method of +recording telegraph messages on a disk of paper laid +on a revolving platen, exactly the same as the disk +talking-machine of to-day. The platen had a spiral +groove on its surface, like the disk. Over this was +placed a circular disk of paper; an electromagnet +with the embossing point connected to an arm +travelled over the disk; and any signals given +through the magnets were embossed on the disk of +paper. If this disk was removed from the machine +and put on a similar machine provided with a contact +point, the embossed record would cause the +signals to be repeated into another wire. The ordinary +speed of telegraphic signals is thirty-five to +forty words a minute; but with this machine several +hundred words were possible. + +"From my experiments on the telephone I knew +of the power of a diaphragm to take up sound vibrations, +as I had made a little toy which, when you +recited loudly in the funnel, would work a pawl connected +to the diaphragm; and this engaging a ratchet- +wheel served to give continuous rotation to a pulley. +This pulley was connected by a cord to a little paper +toy representing a man sawing wood. Hence, if one +shouted: `Mary had a little lamb,' etc., the paper +man would start sawing wood. I reached the conclusion +that if I could record the movements of the +diaphragm properly, I could cause such record to +reproduce the original movements imparted to the +diaphragm by the voice, and thus succeed in recording +and reproducing the human voice. + +"Instead of using a disk I designed a little machine +using a cylinder provided with grooves around the +surface. Over this was to be placed tinfoil, which +easily received and recorded the movements of the +diaphragm. A sketch was made, and the piece-work +price, $18, was marked on the sketch. I was in the +habit of marking the price I would pay on each +sketch. If the workman lost, I would pay his regular +wages; if he made more than the wages, he kept it. +The workman who got the sketch was John Kruesi. +I didn't have much faith that it would work, expecting +that I might possibly hear a word or so that +would give hope of a future for the idea. Kruesi, +when he had nearly finished it, asked what it was for. +I told him I was going to record talking, and then +have the machine talk back. He thought it absurd. +However, it was finished, the foil was put on; I then +shouted `Mary had a little lamb,' etc. I adjusted the +reproducer, and the machine reproduced it perfectly. +I was never so taken aback in my life. Everybody +was astonished. I was always afraid of things that +worked the first time. Long experience proved that +there were great drawbacks found generally before +they could be got commercial; but here was something +there was no doubt of." + +No wonder that honest John Kruesi, as he stood +and listened to the marvellous performance of the +simple little machine he had himself just finished, +ejaculated in an awe-stricken tone: "Mein Gott im +Himmel!" And yet he had already seen Edison do +a few clever things. No wonder they sat up all night +fixing and adjusting it so as to get better and better +results--reciting and singing, trying each other's +voices, and then listening with involuntary awe as +the words came back again and again, just as long +as they were willing to revolve the little cylinder +with its dotted spiral indentations in the tinfoil under +the vibrating stylus of the reproducing diaphragm. +It took a little time to acquire the knack of turning +the crank steadily while leaning over the recorder to +talk into the machine; and there was some deftness +required also in fastening down the tinfoil on the +cylinder where it was held by a pin running in a +longitudinal slot. Paraffined paper appears also to +have been experimented with as an impressible +material. It is said that Carman, the foreman of the +machine shop, had gone the length of wagering Edison +a box of cigars that the device would not work. All +the world knows that he lost. + +The original Edison phonograph thus built by +Kruesi is preserved in the South Kensington Museum, +London. That repository can certainly have no +greater treasure of its kind. But as to its immediate +use, the inventor says: "That morning I took it over +to New York and walked into the office of the Scientific +American, went up to Mr. Beach's desk, and said I +had something to show him. He asked what it was. +I told him I had a machine that would record and +reproduce the human voice. I opened the package, +set up the machine and recited, `Mary had a little +lamb,' etc. Then I reproduced it so that it could +be heard all over the room. They kept me at it until +the crowd got so great Mr. Beach was afraid the +floor would collapse; and we were compelled to stop. +The papers next morning contained columns. None +of the writers seemed to understand how it was done. +I tried to explain, it was so very simple, but the results +were so surprising they made up their minds probably +that they never would understand it--and they didn't. + +"I started immediately making several larger and +better machines, which I exhibited at Menlo Park to +crowds. The Pennsylvania Railroad ran special +trains. Washington people telegraphed me to come +on. I took a phonograph to Washington and exhibited +it in the room of James G. Blaine's niece +(Gail Hamilton); and members of Congress and +notable people of that city came all day long until +late in the evening. I made one break. I recited +`Mary,' etc., and another ditty: + + `There was a little girl, who had a little curl + Right in the middle of her forehead; + And when she was good she was very, very good, + But when she was bad she was horrid.' + +It will be remembered that Senator Roscoe Conkling, +then very prominent, had a curl of hair on his forehead; +and all the caricaturists developed it abnormally. +He was very sensitive about the subject. +When he came in he was introduced; but being rather +deaf, I didn't catch his name, but sat down and +started the curl ditty. Everybody tittered, and I +was told that Mr. Conkling was displeased. About +11 o'clock at night word was received from President +Hayes that he would be very much pleased if I would +come up to the White House. I was taken there, +and found Mr. Hayes and several others waiting. +Among them I remember Carl Schurz, who was playing +the piano when I entered the room. The exhibition +continued till about 12.30 A.M., when Mrs. Hayes +and several other ladies, who had been induced to +get up and dress, appeared. I left at 3.30 A,M, + +"For a long time some people thought there was +trickery. One morning at Menlo Park a gentleman +came to the laboratory and asked to see the phonograph. +It was Bishop Vincent, who helped Lewis +Miller found the Chautauqua I exhibited it, and +then he asked if he could speak a few words. I put +on a fresh foil and told him to go ahead. He +commenced to recite Biblical names with immense +rapidity. On reproducing it he said: `I am satisfied, +now. There isn't a man in the United States who +could recite those names with the same rapidity.' " + +The phonograph was now fairly launched as a +world sensation, and a reference to the newspapers +of 1878 will show the extent to which it and Edison +were themes of universal discussion. Some of the +press notices of the period were most amazing--and +amusing. As though the real achievements of +this young man, barely thirty, were not tangible +and solid enough to justify admiration of his genius, +the "yellow journalists" of the period began busily +to create an "Edison myth," with gross absurdities of +assertion and attribution from which the modest +subject of it all has not yet ceased to suffer with +unthinking people. A brilliantly vicious example of +this method of treatment is to be found in the Paris +Figaro of that year, which under the appropriate +title of "This Astounding Eddison" lay bare before +the French public the most startling revelations as +to the inventor's life and character. "It should be +understood," said this journal, "that Mr. Eddison +does not belong to himself. He is the property of +the telegraph company which lodges him in New +York at a superb hotel; keeps him on a luxurious +footing, and pays him a formidable salary so as to +be the one to know of and profit by his discoveries. +The company has, in the dwelling of Eddison, +men in its employ who do not quit him for a +moment, at the table, on the street, in the laboratory. +So that this wretched man, watched more +closely than ever was any malefactor, cannot even +give a moment's thought to his own private affairs +without one of his guards asking him what he is +thinking about." This foolish "blague" was accompanied +by a description of Edison's new "aerophone," +a steam machine which carried the voice a distance +of one and a half miles. "You speak to a jet of +vapor. A friend previously advised can answer you +by the same method." Nor were American journals +backward in this wild exaggeration. + +The furor had its effect in stimulating a desire +everywhere on the part of everybody to see and hear +the phonograph. A small commercial organization +was formed to build and exploit the apparatus, and +the shops at Menlo Park laboratory were assisted by +the little Bergmann shop in New York. Offices were +taken for the new enterprise at 203 Broadway, where +the Mail and Express building now stands, and +where, in a general way, under the auspices of a +talented dwarf, C. A. Cheever, the embryonic phonograph +and the crude telephone shared rooms and expenses. +Gardiner G. Hubbard, father-in-law of Alex. +Graham Bell, was one of the stockholders in the +Phonograph Company, which paid Edison $10,000 +cash and a 20 per cent. royalty. This curious part- +nership was maintained for some time, even when +the Bell Telephone offices were removed to Reade +Street, New York, whither the phonograph went also; +and was perhaps explained by the fact that just then +the ability of the phonograph as a money-maker +was much more easily demonstrated than was that +of the telephone, still in its short range magneto +stage and awaiting development with the aid of the +carbon transmitter. + +The earning capacity of the phonograph then, as +largely now, lay in its exhibition qualities. The +royalties from Boston, ever intellectually awake and +ready for something new, ran as high as $1800 a +week. In New York there was a ceaseless demand +for it, and with the aid of Hilbourne L. Roosevelt, a +famous organ builder, and uncle of ex-President +Roosevelt, concerts were given at which the phonograph +was "featured." To manage this novel show +business the services of James Redpath were called +into requisition with great success. Redpath, famous +as a friend and biographer of John Brown, as a +Civil War correspondent, and as founder of the +celebrated Redpath Lyceum Bureau in Boston, divided +the country into territories, each section being leased +for exhibition purposes on a basis of a percentage of +the "gate money." To 203 Broadway from all over +the Union flocked a swarm of showmen, cranks, and +particularly of old operators, who, the seedier they +were in appearance, the more insistent they were that +"Tom" should give them, for the sake of "Auld lang +syne," this chance to make a fortune for him and for +themselves. At the top of the building was a floor +on which these novices were graduated in the use and +care of the machine, and then, with an equipment of +tinfoil and other supplies, they were sent out on the +road. It was a diverting experience while it lasted. +The excitement over the phonograph was maintained +for many months, until a large proportion of the +inhabitants of the country had seen it; and then the +show receipts declined and dwindled away. Many of +the old operators, taken on out of good-nature, were +poor exhibitors and worse accountants, and at last +they and the machines with which they had been +intrusted faded from sight. But in the mean time +Edison had learned many lessons as to this practical +side of development that were not forgotten when +the renascence of the phonograph began a few years +later, leading up to the present enormous and steady +demand for both machines and records. + +It deserves to be pointed out that the phonograph +has changed little in the intervening years from the +first crude instruments of 1877-78. It has simply +been refined and made more perfect in a mechanical +sense. Edison was immensely impressed with its +possibilities, and greatly inclined to work upon it, +but the coming of the electric light compelled him to +throw all his energies for a time into the vast new +field awaiting conquest. The original phonograph, +as briefly noted above, was rotated by hand, and the +cylinder was fed slowly longitudinally by means of +a nut engaging a screw thread on the cylinder shaft. +Wrapped around the cylinder was a sheet of tinfoil, +with which engaged a small chisel-like recording +needle, connected adhesively with the centre of an +iron diaphragm. Obviously, as the cylinder was +turned, the needle followed a spiral path whose pitch +depended upon that of the feed screw. Along this +path a thread was cut in the cylinder so as to permit +the needle to indent the foil readily as the diaphragm +vibrated. By rotating the cylinder and by causing +the diaphragm to vibrate under the effect of vocal +or musical sounds, the needle-like point would form +a series of indentations in the foil corresponding to +and characteristic of the sound-waves. By now +engaging the point with the beginning of the grooved +record so formed, and by again rotating the cylinder, +the undulations of the record would cause the needle +and its attached diaphragm to vibrate so as to effect +the reproduction. Such an apparatus was necessarily +undeveloped, and was interesting only from a scientific +point of view. It had many mechanical defects +which prevented its use as a practical apparatus. +Since the cylinder was rotated by hand, the speed +at which the record was formed would vary +considerably, even with the same manipulator, so that +it would have been impossible to record and reproduce +music satisfactorily; in doing which exact uniformity +of speed is essential. The formation of the +record in tinfoil was also objectionable from a practical +standpoint, since such a record was faint and +would be substantially obliterated after two or three +reproductions. Furthermore, the foil could not be +easily removed from and replaced upon the instrument, +and consequently the reproduction had to follow +the recording immediately, and the successive +tinfoils were thrown away. The instrument was also +heavy and bulky. Notwithstanding these objections +the original phonograph created, as already remarked, +an enormous popular excitement, and the exhibitions +were considered by many sceptical persons as nothing +more than clever ventriloquism. The possibilities +of the instrument as a commercial apparatus +were recognized from the very first, and some of the +fields in which it was predicted that the phonograph +would be used are now fully occupied. Some have +not yet been realized. Writing in 1878 in the North +American-Review, Mr. Edison thus summed up his +own ideas as to the future applications of the new +invention: + + +"Among the many uses to which the phonograph will +be applied are the following: + +1. Letter writing and all kinds of dictation without the +aid of a stenographer. + +2. Phonographic books, which will speak to blind people +without effort on their part. + +3. The teaching of elocution. + +4. Reproduction of music. + +5. The `Family Record'--a registry of sayings, +reminiscences, etc., by members of a family in their own +voices, and of the last words of dying persons. + +6. Music-boxes and toys. + +7. Clocks that should announce in articulate speech +the time for going home, going to meals, etc. + +8. The preservation of languages by exact reproduction +of the manner of pronouncing. + +9. Educational purposes; such as preserving the +explanations made by a teacher, so that the pupil can refer +to them at any moment, and spelling or other lessons +placed upon the phonograph for convenience in committing +to memory. + +10. Connection with the telephone, so as to make that +instrument an auxiliary in the transmission of permanent +and invaluable records, instead of being the recipient of +momentary and fleeting communication." + + +Of the above fields of usefulness in which it was +expected that the phonograph might be applied, only +three have been commercially realized--namely, the +reproduction of musical, including vaudeville or talking +selections, for which purpose a very large proportion +of the phonographs now made is used; the employment +of the machine as a mechanical stenographer, +which field has been taken up actively only +within the past few years; and the utilization of the +device for the teaching of languages, for which purpose +it has been successfully employed, for example, +by the International Correspondence Schools of +Scranton, Pennsylvania, for several years. The other +uses, however, which were early predicted for the +phonograph have not as yet been worked out practically, +although the time seems not far distant when +its general utility will be widely enlarged. Both dolls +and clocks have been made, but thus far the world +has not taken them seriously. + +The original phonograph, as invented by Edison, +remained in its crude and immature state for almost +ten years--still the object of philosophical interest, +and as a convenient text-book illustration of the +effect of sound vibration. It continued to be a theme +of curious interest to the imaginative, and the subject +of much fiction, while its neglected commercial +possibilities were still more or less vaguely referred to. +During this period of arrested development, Edison +was continuously working on the invention and commercial +exploitation of the incandescent lamp. In +1887 his time was comparatively free, and the phonograph +was then taken up with renewed energy, and +the effort made to overcome its mechanical defects +and to furnish a commercial instrument, so that its +early promise might be realized. The important +changes made from that time up to 1890 converted +the phonograph from a scientific toy into a successful +industrial apparatus. The idea of forming the record +on tinfoil had been early abandoned, and in its stead +was substituted a cylinder of wax-like material, in +which the record was cut by a minute chisel-like gouging +tool. Such a record or phonogram, as it was then +called, could be removed from the machine or replaced +at any time, many reproductions could be +obtained without wearing out the record, and whenever +desired the record could be shaved off by a +turning-tool so as to present a fresh surface on which +a new record could be formed, something like an +ancient palimpsest. A wax cylinder having walls +less than one-quarter of an inch in thickness could +be used for receiving a large number of records, since +the maximum depth of the record groove is hardly +ever greater than one one-thousandth of an inch. +Later on, and as the crowning achievement in the +phonograph field, from a commercial point of view, +came the duplication of records to the extent of many +thousands from a single "master." This work was +actively developed between the years 1890 and 1898, +and its difficulties may be appreciated when the +problem is stated; the copying from a single master +of many millions of excessively minute sound-waves +having a maximum width of one hundredth of an +inch, and a maximum depth of one thousandth of +an inch, or less than the thickness of a sheet of +tissue-paper. Among the interesting developments of +this process was the coating of the original or master +record with a homogeneous film of gold so thin that +three hundred thousand of these piled one on top of +the other would present a thickness of only one inch! + +Another important change was in the nature of a +reversal of the original arrangement, the cylinder or +mandrel carrying the record being mounted in fixed +bearings, and the recording or reproducing device +being fed lengthwise, like the cutting-tool of a lathe, +as the blank or record was rotated. It was early +recognized that a single needle for forming the record +and the reproduction therefrom was an undesirable +arrangement, since the formation of the record required +a very sharp cutting-tool, while satisfactory +and repeated reproduction suggested the use of a +stylus which would result in the minimum wear. +After many experiments and the production of a +number of types of machines, the present recorders +and reproducers were evolved, the former consisting +of a very small cylindrical gouging tool having a diameter +of about forty thousandths of an inch, and the +latter a ball or button-shaped stylus with a diameter +of about thirty-five thousandths of an inch. By +using an incisor of this sort, the record is formed of +a series of connected gouges with rounded sides, +varying in depth and width, and with which the +reproducer automatically engages and maintains its +engagement. Another difficulty encountered in the +commercial development of the phonograph was the +adjustment of the recording stylus so as to enter the +wax-like surface to a very slight depth, and of the +reproducer so as to engage exactly the record when +formed. The earlier types of machines were provided +with separate screws for effecting these adjustments; +but considerable skill was required to +obtain good results, and great difficulty was +experienced in meeting the variations in the wax-like +cylinders, due to the warping under atmospheric +changes. Consequently, with the early types of commercial +phonographs, it was first necessary to shave +off the blank accurately before a record was formed +thereon, in order that an absolutely true surface +might be presented. To overcome these troubles, +the very ingenious suggestion was then made and +adopted, of connecting the recording and reproducing +styluses to their respective diaphragms through the +instrumentality of a compensating weight, which acted +practically as a fixed support under the very rapid +sound vibrations, but which yielded readily to distortions +or variations in the wax-like cylinders. By +reason of this improvement, it became possible to do +away with all adjustments, the mass of the compensating +weight causing the recorder to engage the +blank automatically to the required depth, and to +maintain the reproducing stylus always with the desired +pressure on the record when formed. These +automatic adjustments were maintained even though +the blank or record might be so much out of true +as an eighth of an inch, equal to more than two +hundred times the maximum depth of the record +groove. + +Another improvement that followed along the lines +adopted by Edison for the commercial development +of the phonograph was making the recording and reproducing +styluses of sapphire, an extremely hard, +non-oxidizable jewel, so that those tiny instruments +would always retain their true form and effectively +resist wear. Of course, in this work many other things +were done that may still be found on the perfected +phonograph as it stands to-day, and many other suggestions +were made which were contemporaneously +adopted, but which were later abandoned. For the +curious-minded, reference is made to the records in +the Patent Office, which will show that up to 1893 +Edison had obtained upward of sixty-five patents in +this art, from which his line of thought can be very +closely traced. The phonograph of to-day, except +for the perfection of its mechanical features, in its +beauty of manufacture and design, and in small details, +may be considered identical with the machine +of 1889, with the exception that with the latter the +rotation of the record cylinder was effected by an +electric motor. + +Its essential use as then contemplated was as a +substitute for stenographers, and the most extravagant +fancies were indulged in as to utility in that +field. To exploit the device commercially, the patents +were sold to Philadelphia capitalists, who organized +the North American Phonograph Company, through +which leases for limited periods were granted to local +companies doing business in special territories, gen- +erally within the confines of a single State. Under +that plan, resembling the methods of 1878, the machines +and blank cylinders were manufactured by the +Edison Phonograph Works, which still retains its +factories at Orange, New Jersey. The marketing +enterprise was early doomed to failure, principally +because the instruments were not well understood, +and did not possess the necessary refinements that +would fit them for the special field in which they were +to be used. At first the instruments were leased; +but it was found that the leases were seldom renewed. +Efforts were then made to sell them, but the prices +were high--from $100 to $150. In the midst of these +difficulties, the chief promoter of the enterprise, Mr. +Lippincott, died; and it was soon found that the +roseate dreams of success entertained by the sanguine +promoters were not to be realized. The North American +Phonograph Company failed, its principal creditor +being Mr. Edison, who, having acquired the +assets of the defunct concern, organized the National +Phonograph Company, to which he turned over the +patents; and with characteristic energy he attempted +again to build up a business with which his favorite +and, to him, most interesting invention might be +successfully identified. The National Phonograph +Company from the very start determined to retire at +least temporarily from the field of stenographic use, +and to exploit the phonograph for musical purposes as +a competitor of the music-box. Hence it was necessary +that for such work the relatively heavy and expensive +electric motor should be discarded, and a simple +spring motor constructed with a sufficiently sensitive +governor to permit accurate musical reproduction. +Such a motor was designed, and is now used on all +phonographs except on such special instruments as +may be made with electric motors, as well as on the +successful apparatus that has more recently been +designed and introduced for stenographic use. Improved +factory facilities were introduced; new tools +were made, and various types of machines were designed +so that phonographs can now be bought at +prices ranging from $10 to $200. Even with the +changes which were thus made in the two machines, +the work of developing the business was slow, as a +demand had to be created; and the early prejudice +of the public against the phonograph, due to its failure +as a stenographic apparatus, had to be overcome. +The story of the phonograph as an industrial enterprise, +from this point of departure, is itself full of +interest, but embraces so many details that it is +necessarily given in a separate later chapter. We must +return to the days of 1878, when Edison, with at +least three first-class inventions to his credit--the +quadruplex, the carbon telephone, and the phonograph +--had become a man of mark and a "world +character." + +The invention of the phonograph was immediately +followed, as usual, by the appearance of several other +incidental and auxiliary devices, some patented, and +others remaining simply the application of the principles +of apparatus that had been worked out. One +of these was the telephonograph, a combination of a +telephone at a distant station with a phonograph. +The diaphragm of the phonograph mouthpiece is +actuated by an electromagnet in the same way as +that of an ordinary telephone receiver, and in this +manner a record of the message spoken from a distance +can be obtained and turned into sound at will. +Evidently such a process is reversible, and the +phonograph can send a message to the distant receiver. + +This idea was brilliantly demonstrated in practice +in February, 1889, by Mr. W. J. Hammer, one of +Edison's earliest and most capable associates, who +carried on telephonographic communication between +New York and an audience in Philadelphia. The +record made in New York on the Edison phonograph +was repeated into an Edison carbon transmitter, sent +over one hundred and three miles of circuit, including +six miles of underground cable; received by an Edison +motograph; repeated by that on to a phonograph; +transferred from the phonograph to an Edison carbon +transmitter, and by that delivered to the Edison +motograph receiver in the enthusiastic lecture-hall, +where every one could hear each sound and syllable +distinctly. In real practice this spectacular playing +with sound vibrations, as if they were lacrosse balls +to toss around between the goals, could be materially +simplified. + +The modern megaphone, now used universally in +making announcements to large crowds, particularly +at sporting events, is also due to this period as a +perfection by Edison of many antecedent devices going +back, perhaps, much further than the legendary +funnels through which Alexander the Great is said +to have sent commands to his outlying forces. The +improved Edison megaphone for long-distance work +comprised two horns of wood or metal about six feet +long, tapering from a diameter of two feet six inches +at the mouth to a small aperture provided with ear- +tubes. These converging horns or funnels, with a +large speaking-trumpet in between them, are mounted +on a tripod, and the megaphone is complete. +Conversation can be carried on with this megaphone +at a distance of over two miles, as with a ship or +the balloon. The modern megaphone now employs +the receiver form thus introduced as its very effective +transmitter, with which the old-fashioned speaking- +trumpet cannot possibly compete; and the word +"megaphone" is universally applied to the single, +side-flaring horn. + +A further step in this line brought Edison to the +"aerophone," around which the Figaro weaved its +fanciful description. In the construction of the aerophone +the same kind of tympanum is used as in the +phonograph, but the imitation of the human voice, +or the transmission of sound, is effected by the quick +opening and closing of valves placed within a steam- +whistle or an organ-pipe. The vibrations of the +diaphragm communicated to the valves cause them +to operate in synchronism, so that the vibrations are +thrown upon the escaping air or steam; and the result +is an instrument with a capacity of magnifying +the sounds two hundred times, and of hurling them +to great distances intelligibly, like a huge fog-siren, +but with immense clearness and penetration. All +this study of sound transmission over long distances +without wires led up to the consideration and inven- +tion of pioneer apparatus for wireless telegraphy-- +but that also is another chapter. + +Yet one more ingenious device of this period must +be noted--Edison's vocal engine, the patent application +for which was executed in August, 1878, the +patent being granted the following December. Reference +to this by Edison himself has already been +quoted. The "voice-engine," or "phonomotor," converts +the vibrations of the voice or of music, acting +on the diaphragm, into motion which is utilized to +drive some secondary appliance, whether as a toy +or for some useful purpose. Thus a man can actually +talk a hole through a board. + +Somewhat weary of all this work and excitement, +and not having enjoyed any cessation from toil, or +period of rest, for ten years, Edison jumped eagerly +at the opportunity afforded him in the summer of +1878 of making a westward trip. Just thirty years +later, on a similar trip over the same ground, he +jotted down for this volume some of his reminiscences. +The lure of 1878 was the opportunity to try +the ability of his delicate tasimeter during the total +eclipse of the sun, July 29. His admiring friend, Prof. +George F. Barker, of the University of Pennsylvania, +with whom he had now been on terms of intimacy +for some years, suggested the holiday, and was himself +a member of the excursion party that made its +rendezvous at Rawlins, Wyoming Territory. Edison +had tested his tasimeter, and was satisfied that it +would measure down to the millionth part of a +degree Fahrenheit. It was just ten years since he +had left the West in poverty and obscurity, a penni- +less operator in search of a job; but now he was a +great inventor and famous, a welcome addition to +the band of astronomers and physicists assembled +to observe the eclipse and the corona. + +"There were astronomers from nearly every nation," +says Mr. Edison. "We had a special car. +The country at that time was rather new; game was +in great abundance, and could be seen all day long +from the car window, especially antelope. We arrived +at Rawlins about 4 P.M. It had a small machine +shop, and was the point where locomotives +were changed for the next section. The hotel was a +very small one, and by doubling up we were barely +accommodated. My room-mate was Fox, the correspondent +of the New York Herald. After we retired +and were asleep a thundering knock on the door +awakened us. Upon opening the door a tall, handsome +man with flowing hair dressed in western style +entered the room. His eyes were bloodshot, and he +was somewhat inebriated. He introduced himself as +`Texas Jack'--Joe Chromondo--and said he wanted +to see Edison, as he had read about me in the newspapers. +Both Fox and I were rather scared, and +didn't know what was to be the result of the interview. +The landlord requested him not to make so +much noise, and was thrown out into the hall. Jack +explained that he had just come in with a party +which had been hunting, and that he felt fine. He +explained, also, that he was the boss pistol-shot of +the West; that it was he who taught the celebrated +Doctor Carver how to shoot. Then suddenly pointing +to a weather-vane on the freight depot, he pulled +out a Colt revolver and fired through the window, +hitting the vane. The shot awakened all the people, +and they rushed in to see who was killed. It was +only after I told him I was tired and would see him +in the morning that he left. Both Fox and I were so +nervous we didn't sleep any that night. + +"We were told in the morning that Jack was a +pretty good fellow, and was not one of the `bad +men,' of whom they had a good supply. They had +one in the jail, and Fox and I went over to see him. A +few days before he had held up a Union Pacific train +and robbed all the passengers. In the jail also was a +half-breed horse-thief. We interviewed the bad man +through bars as big as railroad rails. He looked like +a `bad man.' The rim of his ear all around came +to a sharp edge and was serrated. His eyes were nearly +white, and appeared as if made of glass and set in +wrong, like the life-size figures of Indians in the +Smithsonian Institution. His face was also extremely +irregular. He wouldn't answer a single question. +I learned afterward that he got seven years in prison, +while the horse-thief was hanged. As horses ran +wild, and there was no protection, it meant death +to steal one." + +This was one interlude among others. "The first +thing the astronomers did was to determine with +precision their exact locality upon the earth. A number +of observations were made, and Watson, of Michigan +University, with two others, worked all night +computing, until they agreed. They said they were +not in error more than one hundred feet, and that +the station was twelve miles out of the position given +on the maps. It seemed to take an immense amount +of mathematics. I preserved one of the sheets, which +looked like the time-table of a Chinese railroad. The +instruments of the various parties were then set up +in different parts of the little town, and got ready +for the eclipse which was to occur in three or four days. +Two days before the event we all got together, and +obtaining an engine and car, went twelve miles +farther west to visit the United States Government +astronomers at a place called Separation, the apex +of the Great Divide, where the waters run east to the +Mississippi and west to the Pacific. Fox and I took +our Winchester rifles with an idea of doing a little +shooting. After calling on the Government people +we started to interview the telegraph operator at this +most lonely and desolate spot. After talking over old +acquaintances I asked him if there was any game +around. He said, `Plenty of jack-rabbits.' These +jack-rabbits are a very peculiar species. They have +ears about six inches long and very slender legs, +about three times as long as those of an ordinary +rabbit, and travel at a great speed by a series of +jumps, each about thirty feet long, as near as I could +judge. The local people called them `narrow-gauge +mules.' Asking the operator the best direction, he +pointed west, and noticing a rabbit in a clear space +in the sage bushes, I said, `There is one now.' I +advanced cautiously to within one hundred feet and +shot. The rabbit paid no attention. I then advanced +to within ten feet and shot again--the rabbit +was still immovable. On looking around, the whole +crowd at the station were watching--and then I +knew the rabbit was stuffed! However, we did shoot +a number of live ones until Fox ran out of cartridges. +On returning to the station I passed away the time +shooting at cans set on a pile of tins. Finally the +operator said to Fox: `I have a fine Springfield +musket, suppose you try it!' So Fox took the +musket and fired. It knocked him nearly over. It +seems that the musket had been run over by a handcar, +which slightly bent the long barrel, but not +sufficiently for an amateur like Fox to notice. After +Fox had his shoulder treated with arnica at the +Government hospital tent, we returned to Rawlins." + +The eclipse was, however, the prime consideration, +and Edison followed the example of his colleagues in +making ready. The place which he secured for setting +up his tasimeter was an enclosure hardly suitable +for the purpose, and he describes the results as follows: + +"I had my apparatus in a small yard enclosed by +a board fence six feet high, at one end there was a +house for hens. I noticed that they all went to roost +just before totality. At the same time a slight wind +arose, and at the moment of totality the atmosphere +was filled with thistle-down and other light articles. +I noticed one feather, whose weight was at least one +hundred and fifty milligrams, rise perpendicularly to +the top of the fence, where it floated away on the +wind. My apparatus was entirely too sensitive, and +I got no results." It was found that the heat from +the corona of the sun was ten times the index capacity +of the instrument; but this result did not leave the +value of the device in doubt. The Scientific American +remarked; + +"Seeing that the tasimeter is affected by a wider range +of etheric undulations than the eye can take cognizance +of, and is withal far more acutely sensitive, the probabilities +are that it will open up hitherto inaccessible +regions of space, and possibly extend the range of aerial +knowledge as far beyond the limit obtained by the telescope +as that is beyond the narrow reach of unaided +vision." + + +The eclipse over, Edison, with Professor Barker, +Major Thornberg, several soldiers, and a number of +railroad officials, went hunting about one hundred +miles south of the railroad in the Ute country. A +few months later the Major and thirty soldiers were +ambushed near the spot at which the hunting-party +had camped, and all were killed. Through an introduction +from Mr. Jay Gould, who then controlled the +Union Pacific, Edison was allowed to ride on the +cow-catchers of the locomotives. "The different +engineers gave me a small cushion, and every day I +rode in this manner, from Omaha to the Sacramento +Valley, except through the snow-shed on the summit +of the Sierras, without dust or anything else to +obstruct the view. Only once was I in danger when +the locomotive struck an animal about the size of +a small cub bear--which I think was a badger. This +animal struck the front of the locomotive just under +the headlight with great violence, and was then +thrown off by the rebound. I was sitting to one side +grasping the angle brace, so no harm was done." + +This welcome vacation lasted nearly two months; +but Edison was back in his laboratory and hard at +work before the end of August, gathering up many +loose ends, and trying out many thoughts and ideas +that had accumulated on the trip. One hot afternoon +--August 30th, as shown by the document in +the case--Mr. Edison was found by one of the authors +of this biography employed most busily in making +a mysterious series of tests on paper, using for ink +acids that corrugated and blistered the paper where +written upon. When interrogated as to his object, +he stated that the plan was to afford blind people +the means of writing directly to each other, especially +if they were also deaf and could not hear a message +on the phonograph. The characters which he was +thus forming on the paper were high enough in relief +to be legible to the delicate touch of a blind man's +fingers, and with simple apparatus letters could be +thus written, sent, and read. There was certainly +no question as to the result obtained at the moment, +which was all that was asked; but the Edison autograph +thus and then written now shows the paper +eaten out by the acid used, although covered with +glass for many years. Mr. Edison does not remember +that he ever recurred to this very interesting test. + +He was, however, ready for anything new or novel, +and no record can ever be made or presented that +would do justice to a tithe of the thoughts and fancies +daily and hourly put upon the rack. The famous +note-books, to which reference will be made later, +were not begun as a regular series, as it was only the +profusion of these ideas that suggested the vital value +of such systematic registration. Then as now, the +propositions brought to Edison ranged over every +conceivable subject, but the years have taught him +caution in grappling with them. He tells an amusing +story of one dilemma into which his good-nature led +him at this period: "At Menlo Park one day, a farmer +came in and asked if I knew any way to kill potato- +bugs. He had twenty acres of potatoes, and the +vines were being destroyed. I sent men out and +culled two quarts of bugs, and tried every chemical +I had to destroy them. Bisulphide of carbon was +found to do it instantly. I got a drum and went over +to the potato farm and sprinkled it on the vines with +a pot. Every bug dropped dead. The next morning +the farmer came in very excited and reported that +the stuff had killed the vines as well. I had to pay +$300 for not experimenting properly." + +During this year, 1878, the phonograph made its +way also to Europe, and various sums of money were +paid there to secure the rights to its manufacture and +exploitation. In England, for example, the Microscopic +Company paid $7500 down and agreed to a +royalty, while arrangements were effected also in +France, Russia, and other countries. In every instance, +as in this country, the commercial development +had to wait several years, for in the mean time +another great art had been brought into existence, +demanding exclusive attention and exhaustive toil. +And when the work was done the reward was a new +heaven and a new earth--in the art of illumination. + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE INVENTION OF THE INCANDESCENT LAMP + +IT is possible to imagine a time to come when the +hours of work and rest will once more be regulated +by the sun. But the course of civilization has been +marked by an artificial lengthening of the day, and by a +constant striving after more perfect means of illumination. +Why mankind should sleep through several hours +of sunlight in the morning, and stay awake through +a needless time in the evening, can probably only +be attributed to total depravity. It is certainly a +most stupid, expensive, and harmful habit. In no +one thing has man shown greater fertility of invention +than in lighting; to nothing does he cling more +tenaciously than to his devices for furnishing light. +Electricity to-day reigns supreme in the field of +illumination, but every other kind of artificial light +that has ever been known is still in use somewhere. +Toward its light-bringers the race has assumed an +attitude of veneration, though it has forgotten, if it +ever heard, the names of those who first brightened +its gloom and dissipated its darkness. If the tallow +candle, hitherto unknown, were now invented, its +creator would be hailed as one of the greatest +benefactors of the present age. + +Up to the close of the eighteenth century, the means +of house and street illumination were of two generic +kinds--grease and oil; but then came a swift and +revolutionary change in the adoption of gas. The +ideas and methods of Murdoch and Lebon soon took +definite shape, and "coal smoke" was piped from its +place of origin to distant points of consumption. As +early as 1804, the first company ever organized for +gas lighting was formed in London, one side of Pall +Mall being lit up by the enthusiastic pioneer, Winsor, +in 1807. Equal activity was shown in America, and +Baltimore began the practice of gas lighting in 1816. +It is true that there were explosions, and distinguished +men like Davy and Watt opined that the illuminant +was too dangerous; but the "spirit of coal" had +demonstrated its usefulness convincingly, and a +commercial development began, which, for extent +and rapidity, was not inferior to that marking the +concurrent adoption of steam in industry and transportation. + +Meantime the wax candle and the Argand oil lamp +held their own bravely. The whaling fleets, long after +gas came into use, were one of the greatest sources +of our national wealth. To New Bedford, Massachusetts, +alone, some three or four hundred ships +brought their whale and sperm oil, spermaceti, and +whalebone; and at one time that port was accounted +the richest city in the United States in proportion +to its population. The ship-owners and refiners of +that whaling metropolis were slow to believe that +their monopoly could ever be threatened by newer +sources of illumination; but gas had become available +in the cities, and coal-oil and petroleum were now +added to the list of illuminating materials. The +American whaling fleet, which at the time of Edison's +birth mustered over seven hundred sail, had dwindled +probably to a bare tenth when he took up the problem +of illumination; and the competition of oil from +the ground with oil from the sea, and with coal-gas, +had made the artificial production of light cheaper +than ever before, when up to the middle of the century +it had remained one of the heaviest items of +domestic expense. Moreover, just about the time +that Edison took up incandescent lighting, water-gas +was being introduced on a large scale as a commercial +illuminant that could be produced at a much lower +cost than coal-gas. + +Throughout the first half of the nineteenth century +the search for a practical electric light was almost +wholly in the direction of employing methods analogous +to those already familiar; in other words, obtaining +the illumination from the actual consumption of +the light-giving material. In the third quarter of +the century these methods were brought to practicality, +but all may be referred back to the brilliant +demonstrations of Sir Humphry Davy at the Royal +Institution, circa 1809-10, when, with the current +from a battery of two thousand cells, he produced an +intense voltaic arc between the points of consuming +sticks of charcoal. For more than thirty years the +arc light remained an expensive laboratory experiment; +but the coming of the dynamo placed that +illuminant on a commercial basis. The mere fact +that electrical energy from the least expensive chemical +battery using up zinc and acids costs twenty +times as much as that from a dynamo--driven by +steam-engine--is in itself enough to explain why so +many of the electric arts lingered in embryo after +their fundamental principles had been discovered. +Here is seen also further proof of the great truth +that one invention often waits for another. + +From 1850 onward the improvements in both the +arc lamp and the dynamo were rapid; and under the +superintendence of the great Faraday, in 1858, protecting +beams of intense electric light from the voltaic +arc were shed over the waters of the Straits of Dover +from the beacons of South Foreland and Dungeness. +By 1878 the arc-lighting industry had sprung into +existence in so promising a manner as to engender +an extraordinary fever and furor of speculation. At +the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition of 1876, +Wallace-Farmer dynamos built at Ansonia, Connecticut, +were shown, with the current from which arc +lamps were there put in actual service. A year or +two later the work of Charles F. Brush and Edward +Weston laid the deep foundation of modern arc lighting +in America, securing as well substantial recognition +abroad. + +Thus the new era had been ushered in, but it was +based altogether on the consumption of some material +--carbon--in a lamp open to the air. Every +lamp the world had ever known did this, in one way +or another. Edison himself began at that point, +and his note-books show that he made various experiments +with this type of lamp at a very early stage. +Indeed, his experiments had led him so far as to +anticipate in 1875 what are now known as "flaming +arcs," the exceedingly bright and generally orange +or rose-colored lights which have been introduced +within the last few years, and are now so frequently +seen in streets and public places. While the arcs +with plain carbons are bluish-white, those with carbons +containing calcium fluoride have a notable +golden glow. + +He was convinced, however, that the greatest field +of lighting lay in the illumination of houses and other +comparatively enclosed areas, to replace the ordinary +gas light, rather than in the illumination of streets +and other outdoor places by lights of great volume +and brilliancy. Dismissing from his mind quickly +the commercial impossibility of using arc lights for +general indoor illumination, he arrived at the conclusion +that an electric lamp giving light by incandescence +was the solution of the problem. + +Edison was familiar with the numerous but +impracticable and commercially unsuccessful efforts +that had been previously made by other inventors +and investigators to produce electric light by incandescence, +and at the time that he began his experiments, +in 1877, almost the whole scientific world +had pronounced such an idea as impossible of fulfilment. +The leading electricians, physicists, and experts +of the period had been studying the subject +for more than a quarter of a century, and with but +one known exception had proven mathematically and +by close reasoning that the "Subdivision of the +Electric Light," as it was then termed, was practically +beyond attainment. Opinions of this nature +have ever been but a stimulus to Edison when he +has given deep thought to a subject, and has become +impressed with strong convictions of possibility, and +in this particular case he was satisfied that the subdivision +of the electric light--or, more correctly, the +subdivision of the electric current--was not only +possible but entirely practicable. + +It will have been perceived from the foregoing +chapters that from the time of boyhood, when he +first began to rub against the world, his commercial +instincts were alert and predominated in almost all +of the enterprises that he set in motion. This +characteristic trait had grown stronger as he matured, +having received, as it did, fresh impetus and strength +from his one lapse in the case of his first patented +invention, the vote-recorder. The lesson he then +learned was to devote his inventive faculties only to +things for which there was a real, genuine demand, +and that would subserve the actual necessities of +humanity; and it was probably a fortunate circumstance +that this lesson was learned at the outset of +his career as an inventor. He has never assumed to +be a philosopher or "pure scientist." + +In order that the reader may grasp an adequate +idea of the magnitude and importance of Edison's +invention of the incandescent lamp, it will be necessary +to review briefly the "state of the art" at the +time he began his experiments on that line. After +the invention of the voltaic battery, early in the last +century, experiments were made which determined +that heat could be produced by the passage of the +electric current through wires of platinum and other +metals, and through pieces of carbon, as noted al- +ready, and it was, of course, also observed that if +sufficient current were passed through these conductors +they could be brought from the lower stage +of redness up to the brilliant white heat of incandescence. +As early as 1845 the results of these experiments +were taken advantage of when Starr, a +talented American who died at the early age of +twenty-five, suggested, in his English patent of that +year, two forms of small incandescent electric lamps, +one having a burner made from platinum foil placed +under a glass cover without excluding the air; and +the other composed of a thin plate or pencil of carbon +enclosed in a Torricellian vacuum. These suggestions +of young Starr were followed by many other experimenters, +whose improvements consisted principally +in devices to increase the compactness and portability +of the lamp, in the sealing of the lamp chamber +to prevent the admission of air, and in means +for renewing the carbon burner when it had been consumed. +Thus Roberts, in 1852, proposed to cement +the neck of the glass globe into a metallic cup, and +to provide it with a tube or stop-cock for exhaustion +by means of a hand-pump. Lodyguine, Konn, Kosloff, +and Khotinsky, between 1872 and 1877, proposed +various ingenious devices for perfecting the +joint between the metal base and the glass globe, and +also provided their lamps with several short carbon +pencils, which were automatically brought into circuit +successively as the pencils were consumed. In +1876 or 1877, Bouliguine proposed the employment +of a long carbon pencil, a short section only of +which was in circuit at any one time and formed the +burner, the lamp being provided with a mechanism +for automatically pushing other sections of the pencil +into position between the contacts to renew the +burner. Sawyer and Man proposed, in 1878, to make +the bottom plate of glass instead of metal, and +provided ingenious arrangements for charging the +lamp chamber with an atmosphere of pure nitrogen +gas which does not support combustion. + +These lamps and many others of similar character, +ingenious as they were, failed to become of any commercial +value, due, among other things, to the brief +life of the carbon burner. Even under the best conditions +it was found that the carbon members were +subject to a rapid disintegration or evaporation, +which experimenters assumed was due to the disrupting +action of the electric current; and hence the +conclusion that carbon contained in itself the elements +of its own destruction, and was not a suitable +material for the burner of an incandescent lamp. +On the other hand, platinum, although found to be +the best of all materials for the purpose, aside from +its great expense, and not combining with oxygen at +high temperatures as does carbon, required to be +brought so near the melting-point in order to give +light, that a very slight increase in the temperature +resulted in its destruction. It was assumed that the +difficulty lay in the material of the burner itself, and +not in its environment. + +It was not realized up to such a comparatively +recent date as 1879 that the solution of the great +problem of subdivision of the electric current would +not, however, be found merely in the production of +a durable incandescent electric lamp--even if any of +the lamps above referred to had fulfilled that requirement. +The other principal features necessary +to subdivide the electric current successfully were: +the burning of an indefinite number of lights on the +same circuit; each light to give a useful and economical +degree of illumination; and each light to be independent +of all the others in regard to its operation +and extinguishment. + +The opinions of scientific men of the period on the +subject are well represented by the two following +extracts--the first, from a lecture at the Royal +United Service Institution, about February, 1879, +by Mr. (Sir) W. H. Preece, one of the most eminent +electricians in England, who, after discussing the +question mathematically, said: "Hence the sub-division +of the light is an absolute ignis fatuus." The +other extract is from a book written by Paget Higgs, +LL.D., D.Sc., published in London in 1879, in which +he says: "Much nonsense has been talked in relation +to this subject. Some inventors have claimed the +power to `indefinitely divide' the electric current, not +knowing or forgetting that such a statement is incompatible +with the well-proven law of conservation +of energy." + +"Some inventors," in the last sentence just quoted, +probably--indeed, we think undoubtedly--refers to +Edison, whose earlier work in electric lighting (1878) +had been announced in this country and abroad, and +who had then stated boldly his conviction of the +practicability of the subdivision of the electrical current. +The above extracts are good illustrations, +however, of scientific opinions up to the end of 1879, +when Mr. Edison's epoch-making invention rendered +them entirely untenable. The eminent scientist, +John Tyndall, while not sharing these precise views, +at least as late as January 17, 1879, delivered a +lecture before the Royal Institution on "The +Electric Light," when, after pointing out the +development of the art up to Edison's work, and +showing the apparent hopelessness of the problem, he +said: "Knowing something of the intricacy of the +practical problem, I should certainly prefer seeing it +in Edison's hands to having it in mine." + +The reader may have deemed this sketch of the +state of the art to be a considerable digression; but +it is certainly due to the subject to present the facts +in such a manner as to show that this great invention +was neither the result of improving some process or +device that was known or existing at the time, nor +due to any unforeseen lucky chance, nor the accidental +result of other experiments. On the contrary, it was +the legitimate outcome of a series of exhaustive +experiments founded upon logical and original reasoning +in a mind that had the courage and hardihood to +set at naught the confirmed opinions of the world, +voiced by those generally acknowledged to be the +best exponents of the art--experiments carried on +amid a storm of jeers and derision, almost as +contemptuous as if the search were for the discovery of +perpetual motion. In this we see the man foreshadowed +by the boy who, when he obtained his books +on chemistry or physics, did not accept any statement +of fact or experiment therein, but worked out every +one of them himself to ascertain whether or not they +were true. + +Although this brings the reader up to the year +1879, one must turn back two years and accompany +Edison in his first attack on the electric-light problem. +In 1877 he sold his telephone invention (the carbon +transmitter) to the Western Union Telegraph Company, +which had previously come into possession also +of his quadruplex inventions, as already related. He +was still busily engaged on the telephone, on acoustic +electrical transmission, sextuplex telegraphs, duplex +telegraphs, miscellaneous carbon articles, and other +inventions of a minor nature. During the whole of +the previous year and until late in the summer of +1877, he had been working with characteristic energy +and enthusiasm on the telephone; and, in developing +this invention to a successful issue, had preferred the +use of carbon and had employed it in numerous +forms, especially in the form of carbonized paper. + +Eighteen hundred and seventy-seven in Edison's +laboratory was a veritable carbon year, for it was +carbon in some shape or form for interpolation in +electric circuits of various kinds that occupied the +thoughts of the whole force from morning to night. +It is not surprising, therefore, that in September of +that year, when Edison turned his thoughts actively +toward electric lighting by incandescence, his early +experiments should be in the line of carbon as an +illuminant. His originality of method was displayed +at the very outset, for one of the first experiments +was the bringing to incandescence of a strip of carbon +in the open air to ascertain merely how much current +was required. This conductor was a strip of carbonized +paper about an inch long, one-sixteenth of an +inch broad, and six or seven one-thousandths of an +inch thick, the ends of which were secured to clamps +that formed the poles of a battery. The carbon +was lighted up to incandescence, and, of course, +oxidized and disintegrated immediately. Within a +few days this was followed by experiments with the +same kind of carbon, but in vacuo by means of a +hand-worked air-pump. This time the carbon strip +burned at incandescence for about eight minutes. +Various expedients to prevent oxidization were tried, +such, for instance, as coating the carbon with powdered +glass, which in melting would protect the +carbon from the atmosphere, but without successful +results. + +Edison was inclined to concur in the prevailing +opinion as to the easy destructibility of carbon, but, +without actually settling the point in his mind, he +laid aside temporarily this line of experiment and +entered a new field. He had made previously some +trials of platinum wire as an incandescent burner +for a lamp, but left it for a time in favor of carbon. +He now turned to the use of almost infusible metals-- +such as boron, ruthenium, chromium, etc.--as separators +or tiny bridges between two carbon points, +the current acting so as to bring these separators to +a high degree of incandescence, at which point they +would emit a brilliant light. He also placed some of +these refractory metals directly in the circuit, bringing +them to incandescence, and used silicon in powdered +form in glass tubes placed in the electric circuit. His +notes include the use of powdered silicon mixed with +lime or other very infusible non-conductors or semi- +conductors. Edison's conclusions on these substances +were that, while in some respects they were +within the bounds of possibility for the subdivision +of the electric current, they did not reach the ideal +that he had in mind for commercial results. + +Edison's systematized attacks on the problem were +two in number, the first of which we have just related, +which began in September, 1877, and continued +until about January, 1878. Contemporaneously, +he and his force of men were very busily engaged +day and night on other important enterprises +and inventions. Among the latter, the phonograph +may be specially mentioned, as it was invented in +the late fall of 1877. From that time until July, +1878, his time and attention day and night were almost +completely absorbed by the excitement caused +by the invention and exhibition of the machine. In +July, feeling entitled to a brief vacation after several +years of continuous labor, Edison went with the +expedition to Wyoming to observe an eclipse of the +sun, and incidentally to test his tasimeter, a delicate +instrument devised by him for measuring heat transmitted +through immense distances of space. His trip +has been already described. He was absent about +two months. Coming home rested and refreshed, +Mr. Edison says: "After my return from the trip to +observe the eclipse of the sun, I went with Professor +Barker, Professor of Physics in the University of +Pennsylvania, and Doctor Chandler, Professor of +Chemistry in Columbia College, to see Mr. Wallace, +a large manufacturer of brass in Ansonia, Connecticut. +Wallace at this time was experimenting on +series arc lighting. Just at that time I wanted to +take up something new, and Professor Barker suggested +that I go to work and see if I could subdivide +the electric light so it could be got in small units like +gas. This was not a new suggestion, because I had +made a number of experiments on electric lighting a +year before this. They had been laid aside for the +phonograph. I determined to take up the search +again and continue it. On my return home I started +my usual course of collecting every kind of data +about gas; bought all the transactions of the gas- +engineering societies, etc., all the back volumes of +gas journals, etc. Having obtained all the data, and +investigated gas-jet distribution in New York by +actual observations, I made up my mind that the +problem of the subdivision of the electric current +could be solved and made commercial." About the +end of August, 1878, he began his second organized +attack on the subdivision of the current, which was +steadily maintained until he achieved signal victory +a year and two months later. + +The date of this interesting visit to Ansonia is +fixed by an inscription made by Edison on a glass +goblet which he used. The legend in diamond +scratches runs: "Thomas A. Edison, September 8, +1878, made under the electric light." Other members +of the party left similar memorials, which under the +circumstances have come to be greatly prized. A +number of experiments were witnessed in arc lighting, +and Edison secured a small Wallace-Farmer dynamo +for his own work, as well as a set of Wallace arc +lamps for lighting the Menlo Park laboratory. Before +leaving Ansonia, Edison remarked, significantly: +"Wallace, I believe I can beat you making electric +lights. I don't think you are working in the right +direction." Another date which shows how promptly +the work was resumed is October 14, 1878, when Edison +filed an application for his first lighting patent: +"Improvement in Electric Lights." In after years, +discussing the work of Wallace, who was not only a great +pioneer electrical manufacturer, but one of the founders +of the wire-drawing and brass-working industry, +Edison said: "Wallace was one of the earliest pioneers +in electrical matters in this country. He has +done a great deal of good work, for which others have +received the credit; and the work which he did in +the early days of electric lighting others have benefited +by largely, and he has been crowded to one side +and forgotten." Associated in all this work with +Wallace at Ansonia was Prof. Moses G. Farmer, +famous for the introduction of the fire-alarm system; +as the discoverer of the self-exciting principle of the +modern dynamo; as a pioneer experimenter in the +electric-railway field; as a telegraph engineer, and +as a lecturer on mines and explosives to naval classes +at Newport. During 1858, Farmer, who, like Edison, +was a ceaseless investigator, had made a series of +studies upon the production of light by electricity, +and had even invented an automatic regulator by +which a number of platinum lamps in multiple arc +could be kept at uniform voltage for any length of +time. In July, 1859, he lit up one of the rooms of +his house at Salem, Massachusetts, every evening +with such lamps, using in them small pieces of platinum +and iridium wire, which were made to incandesce +by means of current from primary batteries. +Farmer was not one of the party that memorable day +in September, but his work was known through his +intimate connection with Wallace, and there is no +doubt that reference was made to it. Such work had +not led very far, the "lamps" were hopelessly short- +lived, and everything was obviously experimental; +but it was all helpful and suggestive to one whose +open mind refused no hint from any quarter. + +At the commencement of his new attempts, Edison +returned to his experiments with carbon as an +incandescent burner for a lamp, and made a very large +number of trials, all in vacuo. Not only were the +ordinary strip paper carbons tried again, but tissue- +paper coated with tar and lampblack was rolled +into thin sticks, like knitting-needles, carbonized and +raised to incandescence in vacuo. Edison also tried +hard carbon, wood carbons, and almost every +conceivable variety of paper carbon in like manner. +With the best vacuum that he could then get by +means of the ordinary air-pump, the carbons would +last, at the most, only from ten to fifteen minutes in +a state of incandescence. Such results were evidently +not of commercial value. + +Edison then turned his attention in other directions. +In his earliest consideration of the problem +of subdividing the electric current, he had decided +that the only possible solution lay in the employment +of a lamp whose incandescing body should have a +high resistance combined with a small radiating surface, +and be capable of being used in what is called +"multiple arc," so that each unit, or lamp, could be +turned on or off without interfering with any other +unit or lamp. No other arrangement could possibly +be considered as commercially practicable. + +The full significance of the three last preceding +sentences will not be obvious to laymen, as undoubtedly +many of the readers of this book may be; and now +being on the threshold of the series of Edison's experiments +that led up to the basic invention, we interpolate +a brief explanation, in order that the reader +may comprehend the logical reasoning and work that +in this case produced such far-reaching results. + +If we consider a simple circuit in which a current +is flowing, and include in the circuit a carbon horseshoe-like +conductor which it is desired to bring to +incandescence by the heat generated by the current +passing through it, it is first evident that the resistance +offered to the current by the wires themselves +must be less than that offered by the burner, because, +otherwise current would be wasted as heat in the conducting +wires. At the very foundation of the electric- +lighting art is the essentially commercial consideration +that one cannot spend very much for conductors, and +Edison determined that, in order to use wires of a +practicable size, the voltage of the current (i.e., its +pressure or the characteristic that overcomes resistance +to its flow) should be one hundred and ten volts, +which since its adoption has been the standard. To +use a lower voltage or pressure, while making the solution +of the lighting problem a simple one as we shall +see, would make it necessary to increase the size of +the conducting wires to a prohibitive extent. To +increase the voltage or pressure materially, while +permitting some saving in the cost of conductors, would +enormously increase the difficulties of making a +sufficiently high resistance conductor to secure light by +incandescence. This apparently remote consideration +--weight of copper used--was really the commercial +key to the problem, just as the incandescent +burner was the scientific key to that problem. Before +Edison's invention incandescent lamps had been +suggested as a possibility, but they were provided +with carbon rods or strips of relatively low resistance, +and to bring these to incandescence required a current +of low pressure, because a current of high voltage +would pass through them so readily as not to generate +heat; and to carry a current of low pressure through +wires without loss would require wires of enormous +size.[8] Having a current of relatively high pressure +to contend with, it was necessary to provide a carbon +burner which, as compared with what had previously +been suggested, should have a very great resistance. +Carbon as a material, determined after patient search, +apparently offered the greatest hope, but even with +this substance the necessary high resistance could be +obtained only by making the burner of extremely +small cross-section, thereby also reducing its radiating +surface. Therefore, the crucial point was the +production of a hair-like carbon filament, with a +relatively great resistance and small radiating surface, +capable of withstanding mechanical shock, and +susceptible of being maintained at a temperature of +over two thousand degrees for a thousand hours or +more before breaking. And this filamentary conductor +required to be supported in a vacuum chamber +so perfectly formed and constructed that during all +those hours, and subjected as it is to varying temperatures, +not a particle of air should enter to disintegrate +the filament. And not only so, but the +lamp after its design must not be a mere laboratory +possibility, but a practical commercial article capable +of being manufactured at low cost and in large +quantities. A statement of what had to be done in +those days of actual as well as scientific electrical +darkness is quite sufficient to explain Tyndall's attitude +of mind in preferring that the problem should +be in Edison's hands rather than in his own. To +say that the solution of the problem lay merely in +reducing the size of the carbon burner to a mere hair, +is to state a half-truth only; but who, we ask, would +have had the temerity even to suggest that such an +attenuated body could be maintained at a white heat, +without disintegration, for a thousand hours? The solution +consisted not only in that, but in the enormous +mass of patiently worked-out details--the manufacture +of the filaments, their uniform carbonization, +making the globes, producing a perfect vacuum, and +countless other factors, the omission of any one of +which would probably have resulted eventually in +failure. + + +[8] As a practical illustration of these facts it was calculated by +Professor Barker, of the University of Pennsylvania (after Edison +had invented the incandescent lamp), that if it should cost $100,000 +for copper conductors to supply current to Edison lamps in +a given area, it would cost about $200,000,000 for copper conductors +for lighting the same area by lamps of the earlier experimenters +--such, for instance, as the lamp invented by Konn in 1875. This +enormous difference would be accounted for by the fact that +Edison's lamp was one having a high resistance and relatively +small radiating surface, while Konn's lamp was one having a very +low resistance and large radiating surface. + + + +Continuing the digression one step farther in order +to explain the term "multiple arc," it may be stated +that there are two principal systems +of distributing electric current, one +termed "series," and the other +"multiple arc." The two are +illustrated, diagrammatically, +side by side, the +arrows indicating flow of +current. The series system, +it will be seen, presents +one continuous path +for the current. The current +for the last lamp +must pass through the +first and all the intermediate +lamps. Hence, if +any one light goes out, +the continuity of the path +is broken, current cannot +flow, and all the lamps +are extinguished unless a +loop or by-path is provided. It is quite +obvious that such a system would be +commercially impracticable where small +units, similar to gas jets, were employed. On the other +hand, in the multiple-arc system, current may be considered +as flowing in two parallel conductors like the +vertical sides of a ladder, the ends of which never +come together. Each lamp is placed in a separate +circuit across these two conductors, like a rung in +the ladder, thus making a separate and independent +path for the current in each case. Hence, if +a lamp goes out, only that individual subdivision, or +ladder step, is affected; just that one particular path +for the current is interrupted, but none of the other +lamps is interfered with. They remain lighted, each +one independent of the other. The reader will quite +readily understand, therefore, that a multiple-arc system +is the only one practically commercial where +electric light is to be used in small units like those +of gas or oil. + +Such was the nature of the problem that confronted +Edison at the outset. There was nothing in the +whole world that in any way approximated a solution, +although the most brilliant minds in the electrical +art had been assiduously working on the subject +for a quarter of a century preceding. As already seen, +he came early to the conclusion that the only solution +lay in the use of a lamp of high resistance and +small radiating surface, and, with characteristic fervor +and energy, he attacked the problem from this +standpoint, having absolute faith in a successful outcome. +The mere fact that even with the successful +production of the electric lamp the assault on the +complete problem of commercial lighting would hardly +be begun did not deter him in the slightest. To +one of Edison's enthusiastic self-confidence the long +vista of difficulties ahead--we say it in all sincerity-- +must have been alluring. + +After having devoted several months to experimental +trials of carbon, at the end of 1878, as already +detailed, he turned his attention to the platinum +group of metals and began a series of experiments in +which he used chiefly platinum wire and iridium wire, +and alloys of refractory metals in the form of wire burners +for incandescent lamps. These metals have very +high fusing-points, and were found to last longer than +the carbon strips previously used when heated up to +incandescence by the electric current, although under +such conditions as were then possible they were +melted by excess of current after they had been +lighted a comparatively short time, either in the +open air or in such a vacuum as could be obtained +by means of the ordinary air-pump. + +Nevertheless, Edison continued along this line of +experiment with unremitting vigor, making improvement +after improvement, until about April, 1879, he +devised a means whereby platinum wire of a given +length, which would melt in the open air when giving +a light equal to four candles, would emit a light of +twenty-five candle-power without fusion. This was +accomplished by introducing the platinum wire into +an all-glass globe, completely sealed and highly +exhausted of air, and passing a current through the +platinum wire while the vacuum was being made. In +this, which was a new and radical invention, we see +the first step toward the modern incandescent lamp. +The knowledge thus obtained that current passing +through the platinum during exhaustion would drive +out occluded gases (i.e., gases mechanically held in +or upon the metal), and increase the infusibility of +the platinum, led him to aim at securing greater perfection +in the vacuum, on the theory that the higher +the vacuum obtained, the higher would be the infusibility +of the platinum burner. And this fact also +was of the greatest importance in making successful +the final use of carbon, because without the subjection +of the carbon to the heating effect of current during +the formation of the vacuum, the presence of occluded +gases would have been a fatal obstacle. + +Continuing these experiments with most fervent +zeal, taking no account of the passage of time, with +an utter disregard for meals, and but scanty hours +of sleep snatched reluctantly at odd periods of the +day or night, Edison kept his laboratory going without +cessation. A great variety of lamps was made +of the platinum-iridium type, mostly with thermal +devices to regulate the temperature of the burner and +prevent its being melted by an excess of current. +The study of apparatus for obtaining more perfect +vacua was unceasingly carried on, for Edison realized +that in this there lay a potent factor of ultimate +success. About August he had obtained a pump that +would produce a vacuum up to about the one-hundred- +thousandth part of an atmosphere, and some +time during the next month, or beginning of October, +had obtained one that would produce a vacuum up +to the one-millionth part of an atmosphere. It must +be remembered that the conditions necessary for +MAINTAINING this high vacuum were only made possible +by his invention of the one-piece all-glass globe, +in which all the joints were hermetically sealed +during its manufacture into a lamp, whereby a high +vacuum could be retained continuously for any +length of time. + +In obtaining this perfection of vacuum apparatus, +Edison realized that he was approaching much nearer +to a solution of the problem. In his experiments with +the platinum-iridium lamps, he had been working all +the time toward the proposition of high resistance +and small radiating surface, until he had made a +lamp having thirty feet of fine platinum wire wound +upon a small bobbin of infusible material; but the +desired economy, simplicity, and durability were not +obtained in this manner, although at all times the +burner was maintained at a critically high temperature. +After attaining a high degree of perfection +with these lamps, he recognized their impracticable +character, and his mind reverted to the opinion he +had formed in his early experiments two years before +--viz., that carbon had the requisite resistance to +permit a very simple conductor to accomplish the +object if it could be used in the form of a hair-like +"filament," provided the filament itself could be +made sufficiently homogeneous. As we have already +seen, he could not use carbon successfully in his +earlier experiments, for the strips of carbon he then +employed, although they were much larger than +"filaments," would not stand, but were consumed in +a few minutes under the imperfect conditions then +at his command. + +Now, however, that he had found means for obtaining +and maintaining high vacua, Edison immediately +went back to carbon, which from the first he +had conceived of as the ideal substance for a burner. +His next step proved conclusively the correctness of +his old deductions. On October 21, 1879, after many +patient trials, he carbonized a piece of cotton sewing- +thread bent into a loop or horseshoe form, and had it +sealed into a glass globe from which he exhausted the air +until a vacuum up to one-millionth of an atmosphere +was produced. This lamp, when put on the circuit, +lighted up brightly to incandescence and maintained +its integrity for over forty hours, and lo! the practical +incandescent lamp was born. The impossible, so +called, had been attained; subdivision of the electric- +light current was made practicable; the goal had +been reached; and one of the greatest inventions of +the century was completed. Up to this time Edison +had spent over $40,000 in his electric-light experiments, +but the results far more than justified the expenditure, +for with this lamp he made the discovery +that the FILAMENT of carbon, under the conditions of +high vacuum, was commercially stable and would +stand high temperatures without the disintegration +and oxidation that took place in all previous attempts +that he knew of for making an incandescent +burner out of carbon. Besides, this lamp possessed +the characteristics of high resistance and small radiating +surface, permitting economy in the outlay for +conductors, and requiring only a small current for +each unit of light--conditions that were absolutely +necessary of fulfilment in order to accomplish commercially +the subdivision of the electric-light current. + +This slender, fragile, tenuous thread of brittle carbon, +glowing steadily and continuously with a soft +light agreeable to the eyes, was the tiny key that +opened the door to a world revolutionized in its interior +illumination. It was a triumphant vindication +of Edison's reasoning powers, his clear perceptions, +his insight into possibilities, and his inventive faculty, +all of which had already been productive of so many +startling, practical, and epoch-making inventions. +And now he had stepped over the threshold of a new +art which has since become so world-wide in its application +as to be an integral part of modern human +experience.[9] + + +[9] The following extract from Walker on Patents (4th edition) +will probably be of interest to the reader: + +"Sec. 31a. A meritorious exception, to the rule of the last +section, is involved in the adjudicated validity of the Edison +incandescent-light patent. The carbon filament, which constitutes +the only new part of the combination of the second +claim of that patent, differs from the earlier carbon burners of +Sawyer and Man, only in having a diameter of one-sixty-fourth +of an inch or less, whereas the burners of Sawyer and Man had a +diameter of one-thirty-second of an inch or more. But that reduction +of one-half in diameter increased the resistance of the +burner FOURFOLD, and reduced its radiating surface TWOFOLD, and +thus increased eightfold, its ratio of resistance to radiating surface. +That eightfold increase of proportion enabled the resistance +of the conductor of electricity from the generator to +the burner to be increased eightfold, without any increase of +percentage of loss of energy in that conductor, or decrease of +percentage of development of heat in the burner; and thus enabled +the area of the cross-section of that conductor to be reduced +eightfold, and thus to be made with one-eighth of the amount of +copper or other metal, which would be required if the reduction +of diameter of the burner from one-thirty-second to one-sixty- +fourth of an inch had not been made. And that great reduction +in the size and cost of conductors, involved also a great difference +in the composition of the electric energy employed in the system; +that difference consisting in generating the necessary amount of +electrical energy with comparatively high electromotive force, +and comparatively low current, instead of contrariwise. For this +reason, the use of carbon filaments, one-sixty-fourth of an inch in +diameter or less, instead of carbon burners one-thirty-second of +an inch in diameter or more, not only worked an enormous economy +in conductors, but also necessitated a great change in generators, +and did both according to a philosophy, which Edison +was the first to know, and which is stated in this paragraph in its +simplest form and aspect, and which lies at the foundation of the +incandescent electric lighting of the world." + + +No sooner had the truth of this new principle been +established than the work to establish it firmly and +commercially was carried on more assiduously than +ever. The next immediate step was a further +investigation of the possibilities of improving the +quality of the carbon filament. Edison had previously +made a vast number of experiments with carbonized +paper for various electrical purposes, with +such good results that he once more turned to it and +now made fine filament-like loops of this material +which were put into other lamps. These proved +even more successful (commercially considered) than +the carbonized thread--so much so that after a number +of such lamps had been made and put through +severe tests, the manufacture of lamps from these +paper carbons was begun and carried on continuously. +This necessitated first the devising and making of a +large number of special tools for cutting the carbon +filaments and for making and putting together the +various parts of the lamps. Meantime, great excitement +had been caused in this country and in Europe +by the announcement of Edison's success. In the +Old World, scientists generally still declared the +impossibility of subdividing the electric-light current, +and in the public press Mr. Edison was denounced as +a dreamer. Other names of a less complimentary +nature were applied to him, even though his lamp +were actually in use, and the principle of commercial +incandescent lighting had been established. + +Between October 21, 1879, and December 21, 1879, +some hundreds of these paper-carbon lamps had been +made and put into actual use, not only in the laboratory, +but in the streets and several residences at +Menlo Park, New Jersey, causing great excitement +and bringing many visitors from far and near. On +the latter date a full-page article appeared in the +New York Herald which so intensified the excited +feeling that Mr. Edison deemed it advisable to make +a public exhibition. On New Year's Eve, 1879, +special trains were run to Menlo Park by the Pennsylvania +Railroad, and over three thousand persons +took advantage of the opportunity to go out there +and witness this demonstration for themselves. In +this great crowd were many public officials and men +of prominence in all walks of life, who were enthusiastic +in their praises. + +In the mean time, the mind that conceived and +made practical this invention could not rest content +with anything less than perfection, so far as it could +be realized. Edison was not satisfied with paper +carbons. They were not fully up to the ideal that +he had in mind. What he sought was a perfectly +uniform and homogeneous carbon, one like the "One- +Hoss Shay," that had no weak spots to break down +at inopportune times. He began to carbonize everything +in nature that he could lay hands on. In his +laboratory note-books are innumerable jottings of the +things that were carbonized and tried, such as tissue- +paper, soft paper, all kinds of cardboards, drawing- +paper of all grades, paper saturated with tar, all kinds +of threads, fish-line, threads rubbed with tarred lampblack, +fine threads plaited together in strands, cotton +soaked in boiling tar, lamp-wick, twine, tar and +lampblack mixed with a proportion of lime, vulcanized +fibre, celluloid, boxwood, cocoanut hair and +shell, spruce, hickory, baywood, cedar and maple +shavings, rosewood, punk, cork, bagging, flax, and +a host of other things. He also extended his searches +far into the realms of nature in the line of grasses, +plants, canes, and similar products, and in these +experiments at that time and later he carbonized, made +into lamps, and tested no fewer than six thousand +different species of vegetable growths. + +The reasons for such prodigious research are not +apparent on the face of the subject, nor is this the +occasion to enter into an explanation, as that alone +would be sufficient to fill a fair-sized book. Suffice it +to say that Edison's omnivorous reading, keen observation, +power of assimilating facts and natural +phenomena, and skill in applying the knowledge thus +attained to whatever was in hand, now came into full +play in determining that the results he desired could +only be obtained in certain directions. + +At this time he was investigating everything with +a microscope, and one day in the early part of 1880 +he noticed upon a table in the laboratory an ordinary +palm-leaf fan. He picked it up and, looking it +over, observed that it had a binding rim made of +bamboo, cut from the outer edge of the cane; a very +long strip. He examined this, and then gave it to +one of his assistants, telling him to cut it up and get +out of it all the filaments he could, carbonize them, +put them into lamps, and try them. The results of +this trial were exceedingly successful, far better than +with anything else thus far used; indeed, so much so, +that after further experiments and microscopic +examinations Edison was convinced that he was now on +the right track for making a thoroughly stable, +commercial lamp; and shortly afterward he sent a man +to Japan to procure further supplies of bamboo. The +fascinating story of the bamboo hunt will be told +later; but even this bamboo lamp was only one item +of a complete system to be devised--a system that +has since completely revolutionized the art of interior +illumination. + +Reference has been made in this chapter to the +preliminary study that Edison brought to bear on +the development of the gas art and industry. This +study was so exhaustive that one can only compare it +to the careful investigation made in advance by any +competent war staff of the elements of strength and +weakness, on both sides, in a possible campaign. A +popular idea of Edison that dies hard, pictures a +breezy, slap-dash, energetic inventor arriving at new +results by luck and intuition, making boastful +assertions and then winning out by mere chance. The +native simplicity of the man, the absence of pose and +ceremony, do much to strengthen this notion; but +the real truth is that while gifted with unusual imagination, +Edison's march to the goal of a new invention +is positively humdrum and monotonous in its +steady progress. No one ever saw Edison in a hurry; +no one ever saw him lazy; and that which he did with +slow, careful scrutiny six months ago, he will be doing +with just as much calm deliberation of research six +months hence--and six years hence if necessary. If, +for instance, he were asked to find the most perfect +pebble on the Atlantic shore of New Jersey, instead +of hunting here, there, and everywhere for the desired +object, we would no doubt find him patiently +screening the entire beach, sifting out the most perfect +stones and eventually, by gradual exclusion, +reaching the long-sought-for pebble; and the mere +fact that in this search years might be taken, would +not lessen his enthusiasm to the slightest extent. + +In the "prospectus book" among the series of famous +note-books, all the references and data apply to +gas. The book is numbered 184, falls into the period +now dealt with, and runs along casually with items +spread out over two or three years. All these notes +refer specifically to "Electricity vs. Gas as General +Illuminants," and cover an astounding range of inquiry +and comment. One of the very first notes tells +the whole story: "Object, Edison to effect exact +imitation of all done by gas, so as to replace lighting +by gas by lighting by electricity. To improve the +illumination to such an extent as to meet all requirements +of natural, artificial, and commercial conditions." +A large programme, but fully executed! +The notes, it will be understood, are all in Edison's +handwriting. They go on to observe that "a general +system of distribution is the only possible means of +economical illumination," and they dismiss isolated- +plant lighting as in mills and factories as of so little +importance to the public--"we shall leave the con- +sideration of this out of this book." The shrewd +prophecy is made that gas will be manufactured less +for lighting, as the result of electrical competition, +and more and more for heating, etc., thus enlarging +its market and increasing its income. Comment is +made on kerosene and its cost, and all kinds of general +statistics are jotted down as desirable. Data are +to be obtained on lamp and dynamo efficiency, and +"Another review of the whole thing as worked out +upon pure science principles by Rowland, Young, +Trowbridge; also Rowland on the possibilities and +probabilities of cheaper production by better +manufacture--higher incandescence without decrease of +life of lamps." Notes are also made on meters and +motors. "It doesn't matter if electricity is used for +light or for power"; while small motors, it is observed, +can be used night or day, and small steam-engines are +inconvenient. Again the shrewd comment: "Generally +poorest district for light, best for power, thus +evening up whole city--the effect of this on investment." + +It is pointed out that "Previous inventions failed-- +necessities for commercial success and accomplishment +by Edison. Edison's great effort--not to make +a large light or a blinding light, but a small light +having the mildness of gas." Curves are then called +for of iron and copper investment--also energy +line--curves of candle-power and electromotive force; +curves on motors; graphic representation of the +consumption of gas January to December; tables and +formulae; representations graphically of what one +dollar will buy in different kinds of light; "table, +weight of copper required different distance, 100-ohm +lamp, 16 candles"; table with curves showing increased +economy by larger engine, higher power, etc. +There is not much that is dilettante about all this. +Note is made of an article in April, 1879, putting the +total amount of gas investment in the whole world +at that time at $1,500,000,000; which is now (1910) +about the amount of the electric-lighting investment +in the United States. Incidentally a note remarks: +"So unpleasant is the effect of the products of gas +that in the new Madison Square Theatre every gas +jet is ventilated by special tubes to carry away the +products of combustion." In short, there is no aspect +of the new problem to which Edison failed to apply +his acutest powers; and the speed with which the +new system was worked out and introduced was +simply due to his initial mastery of all the factors in +the older art. Luther Stieringer, an expert gas engineer +and inventor, whose services were early enlisted, +once said that Edison knew more about gas +than any other man he had ever met. The remark +is an evidence of the kind of preparation Edison gave +himself for his new task. + + + +CHAPTER XII + +MEMORIES OF MENLO PARK + +FROM the spring of 1876 to 1886 Edison lived and +did his work at Menlo Park; and at this stage +of the narrative, midway in that interesting and +eventful period, it is appropriate to offer a few notes +and jottings on the place itself, around which tradition +is already weaving its fancies, just as at the time +the outpouring of new inventions from it invested +the name with sudden prominence and with the +glamour of romance. "In 1876 I moved," says Edison, +"to Menlo Park, New Jersey, on the Pennsylvania +Railroad, several miles below Elizabeth. The +move was due to trouble I had about rent. I had +rented a small shop in Newark, on the top floor of +a padlock factory, by the month. I gave notice that +I would give it up at the end of the month, paid the +rent, moved out, and delivered the keys. Shortly +afterward I was served with a paper, probably a +judgment, wherein I was to pay nine months' rent. +There was some law, it seems, that made a monthly +renter liable for a year. This seemed so unjust that I +determined to get out of a place that permitted such +injustice." For several Sundays he walked through +different parts of New Jersey with two of his assistants +before he decided on Menlo Park. The change was +a fortunate one, for the inventor had married Miss +Mary E. Stillwell, and was now able to establish himself +comfortably with his wife and family while enjoying +immediate access to the new laboratory. Every +moment thus saved was valuable. + +To-day the place and region have gone back to the +insignificance from which Edison's genius lifted them +so startlingly. A glance from the car windows +reveals only a gently rolling landscape dotted with +modest residences and unpretentious barns; and +there is nothing in sight by way of memorial to suggest +that for nearly a decade this spot was the scene +of the most concentrated and fruitful inventive activity +the world has ever known. Close to the Menlo Park +railway station is a group of gaunt and deserted buildings, +shelter of the casual tramp, and slowly crumbling +away when not destroyed by the carelessness of +some ragged smoker. This silent group of buildings +comprises the famous old laboratory and workshops +of Mr. Edison, historic as being the birthplace of the +carbon transmitter, the phonograph, the incandescent +lamp, and the spot where Edison also worked +out his systems of electrical distribution, his +commercial dynamo, his electric railway, his megaphone, +his tasimeter, and many other inventions of greater +or lesser degree. Here he continued, moreover, his +earlier work on the quadruplex, sextuplex, multiplex, +and automatic telegraphs, and did his notable pioneer +work in wireless telegraphy. As the reader knows, +it had been a master passion with Edison from boyhood +up to possess a laboratory, in which with free +use of his own time and powers, and with command +of abundant material resources, he could wrestle with +Nature and probe her closest secrets. Thus, from the +little cellar at Port Huron, from the scant shelves in +a baggage car, from the nooks and corners of dingy +telegraph offices, and the grimy little shops in New +York and Newark, he had now come to the proud +ownership of an establishment to which his favorite +word "laboratory" might justly be applied. Here +he could experiment to his heart's content and invent +on a larger, bolder scale than ever--and he did! + +Menlo Park was the merest hamlet. Omitting the +laboratory structures, it had only about seven houses, +the best looking of which Edison lived in, a place that +had a windmill pumping water into a reservoir. One +of the stories of the day was that Edison had his +front gate so connected with the pumping plant that +every visitor as he opened or closed the gate added +involuntarily to the supply in the reservoir. Two or +three of the houses were occupied by the families of +members of the staff; in the others boarders were +taken, the laboratory, of course, furnishing all the +patrons. Near the railway station was a small +saloon kept by an old Scotchman named Davis, +where billiards were played in idle moments, and +where in the long winter evenings the hot stove was +a centre of attraction to loungers and story-tellers. +The truth is that there was very little social life of +any kind possible under the strenuous conditions prevailing +at the laboratory, where, if anywhere, relaxation +was enjoyed at odd intervals of fatigue and waiting. + +The main laboratory was a spacious wooden building +of two floors. The office was in this building at +first, until removed to the brick library when that +was finished. There S. L. Griffin, an old telegraph +friend of Edison, acted as his secretary and had charge +of a voluminous and amazing correspondence. The +office employees were the Carman brothers and the +late John F. Randolph, afterwards secretary. According +to Mr. Francis Jehl, of Budapest, then one of the +staff, to whom the writers are indebted for a great +deal of valuable data on this period: "It was on the +upper story of this laboratory that the most important +experiments were executed, and where the incandescent +lamp was born. This floor consisted of a +large hall containing several long tables, upon which +could be found all the various instruments, scientific +and chemical apparatus that the arts at that time +could produce. Books lay promiscuously about, +while here and there long lines of bichromate-of- +potash cells could be seen, together with experimental +models of ideas that Edison or his assistants were +engaged upon. The side walls of this hall were lined +with shelves filled with bottles, phials, and other +receptacles containing every imaginable chemical and +other material that could be obtained, while at the +end of this hall, and near the organ which stood in +the rear, was a large glass case containing the world's +most precious metals in sheet and wire form, together +with very rare and costly chemicals. When evening +came on, and the last rays of the setting sun penetrated +through the side windows, this hall looked like +a veritable Faust laboratory. + +"On the ground floor we had our testing-table, +which stood on two large pillars of brick built deep +into the earth in order to get rid of all vibrations on +account of the sensitive instruments that were upon +it. There was the Thomson reflecting mirror galvanometer +and electrometer, while nearby were the +standard cells by which the galvanometers were +adjusted and standardized. This testing-table was +connected by means of wires with all parts of the +laboratory and machine-shop, so that measurements +could be conveniently made from a distance, as in +those days we had no portable and direct-reading +instruments, such as now exist. Opposite this table we +installed, later on, our photometrical chamber, which +was constructed on the Bunsen principle. A little +way from this table, and separated by a partition, +we had the chemical laboratory with its furnaces and +stink-chambers. Later on another chemical laboratory +was installed near the photometer-room, and this +Dr. A. Haid had charge of." + +Next to the laboratory in importance was the machine- +shop, a large and well-lighted building of brick, +at one end of which there was the boiler and engine- +room. This shop contained light and heavy lathes, +boring and drilling machines, all kinds of planing +machines; in fact, tools of all descriptions, so that +any apparatus, however delicate or heavy, could be +made and built as might be required by Edison in +experimenting. Mr. John Kruesi had charge of this +shop, and was assisted by a number of skilled mechanics, +notably John Ott, whose deft fingers and +quick intuitive grasp of the master's ideas are still +in demand under the more recent conditions at the +Llewellyn Park laboratory in Orange. + +Between the machine-shop and the laboratory was +a small building of wood used as a carpenter-shop, +where Tom Logan plied his art. Nearby was the +gasoline plant. Before the incandescent lamp was +perfected, the only illumination was from gasoline +gas; and that was used later for incandescent-lamp +glass-blowing, which was done in another small building +on one side of the laboratory. Apparently little +or no lighting service was obtained from the Wallace- +Farmer arc lamps secured from Ansonia, Connecticut. +The dynamo was probably needed for Edison's own +experiments. + +On the outskirts of the property was a small building +in which lampblack was crudely but carefully +manufactured and pressed into very small cakes, for +use in the Edison carbon transmitters of that time. +The night-watchman, Alfred Swanson, took care of +this curious plant, which consisted of a battery of +petroleum lamps that were forced to burn to the +sooting point. During his rounds in the night Swanson +would find time to collect from the chimneys the +soot that the lamps gave. It was then weighed out +into very small portions, which were pressed into +cakes or buttons by means of a hand-press. These +little cakes were delicately packed away between +layers of cotton in small, light boxes and shipped to +Bergmann in New York, by whom the telephone +transmitters were being made. A little later the Edison +electric railway was built on the confines of the +property out through the woods, at first only a third +of a mile in length, but reaching ultimately to Pumptown, +almost three miles away. + +Mr. Edison's own words may be quoted as to the +men with whom he surrounded himself here and +upon whose services he depended principally for help +in the accomplishment of his aims. In an autobiographical +article in the Electrical World of March 5, +1904, he says: "It is interesting to note that in +addition to those mentioned above (Charles Batchelor +and Frank Upton), I had around me other men who +ever since have remained active in the field, such as +Messrs. Francis Jehl, William J. Hammer, Martin +Force, Ludwig K. Boehm, not forgetting that good +friend and co-worker, the late John Kruesi. They +found plenty to do in the various developments of +the art, and as I now look back I sometimes wonder +how we did so much in so short a time." Mr. Jehl +in his reminiscences adds another name to the above +--namely, that of John W. Lawson, and then goes on +to say: "These are the names of the pioneers of +incandescent lighting, who were continuously at the +side of Edison day and night for some years, and who, +under his guidance, worked upon the carbon-filament +lamp from its birth to ripe maturity. These men all +had complete faith in his ability and stood by him +as on a rock, guarding their work with the secretiveness +of a burglar-proof safe. Whenever it leaked out +in the world that Edison was succeeding in his work on +the electric light, spies and others came to the Park; +so it was of the utmost importance that the experiments +and their results should be kept a secret until +Edison had secured the protection of the Patent +Office." With this staff was associated from the first +Mr. E. H. Johnson, whose work with Mr. Edison lay +chiefly, however, outside the laboratory, taking him +to all parts of the country and to Europe. There were +also to be regarded as detached members of it the +Bergmann brothers, manufacturing for Mr. Edison in +New York, and incessantly experimenting for him. +In addition there must be included Mr. Samuel Insull, +whose activities for many years as private secretary +and financial manager were devoted solely to Mr. +Edison's interests, with Menlo Park as a centre and +main source of anxiety as to pay-rolls and other +constantly recurring obligations. The names of yet +other associates occur from time to time in this +narrative--"Edison men" who have been very proud +of their close relationship to the inventor and his +work at old Menlo. "There was also Mr. Charles L. +Clarke, who devoted himself mainly to engineering +matters, and later on acted as chief engineer of the +Edison Electric Light Company for some years. +Then there were William Holzer and James Hipple, +both of whom took an active part in the practical +development of the glass-blowing department of the +laboratory, and, subsequently, at the first Edison +lamp factory at Menlo Park. Later on Messrs. Jehl, +Hipple, and Force assisted Mr. Batchelor to install +the lamp-works of the French Edison Company at +Ivry-sur-Seine. Then there were Messrs. Charles T. +Hughes, Samuel D. Mott, and Charles T. Mott, who +devoted their time chiefly to commercial affairs. Mr. +Hughes conducted most of this work, and later on took +a prominent part in Edison's electric-railway +experiments. His business ability was on a high level, +while his personal character endeared him to us all. + +Among other now well-known men who came to us +and assisted in various kinds of work were Messrs. +Acheson, Worth, Crosby, Herrick, and Hill, while +Doctor Haid was placed by Mr. Edison in charge of +a special chemical laboratory. Dr. E. L. Nichols +was also with us for a short time conducting a special +series of experiments. There was also Mr. Isaacs, +who did a great deal of photographic work, and to +whom we must be thankful for the pictures of Menlo +Park in connection with Edison's work. + +"Among others who were added to Mr. Kruesi's +staff in the machine-shop were Messrs. J. H. Vail and +W. S. Andrews. Mr. Vail had charge of the dynamo- +room. He had a good general knowledge of machinery, +and very soon acquired such familiarity with the +dynamos that he could skip about among them with +astonishing agility to regulate their brushes or to +throw rosin on the belts when they began to squeal. +Later on he took an active part in the affairs and +installations of the Edison Light Company. Mr. +Andrews stayed on Mr. Kruesi's staff as long as the +laboratory machine-shop was kept open, after which +he went into the employ of the Edison Electric Light +Company and became actively engaged in the commercial +and technical exploitation of the system. +Another man who was with us at Menlo Park was Mr. +Herman Claudius, an Austrian, who at one time was +employed in connection with the State Telegraphs of +his country. To him Mr. Edison assigned the task +of making a complete model of the network of +conductors for the contemplated first station in New +York." + +Mr. Francis R. Upton, who was early employed by +Mr. Edison as his mathematician, furnishes a pleasant, +vivid picture of his chief associates engaged on +the memorable work at Menlo Park. He says: "Mr. +Charles Batchelor was Mr. Edison's principal assistant +at that time. He was an Englishman, and came +to this country to set up the thread-weaving machinery +for the Clark thread-works. He was a most +intelligent, patient, competent, and loyal assistant to +Mr. Edison. I remember distinctly seeing him work +many hours to mount a small filament; and his hand +would be as steady and his patience as unyielding at +the end of those many hours as it was at the beginning, +in spite of repeated failures. He was a wonderful +mechanic; the control that he had of his fingers +was marvellous, and his eyesight was sharp. Mr. +Batchelor's judgment and good sense were always +in evidence. + +"Mr. Kruesi was the superintendent, a Swiss trained +in the best Swiss ideas of accuracy. He was a splendid +mechanic with a vigorous temper, and wonderful +ability to work continuously and to get work out of +men. It was an ideal combination, that of Edison, +Batchelor, and Kruesi. Mr. Edison with his wonderful +flow of ideas which were sharply defined in his +mind, as can be seen by any of the sketches that he +made, as he evidently always thinks in three dimensions; +Mr. Kruesi, willing to take the ideas, and +capable of comprehending them, would distribute +the work so as to get it done with marvellous quickness +and great accuracy. Mr. Batchelor was always +ready for any special fine experimenting or observa- +tion, and could hold to whatever he was at as long +as Mr. Edison wished; and always brought to bear +on what he was at the greatest skill." + +While Edison depended upon Upton for his mathematical +work, he was wont to check it up in a very +practical manner, as evidenced by the following incident +described by Mr. Jehl: "I was once with Mr. +Upton calculating some tables which he had put me +on, when Mr. Edison appeared with a glass bulb +having a pear-shaped appearance in his hand. It was +the kind that we were going to use for our lamp +experiments; and Mr. Edison asked Mr. Upton to +please calculate for him its cubic contents in centimetres. +Now Mr. Upton was a very able mathematician, +who, after he finished his studies at Princeton, +went to Germany and got his final gloss under +that great master, Helmholtz. Whatever he did and +worked on was executed in a pure mathematical +manner, and any wrangler at Oxford would have been +delighted to see him juggle with integral and differential +equations, with a dexterity that was surprising. +He drew the shape of the bulb exactly on paper, +and got the equation of its lines with which he was +going to calculate its contents, when Mr. Edison again +appeared and asked him what it was. He showed +Edison the work he had already done on the subject, +and told him that he would very soon finish calculating +it. `Why,' said Edison, `I would simply take +that bulb and fill it with mercury and weigh it; and +from the weight of the mercury and its specific gravity +I'll get it in five minutes, and use less mental energy +than is necessary in such a fatiguing operation.' " + +Menlo Park became ultimately the centre of Edison's +business life as it was of his inventing. After +the short distasteful period during the introduction +of his lighting system, when he spent a large part of +his time at the offices at 65 Fifth Avenue, New York, +or on the actual work connected with the New York +Edison installation, he settled back again in Menlo +Park altogether. Mr. Samuel Insull describes the +business methods which prevailed throughout the +earlier Menlo Park days of "storm and stress," and +the curious conditions with which he had to deal as +private secretary: "I never attempted to systematize +Edison's business life. Edison's whole method +of work would upset the system of any office. He +was just as likely to be at work in his laboratory at +midnight as midday. He cared not for the hours of +the day or the days of the week. If he was exhausted +he might more likely be asleep in the middle of the +day than in the middle of the night, as most of his +work in the way of inventions was done at night. I +used to run his office on as close business methods as +my experience admitted; and I would get at him +whenever it suited his convenience. Sometimes he +would not go over his mail for days at a time; but +other times he would go regularly to his office in the +morning. At other times my engagements used to +be with him to go over his business affairs at Menlo +Park at night, if I was occupied in New York during +the day. In fact, as a matter of convenience I used +more often to get at him at night, as it left my days +free to transact his affairs, and enabled me, probably +at a midnight luncheon, to get a few minutes of his +time to look over his correspondence and get his +directions as to what I should do in some particular +negotiation or matter of finance. While it was a +matter of suiting Edison's convenience as to when I +should transact business with him, it also suited my +own ideas, as it enabled me after getting through my +business with him to enjoy the privilege of watching +him at his work, and to learn something about the +technical side of matters. Whatever knowledge I +may have of the electric light and power industry I +feel I owe it to the tuition of Edison. He was about +the most willing tutor, and I must confess that he +had to be a patient one." + +Here again occurs the reference to the incessant +night-work at Menlo Park, a note that is struck in +every reminiscence and in every record of the time. +But it is not to be inferred that the atmosphere of +grim determination and persistent pursuit of the new +invention characteristic of this period made life a +burden to the small family of laborers associated with +Edison. Many a time during the long, weary nights +of experimenting Edison would call a halt for +refreshments, which he had ordered always to be sent +in when night-work was in progress. Everything +would be dropped, all present would join in the meal, +and the last good story or joke would pass around. +In his notes Mr. Jehl says: "Our lunch always ended +with a cigar, and I may mention here that although +Edison was never fastidious in eating, he always +relished a good cigar, and seemed to find in it +consolation and solace.... It often happened that while +we were enjoying the cigars after our midnight re- +past, one of the boys would start up a tune on the +organ and we would all sing together, or one of the +others would give a solo. Another of the boys had +a voice that sounded like something between the ring +of an old tomato can and a pewter jug. He had one +song that he would sing while we roared with laughter. +He was also great in imitating the tin-foil +phonograph.... When Boehm was in good-humor he would +play his zither now and then, and amuse us by singing +pretty German songs. On many of these occasions +the laboratory was the rendezvous of jolly and +convivial visitors, mostly old friends and acquaintances +of Mr. Edison. Some of the office employees +would also drop in once in a while, and as everybody +present was always welcome to partake of the midnight +meal, we all enjoyed these gatherings. After +a while, when we were ready to resume work, our +visitors would intimate that they were going home +to bed, but we fellows could stay up and work, and +they would depart, generally singing some song like +Good-night, ladies! . . . It often happened that when +Edison had been working up to three or four o'clock +in the morning, he would lie down on one of the +laboratory tables, and with nothing but a couple of +books for a pillow, would fall into a sound sleep. +He said it did him more good than being in a soft +bed, which spoils a man. Some of the laboratory +assistants could be seen now and then sleeping on a +table in the early morning hours. If their snoring +became objectionable to those still at work, the +`calmer' was applied. This machine consisted of a +Babbitt's soap box without a cover. Upon it was +mounted a broad ratchet-wheel with a crank, while +into the teeth of the wheel there played a stout, +elastic slab of wood. The box would be placed on +the table where the snorer was sleeping and the crank +turned rapidly. The racket thus produced was something +terrible, and the sleeper would jump up as +though a typhoon had struck the laboratory. The +irrepressible spirit of humor in the old days, although +somewhat strenuous at times, caused many a moment +of hilarity which seemed to refresh the boys, and +enabled them to work with renewed vigor after its +manifestation." Mr. Upton remarks that often during +the period of the invention of the incandescent +lamp, when under great strain and fatigue, Edison +would go to the organ and play tunes in a primitive +way, and come back to crack jokes with the staff. +"But I have often felt that Mr. Edison never could +comprehend the limitations of the strength of other +men, as his own physical and mental strength have +always seemed to be without limit. He could work +continuously as long as he wished, and had sleep at +his command. His sleep was always instant, profound, +and restful. He has told me that he never +dreamed. I have known Mr. Edison now for thirty-one +years, and feel that he has always kept his mind direct +and simple, going straight to the root of troubles. +One of the peculiarities I have noticed is that I have +never known him to break into a conversation going +on around him, and ask what people were talking +about. The nearest he would ever come to it was +when there had evidently been some story told, and +his face would express a desire to join in the laugh, +which would immediately invite telling the story to +him." + +Next to those who worked with Edison at the laboratory +and were with him constantly at Menlo Park +were the visitors, some of whom were his business +associates, some of them scientific men, and some of +them hero-worshippers and curiosity-hunters. Foremost +in the first category was Mr. E. H. Johnson, +who was in reality Edison's most intimate friend, and +was required for constant consultation; but whose +intense activity, remarkable grasp of electrical +principles, and unusual powers of exposition, led to his +frequent detachment for long trips, including those +which resulted in the introduction of the telephone, +phonograph, and electric light in England and on +the Continent. A less frequent visitor was Mr. S. +Bergmann, who had all he needed to occupy his time +in experimenting and manufacturing, and whose +contemporaneous Wooster Street letter-heads advertised +Edison's inventions as being made there, Among +the scientists were Prof. George F. Barker, of Philadelphia, +a big, good-natured philosopher, whose valuable +advice Edison esteemed highly. In sharp contrast +to him was the earnest, serious Rowland, of +Johns Hopkins University, afterward the leading +American physicist of his day. Profs. C. F. Brackett +and C. F. Young, of Princeton University, were often +received, always interested in what Edison was doing, +and proud that one of their own students, Mr. Upton, +was taking such a prominent part in the development +of the work. + +Soon after the success of the lighting experiments +and the installation at Menlo Park became known, +Edison was besieged by persons from all parts of the +world anxious to secure rights and concessions for +their respective countries. Among these was Mr. +Louis Rau, of Paris, who organized the French Edison +Company, the pioneer Edison lighting corporation +in Europe, and who, with the aid of Mr. Batchelor, +established lamp-works and a machine-shop at Ivry +sur-Seine, near Paris, in 1882. It was there that Mr. +Nikola Tesla made his entree into the field of light +and power, and began his own career as an inventor; +and there also Mr. Etienne Fodor, general manager +of the Hungarian General Electric Company at Budapest, +received his early training. It was he who +erected at Athens the first European Edison station +on the now universal three-wire system. Another +visitor from Europe, a little later, was Mr. Emil +Rathenau, the present director of the great +Allgemeine Elektricitaets Gesellschaft of Germany. He +secured the rights for the empire, and organized the +Berlin Edison system, now one of the largest in the +world. Through his extraordinary energy and enterprise +the business made enormous strides, and Mr. +Rathenau has become one of the most conspicuous +industrial figures in his native country. From Italy +came Professor Colombo, later a cabinet minister, +with his friend Signor Buzzi, of Milan. The rights +were secured for the peninsula; Colombo and his +friends organized the Italian Edison Company, and +erected at Milan the first central station in that +country. Mr. John W. Lieb, Jr., now a vice-president +of the New York Edison Company, was sent +over by Mr. Edison to steer the enterprise technically, +and spent ten years in building it up, with such brilliant +success that he was later decorated as Commander +of the Order of the Crown of Italy by King +Victor. Another young American enlisted into European +service was Mr. E. G. Acheson, the inventor of +carborundum, who built a number of plants in Italy +and France before he returned home. Mr. Lieb has +since become President of the American Institute of +Electrical Engineers and the Association of Edison +Illuminating Companies, while Doctor Acheson has +been President of the American Electrochemical +Society. + +Switzerland sent Messrs. Turrettini, Biedermann, +and Thury, all distinguished engineers, to negotiate +for rights in the republic; and so it went with regard +to all the other countries of Europe, as well as those +of South America. It was a question of keeping such +visitors away rather than of inviting them to take +up the exploitation of the Edison system; for what +time was not spent in personal interviews was required +for the masses of letters from every country +under the sun, all making inquiries, offering suggestions, +proposing terms. Nor were the visitors merely +those on business bent. There were the lion-hunters +and celebrities, of whom Sarah Bernhardt may serve +as a type. One visit of note was that paid by Lieut. +G. W. De Long, who had an earnest and protracted +conversation with Edison over the Arctic expedition he +was undertaking with the aid of Mr. James Gordon +Bennett, of the New York Herald. The Jeannette was +being fitted out, and Edison told De Long that he +would make and present him with a small dynamo +machine, some incandescent lamps, and an arc lamp. +While the little dynamo was being built all the men +in the laboratory wrote their names on the paper +insulation that was wound upon the iron core of the +armature. As the Jeannette had no steam-engine on +board that could be used for the purpose, Edison +designed the dynamo so that it could be worked by +man power and told Lieutenant De Long "it would +keep the boys warm up in the Arctic," when they +generated current with it. The ill-fated ship never +returned from her voyage, but went down in the icy +waters of the North, there to remain until some +future cataclysm of nature, ten thousand years +hence, shall reveal the ship and the first marine +dynamo as curious relics of a remote civilization. + +Edison also furnished De Long with a set of telephones +provided with extensible circuits, so that +parties on the ice-floes could go long distances from +the ship and still keep in communication with her. +So far as the writers can ascertain this is the first +example of "field telephony." Another nautical experiment +that he made at this time, suggested probably +by the requirements of the Arctic expedition, +was a buoy that was floated in New York harbor, +and which contained a small Edison dynamo and two +or three incandescent lamps. The dynamo was +driven by the wave or tide motion through intermediate +mechanism, and thus the lamps were lit up +from time to time, serving as signals. These were the +prototypes of the lighted buoys which have since +become familiar, as in the channel off Sandy Hook. + +One notable afternoon was that on which the +New York board of aldermen took a special train out +to Menlo Park to see the lighting system with its +conductors underground in operation. The Edison Electric +Illuminating Company was applying for a franchise, +and the aldermen, for lack of scientific training and +specific practical information, were very sceptical on +the subject--as indeed they might well be. "Mr. +Edison demonstrated personally the details and +merits of the system to them. The voltage was increased +to a higher pressure than usual, and all the +incandescent lamps at Menlo Park did their best to +win the approbation of the New York City fathers. +After Edison had finished exhibiting all the good +points of his system, he conducted his guests upstairs +in the laboratory, where a long table was +spread with the best things that one of the most +prominent New York caterers could furnish. The +laboratory witnessed high times that night, for all +were in the best of humor, and many a bottle was +drained in toasting the health of Edison and the +aldermen." This was one of the extremely rare +occasions on which Edison has addressed an audience; +but the stake was worth the effort. The representatives +of New York could with justice drink the health +of the young inventor, whose system is one of the +greatest boons the city has ever had conferred upon it. + +Among other frequent visitors was Mr, Edison's +father, "one of those amiable, patriarchal characters +with a Horace Greeley beard, typical Americans of +the old school," who would sometimes come into the +laboratory with his two grandchildren, a little boy +and girl called "Dash" and "Dot." He preferred +to sit and watch his brilliant son at work "with an +expression of satisfaction on his face that indicated +a sense of happiness and content that his boy, born +in that distant, humble home in Ohio, had risen to +fame and brought such honor upon the name. It +was, indeed, a pathetic sight to see a father venerate +his son as the elder Edison did." Not less at home +was Mr. Mackenzie, the Mt. Clemens station agent, +the life of whose child Edison had saved when a train +newsboy. The old Scotchman was one of the innocent, +chartered libertines of the place, with an unlimited +stock of good jokes and stories, but seldom +of any practical use. On one occasion, however, when +everything possible and impossible under the sun was +being carbonized for lamp filaments, he allowed a +handful of his bushy red beard to be taken for the +purpose; and his laugh was the loudest when the +Edison-Mackenzie hair lamps were brought up to +incandescence--their richness in red rays being slyly +attributed to the nature of the filamentary material! +Oddly enough, a few years later, some inventor +actually took out a patent for making incandescent +lamps with carbonized hair for filaments! + +Yet other visitors again haunted the place, and +with the following reminiscence of one of them, from +Mr. Edison himself, this part of the chapter must +close: "At Menlo Park one cold winter night there +came into the laboratory a strange man in a most +pitiful condition. He was nearly frozen, and he asked +if he might sit by the stove. In a few moments he +asked for the head man, and I was brought forward. +He had a head of abnormal size, with highly intellectual +features and a very small and emaciated body. +He said he was suffering very much, and asked if I +had any morphine. As I had about everything in +chemistry that could be bought, I told him I had. +He requested that I give him some, so I got the +morphine sulphate. He poured out enough to kill +two men, when I told him that we didn't keep a hotel +for suicides, and he had better cut the quantity down. +He then bared his legs and arms, and they were literally +pitted with scars, due to the use of hypodermic +syringes. He said he had taken it for years, and it +required a big dose to have any effect. I let him go +ahead. In a short while he seemed like another man +and began to tell stories, and there were about fifty +of us who sat around listening until morning. He +was a man of great intelligence and education. He +said he was a Jew, but there was no distinctive feature +to verify this assertion. He continued to stay around +until he finished every combination of morphine with +an acid that I had, probably ten ounces all told. +Then he asked if he could have strychnine. I had +an ounce of the sulphate. He took enough to kill a +horse, and asserted it had as good an effect as +morphine. When this was gone, the only thing I had +left was a chunk of crude opium, perhaps two or +three pounds. He chewed this up and disappeared. +I was greatly disappointed, because I would have +laid in another stock of morphine to keep him at the +laboratory. About a week afterward he was found +dead in a barn at Perth Amboy." + +Returning to the work itself, note of which has al- +ready been made in this and preceding chapters, we +find an interesting and unique reminiscence in Mr. +Jehl's notes of the reversion to carbon as a filament +in the lamps, following an exhibition of metallic- +filament lamps given in the spring of 1879 to the men +in the syndicate advancing the funds for these +experiments: "They came to Menlo Park on a late +afternoon train from New York. It was already +dark when they were conducted into the machine- +shop, where we had several platinum lamps installed +in series. When Edison had finished explaining the +principles and details of the lamp, he asked Kruesi to +let the dynamo machine run. It was of the Gramme +type, as our first dynamo of the Edison design was +not yet finished. Edison then ordered the `juice' +to be turned on slowly. To-day I can see those lamps +rising to a cherry red, like glowbugs, and hear Mr. +Edison saying `a little more juice,' and the lamps +began to glow. `A little more' is the command +again, and then one of the lamps emits for an instant +a light like a star in the distance, after which there is +an eruption and a puff; and the machine-shop is in +total darkness. We knew instantly which lamp had +failed, and Batchelor replaced that by a good one, +having a few in reserve near by. The operation was +repeated two or three times with about the same +results, after which the party went into the library +until it was time to catch the train for New York." + +Such an exhibition was decidedly discouraging, +and it was not a jubilant party that returned to New +York, but: "That night Edison remained in the +laboratory meditating upon the results that the +platinum lamp had given so far. I was engaged reading +a book near a table in the front, while Edison was +seated in a chair by a table near the organ. With +his head turned downward, and that conspicuous +lock of hair hanging loosely on one side, he looked +like Napoleon in the celebrated picture, On the Eve +of a Great Battle. Those days were heroic ones, for +he then battled against mighty odds, and the prospects +were dim and not very encouraging. In cases +of emergency Edison always possessed a keen faculty +of deciding immediately and correctly what to do; +and the decision he then arrived at was predestined +to be the turning-point that led him on to ultimate +success.... After that exhibition we had a house- +cleaning at the laboratory, and the metallic-filament +lamps were stored away, while preparations were +made for our experiments on carbon lamps." + +Thus the work went on. Menlo Park has hitherto +been associated in the public thought with the +telephone, phonograph, and incandescent lamp; but it +was there, equally, that the Edison dynamo and +system of distribution were created and applied to +their specific purposes. While all this study of a +possible lamp was going on, Mr. Upton was busy +calculating the economy of the "multiple arc" system, +and making a great many tables to determine what +resistance a lamp should have for the best results, +and at what point the proposed general system would +fall off in economy when the lamps were of the lower +resistance that was then generally assumed to be +necessary. The world at that time had not the +shadow of an idea as to what the principles of a +multiple arc system should be, enabling millions of +lamps to be lighted off distributing circuits, each +lamp independent of every other; but at Menlo Park +at that remote period in the seventies Mr. Edison's +mathematician was formulating the inventor's +conception in clear, instructive figures; "and the work +then executed has held its own ever since." From +the beginning of his experiments on electric light, +Mr. Edison had a well-defined idea of producing not +only a practicable lamp, but also a SYSTEM of +commercial electric lighting. Such a scheme involved the +creation of an entirely new art, for there was nothing +on the face of the earth from which to draw assistance +or precedent, unless we except the elementary forms +of dynamos then in existence. It is true, there were +several types of machines in use for the then very +limited field of arc lighting, but they were regarded +as valueless as a part of a great comprehensive scheme +which could supply everybody with light. Such +machines were confessedly inefficient, although +representing the farthest reach of a young art. A +commission appointed at that time by the Franklin +Institute, and including Prof. Elihu Thomson, +investigated the merits of existing dynamos and +reported as to the best of them: "The Gramme machine +is the most economical as a means of converting +motive force into electricity; it utilizes in the arc +from 38 to 41 per cent. of the motive work produced, +after deduction is made for friction and the resistance +of the air." They reported also that the Brush arc +lighting machine "produces in the luminous arc useful +work equivalent to 31 per cent. of the motive +power employed, or to 38 1/2 per cent. after the friction +has been deducted." Commercial possibilities could +not exist in the face of such low economy as this, and +Mr. Edison realized that he would have to improve +the dynamo himself if he wanted a better machine. +The scientific world at that time was engaged in a +controversy regarding the external and internal resistance +of a circuit in which a generator was situated. +Discussing the subject Mr. Jehl, in his biographical +notes, says: "While this controversy raged in the +scientific papers, and criticism and confusion seemed +at its height, Edison and Upton discussed this question +very thoroughly, and Edison declared he did +not intend to build up a system of distribution in +which the external resistance would be equal to the +internal resistance. He said he was just about going +to do the opposite; he wanted a large external +resistance and a low internal one. He said he wanted +to sell the energy outside of the station and not waste +it in the dynamo and conductors, where it brought +no profits.... In these later days, when these ideas +of Edison are used as common property, and are applied +in every modern system of distribution, it is +astonishing to remember that when they were +propounded they met with most vehement antagonism +from the world at large." Edison, familiar with batteries +in telegraphy, could not bring himself to believe +that any substitute generator of electrical energy +could be efficient that used up half its own possible +output before doing an equal amount of outside +work. + +Undaunted by the dicta of contemporaneous +science, Mr. Edison attacked the dynamo problem +with his accustomed vigor and thoroughness. He +chose the drum form for his armature, and experimented +with different kinds of iron. Cores were made +of cast iron, others of forged iron; and still others of +sheets of iron of various thicknesses separated from +each other by paper or paint. These cores were then +allowed to run in an excited field, and after a given +time their temperature was measured and noted. +By such practical methods Edison found that the +thin, laminated cores of sheet iron gave the least +heat, and had the least amount of wasteful eddy +currents. His experiments and ideas on magnetism +at that period were far in advance of the time. His +work and tests regarding magnetism were repeated +later on by Hopkinson and Kapp, who then elucidated +the whole theory mathematically by means of +formulae and constants. Before this, however, Edison +had attained these results by pioneer work, founded +on his original reasoning, and utilized them in the +construction of his dynamo, thus revolutionizing the +art of building such machines. + +After thorough investigation of the magnetic qualities +of different kinds of iron, Edison began to make +a study of winding the cores, first determining the +electromotive force generated per turn of wire at +various speeds in fields of different intensities. He +also considered various forms and shapes for the armature, +and by methodical and systematic research obtained +the data and best conditions upon which he +could build his generator. In the field magnets of +his dynamo he constructed the cores and yoke of +forged iron having a very large cross-section, which +was a new thing in those days. Great attention was +also paid to all the joints, which were smoothed down +so as to make a perfect magnetic contact. The Edison +dynamo, with its large masses of iron, was a vivid +contrast to the then existing types with their meagre +quantities of the ferric element. Edison also made +tests on his field magnets by slowly raising the strength +of the exciting current, so that he obtained figures +similar to those shown by a magnetic curve, and in +this way found where saturation commenced, and +where it was useless to expend more current on the +field. If he had asked Upton at the time to formulate +the results of his work in this direction, for publication, +he would have anticipated the historic work +on magnetism that was executed by the two other +investigators; Hopkinson and Kapp, later on. + +The laboratory note-books of the period bear +abundant evidence of the systematic and searching +nature of these experiments and investigations, in the +hundreds of pages of notes, sketches, calculations, +and tables made at the time by Edison, Upton, +Batchelor, Jehl, and by others who from time to time +were intrusted with special experiments to elucidate +some particular point. Mr. Jehl says: "The experiments +on armature-winding were also very interesting. +Edison had a number of small wooden cores +made, at both ends of which we inserted little brass +nails, and we wound the wooden cores with twine as if +it were wire on an armature. In this way we studied +armature-winding, and had matches where each of us +had a core, while bets were made as to who would be +the first to finish properly and correctly a certain +kind of winding. Care had to be taken that the +wound core corresponded to the direction of the current, +supposing it were placed in a field and revolved. +After Edison had decided this question, Upton made +drawings and tables from which the real armatures +were wound and connected to the commutator. To +a student of to-day all this seems simple, but in those +days the art of constructing dynamos was about as +dark as air navigation is at present.... Edison also +improved the armature by dividing it and the commutator +into a far greater number of sections than +up to that time had been the practice. He was also +the first to use mica in insulating the commutator +sections from each other." + +In the mean time, during the progress of the +investigations on the dynamo, word had gone out to +the world that Edison expected to invent a generator +of greater efficiency than any that existed at the +time. Again he was assailed and ridiculed by the +technical press, for had not the foremost electricians +and physicists of Europe and America worked for +years on the production of dynamos and arc lamps +as they then existed? Even though this young man +at Menlo Park had done some wonderful things for +telegraphy and telephony; even if he had recorded +and reproduced human speech, he had his limitations, +and could not upset the settled dictum of science +that the internal resistance must equal the external +resistance. + +Such was the trend of public opinion at the time, +but "after Mr. Kruesi had finished the first practical +dynamo, and after Mr. Upton had tested it thoroughly +and verified his figures and results several times-- +for he also was surprised--Edison was able to tell +the world that he had made a generator giving an +efficiency of 90 per cent." Ninety per cent. as against +40 per cent. was a mighty hit, and the world would +not believe it. Criticism and argument were again at +their height, while Upton, as Edison's duellist, was +kept busy replying to private and public challenges +of the fact.... "The tremendous progress of the world +in the last quarter of a century, owing to the revolution +caused by the all-conquering march of `Heavy +Current Engineering,' is the outcome of Edison's work +at Menlo Park that raised the efficiency of the dynamo +from 40 per cent. to 90 per cent." + +Mr. Upton sums it all up very precisely in his remarks +upon this period: "What has now been made +clear by accurate nomenclature was then very foggy +in the text-books. Mr. Edison had completely +grasped the effect of subdivision of circuits, and the +influence of wires leading to such subdivisions, when +it was most difficult to express what he knew in +technical language. I remember distinctly when Mr. +Edison gave me the problem of placing a motor in +circuit in multiple arc with a fixed resistance; and I +had to work out the problem entirely, as I could find +no prior solution. There was nothing I could find +bearing upon the counter electromotive force of the +armature, and the effect of the resistance of the +armature on the work given out by the armature. +It was a wonderful experience to have problems given +me out of the intuitions of a great mind, based on +enormous experience in practical work, and applying +to new lines of progress. One of the main impressions +left upon me after knowing Mr. Edison for many +years is the marvellous accuracy of his guesses. He +will see the general nature of a result long before it +can be reached by mathematical calculation. His +greatness was always to be clearly seen when difficulties +arose. They always made him cheerful, and +started him thinking; and very soon would come a +line of suggestions which would not end until the +difficulty was met and overcome, or found +insurmountable. I have often felt that Mr. Edison got +himself purposely into trouble by premature publications +and otherwise, so that he would have a full +incentive to get himself out of the trouble." + +This chapter may well end with a statement from +Mr. Jehl, shrewd and observant, as a participator in +all the early work of the development of the Edison +lighting system: "Those who were gathered around +him in the old Menlo Park laboratory enjoyed his +confidence, and he theirs. Nor was this confidence +ever abused. He was respected with a respect which +only great men can obtain, and he never showed by +any word or act that he was their employer in a sense +that would hurt the feelings, as is often the case in +the ordinary course of business life. He conversed, +argued, and disputed with us all as if he were a colleague +on the same footing. It was his winning ways +and manners that attached us all so loyally to his +side, and made us ever ready with a boundless devotion +to execute any request or desire." Thus does +a great magnet, run through a heap of sand and +filings, exert its lines of force and attract irresistibly +to itself the iron and steel particles that are its +affinity, and having sifted them out, leaving the useless +dust behind, hold them to itself with responsive +tenacity. + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +A WORLD-HUNT FOR FILAMENT MATERIAL + +IN writing about the old experimenting days at +Menlo Park, Mr. F. R. Upton says: "Edison's day +is twenty-four hours long, for he has always worked +whenever there was anything to do, whether day or +night, and carried a force of night workers, so that +his experiments could go on continually. If he wanted +material, he always made it a principle to have it at +once, and never hesitated to use special messengers +to get it. I remember in the early days of the electric +light he wanted a mercury pump for exhausting the +lamps. He sent me to Princeton to get it. I got +back to Metuchen late in the day, and had to carry +the pump over to the laboratory on my back that +evening, set it up, and work all night and the next +day getting results." + +This characteristic principle of obtaining desired +material in the quickest and most positive way manifested +itself in the search that Edison instituted for +the best kind of bamboo for lamp filaments, immediately +after the discovery related in a preceding +chapter. It is doubtful whether, in the annals of +scientific research and experiment, there is anything +quite analogous to the story of this search and the +various expeditions that went out from the Edison +laboratory in 1880 and subsequent years, to scour +the earth for a material so apparently simple as a +homogeneous strip of bamboo, or other similar fibre. +Prolonged and exhaustive experiment, microscopic +examination, and an intimate knowledge of the +nature of wood and plant fibres, however, had led +Edison to the conclusion that bamboo or similar +fibrous filaments were more suitable than anything +else then known for commercial incandescent lamps, +and he wanted the most perfect for that purpose. +Hence, the quickest way was to search the tropics +until the proper material was found. + +The first emissary chosen for this purpose was the +late William H. Moore, of Rahway, New Jersey, who +left New York in the summer of 1880, bound for +China and Japan, these being the countries pre- +eminently noted for the production of abundant +species of bamboo. On arrival in the East he quickly +left the cities behind and proceeded into the interior, +extending his search far into the more remote country +districts, collecting specimens on his way, and +devoting much time to the study of the bamboo, and +in roughly testing the relative value of its fibre in +canes of one, two, three, four, and five year growths. +Great bales of samples were sent to Edison, and after +careful tests a certain variety and growth of Japanese +bamboo was determined to be the most satisfactory +material for filaments that had been found. Mr. +Moore, who was continuing his searches in that +country, was instructed to arrange for the cultivation +and shipment of regular supplies of this particular +species. Arrangements to this end were accordingly +made with a Japanese farmer, who began to make +immediate shipments, and who subsequently displayed +so much ingenuity in fertilizing and cross- +fertilizing that the homogeneity of the product was +constantly improved. The use of this bamboo for +Edison lamp filaments was continued for many years. + +Although Mr. Moore did not meet with the exciting +adventures of some subsequent explorers, he encountered +numerous difficulties and novel experiences +in his many months of travel through the hinterland +of Japan and China. The attitude toward foreigners +thirty years ago was not as friendly as it has +since become, but Edison, as usual, had made a +happy choice of messengers, as Mr. Moore's good +nature and diplomacy attested. These qualities, +together with his persistence and perseverance and +faculty of intelligent discrimination in the matter +of fibres, helped to make his mission successful, and +gave to him the honor of being the one who found +the bamboo which was adopted for use as filaments +in commercial Edison lamps. + +Although Edison had satisfied himself that bamboo +furnished the most desirable material thus far +discovered for incandescent-lamp filaments, he felt +that in some part of the world there might be found +a natural product of the same general character that +would furnish a still more perfect and homogeneous +material. In his study of this subject, and during the +prosecution of vigorous and searching inquiries in +various directions, he learned that Mr. John C. +Brauner, then residing in Brooklyn, New York, had +an expert knowledge of indigenous plants of the +particular kind desired. During the course of a geological +survey which he had made for the Brazilian +Government, Mr. Brauner had examined closely the +various species of palms which grow plentifully in +that country, and of them there was one whose fibres +he thought would be just what Edison wanted. + +Accordingly, Mr. Brauner was sent for and dispatched +to Brazil in December, 1880, to search for +and send samples of this and such other palms, fibres, +grasses, and canes as, in his judgment, would be suitable +for the experiments then being carried on at +Menlo Park. Landing at Para, he crossed over into +the Amazonian province, and thence proceeded +through the heart of the country, making his way by +canoe on the rivers and their tributaries, and by foot +into the forests and marshes of a vast and almost +untrodden wilderness. In this manner Mr. Brauner +traversed about two thousand miles of the comparatively +unknown interior of Southern Brazil, and procured +a large variety of fibrous specimens, which he +shipped to Edison a few months later. When these +fibres arrived in the United States they were carefully +tested and a few of them found suitable but not +superior to the Japanese bamboo, which was then +being exclusively used in the manufacture of commercial +Edison lamps. + +Later on Edison sent out an expedition to explore +the wilds of Cuba and Jamaica. A two months' +investigation of the latter island revealed a variety +of bamboo growths, of which a great number of specimens +were obtained and shipped to Menlo Park; but +on careful test they were found inferior to the Jap- +anese bamboo, and hence rejected. The exploration +of the glades and swamps of Florida by three men +extended over a period of five months in a minute +search for fibrous woods of the palmetto species. A +great variety was found, and over five hundred boxes +of specimens were shipped to the laboratory from +time to time, but none of them tested out with entirely +satisfactory results. + +The use of Japanese bamboo for carbon filaments +was therefore continued in the manufacture of lamps, +although an incessant search was maintained for a +still more perfect material. The spirit of progress, +so pervasive in Edison's character, led him, however, +to renew his investigations further afield by sending +out two other men to examine the bamboo and +similar growths of those parts of South America not +covered by Mr. Brauner. These two men were Frank +McGowan and C. F. Hanington, both of whom had +been for nearly seven years in the employ of the +Edison Electric Light Company in New York. The +former was a stocky, rugged Irishman, possessing the +native shrewdness and buoyancy of his race, coupled +with undaunted courage and determination; and the +latter was a veteran of the Civil War, with some +knowledge of forest and field, acquired as a sportsman. +They left New York in September, 1887, arriving +in due time at Para, proceeding thence twenty- +three hundred miles up the Amazon River to Iquitos. +Nothing of an eventful nature occurred during this +trip, but on arrival at Iquitos the two men separated; +Mr. McGowan to explore on foot and by canoe in +Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia, while Mr. Hanington +returned by the Amazon River to Para. Thence +Hanington went by steamer to Montevideo, and by +similar conveyance up the River de la Plata and +through Uruguay, Argentine, and Paraguay to the +southernmost part of Brazil, collecting a large number +of specimens of palms and grasses. + +The adventures of Mr. McGowan, after leaving +Iquitos, would fill a book if related in detail. The +object of the present narrative and the space at the +authors' disposal, however, do not permit of more +than a brief mention of his experiences. His first +objective point was Quito, about five hundred miles +away, which he proposed to reach on foot and by +means of canoeing on the Napo River through a wild +and comparatively unknown country teeming with +tribes of hostile natives. The dangers of the expedition +were pictured to him in glowing colors, but spurning +prophecies of dire disaster, he engaged some native +Indians and a canoe and started on his explorations, +reaching Quito in eighty-seven days, after a +thorough search of the country on both sides of the +Napo River. From Quito he went to Guayaquil, +from there by steamer to Buenaventura, and thence +by rail, twelve miles, to Cordova. From this point +he set out on foot to explore the Cauca Valley and +the Cordilleras. + +Mr. McGowan found in these regions a great variety +of bamboo, small and large, some species growing +seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, and from +six to nine inches in diameter. He collected a large +number of specimens, which were subsequently sent +to Orange for Edison's examination. After about +fifteen months of exploration attended by much hardship +and privation, deserted sometimes by treacherous +guides, twice laid low by fevers, occasionally in peril +from Indian attacks, wild animals and poisonous +serpents, tormented by insect pests, endangered by +floods, one hundred and nineteen days without meat, +ninety-eight days without taking off his clothes, Mr. +McGowan returned to America, broken in health but +having faithfully fulfilled the commission intrusted +to him. The Evening Sun, New York, obtained an +interview with him at that time, and in its issue of +May 2, 1889, gave more than a page to a brief story +of his interesting adventures, and then commented +editorially upon them, as follows: + + +"A ROMANCE OF SCIENCE" + + +"The narrative given elsewhere in the Evening Sun +of the wanderings of Edison's missionary of science, +Mr. Frank McGowan, furnishes a new proof that the +romances of real life surpass any that the imagination +can frame. + +"In pursuit of a substance that should meet the +requirements of the Edison incandescent lamp, Mr. McGowan +penetrated the wilderness of the Amazon, and for a year +defied its fevers, beasts, reptiles, and deadly insects in +his quest of a material so precious that jealous Nature +has hidden it in her most secret fastnesses. + +"No hero of mythology or fable ever dared such +dragons to rescue some captive goddess as did this +dauntless champion of civilization. Theseus, or Siegfried, +or any knight of the fairy books might envy the +victories of Edison's irresistible lieutenant. + +"As a sample story of adventure, Mr. McGowan's narrative +is a marvel fit to be classed with the historic jour- +neyings of the greatest travellers. But it gains immensely +in interest when we consider that it succeeded in its +scientific purpose. The mysterious bamboo was discovered, +and large quantities of it were procured and +brought to the Wizard's laboratory, there to suffer another +wondrous change and then to light up our pleasure- +haunts and our homes with a gentle radiance." + + +A further, though rather sad, interest attaches to +the McGowan story, for only a short time had +elapsed after his return to America when he disappeared +suddenly and mysteriously, and in spite of +long-continued and strenuous efforts to obtain some +light on the subject, no clew or trace of him was ever +found. He was a favorite among the Edison "oldtimers," +and his memory is still cherished, for when +some of the "boys" happen to get together, as they +occasionally do, some one is almost sure to "wonder +what became of poor `Mac.' " He was last seen at +Mouquin's famous old French restaurant on Fulton +Street, New York, where he lunched with one of the +authors of this book and the late Luther Stieringer. +He sat with them for two or three hours discussing +his wonderful trip, and telling some fascinating stories +of adventure. Then the party separated at the Ann +Street door of the restaurant, after making plans to +secure the narrative in more detailed form for +subsequent use--and McGowan has not been seen from +that hour to this. The trail of the explorer was more +instantly lost in New York than in the vast recesses +of the Amazon swamps. + +The next and last explorer whom Edison sent out +in search of natural fibres was Mr. James Ricalton, +of Maplewood, New Jersey, a school-principal, a well- +known traveller, and an ardent student of natural +science. Mr. Ricalton's own story of his memorable +expedition is so interesting as to be worthy of repetition +here: + +"A village schoolmaster is not unaccustomed to +door-rappings; for the steps of belligerent mothers +are often thitherward bent seeking redress for conjured +wrongs to their darling boobies. + +"It was a bewildering moment, therefore, to the +Maplewood teacher when, in answering a rap at the +door one afternoon, he found, instead of an irate +mother, a messenger from the laboratory of the +world's greatest inventor bearing a letter requesting +an audience a few hours later. + +"Being the teacher to whom reference is made, I +am now quite willing to confess that for the remainder +of that afternoon, less than a problem in Euclid would +have been sufficient to disqualify me for the remaining +scholastic duties of the hour. I felt it, of course, +to be no small honor for a humble teacher to be called +to the sanctum of Thomas A. Edison. The letter, +however, gave no intimation of the nature of the +object for which I had been invited to appear before +Mr. Edison.... + +"When I was presented to Mr. Edison his way of +setting forth the mission he had designated for me +was characteristic of how a great mind conceives vast +undertakings and commands great things in few +words. At this time Mr. Edison had discovered that +the fibre of a certain bamboo afforded a very desirable +carbon for the electric lamp, and the variety of bam- +boo used was a product of Japan. It was his belief +that in other parts of the world other and superior +varieties might be found, and to that end he had +dispatched explorers to bamboo regions in the valleys +of the great South American rivers, where specimens +were found of extraordinary quality; but the locality +in which these specimens were found was lost in the +limitless reaches of those great river-bottoms. The +great necessity for more durable carbons became a +desideratum so urgent that the tireless inventor decided +to commission another explorer to search the +tropical jungles of the Orient. + +"This brings me then to the first meeting of Edison, +when he set forth substantially as follows, as I remember +it twenty years ago, the purpose for which +he had called me from my scholastic duties. With +a quizzical gleam in his eye, he said: `I want a man +to ransack all the tropical jungles of the East to find +a better fibre for my lamp; I expect it to be found +in the palm or bamboo family. How would you like +that job?' Suiting my reply to his love of brevity +and dispatch, I said, `That would suit me.' `Can +you go to-morrow?' was his next question. `Well, +Mr. Edison, I must first of all get a leave of absence +from my Board of Education, and assist the board to +secure a substitute for the time of my absence. How +long will it take, Mr. Edison?' `How can I tell? +Maybe six months, and maybe five years; no matter +how long, find it.' He continued: `I sent a man to +South America to find what I want; he found it; +but lost the place where he found it, so he might +as well never have found it at all.' Hereat I was +enjoined to proceed forthwith to court the Board +of Education for a leave of absence, which I did +successfully, the board considering that a call so +important and honorary was entitled to their +unqualified favor, which they generously granted. + +"I reported to Mr. Edison on the following day, +when he instructed me to come to the laboratory at +once to learn all the details of drawing and carbonizing +fibres, which it would be necessary to do in the +Oriental jungles. This I did, and, in the mean time, +a set of suitable tools for this purpose had been ordered +to be made in the laboratory. As soon as I +learned my new trade, which I accomplished in a few +days, Mr. Edison directed me to the library of the +laboratory to occupy a few days in studying the +geography of the Orient and, particularly, in drawing +maps of the tributaries of the Ganges, the Irrawaddy, +and the Brahmaputra rivers, and other regions which +I expected to explore. + +"It was while thus engaged that Mr. Edison came +to me one day and said: `If you will go up to the +house' (his palatial home not far away) `and look behind +the sofa in the library you will find a joint of +bamboo, a specimen of that found in South America; +bring it down and make a study of it; if you find +something equal to that I will be satisfied.' At the +home I was guided to the library by an Irish servant- +woman, to whom I communicated my knowledge of +the definite locality of the sample joint. She plunged +her arm, bare and herculean, behind the aforementioned +sofa, and holding aloft a section of wood, +called out in a mood of discovery: `Is that it?' +Replying in the affirmative, she added, under an +impulse of innocent divination that whatever her +wizard master laid hands upon could result in nothing +short of an invention, `Sure, sor, and what's he +going to invint out o' that?' + +"My kit of tools made, my maps drawn, my +Oriental geography reviewed, I come to the point +when matters of immediate departure are discussed; +and when I took occasion to mention to my chief +that, on the subject of life insurance, underwriters +refuse to take any risks on an enterprise so hazardous, +Mr. Edison said that, if I did not place too high +a valuation on my person, he would take the risk +himself. I replied that I was born and bred in New +York State, but now that I had become a Jersey man +I did not value myself at above fifteen hundred dollars. +Edison laughed and said that he would assume +the risk, and another point was settled. The next +matter was the financing of the trip, about which +Mr. Edison asked in a tentative way about the rates +to the East. I told him the expense of such a trip +could not be determined beforehand in detail, but that +I had established somewhat of a reputation for +economic travel, and that I did not believe any +traveller could surpass me in that respect. He desired +no further assurance in that direction, and thereupon +ordered a letter of credit made out with authorization +to order a second when the first was exhausted. +Herein then are set forth in briefest space the +preliminaries of a circuit of the globe in quest of fibre. + +"It so happened that the day on which I set out +fell on Washington's Birthday, and I suggested to my +boys and girls at school that they make a line across +the station platform near the school at Maplewood, +and from this line I would start eastward around +the world, and if good-fortune should bring me back +I would meet them from the westward at the same +line. As I had often made them `toe the scratch,' +for once they were only too well pleased to have me +toe the line for them. + +"This was done, and I sailed via England and the +Suez Canal to Ceylon, that fair isle to which Sindbad +the Sailor made his sixth voyage, picturesquely +referred to in history as the `brightest gem in the +British Colonial Crown.' I knew Ceylon to be eminently +tropical; I knew it to be rich in many varieties +of the bamboo family, which has been called the king +of the grasses; and in this family had I most hope of +finding the desired fibre. Weeks were spent in this +paradisiacal isle. Every part was visited. Native +wood craftsmen were offered a premium on every +new species brought in, and in this way nearly a hundred +species were tested, a greater number than was +found in any other country. One of the best specimens +tested during the entire trip around the world +was found first in Ceylon, although later in Burmah, +it being indigenous to the latter country. It is a +gigantic tree-grass or reed growing in clumps of from +one to two hundred, often twelve inches in diameter, +and one hundred and fifty feet high, and known as +the giant bamboo (Bambusa gigantia). This giant +grass stood the highest test as a carbon, and on account +of its extraordinary size and qualities I extend +it this special mention. With others who have given +much attention to this remarkable reed, I believe that +in its manifold uses the bamboo is the world's greatest +dendral benefactor. + +"From Ceylon I proceeded to India, touching the +great peninsula first at Cape Comorin, and continuing +northward by way of Pondicherry, Madura, and +Madras; and thence to the tableland of Bangalore +and the Western Ghauts, testing many kinds of wood +at every point, but particularly the palm and bamboo +families. From the range of the Western Ghauts +I went to Bombay and then north by the way of +Delhi to Simla, the summer capital of the Himalayas; +thence again northward to the headwaters of the +Sutlej River, testing everywhere on my way everything +likely to afford the desired carbon. + +"On returning from the mountains I followed the +valleys of the Jumna and the Ganges to Calcutta, +whence I again ascended the Sub-Himalayas to +Darjeeling, where the numerous river-bottoms were +sprinkled plentifully with many varieties of bamboo, +from the larger sizes to dwarfed species covering the +mountain slopes, and not longer than the grass of +meadows. Again descending to the plains I passed +eastward to the Brahmaputra River, which I ascended +to the foot-hills in Assam; but finding nothing of +superior quality in all this northern region I returned +to Calcutta and sailed thence to Rangoon, in Burmah; +and there, finding no samples giving more excellent +tests in the lower reaches of the Irrawaddy, I ascended +that river to Mandalay, where, through Burmese +bamboo wiseacres, I gathered in from round about +and tested all that the unusually rich Burmese flora +could furnish. In Burmah the giant bamboo, as already +mentioned, is found indigenous; but beside it +no superior varieties were found. Samples tested +at several points on the Malay Peninsula showed no +new species, except at a point north of Singapore, +where I found a species large and heavy which gave +a test nearly equal to that of the giant bamboo in +Ceylon. + +"After completing the Malay Peninsula I had +planned to visit Java and Borneo; but having found +in the Malay Peninsula and in Ceylon a bamboo +fibre which averaged a test from one to two hundred +per cent. better than that in use at the lamp factory, +I decided it was unnecessary to visit these countries +or New Guinea, as my `Eureka' had already been +established, and that I would therefore set forth over +the return hemisphere, searching China and Japan +on the way. The rivers in Southern China brought +down to Canton bamboos of many species, where this +wondrously utilitarian reed enters very largely into +the industrial life of that people, and not merely into +the industrial life, but even into the culinary arts, +for bamboo sprouts are a universal vegetable in +China; but among all the bamboos of China I +found none of superexcellence in carbonizing qualities. +Japan came next in the succession of countries to be +explored, but there the work was much simplified, +from the fact that the Tokio Museum contains a +complete classified collection of all the different species +in the empire, and there samples could be obtained +and tested. + +"Now the last of the important bamboo-producing +countries in the globe circuit had been done, and +the `home-lap' was in order; the broad Pacific was +spanned in fourteen days; my natal continent in six; +and on the 22d of February, on the same day, at the +same hour, at the same minute, one year to a second, +`little Maude,' a sweet maid of the school, led me +across the line which completed the circuit of the +globe, and where I was greeted by the cheers of my +boys and girls. I at once reported to Mr. Edison, +whose manner of greeting my return was as characteristic +of the man as his summary and matter-of- +fact manner of my dispatch. His little catechism +of curious inquiry was embraced in four small and +intensely Anglo-Saxon words--with his usual pleasant +smile he extended his hand and said: `Did you +get it?' This was surely a summing of a year's exploration +not less laconic than Caesar's review of his +Gallic campaign. When I replied that I had, but +that he must be the final judge of what I had found, +he said that during my absence he had succeeded in +making an artificial carbon which was meeting the +requirements satisfactorily; so well, indeed, that I +believe no practical use was ever made of the bamboo +fibres thereafter. + +"I have herein given a very brief resume of my +search for fibre through the Orient; and during my +connection with that mission I was at all times not +less astonished at Mr. Edison's quick perception of +conditions and his instant decision and his bigness +of conceptions, than I had always been with his +prodigious industry and his inventive genius. + +"Thinking persons know that blatant men never +accomplish much, and Edison's marvellous brevity +of speech along with his miraculous achievements +should do much to put bores and garrulity out of +fashion." + +Although Edison had instituted such a costly and +exhaustive search throughout the world for the most +perfect of natural fibres, he did not necessarily feel +committed for all time to the exclusive use of that +material for his lamp filaments. While these +explorations were in progress, as indeed long before, +he had given much thought to the production of some +artificial compound that would embrace not only the +required homogeneity, but also many other qualifications +necessary for the manufacture of an improved +type of lamp which had become desirable by reason +of the rapid adoption of his lighting system. + +At the very time Mr. McGowan was making his +explorations deep in South America, and Mr. Ricalton +his swift trip around the world, Edison, after +much investigation and experiment, had produced +a compound which promised better results than bamboo +fibres. After some changes dictated by experience, +this artificial filament was adopted in the +manufacture of lamps. No radical change was +immediately made, however, but the product of the +lamp factory was gradually changed over, during the +course of a few years, from the use of bamboo to the +"squirted" filament, as the new material was called. +An artificial compound of one kind or another has +indeed been universally adopted for the purpose by +all manufacturers; hence the incandescing conductors +in all carbon-filament lamps of the present day are +made in that way. The fact remains, however, that +for nearly nine years all Edison lamps (many millions +in the aggregate) were made with bamboo filaments, +and many of them for several years after that, until +bamboo was finally abandoned in the early nineties, +except for use in a few special types which were so +made until about the end of 1908. The last few years +have witnessed a remarkable advance in the manufacture +of incandescent lamps in the substitution of +metallic filaments for those of carbon. It will be +remembered that many of the earlier experiments were +based on the use of strips of platinum; while other +rare metals were the subject of casual trial. No real +success was attained in that direction, and for many +years the carbon-filament lamp reigned supreme. +During the last four or five years lamps with filaments +made from tantalum and tungsten have been +produced and placed on the market with great success, +and are now largely used. Their price is still +very high, however, as compared with that of the +carbon lamp, which has been vastly improved in +methods of construction, and whose average price +of fifteen cents is only one-tenth of what it was when +Edison first brought it out. + +With the close of Mr. McGowan's and Mr. Ricalton's +expeditions, there ended the historic world-hunt +for natural fibres. From start to finish the investigations +and searches made by Edison himself, and carried +on by others under his direction, are remarkable +not only from the fact that they entailed a total +expenditure of about $100,000, (disbursed under his +supervision by Mr. Upton), but also because of +their unique inception and thoroughness they illustrate +one of the strongest traits of his character--an +invincible determination to leave no stone unturned +to acquire that which he believes to be in existence, +and which, when found, will answer the purpose that +he has in mind. + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +INVENTING A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF LIGHTING + +IN Berlin, on December 11, 1908, with notable eclat, +the seventieth birthday was celebrated of Emil +Rathenau, the founder of the great Allgemein +Elektricitaets Gesellschaft. This distinguished German, +creator of a splendid industry, then received the +congratulations of his fellow-countrymen, headed by +Emperor William, who spoke enthusiastically of his +services to electro-technics and to Germany. In +his interesting acknowledgment, Mr. Rathenau told +how he went to Paris in 1881, and at the electrical +exhibition there saw the display of Edison's inventions +in electric lighting "which have met with as +little proper appreciation as his countless innovations +in connection with telegraphy, telephony, and the +entire electrical industry." He saw the Edison dynamo, +and he saw the incandescent lamp, "of which millions +have been manufactured since that day without the +great master being paid the tribute to his invention." +But what impressed the observant, thoroughgoing +German was the breadth with which the whole lighting +art had been elaborated and perfected, even at +that early day. "The Edison system of lighting was +as beautifully conceived down to the very details, +and as thoroughly worked out as if it had been tested +for decades in various towns. Neither sockets, +switches, fuses, lamp-holders, nor any of the other +accessories necessary to complete the installation +were wanting; and the generating of the current, +the regulation, the wiring with distributing boxes, +house connections, meters, etc., all showed signs of +astonishing skill and incomparable genius." + +Such praise on such an occasion from the man who +introduced incandescent electric lighting into Germany +is significant as to the continued appreciation abroad +of Mr. Edison's work. If there is one thing modern +Germany is proud and jealous of, it is her leadership +in electrical engineering and investigation. But with +characteristic insight, Mr. Rathenau here placed his +finger on the great merit that has often been forgotten. +Edison was not simply the inventor of a new lamp +and a new dynamo. They were invaluable elements, +but far from all that was necessary. His was the +mighty achievement of conceiving and executing in +all its details an art and an industry absolutely new +to the world. Within two years this man completed +and made that art available in its essential, fundamental +facts, which remain unchanged after thirty +years of rapid improvement and widening application. + +Such a stupendous feat, whose equal is far to seek +anywhere in the history of invention, is worth studying, +especially as the task will take us over much new +ground and over very little of the territory already +covered. Notwithstanding the enormous amount of +thought and labor expended on the incandescent +lamp problem from the autumn of 1878 to the winter +of 1879, it must not be supposed for one moment that +Edison's whole endeavor and entire inventive skill +had been given to the lamp alone, or the dynamo +alone. We have sat through the long watches of the +night while Edison brooded on the real solution of +the swarming problems. We have gazed anxiously at +the steady fingers of the deft and cautious Batchelor, +as one fragile filament after another refused to stay +intact until it could be sealed into its crystal prison +and there glow with light that never was before on +land or sea. We have calculated armatures and field +coils for the new dynamo with Upton, and held the +stakes for Jehl and his fellows at their winding bees. +We have seen the mineral and vegetable kingdoms +rifled and ransacked for substances that would yield +the best "filament." We have had the vague consciousness +of assisting at a great development whose +evidences to-day on every hand attest its magnitude. +We have felt the fierce play of volcanic effort, lifting +new continents of opportunity from the infertile sea, +without any devastation of pre-existing fields of human +toil and harvest. But it still remains to elucidate +the actual thing done; to reduce it to concrete +data, and in reducing, to unfold its colossal dimensions. + +The lighting system that Edison contemplated in +this entirely new departure from antecedent methods +included the generation of electrical energy, or current, +on a very large scale; its distribution throughout +extended areas, and its division and subdivision +into small units converted into light at innumerable +points in every direction from the source of +supply, each unit to be independent of every oth- +er and susceptible to immediate control by the +user. + +This was truly an altogether prodigious undertaking. +We need not wonder that Professor Tyndall, +in words implying grave doubt as to the possibility +of any solution of the various problems, said publicly +that he would much rather have the matter in Edison's +hands than in his own. There were no precedents, +nothing upon which to build or improve. The +problems could only be answered by the creation of +new devices and methods expressly worked out for +their solution. An electric lamp answering certain +specific requirements would, indeed, be the key to +the situation, but its commercial adaptation required +a multifarious variety of apparatus and devices. The +word "system" is much abused in invention, and +during the early days of electric lighting its use +applied to a mere freakish lamp or dynamo was often +ludicrous. But, after all, nothing short of a complete +system could give real value to the lamp as an +invention; nothing short of a system could body +forth the new art to the public. Let us therefore set +down briefly a few of the leading items needed for +perfect illumination by electricity, all of which were +part of the Edison programme: + +First--To conceive a broad and fundamentally correct +method of distributing the current, satisfactory +in a scientific sense and practical commercially in its +efficiency and economy. This meant, ready made, a +comprehensive plan analogous to illumination by gas, +with a network of conductors all connected together, +so that in any given city area the lights could be fed +with electricity from several directions, thus eliminating +any interruption due to the disturbance on any +particular section. + +Second--To devise an electric lamp that would give +about the same amount of light as a gas jet, which +custom had proven to be a suitable and useful unit. +This lamp must possess the quality of requiring only +a small investment in the copper conductors reaching +it. Each lamp must be independent of every +other lamp. Each and all the lights must be produced +and operated with sufficient economy to compete +on a commercial basis with gas. The lamp must +be durable, capable of being easily and safely handled +by the public, and one that would remain capable of +burning at full incandescence and candle-power a great +length of time. + +Third--To devise means whereby the amount of +electrical energy furnished to each and every customer +could be determined, as in the case of gas, and +so that this could be done cheaply and reliably by a +meter at the customer's premises. + +Fourth--To elaborate a system or network of conductors +capable of being placed underground or overhead, +which would allow of being tapped at any intervals, +so that service wires could be run from the +main conductors in the street into each building. +Where these mains went below the surface of the +thoroughfare, as in large cities, there must be +protective conduit or pipe for the copper conductors, +and these pipes must allow of being tapped wherever +necessary. With these conductors and pipes must +also be furnished manholes, junction-boxes, con- +nections, and a host of varied paraphernalia insuring +perfect general distribution. + +Fifth--To devise means for maintaining at all +points in an extended area of distribution a practically +even pressure of current, so that all the lamps, +wherever located, near or far away from the central +station, should give an equal light at all times, +independent of the number that might be turned on; and +safeguarding the lamps against rupture by sudden +and violent fluctuations of current. There must also +be means for thus regulating at the point where the +current was generated the quality or pressure of the +current throughout the whole lighting area, with devices +for indicating what such pressure might actually +be at various points in the area. + +Sixth--To design efficient dynamos, such not being +in existence at the time, that would convert economically +the steam-power of high-speed engines into +electrical energy, together with means for connecting +and disconnecting them with the exterior consumption +circuits; means for regulating, equalizing their +loads, and adjusting the number of dynamos to be +used according to the fluctuating demands on the +central station. Also the arrangement of complete +stations with steam and electric apparatus and auxiliary +devices for insuring their efficient and continuous +operation. + +Seventh--To invent devices that would prevent +the current from becoming excessive upon any conductors, +causing fire or other injury; also switches +for turning the current on and off; lamp-holders, +fixtures, and the like; also means and methods for +establishing the interior circuits that were to carry +current to chandeliers and fixtures in buildings. + +Here was the outline of the programme laid down +in the autumn of 1878, and pursued through all its +difficulties to definite accomplishment in about eighteen +months, some of the steps being made immediately, +others being taken as the art evolved. It is +not to be imagined for one moment that Edison performed +all the experiments with his own hands. The +method of working at Menlo Park has already been +described in these pages by those who participated. +It would not only have been physically impossible for +one man to have done all this work himself, in view +of the time and labor required, and the endless detail; +but most of the apparatus and devices invented +or suggested by him as the art took shape required +the handiwork of skilled mechanics and artisans of a +high order of ability. Toward the end of 1879 the +laboratory force thus numbered at least one hundred +earnest men. In this respect of collaboration, Edison +has always adopted a policy that must in part +be taken to explain his many successes. Some inventors +of the greatest ability, dealing with ideas and +conceptions of importance, have found it impossible +to organize or even to tolerate a staff of co-workers, +preferring solitary and secret toil, incapable of team +work, or jealous of any intrusion that could possibly +bar them from a full and complete claim to the result +when obtained. Edison always stood shoulder to +shoulder with his associates, but no one ever questioned +the leadership, nor was it ever in doubt where +the inspiration originated. The real truth is that +Edison has always been so ceaselessly fertile of ideas +himself, he has had more than his whole staff could +ever do to try them all out; he has sought co-operation, +but no exterior suggestion. As a matter of fact +a great many of the "Edison men" have made notable +inventions of their own, with which their names are +imperishably associated; but while they were with +Edison it was with his work that they were and +must be busied. + +It was during this period of "inventing a system" +that so much systematic and continuous work with +good results was done by Edison in the design and +perfection of dynamos. The value of his contributions +to the art of lighting comprised in this work +has never been fully understood or appreciated, having +been so greatly overshadowed by his invention of +the incandescent lamp, and of a complete system of +distribution. It is a fact, however, that the principal +improvements he made in dynamo-electric generators +were of a radical nature and remain in the art. +Thirty years bring about great changes, especially +in a field so notably progressive as that of the +generation of electricity; but different as are the +dynamos of to-day from those of the earlier period, +they embody essential principles and elements that +Edison then marked out and elaborated as the conditions +of success. There was indeed prompt appreciation +in some well-informed quarters of what Edison +was doing, evidenced by the sensation caused in the +summer of 1881, when he designed, built, and shipped +to Paris for the first Electrical Exposition ever held, +the largest dynamo that had been built up to that +time. It was capable of lighting twelve hundred +incandescent lamps, and weighed with its engine +twenty-seven tons, the armature alone weighing six +tons. It was then, and for a long time after, the +eighth wonder of the scientific world, and its arrival +and installation in Paris were eagerly watched by +the most famous physicists and electricians of Europe. + +Edison's amusing description of his experience +in shipping the dynamo to Paris when built may +appropriately be given here: "I built a very large +dynamo with the engine directly connected, which I +intended for the Paris Exposition of 1881. It was +one or two sizes larger than those I had previously +built. I had only a very short period in which to get +it ready and put it on a steamer to reach the Exposition +in time. After the machine was completed we +found the voltage was too low. I had to devise a way +of raising the voltage without changing the machine, +which I did by adding extra magnets. After this +was done, we tested the machine, and the crank-shaft +of the engine broke and flew clear across the shop. +By working night and day a new crank-shaft was put +in, and we only had three days left from that time to +get it on board the steamer; and had also to run a +test. So we made arrangements with the Tammany +leader, and through him with the police, to clear the +street--one of the New York crosstown streets--and +line it with policemen, as we proposed to make a +quick passage, and didn't know how much time it +would take. About four hours before the steamer +had to get it, the machine was shut down after the +test, and a schedule was made out in advance of what +each man had to do. Sixty men were put on top of +the dynamo to get it ready, and each man had written +orders as to what he was to perform. We got it all +taken apart and put on trucks and started off. They +drove the horses with a fire-bell in front of them to +the French pier, the policemen lining the streets. +Fifty men were ready to help the stevedores get it on +the steamer--and we were one hour ahead of time." + +This Exposition brings us, indeed, to a dramatic +and rather pathetic parting of the ways. The hour +had come for the old laboratory force that had done +such brilliant and memorable work to disband, never +again to assemble under like conditions for like effort, +although its members all remained active in the field, +and many have ever since been associated prominently +with some department of electrical enterprise. The +fact was they had done their work so well they must +now disperse to show the world what it was, and assist +in its industrial exploitation. In reality, they were +too few for the demands that reached Edison from +all parts of the world for the introduction of his +system; and in the emergency the men nearest to +him and most trusted were those upon whom he could +best depend for such missionary work as was now +required. The disciples full of fire and enthusiasm, +as well as of knowledge and experience, were soon +scattered to the four winds, and the rapidity with +which the Edison system was everywhere successfully +introduced is testimony to the good judgment +with which their leader had originally selected them +as his colleagues. No one can say exactly just how this +process of disintegration began, but Mr. E. H. John- +son had already been sent to England in the Edison +interests, and now the question arose as to what +should be done with the French demands and the +Paris Electrical Exposition, whose importance as a +point of new departure in electrical industry was +speedily recognized on both sides of the Atlantic. It +is very interesting to note that as the earlier staff +broke up, Edison became the centre of another large +body, equally devoted, but more particularly +concerned with the commercial development of his ideas. +Mr. E. G. Acheson mentions in his personal notes on +work at the laboratory, that in December of 1880, +while on some experimental work, he was called to +the new lamp factory started recently at Menlo Park, +and there found Edison, Johnson, Batchelor, and +Upton in conference, and "Edison informed me that +Mr. Batchelor, who was in charge of the construction, +development, and operation of the lamp factory, was +soon to sail for Europe to prepare for the exhibit to +be made at the Electrical Exposition to be held in Paris +during the coming summer." These preparations overlap +the reinforcement of the staff with some notable +additions, chief among them being Mr. Samuel Insull, +whose interesting narrative of events fits admirably +into the story at this stage, and gives a vivid idea of +the intense activity and excitement with which the +whole atmosphere around Edison was then surcharged: +"I first met Edison on March 1, 1881. I +arrived in New York on the City of Chester about five +or six in the evening, and went direct to 65 Fifth +Avenue. I had come over to act as Edison's private +secretary, the position having been obtained for me +through the good offices of Mr. E. H. Johnson, whom +I had known in London, and who wrote to Mr. U. H. +Painter, of Washington, about me in the fall of 1880. +Mr. Painter sent the letter on to Mr. Batchelor, who +turned it over to Edison. Johnson returned to +America late in the fall of 1880, and in January, 1881, +cabled to me to come to this country. At the time +he cabled for me Edison was still at Menlo Park, but +when I arrived in New York the famous offices of the +Edison Electric Light Company had been opened at +`65' Fifth Avenue, and Edison had moved into New +York with the idea of assisting in the exploitation of +the Light Company's business. + +"I was taken by Johnson direct from the Inman +Steamship pier to 65 Fifth Avenue, and met Edison +for the first time. There were three rooms on the +ground floor at that time. The front one was used +as a kind of reception-room; the room immediately +behind it was used as the office of the president of +the Edison Electric Light Company, Major S. B. +Eaton. The rear room, which was directly back of +the front entrance hall, was Edison's office, and there +I first saw him. There was very little in the room +except a couple of walnut roller-top desks--which were +very generally used in American offices at that time. +Edison received me with great cordiality. I think +he was possibly disappointed at my being so young +a man; I had only just turned twenty-one, and had +a very boyish appearance. The picture of Edison is +as vivid to me now as if the incident occurred +yesterday, although it is now more than twenty-nine +years since that first meeting. I had been connected +with Edison's affairs in England as private secretary +to his London agent for about two years; and had +been taught by Johnson to look on Edison as the +greatest electrical inventor of the day--a view of +him, by-the-way, which has been greatly strengthened +as the years have rolled by. Owing to this, and +to the fact that I felt highly flattered at the appointment +as his private secretary, I was naturally prepared +to accept him as a hero. With my strict English +ideas as to the class of clothes to be worn by a +prominent man, there was nothing in Edison's dress +to impress me. He wore a rather seedy black diagonal +Prince Albert coat and waistcoat, with trousers of a +dark material, and a white silk handkerchief around +his neck, tied in a careless knot falling over the stiff +bosom of a white shirt somewhat the worse for wear. +He had a large wide-awake hat of the sombrero pattern +then generally used in this country, and a rough, +brown overcoat, cut somewhat similarly to his Prince +Albert coat. His hair was worn quite long, and hanging +carelessly over his fine forehead. His face was +at that time, as it is now, clean shaven. He was full +in face and figure, although by no means as stout as +he has grown in recent years. What struck me above +everything else was the wonderful intelligence and +magnetism of his expression, and the extreme brightness +of his eyes. He was far more modest than in +my youthful picture of him. I had expected to find +a man of distinction. His appearance, as a whole, +was not what you would call `slovenly,' it is best +expressed by the word `careless.' " + +Mr. Insull supplements this pen-picture by another, +bearing upon the hustle and bustle of the moment: +"After a short conversation Johnson hurried me off to +meet his family, and later in the evening, about eight +o'clock, he and I returned to Edison's office; and I +found myself launched without further ceremony into +Edison's business affairs. Johnson had already explained +to me that he was sailing the next morning, +March 2d, on the S.S. Arizona, and that Mr. Edison +wanted to spend the evening discussing matters in +connection with his European affairs. It was assumed, +inasmuch as I had just arrived from London, +that I would be able to give more or less information +on this subject. As Johnson was to sail the next +morning at five o'clock, Edison explained that it +would be necessary for him to have an understanding +of European matters. Edison started out by drawing +from his desk a check-book and stating how much +money he had in the bank; and he wanted to know +what European telephone securities were most salable, +as he wished to raise the necessary funds to put +on their feet the incandescent lamp factory, the +Electric Tube works, and the necessary shops to build +dynamos. All through the interview I was tremendously +impressed with Edison's wonderful resourcefulness +and grasp, and his immediate appreciation of +any suggestion of consequence bearing on the subject +under discussion. + +"He spoke with very great enthusiasm of the work +before him--namely, the development of his electric- +lighting system; and his one idea seemed to be to +raise all the money he could with the object of pouring +it into the manufacturing side of the lighting +business. I remember how extraordinarily I was impressed +with him on this account, as I had just come +from a circle of people in London who not only questioned +the possibility of the success of Edison's invention, +but often expressed doubt as to whether the +work he had done could be called an invention at all. +After discussing affairs with Johnson--who was receiving +his final instructions from Edison--far into +the night, and going down to the steamer to see Johnson +aboard, I finished my first night's business with +Edison somewhere between four and five in the morning, +feeling thoroughly imbued with the idea that I +had met one of the great master minds of the world. +You must allow for my youthful enthusiasm, but +you must also bear in mind Edison's peculiar gift of +magnetism, which has enabled him during his career +to attach so many men to him. I fell a victim to the +spell at the first interview." + +Events moved rapidly in those days. The next +morning, Tuesday, Edison took his new fidus Achates +with him to a conference with John Roach, the famous +old ship-builder, and at it agreed to take the AEtna +Iron works, where Roach had laid the foundations +of his fame and fortune. These works were not in +use at the time. They were situated on Goerck +Street, New York, north of Grand Street, on the +east side of the city, and there, very soon after, was +established the first Edison dynamo-manufacturing +establishment, known for many years as the Edison +Machine Works. The same night Insull made his +first visit to Menlo Park. Up to that time he had +seen very little incandescent lighting, for the simple +reason that there was very little to see. Johnson +had had a few Edison lamps in London, lit up from +primary batteries, as a demonstration; and in the +summer of 1880 Swan had had a few series lamps +burning in London. In New York a small gas-engine +plant was being started at the Edison offices on Fifth +Avenue. But out at Menlo Park there was the first +actual electric-lighting central station, supplying +distributed incandescent lamps and some electric motors +by means of underground conductors imbedded in +asphaltum and surrounded by a wooden box. Mr. Insull +says: "The system employed was naturally the +two-wire, as at that time the three-wire had not been +thought of. The lamps were partly of the horseshoe +filament paper-carbon type, and partly bamboo-filament +lamps, and were of an efficiency of 95 to 100 +watts per 16 c.p. I can never forget the impression +that this first view of the electric-lighting industry +produced on me. Menlo Park must always be looked +upon as the birthplace of the electric light and +power industry. At that time it was the only place +where could be seen an electric light and power +multiple arc distribution system, the operation of +which seemed as successful to my youthful mind as +the operation of one of the large metropolitan systems +to-day. I well remember about ten o'clock that night +going down to the Menlo Park depot and getting the +station agent, who was also the telegraph operator, to +send some cable messages for me to my London +friends, announcing that I had seen Edison's incandescent +lighting system in actual operation, and that +so far as I could tell it was an accomplished fact. A +few weeks afterward I received a letter from one of +my London friends, who was a doubting Thomas, +upbraiding me for coming so soon under the spell of +the `Yankee inventor.' " + +It was to confront and deal with just this element +of doubt in London and in Europe generally, that the +dispatch of Johnson to England and of Batchelor to +France was intended. Throughout the Edison staff +there was a mingled feeling of pride in the work, +resentment at the doubts expressed about it, and keen +desire to show how excellent it was. Batchelor left +for Paris in July, 1881--on his second trip to Europe +that year--and the exhibit was made which brought +such an instantaneous recognition of the incalculable +value of Edison's lighting inventions, as evidenced +by the awards and rewards immediately bestowed +upon him. He was made an officer of the Legion of +Honor, and Prof. George F. Barker cabled as follows +from Paris, announcing the decision of the expert +jury which passed upon the exhibits: "Accept my +congratulations. You have distanced all competitors +and obtained a diploma of honor, the highest +award given in the Exposition. No person in any +class in which you were an exhibitor received a like +reward." + +Nor was this all. Eminent men in science who had +previously expressed their disbelief in the statements +made as to the Edison system were now foremost in +generous praise of his notable achievements, and accorded +him full credit for its completion. A typical +instance was M. Du Moncel, a distinguished electrician, +who had written cynically about Edison's work +and denied its practicability. He now recanted publicly +in this language, which in itself shows the state +of the art when Edison came to the front: "All these +experiments achieved but moderate success, and when, +in 1879, the new Edison incandescent carbon lamp +was announced, many of the scientists, and I, +particularly, doubted the accuracy of the reports which +came from America. This horseshoe of carbonized +paper seemed incapable to resist mechanical shocks +and to maintain incandescence for any considerable +length of time. Nevertheless, Mr. Edison was not +discouraged, and despite the active opposition made +to his lamp, despite the polemic acerbity of which he +was the object, he did not cease to perfect it; and +he succeeded in producing the lamps which we now +behold exhibited at the Exposition, and are admired +by all for their perfect steadiness." + +The competitive lamps exhibited and tested at this +time comprised those of Edison, Maxim, Swan, and +Lane-Fox. The demonstration of Edison's success +stimulated the faith of his French supporters, and +rendered easier the completion of plans for the Societe +Edison Continental, of Paris, formed to operate +the Edison patents on the Continent of Europe. Mr. +Batchelor, with Messrs. Acheson and Hipple, and one +or two other assistants, at the close of the Exposition +transferred their energies to the construction and +equipment of machine-shops and lamp factories at +Ivry-sur-Seine for the company, and in a very short +time the installation of plants began in various +countries--France, Italy, Holland, Belgium, etc. + +All through 1881 Johnson was very busy, for his +part, in England. The first "Jumbo" Edison dynamo +had gone to Paris; the second and third went to +London, where they were installed in 1881 by Mr. +Johnson and his assistant, Mr. W. J. Hammer, in the +three-thousand-light central station on Holborn Viaduct, +the plant going into operation on January 12, +1882. Outside of Menlo Park this was the first regular +station for incandescent lighting in the world, as +the Pearl Street station in New York did not go into +operation until September of the same year. This +historic plant was hurriedly thrown together on +Crown land, and would doubtless have been the +nucleus of a great system but for the passage of the +English electric lighting act of 1882, which at once +throttled the industry by its absurd restrictive +provisions, and which, though greatly modified, has left +England ever since in a condition of serious inferiority +as to development in electric light and power. The +streets and bridges of Holborn Viaduct were lighted +by lamps turned on and off from the station, as well +as the famous City Temple of Dr. Joseph Parker, the +first church in the world to be lighted by incandescent +lamps--indeed, so far as can be ascertained, the first +church to be illuminated by electricity in any form. +Mr. W. J. Hammer, who supplies some very interesting +notes on the installation, says: "I well remember +the astonishment of Doctor Parker and his associates +when they noted the difference of temperature as +compared with gas. I was informed that the people +would not go in the gallery in warm weather, owing +to the great heat caused by the many gas jets, whereas +on the introduction of the incandescent lamp there +was no complaint." The telegraph operating-room +of the General Post-Office, at St. Martin's-Le Grand +and Newgate Street nearby, was supplied with four +hundred lamps through the instrumentality of Mr. +(Sir) W. H. Preece, who, having been seriously sceptical +as to Mr. Edison's results, became one of his most +ardent advocates, and did much to facilitate the +introduction of the light. This station supplied its +customers by a network of feeders and mains of the +standard underground two-wire Edison tubing-conductors +in sections of iron pipe--such as was +used subsequently in New York, Milan, and other +cities. It also had a measuring system for the +current, employing the Edison electrolytic meter. +Arc lamps were operated from its circuits, and one of +the first sets of practicable storage batteries was +used experimentally at the station. In connection +with these batteries Mr. Hammer tells a characteristic +anecdote of Edison: "A careless boy passing through +the station whistling a tune and swinging carelessly +a hammer in his hand, rapped a carboy of sulphuric +acid which happened to be on the floor above a +`Jumbo' dynamo. The blow broke the glass carboy, +and the acid ran down upon the field magnets of +the dynamo, destroying the windings of one of the +twelve magnets. This accident happened while I +was taking a vacation in Germany, and a prominent +scientific man connected with the company cabled +Mr. Edison to know whether the machine would work +if the coil was cut out. Mr. Edison sent the laconic +reply: `Why doesn't he try it and see?' Mr. E. H. +Johnson was kept busy not only with the cares and +responsibilities of this pioneer English plant, but by +negotiations as to company formations, hearings before +Parliamentary committees, and particularly by +distinguished visitors, including all the foremost +scientific men in England, and a great many well- +known members of the peerage. Edison was fortunate +in being represented by a man with so much +address, intimate knowledge of the subject, and powers +of explanation. As one of the leading English +papers said at the time, with equal humor and truth: +`There is but one Edison, and Johnson is his prophet.' " + +As the plant continued in operation, various details +and ideas of improvement emerged, and Mr. Hammer +says: "Up to the time of the construction of this +plant it had been customary to place a single-pole +switch on one wire and a safety fuse on the other; +and the practice of putting fuses on both sides of a +lighting circuit was first used here. Some of the first, +if not the very first, of the insulated fixtures were +used in this plant, and many of the fixtures were +equipped with ball insulating joints, enabling the +chandeliers--or `electroliers'--to be turned around, +as was common with the gas chandeliers. This particular +device was invented by Mr. John B. Verity, +whose firm built many of the fixtures for the Edison +Company, and constructed the notable electroliers +shown at the Crystal Palace Exposition of 1882." + +We have made a swift survey of developments from +the time when the system of lighting was ready for +use, and when the staff scattered to introduce it. It +will be readily understood that Edison did not sit +with folded hands or drop into complacent satisfac- +tion the moment he had reached the practical stage +of commercial exploitation. He was not willing to +say "Let us rest and be thankful," as was one of +England's great Liberal leaders after a long period of +reform. On the contrary, he was never more active +than immediately after the work we have summed +up at the beginning of this chapter. While he had +been pursuing his investigations of the generator in +conjunction with the experiments on the incandescent +lamp, he gave much thought to the question of +distribution of the current over large areas, revolving +in his mind various plans for the accomplishment of +this purpose, and keeping his mathematicians very +busy working on the various schemes that suggested +themselves from time to time. The idea of a +complete system had been in his mind in broad outline +for a long time, but did not crystallize into +commercial form until the incandescent lamp was an +accomplished fact. Thus in January, 1880, his first +patent application for a "System of Electrical +Distribution" was signed. It was filed in the Patent +Office a few days later, but was not issued as a patent +until August 30, 1887. It covered, fundamentally, +multiple arc distribution, how broadly will be understood +from the following extracts from the New York +Electrical Review of September 10, 1887: "It would +appear as if the entire field of multiple distribution were +now in the hands of the owners of this patent.... +The patent is about as broad as a patent can be, being +regardless of specific devices, and laying a powerful grasp +on the fundamental idea of multiple distribution from +a number of generators throughout a metallic circuit." + +Mr. Edison made a number of other applications +for patents on electrical distribution during the year +1880. Among these was the one covering the celebrated +"Feeder" invention, which has been of very +great commercial importance in the art, its object +being to obviate the "drop" in pressure, rendering +lights dim in those portions of an electric-light system +that were remote from the central station.[10] + + +[10] For further explanation of "Feeder" patent, see Appendix. + + +From these two patents alone, which were absolutely +basic and fundamental in effect, and both of which +were, and still are, put into actual use wherever +central-station lighting is practiced, the reader will see +that Mr. Edison's patient and thorough study, aided +by his keen foresight and unerring judgment, had +enabled him to grasp in advance with a master hand +the chief and underlying principles of a true system-- +that system which has since been put into practical use +all over the world, and whose elements do not need the +touch or change of more modern scientific knowledge. + +These patents were not by any means all that he +applied for in the year 1880, which it will be remembered +was the year in which he was perfecting the +incandescent electric lamp and methods, to put into +the market for competition with gas. It was an +extraordinarily busy year for Mr. Edison and his +whole force, which from time to time was increased +in number. Improvement upon improvement was +the order of the day. That which was considered +good to-day was superseded by something better and +more serviceable to-morrow. Device after device, +relating to some part of the entire system, was designed, +built, and tried, only to be rejected ruthlessly +as being unsuitable; but the pursuit was not abandoned. +It was renewed over and over again in innumerable +ways until success had been attained. + +During the year 1880 Edison had made application +for sixty patents, of which thirty-two were in relation +to incandescent lamps; seven covered inventions +relating to distributing systems (including the two +above particularized); five had reference to inventions +of parts, such as motors, sockets, etc.; six covered +inventions relating to dynamo-electric machines; +three related to electric railways, and seven to +miscellaneous apparatus, such as telegraph relays, +magnetic ore separators, magneto signalling apparatus, etc. + +The list of Mr. Edison's patents (see Appendices) +is not only a monument to his life's work, but serves +to show what subjects he has worked on from year +to year since 1868. The reader will see from an +examination of this list that the years 1880, 1881, +1882, and 1883 were the most prolific periods of invention. +It is worth while to scrutinize this list +closely to appreciate the wide range of his activities. +Not that his patents cover his entire range of work +by any means, for his note-books reveal a great number +of major and minor inventions for which he has not +seen fit to take out patents. Moreover, at the period +now described Edison was the victim of a dishonest +patent solicitor, who deprived him of a number of +patents in the following manner: + +"Around 1881-82 I had several solicitors attending +to different classes of work. One of these did me a +most serious injury. It was during the time that I +was developing my electric-lighting system, and I +was working and thinking very hard in order to cover +all the numerous parts, in order that it would be +complete in every detail. I filed a great many +applications for patents at that time, but there were +seventy-eight of the inventions I made in that period +that were entirely lost to me and my company by +reason of the dishonesty of this patent solicitor. +Specifications had been drawn, and I had signed +and sworn to the application for patents for these +seventy-eight inventions, and naturally I supposed +they had been filed in the regular way. + +"As time passed I was looking for some action of +the Patent Office, as usual, but none came. I thought +it very strange, but had no suspicions until I began +to see my inventions recorded in the Patent Office +Gazette as being patented by others. Of course I +ordered an investigation, and found that the patent +solicitor had drawn from the company the fees for +filing all these applications, but had never filed them. +All the papers had disappeared, however, and what +he had evidently done was to sell them to others, +who had signed new applications and proceeded to +take out patents themselves on my inventions. I +afterward found that he had been previously mixed +up with a somewhat similar crooked job in connection +with telephone patents. + +"I am free to confess that the loss of these seventy- +eight inventions has left a sore spot in me that has +never healed. They were important, useful, and +valuable, and represented a whole lot of tremendous +work and mental effort, and I had had a feeling of +pride in having overcome through them a great +many serious obstacles, One of these inventions covered +the multipolar dynamo. It was an elaborated +form of the type covered by my patent No. 219,393 +which had a ring armature. I modified and improved +on this form and had a number of pole pieces placed +all around the ring, with a modified form of armature +winding. I built one of these machines and ran it +successfully in our early days at the Goerck Street shop. + +"It is of no practical use to mention the man's +name. I believe he is dead, but he may have left +a family. The occurrence is a matter of the old +Edison Company's records." + +It will be seen from an examination of the list of +patents in the Appendix that Mr. Edison has continued +year after year adding to his contributions to +the art of electric lighting, and in the last twenty- +eight years--1880-1908--has taken out no fewer +than three hundred and seventy-five patents in this +branch of industry alone. These patents may be +roughly tabulated as follows: + +Incandescent lamps and their manufacture....................149 +Distributing systems and their control and regulation....... 77 +Dynamo-electric machines and accessories....................106 +Minor parts, such as sockets, switches, safety catches, +meters, underground conductors and parts, etc............... 43 + + +Quite naturally most of these patents cover inventions +that are in the nature of improvements or based +upon devices which he had already created; but there +are a number that relate to inventions absolutely +fundamental and original in their nature. Some of +these have already been alluded to; but among the +others there is one which is worthy of special mention +in connection with the present consideration of +a complete system. This is patent No. 274,290, +applied for November 27, 1882, and is known as the +"Three-wire" patent. It is described more fully in +the Appendix. + +The great importance of the "Feeder" and "Three- +wire" inventions will be apparent when it is realized +that without them it is a question whether electric +light could be sold to compete with low-priced gas, +on account of the large investment in conductors +that would be necessary. If a large city area were +to be lighted from a central station by means of +copper conductors running directly therefrom to all +parts of the district, it would be necessary to install +large conductors, or suffer such a drop of pressure +at the ends most remote from the station as to +cause the lights there to burn with a noticeable +diminution of candle-power. The Feeder invention +overcame this trouble, and made it possible to use +conductors ONLY ONE-EIGHTH THE SIZE that would otherwise +have been necessary to produce the same results. + +A still further economy in cost of conductors was +effected by the "Three-wire" invention, by the use +of which the already diminished conductors could be +still further reduced TO ONE-THIRD of this smaller size, +and at the same time allow of the successful operation +of the station with far better results than if it +were operated exactly as at first conceived. The +Feeder and Three-wire systems are at this day used +in all parts of the world, not only in central-station +work, but in the installation and operation of isolated +electric-light plants in large buildings. No sensible +or efficient station manager or electric contractor +would ever think of an installation made upon any +other plan. Thus Mr. Edison's early conceptions of +the necessities of a complete system, one of them +made even in advance of practice, have stood firm, +unimproved, and unchanged during the past twenty- +eight years, a period of time which has witnessed +more wonderful and rapid progress in electrical science +and art than has been known during any similar art +or period of time since the world began. + +It must be remembered that the complete system +in all its parts is not comprised in the few of Mr. +Edison's patents, of which specific mention is here +made. In order to comprehend the magnitude and +extent of his work and the quality of his genius, it is +necessary to examine minutely the list of patents +issued for the various elements which go to make up +such a system. To attempt any relation in detail +of the conception and working-out of each part or +element; to enter into any description of the almost +innumerable experiments and investigations that were +made would entail the writing of several volumes, for +Mr. Edison's close-written note-books covering these +subjects number nearly two hundred. + +It is believed that enough evidence has been given +in this chapter to lead to an appreciation of the +assiduous work and practical skill involved in "inventing +a system" of lighting that would surpass, and +to a great extent, in one single quarter of a century, +supersede all the other methods of illumination +developed during long centuries. But it will be ap- +propriate before passing on to note that on January +17, 1908, while this biography was being written, +Mr. Edison became the fourth recipient of the John +Fritz gold medal for achievement in industrial progress. +This medal was founded in 1902 by the professional +friends and associates of the veteran American +ironmaster and metallurgical inventor, in honor +of his eightieth birthday. Awards are made by a +board of sixteen engineers appointed in equal numbers +from the four great national engineering societies +--the American Society of Civil Engineers, the American +Institute of Mining Engineers, the American Society +of Mechanical Engineers, and the American +Institute of Electrical Engineers, whose membership +embraces the very pick and flower of professional +engineering talent in America. Up to the time of +the Edison award, three others had been made. The +first was to Lord Kelvin, the Nestor of physics in +Europe, for his work in submarine-cable telegraphy +and other scientific achievement. The second was +to George Westinghouse for the air-brake. The third +was to Alexander Graham Bell for the invention and +introduction of the telephone. The award to Edison +was not only for his inventions in duplex and quadruplex +telegraphy, and for the phonograph, but for the +development of a commercially practical incandescent +lamp, and the development of a complete system +of electric lighting, including dynamos, regulating +devices, underground system, protective devices, and +meters. Great as has been the genius brought to +bear on electrical development, there is no other man +to whom such a comprehensive tribute could be paid. + + + +CHAPTER XV + +INTRODUCTION OF THE EDISON ELECTRIC LIGHT + +IN the previous chapter on the invention of a system, +the narrative has been carried along for several +years of activity up to the verge of the successful and +commercial application of Edison's ideas and devices +for incandescent electric lighting. The story of any +one year in this period, if treated chronologically, +would branch off in a great many different directions, +some going back to earlier work, others forward to +arts not yet within the general survey; and the effect +of such treatment would be confusing. In like manner +the development of the Edison lighting system +followed several concurrent, simultaneous lines of +advance; and an effort was therefore made in the +last chapter to give a rapid glance over the whole +movement, embracing a term of nearly five years, and +including in its scope both the Old World and the +New. What is necessary to the completeness of the +story at this stage is not to recapitulate, but to take +up some of the loose ends of threads woven in and +follow them through until the clear and comprehensive +picture of events can be seen. + +Some things it would be difficult to reproduce in +any picture of the art and the times. One of the +greatest delusions of the public in regard to any +notable invention is the belief that the world is waiting +for it with open arms and an eager welcome. The +exact contrary is the truth. There is not a single new +art or device the world has ever enjoyed of which +it can be said that it was given an immediate and +enthusiastic reception. The way of the inventor is +hard. He can sometimes raise capital to help him +in working out his crude conceptions, but even then +it is frequently done at a distressful cost of personal +surrender. When the result is achieved the invention +makes its appeal on the score of economy of +material or of effort; and then "labor" often awaits +with crushing and tyrannical spirit to smash the +apparatus or forbid its very use. Where both capital +and labor are agreed that the object is worthy of +encouragement, there is the supreme indifference of +the public to overcome, and the stubborn resistance +of pre-existing devices to combat. The years of hardship +and struggle are thus prolonged, the chagrin of +poverty and neglect too frequently embitters the +inventor's scanty bread; and one great spirit after +another has succumbed to the defeat beyond which +lay the procrastinated triumph so dearly earned. +Even in America, where the adoption of improvements +and innovations is regarded as so prompt and +sure, and where the huge tolls of the Patent Office +and the courts bear witness to the ceaseless efforts +of the inventor, it is impossible to deny the sad truth +that unconsciously society discourages invention +rather than invites it. Possibly our national optimism +as revealed in invention--the seeking a higher +good--needs some check. Possibly the leaders would +travel too fast and too far on the road to perfection +if conservatism did not also play its salutary part +in insisting that the procession move forward as a +whole. + +Edison and his electric light were happily more +fortunate than other men and inventions, in the relative +cordiality of the reception given them. The +merit was too obvious to remain unrecognized. +Nevertheless, it was through intense hostility and +opposition that the young art made its way, pushed +forward by Edison's own strong personality and by +his unbounded, unwavering faith in the ultimate success +of his system. It may seem strange that great +effort was required to introduce a light so manifestly +convenient, safe, agreeable, and advantageous, +but the facts are matter of record; and to-day the +recollection of some of the episodes brings a fierce +glitter into the eye and keen indignation into the +voice of the man who has come so victoriously through +it all. + +It was not a fact at any time that the public was +opposed to the idea of the electric light. On the contrary, +the conditions for its acceptance had been ripening +fast. Yet the very vogue of the electric arc light +made harder the arrival of the incandescent. As a +new illuminant for the streets, the arc had become +familiar, either as a direct substitute for the low gas +lamp along the sidewalk curb, or as a novel form of +moonlight, raised in groups at the top of lofty towers +often a hundred and fifty feet high. Some of these +lights were already in use for large indoor spaces, +although the size of the unit, the deadly pressure of +the current, and the sputtering sparks from the carbons +made them highly objectionable for such purposes. +A number of parent arc-lighting companies +were in existence, and a great many local companies +had been called into being under franchises for +commercial business and to execute regular city contracts +for street lighting. In this manner a good deal of +capital and the energies of many prominent men in +politics and business had been rallied distinctively +to the support of arc lighting. Under the inventive +leadership of such brilliant men as Brush, Thomson, +Weston, and Van Depoele--there were scores of +others--the industry had made considerable progress +and the art had been firmly established. Here lurked, +however, very vigorous elements of opposition, for +Edison predicted from the start the superiority of the +small electric unit of light, and devoted himself +exclusively to its perfection and introduction. It can +be readily seen that this situation made it all the more +difficult for the Edison system to secure the large +sums of money needed for its exploitation, and to +obtain new franchises or city ordinances as a public +utility. Thus in a curious manner the modern art +of electric lighting was in a very true sense divided +against itself, with intense rivalries and jealousies +which were none the less real because they were but +temporary and occurred in a field where ultimate +union of forces was inevitable. For a long period the +arc was dominant and supreme in the lighting branch +of the electrical industries, in all respects, whether as +to investment, employees, income, and profits, or in +respect to the manufacturing side. When the great +National Electric Light Association was formed in +1885, its organizers were the captains of arc lighting, +and not a single Edison company or licensee could be +found in its ranks, or dared to solicit membership. +The Edison companies, soon numbering about three +hundred, formed their own association--still maintained +as a separate and useful body--and the lines +were tensely drawn in a way that made it none too +easy for the Edison service to advance, or for an +impartial man to remain friendly with both sides. +But the growing popularity of incandescent lighting, +the flexibility and safety of the system, the ease with +which other electric devices for heat, power, etc., +could be put indiscriminately on the same circuits +with the lamps, in due course rendered the old attitude +of opposition obviously foolish and untenable. +The United States Census Office statistics of 1902 +show that the income from incandescent lighting by +central stations had by that time become over 52 +per cent. of the total, while that from arc lighting +was less than 29; and electric-power service due to +the ease with which motors could be introduced on +incandescent circuits brought in 15 per cent. more. +Hence twenty years after the first Edison stations +were established the methods they involved could be +fairly credited with no less than 67 per cent. of all +central-station income in the country, and the +proportion has grown since then. It will be readily +understood that under these conditions the modern +lighting company supplies to its customers both +incandescent and arc lighting, frequently from the same +dynamo-electric machinery as a source of current; +and that the old feud as between the rival systems +has died out. In fact, for some years past the presidents +of the National Electric Light Association have +been chosen almost exclusively from among the managers +of the great Edison lighting companies in the +leading cities. + +The other strong opposition to the incandescent +light came from the gas industry. There also the +most bitter feeling was shown. The gas manager did +not like the arc light, but it interfered only with his +street service, which was not his largest source of +income by any means. What did arouse his ire and +indignation was to find this new opponent, the little +incandescent lamp, pushing boldly into the field of +interior lighting, claiming it on a great variety of +grounds of superiority, and calmly ignoring the question +of price, because it was so much better. Newspaper +records and the pages of the technical papers +of the day show to what an extent prejudice and +passion were stirred up and the astounding degree +to which the opposition to the new light was carried. + +Here again was given a most convincing demonstration +of the truth that such an addition to the +resources of mankind always carries with it unsuspected +benefits even for its enemies. In two distinct +directions the gas art was immediately helped by +Edison's work. The competition was most salutary +in the stimulus it gave to improvements in processes +for making, distributing, and using gas, so that while +vast economies have been effected at the gas works, +the customer has had an infinitely better light for +less money. In the second place, the coming of the +incandescent light raised the standard of illumination +in such a manner that more gas than ever was +wanted in order to satisfy the popular demand for +brightness and brilliancy both indoors and on the +street. The result of the operation of these two +forces acting upon it wholly from without, and from +a rival it was desired to crush, has been to increase +enormously the production and use of gas in the last +twenty-five years. It is true that the income of the +central stations is now over $300,000,000 a year, and +that isolated-plant lighting represents also a large +amount of diverted business; but as just shown, it +would obviously be unfair to regard all this as a loss +from the standpoint of gas. It is in great measure +due to new sources of income developed by electricity +for itself. + +A retrospective survey shows that had the men in +control of the American gas-lighting art, in 1880, been +sufficiently far-sighted, and had they taken a broader +view of the situation, they might easily have remained +dominant in the whole field of artificial lighting by +securing the ownership of the patents and devices of +the new industry. Apparently not a single step of +that kind was undertaken, nor probably was there +a gas manager who would have agreed with Edison in +the opinion written down by him at the time in little +note-book No. 184, that gas properties were having +conferred on them an enhanced earning capacity. +It was doubtless fortunate and providential for the +electric-lighting art that in its state of immature +development it did not fall into the hands of men who +were opposed to its growth, and would not have sought +its technical perfection. It was allowed to carve out +its own career, and thus escaped the fate that is +supposed to have attended other great inventions--of +being bought up merely for purposes of suppression. +There is a vague popular notion that this happens to +the public loss; but the truth is that no discovery of +any real value is ever entirely lost. It may be retarded; +but that is all. In the case of the gas companies +and the incandescent light, many of them to +whom it was in the early days as great an irritant as +a red flag to a bull, emulated the performance of that +animal and spent a great deal of money and energy +in bellowing and throwing up dirt in the effort to +destroy the hated enemy. This was not long nor +universally the spirit shown; and to-day in hundreds +of cities the electric and gas properties are united +under the one management, which does not find it +impossible to push in a friendly and progressive way +the use of both illuminants. The most conspicuous +example of this identity of interest is given in New +York itself. + +So much for the early opposition, of which there +was plenty. But it may be questioned whether +inertia is not equally to be dreaded with active ill-will. +Nothing is more difficult in the world than to get a +good many hundreds of thousands or millions of people +to do something they have never done before. A +very real difficulty in the introduction of his lamp +and lighting system by Edison lay in the absolute +ignorance of the public at large, not only as to its +merits, but as to the very appearance of the light, +Some few thousand people had gone out to Menlo +Park, and had there seen the lamps in operation at +the laboratory or on the hillsides, but they were an +insignificant proportion of the inhabitants of the +United States. Of course, a great many accounts +were written and read, but while genuine interest was +aroused it was necessarily apathetic. A newspaper +description or a magazine article may be admirably +complete in itself, with illustrations, but until some +personal experience is had of the thing described it +does not convey a perfect mental picture, nor can it +always make the desire active and insistent. Generally, +people wait to have the new thing brought to +them; and hence, as in the case of the Edison light, +an educational campaign of a practical nature is a +fundamental condition of success. + +Another serious difficulty confronting Edison and +his associates was that nowhere in the world were +there to be purchased any of the appliances necessary +for the use of the lighting system. Edison had resolved +from the very first that the initial central +station embodying his various ideas should be installed +in New York City, where he could superintend +the installation personally, and then watch the operation. +Plans to that end were now rapidly maturing; +but there would be needed among many other things +--every one of them new and novel--dynamos, +switchboards, regulators, pressure and current +indicators, fixtures in great variety, incandescent +lamps, meters, sockets, small switches, underground +conductors, junction-boxes, service-boxes, manhole- +boxes, connectors, and even specially made wire. +Now, not one of these miscellaneous things was in +existence; not an outsider was sufficiently informed +about such devices to make them on order, except +perhaps the special wire. Edison therefore started +first of all a lamp factory in one of the buildings at +Menlo Park, equipped it with novel machinery and +apparatus, and began to instruct men, boys, and girls, +as they could be enlisted, in the absolutely new art, +putting Mr. Upton in charge. + +With regard to the conditions attendant upon the +manufacture of the lamps, Edison says: "When we +first started the electric light we had to have a factory +for manufacturing lamps. As the Edison Light Company +did not seem disposed to go into manufacturing, +we started a small lamp factory at Menlo Park with +what money I could raise from my other inventions +and royalties, and some assistance. The lamps at +that time were costing about $1.25 each to make, so +I said to the company: `If you will give me a contract +during the life of the patents, I will make all +the lamps required by the company and deliver them +for forty cents.' The company jumped at the chance +of this offer, and a contract was drawn up. We then +bought at a receiver's sale at Harrison, New Jersey, +a very large brick factory building which had been +used as an oil-cloth works. We got it at a great bargain, +and only paid a small sum down, and the balance +on mortgage. We moved the lamp works from +Menlo Park to Harrison. The first year the lamps +cost us about $1.10 each. We sold them for forty +cents; but there were only about twenty or thirty +thousand of them. The next year they cost us about +seventy cents, and we sold them for forty. There +were a good many, and we lost more money the +second year than the first. The third year I succeeded +in getting up machinery and in changing the +processes, until it got down so that they cost somewhere +around fifty cents. I still sold them for forty +cents, and lost more money that year than any other, +because the sales were increasing rapidly. The +fourth year I got it down to thirty-seven cents, and +I made all the money up in one year that I had lost +previously. I finally got it down to twenty-two +cents, and sold them for forty cents; and they were +made by the million. Whereupon the Wall Street +people thought it was a very lucrative business, so +they concluded they would like to have it, and +bought us out. + +"One of the incidents which caused a very great +cheapening was that, when we started, one of the +important processes had to be done by experts. This +was the sealing on of the part carrying the filament +into the globe, which was rather a delicate operation +in those days, and required several months of training +before any one could seal in a fair number of parts +in a day. When we got to the point where we employed +eighty of these experts they formed a union; +and knowing it was impossible to manufacture lamps +without them, they became very insolent. One instance +was that the son of one of these experts was +employed in the office, and when he was told to do +anything would not do it, or would give an insolent +reply. He was discharged, whereupon the union +notified us that unless the boy was taken back the +whole body would go out. It got so bad that the +manager came to me and said he could not stand it +any longer; something had got to be done. They +were not only more surly; they were diminishing the +output, and it became impossible to manage the +works. He got me enthused on the subject, so I +started in to see if it were not possible to do that +operation by machinery. After feeling around for +some days I got a clew how to do it. I then put men +on it I could trust, and made the preliminary machinery. +That seemed to work pretty well. I then +made another machine which did the work nicely. +I then made a third machine, and would bring in +yard men, ordinary laborers, etc., and when I could +get these men to put the parts together as well as +the trained experts, in an hour, I considered the +machine complete. I then went secretly to work +and made thirty of the machines. Up in the top +loft of the factory we stored those machines, and at +night we put up the benches and got everything all +ready. Then we discharged the office-boy. Then +the union went out. It has been out ever since. + +"When we formed the works at Harrison we divided +the interests into one hundred shares or parts +at $100 par. One of the boys was hard up after a +time, and sold two shares to Bob Cutting. Up to +that time we had never paid anything; but we got +around to the point where the board declared a +dividend every Saturday night. We had never declared +a dividend when Cutting bought his shares, +and after getting his dividends for three weeks in +succession, he called up on the telephone and wanted +to know what kind of a concern this was that paid +a weekly dividend. The works sold for $1,085,000." + +Incidentally it may be noted, as illustrative of the +problems brought to Edison, that while he had the +factory at Harrison an importer in the Chinese trade +went to him and wanted a dynamo to be run by +hand power. The importer explained that in China +human labor was cheaper than steam power. Edison +devised a machine to answer the purpose, and put +long spokes on it, fitted it up, and shipped it to +China. He has not, however, heard of it since. + +For making the dynamos Edison secured, as noted +in the preceding chapter, the Roach Iron Works on +Goerck Street, New York, and this was also equipped. +A building was rented on Washington Street, where +machinery and tools were put in specially designed +for making the underground tube conductors and +their various paraphernalia; and the faithful John +Kruesi was given charge of that branch of production. +To Sigmund Bergmann, who had worked previously +with Edison on telephone apparatus and phonographs, +and was already making Edison specialties +in a small way in a loft on Wooster Street, New York, +was assigned the task of constructing sockets, fixtures, +meters, safety fuses, and numerous other +details. + +Thus, broadly, the manufacturing end of the problem +of introduction was cared for. In the early part +of 1881 the Edison Electric Light Company leased +the old Bishop mansion at 65 Fifth Avenue, close to +Fourteenth Street, for its headquarters and show- +rooms. This was one of the finest homes in the +city of that period, and its acquisition was a premonitory +sign of the surrender of the famous residential +avenue to commerce. The company needed +not only offices, but, even more, such an interior as +would display to advantage the new light in everyday +use; and this house with its liberal lines, spacious +halls, lofty ceilings, wide parlors, and graceful, winding +stairway was ideal for the purpose. In fact, in +undergoing this violent change, it did not cease to +be a home in the real sense, for to this day many +an Edison veteran's pulse is quickened by some +chance reference to "65," where through many years +the work of development by a loyal and devoted +band of workers was centred. Here Edison and a +few of his assistants from Menlo Park installed +immediately in the basement a small generating plant, +at first with a gas-engine which was not successful, +and then with a Hampson high-speed engine and +boiler, constituting a complete isolated plant. The +building was wired from top to bottom, and equipped +with all the appliances of the art. The experience +with the little gas-engine was rather startling. "At +an early period at `65' we decided," says Edison, "to +light it up with the Edison system, and put a gas- +engine in the cellar, using city gas. One day it was +not going very well, and I went down to the man in +charge and got exploring around. Finally I opened +the pedestal--a storehouse for tools, etc. We had +an open lamp, and when we opened the pedestal, it +blew the doors off, and blew out the windows, and +knocked me down, and the other man." + +For the next four or five years "65" was a veritable +beehive, day and night. The routine was very much +the same as that at the laboratory, in its utter neglect +of the clock. The evenings were not only devoted to +the continuance of regular business, but the house +was thrown open to the public until late at night, +never closing before ten o'clock, so as to give everybody +who wished an opportunity to see that great +novelty of the time--the incandescent light--whose +fame had meanwhile been spreading all over the +globe. The first year, 1881, was naturally that which +witnessed the greatest rush of visitors; and the +building hardly ever closed its doors till midnight. +During the day business was carried on under great +stress, and Mr. Insull has described how Edison was +to be found there trying to lead the life of a man of +affairs in the conventional garb of polite society, +instead of pursuing inventions and researches in his +laboratory. But the disagreeable ordeal could not +be dodged. After the experience Edison could never +again be tempted to quit his laboratory and work +for any length of time; but in this instance there were +some advantages attached to the sacrifice, for the +crowds of lion-hunters and people seeking business +arrangements would only have gone out to Menlo +Park; while, on the other hand, the great plans for +lighting New York demanded very close personal +attention on the spot. + +As it was, not only Edison, but all the company's +directors, officers, and employees, were kept busy +exhibiting and explaining the light. To the public +of that day, when the highest known form of house +illuminant was gas, the incandescent lamp, with its +ability to burn in any position, its lack of heat so +that you could put your hand on the brilliant glass +globe; the absence of any vitiating effect on the +atmosphere, the obvious safety from fire; the curious +fact that you needed no matches to light it, and +that it was under absolute control from a distance-- +these and many other features came as a distinct +revelation and marvel, while promising so much +additional comfort, convenience, and beauty in the +home, that inspection was almost invariably followed +by a request for installation. + +The camaraderie that existed at this time was very +democratic, for all were workers in a common cause; +all were enthusiastic believers in the doctrine they +proclaimed, and hoped to profit by the opening up +of the new art. Often at night, in the small hours, +all would adjourn for refreshments to a famous resort +nearby, to discuss the events of to-day and to- +morrow, full of incident and excitement. The easy +relationship of the time is neatly sketched by Edison +in a humorous complaint as to his inability to keep +his own cigars: "When at `65' I used to have in my +desk a box of cigars. I would go to the box four or +five times to get a cigar, but after it got circulated +about the building, everybody would come to get +my cigars, so that the box would only last about a +day and a half. I was telling a gentleman one day +that I could not keep a cigar. Even if I locked them +up in my desk they would break it open. He suggested +to me that he had a friend over on Eighth +Avenue who made a superior grade of cigars, and +who would show them a trick. He said he would +have some of them made up with hair and old paper, +and I could put them in without a word and see the +result. I thought no more about the matter. He +came in two or three months after, and said: `How +did that cigar business work?' I didn't remember +anything about it. On coming to investigate, it +appeared that the box of cigars had been delivered +and had been put in my desk, and I had smoked +them all! I was too busy on other things to notice." + +It was no uncommon sight to see in the parlors in +the evening John Pierpont Morgan, Norvin Green, +Grosvenor P. Lowrey, Henry Villard, Robert L. +Cutting, Edward D. Adams, J. Hood Wright, E. G. +Fabbri, R. M. Galloway, and other men prominent in +city life, many of them stock-holders and directors; +all interested in doing this educational work. Thousands +of persons thus came--bankers, brokers, lawyers, +editors, and reporters, prominent business men, +electricians, insurance experts, under whose searching +and intelligent inquiries the facts were elicited, and +general admiration was soon won for the system, +which in advance had solved so many new problems. +Edison himself was in universal request and the subject +of much adulation, but altogether too busy and +modest to be spoiled by it. Once in a while he felt +it his duty to go over the ground with scientific +visitors, many of whom were from abroad, and discuss +questions which were not simply those of technique, +but related to newer phenomena, such as the +action of carbon, the nature and effects of high +vacua; the principles of electrical subdivision; the +value of insulation, and many others which, unfortu- +nate to say, remain as esoteric now as they were then, +ever fruitful themes of controversy. + +Speaking of those days or nights, Edison says: +"Years ago one of the great violinists was Remenyi. +After his performances were over he used to come +down to `65' and talk economics, philosophy, moral +science, and everything else. He was highly educated +and had great mental capacity. He would talk with +me, but I never asked him to bring his violin. One +night he came with his violin, about twelve o'clock. +I had a library at the top of the house, and Remenyi +came up there. He was in a genial humor, and played +the violin for me for about two hours--$2000 worth. +The front doors were closed, and he walked up and +down the room as he played. After that, every time +he came to New York he used to call at `65' late at +night with his violin. If we were not there, he could +come down to the slums at Goerck Street, and would +play for an hour or two and talk philosophy. I would +talk for the benefit of his music. Henry E. Dixey, +then at the height of his `Adonis' popularity, would +come in in those days, after theatre hours, and would +entertain us with stories--1882-84. Another visitor +who used to give us a good deal of amusement and +pleasure was Captain Shaw, the head of the London +Fire Brigade. He was good company. He would +go out among the fire-laddies and have a great time. +One time Robert Lincoln and Anson Stager, of the +Western Union, interested in the electric light, came +on to make some arrangement with Major Eaton, +President of the Edison Electric Light Company. +They came to `65' in the afternoon, and Lincoln com- +menced telling stories--like his father. They told +stories all the afternoon, and that night they left for +Chicago. When they got to Cleveland, it dawned +upon them that they had not done any business, so +they had to come back on the next train to New York +to transact it. They were interested in the Chicago +Edison Company, now one of the largest of the +systems in the world. Speaking of telling stories, I +once got telling a man stories at the Harrison lamp +factory, in the yard, as he was leaving. It was +winter, and he was all in furs. I had nothing on to +protect me against the cold. I told him one story +after the other--six of them. Then I got pleurisy, +and had to be shipped to Florida for cure." + +The organization of the Edison Electric Light Company +went back to 1878; but up to the time of leasing +65 Fifth Avenue it had not been engaged in actual +business. It had merely enjoyed the delights of +anxious anticipation, and the perilous pleasure of +backing Edison's experiments. Now active exploitation +was required. Dr. Norvin Green, the well-known +President of the Western Union Telegraph Company, +was president also of the Edison Company, but the +pressing nature of his regular duties left him no +leisure for such close responsible management as was +now required. Early in 1881 Mr. Grosvenor P. +Lowrey, after consultation with Mr. Edison, prevailed +upon Major S. B. Eaton, the leading member +of a very prominent law firm in New York, to +accept the position of vice-president and general +manager of the company, in which, as also in some +of the subsidiary Edison companies, and as presi- +dent, he continued actively and energetically for +nearly four years, a critical, formative period in which +the solidity of the foundation laid is attested by the +magnitude and splendor of the superstructure. + +The fact that Edison conferred at this point with +Mr. Lowrey should, perhaps, be explained in justice +to the distinguished lawyer, who for so many years +was the close friend of the inventor, and the chief +counsel in all the tremendous litigation that followed +the effort to enforce and validate the Edison patents. +As in England Mr. Edison was fortunate in securing +the legal assistance of Sir Richard Webster, afterward +Lord Chief Justice of England, so in America it +counted greatly in his favor to enjoy the advocacy +of such a man as Lowrey, prominent among the famous +leaders of the New York bar. Born in Massachusetts, +Mr. Lowrey, in his earlier days of straitened +circumstances, was accustomed to defray some portion +of his educational expenses by teaching music +in the Berkshire villages, and by a curious coincidence +one of his pupils was F. L. Pope, later Edison's +partner for a time. Lowrey went West to "Bleeding +Kansas" with the first Governor, Reeder, and both +were active participants in the exciting scenes of the +"Free State" war until driven away in 1856, like +many other free-soilers, by the acts of the "Border +Ruffian" legislature. Returning East, Mr. Lowrey +took up practice in New York, soon becoming eminent +in his profession, and upon the accession of William +Orton to the presidency of the Western Union Telegraph +Company in 1866, he was appointed its general +counsel, the duties of which post he discharged for +fifteen years. One of the great cases in which he +thus took a leading and distinguished part was that +of the quadruplex telegraph; and later he acted as +legal adviser to Henry Villard in his numerous +grandiose enterprises. Lowrey thus came to know +Edison, to conceive an intense admiration for him, +and to believe in his ability at a time when others +could not detect the fire of genius smouldering beneath +the modest exterior of a gaunt young operator +slowly "finding himself." It will be seen that Mr +Lowrey was in a peculiarly advantageous position to +make his convictions about Edison felt, so that it was +he and his friends who rallied quickly to the new +banner of discovery, and lent to the inventor the aid +that came at a critical period. In this connection it +may be well to quote an article that appeared at the +time of Mr. Lowrey's death, in 1893: "One of the +most important services which Mr. Lowrey has ever +performed was in furnishing and procuring the necessary +financial backing for Thomas A. Edison in bringing +out and perfecting his system of incandescent +lighting. With characteristic pertinacity, Mr. Lowrey +stood by the inventor through thick and thin, in spite +of doubt, discouragement, and ridicule, until at last +success crowned his efforts. In all the litigation +which has resulted from the wide-spread infringements +of the Edison patents, Mr. Lowrey has ever +borne the burden and heat of the day, and perhaps +in no other field has he so personally distinguished +himself as in the successful advocacy of the claims of +Edison to the invention of the incandescent lamp +and everything "hereunto pertaining." + +This was the man of whom Edison had necessarily +to make a confidant and adviser, and who supplied +other things besides the legal direction and financial +alliance, by his knowledge of the world and of affairs. +There were many vital things to be done in the +exploitation of the system that Edison simply could +not and would not do; but in Lowrey's savoir faire, +ready wit and humor, chivalry of devotion, graceful +eloquence, and admirable equipoise of judgment were +all the qualities that the occasion demanded and that +met the exigencies. + +We are indebted to Mr. Insull for a graphic sketch +of Edison at this period, and of the conditions under +which work was done and progress was made: "I do +not think I had any understanding with Edison +when I first went with him as to my duties. I did +whatever he told me, and looked after all kinds of +affairs, from buying his clothes to financing his business. +I used to open the correspondence and answer +it all, sometimes signing Edison's name with my +initial, and sometimes signing my own name. If the +latter course was pursued, and I was addressing a +stranger, I would sign as Edison's private secretary. +I held his power of attorney, and signed his checks. +It was seldom that Edison signed a letter or check at +this time. If he wanted personally to send a +communication to anybody, if it was one of his close +associates, it would probably be a pencil memorandum +signed `Edison.' I was a shorthand writer, but seldom +took down from Edison's dictation, unless it was +on some technical subject that I did not understand. +I would go over the correspondence with Edison, +sometimes making a marginal note in shorthand, and +sometimes Edison would make his own notes on letters, +and I would be expected to clean up the correspondence +with Edison's laconic comments as a guide +as to the character of answer to make. It was a +very common thing for Edison to write the words +`Yes' or `No,' and this would be all I had on which +to base my answer. Edison marginalized documents +extensively. He had a wonderful ability in pointing +out the weak points of an agreement or a balance-sheet, +all the while protesting he was no lawyer or accountant; +and his views were expressed in very few words, +but in a characteristic and emphatic manner. + +"The first few months I was with Edison he spent +most of the time in the office at 65 Fifth Avenue. +Then there was a great deal of trouble with the life +of the lamps there, and he disappeared from the +office and spent his time largely at Menlo Park. At +another time there was a great deal of trouble +with some of the details of construction of the +dynamos, and Edison spent a lot of time at Goerck +Street, which had been rapidly equipped with the +idea of turning out bi-polar dynamo-electric machines, +direct-connected to the engine, the first of +which went to Paris and London, while the next were +installed in the old Pearl Street station of the Edison +Electric Illuminating Company of New York, just +south of Fulton Street, on the west side of the street. +Edison devoted a great deal of his time to the +engineering work in connection with the laying out of +the first incandescent electric-lighting system in New +York. Apparently at that time--between the end +of 1881 and spring of 1882--the most serious work +was the manufacture and installation of underground +conductors in this territory. These conductors +were manufactured by the Electric Tube +Company, which Edison controlled in a shop at 65 +Washington Street, run by John Kruesi. Half-round +copper conductors were used, kept in place relatively +to each other and in the tube, first of all by a heavy +piece of cardboard, and later on by a rope; and then +put in a twenty-foot iron pipe; and a combination of +asphaltum and linseed oil was forced into the pipe for +the insulation. I remember as a coincidence that the +building was only twenty feet wide. These lengths +of conductors were twenty feet six inches long, as +the half-round coppers extended three inches beyond +the drag-ends of the lengths of pipe; and in one of +the operations we used to take the length of tubing +out of the window in order to turn it around. I was +elected secretary of the Electric Tube Company, and +was expected to look after its finance; and it was in +this position that my long intimacy with John Kruesi +started." + +At this juncture a large part of the correspondence +referred very naturally to electric lighting, embodying +requests for all kinds of information, catalogues, +prices, terms, etc.; and all these letters were turned +over to the lighting company by Edison for attention. +The company was soon swamped with propositions for +sale of territorial rights and with other negotiations, +and some of these were accompanied by the offer of +very large sums of money. It was the beginning of +the electric-light furor which soon rose to sensational +heights. Had the company accepted the cash offers +from various localities, it could have gathered several +millions of dollars at once into its treasury; but this +was not at all in accord with Mr. Edison's idea, which +was to prove by actual experience the commercial +value of the system, and then to license central- +station companies in large cities and towns, the parent +company taking a percentage of their capital for the +license under the Edison patents, and contracting +also for the supply of apparatus, lamps, etc. This +left the remainder of the country open for the cash +sale of plants wherever requested. His counsels prevailed, +and the wisdom of the policy adopted was seen +in the swift establishment of Edison companies in +centres of population both great and small, whose +business has ever been a constant and growing source +of income for the parent manufacturing interests. + +From first to last Edison has been an exponent and +advocate of the central-station idea of distribution +now so familiar to the public mind, but still very far +from being carried out to its logical conclusion. In +this instance, demands for isolated plants for lighting +factories, mills, mines, hotels, etc., began to pour in, +and something had to be done with them. This was +a class of plant which the inquirers desired to purchase +outright and operate themselves, usually because +of remoteness from any possible source of +general supply of current. It had not been Edison's +intention to cater to this class of customer until his +broad central-station plan had been worked out, and +he has always discouraged the isolated plant within +the limits of urban circuits; but this demand was so +insistent it could not be denied, and it was deemed +desirable to comply with it at once, especially as it +was seen that the steady call for supplies and renewals +would benefit the new Edison manufacturing +plants. After a very short trial, it was found necessary +to create a separate organization for this branch +of the industry, leaving the Edison Electric Light +Company to continue under the original plan of +operation as a parent, patent-holding and licensing +company. Accordingly a new and distinct corporation +was formed called the Edison Company for +Isolated Lighting, to which was issued a special +license to sell and operate plants of a self-contained +character. As a matter of fact such work began in +advance of almost every other kind. A small plant +using the paper-carbon filament lamps was furnished +by Edison at the earnest solicitation of Mr. Henry +Villard for the steamship Columbia, in 1879, and it +is amusing to note that Mr. Upton carried the lamps +himself to the ship, very tenderly and jealously, like +fresh eggs, in a market-garden basket. The installation +was most successful. Another pioneer plant was +that equipped and started in January, 1881, for +Hinds & Ketcham, a New York firm of lithographers +and color printers, who had previously been able to +work only by day, owing to difficulties in color- +printing by artificial light. A year later they said: +"It is the best substitute for daylight we have ever +known, and almost as cheap." + +Mr. Edison himself describes various instances in +which the demand for isolated plants had to be met: +"One night at `65,' " he says, "James Gordon Bennett +came in. We were very anxious to get into a printing +establishment. I had caused a printer's composing +case to be set up with the idea that if we could get +editors and publishers in to see it, we should show +them the advantages of the electric light. So ultimately +Mr. Bennett came, and after seeing the whole +operation of everything, he ordered Mr. Howland, +general manager of the Herald, to light the newspaper +offices up at once with electricity." + +Another instance of the same kind deals with the +introduction of the light for purely social purposes: +"While at 65 Fifth Avenue," remarks Mr. Edison, +"I got to know Christian Herter, then the largest +decorator in the United States. He was a highly +intellectual man, and I loved to talk to him. He was +always railing against the rich people, for whom he +did work, for their poor taste. One day Mr. W. H. +Vanderbilt came to `65,' saw the light, and decided +that he would have his new house lighted with it. +This was one of the big `box houses' on upper Fifth +Avenue. He put the whole matter in the hands of +his son-in-law, Mr. H. McK. Twombly, who was then +in charge of the telephone department of the Western +Union. Twombly closed the contract with us for a +plant. Mr. Herter was doing the decoration, and it +was extraordinarily fine. After a while we got the +engines and boilers and wires all done, and the lights +in position, before the house was quite finished, and +thought we would have an exhibit of the light. About +eight o'clock in the evening we lit up, and it was very +good. Mr. Vanderbilt and his wife and some of his +daughters came in, and were there a few minutes +when a fire occurred. The large picture-gallery was +lined with silk cloth interwoven with fine metallic +thread. In some manner two wires had got crossed +with this tinsel, which became red-hot, and the whole +mass was soon afire. I knew what was the matter, +and ordered them to run down and shut off. It had +not burst into flame, and died out immediately. +Mrs. Vanderbilt became hysterical, and wanted to +know where it came from. We told her we had the +plant in the cellar, and when she learned we had a +boiler there she said she would not occupy the house. +She would not live over a boiler. We had to take +the whole installation out. The houses afterward +went onto the New York Edison system." + +The art was, however, very crude and raw, and as +there were no artisans in existence as mechanics or +electricians who had any knowledge of the practice, +there was inconceivable difficulty in getting such +isolated plants installed, as well as wiring the buildings +in the district to be covered by the first central +station in New York. A night school was, therefore, +founded at Fifth Avenue, and was put in charge of +Mr. E. H. Johnson, fresh from his successes in England. +The most available men for the purpose were, +of course, those who had been accustomed to wiring +for the simpler electrical systems then in vogue-- +telephones, district-messenger calls, burglar alarms, +house annunciators, etc., and a number of these +"wiremen" were engaged and instructed patiently in +the rudiments of the new art by means of a blackboard +and oral lessons. Students from the technical +schools and colleges were also eager recruits, for here +was something that promised a career, and one that was +especially alluring to youth because of its novelty. +These beginners were also instructed in general +engineering problems under the guidance of Mr. C. L. +Clarke, who was brought in from the Menlo Park +laboratory to assume charge of the engineering part +of the company's affairs. Many of these pioneer +students and workmen became afterward large and +successful contractors, or have filled positions of +distinction as managers and superintendents of central +stations. Possibly the electrical industry may not +now attract as much adventurous genius as it did +then, for automobiles, aeronautics, and other new arts +have come to the front in a quarter of a century to +enlist the enthusiasm of a younger generation of +mercurial spirits; but it is certain that at the period +of which we write, Edison himself, still under thirty- +five, was the centre of an extraordinary group of men, +full of effervescing and aspiring talent, to which he +gave glorious opportunity. + +A very novel literary feature of the work was the +issuance of a bulletin devoted entirely to the Edison +lighting propaganda. Nowadays the "house organ," +as it is called, has become a very hackneyed feature +of industrial development, confusing in its variety and +volume, and a somewhat doubtful adjunct to a highly +perfected, widely circulating periodical technical press. +But at that time, 1882, the Bulletin of the Edison +Electric Light Company, published in ordinary 12mo +form, was distinctly new in advertising and possibly +unique, as it is difficult to find anything that compared +with it. The Bulletin was carried on for some +years, until its necessity was removed by the development +of other opportunities for reaching the public; +and its pages serve now as a vivid and lively picture +of the period to which its record applies. The first +issue, of January 12, 1882, was only four pages, but +it dealt with the question of insurance; plants at +Santiago, Chili, and Rio de Janeiro; the European +Company with 3,500,000 francs subscribed; the work +in Paris, London, Strasburg, and Moscow; the laying +of over six miles of street mains in New York; a patent +decision in favor of Edison; and the size of safety +catch wire. By April of 1882, the Bulletin had +attained the respectable size of sixteen pages; and in +December it was a portly magazine of forty-eight. +Every item bears testimony to the rapid progress +being made; and by the end of 1882 it is seen that +no fewer than 153 isolated Edison plants had been +installed in the United States alone, with a capacity +of 29,192 lamps. Moreover, the New York central +station had gone into operation, starting at 3 P.M. on +September 4, and at the close of 1882 it was lighting +225 houses wired for about 5000 lamps. This epochal +story will be told in the next chapter. Most interesting +are the Bulletin notes from England, especially +in regard to the brilliant exhibition given by Mr. +E. H. Johnson at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, +visited by the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh, twice +by the Dukes of Westminster and Sutherland, by +three hundred members of the Gas Institute, and by +innumerable delegations from cities, boroughs, etc. +Describing this before the Royal Society of Arts, +Sir W. H. Preece, F.R.S., remarked: "Many unkind +things have been said of Mr. Edison and his promises; +perhaps no one has been severer in this direction than +myself. It is some gratification for me to announce +my belief that he has at last solved the problem he +set himself to solve, and to be able to describe to the +Society the way in which he has solved it." Before +the exhibition closed it was visited by the Prince and +Princess of Wales--now the deceased Edward VII. +and the Dowager Queen Alexandra--and the Princess +received from Mr. Johnson as a souvenir a tiny +electric chandelier fashioned like a bouquet of fern +leaves and flowers, the buds being some of the first +miniature incandescent lamps ever made. + +The first item in the first Bulletin dealt with the +"Fire Question," and all through the successive issues +runs a series of significant items on the same subject. +Many of them are aimed at gas, and there are several +grim summaries of death and fires due to gas- +leaks or explosions. A tendency existed at the time +to assume that electricity was altogether safe, while +its opponents, predicating their attacks on arc-lighting +casualties, insisted it was most dangerous. Edison's +problem in educating the public was rather difficult, +for while his low-pressure, direct-current system has +always been absolutely without danger to life, there +has also been the undeniable fact that escaping +electricity might cause a fire just as a leaky water- +pipe can flood a house. The important question had +arisen, therefore, of satisfying the fire underwriters +as to the safety of the system. He had foreseen that +there would be an absolute necessity for special devices +to prevent fires from occurring by reason of +any excess of current flowing in any circuit; and several +of his earliest detail lighting inventions deal with +this subject. The insurance underwriters of New +York and other parts of the country gave a great deal +of time and study to the question through their most +expert representatives, with the aid of Edison and +his associates, other electric-light companies +cooperating; and the knowledge thus gained was +embodied in insurance rules to govern wiring for electric +lights, formulated during the latter part of 1881, +adopted by the New York Board of Fire Underwriters, +January 12, 1882, and subsequently endorsed +by other boards in the various insurance +districts. Under temporary rulings, however, a vast +amount of work had already been done, but it was +obvious that as the industry grew there would be +less and less possibility of supervision except through +such regulations, insisting upon the use of the best +devices and methods. Indeed, the direct superintendence +soon became unnecessary, owing to the increasing +knowledge and greater skill acquired by the +installing staff; and this system of education was +notably improved by a manual written by Mr. Edison +himself. Copies of this brochure are as scarce to-day +as First Folio Shakespeares, and command prices +equal to those of other American first editions. The +little book is the only known incursion of its author +into literature, if we except the brief articles he has +written for technical papers and for the magazines. +It contained what was at once a full, elaborate, +and terse explanation of a complete isolated plant, +with diagrams of various methods of connection and +operation, and a carefully detailed description of +every individual part, its functions and its +characteristics. The remarkable success of those early +years was indeed only achieved by following up with +Chinese exactness the minute and intimate methods +insisted upon by Edison as to the use of the apparatus +and devices employed. It was a curious example of +establishing standard practice while changing with +kaleidoscopic rapidity all the elements involved. He +was true to an ideal as to the pole-star, but was +incessantly making improvements in every direction. +With an iconoclasm that has often seemed ruthless +and brutal he did not hesitate to sacrifice older devices +the moment a new one came in sight that embodied +a real advance in securing effective results. The process +is heroic but costly. Nobody ever had a bigger +scrap-heap than Edison; but who dare proclaim the +process intrinsically wasteful if the losses occur in +the initial stages, and the economies in all the later +ones? + +With Edison in this introduction of his lighting +system the method was ruthless, but not reckless. +At an early stage of the commercial development a +standardizing committee was formed, consisting of +the heads of all the departments, and to this body +was intrusted the task of testing and criticising all +existing and proposed devices, as well as of considering +the suggestions and complaints of workmen offered +from time to time. This procedure was fruitful in +two principal results--the education of the whole executive +force in the technical details of the system; and +a constant improvement in the quality of the Edison +installations; both contributing to the rapid growth +of the industry. + +For many years Goerck Street played an important +part in Edison's affairs, being the centre of all his +manufacture of heavy machinery. But it was not +in a desirable neighborhood, and owing to the rapid +growth of the business soon became disadvantageous +for other reasons. Edison tells of his frequent visits +to the shops at night, with the escort of "Jim" Russell, +a well-known detective, who knew all the denizens +of the place: "We used to go out at night to a little, +low place, an all-night house--eight feet wide and +twenty-two feet long--where we got a lunch at two or +three o'clock in the morning. It was the toughest kind +of restaurant ever seen. For the clam chowder they +used the same four clams during the whole season, +and the average number of flies per pie was seven. +This was by actual count." + +As to the shops and the locality: "The street was +lined with rather old buildings and poor tenements. +We had not much frontage. As our business increased +enormously, our quarters became too small, +so we saw the district Tammany leader and asked +him if we could not store castings and other things +on the sidewalk. He gave us permission--told us +to go ahead, and he would see it was all right. The +only thing he required for this was that when a man +was sent with a note from him asking us to give him +a job, he was to be put on. We had a hand-laborer +foreman--`Big Jim'--a very powerful Irishman, who +could lift above half a ton. When one of the Tammany +aspirants appeared, he was told to go right to +work at $1.50 per day. The next day he was told +off to lift a certain piece, and if the man could not +lift it he was discharged. That made the Tammany +man all safe. Jim could pick the piece up easily. +The other man could not, and so we let him out. +Finally the Tammany leader called a halt, as we were +running big engine lathes out on the sidewalk, and +he was afraid we were carrying it a little too far. +The lathes were worked right out in the street, and +belted through the windows of the shop." + +At last it became necessary to move from Goerck +Street, and Mr. Edison gives a very interesting account +of the incidents in connection with the transfer +of the plant to Schenectady, New York: "After our +works at Goerck Street got too small, we had labor +troubles also. It seems I had rather a socialistic +strain in me, and I raised the pay of the workmen +twenty-five cents an hour above the prevailing rate +of wages, whereupon Hoe & Company, our near +neighbors, complained at our doing this. I said I +thought it was all right. But the men, having got +a little more wages, thought they would try coercion +and get a little more, as we were considered soft +marks. Whereupon they struck at a time that was +critical. However, we were short of money for pay- +rolls; and we concluded it might not be so bad after +all, as it would give us a couple of weeks to catch up. +So when the men went out they appointed a committee +to meet us; but for two weeks they could not +find us, so they became somewhat more anxious than +we were. Finally they said they would like to go +back. We said all right, and back they went. It +was quite a novelty to the men not to be able to find +us when they wanted to; and they didn't relish it at +all. + +"What with these troubles and the lack of room, +we decided to find a factory elsewhere, and decided +to try the locomotive works up at Schenectady. It +seems that the people there had had a falling out +among themselves, and one of the directors had +started opposition works; but before he had completed +all the buildings and put in machinery some +compromise was made, and the works were for sale. +We bought them very reasonably and moved everything +there. These works were owned by me and +my assistants until sold to the Edison General Electric +Company. At one time we employed several thousand +men; and since then the works have been +greatly expanded. + +"At these new works our orders were far in excess +of our capital to handle the business, and both Mr. +Insull and I were afraid we might get into trouble +for lack of money. Mr. Insull was then my business +manager, running the whole thing; and, therefore, +when Mr. Henry Villard and his syndicate offered to +buy us out, we concluded it was better to be sure +than be sorry; so we sold out for a large sum. Villard +was a very aggressive man with big ideas, but I +could never quite understand him. He had no sense +of humor. I remember one time we were going up +on the Hudson River boat to inspect the works, and +with us was Mr. Henderson, our chief engineer, who +was certainly the best raconteur of funny stories I +ever knew. We sat at the tail-end of the boat, and +he started in to tell funny stories. Villard could not +see a single point, and scarcely laughed at all; and +Henderson became so disconcerted he had to give it +up. It was the same way with Gould. In the early +telegraph days I remember going with him to see +Mackay in "The Impecunious Country Editor." It +was very funny, full of amusing and absurd situations; +but Gould never smiled once." + +The formation of the Edison General Electric Company +involved the consolidation of the immediate +Edison manufacturing interests in electric light and +power, with a capitalization of $12,000,000, now a +relatively modest sum; but in those days the amount +was large, and the combination caused a great deal +of newspaper comment as to such a coinage of brain +power. The next step came with the creation of the +great General Electric Company of to-day, a combination +of the Edison, Thomson-Houston, and Brush +lighting interests in manufacture, which to this day +maintains the ever-growing plants at Harrison, Lynn, +and Schenectady, and there employs from twenty to +twenty-five thousand people. + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +THE FIRST EDISON CENTRAL STATION + +A NOTED inventor once said at the end of a lifetime +of fighting to defend his rights, that he +found there were three stages in all great inventions: +the first, in which people said the thing could not +be done; the second, in which they said anybody +could do it; and the third, in which they said it had +always been done by everybody. In his central- +station work Edison has had very much this kind of +experience; for while many of his opponents came to +acknowledge the novelty and utility of his plans, and +gave him unstinted praise, there are doubtless others +who to this day profess to look upon him merely as +an adapter. How different the view of so eminent a +scientist as Lord Kelvin was, may be appreciated +from his remark when in later years, in reply to the +question why some one else did not invent so obvious +and simple a thing as the Feeder System, he said: +"The only answer I can think of is that no one else +was Edison." + +Undaunted by the attitude of doubt and the predictions +of impossibility, Edison had pushed on until +he was now able to realize all his ideas as to the establishment +of a central station in the work that culminated +in New York City in 1882. After he had +conceived the broad plan, his ambition was to create +the initial plant on Manhattan Island, where it would +be convenient of access for watching its operation, +and where the demonstration of its practicability +would have influence in financial circles. The first +intention was to cover a district extending from +Canal Street on the north to Wall Street on the south; +but Edison soon realized that this territory was too +extensive for the initial experiment, and he decided +finally upon the district included between Wall, +Nassau, Spruce, and Ferry streets, Peck Slip and the +East River, an area nearly a square mile in extent. +One of the preliminary steps taken to enable him to +figure on such a station and system was to have men +go through this district on various days and note the +number of gas jets burning at each hour up to two or +three o'clock in the morning. The next step was to +divide the region into a number of sub-districts and +institute a house-to-house canvass to ascertain precisely +the data and conditions pertinent to the project. +When the canvass was over, Edison knew exactly +how many gas jets there were in every building in +the entire district, the average hours of burning, and +the cost of light; also every consumer of power, and +the quantity used; every hoistway to which an +electric motor could be applied; and other details too +numerous to mention, such as related to the gas itself, +the satisfaction of the customers, and the limitations +of day and night demand. All this information +was embodied graphically in large maps of the district, +by annotations in colored inks; and Edison thus +could study the question with every detail before +him. Such a reconnaissance, like that of a coming +field of battle, was invaluable, and may help give a +further idea of the man's inveterate care for the +minutiae of things. + +The laboratory note-books of this period--1878- +80, more particularly--show an immense amount of +calculation by Edison and his chief mathematician, +Mr. Upton, on conductors for the distribution of current +over large areas, and then later in the district +described. With the results of this canvass before +them, the sizes of the main conductors to be laid +throughout the streets of this entire territory were +figured, block by block; and the results were then +placed on the map. These data revealed the fact +that the quantity of copper required for the main +conductors would be exceedingly large and costly; +and, if ever, Edison was somewhat dismayed. But +as usual this apparently insurmountable difficulty +only spurred him on to further effort. It was but a +short time thereafter that he solved the knotty problem +by an invention mentioned in a previous chapter. +This is known as the "feeder and main" system, for +which he signed the application for a patent on +August 4, 1880. As this invention effected a saving +of seven-eighths of the cost of the chief conductors +in a straight multiple arc system, the mains for the +first district were refigured, and enormous new maps +were made, which became the final basis of actual +installation, as they were subsequently enlarged by +the addition of every proposed junction-box, bridge +safety-catch box, and street-intersection box in the +whole area. + +When this patent, after protracted fighting, was +sustained by Judge Green in 1893, the Electrical +Engineer remarked that the General Electric Company +"must certainly feel elated" because of its +importance; and the journal expressed its fear that +although the specifications and claims related only +to the maintenance of uniform pressure of current +on lighting circuits, the owners might naturally seek +to apply it also to feeders used in the electric-railway +work already so extensive. At this time, however, +the patent had only about a year of life left, owing +to the expiration of the corresponding English patent. +The fact that thirteen years had elapsed gives a vivid +idea of the ordeal involved in sustaining a patent and +the injustice to the inventor, while there is obviously +hardship to those who cannot tell from any decision +of the court whether they are infringing or not. It +is interesting to note that the preparation for hearing +this case in New Jersey was accompanied by models +to show the court exactly the method and its economy, +as worked out in comparison with what is known as +the "tree system" of circuits--the older alternative +way of doing it. As a basis of comparison, a district +of thirty-six city blocks in the form of a square was +assumed. The power station was placed at the centre +of the square; each block had sixteen consumers +using fifteen lights each. Conductors were run from +the station to supply each of the four quarters of the +district with light. In one example the "feeder" +system was used; in the other the "tree." With +these models were shown two cubes which represented +one one-hundredth of the actual quantity of +copper required for each quarter of the district by +the two-wire tree system as compared with the feeder +system under like conditions. The total weight +of copper for the four quarter districts by the tree +system was 803,250 pounds, but when the feeder +system was used it was only 128,739 pounds! This +was a reduction from $23.24 per lamp for copper +to $3.72 per lamp. Other models emphasized this +extraordinary contrast. At the time Edison was +doing this work on economizing in conductors, much +of the criticism against him was based on the assumed +extravagant use of copper implied in the obvious +"tree" system, and it was very naturally said +that there was not enough copper in the world to +supply his demands. It is true that the modern +electrical arts have been a great stimulator of copper +production, now taking a quarter of all made; yet +evidently but for such inventions as this such arts +could not have come into existence at all, or else +in growing up they would have forced copper to +starvation prices.[11] + + +[11] For description of feeder patent see Appendix. + + +It should be borne in mind that from the outset +Edison had determined upon installing underground +conductors as the only permanent and satisfactory +method for the distribution of current from central +stations in cities; and that at Menlo Park he laid out +and operated such a system with about four hundred +and twenty-five lamps. The underground system +there was limited to the immediate vicinity of the +laboratory and was somewhat crude, as well as much +less complicated than would be the network of over +eighty thousand lineal feet, which he calculated to be +required for the underground circuits in the first +district of New York City. At Menlo Park no effort +was made for permanency; no provision was needed +in regard to occasional openings of the street for +various purposes; no new customers were to be connected +from time to time to the mains, and no repairs +were within contemplation. In New York the question +of permanency was of paramount importance, +and the other contingencies were sure to arise as +well as conditions more easy to imagine than to forestall. +These problems were all attacked in a resolute, +thoroughgoing manner, and one by one solved by +the invention of new and unprecedented devices that +were adequate for the purposes of the time, and which +are embodied in apparatus of slight modification in +use up to the present day. + +Just what all this means it is hard for the present +generation to imagine. New York and all the other +great cities in 1882, and for some years thereafter, +were burdened and darkened by hideous masses of +overhead wires carried on ugly wooden poles along +all the main thoroughfares. One after another rival +telegraph and telephone, stock ticker, burglar-alarm, +and other companies had strung their circuits without +any supervision or restriction; and these wires in all +conditions of sag or decay ramified and crisscrossed in +every direction, often hanging broken and loose-ended +for months, there being no official compulsion to +remove any dead wire. None of these circuits carried +dangerous currents; but the introduction of the arc +light brought an entirely new menace in the use of +pressures that were even worse than the bully of the +West who "kills on sight," because this kindred peril +was invisible, and might lurk anywhere. New poles +were put up, and the lighting circuits on them, with +but a slight insulation of cotton impregnated with +some "weather-proof" compound, straggled all over +the city exposed to wind and rain and accidental +contact with other wires, or with the metal of buildings. +So many fatalities occurred that the insulated +wire used, called "underwriters," because approved +by the insurance bodies, became jocularly known as +"undertakers," and efforts were made to improve its +protective qualities. Then came the overhead circuits +for distributing electrical energy to motors for +operating elevators, driving machinery, etc., and +these, while using a lower, safer potential, were +proportionately larger. There were no wires underground. +Morse had tried that at the very beginning of electrical +application, in telegraphy, and all agreed that +renewals of the experiment were at once costly and +foolish. At last, in cities like New York, what may +be styled generically the "overhead system" of wires +broke down under its own weight; and various +methods of underground conductors were tried, hastened +in many places by the chopping down of poles +and wires as the result of some accident that stirred +the public indignation. One typical tragic scene was +that in New York, where, within sight of the City +Hall, a lineman was killed at his work on the arc +light pole, and his body slowly roasted before the gaze +of the excited populace, which for days afterward +dropped its silver and copper coin into the alms-box +nailed to the fatal pole for the benefit of his family. +Out of all this in New York came a board of electrical +control, a conduit system, and in the final analysis +the Public Service Commission, that is credited to +Governor Hughes as the furthest development of +utility corporation control. + +The "road to yesterday" back to Edison and his +insistence on underground wires is a long one, but +the preceding paragraph traces it. Even admitting +that the size and weight of his low-tension conductors +necessitated putting them underground, this argues +nothing against the propriety and sanity of his +methods. He believed deeply and firmly in the +analogy between electrical supply and that for water +and gas, and pointed to the trite fact that nobody +hoisted the water and gas mains into the air on stilts, +and that none of the pressures were inimical to human +safety. The arc-lighting methods were unconsciously +and unwittingly prophetic of the latter-day +long-distance transmissions at high pressure that, +electrically, have placed the energy of Niagara at +the command of Syracuse and Utica, and have put +the power of the falling waters of the Sierras at the +disposal of San Francisco, two hundred miles away. +But within city limits overhead wires, with such +space-consuming potentials, are as fraught with +mischievous peril to the public as the dynamite stored +by a nonchalant contractor in the cellar of a schoolhouse. +As an offset, then, to any tendency to depreciate +the intrinsic value of Edison's lighting work, +let the claim be here set forth modestly and subject +to interference, that he was the father of under- +ground wires in America, and by his example outlined +the policy now dominant in every city of the +first rank. Even the comment of a cynic in regard +to electrical development may be accepted: "Some +electrical companies wanted all the air; others apparently +had use for all the water; Edison only asked +for the earth." + +The late Jacob Hess, a famous New York Republican +politician, was a member of the commission +appointed to put the wires underground in New York +City, in the "eighties." He stated that when the +commission was struggling with the problem, and +examining all kinds of devices and plans, patented +and unpatented, for which fabulous sums were often +asked, the body turned to Edison in its perplexity +and asked for advice. Edison said: "All you have +to do, gentlemen, is to insulate your wires, draw them +through the cheapest thing on earth--iron pipe--run +your pipes through channels or galleries under the +street, and you've got the whole thing done." This +was practically the system adopted and in use to +this day. What puzzled the old politician was that +Edison would accept nothing for his advice. + +Another story may also be interpolated here as to +the underground work done in New York for the first +Edison station. It refers to the "man higher up," +although the phrase had not been coined in those days +of lower public morality. That a corporation should +be "held up" was accepted philosophically by the +corporation as one of the unavoidable incidents of its +business; and if the corporation "got back" by securing +some privilege without paying for it, the public +was ready to condone if not applaud. Public utilities +were in the making, and no one in particular had a +keen sense of what was right or what was wrong, in +the hard, practical details of their development. Edison +tells this illuminating story: "When I was laying +tubes in the streets of New York, the office received +notice from the Commissioner of Public Works to +appear at his office at a certain hour. I went up +there with a gentleman to see the Commissioner, +H. O. Thompson. On arrival he said to me: `You +are putting down these tubes. The Department of +Public Works requires that you should have five inspectors +to look after this work, and that their salary +shall be $5 per day, payable at the end of each week. +Good-morning.' I went out very much crestfallen, +thinking I would be delayed and harassed in the work +which I was anxious to finish, and was doing night +and day. We watched patiently for those inspectors +to appear. The only appearance they made was to +draw their pay Saturday afternoon." + +Just before Christmas in 1880--December 17--as +an item for the silk stocking of Father Knickerbocker +--the Edison Electric Illuminating Company of New +York was organized. In pursuance of the policy adhered +to by Edison, a license was issued to it for the +exclusive use of the system in that territory--Manhattan +Island--in consideration of a certain sum of +money and a fixed percentage of its capital in stock +for the patent rights. Early in 1881 it was altogether +a paper enterprise, but events moved swiftly as narrated +already, and on June 25, 1881, the first "Jumbo" +prototype of the dynamo-electric machines to gen- +erate current at the Pearl Street station was put +through its paces before being shipped to Paris to +furnish new sensations to the flaneur of the boulevards. +A number of the Edison officers and employees +assembled at Goerck Street to see this "gigantic" +machine go into action, and watched its performance +with due reverence all through the night until five +o'clock on Sunday morning, when it respected the +conventionalities by breaking a shaft and suspending +further tests. After this dynamo was shipped +to France, and its successors to England for the Holborn +Viaduct plant, Edison made still further improvements +in design, increasing capacity and economy, +and then proceeded vigorously with six machines for +Pearl Street. + +An ideal location for any central station is at the +very centre of the district served. It may be questioned +whether it often goes there. In the New York +first district the nearest property available was a +double building at Nos. 255 and 257 Pearl Street, +occupying a lot so by 100 feet. It was four stories +high, with a fire-wall dividing it into two equal parts. +One of these parts was converted for the uses of the +station proper, and the other was used as a tube-shop +by the underground construction department, as well +as for repair-shops, storage, etc. Those were the days +when no one built a new edifice for station purposes; +that would have been deemed a fantastic extravagance. +One early station in New York for arc lighting +was an old soap-works whose well-soaked floors did +not need much additional grease to render them +choice fuel for the inevitable flames. In this Pearl +Street instance, the building, erected originally for +commercial uses, was quite incapable of sustaining +the weight of the heavy dynamos and steam-engines +to be installed on the second floor; so the old flooring +was torn out and a new one of heavy girders supported +by stiff columns was substituted. This heavy construction, +more familiar nowadays, and not unlike +the supporting metal structure of the Manhattan +Elevated road, was erected independent of the enclosing +walls, and occupied the full width of 257 Pearl +Street, and about three-quarters of its depth. This +change in the internal arrangements did not at all +affect the ugly external appearance, which did little to +suggest the stately and ornate stations since put up +by the New York Edison Company, the latest occupying +whole city blocks. + +Of this episode Edison gives the following account: +"While planning for my first New York station-- +Pearl Street--of course, I had no real estate, and +from lack of experience had very little knowledge of +its cost in New York; so I assumed a rather large, +liberal amount of it to plan my station on. It +occurred to me one day that before I went too far with +my plans I had better find out what real estate was +worth. In my original plan I had 200 by 200 feet. +I thought that by going down on a slum street near +the water-front I would get some pretty cheap property. +So I picked out the worst dilapidated street +there was, and found I could only get two buildings, +each 25 feet front, one 100 feet deep and the other +85 feet deep. I thought about $10,000 each would +cover it; but when I got the price I found that they +wanted $75,000 for one and $80,000 for the other. +Then I was compelled to change my plans and go upward +in the air where real estate was cheap. I +cleared out the building entirely to the walls and +built my station of structural ironwork, running it +up high." + +Into this converted structure was put the most +complete steam plant obtainable, together with all +the mechanical and engineering adjuncts bearing +upon economical and successful operation. Being in +a narrow street and a congested district, the plant +needed special facilities for the handling of coal and +ashes, as well as for ventilation and forced draught. +All of these details received Mr. Edison's personal +care and consideration on the spot, in addition to the +multitude of other affairs demanding his thought. +Although not a steam or mechanical engineer, his +quick grasp of principles and omnivorous reading had +soon supplied the lack of training; nor had he forgotten +the practical experience picked up as a boy +on the locomotives of the Grand Trunk road. It is +to be noticed as a feature of the plant, in common +with many of later construction, that it was placed +well away from the water's edge, and equipped with +non-condensing engines; whereas the modern plant +invariably seeks the bank of a river or lake for the +purpose of a generous supply of water for its +condensing engines or steam-turbines. These are among +the refinements of practice coincidental with the advance +of the art. + +At the award of the John Fritz gold medal in April, +1909, to Charles T. Porter for his work in advancing +the knowledge of steam-engineering, and for improvements +in engine construction, Mr. Frank J. Sprague +spoke on behalf of the American Institute of Electrical +Engineers of the debt of electricity to the high-speed +steam-engine. He recalled the fact that at the +French Exposition of 1867 Mr. Porter installed two +Porter-Allen engines to drive electric alternating-current +generators for supplying current to primitive +lighthouse apparatus. While the engines were not +directly coupled to the dynamos, it was a curious +fact that the piston speeds and number of revolutions +were what is common to-day in isolated direct-coupled +plants. In the dozen years following Mr. Porter built +many engines with certain common characteristics-- +i.e., high piston speed and revolutions, solid engine +bed, and babbitt-metal bearings; but there was no +electric driving until 1880, when Mr. Porter installed +a high-speed engine for Edison at his laboratory in +Menlo Park. Shortly after this he was invited to +construct for the Edison Pearl Street station the first +of a series of engines for so-called "steam-dynamos," +each independently driven by a direct-coupled engine. +Mr. Sprague compared the relations thus established +between electricity and the high-speed engine not to +those of debtor and creditor, but rather to those of +partners--an industrial marriage--one of the most +important in the engineering world. Here were two +machines destined to be joined together, economizing +space, enhancing economy, augmenting capacity, reducing +investment, and increasing dividends. + +While rapid progress was being made in this and +other directions, the wheels of industry were hum- +ming merrily at the Edison Tube Works, for over +fifteen miles of tube conductors were required for the +district, besides the boxes to connect the network at +the street intersections, and the hundreds of junction +boxes for taking the service conductors into each of +the hundreds of buildings. In addition to the +immense amount of money involved, this specialized +industry required an enormous amount of experiment, +as it called for the development of an entirely +new art. But with Edison's inventive fertility--if +ever there was a cross-fertilizer of mechanical ideas +it is he--and with Mr. Kruesi's never-failing patience +and perseverance applied to experiment and evolution, +rapid progress was made. A franchise having +been obtained from the city, the work of laying the +underground conductors began in the late fall of +1881, and was pushed with almost frantic energy. It +is not to be supposed, however, that the Edison tube +system had then reached a finality of perfection in +the eyes of its inventor. In his correspondence with +Kruesi, as late as 1887, we find Edison bewailing the +inadequacy of the insulation of the conductors under +twelve hundred volts pressure, as for example: +"Dear Kruesi,--There is nothing wrong with your +present compound. It is splendid. The whole +trouble is air-bubbles. The hotter it is poured the +greater the amount of air-bubbles. At 212 it can +be put on rods and there is no bubble. I have a man +experimenting and testing all the time. Until I get +at the proper method of pouring and getting rid of +the air-bubbles, it will be waste of time to experiment +with other asphalts. Resin oil distils off easily. It +may answer, but paraffine or other similar substances +must be put in to prevent brittleness, One thing is +certain, and that is, everything must be poured in +layers, not only the boxes, but the tubes. The tube +itself should have a thin coating. The rope should +also have a coating. The rods also. The whole lot, +rods and rope, when ready for tube, should have +another coat, and then be placed in tube and filled. +This will do the business." Broad and large as a +continent in his ideas, if ever there was a man of +finical fussiness in attention to detail, it is Edison. +A letter of seven pages of about the same date in +1887 expatiates on the vicious troubles caused by the +air-bubble, and remarks with fine insight into the +problems of insulation and the idea of layers of it: +"Thus you have three separate coatings, and it is +impossible an air-hole in one should match the +other." + +To a man less thorough and empirical in method +than Edison, it would have been sufficient to have +made his plans clear to associates or subordinates +and hold them responsible for accurate results. No +such vicarious treatment would suit him, ready as he +has always been to share the work where he could +give his trust. In fact he realized, as no one else +did at this stage, the tremendous import of this +novel and comprehensive scheme for giving the world +light; and he would not let go, even if busy to the +breaking-point. Though plunged in a veritable maelstrom +of new and important business interests, and +though applying for no fewer than eighty-nine patents +in 1881, all of which were granted, he superintended +on the spot all this laying of underground conductors +for the first district. Nor did he merely stand around +and give orders. Day and night he actually worked +in the trenches with the laborers, amid the dirt and +paving-stones and hurry-burly of traffic, helping to +lay the tubes, filling up junction-boxes, and taking +part in all the infinite detail. He wanted to know +for himself how things went, why for some occult +reason a little change was necessary, what improvement +could be made in the material. His hours of +work were not regulated by the clock, but lasted until +he felt the need of a little rest. Then he would go +off to the station building in Pearl Street, throw an +overcoat on a pile of tubes, lie down and sleep for a +few hours, rising to resume work with the first gang. +There was a small bedroom on the third floor of the +station available for him, but going to bed meant +delay and consumed time. It is no wonder that +such impatience, such an enthusiasm, drove the work +forward at a headlong pace. + +Edison says of this period: "When we put down +the tubes in the lower part of New York, in the +streets, we kept a big stock of them in the cellar of +the station at Pearl Street. As I was on all the time, +I would take a nap of an hour or so in the daytime-- +any time--and I used to sleep on those tubes in the +cellar. I had two Germans who were testing there, +and both of them died of diphtheria, caught in the +cellar, which was cold and damp. It never affected +me." + +It is worth pausing just a moment to glance at this +man taking a fitful rest on a pile of iron pipe in a +dingy building. His name is on the tip of the world's +tongue. Distinguished scientists from every part of +Europe seek him eagerly. He has just been decorated +and awarded high honors by the French Government. +He is the inventor of wonderful new apparatus, and +the exploiter of novel and successful arts. The magic +of his achievements and the rumors of what is being +done have caused a wild drop in gas securities, and a +sensational rise in his own electric-light stock from +$100 to $3500 a share. Yet these things do not at +all affect his slumber or his democratic simplicity, +for in that, as in everything else, he is attending +strictly to business, "doing the thing that is next +to him." + +Part of the rush and feverish haste was due to the +approach of frost, which, as usual in New York, suspended +operations in the earth; but the laying of +the conductors was resumed promptly in the spring +of 1882; and meantime other work had been advanced. +During the fall and winter months two +more "Jumbo" dynamos were built and sent to +London, after which the construction of six for New +York was swiftly taken in hand. In the month of +May three of these machines, each with a capacity of +twelve hundred incandescent lamps, were delivered +at Pearl Street and assembled on the second floor. +On July 5th--owing to the better opportunity for +ceaseless toil given by a public holiday--the construction +of the operative part of the station was so +far completed that the first of the dynamos was +operated under steam; so that three days later the +satisfactory experiment was made of throwing its +flood of electrical energy into a bank of one thousand +lamps on an upper floor. Other tests followed in due +course. All was excitement. The field-regulating +apparatus and the electrical-pressure indicator--first +of its kind--were also tested, and in turn found +satisfactory. Another vital test was made at this time-- +namely, of the strength of the iron structure itself +on which the plant was erected. This was done by +two structural experts; and not till he got their report +as to ample factors of safety was Edison reassured +as to this detail. + +A remark of Edison, familiar to all who have +worked with him, when it is reported to him that +something new goes all right and is satisfactory from +all points of view, is: "Well, boys, now let's find the +bugs," and the hunt for the phylloxera begins with +fiendish, remorseless zest. Before starting the plant +for regular commercial service, he began personally +a series of practical experiments and tests to ascertain +in advance what difficulties would actually +arise in practice, so that he could provide remedies +or preventives. He had several cots placed in the +adjoining building, and he and a few of his most +strenuous assistants worked day and night, leaving +the work only for hurried meals and a snatch of +sleep. These crucial tests, aiming virtually to break +the plant down if possible within predetermined +conditions, lasted several weeks, and while most valuable +in the information they afforded, did not hinder +anything, for meantime customers' premises throughout +the district were being wired and supplied with lamps +and meters. + +On Monday, September 4, 1882, at 3 o'clock, P.M., +Edison realized the consummation of his broad and +original scheme. The Pearl Street station was officially +started by admitting steam to the engine of one of +the "Jumbos," current was generated, turned into +the network of underground conductors, and was +transformed into light by the incandescent lamps that +had thus far been installed. This date and event +may properly be regarded as historical, for they mark +the practical beginning of a new art, which in the +intervening years has grown prodigiously, and is still +increasing by leaps and bounds. + +Everything worked satisfactorily in the main. +There were a few mechanical and engineering annoyances +that might naturally be expected to arise in a +new and unprecedented enterprise; but nothing of +sufficient moment to interfere with the steady and +continuous supply of current to customers at all +hours of the day and night. Indeed, once started, +this station was operated uninterruptedly for eight +years with only insignificant stoppage. + +It will have been noted by the reader that there +was nothing to indicate rashness in starting up the +station, as only one dynamo was put in operation. +Within a short time, however, it was deemed desirable +to supply the underground network with more current, +as many additional customers had been connected +and the demand for the new light was increasing +very rapidly. Although Edison had successfully +operated several dynamos in multiple arc two +years before--i.e., all feeding current together into +the same circuits--there was not, at this early period +of experience, any absolute certainty as to what +particular results might occur upon the throwing of +the current from two or more such massive dynamos +into a great distributing system. The sequel showed +the value of Edison's cautious method in starting the +station by operating only a single unit at first. + +He decided that it would be wise to make the trial +operation of a second "Jumbo" on a Sunday, when +business houses were closed in the district, thus +obviating any danger of false impressions in the public +mind in the event of any extraordinary manifestations. +The circumstances attending the adding of +a second dynamo are thus humorously described by +Edison: "My heart was in my mouth at first, but +everything worked all right.... Then we started another +engine and threw them in parallel. Of all the +circuses since Adam was born, we had the worst +then! One engine would stop, and the other would +run up to about a thousand revolutions, and then +they would see-saw. The trouble was with the governors. +When the circus commenced, the gang that +was standing around ran out precipitately, and I +guess some of them kept running for a block or two. +I grabbed the throttle of one engine, and E. H. Johnson, +who was the only one present to keep his wits, +caught hold of the other, and we shut them off." +One of the "gang" that ran, but, in this case, only to +the end of the room, afterward said: "At the time it +was a terrifying experience, as I didn't know what +was going to happen. The engines and dynamos +made a horrible racket, from loud and deep groans +to a hideous shriek, and the place seemed to be filled +with sparks and flames of all colors. It was as if the +gates of the infernal regions had been suddenly +opened." + +This trouble was at once attacked by Edison in his +characteristic and strenuous way. The above experiment +took place between three and four o'clock on +a Sunday afternoon, and within a few hours he had +gathered his superintendent and men of the machine- +works and had them at work on a shafting device +that he thought would remedy the trouble. He says: +"Of course, I discovered that what had happened +was that one set was running the other as a motor. +I then put up a long shaft, connecting all the governors +together, and thought this would certainly +cure the trouble; but it didn't. The torsion of the +shaft was so great that one governor still managed +to get ahead of the others. Well, it was a serious +state of things, and I worried over it a lot. Finally +I went down to Goerck Street and got a piece of +shafting and a tube in which it fitted. I twisted the +shafting one way and the tube the other as far as I +could, and pinned them together. In this way, by +straining the whole outfit up to its elastic limit in +opposite directions, the torsion was practically +eliminated, and after that the governors ran together +all right." + +Edison realized, however, that in commercial practice +this was only a temporary expedient, and that a +satisfactory permanence of results could only be +attained with more perfect engines that could be +depended upon for close and simple regulation. The +engines that were made part of the first three "Jum- +bos" placed in the station were the very best that +could be obtained at the time, and even then had +been specially designed and built for the purpose. +Once more quoting Edison on this subject: "About +that time" (when he was trying to run several dynamos +in parallel in the Pearl Street station) "I got +hold of Gardiner C. Sims, and he undertook to build +an engine to run at three hundred and fifty revolutions +and give one hundred and seventy-five horse-power. +He went back to Providence and set to work, and +brought the engine back with him to the shop. It +worked only a few minutes when it busted. That +man sat around that shop and slept in it for three +weeks, until he got his engine right and made it work +the way he wanted it to. When he reached this +period I gave orders for the engine-works to run night +and day until we got enough engines, and when all +was ready we started the engines. Then everything +worked all right.... One of these engines that Sims +built ran twenty-four hours a day, three hundred and +sixty-five days in the year, for over a year before it +stopped."[12] + + +[12] We quote the following interesting notes of Mr. Charles L. +Clarke on the question of see-sawing, or "hunting," as it was +afterward termed: + + +"In the Holborn Viaduct station the difficulty of `hunting' +was not experienced. At the time the `Jumbos' were first operated +in multiple arc, April 8, 1882, one machine was driven by +a Porter-Allen engine, and the other by an Armington & Sims engine, +and both machines were on a solid foundation. At the station +at Milan, Italy, the first `Jumbos' operated in multiple arc were +driven by Porter-Allen engines, and dash-pots were applied to the +governors. These machines were also upon a solid foundation, +and no trouble was experienced. + +"At the Pearl Street station, however, the machines were sup- +ported upon long iron floor-beams, and at the high speed of 350 +revolutions per minute, considerable vertical vibration was given +to the engines. And the writer is inclined to the opinion that +this vibration, acting in the same direction as the action of gravitation, +which was one of the two controlling forces in the operation +of the Porter-Allen governor, was the primary cause of the +`hunting.' In the Armington & Sims engine the controlling +forces in the operation of the governor were the centrifugal force +of revolving weights, and the opposing force of compressed springs, +and neither the action of gravitation nor the vertical vibrations +of the engine could have any sensible effect upon the governor," + + + + +The Pearl Street station, as this first large plant +was called, made rapid and continuous growth in its +output of electric current. It started, as we have +said, on September 4, 1882, supplying about four +hundred lights to a comparatively small number of +customers. Among those first supplied was the banking +firm of Drexel, Morgan & Company, corner of +Broad and Wall streets, at the outermost limits of the +system. Before the end of December of the same year +the light had so grown in favor that it was being +supplied to over two hundred and forty customers +whose buildings were wired for over five thousand +lamps. By this time three more "Jumbos" had been +added to the plant. The output from this time forward +increased steadily up to the spring of 1884, when the +demands of the station necessitated the installation of +two additional "Jumbos" in the adjoining building, +which, with the venous improvements that had been +made in the mean time, gave the station a capacity of +over eleven thousand lamps actually in service at +any one time. + +During the first three months of operating the Pearl +Street station light was supplied to customers with- +out charge. Edison had perfect confidence in his +meters, and also in the ultimate judgment of the public +as to the superiority of the incandescent electric +light as against other illuminants. He realized, however, +that in the beginning of the operation of an entirely +novel plant there was ample opportunity for +unexpected contingencies, although the greatest care +had been exercised to make everything as perfect as +possible. Mechanical defects or other unforeseen +troubles in any part of the plant or underground +system might arise and cause temporary stoppages of +operation, thus giving grounds for uncertainty which +would create a feeling of public distrust in the permanence +of the supply of light. + +As to the kind of mishap that was wont to occur, +Edison tells the following story: "One afternoon, +after our Pearl Street station started, a policeman +rushed in and told us to send an electrician at once +up to the corner of Ann and Nassau streets--some +trouble. Another man and I went up. We found +an immense crowd of men and boys there and in the +adjoining streets--a perfect jam. There was a leak +in one of our junction-boxes, and on account of the +cellars extending under the street, the top soil had +become insulated. Hence, by means of this leak +powerful currents were passing through this thin +layer of moist earth. When a horse went to pass +over it he would get a very severe shock. When I +arrived I saw coming along the street a ragman with +a dilapidated old horse, and one of the boys told him +to go over on the other side of the road--which was +the place where the current leaked. When the rag- +man heard this he took that side at once. The moment +the horse struck the electrified soil he stood +straight up in the air, and then reared again; and the +crowd yelled, the policeman yelled; and the horse +started to run away. This continued until the crowd +got so serious that the policeman had to clear it out; +and we were notified to cut the current off. We got +a gang of men, cut the current off for several junction- +boxes, and fixed the leak. One man who had seen it +came to me next day and wanted me to put in apparatus +for him at a place where they sold horses. He said +he could make a fortune with it, because he could get old +nags in there and make them act like thoroughbreds." + +So well had the work been planned and executed, +however, that nothing happened to hinder the continuous +working of the station and the supply of light +to customers. Hence it was decided in December, +1882, to begin charging a price for the service, and, +accordingly, Edison electrolytic meters were installed +on the premises of each customer then connected. +The first bill for lighting, based upon the +reading of one of these meters, amounted to $50.40, +and was collected on January 18, 1883, from the Ansonia +Brass and Copper Company, 17 and 19 Cliff +Street. Generally speaking, customers found that +their bills compared fairly with gas bills for +corresponding months where the same amount of light was +used, and they paid promptly and cheerfully, with +emphatic encomiums of the new light. During November, +1883, a little over one year after the station +was started, bills for lighting amounting to over $9000 +were collected. + +An interesting story of meter experience in the first +few months of operation of the Pearl Street station +is told by one of the "boys" who was then in position +to know the facts; "Mr. J. P. Morgan, whose firm was +one of the first customers, expressed to Mr. Edison +some doubt as to the accuracy of the meter. The +latter, firmly convinced of its correctness, suggested +a strict test by having some cards printed and hung +on each fixture at Mr. Morgan's place. On these +cards was to be noted the number of lamps in the +fixture, and the time they were turned on and off +each day for a month. At the end of that time the +lamp-hours were to be added together by one of the +clerks and figured on a basis of a definite amount per +lamp-hour, and compared with the bill that would be +rendered by the station for the corresponding period. +The results of the first month's test showed an apparent +overcharge by the Edison company. Mr. Morgan +was exultant, while Mr. Edison was still confident +and suggested a continuation of the test. +Another month's trial showed somewhat similar results. +Mr. Edison was a little disturbed, but insisted +that there was a mistake somewhere. He went down +to Drexel, Morgan & Company's office to investigate, +and, after looking around, asked when the office was +cleaned out. He was told it was done at night by +the janitor, who was sent for, and upon being interrogated +as to what light he used, said that he turned +on a central fixture containing about ten lights. It +came out that he had made no record of the time these +lights were in use. He was told to do so in future, +and another month's test was made. On comparison +with the company's bill, rendered on the meter-reading, +the meter came within a few cents of the amount +computed from the card records, and Mr. Morgan was +completely satisfied of the accuracy of the meter." + +It is a strange but not extraordinary commentary +on the perversity of human nature and the lack of +correct observation, to note that even after the Pearl +Street station had been in actual operation twenty- +four hours a day for nearly three months, there +should still remain an attitude of "can't be done." +That such a scepticism still obtained is evidenced by +the public prints of the period. Edison's electric- +light system and his broad claims were freely discussed +and animadverted upon at the very time he +was demonstrating their successful application. To +show some of the feeling at the time, we reproduce +the following letter, which appeared November 29, +1882: + +"To the Editor of the Sun: + +"SIR,--In reading the discussions relative to the Pearl +Street station of the Edison light, I have noted that +while it is claimed that there is scarcely any loss from +leakage of current, nothing is said about the loss due to +the resistance of the long circuits. I am informed that +this is the secret of the failure to produce with the power +in position a sufficient amount of current to run all the +lamps that have been put up, and that while six, and +even seven, lights to the horse-power may be produced +from an isolated plant, the resistance of the long underground +wires reduces this result in the above case to less +than three lights to the horse-power, thus making the +cost of production greatly in excess of gas. Can the +Edison company explain this? + "INVESTIGATOR." + +This was one of the many anonymous letters that +had been written to the newspapers on the subject, +and the following reply by the Edison company was +printed December 3, 1882: + + +"To the Editor of the Sun: + +"SIR,--`Investigator' in Wednesday's Sun, says that +the Edison company is troubled at its Pearl Street station +with a `loss of current, due to the resistance of the long +circuits'; also that, whereas Edison gets `six or even +seven lights to the horse-power in isolated plants, the +resistance of the long underground wires reduces that +result in the Pearl Street station to less than three lights +to the horse-power.' Both of these statements are false. +As regards loss due to resistance, there is a well-known +law for determining it, based on Ohm's law. By use of +that law we knew in advance, that is to say, when the +original plans for the station were drawn, just what this +loss would be, precisely the same as a mechanical engineer +when constructing a mill with long lines of shafting +can forecast the loss of power due to friction. The +practical result in the Pearl Street station has fully +demonstrated the correctness of our estimate thus made +in advance. As regards our getting only three lights +per horse-power, our station has now been running three +months, without stopping a moment, day or night, and +we invariably get over six lamps per horse-power, or +substantially the same as we do in our isolated plants. +We are now lighting one hundred and ninety-three buildings, +wired for forty-four hundred lamps, of which about +two-thirds are in constant use, and we are adding +additional houses and lamps daily. These figures can be +verified at the office of the Board of Underwriters, where +certificates with full details permitting the use of our +light are filed by their own inspector. To light these +lamps we run from one to three dynamos, according to +the lamps in use at any given time, and we shall start +additional dynamos as fast as we can connect more buildings. +Neither as regards the loss due to resistance, nor +as regards the number of lamps per horse-power, is there +the slightest trouble or disappointment on the part of +our company, and your correspondent is entirely in error +is assuming that there is. Let me suggest that if `Investigator' +really wishes to investigate, and is competent +and willing to learn the exact facts, he can do +so at this office, where there is no mystery of concealment, +but, on the contrary, a strong desire to communicate +facts to intelligent inquirers. Such a method of +investigating must certainly be more satisfactory to one +honestly seeking knowledge than that of first assuming +an error as the basis of a question, and then demanding +an explanation. + "Yours very truly, + "S. B. EATON, President." + + +Viewed from the standpoint of over twenty-seven +years later, the wisdom and necessity of answering +anonymous newspaper letters of this kind might be +deemed questionable, but it must be remembered that, +although the Pearl Street station was working +successfully, and Edison's comprehensive plans were +abundantly vindicated, the enterprise was absolutely +new and only just stepping on the very threshold of +commercial exploitation. To enter in and possess +the land required the confidence of capital and the +general public. Hence it was necessary to maintain +a constant vigilance to defeat the insidious attacks of +carping critics and others who would attempt to +injure the Edison system by misleading statements. + +It will be interesting to the modern electrician to +note that when this pioneer station was started, and +in fact for some little time afterward, there was not +a single electrical instrument in the whole station-- +not a voltmeter or an ammeter! Nor was there a +central switchboard! Each dynamo had its own individual +control switch. The feeder connections were +all at the front of the building, and the general voltage +control apparatus was on the floor above. An +automatic pressure indicator had been devised and +put in connection with the main circuits. It consisted, +generally speaking, of an electromagnet with +relays connecting with a red and a blue lamp. When +the electrical pressure was normal, neither lamp was +lighted; but if the electromotive force rose above a +predetermined amount by one or two volts, the red +lamp lighted up, and the attendant at the hand-wheel +of the field regulator inserted resistance in the field +circuit, whereas, if the blue lamp lighted, resistance +was cut out until the pressure was raised to normal. +Later on this primitive indicator was supplanted by +the "Bradley Bridge," a crude form of the "Howell" +pressure indicators, which were subsequently used +for many years in the Edison stations. + +Much could be added to make a complete pictorial +description of the historic Pearl Street station, but +it is not within the scope of this narrative to enter +into diffuse technical details, interesting as they may +be to many persons. We cannot close this chapter, +however, without mention of the fate of the Pearl +Street station, which continued in successful commercial +operation until January 2, 1890, when it was +partially destroyed by fire. All the "Jumbos" were +ruined, excepting No. 9, which is still a venerated +relic in the possession of the New York Edison Company. +Luckily, the boilers were unharmed. Belt- +driven generators and engines were speedily installed, +and the station was again in operation in a few days. +The uninjured "Jumbo," No. 9, again continued to +perform its duty. But in the words of Mr. Charles L. +Clarke, "the glory of the old Pearl Street station, +unique in bearing the impress of Mr. Edison's personality, +and, as it were, constructed with his own +hands, disappeared in the flame and smoke of that +Thursday morning fire." + +The few days' interruption of the service was the +only serious one that has taken place in the history +of the New York Edison Company from September 4, +1882, to the present date. The Pearl Street station +was operated for some time subsequent to the fire, +but increasing demands in the mean time having led +to the construction of other stations, the mains of +the First District were soon afterward connected to +another plant, the Pearl Street station was dismantled, +and the building was sold in 1895. + +The prophetic insight into the magnitude of central- +station lighting that Edison had when he was still +experimenting on the incandescent lamp over thirty +years ago is a little less than astounding, when it is +so amply verified in the operations of the New York +Edison Company (the successor of the Edison Electric +Illuminating Company of New York) and many others. +At the end of 1909 the New York Edison Company +alone was operating twenty-eight stations and substations, +having a total capacity of 159,500 kilowatts. +Connected with its lines were approximately 85,000 +customers wired for 3,813,899 incandescent lamps and +nearly 225,000 horse-power through industrial electric +motors connected with the underground service. +A large quantity of electrical energy is also supplied +for heating and cooking, charging automobiles, chemical +and plating work, and various other uses. + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +OTHER EARLY STATIONS--THE METER + +WE have now seen the Edison lighting system +given a complete, convincing demonstration in +Paris, London, and New York; and have noted steps +taken for its introduction elsewhere on both sides +of the Atlantic. The Paris plant, like that at the +Crystal Palace, was a temporary exhibit. The London +plant was less temporary, but not permanent, +supplying before it was torn out no fewer than +three thousand lamps in hotels, churches, stores, and +dwellings in the vicinity of Holborn Viaduct. There +Messrs. Johnson and Hammer put into practice many +of the ideas now standard in the art, and secured +much useful data for the work in New York, of +which the story has just been told. + +As a matter of fact the first Edison commercial +station to be operated in this country was that at +Appleton, Wisconsin, but its only serious claim to +notice is that it was the initial one of the system +driven by water-power. It went into service August +15, 1882, about three weeks before the Pearl Street +station. It consisted of one small dynamo of a +capacity of two hundred and eighty lights of 10 c.p. +each, and was housed in an unpretentious wooden +shed. The dynamo-electric machine, though small, +was robust, for under all the varying speeds of water- +power, and the vicissitudes of the plant to which it, +belonged, it continued in active use until 1899-- +seventeen years. + +Edison was from the first deeply impressed with +the possibilities of water-power, and, as this incident +shows, was prompt to seize such a very early opportunity. +But his attention was in reality concentrated +closely on the supply of great centres of population, +a task which he then felt might well occupy his lifetime; +and except in regard to furnishing isolated +plants he did not pursue further the development of +hydro-electric stations. That was left to others, and +to the application of the alternating current, which +has enabled engineers to harness remote powers, and, +within thoroughly economical limits, transmit thousands +of horse-power as much as two hundred miles at +pressures of 80,000 and 100,000 volts. Owing to his +insistence on low pressure, direct current for use in +densely populated districts, as the only safe and truly +universal, profitable way of delivering electrical +energy to the consumers, Edison has been frequently +spoken of as an opponent of the alternating current. +This does him an injustice. At the time a measure +was before the Virginia legislature, in 1890, to limit +the permissible pressures of current so as to render +it safe, he said: "You want to allow high pressure +wherever the conditions are such that by no possible +accident could that pressure get into the houses of +the consumers; you want to give them all the latitude +you can." In explaining this he added: "Suppose +you want to take the falls down at Richmond, +and want to put up a water-power? Why, if we +erect a station at the falls, it is a great economy to +get it up to the city. By digging a cheap trench and +putting in an insulated cable, and connecting such +station with the central part of Richmond, having +the end of the cable come up into the station from +the earth and there connected with motors, the power +of the falls would be transmitted to these motors. +If now the motors were made to run dynamos conveying +low-pressure currents to the public, there is +no possible way whereby this high-pressure current +could get to the public." In other words, Edison +made the sharp fundamental distinction between high +pressure alternating current for transmission and low +pressure direct current for distribution; and this is +exactly the practice that has been adopted in all the +great cities of the country to-day. There seems no +good reason for believing that it will change. It +might perhaps have been altogether better for Edison, +from the financial standpoint, if he had not identified +himself so completely with one kind of current, but +that made no difference to him, as it was a matter of +conviction; and Edison's convictions are granitic. +Moreover, this controversy over the two currents, +alternating and direct, which has become historical +in the field of electricity--and is something like the +"irrepressible conflict" we heard of years ago in +national affairs--illustrates another aspect of Edison's +character. Broad as the prairies and free in thought +as the winds that sweep them, he is idiosyncratically +opposed to loose and wasteful methods, to plans of +empire that neglect the poor at the gate. Every- +thing he has done has been aimed at the conservation +of energy, the contraction of space, the intensification +of culture. Burbank and his tribe represent +in the vegetable world, Edison in the mechanical. +Not only has he developed distinctly new species, +but he has elucidated the intensive art of getting +$1200 out of an electrical acre instead of $12--a +manured market-garden inside London and a ten- +bushel exhausted wheat farm outside Lawrence, +Kansas, being the antipodes of productivity--yet +very far short of exemplifying the difference of electrical +yield between an acre of territory in Edison's +"first New York district" and an acre in some small +town. + +Edison's lighting work furnished an excellent basis-- +in fact, the only one--for the development of the alternating +current now so generally employed in central- +station work in America; and in the McGraw Electrical +Directory of April, 1909, no fewer than 4164 stations +out of 5780 reported its use. When the alternating +current was introduced for practical purposes it was +not needed for arc lighting, the circuit for which, +from a single dynamo, would often be twenty or +thirty miles in length, its current having a pressure +of not less than five or six thousand volts. For some +years it was not found feasible to operate motors on +alternating-current circuits, and that reason was +often urged against it seriously. It could not be +used for electroplating or deposition, nor could it +charge storage batteries, all of which are easily within +the ability of the direct current. But when it came +to be a question of lighting a scattered suburb, a +group of dwellings on the outskirts, a remote country +residence or a farm-house, the alternating current, in +all elements save its danger, was and is ideal. Its +thin wires can be carried cheaply over vast areas, +and at each local point of consumption the transformer +of size exactly proportioned to its local task +takes the high-voltage transmission current and +lowers its potential at a ratio of 20 or 40 to 1, for use +in distribution and consumption circuits. This evolution +has been quite distinct, with its own inventors +like Gaulard and Gibbs and Stanley, but came subsequent +to the work of supplying small, dense areas +of population; the art thus growing from within, +and using each new gain as a means for further +achievement. + +Nor was the effect of such great advances as those +made by Edison limited to the electrical field. Every +department of mechanics was stimulated and benefited +to an extraordinary degree. Copper for the +circuits was more highly refined than ever before to +secure the best conductivity, and purity was insisted +on in every kind of insulation. Edison was intolerant +of sham and shoddy, and nothing would satisfy him +that could not stand cross-examination by microscope, +test-tube, and galvanometer. It was, perhaps, +the steam-engine on which the deepest imprint for +good was made, referred to already in the remarks +of Mr. F. J. Sprague in the preceding chapter, but +best illustrated in the perfection of the modern high- +speed engine of the Armington & Sims type. Unless +he could secure an engine of smoother running and +more exactly governed and regulated than those avail- +able for his dynamo and lamp, Edison realized that +he would find it almost impossible to give a steady +light. He did not want his customers to count the +heart-beats of the engine in the flicker of the lamp. +Not a single engine was even within gunshot of the +standard thus set up, but the emergency called forth +its man in Gardiner C. Sims, a talented draughtsman +and designer who had been engaged in locomotive +construction and in the engineering department of +the United States Navy. He may be quoted as to +what happened: "The deep interest, financial and +moral, and friendly backing I received from Mr. +Edison, together with valuable suggestions, enabled +me to bring out the engine; as I was quite alone in +the world--poor--I had found a friend who knew +what he wanted and explained it clearly. Mr. Edison +was a leader far ahead of the time. He compelled the +design of the successful engine. + +"Our first engine compelled the inventing and making +of a suitable engine indicator to indicate it--the +Tabor. He obtained the desired speed and load +with a friction brake; also regulator of speed; but +waited for an indicator to verify it. Then again there +was no known way to lubricate an engine for continuous +running, and Mr. Edison informed me that as a +marine engine started before the ship left New York +and continued running until it reached its home +port, so an engine for his purposes must produce +light at all times. That was a poser to me, for a +five-hours' run was about all that had been required +up to that time. + +"A day or two later Mr. Edison inquired: `How far +is it from here to Lawrence; it is a long walk, isn't it?' +`Yes, rather.' He said: `Of course you will understand +I meant without oil.' To say I was deeply perplexed +does not express my feelings. We were at +the machine works, Goerck Street. I started for the +oil-room, when, about entering, I saw a small funnel +lying on the floor. It had been stepped on and +flattened. I took it up, and it had solved the engine- +oiling problem--and my walk to Lawrence like a +tramp actor's was off! The eccentric strap had a round +glass oil-cup with a brass base that screwed into the +strap. I took it off, and making a sketch, went to +Dave Cunningham, having the funnel in my hand to +illustrate what I wanted made. I requested him to +make a sheet-brass oil-cup and solder it to the base +I had. He did so. I then had a standard made to +hold another oil-cup, so as to see and regulate the +drop-feed. On this combination I obtained a patent +which is now universally used." + +It is needless to say that in due course the engine +builders of the United States developed a variety of +excellent prime movers for electric-light and power +plants, and were grateful to the art from which such +a stimulus came to their industry; but for many +years one never saw an Edison installation without +expecting to find one or more Armington & Sims high- +speed engines part of it. Though the type has gone +out of existence, like so many other things that are +useful in their day and generation, it was once a very +vital part of the art, and one more illustration of that +intimate manner in which the advances in different +fields of progress interact and co-operate. + +Edison had installed his historic first great central- +station system in New York on the multiple arc system +covered by his feeder and main invention, which +resulted in a notable saving in the cost of conductors +as against a straight two-wire system throughout of +the "tree" kind. He soon foresaw that still greater +economy would be necessary for commercial success +not alone for the larger territory opening, but for the +compact districts of large cities. Being firmly convinced +that there was a way out, he pushed aside a +mass of other work, and settled down to this problem, +with the result that on November 20, 1882, only two +months after current had been sent out from Pearl +Street, he executed an application for a patent covering +what is now known as the "three-wire system." +It has been universally recognized as one of the most +valuable inventions in the history of the lighting art.[13] +Its use resulted in a saving of over 60 per cent. of copper +in conductors, figured on the most favorable basis +previously known, inclusive of those calculated under +his own feeder and main system. Such economy of +outlay being effected in one of the heaviest items of +expense in central-station construction, it was now +made possible to establish plants in towns where the +large investment would otherwise have been quite +prohibitive. The invention is in universal use today, +alike for direct and for alternating current, and +as well in the equipment of large buildings as in the +distribution system of the most extensive central-station +networks. One cannot imagine the art without it. + + +[13] For technical description and illustration of this invention, +see Appendix. + + +The strong position held by the Edison system, +under the strenuous competition that was already +springing up, was enormously improved by the +introduction of the three-wire system; and it gave an +immediate impetus to incandescent lighting. Desiring +to put this new system into practical use promptly, +and receiving applications for licenses from all +over the country, Edison selected Brockton, +Massachusetts, and Sunbury, Pennsylvania, as the two +towns for the trial. Of these two Brockton required +the larger plant, but with the conductors placed +underground. It was the first to complete its arrangements +and close its contract. Mr. Henry Villard, it +will be remembered, had married the daughter of +Garrison, the famous abolitionist, and it was through +his relationship with the Garrison family that Brockton +came to have the honor of exemplifying so soon +the principles of an entirely new art. Sunbury, however, +was a much smaller installation, employed overhead +conductors, and hence was the first to "cross the +tape." It was specially suited for a trial plant also, +in the early days when a yield of six or eight lamps +to the horse-power was considered subject for +congratulation. The town being situated in the coal +region of Pennsylvania, good coal could then be +obtained there at seventy-five cents a ton. + +The Sunbury generating plant consisted of an +Armington & Sims engine driving two small Edison +dynamos having a total capacity of about four hundred +lamps of 16 c.p. The indicating instruments +were of the crudest construction, consisting of two +voltmeters connected by "pressure wires" to the +centre of electrical distribution. One ammeter, for +measuring the quantity of current output, was interpolated +in the "neutral bus" or third-wire return +circuit to indicate when the load on the two machines +was out of balance. The circuits were opened and +closed by means of about half a dozen roughly made +plug-switches.[14] The "bus-bars" to receive the +current from the dynamos were made of No. 000 copper +line wire, straightened out and fastened to the wooden +sheathing of the station by iron staples without any +presence to insulation. Commenting upon this Mr. +W. S. Andrews, detailed from the central staff, says: +"The interior winding of the Sunbury station, including +the running of two three-wire feeders the entire +length of the building from back to front, the wiring +up of the dynamos and switchboard and all instruments, +together with bus-bars, etc.--in fact, all +labor and material used in the electrical wiring +installation--amounted to the sum of $90. I received +a rather sharp letter from the New York office +expostulating for this EXTRAVAGANT EXPENDITURE, and +stating that great economy must be observed in future!" +The street conductors were of the overhead pole-line +construction, and were installed by the construction +company that had been organized by Edison to build +and equip central stations. A special type of street +pole had been devised by him for the three-wire system. + + +[14] By reason of the experience gained at this station through +the use of these crude plug-switches, Mr. Edison started a competition +among a few of his assistants to devise something better. +The result was the invention of a "breakdown" switch by Mr. +W. S. Andrews, which was accepted by Mr. Edison as the best of +the devices suggested, and was developed and used for a great +many years afterward. + + +Supplementing the story of Mr. Andrews is that of +Lieut. F. J. Sprague, who also gives a curious glimpse +of the glorious uncertainties and vicissitudes of that +formative period. Mr. Sprague served on the jury at +the Crystal Palace Exhibition with Darwin's son-- +the present Sir Horace--and after the tests were +ended left the Navy and entered Edison's service at +the suggestion of Mr. E. H. Johnson, who was Edison's +shrewd recruiting sergeant in those days: "I resigned +sooner than Johnson expected, and he had +me on his hands. Meanwhile he had called upon me +to make a report of the three-wire system, known in +England as the Hopkinson, both Dr. John Hopkinson +and Mr. Edison being independent inventors at +practically the same time. I reported on that, left +London, and landed in New York on the day of the +opening of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883--May 24-- +with a year's leave of absence. + +"I reported at the office of Mr. Edison on Fifth +Avenue and told him I had seen Johnson. He looked +me over and said: `What did he promise you?' I +replied: `Twenty-five hundred dollars a year.' He +did not say much, but looked it. About that time +Mr. Andrews and I came together. On July 2d of that +year we were ordered to Sunbury, and to be ready to +start the station on the fourth. The electrical work +had to be done in forty-eight hours! Having travelled +around the world, I had cultivated an indifference +to any special difficulties of that kind. Mr. +Andrews and I worked in collaboration until the +night of the third. I think he was perhaps more +appreciative than I was of the discipline of the Edison +Construction Department, and thought it would be +well for us to wait until the morning of the fourth +before we started up. I said we were sent over to +get going, and insisted on starting up on the night +of the third. We had an Armington & Sims engine +with sight-feed oiler. I had never seen one, and did +not know how it worked, with the result that we soon +burned up the babbitt metal in the bearings and spent +a good part of the night getting them in order. The +next day Mr. Edison, Mr. Insull, and the chief +engineer of the construction department appeared on +the scene and wanted to know what had happened. +They found an engine somewhat loose in the bearings, +and there followed remarks which would not look +well in print. Andrews skipped from under; he +obeyed orders; I did not. But the plant ran, and it +was the first three-wire station in this country." + +Seen from yet another angle, the worries of this +early work were not merely those of the men on the +"firing line." Mr. Insull, in speaking of this period, +says: "When it was found difficult to push the central- +station business owing to the lack of confidence +in its financial success, Edison decided to go into the +business of promoting and constructing central-station +plants, and he formed what was known as the +Thomas A. Edison Construction Department, which +he put me in charge of. The organization was crude, +the steam-engineering talent poor, and owing to the +impossibility of getting any considerable capital +subscribed, the plants were put in as cheaply as +possible. I believe that this construction department +was unkindly named the `Destruction Department.' +It served its purpose; never made any money; and I +had the unpleasant task of presiding at its obsequies." + +On July 4th the Sunbury plant was put into commercial +operation by Edison, and he remained a week +studying its conditions and watching for any unforeseen +difficulty that might arise. Nothing happened, +however, to interfere with the successful running of +the station, and for twenty years thereafter the same +two dynamos continued to furnish light in Sunbury. +They were later used as reserve machines, and finally, +with the engine, retired from service as part of +the "Collection of Edisonia"; but they remain in +practically as good condition as when installed in +1883. + +Sunbury was also provided with the first electro- +chemical meters used in the United States outside +New York City, so that it served also to accentuate +electrical practice in a most vital respect--namely, +the measurement of the electrical energy supplied to +customers. At this time and long after, all arc +lighting was done on a "flat rate" basis. The arc +lamp installed outside a customer's premises, or in +a circuit for public street lighting, burned so many +hours nightly, so many nights in the month; and was +paid for at that rate, subject to rebate for hours +when the lamp might be out through accident. The +early arc lamps were rated to require 9 to 10 amperes +of current, at 45 volts pressure each, receiving which +they were estimated to give 2000 c.p., which was arrived +at by adding together the light found at four +different positions, so that in reality the actual light +was about 500 c.p. Few of these data were ever +actually used, however; and it was all more or less a +matter of guesswork, although the central-station +manager, aiming to give good service, would naturally +see that the dynamos were so operated as to maintain +as steadily as possible the normal potential and current. +The same loose methods applied to the early +attempts to use electric motors on arc-lighting circuits, +and contracts were made based on the size of +the motor, the width of the connecting belt, or the +amount of power the customer thought he used-- +never on the measurement of the electrical energy +furnished him. + +Here again Edison laid the foundation of standard +practice. It is true that even down to the present +time the flat rate is applied to a great deal of +incandescent lighting, each lamp being charged for +individually according to its probable consumption +during each month. This may answer, perhaps, in a +small place where the manager can gauge pretty +closely from actual observation what each customer +does; but even then there are elements of risk and +waste; and obviously in a large city such a method +would soon be likely to result in financial disaster to +the plant. Edison held that the electricity sold must +be measured just like gas or water, and he proceeded +to develop a meter. There was infinite scepticism +around him on the subject, and while other inventors +were also giving the subject their thought, the public +took it for granted that anything so utterly intangible +as electricity, that could not be seen or weighed, and +only gave secondary evidence of itself at the exact +point of use, could not be brought to accurate regis- +tration. The general attitude of doubt was exemplified +by the incident in Mr. J. P. Morgan's office, +noted in the last chapter. Edison, however, had +satisfied himself that there were various ways of +accomplishing the task, and had determined that the +current should be measured on the premises of every +consumer. His electrolytic meter was very successful, +and was of widespread use in America and in Europe +until the perfection of mechanical meters by Elihu +Thomson and others brought that type into general +acceptance. Hence the Edison electrolytic meter is +no longer used, despite its excellent qualities. Houston +& Kennelly in their Electricity in Everyday Life +sum the matter up as follows: "The Edison chemical +meter is capable of giving fair measurements of the +amount of current passing. By reason, however, of +dissatisfaction caused from the inability of customers +to read the indications of the meter, it has in later +years, to a great extent, been replaced by registering +meters that can be read by the customer." + +The principle employed in the Edison electrolytic +meter is that which exemplifies the power of electricity +to decompose a chemical substance. In other +words it is a deposition bath, consisting of a glass cell +in which two plates of chemically pure zinc are dipped +in a solution of zinc sulphate. When the lights or +motors in the circuit are turned on, and a certain +definite small portion of the current is diverted to +flow through the meter, from the positive plate to the +negative plate, the latter increases in weight by receiving +a deposit of metallic zinc; the positive plate +meantime losing in weight by the metal thus carried +away from it. This difference in weight is a very +exact measure of the quantity of electricity, or number +of ampere-hours, that have, so to speak, passed +through the cell, and hence of the whole consumption +in the circuit. The amount thus due from the customer +is ascertained by removing the cell, washing +and drying the plates, and weighing them in a chemical +balance. Associated with this simple form of +apparatus were various ingenious details and refinements +to secure regularity of operation, freedom from +inaccuracy, and immunity from such tampering as +would permit theft of current or damage. As the +freezing of the zinc sulphate solution in cold weather +would check its operation, Edison introduced, for +example, into the meter an incandescent lamp and +a thermostat so arranged that when the temperature +fell to a certain point, or rose above another point, it +was cut in or out; and in this manner the meter +could be kept from freezing. The standard Edison +meter practice was to remove the cells once a month +to the meter-room of the central-station company +for examination, another set being substituted. The +meter was cheap to manufacture and install, and not +at all liable to get out of order. + +In December, 1888, Mr. W. J. Jenks read an interesting +paper before the American Institute of Electrical +Engineers on the six years of practical experience +had up to that time with the meter, then more generally +in use than any other. It appears from the +paper that twenty-three Edison stations were then +equipped with 5187 meters, which were relied upon +for billing the monthly current consumption of +87,856 lamps and 350 motors of 1000 horse-power +total. This represented about 75 per cent. of the +entire lamp capacity of the stations. There was an +average cost per lamp for meter operation of twenty- +two cents a year, and each meter took care of an +average of seventeen lamps. It is worthy of note, +as to the promptness with which the Edison stations +became paying properties, that four of the metered +stations were earning upward of 15 per cent. on their +capital stock; three others between 8 and 10 per cent.; +eight between 5 and 8 per cent.; the others having +been in operation too short a time to show definite +results, although they also went quickly to a dividend +basis. Reports made in the discussion at the meeting +by engineers showed the simplicity and success +of the meter. Mr. C. L. Edgar, of the Boston Edison +system, stated that he had 800 of the meters in service +cared for by two men and three boys, the latter +employed in collecting the meter cells; the total cost +being perhaps $2500 a year. Mr. J. W. Lieb wrote +from Milan, Italy, that he had in use on the Edison +system there 360 meters ranging from 350 ampere- +hours per month up to 30,000. + +In this connection it should be mentioned that +the Association of Edison Illuminating Companies +in the same year adopted resolutions unanimously to +the effect that the Edison meter was accurate, and +that its use was not expensive for stations above +one thousand lights; and that the best financial +results were invariably secured in a station selling +current by meter. Before the same association, at +its meeting in September, 1898, at Sault Ste. Marie, +Mr. C. S. Shepard read a paper on the meter practice +of the New York Edison Company, giving data as to +the large number of Edison meters in use and the +transition to other types, of which to-day the company +has several on its circuits: "Until October, +1896, the New York Edison Company metered its +current in consumer's premises exclusively by the +old-style chemical meters, of which there were +connected on that date 8109. It was then determined +to purchase no more." Mr. Shepard went on to +state that the chemical meters were gradually displaced, +and that on September 1, 1898, there were on +the system 5619 mechanical and 4874 chemical. The +meter continued in general service during 1899, and +probably up to the close of the century. + +Mr. Andrews relates a rather humorous meter story +of those early days: "The meter man at Sunbury was +a firm and enthusiastic believer in the correctness of +the Edison meter, having personally verified its reading +many times by actual comparison of lamp-hours. +One day, on making out a customer's bill, his confidence +received a severe shock, for the meter reading +showed a consumption calling for a charge of over +$200, whereas he knew that the light actually used +should not cost more than one-quarter of that amount. +He weighed and reweighed the meter plates, and pursued +every line of investigation imaginable, but all +in vain. He felt he was up against it, and that perhaps +another kind of a job would suit him better. +Once again he went to the customer's meter to look +around, when a small piece of thick wire on the floor +caught his eye. The problem was solved. He sud- +denly remembered that after weighing the plates he +went and put them in the customer's meter; but the +wire attached to one of the plates was too long to +go in the meter, and he had cut it off. He picked up +the piece of wire, took it to the station, weighed it +carefully, and found that it accounted for about $150 +worth of electricity, which was the amount of the +difference." + +Edison himself is, however, the best repertory of +stories when it comes to the difficulties of that early +period, in connection with metering the current and +charging for it. He may be quoted at length as +follows: "When we started the station at Pearl +Street, in September, 1882, we were not very +commercial. We put many customers on, but did not +make out many bills. We were more interested in +the technical condition of the station than in the +commercial part. We had meters in which there +were two bottles of liquid. To prevent these electrolytes +from freezing we had in each meter a strip +of metal. When it got very cold the metal would +contract and close a circuit, and throw a lamp into +circuit inside the meter. The heat from this lamp +would prevent the liquid from freezing, so that the +meter could go on doing its duty. The first cold day +after starting the station, people began to come in +from their offices, especially down in Front Street +and Water Street, saying the meter was on fire. We +received numerous telephone messages about it. +Some had poured water on it, and others said: `Send +a man right up to put it out.' + +"After the station had been running several months +and was technically a success, we began to look after +the financial part. We started to collect some bills; +but we found that our books were kept badly, and +that the person in charge, who was no business man, +had neglected that part of it. In fact, he did not +know anything about the station, anyway. So I got +the directors to permit me to hire a man to run the +station. This was Mr. Chinnock, who was then +superintendent of the Metropolitan Telephone Company +of New York. I knew Chinnock to be square and of +good business ability, and induced him to leave his +job. I made him a personal guarantee, that if he +would take hold of the station and put it on a +commercial basis, and pay 5 per cent. on $600,000, I +would give him $10,000 out of my own pocket. He +took hold, performed the feat, and I paid him the +$10,000. I might remark in this connection that +years afterward I applied to the Edison Electric +Light Company asking them if they would not like +to pay me this money, as it was spent when I was +very hard up and made the company a success, and +was the foundation of their present prosperity. They +said they `were sorry'--that is, `Wall Street sorry'-- +and refused to pay it. This shows what a nice, genial, +generous lot of people they have over in Wall Street. + +"Chinnock had a great deal of trouble getting the +customers straightened out. I remember one man +who had a saloon on Nassau Street. He had had his +lights burning for two or three months. It was in +June, and Chinnock put in a bill for $20; July for +$20; August about $28; September about $35. Of +course the nights were getting longer. October about +$40; November about $45. Then the man called +Chinnock up. He said: `I want to see you about +my electric-light bill.' Chinnock went up to see him. +He said: `Are you the manager of this electric-light +plant?' Chinnock said: `I have the honor.' `Well,' +he said, my bill has gone from $20 up to $28, $35, +$45. I want you to understand, young fellow, that +my limit is $60.' + +"After Chinnock had had all this trouble due to +the incompetency of the previous superintendent, a +man came in and said to him: `Did Mr. Blank have +charge of this station?' `Yes.' `Did he know anything +about running a station like this?' Chinnock +said: `Does he KNOW anything about running a station +like this? No, sir. He doesn't even suspect anything.' + +"One day Chinnock came to me and said: `I have +a new customer.' I said: `What is it?' He said: +`I have a fellow who is going to take two hundred +and fifty lights.' I said: `What for?' `He has a +place down here in a top loft, and has got two hundred +and fifty barrels of "rotgut" whiskey. He puts a +light down in the barrel and lights it up, and it ages +the whiskey.' I met Chinnock several weeks after, +and said: `How is the whiskey man getting along?' +`It's all right; he is paying his bill. It fixes the +whiskey and takes the shudder right out of it.' Somebody +went and took out a patent on this idea later. + +"In the second year we put the Stock Exchange on +the circuits of the station, but were very fearful that +there would be a combination of heavy demand and +a dark day, and that there would be an overloaded +station. We had an index like a steam-gauge, called +an ampere-meter, to indicate the amount of current +going out. I was up at 65 Fifth Avenue one afternoon. +A sudden black cloud came up, and I telephoned +to Chinnock and asked him about the load. +He said: `We are up to the muzzle, and everything is +running all right.' By-and-by it became so thick we +could not see across the street. I telephoned again, +and felt something would happen, but fortunately it +did not. I said to Chinnock: `How is it now?' He +replied: `Everything is red-hot, and the ampere- +meter has made seventeen revolutions.' " + +In 1883 no such fittings as "fixture insulators" were +known. It was the common practice to twine the +electric wires around the disused gas-fixtures, fasten +them with tape or string, and connect them to lamp- +sockets screwed into attachments under the gas- +burners--elaborated later into what was known as +the "combination fixture." As a result it was no +uncommon thing to see bright sparks snapping between +the chandelier and the lighting wires during +a sharp thunder-storm. A startling manifestation of +this kind happened at Sunbury, when the vivid display +drove nervous guests of the hotel out into the +street, and the providential storm led Mr. Luther +Stieringer to invent the "insulating joint." This +separated the two lighting systems thoroughly, went into +immediate service, and is universally used to-day. + +Returning to the more specific subject of pioneer +plants of importance, that at Brockton must be considered +for a moment, chiefly for the reason that the +city was the first in the world to possess an Edison +station distributing current through an underground +three-wire network of conductors--the essentially +modern contemporaneous practice, standard twenty- +five years later. It was proposed to employ pole-line +construction with overhead wires, and a party of +Edison engineers drove about the town in an open +barouche with a blue-print of the circuits and streets +spread out on their knees, to determine how much +tree-trimming would be necessary. When they came +to some heavily shaded spots, the fine trees were +marked "T" to indicate that the work in getting +through them would be "tough." Where the trees +were sparse and the foliage was thin, the same cheerful +band of vandals marked the spots "E" to indicate +that there it would be "easy" to run the wires. In +those days public opinion was not so alive as now +to the desirability of preserving shade-trees, and of +enhancing the beauty of a city instead of destroying it. +Brockton had a good deal of pride in its fine trees, +and a strong sentiment was very soon aroused against +the mutilation proposed so thoughtlessly. The investors +in the enterprise were ready and anxious to +meet the extra cost of putting the wires underground. +Edison's own wishes were altogether for the use of +the methods he had so carefully devised; and hence +that bustling home of shoe manufacture was spared +this infliction of more overhead wires. + +The station equipment at Brockton consisted at +first of three dynamos, one of which was so arranged +as to supply both sides of the system during light +loads by a breakdown switch connection. This +arrangement interfered with correct meter registra- +tion, as the meters on one side of the system registered +backward during the hours in which the combination +was employed. Hence, after supplying an all-night +customer whose lamps were on one side of the circuits, +the company might be found to owe him some +thing substantial in the morning. Soon after the +station went into operation this ingenious plan was +changed, and the third dynamo was replaced by two +others. The Edison construction department took +entire charge of the installation of the plant, and the +formal opening was attended on October 1, 1883, by +Mr. Edison, who then remained a week in ceaseless +study and consultation over the conditions developed +by this initial three-wire underground plant. Some +idea of the confidence inspired by the fame of Edison +at this period is shown by the fact that the first +theatre ever lighted from a central station by +incandescent lamps was designed this year, and opened in +1884 at Brockton with an equipment of three hundred +lamps. The theatre was never piped for gas! It was +also from the Brockton central station that current +was first supplied to a fire-engine house--another +display of remarkably early belief in the trustworthiness +of the service, under conditions where continuity +of lighting was vital. The building was equipped in +such a manner that the striking of the fire-alarm +would light every lamp in the house automatically +and liberate the horses. It was at this central station +that Lieutenant Sprague began his historic work on +the electric motor; and here that another distinguished +engineer and inventor, Mr. H. Ward Leonard, +installed the meters and became meter man, in order +that he might study in every intimate detail the +improvements and refinements necessary in that branch +of the industry. + +The authors are indebted for these facts and some +other data embodied in this book to Mr. W. J. Jenks, +who as manager of this plant here made his debut in +the Edison ranks. He had been connected with local +telephone interests, but resigned to take active charge +of this plant, imbibing quickly the traditional Edison +spirit, working hard all day and sleeping in the station +at night on a cot brought there for that purpose. It +was a time of uninterrupted watchfulness. The difficulty +of obtaining engineers in those days to run the +high-speed engines (three hundred and fifty revolutions +per minute) is well illustrated by an amusing +incident in the very early history of the station. A +locomotive engineer had been engaged, as it was supposed +he would not be afraid of anything. One evening +there came a sudden flash of fire and a spluttering, +sizzling noise. There had been a short-circuit on +the copper mains in the station. The fireman hid +behind the boiler and the engineer jumped out of the +window. Mr. Sprague realized the trouble, quickly +threw off the current and stopped the engine. + +Mr. Jenks relates another humorous incident in +connection with this plant: "One night I heard a +knock at the office door, and on opening it saw two +well-dressed ladies, who asked if they might be shown +through. I invited them in, taking them first to the +boiler-room, where I showed them the coal-pile, explaining +that this was used to generate steam in the +boiler. We then went to the dynamo-room, where +I pointed out the machines converting the steam- +power into electricity, appearing later in the form of +light in the lamps. After that they were shown the +meters by which the consumption of current was +measured. They appeared to be interested, and I +proceeded to enter upon a comparison of coal made +into gas or burned under a boiler to be converted +into electricity. The ladies thanked me effusively +and brought their visit to a close. As they were about +to go through the door, one of them turned to me +and said: `We have enjoyed this visit very much, +but there is one question we would like to ask: What +is it that you make here?' " + +The Brockton station was for a long time a show +plant of the Edison company, and had many distinguished +visitors, among them being Prof. Elihu +Thomson, who was present at the opening, and Sir +W. H. Preece, of London. The engineering methods +pursued formed the basis of similar installations in +Lawrence, Massachusetts, in November, 1883; in +Fall River, Massachusetts, in December, 1883; and +in Newburgh, New York, the following spring. + +Another important plant of this period deserves +special mention, as it was the pioneer in the lighting +of large spaces by incandescent lamps. This installation +of five thousand lamps on the three-wire system +was made to illuminate the buildings at the Louisville, +Kentucky, Exposition in 1883, and, owing to the careful +surveys, calculations, and preparations of H. M. +Byllesby and the late Luther Stieringer, was completed +and in operation within six weeks after +the placing of the order. The Jury of Awards, + +in presenting four medals to the Edison company, +took occasion to pay a high compliment to the +efficiency of the system. It has been thought by +many that the magnificent success of this plant +did more to stimulate the growth of the incandescent +lighting business than any other event in +the history of the Edison company. It was literally +the beginning of the electrical illumination of American +Expositions, carried later to such splendid displays +as those of the Chicago World's Fair in 1893, +Buffalo in 1901, and St. Louis in 1904. + +Thus the art was set going in the United States +under many difficulties, but with every sign of coming +triumph. Reference has already been made to +the work abroad in Paris and London. The first +permanent Edison station in Europe was that at +Milan, Italy, for which the order was given as early +as May, 1882, by an enterprising syndicate. Less +than a year later, March 3, 1883, the installation was +ready and was put in operation, the Theatre Santa +Radegonda having been pulled down and a new central- +station building erected in its place--probably +the first edifice constructed in Europe for the +specific purpose of incandescent lighting. Here +"Jumbos" were installed from time to time, until at +last there were no fewer than ten of them; and current +was furnished to customers with a total of nearly +ten thousand lamps connected to the mains. This +pioneer system was operated continuously until +February 9, 1900, or for a period of about seventeen +years, when the sturdy old machines, still in excellent +condition, were put out of service, so that a larger +plant could be installed to meet the demand. This +new plant takes high-tension polyphase current from +a water-power thirty or forty miles away at Paderno, +on the river Adda, flowing from the Apennines; +but delivers low-tension direct current for distribution +to the regular Edison three-wire system throughout +Milan. + +About the same time that southern Europe was +thus opened up to the new system, South America +came into line, and the first Edison central station +there was installed at Santiago, Chile, in the summer of +1883, under the supervision of Mr. W. N. Stewart. +This was the result of the success obtained with small +isolated plants, leading to the formation of an Edison +company. It can readily be conceived that at such +an extreme distance from the source of supply of +apparatus the plant was subject to many peculiar +difficulties from the outset, of which Mr. Stewart +speaks as follows: "I made an exhibition of the +`Jumbo' in the theatre at Santiago, and on the first +evening, when it was filled with the aristocracy of the +city, I discovered to my horror that the binding wire +around the armature was slowly stripping off and +going to pieces. We had no means of boring out the +field magnets, and we cut grooves in them. I think +the machine is still running (1907). The station +went into operation soon after with an equipment of +eight Edison `K' dynamos with certain conditions +inimical to efficiency, but which have not hindered +the splendid expansion of the local system. With +those eight dynamos we had four belts between each +engine and the dynamo. The steam pressure was +limited to seventy-five pounds per square inch. We +had two-wire underground feeders, sent without any +plans or specifications for their installation. The +station had neither voltmeter nor ammeter. The +current pressure was regulated by a galvanometer. +We were using coal costing $12 a ton, and were paid +for our light in currency worth fifty cents on the +dollar. The only thing I can be proud of in connection +with the plant is the fact that I did not design +it, that once in a while we made out to pay its operating +expenses, and that occasionally we could run it +for three months without a total breakdown." + +It was not until 1885 that the first Edison station +in Germany was established; but the art was still +very young, and the plant represented pioneer lighting +practice in the Empire. The station at Berlin +comprised five boilers, and six vertical steam-engines +driving by belts twelve Edison dynamos, each of +about fifty-five horse-power capacity. A model of +this station is preserved in the Deutschen Museum at +Munich. In the bulletin of the Berlin Electricity +Works for May, 1908, it is said with regard to the +events that led up to the creation of the system, as +noted already at the Rathenau celebration: "The +year 1881 was a mile-stone in the history of the Allgemeine +Elektricitaets Gesellschaft. The International +Electrical Exposition at Paris was intended to place +before the eyes of the civilized world the achievements +of the century. Among the exhibits of that +Exposition was the Edison system of incandescent +lighting. IT BECAME THE BASIS OF MODERN HEAVY CURRENT +TECHNICS." The last phrase is italicized as being a +happy and authoritative description, as well as a +tribute. + +This chapter would not be complete if it failed to +include some reference to a few of the earlier isolated +plants of a historic character. Note has already been +made of the first Edison plants afloat on the Jeannette +and Columbia, and the first commercial plant in the +New York lithographic establishment. The first mill +plant was placed in the woollen factory of James +Harrison at Newburgh, New York, about September +15, 1881. A year later, Mr. Harrison wrote with some +pride: "I believe my mill was the first lighted with +your electric light, and therefore may be called No. 1. +Besides being job No. 1 it is a No. 1 job, and a No. 1 +light, being better and cheaper than gas and absolutely +safe as to fire." The first steam-yacht lighted +by incandescent lamps was James Gordon Bennett's +Namouna, equipped early in 1882 with a plant for +one hundred and twenty lamps of eight candlepower, +which remained in use there many years +afterward. + +The first Edison plant in a hotel was started in +October, 1881, at the Blue Mountain House in the +Adirondacks, and consisted of two "Z" dynamos +with a complement of eight and sixteen candle lamps. +The hotel is situated at an elevation of thirty-five +hundred feet above the sea, and was at that time +forty miles from the railroad. The machinery was +taken up in pieces on the backs of mules from the +foot of the mountain. The boilers were fired by wood, +as the economical transportation of coal was a physical +impossibility. For a six-hour run of the plant one- +quarter of a cord of wood was required, at a cost of +twenty-five cents per cord. + +The first theatre in the United States to be lighted +by an Edison isolated plant was the Bijou Theatre, +Boston. The installation of boilers, engines, dynamos, +wiring, switches, fixtures, three stage regulators, +and six hundred and fifty lamps, was completed in +eleven days after receipt of the order, and the plant +was successfully operated at the opening of the +theatre, on December 12, 1882. + +The first plant to be placed on a United States +steamship was the one consisting of an Edison "Z" +dynamo and one hundred and twenty eight-candle +lamps installed on the Fish Commission's steamer +Albatross in 1883. The most interesting feature of +this installation was the employment of special deep- +sea lamps, supplied with current through a cable +nine hundred and forty feet in length, for the purpose +of alluring fish. By means of the brilliancy of the +lamps marine animals in the lower depths were attracted +and then easily ensnared. + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY + +EDISON had no sooner designed his dynamo in +1879 than he adopted the same form of machine +for use as a motor. The two are shown in the Scientific +American of October 18, 1879, and are alike, except +that the dynamo is vertical and the motor lies in a +horizontal position, the article remarking: "Its construction +differs but slightly from the electric generator." +This was but an evidence of his early appreciation +of the importance of electricity as a motive power; +but it will probably surprise many people to know +that he was the inventor of an electric motor before +he perfected his incandescent lamp. His interest in +the subject went back to his connection with General +Lefferts in the days of the evolution of the stock +ticker. While Edison was carrying on his shop at +Newark, New Jersey, there was considerable excitement +in electrical circles over the Payne motor, in +regard to the alleged performance of which Governor +Cornell of New York and other wealthy capitalists +were quite enthusiastic. Payne had a shop in Newark, +and in one small room was the motor, weighing perhaps +six hundred pounds. It was of circular form, +incased in iron, with the ends of several small magnets +sticking through the floor. A pulley and belt, con- +nected to a circular saw larger than the motor, +permitted large logs of oak timber to be sawed with ease +with the use of two small cells of battery. Edison's +friend, General Lefferts, had become excited and was +determined to invest a large sum of money in the +motor company, but knowing Edison's intimate +familiarity with all electrical subjects he was wise +enough to ask his young expert to go and see the +motor with him. At an appointed hour Edison went +to the office of the motor company and found there +the venerable Professor Morse, Governor Cornell, +General Lefferts, and many others who had been +invited to witness a performance of the motor. They +all proceeded to the room where the motor was at +work. Payne put a wire in the binding-post of the +battery, the motor started, and an assistant began +sawing a heavy oak log. It worked beautifully, and so +great was the power developed, apparently, from the +small battery, that Morse exclaimed: "I am thankful +that I have lived to see this day." But Edison +kept a close watch on the motor. The results were +so foreign to his experience that he knew there was +a trick in it. He soon discovered it. While holding +his hand on the frame of the motor he noticed a +tremble coincident with the exhaust of an engine +across the alleyway, and he then knew that the +power came from the engine by a belt under the floor, +shifted on and off by a magnet, the other magnets +being a blind. He whispered to the General to put +his hand on the frame of the motor, watch the +exhaust, and note the coincident tremor. The General +did so, and in about fifteen seconds he said: "Well, +Edison, I must go now. This thing is a fraud." And +thus he saved his money, although others not so +shrewdly advised were easily persuaded to invest by +such a demonstration. + +A few years later, in 1878, Edison went to Wyoming +with a group of astronomers, to test his tasimeter during +an eclipse of the sun, and saw the land white to harvest. +He noticed the long hauls to market or elevator +that the farmers had to make with their loads of grain +at great expense, and conceived the idea that as ordinary +steam-railroad service was too costly, light +electric railways might be constructed that could +be operated automatically over simple tracks, the +propelling motors being controlled at various points. +Cheap to build and cheap to maintain, such roads would +be a great boon to the newer farming regions of the +West, where the highways were still of the crudest character, +and where transportation was the gravest difficulty +with which the settlers had to contend. The +plan seems to have haunted him, and he had no sooner +worked out a generator and motor that owing to their +low internal resistance could be operated efficiently, +than he turned his hand to the practical trial of such +a railroad, applicable to both the haulage of freight +and the transportation of passengers. Early in 1880, +when the tremendous rush of work involved in the +invention of the incandescent lamp intermitted a little, +he began the construction of a stretch of track +close to the Menlo Park laboratory, and at the same +time built an electric locomotive to operate over it. + +This is a fitting stage at which to review briefly +what had been done in electric traction up to that +date. There was absolutely no art, but there had +been a number of sporadic and very interesting +experiments made. The honor of the first attempt of +any kind appears to rest with this country and with +Thomas Davenport, a self-trained blacksmith, of +Brandon, Vermont, who made a small model of a +circular electric railway and cars in 1834, and +exhibited it the following year in Springfield, Boston, +and other cities. Of course he depended upon +batteries for current, but the fundamental idea was +embodied of using the track for the circuit, one rail +being positive and the other negative, and the motor +being placed across or between them in multiple arc +to receive the current. Such are also practically the +methods of to-day. The little model was in good +preservation up to the year 1900, when, being shipped +to the Paris Exposition, it was lost, the steamer that +carried it foundering in mid-ocean. The very broad +patent taken out by this simple mechanic, so far +ahead of his times, was the first one issued in America +for an electric motor. Davenport was also the first +man to apply electric power to the printing-press, +in 1840. In his traction work he had a close second +in Robert Davidson, of Aberdeen, Scotland, who in +1839 operated both a lathe and a small locomotive +with the motor he had invented. His was the credit +of first actually carrying passengers--two at a time, +over a rough plank road--while it is said that his was +the first motor to be tried on real tracks, those of +the Edinburgh-Glasgow road, making a speed of four +miles an hour. + +The curse of this work and of all that succeeded it +for a score of years was the necessity of depending +upon chemical batteries for current, the machine +usually being self-contained and hauling the batteries +along with itself, as in the case of the famous +Page experiments in April, 1851, when a speed of +nineteen miles an hour was attained on the line of +the Washington & Baltimore road. To this unfruitful +period belonged, however, the crude idea of taking +the current from a stationary source of power by +means of an overhead contact, which has found its +practical evolution in the modern ubiquitous trolley; +although the patent for this, based on his caveat of +1879, was granted several years later than that to +Stephen D. Field, for the combination of an electric +motor operated by means of a current from a stationary +dynamo or source of electricity conducted +through the rails. As a matter of fact, in 1856 and +again in 1875, George F. Green, a jobbing machinist, +of Kalamazoo, Michigan, built small cars and tracks +to which current was fed from a distant battery, +enough energy being utilized to haul one hundred +pounds of freight or one passenger up and down a +"road" two hundred feet long. All the work prior +to the development of the dynamo as a source of +current was sporadic and spasmodic, and cannot be +said to have left any trace on the art, though it +offered many suggestions as to operative methods. + +The close of the same decade of the nineteenth +century that saw the electric light brought to perfection, +saw also the realization in practice of all the +hopes of fifty years as to electric traction. Both +utilizations depended upon the supply of current now +cheaply obtainable from the dynamo. These arts +were indeed twins, feeding at inexhaustible breasts. +In 1879, at the Berlin Exhibition, the distinguished +firm of Siemens, to whose ingenuity and enterprise +electrical development owes so much, installed a road +about one-third of a mile in length, over which the +locomotive hauled a train of three small cars at a +speed of about eight miles an hour, carrying some +twenty persons every trip. Current was fed from a +dynamo to the motor through a central third rail, the +two outer rails being joined together as the negative +or return circuit. Primitive but essentially successful, +this little road made a profound impression on the +minds of many inventors and engineers, and marked +the real beginning of the great new era, which has +already seen electricity applied to the operation of +main lines of trunk railways. But it is not to be supposed +that on the part of the public there was any +great amount of faith then discernible; and for some +years the pioneers had great difficulty, especially in +this country, in raising money for their early modest +experiments. Of the general conditions at this +moment Frank J. Sprague says in an article in the +Century Magazine of July, 1905, on the creation of +the new art: "Edison was perhaps nearer the verge +of great electric-railway possibilities than any other +American. In the face of much adverse criticism +he had developed the essentials of the low-internal- +resistance dynamo with high-resistance field, and +many of the essential features of multiple-arc +distribution, and in 1880 he built a small road at his +laboratory at Menlo Park." + +On May 13th of the year named this interesting +road went into operation as the result of hard and +hurried work of preparation during the spring months. +The first track was about a third of a mile in length, +starting from the shops, following a country road, passing +around a hill at the rear and curving home, in the +general form of the letter "U." The rails were very +light. Charles T. Hughes, who went with Edison in +1879, and was in charge of much of the work, states +that they were "second" street-car rails, insulated +with tar canvas paper and things of that sort-- +"asphalt." They were spiked down on ordinary +sleepers laid upon the natural grade, and the gauge +was about three feet six inches. At one point the +grade dropped some sixty feet in a distance of three +hundred, and the curves were of recklessly short +radius. The dynamos supplying current to the road +were originally two of the standard size "Z" machines +then being made at the laboratory, popularly known +throughout the Edison ranks as "Longwaisted Mary +Anns," and the circuits from these were carried out +to the rails by underground conductors. They were +not large--about twelve horse-power each--generating +seventy-five amperes of current at one hundred and +ten volts, so that not quite twenty-five horse-power +of electrical energy was available for propulsion. + +The locomotive built while the roadbed was getting +ready was a four-wheeled iron truck, an ordinary flat +dump-car about six feet long and four feet wide, +upon which was mounted a "Z" dynamo used as a +motor, so that it had a capacity of about twelve +horsepower. This machine was laid on its side, with the +armature end coming out at the front of the +locomotive, and the motive power was applied to the +driving-axle by a cumbersome series of friction pulleys. +Each wheel of the locomotive had a metal rim +and a centre web of wood or papier-mache, and the +current picked up by one set of wheels was carried +through contact brushes and a brass hub to the +motor; the circuit back to the track, or other rail, +being closed through the other wheels in a similar +manner. The motor had its field-magnet circuit in +permanent connection as a shunt across the rails, +protected by a crude bare copper-wire safety-catch. +A switch in the armature circuit enabled the motorman +to reverse the direction of travel by reversing the +current flow through the armature coils. + +Things went fairly well for a time on that memorable +Thursday afternoon, when all the laboratory +force made high holiday and scrambled for foothold +on the locomotive for a trip; but the friction gearing +was not equal to the sudden strain put upon it during +one run and went to pieces. Some years later, also, +Daft again tried friction gear in his historical experiments +on the Manhattan Elevated road, but the results +were attended with no greater success. The +next resort of Edison was to belts, the armature shafting +belted to a countershaft on the locomotive frame, +and the countershaft belted to a pulley on the car- +axle. The lever which threw the former friction gear +into adjustment was made to operate an idler pulley +for tightening the axle-belt. When the motor was +started, the armature was brought up to full revolution +and then the belt was tightened on the car- +axle, compelling motion of the locomotive. But the +belts were liable to slip a great deal in the process, +and the chafing of the belts charred them badly. If +that did not happen, and if the belt was made taut +suddenly, the armature burned out--which it did +with disconcerting frequency. The next step was to +use a number of resistance-boxes in series with the +armature, so that the locomotive could start with those +in circuit, and then the motorman could bring it up +to speed gradually by cutting one box out after the +other. To stop the locomotive, the armature circuit +was opened by the main switch, stopping the flow of +current, and then brakes were applied by long levers. +Matters generally and the motors in particular went +much better, even if the locomotive was so freely +festooned with resistance-boxes all of perceptible +weight and occupying much of the limited space. +These details show forcibly and typically the painful +steps of advance that every inventor in this new +field had to make in the effort to reach not alone +commercial practicability, but mechanical feasibility. +It was all empirical enough; but that was the only +way open even to the highest talent. + +Smugglers landing laces and silks have been known +to wind them around their bodies, as being less +ostentatious than carrying them in a trunk. Edison +thought his resistance-boxes an equally superfluous +display, and therefore ingeniously wound some copper +resistance wire around one of the legs of the motor +field magnet, where it was out of the way, served as +a useful extra field coil in starting up the motor, and +dismissed most of the boxes back to the laboratory; + +a few being retained under the seat for chance emergencies. +Like the boxes, this coil was in series with +the armature, and subject to plugging in and out at +will by the motorman. Thus equipped, the locomotive +was found quite satisfactory, and long did yeoman +service. It was given three cars to pull, one an +open awning-car with two park benches placed back to +back; one a flat freight-car, and one box-car dubbed +the "Pullman," with which Edison illustrated a system +of electric braking. Although work had been +begun so early in the year, and the road had been +operating since May, it was not until July that Edison +executed any application for patents on his +"electromagnetic railway engine," or his ingenious braking +system. Every inventor knows how largely his fate +lies in the hands of a competent and alert patent +attorney, in both the preparation and the prosecution +of his case; and Mr. Sprague is justified in observing +in his Century article: ""The paucity of controlling +claims obtained in these early patents is remarkable." +It is notorious that Edison did not then enjoy the +skilful aid in safeguarding his ideas that he commanded +later. + +The daily newspapers and technical journals lost +no time in bringing the road to public attention, and +the New York Herald of June 25th was swift to suggest +that here was the locomotive that would be +"most pleasing to the average New Yorker, whose +head has ached with noise, whose eyes have been +filled with dust, or whose clothes have been ruined +with oil." A couple of days later, the Daily Graphic +illustrated and described the road and published a +sketch of a one-hundred-horse-power electric locomotive +for the use of the Pennsylvania Railroad between +Perth Amboy and Rahway. Visitors, of +course, were numerous, including many curious, +sceptical railroad managers, few if any of whom except +Villard could see the slightest use for the new +motive power. There is, perhaps, some excuse for +such indifference. No men in the world have more +new inventions brought to them than railroad managers, +and this was the rankest kind of novelty. It +was not, indeed, until a year later, in May, 1881, that +the first regular road collecting fares was put in +operation--a little stretch of one and a half miles +from Berlin to Lichterfelde, with one miniature motorcar. +Edison was in reality doing some heavy electric- +railway engineering, his apparatus full of ideas, +suggestions, prophecies; but to the operators of long +trunk lines it must have seemed utterly insignificant +and "excellent fooling." + +Speaking of this situation, Mr. Edison says: "One +day Frank Thomson, the President of the Pennsylvania +Railroad, came out to see the electric light and +the electric railway in operation. The latter was then +about a mile long. He rode on it. At that time I +was getting out plans to make an electric locomotive +of three hundred horse-power with six-foot drivers, +with the idea of showing people that they could +dispense with their steam locomotives. Mr. Thomson +made the objection that it was impracticable, and +that it would be impossible to supplant steam. His +great experience and standing threw a wet blanket +on my hopes. But I thought he might perhaps be +mistaken, as there had been many such instances +on record. I continued to work on the plans, and +about three years later I started to build the locomotive +at the works at Goerck Street, and had it about +finished when I was switched off on some other work. +One of the reasons why I felt the electric railway to +be eminently practical was that Henry Villard, the +President of the Northern Pacific, said that one of +the greatest things that could be done would be to +build right-angle feeders into the wheat-fields of +Dakota and bring in the wheat to the main lines, +as the farmers then had to draw it from forty to +eighty miles. There was a point where it would not +pay to raise it at all; and large areas of the country +were thus of no value. I conceived the idea of building +a very light railroad of narrow gauge, and had +got all the data as to the winds on the plains, and +found that it would be possible with very large windmills +to supply enough power to drive those wheat +trains." + +Among others who visited the little road at this +juncture were persons interested in the Manhattan +Elevated system of New York, on which experiments +were repeatedly tried later, but which was not destined +to adopt a method so obviously well suited to +all the conditions until after many successful +demonstrations had been made on elevated roads elsewhere. +It must be admitted that Mr. Edison was not very +profoundly impressed with the desire entertained in +that quarter to utilize any improvement, for he +remarks: "When the Elevated Railroad in New York, +up Sixth Avenue, was started there was a great +clamor about the noise, and injunctions were threatened. +The management engaged me to make a report +on the cause of the noise. I constructed an +instrument that would record the sound, and set out +to make a preliminary report, but I found that they +never intended to do anything but let the people +complain." + +It was upon the co-operation of Villard that Edison +fell back, and an agreement was entered into between +them on September 14, 1881, which provided that the +latter would "build two and a half miles of electric +railway at Menlo Park, equipped with three cars, +two locomotives, one for freight, and one for +passengers, capacity of latter sixty miles an hour. +Capacity freight engine, ten tons net freight; cost +of handling a ton of freight per mile per horse-power +to be less than ordinary locomotive.... If experiments +are successful, Villard to pay actual outlay in +experiments, and to treat with the Light Company +for the installation of at least fifty miles of electric +railroad in the wheat regions." Mr. Edison is authority +for the statement that Mr. Villard advanced between +$35,000 and $40,000, and that the work done +was very satisfactory; but it did not end at that +time in any practical results, as the Northern Pacific +went into the hands of a receiver, and Mr. Villard's +ability to help was hopelessly crippled. The directors +of the Edison Electric Light Company could not be +induced to have anything to do with the electric +railway, and Mr. Insull states that the money advanced +was treated by Mr. Edison as a personal loan and repaid +to Mr. Villard, for whom he had a high admiration +and a strong feeling of attachment. Mr. Insull says: +"Among the financial men whose close personal +friendship Edison enjoyed, I would mention Henry +Villard, who, I think, had a higher appreciation of +the possibilities of the Edison system than probably +any other man of his time in Wall Street. He dropped +out of the business at the time of the consolidation +of the Thomson-Houston Company with the Edison +General Electric Company; but from the earliest days +of the business, when it was in its experimental period, +when the Edison light and power system was but an +idea, down to the day of his death, Henry Villard continued +a strong supporter not only with his influence, +but with his money. He was the first capitalist to +back individually Edison's experiments in electric +railways." + +In speaking of his relationships with Mr. Villard at +this time, Edison says: "When Villard was all broken +down, and in a stupor caused by his disasters in +connection with the Northern Pacific, Mrs. Villard sent +for me to come and cheer him up. It was very difficult +to rouse him from his despair and apathy, but +I talked about the electric light to him, and its +development, and told him that it would help him win +it all back and put him in his former position. Villard +made his great rally; he made money out of the electric +light; and he got back control of the Northern +Pacific. Under no circumstances can a hustler be +kept down. If he is only square, he is bound to get +back on his feet. Villard has often been blamed and +severely criticised, but he was not the only one to +blame. His engineers had spent $20,000,000 too +much in building the road, and it was not his fault +if he found himself short of money, and at that time +unable to raise any more." + +Villard maintained his intelligent interest in electric- +railway development, with regard to which Edison +remarks: "At one time Mr. Villard got the idea that +he would run the mountain division of the Northern +Pacific Railroad by electricity. He asked me if it +could be done. I said: `Certainly, it is too easy for +me to undertake; let some one else do it.' He said: +`I want you to tackle the problem,' and he insisted +on it. So I got up a scheme of a third rail and shoe +and erected it in my yard here in Orange. When I +got it all ready, he had all his division engineers come +on to New York, and they came over here. I showed +them my plans, and the unanimous decision of the +engineers was that it was absolutely and utterly +impracticable. That system is on the New York Central +now, and was also used on the New Haven road in its +first work with electricity." + +At this point it may be well to cite some other +statements of Edison as to kindred work, with which +he has not usually been associated in the public mind. +"In the same manner I had worked out for the Manhattan +Elevated Railroad a system of electric trains, +and had the control of each car centred at one place +--multiple control. This was afterward worked out +and made practical by Frank Sprague. I got up a +slot contact for street railways, and have a patent on +it--a sliding contact in a slot. Edward Lauterbach +was connected with the Third Avenue Railroad in +New York--as counsel--and I told him he was mak- +ing a horrible mistake putting in the cable. I told +him to let the cable stand still and send electricity +through it, and he would not have to move hundreds +of tons of metal all the time. He would rue the day +when he put the cable in." It cannot be denied that +the prophecy was fulfilled, for the cable was the beginning +of the frightful financial collapse of the system, +and was torn out in a few years to make way for the +triumphant "trolley in the slot." + +Incidental glimpses of this work are both amusing +and interesting. Hughes, who was working on the +experimental road with Mr. Edison, tells the following +story: "Villard sent J. C. Henderson, one of his +mechanical engineers, to see the road when it was in +operation, and we went down one day--Edison, +Henderson, and I--and went on the locomotive. Edison +ran it, and just after we started there was a +trestle sixty feet long and seven feet deep, and Edison +put on all the power. When we went over it we must +have been going forty miles an hour, and I could see +the perspiration come out on Henderson. After we +got over the trestle and started on down the track, +Henderson said: `When we go back I will walk. If +there is any more of that kind of running I won't be +in it myself.' " To the correspondence of Grosvenor +P. Lowrey we are indebted for a similar reminiscence, +under date of June 5, 1880: "Goddard and I have +spent a part of the day at Menlo, and all is glorious. +I have ridden at forty miles an hour on Mr. Edison's +electric railway--and we ran off the track. I protested +at the rate of speed over the sharp curves, +designed to show the power of the engine, but Edison +said they had done it often. Finally, when the last +trip was to be taken, I said I did not like it, but would +go along. The train jumped the track on a short +curve, throwing Kruesi, who was driving the engine, +with his face down in the dirt, and another man in a +comical somersault through some underbrush. Edison +was off in a minute, jumping and laughing, and +declaring it a most beautiful accident. Kruesi got +up, his face bleeding and a good deal shaken; and I +shall never forget the expression of voice and face +in which he said, with some foreign accent: `Oh! +yes, pairfeckly safe.' Fortunately no other hurts +were suffered, and in a few minutes we had the train +on the track and running again." + +All this rough-and-ready dealing with grades and +curves was not mere horse-play, but had a serious purpose +underlying it, every trip having its record as to +some feature of defect or improvement. One particular +set of experiments relating to such work was +made on behalf of visitors from South America, and +were doubtless the first tests of the kind made for +that continent, where now many fine electric street +and interurban railway systems are in operation. +Mr. Edison himself supplies the following data: +"During the electric-railway experiments at Menlo +Park, we had a short spur of track up one of the +steep gullies. The experiment came about in this +way. Bogota, the capital of Columbia, is reached +on muleback--or was--from Honda on the headwaters +of the Magdalena River. There were parties +who wanted to know if transportation over the mule +route could not be done by electricity. They said the +grades were excessive, and it would cost too much to +do it with steam locomotives, even if they could +climb the grades. I said: `Well, it can't be much +more than 45 per cent.; we will try that first. If it +will do that it will do anything else.' I started at +45 per cent. I got up an electric locomotive with a +grip on the rail by which it went up the 45 per cent. +grade. Then they said the curves were very short. +I put the curves in. We started the locomotive with +nobody on it, and got up to twenty miles an hour, +taking those curves of very short radius; but it was +weeks before we could prevent it from running off. +We had to bank the tracks up to an angle of thirty +degrees before we could turn the curve and stay on. +These Spanish parties were perfectly satisfied we could +put in an electric railway from Honda to Bogota +successfully, and then they disappeared. I have never +seen them since. As usual, I paid for the experiment." + +In the spring of 1883 the Electric Railway Company +of America was incorporated in the State of +New York with a capital of $2,000,000 to develop +the patents and inventions of Edison and Stephen +D. Field, to the latter of whom the practical work of +active development was confided, and in June of the +same year an exhibit was made at the Chicago Railway +Exposition, which attracted attention throughout +the country, and did much to stimulate the growing +interest in electric-railway work. With the aid +of Messrs. F. B. Rae, C. L. Healy, and C. O. Mailloux +a track and locomotive were constructed for the company +by Mr. Field and put in service in the gallery +of the main exhibition building. The track curved +sharply at either end on a radius of fifty-six feet, and +the length was about one-third of a mile. The locomotive +named "The Judge," after Justice Field, an +uncle of Stephen D. Field, took current from a central +rail between the two outer rails, that were the return +circuit, the contact being a rubbing wire brush on +each side of the "third rail," answering the same purpose +as the contact shoe of later date. The locomotive +weighed three tons, was twelve feet long, five +feet wide, and made a speed of nine miles an hour +with a trailer car for passengers. Starting on June +5th, when the exhibition closed on June 23d this tiny +but typical road had operated for over 118 hours, had +made over 446 miles, and had carried 26,805 passengers. +After the exposition closed the outfit was +taken during the same year to the exposition at +Louisville, Kentucky, where it was also successful, +carrying a large number of passengers. It deserves +note that at Chicago regular railway tickets were +issued to paying passengers, the first ever employed +on American electric railways. + +With this modest but brilliant demonstration, to +which the illustrious names of Edison and Field were +attached, began the outburst of excitement over +electric railways, very much like the eras of speculation +and exploitation that attended only a few years +earlier the introduction of the telephone and the +electric light, but with such significant results that +the capitalization of electric roads in America is now +over $4,000,000,000, or twice as much as that of the +other two arts combined. There was a tremendous +rush into the electric-railway field after 1883, and an +outburst of inventive activity that has rarely, if ever, +been equalled. It is remarkable that, except Siemens, +no European achieved fame in this early work, while +from America the ideas and appliances of Edison, +Van Depoele, Sprague, Field, Daft, and Short have +been carried and adopted all over the world. + +Mr. Edison was consulting electrician for the +Electric Railway Company, but neither a director +nor an executive officer. Just what the trouble was +as to the internal management of the corporation it +is hard to determine a quarter of a century later; but +it was equipped with all essential elements to dominate +an art in which after its first efforts it remained +practically supine and useless, while other interests +forged ahead and reaped both the profit and the glory. +Dissensions arose between the representatives of the +Field and Edison interests, and in April, 1890, the +Railway Company assigned its rights to the Edison +patents to the Edison General Electric Company, +recently formed by the consolidation of all the +branches of the Edison light, power, and manufacturing +industry under one management. The only +patent rights remaining to the Railway Company +were those under three Field patents, one of which, +with controlling claims, was put in suit June, 1890, +against the Jamaica & Brooklyn Road Company, a +customer of the Edison General Electric Company. +This was, to say the least, a curious and anomalous +situation. Voluminous records were made by both +parties to the suit, and in the spring of 1894 the case +was argued before the late Judge Townsend, who wrote +a long opinion dismissing the bill of complaint.[15] The +student will find therein a very complete and careful +study of the early electric-railway art. After this +decision was rendered, the Electric Railway Company +remained for several years in a moribund condition, +and on the last day of 1896 its property was placed +in the hands of a receiver. In February of 1897 the +receiver sold the three Field patents to their original +owner, and he in turn sold them to the Westinghouse +Electric and Manufacturing Company. The Railway +Company then went into voluntary dissolution, a sad +example of failure to seize the opportunity at the +psychological moment, and on the part of the inventor +to secure any adequate return for years of +effort and struggle in founding one of the great arts. +Neither of these men was squelched by such a calamitous +result, but if there were not something of bitterness +in their feelings as they survey what has come +of their work, they would not be human. + +As a matter of fact, Edison retained a very lively +interest in electric-railway progress long after the +pregnant days at Menlo Park, one of the best evidences +of which is an article in the New York Electrical +Engineer of November 18, 1891, which describes +some important and original experiments in the direction +of adapting electrical conditions to the larger +cities. The overhead trolley had by that time begun +its victorious career, but there was intense hostility +displayed toward it in many places because of the +inevitable increase in the number of overhead wires, +which, carrying, as they did, a current of high voltage +and large quantity, were regarded as a menace to life +and property. Edison has always manifested a +strong objection to overhead wires in cities, and +urged placing them underground; and the outcry +against the overhead "deadly" trolley met with his +instant sympathy. His study of the problem brought +him to the development of the modern "substation," +although the twists that later evolutions have given +the idea have left it scarcely recognizable. + + +[15] See 61 Fed. Rep. 655. + + +Mr. Villard, as President of the Edison General +Electric Company, requested Mr. Edison, as electrician +of the company, to devise a street-railway +system which should be applicable to the largest +cities where the use of the trolley would not be +permitted, where the slot conduit system would not be +used, and where, in general, the details of construction +should be reduced to the simplest form. The +limits imposed practically were such as to require that +the system should not cost more than a cable road to +install. Edison reverted to his ingenious lighting plan +of years earlier, and thus settled on a method by +which current should be conveyed from the power +plant at high potential to motor-generators placed +below the ground in close proximity to the rails. +These substations would convert the current received +at a pressure of, say, one thousand volts to one of +twenty volts available between rail and rail, with a +corresponding increase in the volume of the current. +With the utilization of heavy currents at low voltage +it became necessary, of course, to devise apparatus +which should be able to pick up with absolute certainty +one thousand amperes of current at this press- +ure through two inches of mud, if necessary. With +his wonted activity and fertility Edison set about +devising such a contact, and experimented with metal +wheels under all conditions of speed and track conditions. +It was several months before he could convey +one hundred amperes by means of such contacts, +but he worked out at last a satisfactory device which +was equal to the task. The next point was to secure a +joint between contiguous rails such as would permit of +the passage of several thousand amperes without +introducing undue resistance. This was also accomplished. + +Objections were naturally made to rails out in the +open on the street surface carrying large currents at +a potential of twenty volts. It was said that vehicles +with iron wheels passing over the tracks and spanning +the two rails would short-circuit the current, +"chew" themselves up, and destroy the dynamos +generating the current by choking all that tremendous +amount of energy back into them. Edison tackled +the objection squarely and short-circuited his track +with such a vehicle, but succeeded in getting only +about two hundred amperes through the wheels, the +low voltage and the insulating properties of the axle- +grease being sufficient to account for such a result. +An iron bar was also used, polished, and with a man +standing on it to insure solid contact; but only one +thousand amperes passed through it--i.e., the amount +required by a single car, and, of course, much less than +the capacity of the generators able to operate a +system of several hundred cars. + +Further interesting experiments showed that the +expected large leakage of current from the rails in +wet weather did not materialize. Edison found that +under the worst conditions with a wet and salted +track, at a potential difference of twenty volts +between the two rails, the extreme loss was only two +and one-half horse-power. In this respect the +phenomenon followed the same rule as that to which +telegraph wires are subject--namely, that the loss of +insulation is greater in damp, murky weather when +the insulators are covered with wet dust than during +heavy rains when the insulators are thoroughly +washed by the action of the water. In like manner +a heavy rain-storm cleaned the tracks from the +accumulations due chiefly to the droppings of the horses, +which otherwise served largely to increase the conductivity. +Of course, in dry weather the loss of current +was practically nothing, and, under ordinary +conditions, Edison held, his system was in respect to +leakage and the problems of electrolytic attack of +the current on adjacent pipes, etc., as fully insulated +as the standard trolley network of the day. The cost +of his system Mr. Edison placed at from $30,000 to +$100,000 per mile of double track, in accordance with +local conditions, and in this respect comparing very +favorably with the cable systems then so much in +favor for heavy traffic. All the arguments that could +be urged in support of this ingenious system are +tenable and logical at the present moment; but the +trolley had its way except on a few lines where the +conduit-and-shoe method was adopted; and in the +intervening years the volume of traffic created and +handled by electricity in centres of dense population +has brought into existence the modern subway. + +But down to the moment of the preparation of this +biography, Edison has retained an active interest in +transportation problems, and his latest work has +been that of reviving the use of the storage battery +for street-car purposes. At one time there were a +number of storage-battery lines and cars in operation +in such cities as Washington, New York, Chicago, +and Boston; but the costs of operation and maintenance +were found to be inordinately high as compared +with those of the direct-supply methods, and the battery +cars all disappeared. The need for them under +many conditions remained, as, for example, in places +in Greater New York where the overhead trolley wires +are forbidden as objectionable, and where the ground +is too wet or too often submerged to permit of the +conduit with the slot. Some of the roads in Greater +New York have been anxious to secure such cars, and, +as usual, the most resourceful electrical engineer and +inventor of his times has made the effort. A special +experimental track has been laid at the Orange +laboratory, and a car equipped with the Edison storage +battery and other devices has been put under +severe and extended trial there and in New York. + +Menlo Park, in ruin and decay, affords no traces of +the early Edison electric-railway work, but the crude +little locomotive built by Charles T. Hughes was rescued +from destruction, and has become the property of the +Pratt Institute, of Brooklyn, towhose thousands of +technical students it is a constant example and incentive. +It was loaned in 1904 to the Association of Edison +Illuminating Companies, and by it exhibited as part of the +historical Edison collection at the St. Louis Exposition. + + + +EDISON +HIS LIFE AND INVENTIONS + +CHAPTER XIX + +MAGNETIC ORE MILLING WORK + +DURING the Hudson-Fulton celebration of October, +1909, Burgomaster Van Leeuwen, of Amsterdam, +member of the delegation sent officially from +Holland to escort the Half Moon and participate in +the functions of the anniversary, paid a visit to the +Edison laboratory at Orange to see the inventor, who +may be regarded as pre-eminent among those of +Dutch descent in this country. Found, as usual, hard +at work--this time on his cement house, of which he +showed the iron molds--Edison took occasion to remark +that if he had achieved anything worth while, +it was due to the obstinacy and pertinacity he had +inherited from his forefathers. To which it may be +added that not less equally have the nature of +inheritance and the quality of atavism been exhibited +in his extraordinary predilection for the miller's art. +While those Batavian ancestors on the low shores of +the Zuyder Zee devoted their energies to grinding grain, +he has been not less assiduous than they in reducing +the rocks of the earth itself to flour. + +Although this phase of Mr. Edison's diverse activities +is not as generally known to the world as many +others of a more popular character, the milling of +low-grade auriferous ores and the magnetic separation +of iron ores have been subjects of engrossing +interest and study to him for many years. Indeed, +his comparatively unknown enterprise of separating +magnetically and putting into commercial form low- +grade iron ore, as carried on at Edison, New Jersey, +proved to be the most colossal experiment that he +has ever made. + +If a person qualified to judge were asked to answer +categorically as to whether or not that enterprise +was a failure, he could truthfully answer both yes +and no. Yes, in that circumstances over which Mr. +Edison had no control compelled the shutting down +of the plant at the very moment of success; and no, +in that the mechanically successful and commercially +practical results obtained, after the exercise of +stupendous efforts and the expenditure of a fortune, are +so conclusive that they must inevitably be the reliance +of many future iron-masters. In other words, Mr. +Edison was at least a quarter of a century ahead of +the times in the work now to be considered. + +Before proceeding to a specific description of this +remarkable enterprise, however, let us glance at an +early experiment in separating magnetic iron sands +on the Atlantic sea-shore: "Some years ago I heard +one day that down at Quogue, Long Island, there +were immense deposits of black magnetic sand. This +would be very valuable if the iron could be separated +from the sand. So I went down to Quogue with one +of my assistants and saw there for miles large beds +of black sand on the beach in layers from one to six +inches thick--hundreds of thousands of tons. My +first thought was that it would be a very easy matter +to concentrate this, and I found I could sell the stuff +at a good price. I put up a small plant, but just as +I got it started a tremendous storm came up, and +every bit of that black sand went out to sea. During +the twenty-eight years that have intervened it has +never come back." This incident was really the prelude +to the development set forth in this chapter. + +In the early eighties Edison became familiar with +the fact that the Eastern steel trade was suffering +a disastrous change, and that business was slowly +drifting westward, chiefly by reason of the discovery +and opening up of enormous deposits of high-grade +iron ore in the upper peninsula of Michigan. This +ore could be excavated very cheaply by means of +improved mining facilities, and transported at low +cost to lake ports. Hence the iron and steel mills +east of the Alleghanies--compelled to rely on limited +local deposits of Bessemer ore, and upon foreign ores +which were constantly rising in value--began to sustain +a serious competition with Western mills, even +in Eastern markets. + +Long before this situation arose, it had been recognized +by Eastern iron-masters that sooner or later the +deposits of high-grade ore would be exhausted, and, +in consequence, there would ensue a compelling necessity +to fall back on the low-grade magnetic ores. +For many years it had been a much-discussed question +how to make these ores available for transporta- +tion to distant furnaces. To pay railroad charges on +ores carrying perhaps 80 to 90 per cent. of useless +material would be prohibitive. Hence the elimination +of the worthless "gangue" by concentration of +the iron particles associated with it, seemed to be +the only solution of the problem. + +Many attempts had been made in by-gone days to +concentrate the iron in such ores by water processes, +but with only a partial degree of success. The +impossibility of obtaining a uniform concentrate was a +most serious objection, had there not indeed been +other difficulties which rendered this method commercially +impracticable. It is quite natural, therefore, +that the idea of magnetic separation should have +occurred to many inventors. Thus we find numerous +instances throughout the last century of experiments +along this line; and particularly in the last +forty or fifty years, during which various attempts +have been made by others than Edison to perfect +magnetic separation and bring it up to something +like commercial practice. At the time he took up +the matter, however, no one seems to have realized +the full meaning of the tremendous problems involved. + +From 1880 to 1885, while still very busy in the +development of his electric-light system, Edison found +opportunity to plan crushing and separating machinery. +His first patent on the subject was applied +for and issued early in 1880. He decided, after +mature deliberation, that the magnetic separation of +low-grade ores on a colossal scale at a low cost was +the only practical way of supplying the furnaceman +with a high quality of iron ore. It was his opinion +that it was cheaper to quarry and concentrate lean +ore in a big way than to attempt to mine, under adverse +circumstances, limited bodies of high-grade ore. +He appreciated fully the serious nature of the gigantic +questions involved; and his plans were laid +with a view to exercising the utmost economy in the +design and operation of the plant in which he +contemplated the automatic handling of many thousands +of tons of material daily. It may be stated as broadly +true that Edison engineered to handle immense +masses of stuff automatically, while his predecessors +aimed chiefly at close separation. + +Reduced to its barest, crudest terms, the proposition +of magnetic separation is simplicity itself. A +piece of the ore (magnetite) may be reduced to powder +and the ore particles separated therefrom by the +help of a simple hand magnet. To elucidate the basic +principle of Edison's method, let the crushed ore fall +in a thin stream past such a magnet. The magnetic +particles are attracted out of the straight line of the +falling stream, and being heavy, gravitate inwardly +and fall to one side of a partition placed below. The +non-magnetic gangue descends in a straight line to +the other side of the partition. Thus a complete +separation is effected. + +Simple though the principle appears, it was in its +application to vast masses of material and in the +solving of great engineering problems connected +therewith that Edison's originality made itself manifest +in the concentrating works that he established +in New Jersey, early in the nineties. Not only did he +develop thoroughly the refining of the crushed ore, so +that after it had passed the four hundred and eighty +magnets in the mill, the concentrates came out finally +containing 91 to 93 per cent. of iron oxide, but he +also devised collateral machinery, methods and processes +all fundamental in their nature. These are +too numerous to specify in detail, as they extended +throughout the various ramifications of the plant, but +the principal ones are worthy of mention, such as: + + The giant rolls (for crushing). + Intermediate rolls. + Three-high rolls. + Giant cranes (215 feet long span). + Vertical dryer. + Belt conveyors. + Air separation. + Mechanical separation of phosphorus. + Briquetting. + + +That Mr. Edison's work was appreciated at the +time is made evident by the following extract from +an article describing the Edison plant, published in +The Iron Age of October 28, 1897; in which, after +mentioning his struggle with adverse conditions, it +says: "There is very little that is showy, from the +popular point of view, in the gigantic work which +Mr. Edison has done during these years, but to those +who are capable of grasping the difficulties encountered, +Mr. Edison appears in the new light of a brilliant +constructing engineer grappling with technical +and commercial problems of the highest order. His +genius as an inventor is revealed in many details of +the great concentrating plant.... But to our mind, +originality of the highest type as a constructor and +designer appears in the bold way in which he sweeps +aside accepted practice in this particular field and +attains results not hitherto approached. He pursues +methods in ore-dressing at which those who are +trained in the usual practice may well stand aghast. +But considering the special features of the problems +to be solved, his methods will be accepted as those +economically wise and expedient." + +A cursory glance at these problems will reveal their +import. Mountains must be reduced to dust; all +this dust must be handled in detail, so to speak, and +from it must be separated the fine particles of iron +constituting only one-fourth or one-fifth of its mass; +and then this iron-ore dust must be put into such +shape that it could be commercially shipped and used. +One of the most interesting and striking investigations +made by Edison in this connection is worthy +of note, and may be related in his own words: "I +felt certain that there must be large bodies of magnetite +in the East, which if crushed and concentrated +would satisfy the wants of the Eastern furnaces for +steel-making. Having determined to investigate the +mountain regions of New Jersey, I constructed a very +sensitive magnetic needle, which would dip toward +the earth if brought over any considerable body of +magnetic iron ore. One of my laboratory assistants +went out with me and we visited many of the mines +of New Jersey, but did not find deposits of any magnitude. +One day, however, as we drove over a mountain +range, not known as iron-bearing land, I was astonished +to find that the needle was strongly attracted +and remained so; thus indicating that the whole mountain +was underlaid with vast bodies of magnetic ore. + +"I knew it was a commercial problem to produce +high-grade Bessemer ore from these deposits, and +took steps to acquire a large amount of the property. +I also planned a great magnetic survey of the East, +and I believe it remains the most comprehensive of +its kind yet performed. I had a number of men survey +a strip reaching from Lower Canada to North +Carolina. The only instrument we used was the +special magnetic needle. We started in Lower Canada +and travelled across the line of march twenty-five +miles; then advanced south one thousand feet; then +back across the line of march again twenty-five miles; +then south another thousand feet, across again, and +so on. Thus we advanced all the way to North +Carolina, varying our cross-country march from two +to twenty-five miles, according to geological formation. +Our magnetic needle indicated the presence +and richness of the invisible deposits of magnetic ore. +We kept minute records of these indications, and +when the survey was finished we had exact information +of the deposits in every part of each State we +had passed through. We also knew the width, length, +and approximate depth of every one of these deposits, +which were enormous. + +"The amount of ore disclosed by this survey was +simply fabulous. How much so may be judged from +the fact that in the three thousand acres immediately +surrounding the mills that I afterward established at +Edison there were over 200,000,000 tons of low- +grade ore. I also secured sixteen thousand acres in +which the deposit was proportionately as large. +These few acres alone contained sufficient ore to +supply the whole United States iron trade, including +exports, for seventy years." + +Given a mountain of rock containing only one-fifth +to one-fourth magnetic iron, the broad problem confronting +Edison resolved itself into three distinct +parts--first, to tear down the mountain bodily and +grind it to powder; second, to extract from this +powder the particles of iron mingled in its mass; +and, third, to accomplish these results at a cost +sufficiently low to give the product a commercial +value. + +Edison realized from the start that the true +solution of this problem lay in the continuous treatment +of the material, with the maximum employment +of natural forces and the minimum of manual labor +and generated power. Hence, all his conceptions +followed this general principle so faithfully and completely +that we find in the plant embodying his ideas +the forces of momentum and gravity steadily in harness +and keeping the traces taut; while there was no +touch of the human hand upon the material from the +beginning of the treatment to its finish--the staff being +employed mainly to keep watch on the correct working +of the various processes. + +It is hardly necessary to devote space to the beginnings +of the enterprise, although they are full +of interest. They served, however, to convince +Edison that if he ever expected to carry out his +scheme on the extensive scale planned, he could not +depend upon the market to supply suitable machinery +for important operations, but would be obliged to +devise and build it himself. Thus, outside the steam- +shovel and such staple items as engines, boilers, +dynamos, and motors, all of the diverse and complex +machinery of the entire concentrating plant, as +subsequently completed, was devised by him especially +for the purpose. The necessity for this was due to the +many radical variations made from accepted methods. + +No such departure was as radical as that of the +method of crushing the ore. Existing machinery for +this purpose had been designed on the basis of mining +methods then in vogue, by which the rock was +thoroughly shattered by means of high explosives and +reduced to pieces of one hundred pounds or less. These +pieces were then crushed by power directly applied. If +a concentrating mill, planned to treat five or six thousand +tons per day, were to be operated on this basis +the investment in crushers and the supply of power +would be enormous, to say nothing of the risk of +frequent breakdowns by reason of multiplicity of +machinery and parts. From a consideration of these +facts, and with his usual tendency to upset traditional +observances, Edison conceived the bold idea of +constructing gigantic rolls which, by the force of +momentum, would be capable of crushing individual +rocks of vastly greater size than ever before attempted. +He reasoned that the advantages thus obtained would +be fourfold: a minimum of machinery and parts; +greater compactness; a saving of power; and greater +economy in mining. As this last-named operation +precedes the crushing, let us first consider it as it +was projected and carried on by him. + +Perhaps quarrying would be a better term than +mining in this case, as Edison's plan was to approach +the rock and tear it down bodily. The faith +that "moves mountains" had a new opportunity. In +work of this nature it had been customary, as above +stated, to depend upon a high explosive, such as +dynamite, to shatter and break the ore to lumps of +one hundred pounds or less. This, however, he +deemed to be a most uneconomical process, for energy +stored as heat units in dynamite at $260 per ton was +much more expensive than that of calories in a ton +of coal at $3 per ton. Hence, he believed that only +the minimum of work should be done with the costly +explosive; and, therefore, planned to use dynamite +merely to dislodge great masses of rock, and depended +upon the steam-shovel, operated by coal under the +boiler, to displace, handle, and remove the rock in +detail. This was the plan that was subsequently put +into practice in the great works at Edison, New Jersey. +A series of three-inch holes twenty feet deep were +drilled eight feet apart, about twelve feet back of the +ore-bank, and into these were inserted dynamite +cartridges. The blast would dislodge thirty to thirty- +five thousand tons of rock, which was scooped up by +great steam-shovels and loaded on to skips carried +by a line of cars on a narrow-gauge railroad running +to and from the crushing mill. Here the material +was automatically delivered to the giant rolls. The +problem included handling and crushing the "run +of the mine," without selection. The steam-shovel +did not discriminate, but picked up handily single +pieces weighing five or six tons and loaded them on +the skips with quantities of smaller lumps. When +the skips arrived at the giant rolls, their contents +were dumped automatically into a superimposed +hopper. The rolls were well named, for with ear- +splitting noise they broke up in a few seconds the great +pieces of rock tossed in from the skips. + +It is not easy to appreciate to the full the daring +exemplified in these great crushing rolls, or rather +"rock-crackers," without having watched them in +operation delivering their "solar-plexus" blows. It +was only as one might stand in their vicinity and hear +the thunderous roar accompanying the smashing and +rending of the massive rocks as they disappeared from +view that the mind was overwhelmed with a sense +of the magnificent proportions of this operation. The +enormous force exerted during this process may be +illustrated from the fact that during its development, +in running one of the early forms of rolls, +pieces of rock weighing more than half a ton would +be shot up in the air to a height of twenty or twenty- +five feet. + +The giant rolls were two solid cylinders, six feet in +diameter and five feet long, made of cast iron. To the +faces of these rolls were bolted a series of heavy, +chilled-iron plates containing a number of projecting +knobs two inches high. Each roll had also two rows +of four-inch knobs, intended to strike a series of +hammer-like blows. The rolls were set face to face +fourteen inches apart, in a heavy frame, and the total +weight was one hundred and thirty tons, of which +seventy tons were in moving parts. The space between +these two rolls allowed pieces of rock measuring +less than fourteen inches to descend to other smaller +rolls placed below. The giant rolls were belt-driven, in +opposite directions, through friction clutches, although +the belt was not depended upon for the actual crushing. +Previous to the dumping of a skip, the rolls were +speeded up to a circumferential velocity of nearly a +mile a minute, thus imparting to them the terrific +momentum that would break up easily in a few +seconds boulders weighing five or six tons each. It +was as though a rock of this size had got in the way +of two express trains travelling in opposite directions +at nearly sixty miles an hour. In other words, it was +the kinetic energy of the rolls that crumbled up the +rocks with pile-driver effect. This sudden strain +might have tended to stop the engine driving the +rolls; but by an ingenious clutch arrangement the +belt was released at the moment of resistance in the +rolls by reason of the rocks falling between them. +The act of breaking and crushing would naturally +decrease the tremendous momentum, but after the +rock was reduced and the pieces had passed through, +the belt would again come into play, and once more +speed up the rolls for a repetition of their regular +prize-fighter duty. + +On leaving the giant rolls the rocks, having been reduced +to pieces not larger than fourteen inches, passed +into the series of "Intermediate Rolls" of similar +construction and operation, by which they were still +further reduced, and again passed on to three other +sets of rolls of smaller dimensions. These latter rolls +were also face-lined with chilled-iron plates; but, unlike +the larger ones, were positively driven, reducing +the rock to pieces of about one-half-inch size, or +smaller. The whole crushing operation of reduction +from massive boulders to small pebbly pieces having +been done in less time than the telling has occupied, +the product was conveyed to the "Dryer," a tower +nine feet square and fifty feet high, heated from below +by great open furnace fires. All down the inside +walls of this tower were placed cast-iron plates, nine +feet long and seven inches wide, arranged alternately +in "fish-ladder" fashion. The crushed rock, being delivered +at the top, would fall down from plate to plate, +constantly exposing different surfaces to the heat, +until it landed completely dried in the lower portion of +the tower, where it fell into conveyors which took it +up to the stock-house. + +This method of drying was original with Edison. +At the time this adjunct to the plant was required, +the best dryer on the market was of a rotary type, +which had a capacity of only twenty tons per hour, +with the expenditure of considerable power. As +Edison had determined upon treating two hundred +and fifty tons or more per hour, he decided to devise +an entirely new type of great capacity, requiring a +minimum of power (for elevating the material), and +depending upon the force of gravity for handling it +during the drying process. A long series of experiments +resulted in the invention of the tower dryer +with a capacity of three hundred tons per hour. + +The rock, broken up into pieces about the size of +marbles, having been dried and conveyed to the +stock-house, the surplusage was automatically carried +out from the other end of the stock-house by con- +veyors, to pass through the next process, by which it +was reduced to a powder. The machinery for accomplishing +this result represents another interesting and +radical departure of Edison from accepted usage. He +had investigated all the crushing-machines on the +market, and tried all he could get. He found them +all greatly lacking in economy of operation; indeed, +the highest results obtainable from the best were 18 +per cent. of actual work, involving a loss of 82 per cent. +by friction. His nature revolted at such an immense +loss of power, especially as he proposed the crushing +of vast quantities of ore. Thus, he was obliged to +begin again at the foundation, and he devised a +crushing-machine which was subsequently named the +"Three-High Rolls," and which practically reversed +the above figures, as it developed 84 per cent. of work +done with only 16 per cent. loss in friction. + +A brief description of this remarkable machine will +probably interest the reader. In the two end pieces +of a heavy iron frame were set three rolls, or cylinders +--one in the centre, another below, and the other +above--all three being in a vertical line. These rolls +were of cast iron three feet in diameter, having +chilled-iron smooth face-plates of considerable thickness. +The lowest roll was set in a fixed bearing at +the bottom of the frame, and, therefore, could only +turn around on its axis. The middle and top rolls +were free to move up or down from and toward the +lower roll, and the shafts of the middle and upper +rolls were set in a loose bearing which could slip up +and down in the iron frame. It will be apparent, +therefore, that any material which passed in between +the top and the middle rolls, and the middle and bottom +rolls, could be ground as fine as might be desired, +depending entirely upon the amount of pressure +applied to the loose rolls. In operation the material +passed first through the upper and middle rolls, and +then between the middle and lowest rolls. + +This pressure was applied in a most ingenious manner. +On the ends of the shafts of the bottom and top +rolls there were cylindrical sleeves, or bearings, having +seven sheaves, in which was run a half-inch endless +wire rope. This rope was wound seven times over the +sheaves as above, and led upward and over a single- +groove sheave which was operated by the piston of +an air cylinder, and in this manner the pressure was +applied to the rolls. It will be seen, therefore, that +the system consisted in a single rope passed over +sheaves and so arranged that it could be varied in +length, thus providing for elasticity in exerting +pressure and regulating it as desired. The efficiency +of this system was incomparably greater than that +of any other known crusher or grinder, for while a +pressure of one hundred and twenty-five thousand +pounds could be exerted by these rolls, friction was +almost entirely eliminated because the upper and +lower roll bearings turned with the rolls and revolved +in the wire rope, which constituted the bearing proper. + +The same cautious foresight exercised by Edison +in providing a safety device--the fuse--to prevent +fires in his electric-light system, was again displayed +in this concentrating plant, where, to save +possible injury to its expensive operating parts, he +devised an analogous factor, providing all the crush- +ing machinery with closely calculated "safety pins," +which, on being overloaded, would shear off and thus +stop the machine at once. + +The rocks having thus been reduced to fine powder, +the mass was ready for screening on its way to the +magnetic separators. Here again Edison reversed +prior practice by discarding rotary screens and devising +a form of tower screen, which, besides having +a very large working capacity by gravity, eliminated +all power except that required to elevate the material. +The screening process allowed the finest part of the +crushed rock to pass on, by conveyor belts, to the +magnetic separators, while the coarser particles were +in like manner automatically returned to the rolls for +further reduction. + +In a narrative not intended to be strictly technical, +it would probably tire the reader to follow this material +in detail through the numerous steps attending +the magnetic separation. These may be seen in a +diagram reproduced from the above-named article +in the Iron Age, and supplemented by the following +extract from the Electrical Engineer, New York, +October 28, 1897: "At the start the weakest magnet +at the top frees the purest particles, and the second +takes care of others; but the third catches those to +which rock adheres, and will extract particles of +which only one-eighth is iron. This batch of material +goes back for another crushing, so that everything is +subjected to an equality of refining. We are now in +sight of the real `concentrates,' which are conveyed +to dryer No. 2 for drying again, and are then delivered +to the fifty-mesh screens. Whatever is fine enough +goes through to the eight-inch magnets, and the remainder +goes back for recrushing. Below the eight- +inch magnets the dust is blown out of the particles +mechanically, and they then go to the four-inch +magnets for final cleansing and separation.... Obviously, +at each step the percentage of felspar and +phosphorus is less and less until in the final concentrates +the percentage of iron oxide is 91 to 93 per cent. +As intimated at the outset, the tailings will be 75 per +cent. of the rock taken from the veins of ore, so that +every four tons of crude, raw, low-grade ore will have +yielded roughly one ton of high-grade concentrate +and three tons of sand, the latter also having its value +in various ways." + +This sand was transported automatically by belt +conveyors to the rear of the works to be stored and +sold. Being sharp, crystalline, and even in quality, +it was a valuable by-product, finding a ready sale for +building purposes, railway sand-boxes, and various +industrial uses. The concentrate, in fine powdery +form, was delivered in similar manner to a stock- +house. + +As to the next step in the process, we may now +quote again from the article in the Iron Age: "While +Mr. Edison and his associates were working on the +problem of cheap concentration of iron ore, an added +difficulty faced them in the preparation of the +concentrates for the market. Furnacemen object to more +than a very small proportion of fine ore in their +mixtures, particularly when the ore is magnetic, not +easily reduced. The problem to be solved was to +market an agglomerated material so as to avoid the +drawbacks of fine ore. The agglomerated product +must be porous so as to afford access of the furnace- +reducing gases to the ore. It must be hard enough +to bear transportation, and to carry the furnace burden +without crumbling to pieces. It must be waterproof, +to a certain extent, because considerations +connected with securing low rates of freight make it +necessary to be able to ship the concentrates to market +in open coal cars, exposed to snow and rain. In +many respects the attainment of these somewhat conflicting +ends was the most perplexing of the problems +which confronted Mr. Edison. The agglomeration of +the concentrates having been decided upon, two other +considerations, not mentioned above, were of primary +importance--first, to find a suitable cheap binding +material; and, second, its nature must be such that +very little would be necessary per ton of concentrates. +These severe requirements were staggering, +but Mr. Edison's courage did not falter. Although +it seemed a well-nigh hopeless task, he entered upon +the investigation with his usual optimism and vim. +After many months of unremitting toil and research, +and the trial of thousands of experiments, the goal was +reached in the completion of a successful formula for +agglomerating the fine ore and pressing it into briquettes +by special machinery." + +This was the final process requisite for the making +of a completed commercial product. Its practice, of +course, necessitated the addition of an entirely new +department of the works, which was carried into +effect by the construction and installation of the novel +mixing and briquetting machinery, together with ex- +tensions of the conveyors, with which the plant had +already been liberally provided. + +Briefly described, the process consisted in mixing +the concentrates with the special binding material in +machines of an entirely new type, and in passing the +resultant pasty mass into the briquetting machines, +where it was pressed into cylindrical cakes three +inches in diameter and one and a half inches thick, +under successive pressures of 7800, 14,000, and 60,000 +pounds. Each machine made these briquettes at the +rate of sixty per minute, and dropped them into +bucket conveyors by which they were carried into +drying furnaces, through which they made five loops, +and were then delivered to cross-conveyors which +carried them into the stock-house. At the end of +this process the briquettes were so hard that they +would not break or crumble in loading on the cars or +in transportation by rail, while they were so porous +as to be capable of absorbing 26 per cent. of their own +volume in alcohol, but repelling water absolutely-- +perfect "old soaks." + +Thus, with never-failing persistence and patience, +coupled with intense thought and hard work, +Edison met and conquered, one by one, the complex +difficulties that confronted him. He succeeded in +what he had set out to do, and it is now to be noted +that the product he had striven so sedulously to obtain +was a highly commercial one, for not only did +the briquettes of concentrated ore fulfil the purpose +of their creation, but in use actually tended to increase +the working capacity of the furnace, as the +following test, quoted from the Iron Age, October +28, 1897, will attest: " The only trial of any magnitude +of the briquettes in the blast-furnace was carried +through early this year at the Crane Iron Works, +Catasauqua, Pennsylvania, by Leonard Peckitt. + +"The furnace at which the test was made produces +from one hundred to one hundred and ten tons per +day when running on the ordinary mixture. The +charging of briquettes was begun with a percentage +of 25 per cent., and was carried up to 100 per cent. +The following is the record of the results: + +RESULTS OF WORKING BRIQUETTES AT THE CRANE FURNACE + Quantity of Phos- Man- +Date Briquette Tons Silica phorus Sulphur ganese + Working + Per Cent. +January 5th 25 104 2.770 0.830 0.018 0.500 +January 6th 37 1/2 4 1/2 2.620 0 740 0.018 0.350 +January 7th 50 138 1/2 2.572 0.580 0.015 0.200 +January 8th 75 119 1.844 0.264 0.022 0.200 +January 9th 100 138 1/2 1.712 0.147 0.038 0.185 + + +"On the 9th, at 5 P.M., the briquettes having been +nearly exhausted, the percentage was dropped to +25 per cent., and on the 10th the output dropped to +120 tons, and on the 11th the furnace had resumed +the usual work on the regular standard ores. + +"These figures prove that the yield of the furnace +is considerably increased. The Crane trial was too +short to settle the question to what extent the increase +in product may be carried. This increase in +output, of course, means a reduction in the cost of +labor and of general expenses. + +"The richness of the ore and its purity of course +affect the limestone consumption. In the case of the +Crane trial there was a reduction from 30 per cent. to +12 per cent. of the ore charge. + +"Finally, the fuel consumption is reduced, which +in the case of the Eastern plants, with their relatively +costly coke, is a very important consideration. It is +regarded as possible that Eastern furnaces will be +able to use a smaller proportion of the costlier coke +and correspondingly increase in anthracite coal, which +is a cheaper fuel in that section. So far as foundry +iron is concerned, the experience at Catasauqua, +Pennsylvania, brief as it has been, shows that a +stronger and tougher metal is made." + +Edison himself tells an interesting little story in +this connection, when he enjoyed the active help of +that noble character, John Fritz, the distinguished +inventor and pioneer of the modern steel industry in +America. He says: "When I was struggling along +with the iron-ore concentration, I went to see several +blast-furnace men to sell the ore at the market price. +They saw I was very anxious to sell it, and they would +take advantage of my necessity. But I happened to +go to Mr. John Fritz, of the Bethlehem Steel Company, +and told him what I was doing. `Well,' he +said to me, `Edison, you are doing a good thing for +the Eastern furnaces. They ought to help you, for +it will help us out. I am willing to help you. I mix +a little sentiment with business, and I will give you +an order for one hundred thousand tons.' And he +sat right down and gave me the order." + +The Edison concentrating plant has been sketched +in the briefest outline with a view of affording merely +a bare idea of the great work of its projector. To tell +the whole story in detail and show its logical sequence, +step by step, would take little less than a volume in +itself, for Edison's methods, always iconoclastic +when progress is in sight, were particularly so at the +period in question. It has been said that "Edison's +scrap-heap contains the elements of a liberal education," +and this was essentially true of the "discard" +during the ore-milling experience. Interesting as it +might be to follow at length the numerous phases of +ingenious and resourceful development that took +place during those busy years, the limit of present +space forbids their relation. It would, however, be +denying the justice that is Edison's due to omit all +mention of two hitherto unnamed items in particular +that have added to the world's store of useful devices. +We refer first to the great travelling hoisting-crane +having a span of two hundred and fifteen feet, and +used for hoisting loads equal to ten tons, this being the +largest of the kind made up to that time, and afterward +used as a model by many others. The second item was +the ingenious and varied forms of conveyor belt, +devised and used by Edison at the concentrating +works, and subsequently developed into a separate +and extensive business by an engineer to whom he +gave permission to use his plans and patterns. + +Edison's native shrewdness and knowledge of human +nature was put to practical use in the busy days +of plant construction. It was found impossible to +keep mechanics on account of indifferent residential +accommodations afforded by the tiny village, remote +from civilization, among the central mountains of +New Jersey. This puzzling question was much discussed +between him and his associate, Mr. W. S. +Mallory, until finally he said to the latter: "If we +want to keep the men here we must make it attractive +for the women--so let us build some houses that +will have running water and electric lights, and rent +at a low rate." He set to work, and in a day finished +a design for a type of house. Fifty were quickly built +and fully described in advertising for mechanics. +Three days' advertisements brought in over six hundred +and fifty applications, and afterward Edison had no +trouble in obtaining all the first-class men he required, +as settlers in the artificial Yosemite he was creating. + +We owe to Mr. Mallory a characteristic story of this +period as to an incidental unbending from toil, which +in itself illustrates the ever-present determination to +conquer what is undertaken: "Along in the latter +part of the nineties, when the work on the problem +of concentrating iron ore was in progress, it became +necessary when leaving the plant at Edison to wait +over at Lake Hopatcong one hour for a connecting +train. During some of these waits Mr. Edison had +seen me play billiards. At the particular time this +incident happened, Mrs. Edison and her family were +away for the summer, and I was staying at the Glenmont +home on the Orange Mountains. + +"One hot Saturday night, after Mr. Edison had +looked over the evening papers, he said to me: `Do +you want to play a game of billiards?' Naturally this +astonished me very much, as he is a man who cares +little or nothing for the ordinary games, with the single +exception of parcheesi, of which he is very fond. I said +I would like to play, so we went up into the billiard- +room of the house. I took off the cloth, got out the +balls, picked out a cue for Mr. Edison, and when we +banked for the first shot I won and started the game. +After making two or three shots I missed, and a long +carom shot was left for Mr. Edison, the cue ball and +object ball being within about twelve inches of each +other, and the other ball a distance of nearly the +length of the table. Mr. Edison attempted to make +the shot, but missed it and said `Put the balls back.' +So I put them back in the same position and he missed +it the second time. I continued at his request to put +the balls back in the same position for the next +fifteen minutes, until he could make the shot every +time--then he said: `I don't want to play any +more.' " + +Having taken a somewhat superficial survey of +the great enterprise under consideration; having had +a cursory glance at the technical development of the +plant up to the point of its successful culmination +in the making of a marketable, commercial product +as exemplified in the test at the Crane Furnace, let +us revert to that demonstration and note the events +that followed. The facts of this actual test are far +more eloquent than volumes of argument would be +as a justification of Edison's assiduous labors for over +eight years, and of the expenditure of a fortune in +bringing his broad conception to a concrete possibility. +In the patient solving of tremendous problems +he had toiled up the mountain-side of success-- +scaling its topmost peak and obtaining a view of the +boundless prospect. But, alas! "The best laid plans +o' mice and men gang aft agley." The discovery of +great deposits of rich Bessemer ore in the Mesaba +range of mountains in Minnesota a year or two previous +to the completion of his work had been followed +by the opening up of those deposits and the marketing +of the ore. It was of such rich character that, being +cheaply mined by greatly improved and inexpensive +methods, the market price of crude ore of like iron +units fell from about $6.50 to $3.50 per ton at the +time when Edison was ready to supply his concentrated +product. At the former price he could have +supplied the market and earned a liberal profit on +his investment, but at $3.50 per ton he was left without +a reasonable chance of competition. Thus was +swept away the possibility of reaping the reward so +richly earned by years of incessant thought, labor, +and care. This great and notable plant, representing +a very large outlay of money, brought to completion, +ready for business, and embracing some of +the most brilliant and remarkable of Edison's +inventions and methods, must be abandoned by force +of circumstances over which he had no control, and +with it must die the high hopes that his progressive, +conquering march to success had legitimately engendered. + +The financial aspect of these enterprises is often +overlooked and forgotten. In this instance it was +of more than usual import and seriousness, as Edison +was virtually his own "backer," putting into the +company almost the whole of all the fortune his +inventions had brought him. There is a tendency to +deny to the capital that thus takes desperate chances +its full reward if things go right, and to insist that it +shall have barely the legal rate of interest and far less +than the return of over-the-counter retail trade. It +is an absolute fact that the great electrical inventors +and the men who stood behind them have had little return +for their foresight and courage. In this instance, +when the inventor was largely his own financier, the +difficulties and perils were redoubled. Let Mr. Mallory +give an instance: "During the latter part of the +panic of 1893 there came a period when we were +very hard up for ready cash, due largely to the panicky +conditions; and a large pay-roll had been raised with +considerable difficulty. A short time before pay-day +our treasurer called me up by telephone, and said: +`I have just received the paid checks from the bank, +and I am fearful that my assistant, who has forged +my name to some of the checks, has absconded with +about $3000.' I went immediately to Mr. Edison +and told him of the forgery and the amount of money +taken, and in what an embarrassing position we +were for the next pay-roll. When I had finished +he said: `It is too bad the money is gone, but +I will tell you what to do. Go and see the president +of the bank which paid the forged checks. Get him +to admit the bank's liability, and then say to him +that Mr. Edison does not think the bank should +suffer because he happened to have a dishonest clerk +in his employ. Also say to him that I shall not ask +them to make the amount good.' This was done; +the bank admitting its liability and being much +pleased with this action. When I reported to Mr. +Edison he said: `That's all right. We have made a +friend of the bank, and we may need friends later +on.' And so it happened that some time afterward, +when we greatly needed help in the way of loans, +the bank willingly gave us the accommodations we +required to tide us over a critical period." + +This iron-ore concentrating project had lain close +to Edison's heart and ambition--indeed, it had permeated +his whole being to the exclusion of almost +all other investigations or inventions for a while. +For five years he had lived and worked steadily at +Edison, leaving there only on Saturday night to +spend Sunday at his home in Orange, and returning +to the plant by an early train on Monday morning. +Life at Edison was of the simple kind--work, meals, +and a few hours' sleep--day by day. The little village, +called into existence by the concentrating works, +was of the most primitive nature and offered nothing +in the way of frivolity or amusement. Even the +scenery is austere. Hence Edison was enabled to +follow his natural bent in being surrounded day +and night by his responsible chosen associates, with +whom he worked uninterrupted by outsiders from +early morning away into the late hours of the evening. +Those who were laboring with him, inspired by +his unflagging enthusiasm, followed his example and +devoted all their long waking hours to the furtherance +of his plans with a zeal that ultimately bore +fruit in the practical success here recorded. + +In view of its present status, this colossal enterprise +at Edison may well be likened to the prologue +of a play that is to be subsequently enacted for the +benefit of future generations, but before ringing +down the curtain it is desirable to preserve the unities +by quoting the words of one of the principal actors, +Mr. Mallory, who says: "The Concentrating Works +had been in operation, and we had produced a considerable +quantity of the briquettes, and had been +able to sell only a portion of them, the iron market +being in such condition that blast-furnaces were not +making any new purchases of iron ore, and were +having difficulty to receive and consume the ores +which had been previously contracted for, so what +sales we were able to make were at extremely low +prices, my recollection being that they were between +$3.50 and $3.80 per ton, whereas when the works had +started we had hoped to obtain $6.00 to $6.50 per ton +for the briquettes. We had also thoroughly +investigated the wonderful deposit at Mesaba, and it +was with the greatest possible reluctance that Mr. +Edison was able to come finally to the conclusion +that, under existing conditions, the concentrating +plant could not then be made a commercial success. +This decision was reached only after the most careful +investigations and calculations, as Mr. Edison was +just as full of fight and ambition to make it a success +as when he first started. + +"When this decision was reached Mr. Edison and +I took the Jersey Central train from Edison, bound +for Orange, and I did not look forward to the immediate +future with any degree of confidence, as the +concentrating plant was heavily in debt, without any +early prospect of being able to pay off its indebtedness. +On the train the matter of the future was discussed, +and Mr. Edison said that, inasmuch as we had the +knowledge gained from our experience in the concentrating +problem, we must, if possible, apply it to +some practical use, and at the same time we must +work out some other plans by which we could make +enough money to pay off the Concentrating Company's +indebtedness, Mr. Edison stating most positively +that no company with which he had personally +been actively connected had ever failed to pay its +debts, and he did not propose to have the Concentrating +Company any exception. + +"In the discussion that followed he suggested several +kinds of work which he had in his mind, and +which might prove profitable. We figured carefully +over the probabilities of financial returns from the +Phonograph Works and other enterprises, and after +discussing many plans, it was finally decided that we +would apply the knowledge we had gained in the +concentrating plant by building a plant for manufacturing +Portland cement, and that Mr. Edison would +devote his attention to the developing of a storage +battery which did not use lead and sulphuric acid. +So these two lines of work were taken up by Mr. +Edison with just as much enthusiasm and energy as +is usual with him, the commercial failure of the +concentrating plant seeming not to affect his spirits in +any way. In fact, I have often been impressed +strongly with the fact that, during the dark days of +the concentrating problem, Mr. Edison's desire was +very strong that the creditors of the Concentrating +Works should be paid in full; and only once did I +hear him make any reference to the financial loss +which he himself made, and he then said: `As far as +I am concerned, I can any time get a job at $75 per +month as a telegrapher, and that will amply take +care of all my personal requirements.' As already +stated, however, he started in with the maximum +amount of enthusiasm and ambition, and in the course +of about three years we succeeded in paying off all +the indebtedness of the Concentrating Works, which +amounted to several hundred thousand dollars. + +"As to the state of Mr. Edison's mind when the +final decision was reached to close down, if he was +specially disappointed, there was nothing in his manner +to indicate it, his every thought being for the +future, and as to what could be done to pull us out +of the financial situation in which we found ourselves, +and to take advantage of the knowledge which we had +acquired at so great a cost." + +It will have been gathered that the funds for this +great experiment were furnished largely by Edison. +In fact, over two million dollars were spent in the +attempt. Edison's philosophic view of affairs is given +in the following anecdote from Mr. Mallory: "During +the boom times of 1902, when the old General Electric +stock sold at its high-water mark of about $330, +Mr. Edison and I were on our way from the cement +plant at New Village, New Jersey, to his home at +Orange. When we arrived at Dover, New Jersey, +we got a New York newspaper, and I called his attention +to the quotation of that day on General Electric. +Mr. Edison then asked: `If I hadn't sold any of mine, +what would it be worth to-day?' and after some figuring +I replied: `Over four million dollars.' When Mr. +Edison is thinking seriously over a problem he is in +the habit of pulling his right eyebrow, which he did +now for fifteen or twenty seconds. Then his face +lighted up, and he said: `Well, it's all gone, but we +had a hell of a good time spending it.' " With which +revelation of an attitude worthy of Mark Tapley himself, +this chapter may well conclude. + + + +CHAPTER XX + +EDISON PORTLAND CEMENT + +NEW developments in recent years have been more +striking than the general adoption of cement +for structural purposes of all kinds in the United +States; or than the increase in its manufacture here. +As a material for the construction of office buildings, +factories, and dwellings, it has lately enjoyed an +extraordinary vogue; yet every indication is +confirmatory of the belief that such use has barely begun. +Various reasons may be cited, such as the growing +scarcity of wood, once the favorite building material +in many parts of the country, and the increasing dearness +of brick and stone. The fact remains, indisputable, +and demonstrated flatly by the statistics +of production. In 1902 the American output of +cement was placed at about 21,000,000 barrels, valued +at over $17,000,000. In 1907 the production is given +as nearly 49,000,000 barrels. Here then is an +industry that doubled in five years. The average rate +of industrial growth in the United States is 10 per +cent. a year, or doubling every ten years. It is a +singular fact that electricity also so far exceeds the +normal rate as to double in value and quantity of +output and investment every five years. There is +perhaps more than ordinary coincidence in the as- +sociation of Edison with two such active departments +of progress. + +As a purely manufacturing business the general +cement industry is one of even remote antiquity, and +if Edison had entered into it merely as a commercial +enterprise by following paths already so well +trodden, the fact would hardly have been worthy of +even passing notice. It is not in his nature, however, +to follow a beaten track except in regard to the +recognition of basic principles; so that while the +manufacture of Edison Portland cement embraces the +main essentials and familiar processes of cement- +making, such as crushing, drying, mixing, roasting, +and grinding, his versatility and originality, as +exemplified in the conception and introduction of some +bold and revolutionary methods and devices, have +resulted in raising his plant from the position of an +outsider to the rank of the fifth largest producer in +the United States, in the short space of five years +after starting to manufacture. + +Long before his advent in cement production, +Edison had held very pronounced views on the value +of that material as the one which would obtain largely +for future building purposes on account of its stability. +More than twenty-five years ago one of the writers of +this narrative heard him remark during a discussion +on ancient buildings: "Wood will rot, stone will chip +and crumble, bricks disintegrate, but a cement and +iron structure is apparently indestructible. Look at +some of the old Roman baths. They are as solid as +when they were built." With such convictions, and +the vast fund of practical knowledge and experience +he had gained at Edison in the crushing and manipulation +of large masses of magnetic iron ore during the +preceding nine years, it is not surprising that on that +homeward railway journey, mentioned at the close +of the preceding chapter, he should have decided to +go into the manufacture of cement, especially in view +of the enormous growth of its use for structural purposes +during recent times. + +The field being a new one to him, Edison followed +his usual course of reading up every page of +authoritative literature on the subject, and seeking +information from all quarters. In the mean time, +while he was busy also with his new storage battery, +Mr. Mallory, who had been hard at work on the +cement plan, announced that he had completed +arrangements for organizing a company with sufficient +financial backing to carry on the business; concluding +with the remark that it was now time to engage +engineers to lay out the plant. Edison replied +that he intended to do that himself, and invited Mr. +Mallory to go with him to one of the draughting- +rooms on an upper floor of the laboratory. + +Here he placed a large sheet of paper on a draughting- +table, and immediately began to draw out a plan +of the proposed works, continuing all day and away +into the evening, when he finished; thus completing +within the twenty-four hours the full lay-out of the +entire plant as it was subsequently installed, and as +it has substantially remained in practical use to this +time. It will be granted that this was a remarkable +engineering feat, especially in view of the fact that +Edison was then a new-comer in the cement busi- +ness, and also that if the plant were to be rebuilt +to-day, no vital change would be desirable or +necessary. In that one day's planning every part +was considered and provided for, from the crusher to +the packing-house. From one end to the other, the +distance over which the plant stretches in length is +about half a mile, and through the various buildings +spread over this space there passes, automatically, +in course of treatment, a vast quantity of material +resulting in the production of upward of two and a +quarter million pounds of finished cement every +twenty-four hours, seven days in the week. + +In that one day's designing provision was made not +only for all important parts, but minor details, such, +for instance, as the carrying of all steam, water, and +air pipes, and electrical conductors in a large subway +running from one end of the plant to the other; and, +an oiling system for the entire works. This latter +deserves special mention, not only because of its +arrangement for thorough lubrication, but also on +account of the resultant economy affecting the cost +of manufacture. + +Edison has strong convictions on the liberal +use of lubricants, but argued that in the ordinary +oiling of machinery there is great waste, while much +dirt is conveyed into the bearings. He therefore +planned a system by which the ten thousand bearings +in the plant are oiled automatically; requiring the +services of only two men for the entire work. This +is accomplished by a central pumping and filtering +plant and the return of the oil from all parts of the +works by gravity. Every bearing is made dust- +proof, and is provided with two interior pipes. One +is above and the other below the bearing. The oil +flows in through the upper pipe, and, after lubricating +the shaft, flows out through the lower pipe back to +the pumping station, where any dirt is filtered out and +the oil returned to circulation. While this system of +oiling is not unique, it was the first instance of its +adaptation on so large and complete a scale, and +illustrates the far-sightedness of his plans. + +In connection with the adoption of this lubricating +system there occurred another instance of his knowledge +of materials and intuitive insight into the nature +of things. He thought that too frequent circulation +of a comparatively small quantity of oil would, to +some extent, impair its lubricating qualities, and +requested his assistants to verify this opinion by +consultation with competent authorities. On making +inquiry of the engineers of the Standard Oil Company, +his theory was fully sustained. Hence, provision +was made for carrying a large stock of oil, and +for giving a certain period of rest to that already used. + +A keen appreciation of ultimate success in the +production of a fine quality of cement led Edison to +provide very carefully in his original scheme for those +details that he foresaw would become requisite--such, +for instance, as ample stock capacity for raw materials +and their automatic delivery in the various stages of +manufacture, as well as mixing, weighing, and frequent +sampling and analyzing during the progress +through the mills. This provision even included the +details of the packing-house, and his perspicacity in +this case is well sustained from the fact that nine +years afterward, in anticipation of building an additional +packing-house, the company sent a representative +to different parts of the country to examine +the systems used by manufacturers in the packing of +large quantities of various staple commodities involving +somewhat similar problems, and found that +there was none better than that devised before the +cement plant was started. Hence, the order was +given to build the new packing-house on lines similar +to those of the old one. + +Among the many innovations appearing in this +plant are two that stand out in bold relief as +indicating the large scale by which Edison measures +his ideas. One of these consists of the crushing and +grinding machinery, and the other of the long kilns. +In the preceding chapter there has been given a +description of the giant rolls, by means of which great +masses of rock, of which individual pieces may weigh +eight or more tons, are broken and reduced to about +a fourteen-inch size. The economy of this is apparent +when it is considered that in other cement plants +the limit of crushing ability is "one-man size"--that +is, pieces not too large for one man to lift. + +The story of the kiln, as told by Mr. Mallory, is +illustrative of Edison's tendency to upset tradition +and make a radical departure from generally accepted +ideas. "When Mr. Edison first decided to go +into the cement business, it was on the basis of his +crushing-rolls and air separation, and he had every +expectation of installing duplicates of the kilns which +were then in common use for burning cement. These +kilns were usually made of boiler iron, riveted, and +were about sixty feet long and six feet in diameter, +and had a capacity of about two hundred barrels of +cement clinker in twenty-four hours. + +"When the detail plans for our plant were being +drawn, Mr. Edison and I figured over the coal capacity +and coal economy of the sixty-foot kiln, and each +time thought that both could he materially bettered. +After having gone over this matter several times, +he said: `I believe I can make a kiln which will give +an output of one thousand barrels in twenty-four +hours.' Although I had then been closely associated +with him for ten years and was accustomed to see +him accomplish great things, I could not help feeling +the improbability of his being able to jump into an +old-established industry--as a novice--and start by +improving the `heart' of the production so as to +increase its capacity 400 per cent. When I pressed +him for an explanation, he was unable to give any +definite reasons, except that he felt positive it could +be done. In this connection let me say that very +many times I have heard Mr. Edison make predictions +as to what a certain mechanical device ought +to do in the way of output and costs, when his statements +did not seem to be even among the possibilities. +Subsequently, after more or less experience, these +predictions have been verified, and I cannot help coming +to the conclusion that he has a faculty, not possessed +by the average mortal, of intuitively and correctly +sizing up mechanical and commercial possibilities. + +"But, returning to the kiln, Mr. Edison went to +work immediately and very soon completed the design +of a new type which was to be one hundred and +fifty feet long and nine feet in diameter, made up in +ten-foot sections of cast iron bolted together and +arranged to be revolved on fifteen bearings. He had +a wooden model made and studied it very carefully, +through a series of experiments. These resulted so +satisfactorily that this form was finally decided upon, +and ultimately installed as part of the plant. + +"Well, for a year or so the kiln problem was a +nightmare to me. When we started up the plant +experimentally, and the long kiln was first put in +operation, an output of about four hundred barrels +in twenty-four hours was obtained. Mr. Edison was +more than disappointed at this result. His terse +comment on my report was: `Rotten. Try it again.' +When we became a little more familiar with the operation +of the kiln we were able to get the output up to +about five hundred and fifty barrels, and a little later +to six hundred and fifty barrels per day. I would +go down to Orange and report with a great deal of +satisfaction the increase in output, but Mr. Edison +would apparently be very much disappointed, and +often said to me that the trouble was not with the +kiln, but with our method of operating it; and he +would reiterate his first statement that it would +make one thousand barrels in twenty-four hours. + +"Each time I would return to the plant with the +determination to increase the output if possible, and +we did increase it to seven hundred and fifty, then to +eight hundred and fifty barrels. Every time I reported +these increases Mr. Edison would still be disappointed. +I said to him several times that if he was +so sure the kiln could turn out one thousand barrels +in twenty-four hours we would be very glad to have +him tell us how to do it, and that we would run it +in any way he directed. He replied that he did not +know what it was that kept the output down, but he +was just as confident as ever that the kiln would +make one thousand barrels per day, and that if he +had time to work with and watch the kiln it would +not take him long to find out the reasons why. He +had made a number of suggestions throughout these +various trials, however, and, as we continued to +operate, we learned additional points in handling, +and were able to get the output up to nine hundred +barrels, then one thousand, and finally to over eleven +hundred barrels per day, thus more than realizing the +prediction made by Mr. Edison before even the plans +were drawn. It is only fair to say, however, that +prolonged experience has led us to the conclusion that +the maximum economy in continuous operation of +these kilns is obtained by working them at a little less +than their maximum capacity. + +"It is interesting to note, in connection with the +Edison type of kiln, that when the older cement +manufacturers first learned of it, they ridiculed the +idea universally, and were not slow to predict our +early `finish' as cement manufacturers. The ultimate +success of the kiln, however, proved their criticisms +to be unwarranted. Once aware of its possibility, +some of the cement manufacturers proceeded to +avail themselves of the innovation (at first without +Mr. Edison's consent), and to-day more than one-half +of the Portland cement produced in this country is +made in kilns of the Edison type. Old plants are +lengthening their kilns wherever practicable, and no +wide-awake manufacturer building a modern plant +could afford to install other than these long kilns. +This invention of Mr. Edison has been recognized +by the larger cement manufacturers, and there is +every prospect now that the entire trade will take +licenses under his kiln patents." + +When he decided to go into the cement business, +Edison was thoroughly awake to the fact that he +was proposing to "butt into" an old-established +industry, in which the principal manufacturers were +concerns of long standing. He appreciated fully its +inherent difficulties, not only in manufacture, but +also in the marketing of the product. These +considerations, together with his long-settled principle +of striving always to make the best, induced him +at the outset to study methods of producing the +highest quality of product. Thus he was led to +originate innovations in processes, some of which have +been preserved as trade secrets; but of the others +there are two deserving special notice--namely, the +accuracy of mixing and the fineness of grinding. + +In cement-making, generally speaking, cement rock +and limestone in the rough are mixed together in such +relative quantities as may be determined upon in +advance by chemical analysis. In many plants this +mixture is made by barrow or load units, and may be +more or less accurate. Rule-of-thumb methods are +never acceptable to Edison, and he devised therefore +a system of weighing each part of the mixture, +so that it would be correct to a pound, and, even at +that, made the device "fool-proof," for as he observed +to one of his associates: "The man at the scales +might get to thinking of the other fellow's best girl, +so fifty or a hundred pounds of rock, more or less, +wouldn't make much difference to him." The Edison +checking plan embraces two hoppers suspended above +two platform scales whose beams are electrically +connected with a hopper-closing device by means of +needles dipping into mercury cups. The scales are +set according to the chemist's weighing orders, and +the material is fed into the scales from the hoppers. +The instant the beam tips, the connection is broken +and the feed stops instantly, thus rendering it impossible +to introduce any more material until the charge +has been unloaded. + +The fine grinding of cement clinker is distinctively +Edisonian in both origin and application. As has +been already intimated, its author followed a thorough +course of reading on the subject long before reaching +the actual projection or installation of a plant, and +he had found all authorities to agree on one important +point--namely, that the value of cement depends +upon the fineness to which it is ground.[16] He also +ascertained that in the trade the standard of fineness +was that 75 per cent. of the whole mass would pass +through a 200-mesh screen. Having made some +improvements in his grinding and screening apparatus, +and believing that in the future engineers, builders, +and contractors would eventually require a higher +degree of fineness, he determined, in advance of +manufacturing, to raise the standard ten points, so that at +least 85 per cent. of his product should pass through +a 200-mesh screen. This was a bold step to be taken +by a new-comer, but his judgment, backed by a full +confidence in ability to live up to this standard, has +been fully justified in its continued maintenance, +despite the early incredulity of older manufacturers +as to the possibility of attaining such a high degree +of fineness. + + +[16] For a proper understanding and full appreciation of the +importance of fine grinding, it may be explained that Portland +cement (as manufactured in the Lehigh Valley) is made from +what is commonly spoken of as "cement rock," with the addition +of sufficient limestone to give the necessary amount of lime. +The rock is broken down and then ground to a fineness of 80 to +90 per cent. through a 200-mesh screen. This ground material +passes through kilns and comes out in "clinker." This is ground +and that part of this finely ground clinker that will pass a 200- +mesh screen is cement; the residue is still clinker. These coarse +particles, or clinkers, absorb water very slowly, are practically +inert, and have very feeble cementing properties. The residue +on a 200-mesh screen is useless. + + +If Edison measured his happiness, as men often +do, by merely commercial or pecuniary rewards of +success, it would seem almost redundant to state +that he has continued to manifest an intense interest +in the cement plant. Ordinarily, his interest as an +inventor wanes in proportion to the approach to mere +commercialism--in other words, the keenness of his +pleasure is in overcoming difficulties rather than the +mere piling up of a bank account. He is entirely +sensible of the advantages arising from a good balance +at the banker's, but that has not been the goal of his +ambition. Hence, although his cement enterprise +reached the commercial stage a long time ago, he has +been firmly convinced of his own ability to devise +still further improvements and economical processes +of greater or less fundamental importance, and has, +therefore, made a constant study of the problem as +a whole and in all its parts. By means of frequent +reports, aided by his remarkable memory, he keeps +in as close touch with the plant as if he were there in +person every day, and is thus enabled to suggest +improvement in any particular detail. The engineering +force has a great respect for the accuracy of his +knowledge of every part of the plant, for he remembers +the dimensions and details of each item of machinery, +sometimes to the discomfiture of those who +are around it every day. + +A noteworthy instance of Edison's memory occurred +in connection with this cement plant. Some +years ago, as its installation was nearing completion, +he went up to look it over and satisfy himself as to +what needed to be done. On the arrival of the train +at 10.40 in the morning, he went to the mill, and, +with Mr. Mason, the general superintendent, started +at the crusher at one end, and examined every detail +all the way through to the packing-house at the other +end. He made neither notes nor memoranda, but +the examination required all the day, which happened +to be a Saturday. He took a train for home at 5.30 +in the afternoon, and on arriving at his residence at +Orange, got out some note-books and began to write +entirely from memory each item consecutively. He +continued at this task all through Saturday night, +and worked steadily on until Sunday afternoon, +when he completed a list of nearly six hundred items. +The nature of this feat is more appreciable from +the fact that a large number of changes included +all the figures of new dimensions he had decided +upon for some of the machinery throughout the +plant. + +As the reader may have a natural curiosity to learn +whether or not the list so made was practical, it may +be stated that it was copied and sent up to the general +superintendent with instructions to make the +modifications suggested, and report by numbers as +they were attended to. This was faithfully done, all +the changes being made before the plant was put into +operation. Subsequent experience has amply proven +the value of Edison's prescience at this time. + +Although Edison's achievements in the way of improved +processes and machinery have already made a +deep impression in the cement industry, it is probable +that this impression will become still more profoundly +stamped upon it in the near future with the +exploitation of his "Poured Cement House." The +broad problem which he set himself was to provide +handsome and practically indestructible detached +houses, which could be taken by wage-earners at very +moderate monthly rentals. He turned this question +over in his mind for several years, and arrived at the +conclusion that a house cast in one piece would be +the answer. To produce such a house involved the +overcoming of many engineering and other technical +difficulties. These he attacked vigorously and disposed +of patiently one by one. + +In this connection a short anecdote may be quoted +from Edison as indicative of one of the influences +turning his thoughts in this direction. In the story +of the ore-milling work, it has been noted that the +plant was shut down owing to the competition of +the cheap ore from the Mesaba Range. Edison says: +"When I shut down, the insurance companies cancelled +my insurance. I asked the reason why. `Oh,' they +said, `this thing is a failure. The moral risk is too +great.' `All right; I am glad to hear it. I will now +construct buildings that won't have any moral risk.' +I determined to go into the Portland cement business. +I organized a company and started cement-works +which have now been running successfully for several +years. I had so perfected the machinery in trying +to get my ore costs down that the making of cheap +cement was an easy matter to me. I built these +works entirely of concrete and steel, so that there is +not a wagon-load of lumber in them; and so that +the insurance companies would not have any possibility +of having any `moral risk.' Since that time +I have put up numerous factory buildings all of steel +and concrete, without any combustible whatever +about them--to avoid this `moral risk.' I am carrying +further the application of this idea in building +private houses for poor people, in which there will be +no `moral risk' at all--nothing whatever to burn, +not even by lightning." + +As a casting necessitates a mold, together with a +mixture sufficiently fluid in its nature to fill all the +interstices completely, Edison devoted much attention +to an extensive series of experiments for producing +a free-flowing combination of necessary +materials. His proposition was against all precedent. +All expert testimony pointed to the fact that a mixture +of concrete (cement, sand, crushed stone, and +water) could not be made to flow freely to the small- +est parts of an intricate set of molds; that the heavy +parts of the mixture could not be held in suspension, +but would separate out by gravity and make an unevenly +balanced structure; that the surface would +be full of imperfections, etc. + +Undeterred by the unanimity of adverse opinions, +however, he pursued his investigations with the +thorough minuteness that characterizes all his +laboratory work, and in due time produced a mixture +which on elaborate test overcame all objections and +answered the complex requirements perfectly, +including the making of a surface smooth, even, and +entirely waterproof. All the other engineering +problems have received study in like manner, and have +been overcome, until at the present writing the whole +question is practically solved and has been reduced +to actual practice. The Edison poured or cast cement +house may be reckoned as a reality. + +The general scheme, briefly outlined, is to prepare +a model and plans of the house to be cast, and then +to design a set of molds in sections of convenient +size. When all is ready, these molds, which are of +cast iron with smooth interior surfaces, are taken to +the place where the house is to be erected. Here +there has been provided a solid concrete cellar floor, +technically called "footing." The molds are then +locked together so that they rest on this footing. +Hundreds of pieces are necessary for the complete +set. When they have been completely assembled, there +will be a hollow space in the interior, representing the +shape of the house. Reinforcing rods are also placed +in the molds, to be left behind in the finished house. + +Next comes the pouring of the concrete mixture +into this form. Large mechanical mixers are used, +and, as it is made, the mixture is dumped into tanks, +from which it is conveyed to a distributing tank on +the top, or roof, of the form. From this tank a large +number of open troughs or pipes lead the mixture to +various openings in the roof, whence it flows down +and fills all parts of the mold from the footing in +the basement until it overflows at the tip of the +roof. + +The pouring of the entire house is accomplished in +about six hours, and then the molds are left undisturbed +for six days, in order that the concrete may +set and harden. After that time the work of taking +away the molds is begun. This requires three or +four days. When the molds are taken away an entire +house is disclosed, cast in one piece, from cellar +to tip of roof, complete with floors, interior walls, +stairways, bath and laundry tubs, electric-wire +conduits, gas, water, and heating pipes. No plaster is +used anywhere; but the exterior and interior walls +are smooth and may be painted or tinted, if desired. +All that is now necessary is to put in the windows, +doors, heater, and lighting fixtures, and to connect +up the plumbing and heating arrangements, thus +making the house ready for occupancy. + +As these iron molds are not ephemeral like the +wooden framing now used in cement construction, but +of practically illimitable life, it is obvious that they +can be used a great number of times. A complete +set of molds will cost approximately $25,000, while +the necessary plant will cost about $15,000 more. +It is proposed to work as a unit plant for successful +operation at least six sets of molds, to keep the men +busy and the machinery going. Any one, with a +sheet of paper, can ascertain the yearly interest on +the investment as a fixed charge to be assessed against +each house, on the basis that one hundred and forty- +four houses can be built in a year with the battery of +six sets of molds. Putting the sum at $175,000, and +the interest at 6 per cent. on the cost of the molds +and 4 per cent. for breakage, together with 6 per +cent. interest and 15 per cent. depreciation on +machinery, the plant charge is approximately $140 +per house. It does not require a particularly acute +prophetic vision to see "Flower Towns" of "Poured +Houses" going up in whole suburbs outside all our +chief centres of population. + +Edison's conception of the workingman's ideal +house has been a broad one from the very start. He +was not content merely to provide a roomy, moderately +priced house that should be fireproof, waterproof, +and vermin-proof, and practically indestructible, but +has been solicitous to get away from the idea of a +plain "packing-box" type. He has also provided for +ornamentation of a high class in designing the details +of the structure. As he expressed it: "We will +give the workingman and his family ornamentation +in their house. They deserve it, and besides, it costs +no more after the pattern is made to give decorative +effects than it would to make everything plain." +The plans have provided for a type of house that +would cost not far from $30,000 if built of cut stone. +He gave to Messrs. Mann & McNaillie, architects, +New York, his idea of the type of house he wanted. +On receiving these plans he changed them considerably, +and built a model. After making many more +changes in this while in the pattern shop, he produced +a house satisfactory to himself. + +This one-family house has a floor plan twenty-five +by thirty feet, and is three stories high. The first +floor is divided off into two large rooms--parlor and +living-room--and the upper floors contain four large +bedrooms, a roomy bath-room, and wide halls. The +front porch extends eight feet, and the back porch +three feet. A cellar seven and a half feet high extends +under the whole house, and will contain the boiler, +wash-tubs, and coal-bunker. It is intended that the +house shall be built on lots forty by sixty feet, giving +a lawn and a small garden. + +It is contemplated that these houses shall be built +in industrial communities, where they can be put up +in groups of several hundred. If erected in this manner, +and by an operator buying his materials in large +quantities, Edison believes that these houses can +be erected complete, including heating apparatus and +plumbing, for $1200 each. This figure would also rest +on the basis of using in the mixture the gravel +excavated on the site. Comment has been made by +persons of artistic taste on the monotony of a cluster +of houses exactly alike in appearance, but this +criticism has been anticipated, and the molds are so +made as to be capable of permutations of arrangement. +Thus it will be possible to introduce almost +endless changes in the style of house by variation of +the same set of molds. + +For more than forty years Edison was avowedly +an inventor for purely commercial purposes; but +within the last two years he decided to retire from +that field so far as new inventions were concerned, +and to devote himself to scientific research and +experiment in the leisure hours that might remain after +continuing to improve his existing devices. But +although the poured cement house was planned during +the commercial period, the spirit in which it was +conceived arose out of an earnest desire to place within +the reach of the wage-earner an opportunity to better +his physical, pecuniary, and mental conditions in so +far as that could be done through the medium of +hygienic and beautiful homes at moderate rentals. +From the first Edison has declared that it was not +his intention to benefit pecuniarily through the +exploitation of this project. Having actually demonstrated +the practicability and feasibility of his plans, +he will allow responsible concerns to carry them into +practice under such limitations as may be necessary +to sustain the basic object, but without any payment +to him except for the actual expense incurred. The +hypercritical may cavil and say that, as a manufacturer +of cement, Edison will be benefited. True, +but as ANY good Portland cement can be used, +and no restrictions as to source of supply are enforced, +he, or rather his company, will be merely one +of many possible purveyors. + +This invention is practically a gift to the workingmen +of the world and their families. The net result +will be that those who care to avail themselves of the +privilege may, sooner or later, forsake the crowded +apartment or tenement and be comfortably housed +in sanitary, substantial, and roomy homes fitted with +modern conveniences, and beautified by artistic +decorations, with no outlay for insurance or repairs; no +dread of fire, and all at a rental which Edison +believes will be not more, but probably less than, $10 +per month in any city of the United States. While his +achievement in its present status will bring about +substantial and immediate benefits to wage-earners, +his thoughts have already travelled some years ahead +in the formulation of a still further beneficial project +looking toward the individual ownership of these +houses on a basis startling in its practical possibilities. + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +MOTION PICTURES + +THE preceding chapters have treated of Edison in +various aspects as an inventor, some of which +are familiar to the public, others of which are believed +to be in the nature of a novel revelation, simply because +no one had taken the trouble before to put the +facts together. To those who have perhaps grown +weary of seeing Edison's name in articles of a sensational +character, it may sound strange to say that, +after all, justice has not been done to his versatile +and many-sided nature; and that the mere prosaic +facts of his actual achievement outrun the wildest +flights of irrelevant journalistic imagination. Edison +hates nothing more than to be dubbed a genius or +played up as a "wizard"; but this fate has dogged +him until he has come at last to resign himself to it +with a resentful indignation only to be appreciated +when watching him read the latest full-page Sunday +"spread" that develops a casual conversation into +oracular verbosity, and gives to his shrewd surmise +the cast of inspired prophecy. + +In other words, Edison's real work has seldom been +seriously discussed. Rather has it been taken as a +point of departure into a realm of fancy and romance, +where as a relief from drudgery he is sometimes quite +willing to play the pipe if some one will dance to it. +Indeed, the stories woven around his casual suggestions +are tame and vapid alongside his own essays +in fiction, probably never to be published, but which +show what a real inventor can do when he cuts loose +to create a new heaven and a new earth, unrestrained +by any formal respect for existing conditions of servitude +to three dimensions and the standard elements. + +The present chapter, essentially technical in its +subject-matter, is perhaps as significant as any in this +biography, because it presents Edison as the Master +Impresario of his age, and maybe of many following +ages also. His phonographs and his motion pictures +have more audiences in a week than all the theatres +in America in a year. The "Nickelodeon" is the central +fact in modern amusement, and Edison founded +it. All that millions know of music and drama he +furnishes; and the whole study of the theatrical managers +thus reaching the masses is not to ascertain the +limitations of the new art, but to discover its boundless +possibilities. None of the exuberant versions of +things Edison has not done could endure for a moment +with the simple narrative of what he has really done +as the world's new Purveyor of Pleasure. And yet +it all depends on the toilful conquest of a subtle and +intricate art. The story of the invention of the +phonograph has been told. That of the evolution +of motion pictures follows. It is all one piece of +sober, careful analysis, and stubborn, successful +attack on the problem. + +The possibility of making a record of animate movement, +and subsequently reproducing it, was predicted +long before the actual accomplishment. This, as we +have seen, was also the case with the phonograph, +the telephone, and the electric light. As to the +phonograph, the prediction went only so far as the +RESULT; the apparent intricacy of the problem being +so great that the MEANS for accomplishing the desired +end were seemingly beyond the grasp of the imagination +or the mastery of invention. + +With the electric light and the telephone the prediction +included not only the result to be accomplished, +but, in a rough and general way, the mechanism +itself; that is to say, long before a single sound +was intelligibly transmitted it was recognized that +such a thing might be done by causing a diaphragm, +vibrated by original sounds, to communicate its +movements to a distant diaphragm by a suitably +controlled electric current. In the case of the electric +light, the heating of a conductor to incandescence in +a highly rarefied atmosphere was suggested as a +scheme of illumination long before its actual +accomplishment, and in fact before the production of a +suitable generator for delivering electric current in a +satisfactory and economical manner. + +It is a curious fact that while the modern art of +motion pictures depends essentially on the development +of instantaneous photography, the suggestion +of the possibility of securing a reproduction of animate +motion, as well as, in a general way, of the +mechanism for accomplishing the result, was made +many years before the instantaneous photograph became +possible. While the first motion picture was +not actually produced until the summer of 1889, its +real birth was almost a century earlier, when Plateau, +in France, constructed an optical toy, to which the +impressive name of "Phenakistoscope" was applied, +for producing an illusion of motion. This toy in turn +was the forerunner of the Zoetrope, or so-called +"Wheel of Life," which was introduced into this +country about the year 1845. These devices were +essentially toys, depending for their successful +operation (as is the case with motion pictures) upon a +physiological phenomenon known as persistence of +vision. If, for instance, a bright light is moved +rapidly in front of the eye in a dark room, it appears +not as an illuminated spark, but as a line of fire; a +so-called shooting star, or a flash of lightning produces +the same effect. This result is purely physiological, +and is due to the fact that the retina of the eye may +be considered as practically a sensitized plate of +relatively slow speed, and an image impressed upon it +remains, before being effaced, for a period of from +one-tenth to one-seventh of a second, varying according +to the idiosyncrasies of the individual and the intensity +of the light. When, therefore, it is said that +we should only believe things we actually see, we +ought to remember that in almost every instance we +never see things as they are. + +Bearing in mind the fact that when an image is +impressed on the human retina it persists for an +appreciable period, varying as stated, with the +individual, and depending also upon the intensity of the +illumination, it will be seen that, if a number of pictures +or photographs are successively presented to the +eye, they will appear as a single, continuous photo- +graph, provided the periods between them are short +enough to prevent one of the photographs from being +effaced before its successor is presented. If, for +instance, a series of identical portraits were rapidly +presented to the eye, a single picture would apparently +be viewed, or if we presented to the eye the series +of photographs of a moving object, each one representing +a minute successive phase of the movement, +the movements themselves would apparently again +take place. + +With the Zoetrope and similar toys rough drawings +were used for depicting a few broadly outlined +successive phases of movement, because in their day +instantaneous photography was unknown, and in addition +there were certain crudities of construction that +seriously interfered with the illumination of the pictures, +rendering it necessary to make them practically +as silhouettes on a very conspicuous background. +Hence it will be obvious that these toys produced +merely an ILLUSION of THEORETICAL motion. + +But with the knowledge of even an illusion of +motion, and with the philosophy of persistence of +vision fully understood, it would seem that, upon the +development of instantaneous photography, the +reproduction of ACTUAL motion by means of pictures +would have followed, almost as a necessary consequence. +Yet such was not the case, and success was +ultimately accomplished by Edison only after +persistent experimenting along lines that could not +have been predicted, including the construction of +apparatus for the purpose, which, if it had not been +made, would undoubtedly be considered impossible. +In fact, if it were not for Edison's peculiar mentality, +that refuses to recognize anything as impossible until +indubitably demonstrated to be so, the production +of motion pictures would certainly have been delayed +for years, if not for all time. + +One of the earliest suggestions of the possibility of +utilizing photography for exhibiting the illusion of +actual movement was made by Ducos, who, as early +as 1864, obtained a patent in France, in which he said: +"My invention consists in substituting rapidly and +without confusion to the eye not only of an individual, +but when so desired of a whole assemblage, the enlarged +images of a great number of pictures when taken +instantaneously and successively at very short +intervals.... The observer will believe that he sees +only one image, which changes gradually by reason of +the successive changes of form and position of the +objects which occur from one picture to the other. +Even supposing that there be a slight interval of +time during which the same object was not shown, +the persistence of the luminous impression upon the +eye will fill this gap. There will be as it were a living +representation of nature and . . . the same scene will +be reproduced upon the screen with the same degree +of animation.... By means of my apparatus I am +enabled especially to reproduce the passing of a +procession, a review of military manoeuvres, the +movements of a battle, a public fete, a theatrical scene, +the evolution or the dances of one or of several persons, +the changing expression of countenance, or, if +one desires, the grimaces of a human face; a marine +view, the motion of waves, the passage of clouds in +a stormy sky, particularly in a mountainous country, +the eruption of a volcano," etc. + +Other dreamers, contemporaries of Ducos, made +similar suggestions; they recognized the scientific +possibility of the problem, but they were irretrievably +handicapped by the shortcomings of photography. +Even when substantially instantaneous photographs +were evolved at a somewhat later date they +were limited to the use of wet plates, which have +to be prepared by the photographer and used immediately, +and were therefore quite out of the question +for any practical commercial scheme. Besides +this, the use of plates would have been impracticable, +because the limitations of their weight and size would +have prevented the taking of a large number of pictures +at a high rate of speed, even if the sensitized +surface had been sufficiently rapid. + +Nothing ever came of Ducos' suggestions and those +of the early dreamers in this essentially practical and +commercial art, and their ideas have made no greater +impress upon the final result than Jules Verne's +Nautilus of our boyhood days has developed the +modern submarine. From time to time further +suggestions were made, some in patents, and others in +photographic and scientific publications, all dealing +with the fascinating thought of preserving and +representing actual scenes and events. The first serious +attempt to secure an illusion of motion by photography +was made in 1878 by Eadward Muybridge as a result +of a wager with the late Senator Leland Stanford, +the California pioneer and horse-lover, who had +asserted, contrary to the usual belief, that a trotting- +horse at one point in its gait left the ground entirely. +At this time wet plates of very great rapidity were +known, and by arranging a series of cameras along +the line of a track and causing the horse in trotting +past them, by striking wires or strings attached to the +shutters, to actuate the cameras at the right instant, +a series of very clear instantaneous photographs was +obtained. From these negatives, when developed, +positive prints were made, which were later mounted +on a modified form of Zoetrope and projected upon +a screen. + +One of these early exhibitions is described in the +Scientific American of June 5, 1880: "While the +separate photographs had shown the successive positions +of a trotting or running horse in making a +single stride, the Zoogyroscope threw upon the screen +apparently the living animal. Nothing was wanting +but the clatter of hoofs upon the turf, and an occasional +breath of steam from the nostrils, to make the +spectator believe that he had before him genuine +flesh-and-blood steeds. In the views of hurdle-leaping, +the simulation was still more admirable, even +to the motion of the tail as the animal gathered for +the jump, the raising of his head, all were there. +Views of an ox trotting, a wild bull on the charge, +greyhounds and deer running and birds flying in mid- +air were shown, also athletes in various positions." +It must not be assumed from this statement that +even as late as the work of Muybridge anything like +a true illusion of movement had been obtained, because +such was not the case. Muybridge secured +only one cycle of movement, because a separate +camera had to be used for each photograph and +consequently each cycle was reproduced over and +over again. To have made photographs of a trotting- +horse for one minute at the moderate rate of twelve +per second would have required, under the Muybridge +scheme, seven hundred and twenty separate cameras, +whereas with the modern art only a single camera is +used. A further defect with the Muybridge pictures +was that since each photograph was secured when +the moving object was in the centre of the plate, the +reproduction showed the object always centrally on +the screen with its arms or legs in violent movement, +but not making any progress, and with the scenery +rushing wildly across the field of view! + +In the early 80's the dry plate was first introduced +into general use, and from that time onward its rapidity +and quality were gradually improved; so much +so that after 1882 Prof. E. J. Marey, of the French +Academy, who in 1874 had published a well-known +treatise on "Animal Movement," was able by the +use of dry plates to carry forward the experiments of +Muybridge on a greatly refined scale. Marey was, +however, handicapped by reason of the fact that glass +plates were still used, although he was able with +a single camera to obtain twelve photographs on +successive plates in the space of one second. Marey, +like Muybridge, photographed only one cycle of the +movements of a single object, which was subsequently +reproduced over and over again, and the +camera was in the form of a gun, which could follow +the object so that the successive pictures would be +always located in the centre of the plates. + +The review above given, as briefly as possible, +comprises substantially the sum of the world's +knowledge at the time the problem of recording and +reproducing animate movement was first undertaken +by Edison. The most that could be said of the +condition of the art when Edison entered the field was +that it had been recognized that if a series of +instantaneous photographs of a moving object could +be secured at an enormously high rate many times +per second--they might be passed before the eye +either directly or by projection upon a screen, and +thereby result in a reproduction of the movements. +Two very serious difficulties lay in the way of actual +accomplishment, however--first, the production of a +sensitive surface in such form and weight as to be +capable of being successively brought into position +and exposed, at the necessarily high rate; and, second, +the production of a camera capable of so taking +the pictures. There were numerous other workers +in the field, but they added nothing to what had already +been proposed. Edison himself knew nothing +of Ducos, or that the suggestions had advanced beyond +the single centrally located photographs of +Muybridge and Marey. As a matter of public policy, +the law presumes that an inventor must be familiar +with all that has gone before in the field within which +he is working, and if a suggestion is limited to a patent +granted in New South Wales, or is described in a +single publication in Brazil, an inventor in America, +engaged in the same field of thought, is by legal fiction +presumed to have knowledge not only of the existence +of that patent or publication, but of its contents. +We say this not in the way of an apology for the +extent of Edison's contribution to the motion-picture +art, because there can be no question that he was as +much the creator of that art as he was of the phonographic +art; but to show that in a practical sense the +suggestion of the art itself was original with him. He +himself says: "In the year 1887 the idea occurred +to me that it was possible to devise an instrument +which should do for the eye what the phonograph +does for the ear, and that by a combination of the +two, all motion and sound could be recorded and +reproduced simultaneously. This idea, the germ of +which came from the little toy called the Zoetrope +and the work of Muybridge, Marey, and others, has +now been accomplished, so that every change of +facial expression can be recorded and reproduced life- +size. The kinetoscope is only a small model illustrating +the present stage of the progress, but with +each succeeding month new possibilities are brought +into view. I believe that in coming years, by my +own work and that of Dickson, Muybridge, Marey, +and others who will doubtless enter the field, grand +opera can be given at the Metropolitan Opera House +at New York without any material change from the +original, and with artists and musicians long since +dead." + +In the earliest experiments attempts were made +to secure the photographs, reduced microscopically, +arranged spirally on a cylinder about the size of a +phonograph record, and coated with a highly sensitized +surface, the cylinder being given an intermittent +movement, so as to be at rest during each +exposure. Reproductions were obtained in the same +way, positive prints being observed through a +magnifying glass. Various forms of apparatus following +this general type were made, but they were all open +to the serious objection that the very rapid emulsions +employed were relatively coarse-grained and prevented +the securing of sharp pictures of microscopic +size. On the other hand, the enlarging of the +apparatus to permit larger pictures to be obtained +would present too much weight to be stopped and +started with the requisite rapidity. In these early +experiments, however, it was recognized that, to +secure proper results, a single camera should be used, +so that the objects might move across its field just +as they move across the field of the human eye; and +the important fact was also observed that the rate +at which persistence of vision took place represented +the minimum speed at which the pictures should be +obtained. If, for instance, five pictures per second +were taken (half of the time being occupied in +exposure and the other half in moving the exposed +portion of the film out of the field of the lens and +bringing a new portion into its place), and the same ratio +is observed in exhibiting the pictures, the interval of +time between successive pictures would be one-tenth +of a second; and for a normal eye such an exhibition +would present a substantially continuous photograph. +If the angular movement of the object across the field +is very slow, as, for instance, a distant vessel, the +successive positions of the object are so nearly coincident +that when reproduced before the eye an impression +of smooth, continuous movement is secured. If, how- +ever, the object is moving rapidly across the field of +view, one picture will be separated from its successor +to a marked extent, and the resulting impression will +be jerky and unnatural. Recognizing this fact, Edison +always sought for a very high speed, so as to give +smooth and natural reproductions, and even with his +experimental apparatus obtained upward of forty- +eight pictures per second, whereas, in practice, at the +present time, the accepted rate varies between twenty +and thirty per second. In the efforts of the present +day to economize space by using a minimum length +of film, pictures are frequently taken at too slow a +rate, and the reproductions are therefore often +objectionable, by reason of more or less jerkiness. + +During the experimental period and up to the early +part of 1889, the kodak film was being slowly +developed by the Eastman Kodak Company. Edison +perceived in this product the solution of the problem +on which he had been working, because the film presented +a very light body of tough material on which +relatively large photographs could be taken at rapid +intervals. The surface, however, was not at first +sufficiently sensitive to admit of sharply defined +pictures being secured at the necessarily high rates. +It seemed apparent, therefore, that in order to obtain +the desired speed there would have to be sacrificed +that fineness of emulsion necessary for the securing +of sharp pictures. But as was subsequently seen, +this sacrifice was in time rendered unnecessary. +Much credit is due the Eastman experts--stimulated +and encouraged by Edison, but independently of +him--for the production at last of a highly sensitized, +fine-grained emulsion presenting the highly sensitized +surface that Edison sought. + +Having at last obtained apparently the proper +material upon which to secure the photographs, the +problem then remained to devise an apparatus by +means of which from twenty to forty pictures per +second could be taken; the film being stationary +during the exposure and, upon the closing of the +shutter, being moved to present a fresh surface. In +connection with this problem it is interesting to note +that this question of high speed was apparently regarded +by all Edison's predecessors as the crucial +point. Ducos, for example, expended a great deal +of useless ingenuity in devising a camera by means +of which a tape-line film could receive the photographs +while being in continuous movement, necessitating +the use of a series of moving lenses. Another +experimenter, Dumont, made use of a single large +plate and a great number of lenses which were +successively exposed. Muybridge, as we have seen, +used a series of cameras, one for each plate. Marey +was limited to a very few photographs, because the +entire surface had to be stopped and started in +connection with each exposure. + +After the accomplishment of the fact, it would seem +to be the obvious thing to use a single lens and move +the sensitized film with respect to it, intermittently +bringing the surface to rest, then exposing it, then +cutting off the light and moving the surface to a +fresh position; but who, other than Edison, would +assume that such a device could be made to repeat +these movements over and over again at the rate of +twenty to forty per second? Users of kodaks and +other forms of film cameras will appreciate perhaps +better than others the difficulties of the problem, +because in their work, after an exposure, they have +to advance the film forward painfully to the extent of +the next picture before another exposure can take +place, these operations permitting of speeds of but a +few pictures per minute at best. Edison's solution of +the problem involved the production of a kodak in +which from twenty to forty pictures should be taken +IN EACH SECOND, and with such fineness of adjustment +that each should exactly coincide with its predecessors +even when subjected to the test of enlargement by +projection. This, however, was finally accomplished, +and in the summer of 1889 the first modern motion- +picture camera was made. More than this, the +mechanism for operating the film was so constructed +that the movement of the film took place in one- +tenth of the time required for the exposure, giving +the film an opportunity to come to rest prior to the +opening of the shutter. From that day to this the +Edison camera has been the accepted standard for +securing pictures of objects in motion, and such +changes as have been made in it have been purely +in the nature of detail mechanical refinements. + +The earliest form of exhibiting apparatus, known +as the Kinetoscope, was a machine in which a positive +print from the negative obtained in the camera +was exhibited directly to the eye through a peep- +hole; but in 1895 the films were applied to modified +forms of magic lanterns, by which the images are +projected upon a screen. Since that date the industry +has developed very rapidly, and at the present time +(1910) all of the principal American manufacturers +of motion pictures are paying a royalty to Edison +under his basic patents. + +From the early days of pictures representing simple +movements, such as a man sneezing, or a skirt-dance, +there has been a gradual evolution, until now the +pictures represent not only actual events in all their +palpitating instantaneity, but highly developed dramas +and scenarios enacted in large, well-equipped +glass studios, and the result of infinite pains and +expense of production. These pictures are exhibited +in upward of eight thousand places of amusement in +the United States, and are witnessed by millions of +people each year. They constitute a cheap, clean +form of amusement for many persons who cannot +spare the money to go to the ordinary theatres, or +they may be exhibited in towns that are too small +to support a theatre. More than this, they offer to +the poor man an effective substitute for the saloon. +Probably no invention ever made has afforded more +pleasure and entertainment than the motion picture. + +Aside from the development of the motion picture +as a spectacle, there has gone on an evolution in its +use for educational purposes of wide range, which +must not be overlooked. In fact, this form of utilization +has been carried further in Europe than in this +country as a means of demonstration in the arts and +sciences. One may study animal life, watch a surgical +operation, follow the movement of machinery, +take lessons in facial expression or in calisthenics. +It seems a pity that in motion pictures should at last +have been found the only competition that the ancient +marionettes cannot withstand. But aside from +the disappearance of those entertaining puppets, all +else is gain in the creation of this new art. + +The work at the Edison laboratory in the development +of the motion picture was as usual intense and +concentrated, and, as might be expected, many of +the early experiments were quite primitive in their +character until command had been secured of relatively +perfect apparatus. The subjects registered +jerkily by the films were crude and amusing, such as +of Fred Ott's sneeze, Carmencita dancing, Italians +and their performing bears, fencing, trapeze stunts, +horsemanship, blacksmithing--just simple movements +without any attempt to portray the silent drama. +One curious incident of this early study occurred +when "Jim" Corbett was asked to box a few rounds +in front of the camera, with a "dark un" to be selected +locally. This was agreed to, and a celebrated +bruiser was brought over from Newark. When this +"sparring partner" came to face Corbett in the imitation +ring he was so paralyzed with terror he could +hardly move. It was just after Corbett had won +one of his big battles as a prize-fighter, and the dismay +of his opponent was excusable. The "boys" at the +laboratory still laugh consumedly when they tell +about it. + +The first motion-picture studio was dubbed by the +staff the "Black Maria." It was an unpretentious +oblong wooden structure erected in the laboratory +yard, and had a movable roof in the central part. +This roof could be raised or lowered at will. The +building was covered with black roofing paper, and +was also painted black inside. There was no scenery +to render gay this lugubrious environment, but the +black interior served as the common background for +the performers, throwing all their actions into high +relief. The whole structure was set on a pivot so +that it could be swung around with the sun; and +the movable roof was opened so that the accentuating +sunlight could stream in upon the actor whose +gesticulations were being caught by the camera. +These beginnings and crudities are very remote from +the elaborate and expensive paraphernalia and machinery +with which the art is furnished to-day. + +At the present time the studios in which motion +pictures are taken are expensive and pretentious +affairs. An immense building of glass, with all the +properties and stage-settings of a regular theatre, +is required. The Bronx Park studio of the Edison +company cost at least one hundred thousand dollars, +while the well-known house of Pathe Freres in +France--one of Edison's licensees--makes use of no +fewer than seven of these glass theatres. All of the +larger producers of pictures in this country and +abroad employ regular stock companies of actors, +men and women selected especially for their skill in +pantomime, although, as most observers have perhaps +suspected, in the actual taking of the pictures the +performers are required to carry on an animated and +prepared dialogue with the same spirit and animation +as on the regular stage. Before setting out on +the preparation of a picture, the book is first written +--known in the business as a scenario--giving a +complete statement as to the scenery, drops and +background, and the sequence of events, divided into +scenes as in an ordinary play. These are placed in +the hands of a "producer," corresponding to a stage- +director, generally an actor or theatrical man of +experience, with a highly developed dramatic instinct. +The various actors are selected, parts are assigned, +and the scene-painters are set to work on the production +of the desired scenery. Before the photographing +of a scene, a long series of rehearsals takes +place, the incidents being gone over and over again +until the actors are "letter perfect." So persistent +are the producers in the matter of rehearsals and the +refining and elaboration of details, that frequently +a picture that may be actually photographed and +reproduced in fifteen minutes, may require two or +three weeks for its production. After the rehearsal +of a scene has advanced sufficiently to suit the +critical requirements of the producer, the camera +man is in requisition, and he is consulted as to lighting +so as to produce the required photographic effect. +Preferably, of course, sunlight is used whenever +possible, hence the glass studios; but on dark days, and +when night-work is necessary, artificial light of +enormous candle-power is used, either mercury arcs or +ordinary arc lights of great size and number. + +Under all conditions the light is properly screened +and diffused to suit the critical eye of the camera +man. All being in readiness, the actual picture is +taken, the actors going through their rehearsed parts, +the producer standing out of the range of the camera, +and with a megaphone to his lips yelling out his +instructions, imprecations, and approval, and the +camera man grinding at the crank of the camera and +securing the pictures at the rate of twenty or more +per second, making a faithful and permanent record +of every movement and every change of facial +expression. At the end of the scene the negative is +developed in the ordinary way, and is then ready for +use in the printing of the positives for sale. When a +further scene in the play takes place in the same +setting, and without regard to its position in the +plot, it is taken up, rehearsed, and photographed in +the same way, and afterward all the scenes are +cemented together in the proper sequence, and form +the complete negative. Frequently, therefore, in the +production of a motion-picture play, the first and the +last scene may be taken successively, the only thing +necessary being, of course, that after all is done the +various scenes should be arranged in their proper +order. The frames, having served their purpose, now +go back to the scene-painter for further use. All +pictures are not taken in studios, because when light +and weather permit and proper surroundings can be +secured outside, scenes can best be obtained with +natural scenery--city streets, woods, and fields. The +great drawback to the taking of pictures out-of-doors, +however, is the inevitable crowd, attracted by the +novelty of the proceedings, which makes the camera +man's life a torment by getting into the field of his +instrument. The crowds are patient, however, and +in one Edison picture involving the blowing up of a +bridge by the villain of the piece and the substitution +of a pontoon bridge by a company of engineers just +in time to allow the heroine to pass over in her +automobile, more than a thousand people stood around +for almost an entire day waiting for the tedious +rehearsals to end and the actual performance to begin. +Frequently large bodies of men are used in pictures, +such as troops of soldiers, and it is an open secret that +for weeks during the Boer War regularly equipped +British and Boer armies confronted each other on the +peaceful hills of Orange, New Jersey, ready to enact +before the camera the stirring events told by the +cable from the seat of hostilities. These conflicts +were essentially harmless, except in one case during +the battle of Spion Kopje, when "General Cronje," +in his efforts to fire a wooden cannon, inadvertently +dropped his fuse into a large glass bottle containing +gunpowder. The effect was certainly most dramatic, +and created great enthusiasm among the many audiences +which viewed the completed production; but +the unfortunate general, who is still an employee, was +taken to the hospital, and even now, twelve years +afterward, he says with a grin that whenever he has +a moment of leisure he takes the time to pick a few +pieces of glass from his person! + +Edison's great contribution to the regular stage +was the incandescent electric lamp, which enabled +the production of scenic effects never before even +dreamed of, but which we accept now with so much +complacency. Yet with the motion picture, effects +are secured that could not be reproduced to the +slightest extent on the real stage. The villain, overcome +by a remorseful conscience, sees on the wall of +the room the very crime which he committed, with +HIMSELF as the principal actor; one of the easy effects +of double exposure. The substantial and ofttimes +corpulent ghost or spirit of the real stage has been +succeeded by an intangible wraith, as transparent +and unsubstantial as may be demanded in the best +book of fairy tales--more double exposure. A man +emerges from the water with a splash, ascends feet +foremost ten yards or more, makes a graceful curve +and lands on a spring-board, runs down it to the bank, +and his clothes fly gently up from the ground and +enclose his person--all unthinkable in real life, but +readily possible by running the motion-picture film +backward! The fairy prince commands the princess +to appear, consigns the bad brothers to instant +annihilation, turns the witch into a cat, confers life +on inanimate things; and many more startling and +apparently incomprehensible effects are carried out +with actual reality, by stop-work photography. In +one case, when the command for the heroine to come +forth is given, the camera is stopped, the young +woman walks to the desired spot, and the camera is +again started; the effect to the eye--not knowing of +this little by-play--is as if she had instantly appeared +from space. The other effects are perhaps obvious, +and the field and opportunities are absolutely +unlimited. Other curious effects are secured by taking +the pictures at a different speed from that at which +they are exhibited. If, for example, a scene occupying +thirty seconds is reproduced in ten seconds, the +movements will be three times as fast, and vice +versa. Many scenes familiar to the reader, showing +automobiles tearing along the road and rounding +corners at an apparently reckless speed, are really +pictures of slow and dignified movements reproduced +at a high speed. + +Brief reference has been made to motion pictures +of educational subjects, and in this field there are +very great opportunities for development. The study +of geography, scenes and incidents in foreign countries, +showing the lives and customs and surroundings +of other peoples, is obviously more entertaining +to the child when actively depicted on the screen +than when merely described in words. The lives of +great men, the enacting of important historical +events, the reproduction of great works of literature, +if visually presented to the child must necessarily +impress his mind with greater force than if shown +by mere words. We predict that the time is not +far distant when, in many of our public schools, two +or three hours a week will be devoted to this rational +and effective form of education. + +By applying microphotography to motion pictures +an additional field is opened up, one phase of +which may be the study of germ life and bacteria, +so that our future medical students may become as +familiar with the habits and customs of the Anthrax +bacillus, for example, as of the domestic cat. + +From whatever point of view the subject is approached, +the fact remains that in the motion picture, +perhaps more than with any other invention, Edison +has created an art that must always make a special +appeal to the mind and emotions of men, and although +so far it has not advanced much beyond the +field of amusement, it contains enormous possibilities +for serious development in the future. Let us not +think too lightly of the humble five-cent theatre with +its gaping crowd following with breathless interest +the vicissitudes of the beautiful heroine. Before us +lies an undeveloped land of opportunity which is +destined to play an important part in the growth +and welfare of the human race. + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EDISON STORAGE +BATTERY + +IT is more than a hundred years since the elementary +principle of the storage battery or "accumulator" +was detected by a Frenchman named Gautherot; it +is just fifty years since another Frenchman, named +Plante, discovered that on taking two thin plates of +sheet lead, immersing them in dilute sulphuric acid, +and passing an electric current through the cell, the +combination exhibited the ability to give back part +of the original charging current, owing to the chemical +changes and reactions set up. Plante coiled up his +sheets into a very handy cell like a little roll of carpet +or pastry; but the trouble was that the battery took a +long time to "form." One sheet becoming coated +with lead peroxide and the other with finely divided +or spongy metallic lead, they would receive current, +and then, even after a long period of inaction, furnish +or return an electromotive force of from 1.85 +to 2.2 volts. This ability to store up electrical energy +produced by dynamos in hours otherwise idle, whether +driven by steam, wind, or water, was a distinct advance +in the art; but the sensational step was taken about +1880, when Faure in France and Brush in America +broke away from the slow and weary process of "form- +ing" the plates, and hit on clever methods of furnishing +them "ready made," so to speak, by dabbing red +lead onto lead-grid plates, just as butter is spread on a +slice of home-made bread. This brought the storage +battery at once into use as a practical, manufactured +piece of apparatus; and the world was captivated +with the idea. The great English scientist, Sir +William Thomson, went wild with enthusiasm when +a Faure "box of electricity" was brought over from +Paris to him in 1881 containing a million foot-pounds +of stored energy. His biographer, Dr. Sylvanus P. +Thompson, describes him as lying ill in bed with a +wounded leg, and watching results with an incandescent +lamp fastened to his bed curtain by a safety-pin, +and lit up by current from the little Faure cell. Said +Sir William: "It is going to be a most valuable, +practical affair--as valuable as water-cisterns to +people whether they had or had not systems of water- +pipes and water-supply." Indeed, in one outburst +of panegyric the shrewd physicist remarked that he +saw in it "a realization of the most ardently and +increasingly felt scientific aspiration of his life--an +aspiration which he hardly dared to expect or to see +realized." A little later, however, Sir William, +always cautious and canny, began to discover the +inherent defects of the primitive battery, as to +disintegration, inefficiency, costliness, etc., and though +offered tempting inducements, declined to lend his +name to its financial introduction. Nevertheless, he +accepted the principle as valuable, and put the battery +to actual use. + +For many years after this episode, the modern lead- +lead type of battery thus brought forward with so +great a flourish of trumpets had a hard time of it. +Edison's attitude toward it, even as a useful +supplement to his lighting system, was always one of +scepticism, and he remarked contemptuously that the +best storage battery he knew was a ton of coal. The +financial fortunes of the battery, on both sides of the +Atlantic, were as varied and as disastrous as its +industrial; but it did at last emerge, and "made good." +By 1905, the production of lead-lead storage batteries +in the United States alone had reached a value for +the year of nearly $3,000,000, and it has increased +greatly since that time. The storage battery is now +regarded as an important and indispensable adjunct +in nearly all modern electric-lighting and electric- +railway systems of any magnitude; and in 1909, in +spite of its weight, it had found adoption in over ten +thousand automobiles of the truck, delivery wagon, +pleasure carriage, and runabout types in America. + +Edison watched closely all this earlier development +for about fifteen years, not changing his mind as to +what he regarded as the incurable defects of the lead- +lead type, but coming gradually to the conclusion +that if a storage battery of some other and better +type could be brought forward, it would fulfil all the +early hopes, however extravagant, of such men as +Kelvin (Sir William Thomson), and would become as +necessary and as universal as the incandescent lamp +or the electric motor. The beginning of the present +century found him at his point of new departure. + +Generally speaking, non-technical and uninitiated +persons have a tendency to regard an invention as +being more or less the ultimate result of some happy +inspiration. And, indeed, there is no doubt that such +may be the fact in some instances; but in most cases +the inventor has intentionally set out to accomplish +a definite and desired result--mostly through the +application of the known laws of the art in which he +happens to be working. It is rarely, however, that +a man will start out deliberately, as Edison did, to +evolve a radically new type of such an intricate device +as the storage battery, with only a meagre clew and +a vague starting-point. + +In view of the successful outcome of the problem +which, in 1900, he undertook to solve, it will be +interesting to review his mental attitude at that period. +It has already been noted at the end of a previous +chapter that on closing the magnetic iron-ore +concentrating plant at Edison, New Jersey, he resolved +to work on a new type of storage battery. It was +about this time that, in the course of a conversation +with Mr. R. H. Beach, then of the street-railway +department of the General Electric Company, he said: +"Beach, I don't think Nature would be so unkind as +to withhold the secret of a GOOD storage battery if a +real earnest hunt for it is made. I'm going to hunt." + +Frequently Edison has been asked what he considers +the secret of achievement. To this query he +has invariably replied: "Hard work, based on hard +thinking." The laboratory records bear the fullest +witness that he has consistently followed out this +prescription to the utmost. The perfection of all his +great inventions has been signalized by patient, +persistent, and incessant effort which, recognizing noth- +ing short of success, has resulted in the ultimate +accomplishment of his ideas. Optimistic and hopeful +to a high degree, Edison has the happy faculty of +beginning the day as open-minded as a child--yesterday's +disappointments and failures discarded and +discounted by the alluring possibilities of to-morrow. + +Of all his inventions, it is doubtful whether any one +of them has called forth more original thought, work, +perseverance, ingenuity, and monumental patience +than the one we are now dealing with. One of his +associates who has been through the many years of +the storage-battery drudgery with him said: "If +Edison's experiments, investigations, and work on +this storage battery were all that he had ever done, +I should say that he was not only a notable inventor, +but also a great man. It is almost impossible to +appreciate the enormous difficulties that have been +overcome." + +From a beginning which was made practically in +the dark, it was not until he had completed more +than ten thousand experiments that he obtained any +positive preliminary results whatever. Through all +this vast amount of research there had been no previous +signs of the electrical action he was looking for. +These experiments had extended over many months +of constant work by day and night, but there was +no breakdown of Edison's faith in ultimate success-- +no diminution of his sanguine and confident expectations. +The failure of an experiment simply meant +to him that he had found something else that would +not work, thus bringing the possible goal a little nearer +by a process of painstaking elimination. + +Now, however, after these many months of arduous +toil, in which he had examined and tested practically +all the known elements in numerous chemical +combinations, the electric action he sought for had +been obtained, thus affording him the first inkling of +the secret that he had industriously tried to wrest +from Nature. It should be borne in mind that from +the very outset Edison had disdained any intention of +following in the only tracks then known by employing +lead and sulphuric acid as the components of a +successful storage battery. Impressed with what he +considered the serious inherent defects of batteries +made of these materials, and the tremendously complex +nature of the chemical reactions taking place in +all types of such cells, he determined boldly at the +start that he would devise a battery without lead, +and one in which an alkaline solution could be used-- +a form which would, he firmly believed, be inherently +less subject to decay and dissolution than the standard +type, which after many setbacks had finally won +its way to an annual production of many thousands +of cells, worth millions of dollars. + +Two or three thousand of the first experiments followed +the line of his well-known primary battery in +the attempted employment of copper oxide as an +element in a new type of storage cell; but its use +offered no advantages, and the hunt was continued +in other directions and pursued until Edison satisfied +himself by a vast number of experiments that nickel +and iron possessed the desirable qualifications he was +in search of. + +This immense amount of investigation which had +consumed so many months of time, and which had +culminated in the discovery of a series of reactions +between nickel and iron that bore great promise, +brought Edison merely within sight of a strange and +hitherto unexplored country. Slowly but surely the +results of the last few thousands of his preliminary +experiments had pointed inevitably to a new and +fruitful region ahead. He had discovered the hidden +passage and held the clew which he had so industriously +sought. And now, having outlined a definite path, +Edison was all afire to push ahead vigorously in order +that he might enter in and possess the land. + +It is a trite saying that "history repeats itself," +and certainly no axiom carries more truth than this +when applied to the history of each of Edison's +important inventions. The development of the storage +battery has been no exception; indeed, far from +otherwise, for in the ten years that have elapsed since +the time he set himself and his mechanics, chemists, +machinists, and experimenters at work to develop a +practical commercial cell, the old story of incessant +and persistent efforts so manifest in the working out +of other inventions was fully repeated. + +Very soon after he had decided upon the use of +nickel and iron as the elemental metals for his storage +battery, Edison established a chemical plant at Silver +Lake, New Jersey, a few miles from the Orange +laboratory, on land purchased some time previously. +This place was the scene of the further experiments +to develop the various chemical forms of nickel and +iron, and to determine by tests what would be best +adapted for use in cells manufactured on a com- +mercial scale. With a little handful of selected +experimenters gathered about him, Edison settled down +to one of his characteristic struggles for supremacy. +To some extent it was a revival of the old Menlo +Park days (or, rather, nights). Some of these who +had worked on the preliminary experiments, with the +addition of a few new-comers, toiled together regardless +of passing time and often under most discouraging +circumstances, but with that remarkable esprit +de corps that has ever marked Edison's relations with +his co-workers, and that has contributed so largely +to the successful carrying out of his ideas. + +The group that took part in these early years of +Edison's arduous labors included his old-time assistant, +Fred Ott, together with his chemist, J. W. +Aylsworth, as well as E. J. Ross, Jr., W. E. Holland, +and Ralph Arbogast, and a little later W. G. Bee, all +of whom have grown up with the battery and still +devote their energies to its commercial development. +One of these workers, relating the strenuous experiences +of these few years, says: "It was hard work +and long hours, but still there were some things that +made life pleasant. One of them was the supper-hour +we enjoyed when we worked nights. Mr. Edison +would have supper sent in about midnight, and we +all sat down together, including himself. Work was +forgotten for the time, and all hands were ready for +fun. I have very pleasant recollections of Mr. Edison +at these times. He would always relax and help to +make a good time, and on some occasions I have seen +him fairly overflow with animal spirits, just like a boy +let out from school. After the supper-hour was over, +however, he again became the serious, energetic inventor, +deeply immersed in the work at hand. + +"He was very fond of telling and hearing stories, +and always appreciated a joke. I remember one that +he liked to get off on us once in a while. Our lighting +plant was in duplicate, and about 12.30 or 1 o'clock +in the morning, at the close of the supper-hour, a +change would be made from one plant to the other, +involving the gradual extinction of the electric lights +and their slowly coming up to candle-power again, +the whole change requiring probably about thirty +seconds. Sometimes, as this was taking place, Edison +would fold his hands, compose himself as if he +were in sound sleep, and when the lights were full +again would apparently wake up, with the remark, +`Well, boys, we've had a fine rest; now let's pitch into +work again.' " + +Another interesting and amusing reminiscence of +this period of activity has been gathered from another +of the family of experimenters: "Sometimes, +when Mr. Edison had been working long hours, he +would want to have a short sleep. It was one of the +funniest things I ever witnessed to see him crawl into +an ordinary roll-top desk and curl up and take a nap. +If there was a sight that was still more funny, it was +to see him turn over on his other side, all the time +remaining in the desk. He would use several volumes +of Watts's Dictionary of Chemistry for a pillow, and +we fellows used to say that he absorbed the contents +during his sleep, judging from the flow of new ideas +he had on waking." + +Such incidents as these serve merely to illustrate +the lighter moments that stand out in relief against +the more sombre background of the strenuous years, +for, of all the absorbingly busy periods of Edison's +inventive life, the first five years of the storage- +battery era was one of the very busiest of them all. It +was not that there remained any basic principle to +be discovered or simplified, for that had already been +done; but it was in the effort to carry these principles +into practice that there arose the numerous +difficulties that at times seemed insurmountable. +But, according to another co-worker, "Edison seemed +pleased when he used to run up against a serious +difficulty. It would seem to stiffen his backbone +and make him more prolific of new ideas. For a +time I thought I was foolish to imagine such a thing, +but I could never get away from the impression that +he really appeared happy when he ran up against +a serious snag. That was in my green days, and I +soon learned that the failure of an experiment never +discourages him unless it is by reason of the carelessness +of the man making it. Then Edison gets disgusted. +If it fails on its merits, he doesn't worry or +fret about it, but, on the contrary, regards it as a +useful fact learned; remains cheerful and tries something +else. I have known him to reverse an unsuccessful +experiment and come out all right." + +To follow Edison's trail in detail through the +innumerable twists and turns of his experimentation +and research on the storage battery, during the past +ten years, would not be in keeping with the scope of +this narrative, nor would it serve any useful purpose. +Besides, such details would fill a big volume. The +narrative, however, would not be complete without +some mention of the general outline of his work, and +reference may be made briefly to a few of the chief +items. And lest the reader think that the word +"innumerable" may have been carelessly or hastily +used above, we would quote the reply of one of the +laboratory assistants when asked how many experiments +had been made on the Edison storage battery +since the year 1900: "Goodness only knows! We +used to number our experiments consecutively from +1 to 10,000, and when we got up to 10,000 we turned +back to 1 and ran up to 10,000 again, and so on. +We ran through several series--I don't know how +many, and have lost track of them now, but it was +not far from fifty thousand." + +From the very first, Edison's broad idea of his +storage battery was to make perforated metallic +containers having the active materials packed therein; +nickel hydrate for the positive and iron oxide for the +negative plate. This plan has been adhered to +throughout, and has found its consummation in the +present form of the completed commercial cell, but +in the middle ground which stands between the early +crude beginnings and the perfected type of to-day +there lies a world of original thought, patient plodding, +and achievement. + +The first necessity was naturally to obtain the best +and purest compounds for active materials. Edison +found that comparatively little was known by manufacturing +chemists about nickel and iron oxides of the +high grade and purity he required. Hence it became +necessary for him to establish his own chemical works +and put them in charge of men specially trained by +himself, with whom he worked. This was the plant +at Silver Lake, above referred to. Here, for several +years, there was ceaseless activity in the preparation +of these chemical compounds by every imaginable +process and subsequent testing. Edison's chief chemist +says: "We left no stone unturned to find a way +of making those chemicals so that they would give +the highest results. We carried on the experiments +with the two chemicals together. Sometimes the +nickel would be ahead in the tests, and then again +it would fall behind. To stimulate us to greater +improvement, Edison hung up a card which showed +the results of tests in milliampere-hours given by the +experimental elements as we tried them with the +various grades of nickel and iron we had made. This +stirred up a great deal of ambition among the boys +to push the figures up. Some of our earliest tests +showed around 300, but as we improved the material, +they gradually crept up to over 500. Just +about that time Edison made a trip to Canada, and +when he came back we had made such good progress +that the figures had crept up to about 1000. I well +remember how greatly he was pleased." + +In speaking of the development of the negative +element of the battery, Mr. Aylsworth said: "In +like manner the iron element had to be developed +and improved; and finally the iron, which had generally +enjoyed superiority in capacity over its companion, +the nickel element, had to go in training in +order to retain its lead, which was imperative, in +order to produce a uniform and constant voltage +curve. In talking with me one day about the difficulties +under which we were working and contrasting +them with the phonograph experimentation, +Edison said: `In phonographic work we can use our +ears and our eyes, aided with powerful microscopes; +but in the battery our difficulties cannot be seen or +heard, but must be observed by our mind's eye!' And +by reason of the employment of such vision in the past, +Edison is now able to see quite clearly through the +forest of difficulties after eliminating them one by +one." + +The size and shape of the containing pockets in the +battery plates or elements and the degree of their +perforation were matters that received many years of +close study and experiment; indeed, there is still to- +day constant work expended on their perfection, +although their present general form was decided upon +several years ago. The mechanical construction of +the battery, as a whole, in its present form, compels +instant admiration on account of its beauty and +completeness. Mr. Edison has spared neither thought, +ingenuity, labor, nor money in the effort to make it +the most complete and efficient storage cell obtainable, +and the results show that his skill, judgment, +and foresight have lost nothing of the power that +laid the foundation of, and built up, other great arts at +each earlier stage of his career. + +Among the complex and numerous problems that +presented themselves in the evolution of the battery +was the one concerning the internal conductivity of +the positive unit. The nickel hydrate was a poor +electrical conductor, and although a metallic nickel +pocket might be filled with it, there would not be +the desired electrical action unless a conducting +substance were mixed with it, and so incorporated and +packed that there would be good electrical contact +throughout. This proved to be a most knotty and +intricate puzzle--tricky and evasive--always leading +on and promising something, and at the last slipping +away leaving the work undone. Edison's remarkable +patience and persistence in dealing with this +trying problem and in finally solving it successfully +won for him more than ordinary admiration from his +associates. One of them, in speaking of the seemingly +interminable experiments to overcome this +trouble, said: "I guess that question of conductivity +of the positive pocket brought lots of gray hairs to +his head. I never dreamed a man could have such +patience and perseverance. Any other man than +Edison would have given the whole thing up a thousand +times, but not he! Things looked awfully blue +to the whole bunch of us many a time, but he was +always hopeful. I remember one time things looked +so dark to me that I had just about made up my +mind to throw up my job, but some good turn came +just then and I didn't. Now I'm glad I held on, for +we've got a great future." + +The difficulty of obtaining good electrical contact +in the positive element was indeed Edison's chief +trouble for many years. After a great amount of +work and experimentation he decided upon a certain +form of graphite, which seemed to be suitable for the +purpose, and then proceeded to the commercial +manufacture of the battery at a special factory in +Glen Ridge, New Jersey, installed for the purpose. +There was no lack of buyers, but, on the contrary, +the factory was unable to turn out batteries enough. +The newspapers had previously published articles +showing the unusual capacity and performance of the +battery, and public interest had thus been greatly +awakened. + +Notwithstanding the establishment of a regular +routine of manufacture and sale, Edison did not +cease to experiment for improvement. Although +the graphite apparently did the work desired of it, +he was not altogether satisfied with its performance +and made extended trials of other substances, but at +that time found nothing that on the whole served +the purpose better. Continuous tests of the commercial +cells were carried on at the laboratory, as +well as more practical and heavy tests in automobiles, +which were constantly kept running around the adjoining +country over all kinds of roads. All these +tests were very closely watched by Edison, who demanded +rigorously that the various trials of the +battery should be carried on with all strenuousness +so as to get the utmost results and develop any possible +weakness. So insistent was he on this, that if +any automobile should run several days without +bursting a tire or breaking some part of the machine, +he would accuse the chauffeur of picking out easy +roads. + +After these tests had been going on for some time, +and some thousands of cells had been sold and were +giving satisfactory results to the purchasers, the test +sheets and experience gathered from various sources +pointed to the fact that occasionally a cell here and +there would show up as being short in capacity. +Inasmuch as the factory processes were very exact +and carefully guarded, and every cell was made as +uniform as human skill and care could provide, +there thus arose a serious problem. Edison +concentrated his powers on the investigation of this +trouble, and found that the chief cause lay in the +graphite. Some other minor matters also attracted +his attention. What to do, was the important question +that confronted him. To shut down the factory +meant great loss and apparent failure. He realized +this fully, but he also knew that to go on would simply +be to increase the number of defective batteries in +circulation, which would ultimately result in a +permanent closure and real failure. Hence he took the +course which one would expect of Edison's common +sense and directness of action. He was not satisfied +that the battery was a complete success, so he shut +down and went to experimenting once more. + +"And then," says one of the laboratory men, "we +started on another series of record-breaking experiments +that lasted over five years. I might almost +say heart-breaking, too, for of all the elusive, +disappointing things one ever hunted for that was the +worst. But secrets have to be long-winded and +roost high if they want to get away when the `Old +Man' goes hunting for them. He doesn't get mad +when he misses them, but just keeps on smiling and +firing, and usually brings them into camp. That's +what he did on the battery, for after a whole lot of +work he perfected the nickel-flake idea and process, +besides making the great improvement of using +tubes instead of flat pockets for the positive. He +also added a minor improvement here and there, and +now we have a finer battery than we ever expected." + +In the interim, while the experimentation of these +last five years was in progress, many customers who +had purchased batteries of the original type came +knocking at the door with orders in their hands for +additional outfits wherewith to equip more wagons +and trucks. Edison expressed his regrets, but said +he was not satisfied with the old cells and was +engaged in improving them. To which the customers +replied that THEY were entirely satisfied and ready and +willing to pay for more batteries of the same kind; +but Edison could not be moved from his determination, +although considerable pressure was at times +brought to bear to sway his decision. + +Experiment was continued beyond the point of +peradventure, and after some new machinery had +been built, the manufacture of the new type of cell +was begun in the early summer of 1909, and at the +present writing is being extended as fast as the +necessary additional machinery can be made. The +product is shipped out as soon as it is completed. + +The nickel flake, which is Edison's ingenious solution +of the conductivity problem, is of itself a most +interesting product, intensely practical in its +application and fascinating in its manufacture. The +flake of nickel is obtained by electroplating upon a +metallic cylinder alternate layers of copper and +nickel, one hundred of each, after which the combined +sheet is stripped from the cylinder. So thin +are the layers that this sheet is only about the thickness +of a visiting-card, and yet it is composed of two +hundred layers of metal. The sheet is cut into tiny +squares, each about one-sixteenth of an inch, and +these squares are put into a bath where the copper +is dissolved out. This releases the layers of nickel, +so that each of these small squares becomes one +hundred tiny sheets, or flakes, of pure metallic nickel, +so thin that when they are dried they will float in the +air, like thistle-down. + +In their application to the manufacture of batteries, +the flakes are used through the medium of a special +machine, so arranged that small charges of nickel +hydrate and nickel flake are alternately fed into the +pockets intended for positives, and tamped down with +a pressure equal to about four tons per square inch. +This insures complete and perfect contact and consequent +electrical conductivity throughout the entire +unit. + +The development of the nickel flake contains in itself +a history of patient investigation, labor, and +achievement, but we have not space for it, nor for +tracing the great work that has been done in developing +and perfecting the numerous other parts and +adjuncts of this remarkable battery. Suffice it to +say that when Edison went boldly out into new territory, +after something entirely unknown, he was quite +prepared for hard work and exploration. He encountered +both in unstinted measure, but kept on +going forward until, after long travel, he had found +all that he expected and accomplished something +more beside. Nature DID respond to his whole- +hearted appeal, and, by the time the hunt was ended, +revealed a good storage battery of entirely new type. +Edison not only recognized and took advantage of +the principles he had discovered, but in adapting +them for commercial use developed most ingenious +processes and mechanical appliances for carrying his +discoveries into practical effect. Indeed, it may be +said that the invention of an enormous variety of +new machines and mechanical appliances rendered +necessary by each change during the various stages +of development of the battery, from first to last, +stands as a lasting tribute to the range and versatility +of his powers. + +It is not within the scope of this narrative to enter +into any description of the relative merits of the +Edison storage battery, that being the province of a +commercial catalogue. It does, however, seem entirely +allowable to say that while at the present +writing the tests that have been made extend over a +few years only, their results and the intrinsic value +of this characteristic Edison invention are of such a +substantial nature as to point to the inevitable +growth of another great industry arising from its +manufacture, and to its wide-spread application to +many uses. + +The principal use that Edison has had in mind for +his battery is transportation of freight and passengers +by truck, automobile, and street-car. The greatly +increased capacity in proportion to weight of the +Edison cell makes it particularly adaptable for this +class of work on account of the much greater radius +of travel that is possible by its use. The latter point +of advantage is the one that appeals most to the +automobilist, as he is thus enabled to travel, it is +asserted, more than three times farther than ever +before on a single charge of the battery. + +Edison believes that there are important advantages +possible in the employment of his storage battery +for street-car propulsion. Under the present +system of operation, a plant furnishing the electric +power for street railways must be large enough to +supply current for the maximum load during "rush +hours," although much of the machinery may be +lying idle and unproductive in the hours of minimum +load. By the use of storage-battery cars, this +immense and uneconomical maximum investment in +plant can be cut down to proportions of true commercial +economy, as the charging of the batteries can +be conducted at a uniform rate with a reasonable +expenditure for generating machinery. Not only this, +but each car becomes an independently moving unit, +not subject to delay by reason of a general breakdown +of the power plant or of the line. In addition +to these advantages, the streets would be freed from +their burden of trolley wires or conduits. To put his +ideas into practice, Edison built a short railway line +at the Orange works in the winter of 1909-10, and, in +co-operation with Mr. R. H. Beach, constructed a +special type of street-car, and equipped it with motor, +storage battery, and other necessary operating devices. +This car was subsequently put upon the street-car +lines in New York City, and demonstrated its efficiency +so completely that it was purchased by one +of the street-car companies, which has since ordered +additional cars for its lines. The demonstration of +this initial car has been watched with interest by +many railroad officials, and its performance has been +of so successful a nature that at the present writing +(the summer of 1910) it has been necessary to organize +and equip a preliminary factory in which to +construct many other cars of a similar type that +have been ordered by other street-railway companies. +This enterprise will be conducted by a corporation +which has been specially organized for the purpose. +Thus, there has been initiated the development of a +new and important industry whose possible ultimate +proportions are beyond the range of present calculation. +Extensive as this industry may become, however, +Edison is firmly convinced that the greatest +field for his storage battery lies in its adaptation to +commercial trucking and hauling, and to pleasure +vehicles, in comparison with which the street-car +business even with its great possibilities--will not +amount to more than 1 per cent. + +Edison has pithily summed up his work and his +views in an article on "The To-Morrows of Electricity +and Invention" in Popular Electricity for June, 1910, +in which he says: "For years past I have been trying +to perfect a storage battery, and have now rendered +it entirely suitable to automobile and other work. +There is absolutely no reason why horses should be +allowed within city limits; for between the gasoline +and the electric car, no room is left for them. They +are not needed. The cow and the pig have gone, +and the horse is still more undesirable. A higher +public ideal of health and cleanliness is working tow- +ard such banishment very swiftly; and then we shall +have decent streets, instead of stables made out of +strips of cobblestones bordered by sidewalks. The +worst use of money is to make a fine thoroughfare, +and then turn it over to horses. Besides that, the +change will put the humane societies out of business. +Many people now charge their own batteries because +of lack of facilities; but I believe central stations +will find in this work very soon the largest part of +their load. The New York Edison Company, or the +Chicago Edison Company, should have as much current +going out for storage batteries as for power +motors; and it will be so some near day." + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +MISCELLANEOUS INVENTIONS + +IT has been the endeavor in this narrative to group +Edison's inventions and patents so that his work in +the different fields can be studied independently and +separately. The history of his career has therefore +fallen naturally into a series of chapters, each aiming +to describe some particular development or art; and, +in a way, the plan has been helpful to the writers while +probably useful to the readers. It happens, however, +that the process has left a vast mass of discovery and +invention wholly untouched, and relegates to a +concluding brief chapter some of the most interesting +episodes of a fruitful life. Any one who will turn to the +list of Edison patents at the end of the book will find +a large number of things of which not even casual +mention has been made, but which at the time occupied +no small amount of the inventor's time and attention, +and many of which are now part and parcel of modern +civilization. Edison has, indeed, touched nothing +that he did not in some way improve. As Thoreau +said: "The laws of the Universe are not indifferent, +but are forever on the side of the most sensitive," and +there never was any one more sensitive to the defects +of every art and appliance, nor any one more active in +applying the law of evolution. It is perhaps this +many-sidedness of Edison that has impressed the multitude, +and that in the "popular vote" taken a couple +of years ago by the New York Herald placed his name +at the head of the list of ten greatest living Americans. +It is curious and pertinent to note that a similar +plebiscite taken by a technical journal among its expert +readers had exactly the same result. Evidently the +public does not agree with the opinion expressed by +the eccentric artist Blake in his "Marriage of Heaven +and Hell," when he said: "Improvement makes +strange roads; but the crooked roads without improvements +are roads of Genius." + +The product of Edison's brain may be divided into +three classes. The first embraces such arts and industries, +or such apparatus, as have already been treated. +The second includes devices like the tasimeter, phonomotor, +odoroscope, etc., and others now to be noted. +The third embraces a number of projected inventions, +partially completed investigations, inventions in use +but not patented, and a great many caveats filed in +the Patent Office at various times during the last forty +years for the purpose of protecting his ideas pending +their contemplated realization in practice. These +caveats served their purpose thoroughly in many +instances, but there have remained a great variety of +projects upon which no definite action was ever taken. +One ought to add the contents of an unfinished piece +of extraordinary fiction based wholly on new inventions +and devices utterly unknown to mankind. Some +day the novel may be finished, but Edison has no +inclination to go back to it, and says he cannot under- +stand how any man is able to make a speech or write +a book, for he simply can't do it. + +After what has been said in previous chapters, it +will not seem so strange that Edison should have +hundreds of dormant inventions on his hands. There +are human limitations even for such a tireless worker +as he is. While the preparation of data for this chapter +was going on, one of the writers in discussing with +him the vast array of unexploited things said: "Don't +you feel a sense of regret in being obliged to leave so +many things uncompleted?" To which he replied: +"What's the use? One lifetime is too short, and I am +busy every day improving essential parts of my established +industries." It must suffice to speak briefly of +a few leading inventions that have been worked out, +and to dismiss with scant mention all the rest, taking +just a few items, as typical and suggestive, +especially when Edison can himself be quoted as to +them. Incidentally it may be noted that things, not +words, are referred to; for Edison, in addition to +inventing the apparatus, has often had to coin the word +to describe it. A large number of the words and +phrases in modern electrical parlance owe their origin +to him. Even the "call-word" of the telephone, +"Hello!" sent tingling over the wire a few million +times daily was taken from Menlo Park by men installing +telephones in different parts of the world, men +who had just learned it at the laboratory, and thus +made it a universal sesame for telephonic conversation. + +It is hard to determine where to begin with Edison's +miscellaneous inventions, but perhaps telegraphy has +the "right of line," and Edison's work in that field +puts him abreast of the latest wireless developments +that fill the world with wonder. "I perfected a system +of train telegraphy between stations and trains +in motion whereby messages could be sent from the +moving train to the central office; and this was the +forerunner of wireless telegraphy. This system was +used for a number of years on the Lehigh Valley Railroad +on their construction trains. The electric wave +passed from a piece of metal on top of the car across +the air to the telegraph wires; and then proceeded to +the despatcher's office. In my first experiments with +this system I tried it on the Staten Island Railroad, +and employed an operator named King to do the +experimenting. He reported results every day, and +received instructions by mail; but for some reason he +could send messages all right when the train went in +one direction, but could not make it go in the contrary +direction. I made suggestions of every kind to get +around this phenomenon. Finally I telegraphed King +to find out if he had any suggestions himself; and I +received a reply that the only way he could propose +to get around the difficulty was to put the island on +a pivot so it could be turned around! I found the +trouble finally, and the practical introduction on the +Lehigh Valley road was the result. The system was +sold to a very wealthy man, and he would never sell +any rights or answer letters. He became a spiritualist +subsequently, which probably explains it." It is +interesting to note that Edison became greatly interested +in the later developments by Marconi, and is an admiring +friend and adviser of that well-known inventor. + +The earlier experiments with wireless telegraphy at +Menlo Park were made at a time when Edison was +greatly occupied with his electric-light interests, and +it was not until the beginning of 1886 that he was able +to spare the time to make a public demonstration of +the system as applied to moving trains. Ezra T. +Gilliland, of Boston, had become associated with him +in his experiments, and they took out several joint +patents subsequently. The first practical use of the +system took place on a thirteen-mile stretch of the +Staten Island Railroad with the results mentioned +by Edison above. + +A little later, Edison and Gilliland joined forces with +Lucius J. Phelps, another investigator, who had been +experimenting along the same lines and had taken +out several patents. The various interests were combined +in a corporation under whose auspices the system +was installed on the Lehigh Valley Railroad, +where it was used for several years. The official +demonstration trip on this road took place on October +6, 1887, on a six-car train running to Easton, Pennsylvania, +a distance of fifty-four miles. A great many +telegrams were sent and received while the train was +at full speed, including a despatch to the "cable king," +John Pender. London, England, and a reply from +him.[17] + + +[17] Broadly described in outline, the system consisted of an induction +circuit obtained by laying strips of tin along the top or +roof of a railway car, and the installation of a special telegraph +line running parallel with the track and strung on poles of only +medium height. The train and also each signalling station were +equipped with regulation telegraphic apparatus, such as battery, +key, relay, and sounder, together with induction-coil and condenser. +In addition, there was a transmitting device in the shape of a +musical reed, or buzzer. In practice, this buzzer was continuously +operated at high speed by a battery. Its vibrations were broken +by means of a key into long and short periods, representing Morse +characters, which were transmitted inductively from the train +circuit to the pole line, or vice versa, and received by the operator +at the other end through a high-resistance telephone receiver +inserted in the secondary circuit of the induction-coil. + + +Although the space between the cars and the pole +line was probably not more than about fifty feet, it is +interesting to note that in Edison's early experiments +at Menlo Park he succeeded in transmitting messages +through the air at a distance of 580 feet. Speaking of +this and of his other experiments with induction +telegraphy by means of kites, communicating from one to +the other and thus from the kites to instruments on +the earth, Edison said recently: "We only transmitted +about two and one-half miles through the kites. +What has always puzzled me since is that I did not +think of using the results of my experiments on +`etheric force' that I made in 1875. I have never +been able to understand how I came to overlook them. +If I had made use of my own work I should have had +long-distance wireless telegraphy." + +In one of the appendices to this book is given a brief +technical account of Edison's investigations of the +phenomena which lie at the root of modern wireless +or "space" telegraphy, and the attention of the reader +is directed particularly to the description and quotations +there from the famous note-books of Edison's experiments +in regard to what he called "etheric force." +It will be seen that as early as 1875 Edison detected +and studied certain phenomena--i.e., the production +of electrical effects in non-closed circuits, which for a +time made him think he was on the trail of a new +force, as there was no plausible explanation for them +by the then known laws of electricity and magnetism. +Later came the magnificent work of Hertz identifying +the phenomena as "electromagnetic waves" in the +ether, and developing a new world of theory and +science based upon them and their production by +disruptive discharges. + +Edison's assertions were treated with scepticism by +the scientific world, which was not then ready for the +discovery and not sufficiently furnished with corroborative +data. It is singular, to say the least, to note +how Edison's experiments paralleled and proved in +advance those that came later; and even his apparatus +such as the "dark box" for making the tiny sparks +visible (as the waves impinged on the receiver) bears +close analogy with similar apparatus employed by +Hertz. Indeed, as Edison sent the dark-box apparatus +to the Paris Exposition in 1881, and let Batchelor +repeat there the puzzling experiments, it seems by no +means unlikely that, either directly or on the report of +some friend, Hertz may thus have received from +Edison a most valuable suggestion, the inventor +aiding the physicist in opening up a wonderful new +realm. In this connection, indeed, it is very interesting +to quote two great authorities. In May, 1889, at +a meeting of the Institution of Electrical Engineers in +London, Dr. (now Sir) Oliver Lodge remarked in a +discussion on a paper of his own on lightning conductors, +embracing the Hertzian waves in its treatment: +"Many of the effects I have shown--sparks in unsuspected +places and other things--have been observed +before. Henry observed things of the kind and Edison +noticed some curious phenomena, and said it was not +electricity but `etheric force' that caused these sparks; +and the matter was rather pooh-poohed. It was a +small part of THIS VERY THING; only the time was not +ripe; theoretical knowledge was not ready for it." +Again in his "Signalling without Wires," in giving +the history of the coherer principle, Lodge remarks: +"Sparks identical in all respects with those discovered +by Hertz had been seen in recent times both by Edison +and by Sylvanus Thompson, being styled `etheric +force' by the former; but their theoretic significance +had not been perceived, and they were somewhat +sceptically regarded." During the same discussion in +London, in 1889, Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), +after citing some experiments by Faraday with his +insulated cage at the Royal Institution, said: "His +(Faraday's) attention was not directed to look for +Hertz sparks, or probably he might have found them +in the interior. Edison seems to have noticed something +of the kind in what he called `etheric force.' +His name `etheric' may thirteen years ago have +seemed to many people absurd. But now we are all +beginning to call these inductive phenomena `etheric.' +"With which testimony from the great Kelvin +as to his priority in determining the vital fact, and +with the evidence that as early as 1875 he built apparatus +that demonstrated the fact, Edison is probably +quite content. + +It should perhaps be noted at this point that a +curious effect observed at the laboratory was shown +in connection with Edison lamps at the Philadelphia +Exhibition of 1884. It became known in scientific +parlance as the "Edison effect," showing a curious +current condition or discharge in the vacuum of the +bulb. It has since been employed by Fleming in +England and De Forest in this country, and others, +as the basis for wireless-telegraph apparatus. It is in +reality a minute rectifier of alternating current, and +analogous to those which have since been made on a +large scale. + +When Roentgen came forward with his discovery of +the new "X"-ray in 1895, Edison was ready for it, and +took up experimentation with it on a large scale; some +of his work being recorded in an article in the Century +Magazine of May, 1896, where a great deal of data may +be found. Edison says with regard to this work: +"When the X-ray came up, I made the first fluoroscope, +using tungstate of calcium. I also found that +this tungstate could be put into a vacuum chamber of +glass and fused to the inner walls of the chamber; and +if the X-ray electrodes were let into the glass chamber +and a proper vacuum was attained, you could get a +fluorescent lamp of several candle-power. I started in +to make a number of these lamps, but I soon found +that the X-ray had affected poisonously my assistant, +Mr. Dally, so that his hair came out and his flesh +commenced to ulcerate. I then concluded it would not +do, and that it would not be a very popular kind of +light; so I dropped it. + +"At the time I selected tungstate of calcium because +it was so fluorescent, I set four men to making all kinds +of chemical combinations, and thus collected upward +of 8000 different crystals of various chemical combinations, +discovering several hundred different sub- +stances which would fluoresce to the X-ray. So far +little had come of X-ray work, but it added another +letter to the scientific alphabet. I don't know any +thing about radium, and I have lots of company." +The Electrical Engineer of June 3, 1896, contains a +photograph of Mr. Edison taken by the light of one of +his fluorescent lamps. The same journal in its issue +of April 1, 1896, shows an Edison fluoroscope in use +by an observer, in the now familiar and universal +form somewhat like a stereoscope. This apparatus as +invented by Edison consists of a flaring box, curved +at one end to fit closely over the forehead and eyes, +while the other end of the box is closed by a paste- +board cover. On the inside of this is spread a layer +of tungstate of calcium. By placing the object to be +observed, such as the hand, between the vacuum-tube +and the fluorescent screen, the "shadow" is formed on +the screen and can be observed at leisure. The apparatus +has proved invaluable in surgery and has become +an accepted part of the equipment of modern surgery. +In 1896, at the Electrical Exhibition in the Grand +Central Palace, New York City, given under the +auspices of the National Electric Light Association, +thousands and thousands of persons with the use of +this apparatus in Edison's personal exhibit were +enabled to see their own bones; and the resultant +public sensation was great. Mr. Mallory tells a +characteristic story of Edison's own share in the memorable +exhibit: "The exhibit was announced for opening +on Monday. On the preceding Friday all the apparatus, +which included a large induction-coil, was shipped +from Orange to New York, and on Saturday afternoon +Edison, accompanied by Fred Ott, one of his assistants, +and myself, went over to install it so as to have +it ready for Monday morning. Had everything been +normal, a few hours would have sufficed for completion +of the work, but on coming to test the big coil, it was +found to be absolutely out of commission, having been +so seriously injured as to necessitate its entire +rewinding. It being summer-time, all the machine shops +were closed until Monday morning, and there were +several miles of wire to be wound on the coil. Edison +would not consider a postponement of the exhibition, +so there was nothing to do but go to work and wind it +by hand. We managed to find a lathe, but there was +no power; so each of us, including Edison, took turns +revolving the lathe by pulling on the belt, while the +other two attended to the winding of the wire. We +worked continuously all through that Saturday night +and all day Sunday until evening, when we finished +the job. I don't remember ever being conscious of +more muscles in my life. I guess Edison was tired +also, but he took it very philosophically." This was +apparently the first public demonstration of the X-ray +to the American public. + +Edison's ore-separation work has been already fully +described, but the story would hardly be complete +without a reference to similar work in gold extraction, +dating back to the Menlo Park days: "I got up a +method," says Edison, "of separating placer gold by +a dry process, in which I could work economically ore +as lean as five cents of gold to the cubic yard. I had +several car-loads of different placer sands sent to me +and proved I could do it. Some parties hearing I had +succeeded in doing such a thing went to work and got +hold of what was known as the Ortiz mine grant, +twelve miles from Santa Fe, New Mexico. This mine, +according to the reports of several mining engineers +made in the last forty years, was considered one of the +richest placer deposits in the United States, and +various schemes had been put forward to bring water +from the mountains forty miles away to work those +immense beds. The reports stated that the Mexicans +had been panning gold for a hundred years out of these +deposits. + +"These parties now made arrangements with the +stockholders or owners of the grant, and with me, to +work the deposits by my process. As I had had some +previous experience with the statements of mining +men, I concluded I would just send down a small plant +and prospect the field before putting up a large one. +This I did, and I sent two of my assistants, whom I +could trust, down to this place to erect the plant; and +started to sink shafts fifty feet deep all over the area. +We soon learned that the rich gravel, instead of being +spread over an area of three by seven miles, and rich +from the grass roots down, was spread over a space of +about twenty-five acres, and that even this did not +average more than ten cents to the cubic yard. The +whole placer would not give more than one and one- +quarter cents per cubic yard. As my business +arrangements had not been very perfectly made, I lost +the usual amount." + +Going to another extreme, we find Edison grappling +with one of the biggest problems known to the authorities +of New York--the disposal of its heavy snows. +It is needless to say that witnessing the ordinary slow +and costly procedure would put Edison on his mettle. +"One time when they had a snow blockade in New +York I started to build a machine with Batchelor--a +big truck with a steam-engine and compressor on it. +We would run along the street, gather all the snow up +in front of us, pass it into the compressor, and deliver +little blocks of ice behind us in the gutter, taking one- +tenth the room of the snow, and not inconveniencing +anybody. We could thus take care of a snow-storm +by diminishing the bulk of material to be handled. +The preliminary experiment we made was dropped +because we went into other things. The machine +would go as fast as a horse could walk." + +Edison has always taken a keen interest in aerial +flight, and has also experimented with aeroplanes, his +preference inclining to the helicopter type, as noted +in the newspapers and periodicals from time to time. +The following statement from him refers to a type of +aeroplane of great novelty and ingenuity: "James +Gordon Bennett came to me and asked that I try +some primary experiments to see if aerial navigation +was feasible with `heavier-than-air' machines. I got +up a motor and put it on the scales and tried a large +number of different things and contrivances connected +to the motor, to see how it would lighten itself on the +scales. I got some data and made up my mind that +what was needed was a very powerful engine for its +weight, in small compass. So I conceived of an engine +employing guncotton. I took a lot of ticker paper +tape, turned it into guncotton and got up an engine +with an arrangement whereby I could feed this gun- +cotton strip into the cylinder and explode it inside +electrically. The feed took place between two copper +rolls. The copper kept the temperature down, so that +it could only explode up to the point where it was in +contact with the feed rolls. It worked pretty well; +but once the feed roll didn't save it, and the flame +went through and exploded the whole roll and kicked +up such a bad explosion I abandoned it. But the +idea might be made to work." + +Turning from the air to the earth, it is interesting to +note that the introduction of the underground Edison +system in New York made an appeal to inventive +ingenuity and that one of the difficulties was met as +follows: "When we first put the Pearl Street station +in operation, in New York, we had cast-iron junction- +boxes at the intersections of all the streets. One +night, or about two o'clock in the morning, a policeman +came in and said that something had exploded +at the corner of William and Nassau streets. I happened +to be in the station, and went out to see what it +was. I found that the cover of the manhole, weighing +about 200 pounds, had entirely disappeared, but +everything inside was intact. It had even stripped +some of the threads of the bolts, and we could never +find that cover. I concluded it was either leakage of +gas into the manhole, or else the acid used in pickling +the casting had given off hydrogen, and air had leaked +in, making an explosive mixture. As this was a pretty +serious problem, and as we had a good many of the +manholes, it worried me very much for fear that it +would be repeated and the company might have to +pay a lot of damages, especially in districts like that +around William and Nassau, where there are a good +many people about. If an explosion took place in the +daytime it might lift a few of them up. However, I +got around the difficulty by putting a little bottle of +chloroform in each box, corked up, with a slight hole +in the cork. The chloroform being volatile and very +heavy, settled in the box and displaced all the air. I +have never heard of an explosion in a manhole where +this chloroform had been used. Carbon tetrachloride, +now made electrically at Niagara Falls, is very cheap +and would be ideal for the purpose." + +Edison has never paid much attention to warfare, +and has in general disdained to develop inventions for +the destruction of life and property. Some years ago, +however, he became the joint inventor of the Edison- +Sims torpedo, with Mr. W. Scott Sims, who sought his +co-operation. This is a dirigible submarine torpedo +operated by electricity. In the torpedo proper, which +is suspended from a long float so as to be submerged +a few feet under water, are placed the small electric +motor for propulsion and steering, and the explosive +charge. The torpedo is controlled from the shore or +ship through an electric cable which it pays out as it +goes along, and all operations of varying the speed, +reversing, and steering are performed at the will of the +distant operator by means of currents sent through +the cable. During the Spanish-American War of 1898 +Edison suggested to the Navy Department the adoption +of a compound of calcium carbide and calcium +phosphite, which when placed in a shell and fired from +a gun would explode as soon as it struck water and +ignite, producing a blaze that would continue several +minutes and make the ships of the enemy visible for +four or five miles at sea. Moreover, the blaze could +not be extinguished. + +Edison has always been deeply interested in +"conservation," and much of his work has been directed +toward the economy of fuel in obtaining electrical +energy directly from the consumption of coal. Indeed, +it will be noted that the example of his handwriting +shown in these volumes deals with the importance of +obtaining available energy direct from the combustible +without the enormous loss in the intervening stages +that makes our best modern methods of steam generation +and utilization so barbarously extravagant and +wasteful. Several years ago, experimenting in this +field, Edison devised and operated some ingenious +pyromagnetic motors and generators, based, as the +name implies, on the direct application of heat to the +machines. The motor is founded upon the principle +discovered by the famous Dr. William Gilbert--court +physician to Queen Elizabeth, and the Father of +modern electricity--that the magnetic properties of +iron diminish with heat. At a light-red heat, iron +becomes non-magnetic, so that a strong magnet exerts +no influence over it. Edison employed this peculiar +property by constructing a small machine in which a +pivoted bar is alternately heated and cooled. It is +thus attracted toward an adjacent electromagnet +when cold and is uninfluenced when hot, and as the +result motion is produced. + +The pyromagnetic generator is based on the same +phenomenon; its aim being of course to generate electrical +energy directly from the heat of the combustible. +The armature, or moving part of the machine, consists +in reality of eight separate armatures all constructed +of corrugated sheet iron covered with asbestos and +wound with wire. These armatures are held in place +by two circular iron plates, through the centre of +which runs a shaft, carrying at its lower extremity a +semicircular shield of fire-clay, which covers the ends +of four of the armatures. The heat, of whatever origin, +is applied from below, and the shaft being revolved, +four of the armatures lose their magnetism +constantly, while the other four gain it, so to speak. +As the moving part revolves, therefore, currents of +electricity are set up in the wires of the armatures and +are collected by a commutator, as in an ordinary +dynamo, placed on the upper end of the central shaft. + +A great variety of electrical instruments are +included in Edison's inventions, many of these in +fundamental or earlier forms being devised for his systems +of light and power, as noted already. There are +numerous others, and it might be said with truth that +Edison is hardly ever without some new device of this +kind in hand, as he is by no means satisfied with the +present status of electrical measurements. He holds +in general that the meters of to-day, whether for heavy +or for feeble currents, are too expensive, and that +cheaper instruments are a necessity of the times. +These remarks apply more particularly to what may +be termed, in general, circuit meters. In other classes +Edison has devised an excellent form of magnetic +bridge, being an ingenious application of the principles +of the familiar Wheatstone bridge, used so extensively +for measuring the electrical resistance of wires; the +testing of iron for magnetic qualities being determined +by it in the same way. Another special instrument +is a "dead beat" galvanometer which differs from the +ordinary form of galvanometer in having no coils or +magnetic needle. It depends for its action upon the +heating effect of the current, which causes a fine +platinum-iridium wire enclosed in a glass tube to +expand; thus allowing a coiled spring to act on a +pivoted shaft carrying a tiny mirror. The mirror as +it moves throws a beam of light upon a scale and the +indications are read by the spot of light. Most novel +of all the apparatus of this measuring kind is the +odoroscope, which is like the tasimeter described in +an earlier chapter, except that a strip of gelatine takes +the place of hard rubber, as the sensitive member. +Besides being affected by heat, this device is exceedingly +sensitive to moisture. A few drops of water or +perfume thrown on the floor of a room are sufficient +to give a very decided indication on the galvanometer +in circuit with the instrument. Barometers, hygrometers, +and similar instruments of great delicacy can +be constructed on the principle of the odoroscope; +and it may also be used in determining the character +or pressure of gases and vapors in which it has been +placed. + +In the list of Edison's patents at the end of this +work may be noted many other of his miscellaneous +inventions, covering items such as preserving fruit +in vacuo, making plate-glass, drawing wire, and +metallurgical processes for treatment of nickel, gold, and +copper ores; but to mention these inventions separately +would trespass too much on our limited space +here. Hence, we shall leave the interested reader to +examine that list for himself. + +From first to last Edison has filed in the United States +Patent Office--in addition to more than 1400 applications +for patents--some 120 caveats embracing not +less than 1500 inventions. A "caveat" is essentially +a notice filed by an inventor, entitling him to receive +warning from the Office of any application for a patent +for an invention that would "interfere" with his own, +during the year, while he is supposed to be perfecting +his device. The old caveat system has now been +abolished, but it served to elicit from Edison a most +astounding record of ideas and possible inventions +upon which he was working, and many of which he of +course reduced to practice. As an example of Edison's +fertility and the endless variety of subjects engaging +his thoughts, the following list of matters covered by +ONE caveat is given. It is needless to say that all the +caveats are not quite so full of "plums," but this is +certainly a wonder. + +Forty-one distinct inventions relating to the phonograph, +covering various forms of recorders, arrangement +of parts, making of records, shaving tool, adjustments, +etc. + +Eight forms of electric lamps using infusible earthy +oxides and brought to high incandescence in vacuo by +high potential current of several thousand volts; same +character as impingement of X-rays on object in bulb. + +A loud-speaking telephone with quartz cylinder and +beam of ultra-violet light. + +Four forms of arc light with special carbons. + +A thermostatic motor. + +A device for sealing together the inside part and +bulb of an incandescent lamp mechanically. + +Regulators for dynamos and motors. + +Three devices for utilizing vibrations beyond the +ultra violet. + +A great variety of methods for coating incandescent +lamp filaments with silicon, titanium, chromium, +osmium, boron, etc. + +Several methods of making porous filaments. + +Several methods of making squirted filaments of a +variety of materials, of which about thirty are specified. + +Seventeen different methods and devices for separating +magnetic ores. + +A continuously operative primary battery. + +A musical instrument operating one of Helmholtz's +artificial larynxes. + +A siren worked by explosion of small quantities of +oxygen and hydrogen mixed. + +Three other sirens made to give vocal sounds or +articulate speech. + +A device for projecting sound-waves to a distance +without spreading and in a straight line, on the principle +of smoke rings. + +A device for continuously indicating on a galvanometer +the depths of the ocean. + +A method of preventing in a great measure friction +of water against the hull of a ship and incidentally +preventing fouling by barnacles. + +A telephone receiver whereby the vibrations of the +diaphragm are considerably amplified. + +Two methods of "space" telegraphy at sea. + +An improved and extended string telephone. + +Devices and method of talking through water for +considerable distances. + +An audiphone for deaf people. + +Sound-bridge for measuring resistance of tubes and +other materials for conveying sound. + +A method of testing a magnet to ascertain the existence +of flaws in the iron or steel composing the same. + +Method of distilling liquids by incandescent conductor +immersed in the liquid. + +Method of obtaining electricity direct from coal. + +An engine operated by steam produced by the +hydration and dehydration of metallic salts. + +Device and method for telegraphing photographically. + +Carbon crucible kept brilliantly incandescent by +current in vacuo, for obtaining reaction with refractory +metals. + +Device for examining combinations of odors and +their changes by rotation at different speeds. + +From one of the preceding items it will be noted +that even in the eighties Edison perceived much advantage +to be gained in the line of economy by the use +of lamp filaments employing refractory metals in their +construction. From another caveat, filed in 1889, we +extract the following, which shows that he realized the +value of tungsten also for this purpose. "Filaments +of carbon placed in a combustion tube with a little +chloride ammonium. Chloride tungsten or titanium +passed through hot tube, depositing a film of metal on +the carbon; or filaments of zirconia oxide, or alumina +or magnesia, thoria or other infusible oxides mixed or +separate, and obtained by moistening and squirting +through a die, are thus coated with above metals and +used for incandescent lamps. Osmium from a volatile +compound of same thus deposited makes a filament +as good as carbon when in vacuo." + +In 1888, long before there arose the actual necessity +of duplicating phonograph records so as to produce +replicas in great numbers, Edison described in one of +his caveats a method and process much similar to the +one which was put into practice by him in later years. +In the same caveat he describes an invention whereby +the power to indent on a phonograph cylinder, instead +of coming directly from the voice, is caused by power +derived from the rotation or movement of the phonogram +surface itself. He did not, however, follow up +this invention and put it into practice. Some twenty +years later it was independently invented and patented +by another inventor. A further instance of this kind +is a method of telegraphy at sea by means of a diaphragm +in a closed port-hole flush with the side of the +vessel, and actuated by a steam-whistle which is controlled +by a lever, similarly to a Morse key. A receiving +diaphragm is placed in another and near-by chamber, +which is provided with very sensitive stethoscopic +ear-pieces, by which the Morse characters sent from +another vessel may be received. This was also invented +later by another inventor, and is in use to-day, +but will naturally be rivalled by wireless telegraphy. +Still another instance is seen in one of Edison's caveats, +where he describes a method of distilling liquids by +means of internally applied heat through electric +conductors. Although Edison did not follow up the idea +and take out a patent, this system of distillation was +later hit upon by others and is in use at the present +time. + +In the foregoing pages of this chapter the authors +have endeavored to present very briefly a sketchy +notion of the astounding range of Edison's practical +ideas, but they feel a sense of impotence in being unable +to deal adequately with the subject in the space +that can be devoted to it. To those who, like the +authors, have had the privilege of examining the +voluminous records which show the flights of his +imagination, there comes a feeling of utter inadequacy +to convey to others the full extent of the story they +reveal. + +The few specific instances above related, although +not representing a tithe of Edison's work, will probably +be sufficient to enable the reader to appreciate +to some extent his great wealth of ideas and fertility +of imagination, and also to realize that this imagination +is not only intensely practical, but that it works +prophetically along lines of natural progress. + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +EDISON'S METHOD IN INVENTING + +WHILE the world's progress depends largely upon +their ingenuity, inventors are not usually persons +who have adopted invention as a distinct profession, +but, generally speaking, are otherwise engaged +in various walks of life. By reason of more or +less inherent native genius they either make improvements +along lines of present occupation, or else +evolve new methods and means of accomplishing +results in fields for which they may have personal +predilections. + +Now and then, however, there arises a man so +greatly endowed with natural powers and originality +that the creative faculty within him is too strong to +endure the humdrum routine of affairs, and manifests +itself in a life devoted entirely to the evolution of +methods and devices calculated to further the world's +welfare. In other words, he becomes an inventor by +profession. Such a man is Edison. Notwithstanding +the fact that nearly forty years ago (not a great while +after he had emerged from the ranks of peripatetic +telegraph operators) he was the owner of a large and +profitable business as a manufacturer of the telegraphic +apparatus invented by him, the call of his +nature was too strong to allow of profits being laid +away in the bank to accumulate. As he himself has +said, he has "too sanguine a temperament to allow +money to stay in solitary confinement." Hence, all +superfluous cash was devoted to experimentation. In +the course of years he grew more and more impatient +of the shackles that bound him to business routine, +and, realizing the powers within him, he drew away +gradually from purely manufacturing occupations, +determining deliberately to devote his life to inventive +work, and to depend upon its results as a means of +subsistence. + +All persons who make inventions will necessarily +be more or less original in character, but to the man +who chooses to become an inventor by profession +must be conceded a mind more than ordinarily replete +with virility and originality. That these +qualities in Edison are superabundant is well known +to all who have worked with him, and, indeed, are +apparent to every one from his multiplied achievements +within the period of one generation. + +If one were allowed only two words with which to +describe Edison, it is doubtful whether a close examination +of the entire dictionary would disclose any +others more suitable than "experimenter--inventor." +These would express the overruling characteristics of +his eventful career. It is as an "inventor" that he +sets himself down in the membership list of the +American Institute of Electrical Engineers. To attempt +the strict placing of these words in relation to +each other (except alphabetically) would be equal +to an endeavor to solve the old problem as to which +came first, the egg or the chicken; for although all +his inventions have been evolved through experiment, +many of his notable experiments have called +forth the exercise of highly inventive faculties in their +very inception. Investigation and experiment have +been a consuming passion, an impelling force from +within, as it were, from his petticoat days when he +collected goose-eggs and tried to hatch them out by +sitting over them himself. One might be inclined to +dismiss this trivial incident smilingly, as a mere +childish, thoughtless prank, had not subsequent +development as a child, boy, and man revealed a born +investigator with original reasoning powers that, +disdaining crooks and bends, always aimed at the +centre, and, like the flight of the bee, were accurate +and direct. + +It is not surprising, therefore, that a man of this +kind should exhibit a ceaseless, absorbing desire for +knowledge, and an apparently uncontrollable tendency +to experiment on every possible occasion, even +though his last cent were spent in thus satisfying the +insatiate cravings of an inquiring mind. + +During Edison's immature years, when he was +flitting about from place to place as a telegraph +operator, his experimentation was of a desultory, +hand-to-mouth character, although it was always +notable for originality, as expressed in a number of +minor useful devices produced during this period. +Small wonder, then, that at the end of these wanderings, +when he had found a place to "rest the sole of +his foot," he established a laboratory in which to +carry on his researches in a more methodical and +practical manner. In this was the beginning of the +work which has since made such a profound impression +on contemporary life. + +There is nothing of the helter-skelter, slap-dash +style in Edison's experiments. Although all the +laboratory experimenters agree in the opinion that +he "tries everything," it is not merely the mixing of +a little of this, some of that, and a few drops of the +other, in the HOPE that SOMETHING will come of it. +Nor is the spirit of the laboratory work represented +in the following dialogue overheard between two +alleged carpenters picked up at random to help on a +hurry job. + +"How near does she fit, Mike?" + +"About an inch." + +"Nail her!" + +A most casual examination of any of the laboratory +records will reveal evidence of the minutest exactitude +insisted on in the conduct of experiments, irrespective +of the length of time they occupied. Edison's +instructions, always clear cut and direct, followed by +his keen oversight, admit of nothing less than implicit +observance in all details, no matter where +they may lead, and impel to the utmost minuteness +and accuracy. + +To some extent there has been a popular notion +that many of Edison's successes have been due to +mere dumb fool luck--to blind, fortuitous "happenings." +Nothing could be further from the truth, for, +on the contrary, it is owing almost entirely to the +comprehensive scope of his knowledge, the breadth +of his conception, the daring originality of his methods, +and minuteness and extent of experiment, com- +bined with unwavering pertinacity, that new arts +have been created and additions made to others +already in existence. Indeed, without this tireless +minutiae, and methodical, searching spirit, it would +have been practically impossible to have produced +many of the most important of these inventions. + +Needless to say, mastery of its literature is regarded +by him as a most important preliminary in +taking up any line of investigation. What others +may have done, bearing directly or collaterally on +the subject, in print, is carefully considered and +sifted to the point of exhaustion. Not that he takes +it for granted that the conclusions are correct, for +he frequently obtains vastly different results by +repeating in his own way experiments made by others +as detailed in books. + +"Edison can travel along a well-used road and still +find virgin soil," remarked recently one of his most +practical experimenters, who had been working along +a certain line without attaining the desired result. +"He wanted to get a particular compound having +definite qualities, and I had tried in all sorts of ways +to produce it but with only partial success. He was +confident that it could be done, and said he would +try it himself. In doing so he followed the same path +in which I had travelled, but, by making an undreamed-of +change in one of the operations, succeeded +in producing a compound that virtually came up to +his specifications. It is not the only time I have +known this sort of thing to happen." + +In speaking of Edison's method of experimenting, +another of his laboratory staff says: "He is never +hindered by theory, but resorts to actual experiment +for proof. For instance, when he conceived the idea +of pouring a complete concrete house it was universally +held that it would be impossible because the +pieces of stone in the mixture would not rise to the +level of the pouring-point, but would gravitate to a +lower plane in the soft cement. This, however, did +not hinder him from making a series of experiments +which resulted in an invention that proved conclusively +the contrary." + +Having conceived some new idea and read everything +obtainable relating to the subject in general, +Edison's fertility of resource and originality come into +play. Taking one of the laboratory note-books, he +will write in it a memorandum of the experiments to +be tried, illustrated, if necessary, by sketches. This +book is then passed on to that member of the experimental +staff whose special training and experience +are best adapted to the work. Here strenuousness is +expected; and an immediate commencement of investigation +and prompt report are required. Sometimes +the subject may be such as to call for a long +line of frequent tests which necessitate patient and +accurate attention to minute details. Results must +be reported often--daily, or possibly with still greater +frequency. Edison does not forget what is going on; +but in his daily tours through the laboratory keeps +in touch with all the work that is under the hands of +his various assistants, showing by an instant grasp +of the present conditions of any experiment that he +has a full consciousness of its meaning and its reference +to his original conception. + +The year 1869 saw the beginning of Edison's career +as an acknowledged inventor of commercial devices. +From the outset, an innate recognition of system +dictated the desirability and wisdom of preserving +records of his experiments and inventions. The +primitive records, covering the earliest years, were +mainly jotted down on loose sheets of paper covered +with sketches, notes, and data, pasted into large scrap- +books, or preserved in packages; but with the passing +of years and enlargement of his interests, it became +the practice to make all original laboratory +notes in large, uniform books. This course was pursued +until the Menlo Park period, when he instituted +a new regime that has been continued down to the +present day. A standard form of note-book, about +eight and a half by six inches, containing about two +hundred pages, was adopted. A number of these +books were (and are now) always to be found scattered +around in the different sections of the laboratory, +and in them have been noted by Edison all +his ideas, sketches, and memoranda. Details of the +various experiments concerning them have been set +down by his assistants from time to time. + +These later laboratory note-books, of which there +are now over one thousand in the series, are eloquent +in the history they reveal of the strenuous labors of +Edison and his assistants and the vast fields of +research he has covered during the last thirty years. +They are overwhelmingly rich in biographic material, +but analysis would be a prohibitive task for one person, +and perhaps interesting only to technical readers. +Their pages cover practically every department of +science. The countless thousands of separate experiments +recorded exhibit the operations of a master +mind seeking to surprise Nature into a betrayal of +her secrets by asking her the same question in a +hundred different ways. For instance, when Edison +was investigating a certain problem of importance +many years ago, the note-books show that on this +point alone about fifteen thousand experiments and +tests were made by one of his assistants. + +A most casual glance over these note-books will +illustrate the following remark, which was made to +one of the writers not long ago by a member of the +laboratory staff who has been experimenting there +for twenty years: "Edison can think of more ways +of doing a thing than any man I ever saw or heard +of. He tries everything and never lets up, even +though failure is apparently staring him in the face. +He only stops when he simply can't go any further +on that particular line. When he decides on any +mode of procedure he gives his notes to the experimenter +and lets him alone, only stepping in from +time to time to look at the operations and receive +reports of progress." + +The history of the development of the telephone +transmitter, phonograph, incandescent lamp, dynamo, +electrical distributing systems from central stations, +electric railway, ore-milling, cement, motion pictures, +and a host of minor inventions may be found embedded +in the laboratory note-books. A passing +glance at a few pages of these written records will +serve to illustrate, though only to a limited extent, +the thoroughness of Edison's method. It is to be +observed that these references can be but of the most +meagre kind, and must be regarded as merely throwing +a side-light on the subject itself. For instance, +the complex problem of a practical telephone transmitter +gave rise to a series of most exhaustive experiments. +Combinations in almost infinite variety, +including gums, chemical compounds, oils, minerals, +and metals were suggested by Edison; and his assistants +were given long lists of materials to try with +reference to predetermined standards of articulation, +degrees of loudness, and perfection of hissing sounds. +The note-books contain hundreds of pages showing +that a great many thousands of experiments were +tried and passed upon. Such remarks as "N. G."; +"Pretty good"; "Whistling good, but no articulation"; +"Rattly"; "Articulation, whispering, and +whistling good"; "Best to-night so far"; and others +are noted opposite the various combinations as they +were tried. Thus, one may follow the investigation +through a maze of experiments which led up to the +successful invention of the carbon button transmitter, +the vital device to give the telephone its +needed articulation and perfection. + +The two hundred and odd note-books, covering the +strenuous period during which Edison was carrying +on his electric-light experiments, tell on their forty +thousand pages or more a fascinating story of the +evolution of a new art in its entirety. From the crude +beginnings, through all the varied phases of this +evolution, the operations of a master mind are apparent +from the contents of these pages, in which are +recorded the innumerable experiments, calculations, +and tests that ultimately brought light out of darkness. + +The early work on a metallic conductor for lamps +gave rise to some very thorough research on melting +and alloying metals, the preparation of metallic +oxides, the coating of fine wires by immersing them +in a great variety of chemical solutions. Following +his usual custom, Edison would indicate the lines of +experiment to be followed, which were carried out +and recorded in the note-books. He himself, in +January, 1879, made personally a most minute and +searching investigation into the properties and behavior +of plating-iridium, boron, rutile, zircon, chromium, +molybdenum, and nickel, under varying degrees +of current strength, on which there may be +found in the notes about forty pages of detailed +experiments and deductions in his own handwriting, +concluding with the remark (about nickel): "This +is a great discovery for electric light in the way of +economy." + +This period of research on nickel, etc., was evidently +a trying one, for after nearly a month's close +application he writes, on January 27, 1879: "Owing +to the enormous power of the light my eyes commenced +to pain after seven hours' work, and I had +to quit." On the next day appears the following +entry: "Suffered the pains of hell with my eyes last +night from 10 P.M. till 4 A.M., when got to sleep with +a big dose of morphine. Eyes getting better, and +do not pain much at 4 P.M.; but I lose to-day." + +The "try everything" spirit of Edison's method is +well illustrated in this early period by a series of +about sixteen hundred resistance tests of various ores, +minerals, earths, etc., occupying over fifty pages of +one of the note-books relating to the metallic filament +for his lamps. + +But, as the reader has already learned, the metallic +filament was soon laid aside in favor of carbon, and +we find in the laboratory notes an amazing record of +research and experiment conducted in the minute +and searching manner peculiar to Edison's method. +His inquiries were directed along all the various roads +leading to the desired goal, for long before he had +completed the invention of a practical lamp he realized +broadly the fundamental requirements of a successful +system of electrical distribution, and had +given instructions for the making of a great variety +of calculations which, although far in advance of the +time, were clearly foreseen by him to be vitally +important in the ultimate solution of the complicated +problem. Thus we find many hundreds of pages of +the note-books covered with computations and +calculations by Mr. Upton, not only on the numerous +ramifications of the projected system and +comparisons with gas, but also on proposed forms of +dynamos and the proposed station in New York. A +mere recital by titles of the vast number of experiments +and tests on carbons, lamps, dynamos, armatures, +commutators, windings, systems, regulators, +sockets, vacuum-pumps, and the thousand and one +details relating to the subject in general, originated +by Edison, and methodically and systematically carried +on under his general direction, would fill a +great many pages here, and even then would serve +only to convey a confused impression of ceaseless +probing. + +It is possible only to a broad, comprehensive mind +well stored with knowledge, and backed with resistless, +boundless energy, that such a diversified series +of experiments and investigations could be carried +on simultaneously and assimilated, even though they +should relate to a class of phenomena already understood +and well defined. But if we pause to consider +that the commercial subdivision of the electric current +(which was virtually an invention made to order) +involved the solution of problems so unprecedented +that even they themselves had to be created, we cannot +but conclude that the afflatus of innate genius +played an important part in the unique methods of +investigation instituted by Edison at that and other +times. + +The idea of attributing great successes to "genius" +has always been repudiated by Edison, as evidenced +by his historic remark that "Genius is 1 per cent. +inspiration and 99 per cent. perspiration." Again, +in a conversation many years ago at the laboratory +between Edison, Batchelor, and E. H. Johnson, the +latter made allusion to Edison's genius as evidenced +by some of his achievements, when Edison replied: + +"Stuff! I tell you genius is hard work, stick-to-it- +iveness, and common sense." + +"Yes," said Johnson, "I admit there is all that to +it, but there's still more. Batch and I have those +qualifications, but although we knew quite a lot about +telephones, and worked hard, we couldn't invent a +brand-new non-infringing telephone receiver as you +did when Gouraud cabled for one. Then, how about +the subdivision of the electric light?" + +"Electric current," corrected Edison. + +"True," continued Johnson; "you were the one +to make that very distinction. The scientific world +had been working hard on subdivision for years, +using what appeared to be common sense. Results +worse than nil. Then you come along, and about the +first thing you do, after looking the ground over, is +to start off in the opposite direction, which subsequently +proves to be the only possible way to reach +the goal. It seems to me that this is pretty close +to the dictionary definition of genius." + +It is said that Edison replied rather incoherently +and changed the topic of conversation. + +This innate modesty, however, does not prevent +Edison from recognizing and classifying his own +methods of investigation. In a conversation with +two old associates recently (April, 1909), he remarked: +"It has been said of me that my methods are empirical. +That is true only so far as chemistry is concerned. +Did you ever realize that practically all industrial +chemistry is colloidal in its nature? Hard +rubber, celluloid, glass, soap, paper, and lots of others, +all have to deal with amorphous substances, as to +which comparatively little has been really settled. +My methods are similar to those followed by Luther +Burbank. He plants an acre, and when this is in +bloom he inspects it. He has a sharp eye, and can +pick out of thousands a single plant that has promise +of what he wants. From this he gets the seed, and +uses his skill and knowledge in producing from it a +number of new plants which, on development, furnish +the means of propagating an improved variety +in large quantity. So, when I am after a chemical +result that I have in mind, I may make hundreds or +thousands of experiments out of which there may be +one that promises results in the right direction. This +I follow up to its legitimate conclusion, discarding +the others, and usually get what I am after. There is +no doubt about this being empirical; but when it +comes to problems of a mechanical nature, I want +to tell you that all I've ever tackled and solved have +been done by hard, logical thinking." The intense +earnestness and emphasis with which this was said +were very impressive to the auditors. This empirical +method may perhaps be better illustrated by a specific +example. During the latter part of the storage +battery investigations, after the form of positive +element had been determined upon, it became necessary +to ascertain what definite proportions and what quality +of nickel hydrate and nickel flake would give the +best results. A series of positive tubes were filled +with the two materials in different proportions--say, +nine parts hydrate to one of flake; eight parts +hydrate to two of flake; seven parts hydrate to three of +flake, and so on through varying proportions. Three +sets of each of these positives were made, and all put +into separate test tubes with a uniform type of negative +element. These were carried through a long series +of charges and discharges under strict test conditions. +From the tabulated results of hundreds of tests there +were selected three that showed the best results. +These, however, showed only the superiority of cer- +tain PROPORTIONS of the materials. The next step would +be to find out the best QUALITY. Now, as there are +several hundred variations in the quality of nickel +flake, and perhaps a thousand ways to make the +hydrate, it will be realized that Edison's methods led +to stupendous detail, for these tests embraced a trial +of all the qualities of both materials in the three +proportions found to be most suitable. Among these +many thousands of experiments any that showed +extraordinary results were again elaborated by still +further series of tests, until Edison was satisfied that +he had obtained the best result in that particular line. + +The laboratory note-books do not always tell the +whole story or meaning of an experiment that may +be briefly outlined on one of their pages. For example, +the early filament made of a mixture of lampblack +and tar is merely a suggestion in the notes, but +its making afforded an example of Edison's +pertinacity. These materials, when mixed, became a +friable mass, which he had found could be brought +into such a cohesive, putty-like state by manipulation, +as to be capable of being rolled out into filaments as +fine as seven-thousandths of an inch in cross-section. +One of the laboratory assistants was told to make some +of this mixture, knead it, and roll some filaments. +After a time he brought the mass to Edison, and said: + +"There's something wrong about this, for it crumbles +even after manipulating it with my fingers." + +"How long did you knead it?" said Edison. + +"Oh! more than an hour," replied the assistant. + +"Well, just keep on for a few hours more and it +will come out all right," was the rejoinder. And this +proved to be correct, for, after a prolonged kneading +and rolling, the mass changed into a cohesive, stringy, +homogeneous putty. It was from a mixture of this +kind that spiral filaments were made and used in +some of the earliest forms of successful incandescent +lamps; indeed, they are described and illustrated in +Edison's fundamental lamp patent (No. 223,898). + +The present narrative would assume the proportions +of a history of the incandescent lamp, should +the authors attempt to follow Edison's investigations +through the thousands of pages of note-books away +back in the eighties and early nineties. Improvement +of the lamp was constantly in his mind all those years, +and besides the vast amount of detail experimental +work he laid out for his assistants, he carried on a great +deal of research personally. Sometimes whole books +are filled in his own handwriting with records of +experiments showing every conceivable variation of some +particular line of inquiry; each trial bearing some +terse comment expressive of results. In one book +appear the details of one of these experiments on +September 3, 1891, at 4.30 A.M., with the comment: +"Brought up lamp higher than a 16-c.p. 240 was ever +brought before--Hurrah!" Notwithstanding the late +hour, he turns over to the next page and goes on to +write his deductions from this result as compared +with those previously obtained. Proceeding day by +day, as appears by this same book, he follows up another +line of investigation on lamps, apparently full +of difficulty, for after one hundred and thirty-two +other recorded experiments we find this note: "Saturday +3.30 went home disgusted with incandescent +lamps." This feeling was evidently evanescent, for +on the succeeding Monday the work was continued +and carried on by him as keenly as before, as shown +by the next batch of notes. + +This is the only instance showing any indication of +impatience that the authors have found in looking +through the enormous mass of laboratory notes. All +his assistants agree that Edison is the most patient, +tireless experimenter that could be conceived of. +Failures do not distress him; indeed, he regards them +as always useful, as may be gathered from the following, +related by Dr. E. G. Acheson, formerly one +of his staff: "I once made an experiment in Edison's +laboratory at Menlo Park during the latter part of +1880, and the results were not as looked for. I +considered the experiment a perfect failure, and while +bemoaning the results of this apparent failure Mr. +Edison entered, and, after learning the facts of the +case, cheerfully remarked that I should not look +upon it as a failure, for he considered every experiment +a success, as in all cases it cleared up the atmosphere, +and even though it failed to accomplish the +results sought for, it should prove a valuable lesson +for guidance in future work. I believe that Mr. +Edison's success as an experimenter was, to a large +extent, due to this happy view of all experiments." + +Edison has frequently remarked that out of a hundred +experiments he does not expect more than one +to be successful, and as to that one he is always +suspicious until frequent repetition has verified the +original results. + +This patient, optimistic view of the outcome of +experiments has remained part of his character down +to this day, just as his painstaking, minute, incisive +methods are still unchanged. But to the careless, +stupid, or lazy person he is a terror for the short +time they remain around him. Honest mistakes may +be tolerated, but not carelessness, incompetence, or +lack of attention to business. In such cases Edison +is apt to express himself freely and forcibly, as when +he was asked why he had parted with a certain man, +he said: "Oh, he was so slow that it would take him +half an hour to get out of the field of a microscope." +Another instance will be illustrative. Soon after the +Brockton (Massachusetts) central station was started +in operation many years ago, he wrote a note to Mr. +W. S. Andrews, containing suggestions as to future +stations, part of which related to the various employees +and their duties. After outlining the duties +of the meter man, Edison says: "I should not take +too young a man for this, say, a man from twenty- +three to thirty years old, bright and businesslike. +Don't want any one who yearns to enter a laboratory +and experiment. We have a bad case of that at +Brockton; he neglects business to potter. What we +want is a good lamp average and no unprofitable +customer. You should have these men on probation +and subject to passing an examination by me. +This will wake them up." + +Edison's examinations are no joke, according to Mr. +J. H. Vail, formerly one of the Menlo Park staff. "I +wanted a job," he said, "and was ambitious to take +charge of the dynamo-room. Mr. Edison led me to +a heap of junk in a corner and said: `Put that to- +gether and let me know when it's running.' I didn't +know what it was, but received a liberal education in +finding out. It proved to be a dynamo, which I +finally succeeded in assembling and running. I got +the job." Another man who succeeded in winning a +place as assistant was Mr. John F. Ott, who has remained +in his employ for over forty years. In 1869, +when Edison was occupying his first manufacturing +shop (the third floor of a small building in Newark), +he wanted a first-class mechanician, and Mr. Ott was +sent to him. "He was then an ordinary-looking young +fellow," says Mr. Ott, "dirty as any of the other +workmen, unkempt, and not much better dressed +than a tramp, but I immediately felt that there was +a great deal in him." This is the conversation that +ensued, led by Mr. Edison's question: + +"What do you want?" + +" Work." + +"Can you make this machine work?" (exhibiting +it and explaining its details). + +"Yes." + +"Are you sure?" + +"Well, you needn't pay me if I don't." + +And thus Mr. Ott went to work and succeeded in +accomplishing the results desired. Two weeks afterward +Mr. Edison put him in charge of the shop. + +Edison's life fairly teems with instances of unruffled +patience in the pursuit of experiments. When +he feels thoroughly impressed with the possibility of +accomplishing a certain thing, he will settle down +composedly to investigate it to the end. + +This is well illustrated in a story relating to his +invention of the type of storage battery bearing his +name. Mr. W. S. Mallory, one of his closest associates +for many years, is the authority for the following: +"When Mr. Edison decided to shut down the ore- +milling plant at Edison, New Jersey, in which I had +been associated with him, it became a problem as to +what he could profitably take up next, and we had +several discussions about it. He finally thought that +a good storage battery was a great requisite, and +decided to try and devise a new type, for he declared +emphatically he would make no battery requiring +sulphuric acid. After a little thought he conceived +the nickel-iron idea, and started to work at once +with characteristic energy. About 7 or 7.30 A.M. he +would go down to the laboratory and experiment, +only stopping for a short time at noon to eat a lunch +sent down from the house. About 6 o'clock the carriage +would call to take him to dinner, from which he +would return by 7.30 or 8 o'clock to resume work. +The carriage came again at midnight to take him +home, but frequently had to wait until 2 or 3 o'clock, +and sometimes return without him, as he had decided +to continue all night. + +"This had been going on more than five months, +seven days a week, when I was called down to the +laboratory to see him. I found him at a bench about +three feet wide and twelve to fifteen feet long, on which +there were hundreds of little test cells that had been +made up by his corps of chemists and experimenters. +He was seated at this bench testing, figuring, and +planning. I then learned that he had thus made +over nine thousand experiments in trying to devise +this new type of storage battery, but had not produced +a single thing that promised to solve the question. +In view of this immense amount of thought +and labor, my sympathy got the better of my judgment, +and I said: `Isn't it a shame that with the +tremendous amount of work you have done you +haven't been able to get any results?' Edison turned +on me like a flash, and with a smile replied: `Results! +Why, man, I have gotten a lot of results! I know +several thousand things that won't work.' + +"At that time he sent me out West on a special +mission. On my return, a few weeks later, his +experiments had run up to over ten thousand, but he +had discovered the missing link in the combination +sought for. Of course, we all remember how the +battery was completed and put on the market. +Then, because he was dissatisfied with it, he stopped +the sales and commenced a new line of investigation, +which has recently culminated successfully. I +shouldn't wonder if his experiments on the battery +ran up pretty near to fifty thousand, for they fill +more than one hundred and fifty of the note-books, +to say nothing of some thousands of tests in curve +sheets." + +Although Edison has an absolute disregard for the +total outlay of money in investigation, he is particular +to keep down the cost of individual experiments to a +minimum, for, as he observed to one of his assistants: +"A good many inventors try to develop things life- +size, and thus spend all their money, instead of first +experimenting more freely on a small scale." To +Edison life is not only a grand opportunity to find +out things by experiment, but, when found, to improve +them by further experiment. One night, after +receiving a satisfactory report of progress from Mr. +Mason, superintendent of the cement plant, he said: +"The only way to keep ahead of the procession is to +experiment. If you don't, the other fellow will. +When there's no experimenting there's no progress. +Stop experimenting and you go backward. If anything +goes wrong, experiment until you get to the +very bottom of the trouble." + +It is easy to realize, therefore, that a character so +thoroughly permeated with these ideas is not apt to +stop and figure out expense when in hot pursuit of +some desired object. When that object has been +attained, however, and it passes from the experimental +to the commercial stage, Edison's monetary views +again come into strong play, but they take a +diametrically opposite position, for he then begins +immediately to plan the extreme of economy in the +production of the article. A thousand and one instances +could be quoted in illustration; but as they +would tend to change the form of this narrative into +a history of economy in manufacture, it will suffice +to mention but one, and that a recent occurrence, +which serves to illustrate how closely he keeps in +touch with everything, and also how the inventive +faculty and instinct of commercial economy run +close together. It was during Edison's winter stay +in Florida, in March, 1909. He had reports sent to +him daily from various places, and studied them +carefully, for he would write frequently with comments, +instructions, and suggestions; and in one +case, commenting on the oiling system at the cement +plant, he wrote: "Your oil losses are now getting +lower, I see." Then, after suggesting some changes +to reduce them still further, he went on to say: +"Here is a chance to save a mill per barrel based on +your regular daily output." + +This thorough consideration of the smallest detail +is essentially characteristic of Edison, not only in +economy of manufacture, but in all his work, no matter +of what kind, whether it be experimenting, +investigating, testing, or engineering. To follow him +through the labyrinthine paths of investigation +contained in the great array of laboratory note-books is +to become involved in a mass of minutely detailed +searches which seek to penetrate the inmost recesses +of nature by an ultimate analysis of an infinite variety +of parts. As the reader will obtain a fuller comprehension +of this idea, and of Edison's methods, by concrete +illustration rather than by generalization, the +authors have thought it well to select at random +two typical instances of specific investigations out of +the thousands that are scattered through the notebooks. +These will be found in the following extracts +from one of the note-books, and consist of Edison's +instructions to be carried out in detail by his +experimenters: + + +"Take, say, 25 lbs. hard Cuban asphalt and separate all +the different hydrocarbons, etc., as far as possible by +means of solvents. It will be necessary first to dissolve +everything out by, say, hot turpentine, then successively +treat the residue with bisulphide carbon, benzol, ether, +chloroform, naphtha, toluol, alcohol, and other probable +solvents. After you can go no further, distil off all the +solvents so the asphalt material has a tar-like consistency. +Be sure all the ash is out of the turpentine portion; now, +after distilling the turpentine off, act on the residue with +all the solvents that were used on the residue, using for +the first the solvent which is least likely to dissolve a great +part of it. By thus manipulating the various solvents +you will be enabled probably to separate the crude +asphalt into several distinct hydrocarbons. Put each in +a bottle after it has been dried, and label the bottle with +the process, etc., so we may be able to duplicate it; also +give bottle a number and describe everything fully in +note-book." + +" Destructively distil the following substances down to +a point just short of carbonization, so that the residuum +can be taken out of the retort, powdered, and acted on +by all the solvents just as the asphalt in previous page. +The distillation should be carried to, say, 600 degrees or 700 degrees +Fahr., but not continued long enough to wholly reduce +mass to charcoal, but always run to blackness. Separate +the residuum in as many definite parts as possible, bottle +and label, and keep accurate records as to process, +weights, etc., so a reproduction of the experiment can at +any time be made: Gelatine, 4 lbs.; asphalt, hard +Cuban, 10 lbs.; coal-tar or pitch, 10 lbs.; wood-pitch, +10 lbs.; Syrian asphalt, 10 lbs.; bituminous coal, 10 lbs.; +cane-sugar, 10 lbs.; glucose, 10 lbs.; dextrine, 10 lbs.; +glycerine, 10 lbs.; tartaric acid, 5 lbs.; gum guiac, 5 lbs.; +gum amber, 3 lbs.; gum tragacanth, 3 Lbs.; aniline red, +1 lb.; aniline oil, 1 lb.; crude anthracene, 5 lbs.; petroleum +pitch, 10 lbs.; albumen from eggs, 2 lbs.; tar from +passing chlorine through aniline oil, 2 lbs.; citric acid, +5 lbs.; sawdust of boxwood, 3 lbs.; starch, 5 lbs.; shellac, +3 lbs.; gum Arabic, 5 lbs.; castor oil, 5 lbs." + +The empirical nature of his method will be apparent +from an examination of the above items; but in pur- +suing it he leaves all uncertainty behind and, trusting +nothing to theory, he acquires absolute knowledge. +Whatever may be the mental processes by which he +arrives at the starting-point of any specific line of +research, the final results almost invariably prove +that he does not plunge in at random; indeed, as an +old associate remarked: "When Edison takes up +any proposition in natural science, his perceptions +seem to be elementally broad and analytical, that +is to say, in addition to the knowledge he has +acquired from books and observation, he appears to +have an intuitive apprehension of the general order +of things, as they might be supposed to exist in +natural relation to each other. It has always seemed +to me that he goes to the core of things at once." + +Although nothing less than results from actual experiments +are acceptable to him as established facts, +this view of Edison may also account for his peculiar +and somewhat weird ability to "guess" correctly, a +faculty which has frequently enabled him to take +short cuts to lines of investigation whose outcome has +verified in a most remarkable degree statements +apparently made offhand and without calculation. +Mr. Upton says: "One of the main impressions left +upon me, after knowing Mr. Edison for many years, +is the marvellous accuracy of his guesses. He will +see the general nature of a result long before it can +be reached by mathematical calculation." This was +supplemented by one of his engineering staff, who +remarked: "Mr. Edison can guess better than a +good many men can figure, and so far as my experience +goes, I have found that he is almost invariably +correct. His guess is more than a mere starting- +point, and often turns out to be the final solution of +a problem. I can only account for it by his remarkable +insight and wonderful natural sense of the proportion +of things, in addition to which he seems to +carry in his head determining factors of all kinds, +and has the ability to apply them instantly in +considering any mechanical problem." + +While this mysterious intuitive power has been of +the greatest advantage in connection with the vast +number of technical problems that have entered into +his life-work, there have been many remarkable instances +in which it has seemed little less than prophecy, +and it is deemed worth while to digress to the extent +of relating two of them. One day in the summer of +1881, when the incandescent lamp-industry was still +in swaddling clothes, Edison was seated in the room +of Major Eaton, vice-president of the Edison Electric +Light Company, talking over business matters, when +Mr. Upton came in from the lamp factory at Menlo +Park, and said: "Well, Mr. Edison, we completed a +thousand lamps to-day." Edison looked up and +said "Good," then relapsed into a thoughtful mood. +In about two minutes he raised his head, and said: +"Upton, in fifteen years you will be making forty +thousand lamps a day." None of those present +ventured to make any remark on this assertion, +although all felt that it was merely a random guess, +based on the sanguine dream of an inventor. The +business had not then really made a start, and being +entirely new was without precedent upon which to +base any such statement, but, as a matter of fact, the +records of the lamp factory show that in 1896 its +daily output of lamps was actually about forty +thousand. + +The other instance referred to occurred shortly +after the Edison Machine Works was moved up to +Schenectady, in 1886. One day, when he was at the +works, Edison sat down and wrote on a sheet of paper +fifteen separate predictions of the growth and future +of the electrical business. Notwithstanding the fact +that the industry was then in an immature state, and +that the great boom did not set in until a few years +afterward, twelve of these predictions have been fully +verified by the enormous growth and development in +all branches of the art. + +What the explanation of this gift, power, or intuition +may be, is perhaps better left to the psychologist +to speculate upon. If one were to ask Edison, +he would probably say, "Hard work, not too much +sleep, and free use of the imagination." Whether or +not it would be possible for the average mortal to +arrive at such perfection of "guessing" by faithfully +following this formula, even reinforced by the Edison +recipe for stimulating a slow imagination with pastry, +is open for demonstration. + +Somewhat allied to this curious faculty is another +no less remarkable, and that is, the ability to point +out instantly an error in a mass of reported experimental +results. While many instances could be definitely +named, a typical one, related by Mr. J. D. +Flack, formerly master mechanic at the lamp factory, +may be quoted: "During the many years of lamp +experimentation, batches of lamps were sent to the +photometer department for test, and Edison would +examine the tabulated test sheets. He ran over +every item of the tabulations rapidly, and, apparently +without any calculation whatever, would check off +errors as fast as he came to them, saying: `You have +made a mistake; try this one over.' In every case +the second test proved that he was right. This wonderful +aptitude for infallibly locating an error without +an instant's hesitation for mental calculation, has +always appealed to me very forcibly." + +The ability to detect errors quickly in a series of +experiments is one of the things that has enabled +Edison to accomplish such a vast amount of work +as the records show. Examples of the minuteness of +detail into which his researches extend have already +been mentioned, and as there are always a number +of such investigations in progress at the laboratory, +this ability stands Edison in good stead, for he is +thus enabled to follow, and, if necessary, correct each +one step by step. In this he is aided by the great +powers of a mind that is able to free itself from +absorbed concentration on the details of one problem, +and instantly to shift over and become deeply and +intelligently concentrated in another and entirely +different one. For instance, he may have been busy +for hours on chemical experiments, and be called +upon suddenly to determine some mechanical questions. +The complete and easy transition is the constant +wonder of his associates, for there is no confusion +of ideas resulting from these quick changes, +no hesitation or apparent effort, but a plunge into +the midst of the new subject, and an instant acquaint- +ance with all its details, as if he had been studying +it for hours. + +A good stiff difficulty--one which may, perhaps, appear +to be an unsurmountable obstacle--only serves to +make Edison cheerful, and brings out variations of his +methods in experimenting. Such an occurrence will +start him thinking, which soon gives rise to a line +of suggestions for approaching the trouble from various +sides; or he will sit down and write out a series +of eliminations, additions, or changes to be worked +out and reported upon, with such variations as may +suggest themselves during their progress. It is at +such times as these that his unfailing patience and +tremendous resourcefulness are in evidence. Ideas and +expedients are poured forth in a torrent, and although +some of them have temporarily appeared to +the staff to be ridiculous or irrelevant, they have +frequently turned out to be the ones leading to a +correct solution of the trouble. + +Edison's inexhaustible resourcefulness and fertility +of ideas have contributed largely to his great +success, and have ever been a cause of amazement +to those around him. Frequently, when it +would seem to others that the extreme end of an +apparently blind alley had been reached, and that it +was impossible to proceed further, he has shown that +there were several ways out of it. Examples without +number could be quoted, but one must suffice by way +of illustration. During the progress of the ore-milling +work at Edison, it became desirable to carry on +a certain operation by some special machinery. He +requested the proper person on his engineering staff +to think this matter up and submit a few sketches +of what he would propose to do. He brought three +drawings to Edison, who examined them and said +none of them would answer. The engineer remarked +that it was too bad, for there was no other way to +do it. Mr. Edison turned to him quickly, and said: +"Do you mean to say that these drawings represent +the only way to do this work?" To which he received +the reply: "I certainly do." Edison said +nothing. This happened on a Saturday. He followed +his usual custom of spending Sunday at home +in Orange. When he returned to the works on +Monday morning, he took with him sketches he had +made, showing FORTY-EIGHT other ways of accomplishing +the desired operation, and laid them on the engineer's +desk without a word. Subsequently one of +these ideas, with modifications suggested by some of +the others, was put into successful practice. + +Difficulties seem to have a peculiar charm for +Edison, whether they relate to large or small things; +and although the larger matters have contributed +most to the history of the arts, the same carefulness +of thought has often been the means of leading to +improvements of permanent advantage even in +minor details. For instance, in the very earliest +days of electric lighting, the safe insulation of two +bare wires fastened together was a serious problem +that was solved by him. An iron pot over a fire, some +insulating material melted therein, and narrow strips +of linen drawn through it by means of a wooden +clamp, furnished a readily applied and adhesive +insulation, which was just as perfect for the purpose +as the regular and now well-known insulating tape, +of which it was the forerunner. + +Dubious results are not tolerated for a moment +in Edison's experimental work. Rather than pass +upon an uncertainty, the experiment will be dissected +and checked minutely in order to obtain absolute +knowledge, pro and con. This searching method +is followed not only in chemical or other investigations, +into which complexities might naturally enter, +but also in more mechanical questions, where simplicity +of construction might naturally seem to preclude +possibilities of uncertainty. For instance, at +the time when he was making strenuous endeavors +to obtain copper wire of high conductivity, strict +laboratory tests were made of samples sent by +manufacturers. One of these samples tested out poorer +than a previous lot furnished from the same factory. +A report of this to Edison brought the following +note: "Perhaps the ---- wire had a bad spot in it. +Please cut it up into lengths and test each one and +send results to me immediately." Possibly the electrical +fraternity does not realize that this earnest +work of Edison, twenty-eight years ago, resulted in +the establishment of the high quality of copper wire +that has been the recognized standard since that +time. Says Edison on this point: "I furnished the +expert and apparatus to the Ansonia Brass and Copper +Company in 1883, and he is there yet. It was this +expert and this company who pioneered high-conductivity +copper for the electrical trade." + +Nor is it generally appreciated in the industry that +the adoption of what is now regarded as a most ob- +vious proposition--the high-economy incandescent +lamp--was the result of that characteristic foresight +which there has been occasion to mention frequently +in the course of this narrative, together with the +courage and "horse-sense" which have always been +displayed by the inventor in his persistent pushing +out with far-reaching ideas, in the face of pessimistic +opinions. As is well known, the lamps of the first +ten or twelve years of incandescent lighting were of +low economy, but had long life. Edison's study of +the subject had led him to the conviction that the +greatest growth of the electric-lighting industry +would be favored by a lamp taking less current, but +having shorter, though commercially economical life; +and after gradually making improvements along this +line he developed, finally, a type of high-economy +lamp which would introduce a most radical change +in existing conditions, and lead ultimately to highly +advantageous results. His start on this lamp, and +an expressed desire to have it manufactured for regular +use, filled even some of his business associates +with dismay, for they could see nothing but disaster +ahead in forcing such a lamp on the market. His +persistence and profound conviction of the ultimate +results were so strong and his arguments so sound, +however, that the campaign was entered upon. +Although it took two or three years to convince the +public of the correctness of his views, the idea gradually +took strong root, and has now become an integral +principle of the business. + +In this connection it may be noted that with +remarkable prescience Edison saw the coming of the +modern lamps of to-day, which, by reason of their +small consumption of energy to produce a given +candle-power, have dismayed central-station managers. +A few years ago a consumption of 3.1 watts +per candle-power might safely be assumed as an +excellent average, and many stations fixed their +rates and business on such a basis. The results on +income when the consumption, as in the new metallic- +filament lamps, drops to 1.25 watts per candle can +readily be imagined. Edison has insisted that central +stations are selling light and not current; and +he points to the predicament now confronting them +as truth of his assertion that when selling light they +share in all the benefits of improvement, but that +when they sell current the consumer gets all those +benefits without division. The dilemma is encountered +by central stations in a bewildered way, +as a novel and unexpected experience; but Edison +foresaw the situation and warned against it long ago. +It is one of the greatest gifts of statesmanship to see +new social problems years before they arise and +solve them in advance. It is one of the greatest +attributes of invention to foresee and meet its own +problems in exactly the same way. + + + +CHAPTER XXV + +THE LABORATORY AT ORANGE AND THE STAFF + +A LIVING interrogation-point and a born investigator +from childhood, Edison has never been without +a laboratory of some kind for upward of half a +century. + +In youthful years, as already described in this book, +he became ardently interested in chemistry, and even +at the early age of twelve felt the necessity for a +special nook of his own, where he could satisfy his +unconvinced mind of the correctness or inaccuracy +of statements and experiments contained in the few +technical books then at his command. + +Ordinarily he was like other normal lads of his age +--full of boyish, hearty enjoyments--but withal possessed +of an unquenchable spirit of inquiry and an +insatiable desire for knowledge. Being blessed with +a wise and discerning mother, his aspirations were +encouraged; and he was allowed a corner in her +cellar. It is fair to offer tribute here to her bravery +as well as to her wisdom, for at times she was in mortal +terror lest the precocious experimenter below +should, in his inexperience, make some awful +combination that would explode and bring down the +house in ruins on himself and the rest of the family. + +Fortunately no such catastrophe happened, but +young Edison worked away in his embryonic laboratory, +satisfying his soul and incidentally depleting +his limited pocket-money to the vanishing-point. It +was, indeed, owing to this latter circumstance that in +a year or two his aspirations necessitated an increase +of revenue; and a consequent determination to earn +some money for himself led to his first real commercial +enterprise as "candy butcher" on the Grand Trunk +Railroad, already mentioned in a previous chapter. +It has also been related how his precious laboratory +was transferred to the train; how he and it were +subsequently expelled; and how it was re-established in +his home, where he continued studies and experiments +until the beginning of his career as a telegraph +operator. + +The nomadic life of the next few years did not +lessen his devotion to study; but it stood seriously +in the way of satisfying the ever-present craving for +a laboratory. The lack of such a place never prevented +experimentation, however, as long as he had +a dollar in his pocket and some available "hole in +the wall." With the turning of the tide of fortune +that suddenly carried him, in New York in 1869, from +poverty to the opulence of $300 a month, he drew +nearer to a realization of his cherished ambition in +having money, place, and some time (stolen from +sleep) for more serious experimenting. Thus matters +continued until, at about the age of twenty-two, +Edison's inventions had brought him a relatively +large sum of money, and he became a very busy +manufacturer, and lessee of a large shop in Newark, +New Jersey. + +Now, for the first time since leaving that boyish +laboratory in the old home at Port Huron, Edison +had a place of his own to work in, to think in; but +no one in any way acquainted with Newark as a +swarming centre of miscellaneous and multitudinous +industries would recommend it as a cloistered retreat +for brooding reverie and introspection, favorable to +creative effort. Some people revel in surroundings +of hustle and bustle, and find therein no hindrance +to great accomplishment. The electrical genius of +Newark is Edward Weston, who has thriven amid its +turmoil and there has developed his beautiful +instruments of precision; just as Brush worked out his +arc-lighting system in Cleveland; or even as Faraday, +surrounded by the din and roar of London, laid the +intellectual foundations of the whole modern science +of dynamic electricity. But Edison, though deaf, +could not make too hurried a retreat from Newark +to Menlo Park, where, as if to justify his change of +base, vital inventions soon came thick and fast, year +after year. The story of Menlo has been told in +another chapter, but the point was not emphasized +that Edison then, as later, tried hard to drop +manufacturing. He would infinitely rather be philosopher +than producer; but somehow the necessity of +manufacturing is constantly thrust back upon him by a +profound--perhaps finical--sense of dissatisfaction +with what other people make for him. The world +never saw a man more deeply and desperately convinced +that nothing in it approaches perfection. Edison +is the doctrine of evolution incarnate, applied to +mechanics. As to the removal from Newark, he may +be allowed to tell his own story: "I had a shop at +Newark in which I manufactured stock tickers and +such things. When I moved to Menlo Park I took +out only the machinery that would be necessary for +experimental purposes and left the manufacturing +machinery in the place. It consisted of many milling +machines and other tools for duplicating. I rented +this to a man who had formerly been my bookkeeper, +and who thought he could make money out of +manufacturing. There was about $10,000 worth of +machinery. He was to pay me $2000 a year for the +rent of the machinery and keep it in good order. +After I moved to Menlo Park, I was very busy with +the telephone and phonograph, and I paid no attention +to this little arrangement. About three years +afterward, it occurred to me that I had not heard at +all from the man who had rented this machinery, so +I thought I would go over to Newark and see how +things were going. When I got there, I found that +instead of being a machine shop it was a hotel! I +have since been utterly unable to find out what be +came of the man or the machinery." Such incidents +tend to justify Edison in his rather cynical remark +that he has always been able to improve machinery +much quicker than men. All the way up he has had +discouraging experiences. "One day while I was +carrying on my work in Newark, a Wall Street broker +came from the city and said he was tired of the +`Street,' and wanted to go into something real. He +said he had plenty of money. He wanted some kind +of a job to keep his mind off Wall Street. So we gave +him a job as a `mucker' in chemical experiments. +The second night he was there he could not stand the +long hours and fell asleep on a sofa. One of the boys +took a bottle of bromine and opened it under the +sofa. It floated up and produced a violent effect on +the mucous membrane. The broker was taken with +such a fit of coughing he burst a blood-vessel, and +the man who let the bromine out got away and never +came back. I suppose he thought there was going +to be a death. But the broker lived, and left the +next day; and I have never seen him since, either." +Edison tells also of another foolhardy laboratory +trick of the same kind: "Some of my assistants in +those days were very green in the business, as I did +not care whether they had had any experience or +not. I generally tried to turn them loose. One day +I got a new man, and told him to conduct a certain +experiment. He got a quart of ether and started to +boil it over a naked flame. Of course it caught fire. +The flame was about four feet in diameter and eleven +feet high. We had to call out the fire department; +and they came down and put a stream through the +window. That let all the fumes and chemicals out +and overcame the firemen; and there was the devil to +pay. Another time we experimented with a tub full of +soapy water, and put hydrogen into it to make large +bubbles. One of the boys, who was washing bottles in +the place, had read in some book that hydrogen was +explosive, so he proceeded to blow the tub up. There +was about four inches of soap in the bottom of the +tub, fourteen inches high; and he filled it with soap +bubbles up to the brim. Then he took a bamboo +fish-pole, put a piece of paper at the end, and +touched it off. It blew every window out of the +place." + +Always a shrewd, observant, and kindly critic of +character, Edison tells many anecdotes of the men +who gathered around him in various capacities at +that quiet corner of New Jersey--Menlo Park--and +later at Orange, in the Llewellyn Park laboratory; +and these serve to supplement the main narrative by +throwing vivid side-lights on the whole scene. Here, +for example, is a picture drawn by Edison of a +laboratory interlude--just a bit Rabelaisian: "When +experimenting at Menlo Park we had all the way from +forty to fifty men. They worked all the time. Each +man was allowed from four to six hours' sleep. We +had a man who kept tally, and when the time came +for one to sleep, he was notified. At midnight we +had lunch brought in and served at a long table at +which the experimenters sat down. I also had an +organ which I procured from Hilbourne Roosevelt-- +uncle of the ex-President--and we had a man play +this organ while we ate our lunch. During the summer- +time, after we had made something which was +successful, I used to engage a brick-sloop at Perth +Amboy and take the whole crowd down to the fishing- +banks on the Atlantic for two days. On one occasion +we got outside Sandy Hook on the banks and anchored. +A breeze came up, the sea became rough, +and a large number of the men were sick. There was +straw in the bottom of the boat, which we all slept +on. Most of the men adjourned to this straw very +sick. Those who were not got a piece of rancid salt +pork from the skipper, and cut a large, thick slice +out of it. This was put on the end of a fish-hook +and drawn across the men's faces. The smell was +terrific, and the effect added to the hilarity of the +excursion. + +"I went down once with my father and two assistants +for a little fishing inside Sandy Hook. For some +reason or other the fishing was very poor. We anchored, +and I started in to fish. After fishing for +several hours there was not a single bite. The others +wanted to pull up anchor, but I fished two days and +two nights without a bite, until they pulled up anchor +and went away. I would not give up. I was going +to catch that fish if it took a week." + +This is general. Let us quote one or two piquant +personal observations of a more specific nature as to +the odd characters Edison drew around him in his +experimenting. "Down at Menlo Park a man came +in one day and wanted a job. He was a sailor. I +hadn't any particular work to give him, but I had a +number of small induction coils, and to give him +something to do I told him to fix them up and sell +them among his sailor friends. They were fixed up, +and he went over to New York and sold them all. +He was an extraordinary fellow. His name was +Adams. One day I asked him how long it was since +he had been to sea, and he replied two or three years. +I asked him how he had made a living in the mean +time, before he came to Menlo Park. He said he +made a pretty good living by going around to different +clinics and getting $10 at each clinic, because of +having the worst case of heart-disease on record. I +told him if that was the case he would have to be very +careful around the laboratory. I had him there to +help in experimenting, and the heart-disease did not +seem to bother him at all. + +"It appeared that he had once been a slaver; and +altogether he was a tough character. Having no +other man I could spare at that time, I sent him over +with my carbon transmitter telephone to exhibit it +in England. It was exhibited before the Post-Office +authorities. Professor Hughes spent an afternoon in +examining the apparatus, and in about a month came +out with his microphone, which was absolutely nothing +more nor less than my exact invention. But no +mention was made of the fact that, just previously, +he had seen the whole of my apparatus. Adams +stayed over in Europe connected with the telephone +for several years, and finally died of too much whiskey +--but not of heart-disease. This shows how whiskey +is the more dangerous of the two. + +"Adams said that at one time he was aboard a +coffee-ship in the harbor of Santos, Brazil. He fell +down a hatchway and broke his arm. They took +him up to the hospital--a Portuguese one--where he +could not speak the language, and they did not +understand English. They treated him for two weeks for +yellow fever! He was certainly the most profane +man we ever had around the laboratory. He stood +high in his class." + +And there were others of a different stripe. "We +had a man with us at Menlo called Segredor. He was +a queer kind of fellow. The men got in the habit of +plaguing him; and, finally, one day he said to the +assembled experimenters in the top room of the +laboratory: `The next man that does it, I will kill +him.' They paid no attention to this, and next day +one of them made some sarcastic remark to him. +Segredor made a start for his boarding-house, and +when they saw him coming back up the hill with a +gun, they knew there would be trouble, so they all +made for the woods. One of the men went back and +mollified him. He returned to his work; but he was +not teased any more. At last, when I sent men out +hunting for bamboo, I dispatched Segredor to Cuba. +He arrived in Havana on Tuesday, and on the Friday +following he was buried, having died of the black +vomit. On the receipt of the news of his death, half +a dozen of the men wanted his job, but my searcher +in the Astor Library reported that the chances of +finding the right kind of bamboo for lamps in Cuba +were very small; so I did not send a substitute." + +Another thumb-nail sketch made of one of his +associates is this: "When experimenting with vacuum- +pumps to exhaust the incandescent lamps, I required +some very delicate and close manipulation of glass, +and hired a German glass-blower who was said to be +the most expert man of his kind in the United States. +He was the only one who could make clinical thermometers. +He was the most extraordinarily conceited +man I have ever come across. His conceit was +so enormous, life was made a burden to him by all +the boys around the laboratory. He once said that +he was educated in a university where all the students +belonged to families of the aristocracy; and the highest +class in the university all wore little red caps. +He said HE wore one." + +Of somewhat different caliber was "honest" John +Kruesi, who first made his mark at Menlo Park, and +of whom Edison says: "One of the workmen I had +at Menlo Park was John Kruesi, who afterward became, +from his experience, engineer of the lighting +station, and subsequently engineer of the Edison +General Electric Works at Schenectady. Kruesi was +very exact in his expressions. At the time we were +promoting and putting up electric-light stations in +Pennsylvania, New York, and New England, there +would be delegations of different people who proposed +to pay for these stations. They would come to our +office in New York, at `65,' to talk over the specifications, +the cost, and other things. At first, Mr. Kruesi +was brought in, but whenever a statement was made +which he could not understand or did not believe could +be substantiated, he would blurt right out among +these prospects that he didn't believe it. Finally +it disturbed these committees so much, and raised so +many doubts in their minds, that one of my chief +associates said: `Here, Kruesi, we don't want you to +come to these meetings any longer. You are too painfully +honest.' I said to him: `We always tell the +truth. It may be deferred truth, but it is the truth.' +He could not understand that." + +Various reasons conspired to cause the departure +from Menlo Park midway in the eighties. For Edison, +in spite of the achievement with which its name +will forever be connected, it had lost all its attractions +and all its possibilities. It had been outgrown +in many ways, and strange as the remark may seem, +it was not until he had left it behind and had settled +in Orange, New Jersey, that he can be said to have +given definite shape to his life. He was only forty +in 1887, and all that he had done up to that time, +tremendous as much of it was, had worn a haphazard, +Bohemian air, with all the inconsequential freedom +and crudeness somehow attaching to pioneer life. +The development of the new laboratory in West +Orange, just at the foot of Llewellyn Park, on the +Orange Mountains, not only marked the happy beginning +of a period of perfect domestic and family +life, but saw in the planning and equipment of a +model laboratory plant the consummation of youthful +dreams, and of the keen desire to enjoy resources +adequate at any moment to whatever strain the fierce +fervor of research might put upon them. Curiously +enough, while hitherto Edison had sought to +dissociate his experimenting from his manufacturing, +here he determined to develop a large industry to +which a thoroughly practical laboratory would be a +central feature, and ever a source of suggestion and +inspiration. Edison's standpoint to-day is that an +evil to be dreaded in manufacture is that of over- +standardization, and that as soon as an article is +perfect that is the time to begin improving it. But he +who would improve must experiment. + +The Orange laboratory, as originally planned, consisted +of a main building two hundred and fifty feet +long and three stories in height, together with four +other structures, each one hundred by twenty-five +feet, and only one story in height. All these were +substantially built of brick. The main building was +divided into five chief divisions--the library, office, +machine shops, experimental and chemical rooms, +and stock-room. The use of the smaller buildings +will be presently indicated. + +Surrounding the whole was erected a high picket +fence with a gate placed on Valley Road. At this +point a gate-house was provided and put in charge +of a keeper, for then, as at the present time, Edison +was greatly sought after; and, in order to accomplish +any work at all, he was obliged to deny himself to all +but the most important callers. The keeper of the +gate was usually chosen with reference to his capacity +for stony-hearted implacability and adherence to +instructions; and this choice was admirably made in +one instance when a new gateman, not yet thoroughly +initiated, refused admittance to Edison himself. It +was of no use to try and explain. To the gateman +EVERY ONE was persona non grata without proper +credentials, and Edison had to wait outside until he +could get some one to identify him. + +On entering the main building the first doorway +from the ample passage leads the visitor into a handsome +library finished throughout in yellow pine, +occupying the entire width of the building, and +almost as broad as long. The centre of this spacious +room is an open rectangular space about forty by +twenty-five feet, rising clear about forty feet +from the main floor to a panelled ceiling. Around +the sides of the room, bounding this open space, run +two tiers of gallery, divided, as is the main floor +beneath them; into alcoves of liberal dimensions. These +alcoves are formed by racks extending from floor to +ceiling, fitted with shelves, except on two sides of both +galleries, where they are formed by a series of glass- +fronted cabinets containing extensive collections of +curious and beautiful mineralogical and geological +specimens, among which is the notable Tiffany-Kunz +collection of minerals acquired by Edison some years +ago. Here and there in these cabinets may also be +found a few models which he has used at times in his +studies of anatomy and physiology. + +The shelves on the remainder of the upper gallery +and part of those on the first gallery are filled with +countless thousands of specimens of ores and minerals +of every conceivable kind gathered from all parts of +the world, and all tagged and numbered. The remaining +shelves of the first gallery are filled with current +numbers (and some back numbers) of the numerous +periodicals to which Edison subscribes. Here +may be found the popular magazines, together with +those of a technical nature relating to electricity, +chemistry, engineering, mechanics, building, cement, +building materials, drugs, water and gas, power, +automobiles, railroads, aeronautics, philosophy, hygiene, +physics, telegraphy, mining, metallurgy, metals, +music, and others; also theatrical weeklies, as well +as the proceedings and transactions of various learned +and technical societies. + +The first impression received as one enters on the +main floor of the library and looks around is that of +noble proportions and symmetry as a whole. The +open central space of liberal dimensions and height, +flanked by the galleries and relieved by four handsome +electric-lighting fixtures suspended from the +ceiling by long chains, conveys an idea of lofty +spaciousness; while the huge open fireplace, surmounted +by a great clock built into the wall, at one +end of the room, the large rugs, the arm-chairs +scattered around, the tables and chairs in the alcoves, +give a general air of comfort combined with utility. +In one of the larger alcoves, at the sunny end of the +main hall, is Edison's own desk, where he may usually +be seen for a while in the early morning hours looking +over his mail or otherwise busily working on matters +requiring his attention. + +At the opposite end of the room, not far from the +open fireplace, is a long table surrounded by swivel +desk-chairs. It is here that directors' meetings are +sometimes held, and also where weighty matters are +often discussed by Edison at conference with his +closer associates. It has been the privilege of the +writers to be present at some of these conferences, +not only as participants, but in some cases as lookers- +on while awaiting their turn. On such occasions an +interesting opportunity is offered to study Edison +in his intense and constructive moods. Apparently +oblivious to everything else, he will listen with +concentrated mind and close attention, and then pour +forth a perfect torrent of ideas and plans, and, +if the occasion calls for it, will turn around to the +table, seize a writing-pad and make sketch after +sketch with lightning-like rapidity, tearing off each +sheet as filled and tossing it aside to the floor. It +is an ordinary indication that there has been an +interesting meeting when the caretaker about fills a +waste-basket with these discarded sketches. + +Directly opposite the main door is a beautiful +marble statue purchased by Edison at the Paris +Exposition in 1889, on the occasion of his visit there. +The statue, mounted on a base three feet high, is an +allegorical representation of the supremacy of electric +light over all other forms of illumination, carried out +by the life-size figure of a youth with half-spread +wings seated upon the ruins of a street gas-lamp, +holding triumphantly high above his head an electric +incandescent lamp. Grouped about his feet are a +gear-wheel, voltaic pile, telegraph key, and telephone. +This work of art was executed by A. Bordiga, of Rome, +held a prominent place in the department devoted to +Italian art at the Paris Exposition, and naturally +appealed to Edison as soon as he saw it. + +In the middle distance, between the entrance door +and this statue, has long stood a magnificent palm, +but at the present writing it has been set aside to +give place to a fine model of the first type of the +Edison poured cement house, which stands in a +miniature artificial lawn upon a special table prepared +for it; while on the floor at the foot of the +table are specimens of the full-size molds in which +the house will be cast. + +The balustrades of the galleries and all other available +places are filled with portraits of great scientists +and men of achievement, as well as with pictures of historic +and scientific interest. Over the fireplace hangs +a large photograph showing the Edison cement plant +in its entire length, flanked on one end of the mantel +by a bust of Humboldt, and on the other by a statuette +of Sandow, the latter having been presented to Edison +by the celebrated athlete after the visit he made to +Orange to pose for the motion pictures in the earliest +days of their development. On looking up under +the second gallery at this end is seen a great roll +resting in sockets placed on each side of the room. +This is a huge screen or curtain which may be drawn +down to the floor to provide a means of projection +for lantern slides or motion pictures, for the +entertainment or instruction of Edison and his guests. +In one of the larger alcoves is a large terrestrial globe +pivoted in its special stand, together with a relief +map of the United States; and here and there are +handsomely mounted specimens of underground +conductors and electric welds that were made at the +Edison Machine Works at Schenectady before it was +merged into the General Electric Company. On two +pedestals stand, respectively, two other mementoes +of the works, one a fifteen-light dynamo of the Edison +type, and the other an elaborate electric fan--both +of them gifts from associates or employees. + +In noting these various objects of interest one +must not lose sight of the fact that this part of the +building is primarily a library, if indeed that fact did +not at once impress itself by a glance at the well- +filled unglazed book-shelves in the alcoves of the +main floor. Here Edison's catholic taste in reading +becomes apparent as one scans the titles of +thousands of volumes ranged upon the shelves, +for they include astronomy, botany, chemistry, +dynamics, electricity, engineering, forestry, geology, +geography, mechanics, mining, medicine, metallurgy, +magnetism, philosophy, psychology, physics, steam, +steam-engines, telegraphy, telephony, and many +others. Besides these there are the journals and +proceedings of numerous technical societies; +encyclopaedias of various kinds; bound series of important +technical magazines; a collection of United States +and foreign patents, embracing some hundreds of +volumes, together with an extensive assortment of +miscellaneous books of special and general interest. +There is another big library up in the house on the +hill--in fact, there are books upon books all over the +home. And wherever they are, those books are read. + +As one is about to pass out of the library attention +is arrested by an incongruity in the form of a cot, +which stands in an alcove near the door. Here Edison, +throwing himself down, sometimes seeks a short +rest during specially long working tours. Sleep is +practically instantaneous and profound, and he awakes +in immediate and full possession of his faculties, +arising from the cot and going directly "back to the +job" without a moment's hesitation, just as a person +wide awake would arise from a chair and proceed to +attend to something previously determined upon. + +Immediately outside the library is the famous +stock-room, about which much has been written and +invented. Its fame arose from the fact that Edison +planned it to be a repository of some quantity, great +or small, of every known and possibly useful substance +not readily perishable, together with the most +complete assortment of chemicals and drugs that +experience and knowledge could suggest. Always +strenuous in his experimentation, and the living +embodiment of the spirit of the song, I Want What I +Want When I Want It, Edison had known for years +what it was to be obliged to wait, and sometimes +lack, for some substance or chemical that he thought +necessary to the success of an experiment. Naturally +impatient at any delay which interposed in his +insistent and searching methods, and realizing the +necessity of maintaining the inspiration attending +his work at any time, he determined to have within +his immediate reach the natural resources of the +world. + +Hence it is not surprising to find the stock-room +not only a museum, but a sample-room of nature, as +well as a supply department. To a casual visitor the +first view of this heterogeneous collection is quite +bewildering, but on more mature examination it resolves +itself into a natural classification--as, for instance, +objects pertaining to various animals, birds, +and fishes, such as skins, hides, hair, fur, feathers, +wool, quills, down, bristles, teeth, bones, hoofs, +horns, tusks, shells; natural products, such as woods, +barks, roots, leaves, nuts, seeds, herbs, gums, grains, +flours, meals, bran; also minerals in great assortment; +mineral and vegetable oils, clay, mica, ozokerite, +etc. In the line of textiles, cotton and silk +threads in great variety, with woven goods of all +kinds from cheese-cloth to silk plush. As for paper, +there is everything in white and colored, from thinnest +tissue up to the heaviest asbestos, even a few +newspapers being always on hand. Twines of all +sizes, inks, waxes, cork, tar, resin, pitch, turpentine, +asphalt, plumbago, glass in sheets and tubes; and a +host of miscellaneous articles revealed on looking +around the shelves, as well as an interminable col- +lection of chemicals, including acids, alkalies, salts, +reagents, every conceivable essential oil and all the +thinkable extracts. It may be remarked that this +collection includes the eighteen hundred or more +fluorescent salts made by Edison during his experimental +search for the best material for a fluoroscope +in the initial X-ray period. All known metals in +form of sheet, rod and tube, and of great variety in +thickness, are here found also, together with a most +complete assortment of tools and accessories for machine +shop and laboratory work. + +The list is confined to the merest general mention +of the scope of this remarkable and interesting collection, +as specific details would stretch out into a +catalogue of no small proportions. When it is +stated, however, that a stock clerk is kept +exceedingly busy all day answering the numerous and +various demands upon him, the reader will appreciate +that this comprehensive assortment is not merely a +fad of Edison's, but stands rather as a substantial +tribute to his wide-angled view of possible requirements +as his various investigations take him far afield. +It has no counterpart in the world! + +Beyond the stock-room, and occupying about half +the building on the same floor, lie a machine shop, +engine-room, and boiler-room. This machine shop is +well equipped, and in it is constantly employed a +large force of mechanics whose time is occupied in +constructing the heavier class of models and mechanical +devices called for by the varied experiments and +inventions always going on. + +Immediately above, on the second floor, is found +another machine shop in which is maintained a corps +of expert mechanics who are called upon to do work +of greater precision and fineness, in the construction +of tools and experimental models. This is the realm +presided over lovingly by John F. Ott, who has been +Edison's designer of mechanical devices for over +forty years. He still continues to ply his craft with +unabated skill and oversees the work of the mechanics +as his productions are wrought into concrete shape. + +In one of the many experimental-rooms lining the +sides of the second floor may usually be seen his +younger brother, Fred Ott, whose skill as a dexterous +manipulator and ingenious mechanic has found +ample scope for exercise during the thirty-two years +of his service with Edison, not only at the regular +laboratories, but also at that connected with the +inventor's winter home in Florida. Still another +of the Ott family, the son of John F., for some +years past has been on the experimental staff of the +Orange laboratory. Although possessing in no small +degree the mechanical and manipulative skill of the +family, he has chosen chemistry as his special domain, +and may be found with the other chemists in one of +the chemical-rooms. + +On this same floor is the vacuum-pump room with +a glass-blowers' room adjoining, both of them historic +by reason of the strenuous work done on incandescent +lamps and X-ray tubes within their walls. +The tools and appliances are kept intact, for Edison +calls occasionally for their use in some of his later +experiments, and there is a suspicion among the +laboratory staff that some day he may resume work +on incandescent lamps. Adjacent to these rooms are +several others devoted to physical and mechanical +experiments, together with a draughting-room. + +Last to be mentioned, but the first in order as +one leaves the head of the stairs leading up to this +floor, is No. 12, Edison's favorite room, where he +will frequently be found. Plain of aspect, being +merely a space boarded off with tongued-and-grooved +planks--as all the other rooms are--without ornament +or floor covering, and containing only a few +articles of cheap furniture, this room seems to exercise +a nameless charm for him. The door is always +open, and often he can be seen seated at a plain table +in the centre of the room, deeply intent on some of +the numerous problems in which he is interested. +The table is usually pretty well filled with specimens +or data of experimental results which have been put +there for his examination. At the time of this writing +these specimens consist largely of sections of +positive elements of the storage battery, together +with many samples of nickel hydrate, to which +Edison devotes deep study. Close at hand is a microscope +which is in frequent use by him in these investigations. +Around the room, on shelves, are hundreds +of bottles each containing a small quantity of +nickel hydrate made in as many different ways, each +labelled correspondingly. Always at hand will be +found one or two of the laboratory note-books, with +frequent entries or comments in the handwriting which +once seen is never forgotten. + +No. 12 is at times a chemical, a physical, or a +mechanical room--occasionally a combination of all, +while sometimes it might be called a consultation- +room or clinic--for often Edison may be seen there in +animated conference with a group of his assistants; +but its chief distinction lies in its being one of his +favorite haunts, and in the fact that within its walls +have been settled many of the perplexing problems +and momentous questions that have brought about +great changes in electrical and engineering arts during +the twenty-odd years that have elapsed since the +Orange laboratory was built. + +Passing now to the top floor the visitor finds himself +at the head of a broad hall running almost the +entire length of the building, and lined mostly with +glass-fronted cabinets containing a multitude of +experimental incandescent lamps and an immense +variety of models of phonographs, motors, telegraph +and telephone apparatus, meters, and a host of other +inventions upon which Edison's energies have at one +time and another been bent. Here also are other +cabinets containing old papers and records, while +further along the wall are piled up boxes of historical +models and instruments. In fact, this hallway, with +its conglomerate contents, may well be considered +a scientific attic. It is to be hoped that at no distant +day these Edisoniana will be assembled and arranged +in a fireproof museum for the benefit of posterity. + +In the front end of the building, and extending +over the library, is a large room intended originally and +used for a time as the phonograph music-hall for +record-making, but now used only as an experimental- +room for phonograph work, as the growth of the +industry has necessitated a very much larger and +more central place where records can be made on a +commercial scale. Even the experimental work imposes +no slight burden on it. On each side of the +hallway above mentioned, rooms are partitioned off +and used for experimental work of various kinds, +mostly phonographic, although on this floor are also +located the storage-battery testing-room, a chemical +and physical room and Edison's private office, where +all his personal correspondence and business affairs +are conducted by his personal secretary, Mr. H. F. +Miller. A visitor to this upper floor of the laboratory +building cannot but be impressed with a consciousness +of the incessant efforts that are being made to +improve the reproducing qualities of the phonograph, +as he hears from all sides the sounds of vocal and +instrumental music constantly varying in volume and +timbre, due to changes in the experimental devices +under trial. + +The traditions of the laboratory include cots placed +in many of the rooms of these upper floors, but that +was in the earlier years when the strenuous scenes +of Menlo Park were repeated in the new quarters. +Edison and his closest associates were accustomed +to carry their labors far into the wee sma' hours, +and when physical nature demanded a respite from +work, a short rest would be obtained by going to bed +on a cot. One would naturally think that the wear +and tear of this intense application, day after day +and night after night, would have tended to induce +a heaviness and gravity of demeanor in these busy +men; but on the contrary, the old spirit of good- +humor and prankishness was ever present, as its fre- +quent outbursts manifested from time to time. One +instance will serve as an illustration. One morning, +about 2.30, the late Charles Batchelor announced that +he was tired and would go to bed. Leaving Edison +and the others busily working, he went out and returned +quietly in slippered feet, with his nightgown +on, the handle of a feather duster stuck down his +back with the feathers waving over his head, and his +face marked. With unearthly howls and shrieks, a +l'Indien, he pranced about the room, incidentally giving +Edison a scare that made him jump up from his +work. He saw the joke quickly, however, and joined +in the general merriment caused by this prank. + +Leaving the main building with its corps of busy +experimenters, and coming out into the spacious +yard, one notes the four long single-story brick +structures mentioned above. The one nearest the Valley +Road is called the galvanometer-room, and was +originally intended by Edison to be used for the most +delicate and minute electrical measurements. In +order to provide rigid resting-places for the numerous +and elaborate instruments he had purchased for this +purpose, the building was equipped along three- +quarters of its length with solid pillars, or tables, of +brick set deep in the earth. These were built up to +a height of about two and a half feet, and each was +surmounted with a single heavy slab of black marble. +A cement floor was laid, and every precaution was +taken to render the building free from all magnetic +influences, so that it would be suitable for electrical +work of the utmost accuracy and precision. Hence, +iron and steel were entirely eliminated in its con- +struction, copper being used for fixtures for steam +and water piping, and, indeed, for all other purposes +where metal was employed. + +This room was for many years the headquarters of +Edison's able assistant, Dr. A. E. Kennelly, now professor +of electrical engineering in Harvard University +to whose energetic and capable management were intrusted +many scientific investigations during his long +sojourn at the laboratory. Unfortunately, however, for +the continued success of Edison's elaborate plans, he +had not been many years established in the laboratory +before a trolley road through West Orange was projected +and built, the line passing in front of the plant +and within seventy-five feet of the galvanometer- +room, thus making it practically impossible to use +it for the delicate purposes for which it was originally +intended. + +For some time past it has been used for photography +and some special experiments on motion pictures as +well as for demonstrations connected with physical +research; but some reminders of its old-time glory +still remain in evidence. In lofty and capacious +glass-enclosed cabinets, in company with numerous +models of Edison's inventions, repose many of the +costly and elaborate instruments rendered useless by +the ubiquitous trolley. Instruments are all about, +on walls, tables, and shelves, the photometer is covered +up; induction coils of various capacities, with +other electrical paraphernalia, lie around, almost as +if the experimenter were absent for a few days but +would soon return and resume his work. + +In numbering the group of buildings, the galva- +nometer-room is No. 1, while the other single-story +structures are numbered respectively 2, 3, and 4. +On passing out of No. 1 and proceeding to the succeeding +building is noticed, between the two, a garage +of ample dimensions and a smaller structure, at the +door of which stands a concrete-mixer. In this +small building Edison has made some of his most +important experiments in the process of working out +his plans for the poured house. It is in this little +place that there was developed the remarkable mixture +which is to play so vital a part in the successful +construction of these everlasting homes for +living millions. + +Drawing near to building No. 2, olfactory evidence +presents itself of the immediate vicinity of a chemical +laboratory. This is confirmed as one enters the door +and finds that the entire building is devoted to +chemistry. Long rows of shelves and cabinets filled +with chemicals line the room; a profusion of retorts, +alembics, filters, and other chemical apparatus on +numerous tables and stands, greet the eye, while a +corps of experimenters may be seen busy in the +preparation of various combinations, some of which are +boiling or otherwise cooking under their dexterous +manipulation. + +It would not require many visits to discover that +in this room, also, Edison has a favorite nook. Down +at the far end in a corner are a plain little table and +chair, and here he is often to be found deeply immersed +in a study of the many experiments that are +being conducted. Not infrequently he is actively +engaged in the manipulation of some compound of +special intricacy, whose results might be illuminative +of obscure facts not patent to others than himself. +Here, too, is a select little library of chemical literature. + +The next building, No. 3, has a double mission-- +the farther half being partitioned off for a pattern- +making shop, while the other half is used as a store- +room for chemicals in quantity and for chemical +apparatus and utensils. A grimly humorous incident, +as related by one of the laboratory staff, attaches to +No. 3. It seems that some time ago one of the +helpers in the chemical department, an excitable +foreigner, became dissatisfied with his wages, and +after making an unsuccessful application for an +increase, rushed in desperation to Edison, and said +"Eef I not get more money I go to take ze cyanide +potassia." Edison gave him one quick, searching +glance and, detecting a bluff, replied in an offhand +manner: "There's a five-pound bottle in No. 3," and +turned to his work again. The foreigner did not go +to get the cyanide, but gave up his job. + +The last of these original buildings, No. 4, was used +for many years in Edison's ore-concentrating experiments, +and also for rough-and-ready operations of +other kinds, such as furnace work and the like. At +the present writing it is used as a general stock-room. + +In the foregoing details, the reader has been afforded +but a passing glance at the great practical working +equipment which constitutes the theatre of Edison's +activities, for, in taking a general view of such a +unique and comprehensive laboratory plant, its salient +features only can be touched upon to advantage. +It would be but repetition to enumerate here the practical +results of the laboratory work during the past two +decades, as they appear on other pages of this work. +Nor can one assume for a moment that the history +of Edison's laboratory is a closed book. On the contrary, +its territorial boundaries have been increasing +step by step with the enlargement of its labors, until +now it has been obliged to go outside its own proper +domains to occupy some space in and about the great +Edison industrial buildings and space immediately +adjacent. It must be borne in mind that the laboratory +is only the core of a group of buildings devoted +to production on a huge scale by hundreds of artisans. + +Incidental mention has already been made of the +laboratory at Edison's winter residence in Florida, +where he goes annually to spend a month or six +weeks. This is a miniature copy of the Orange laboratory, +with its machine shop, chemical-room, and general +experimental department. While it is only in +use during his sojourn there, and carries no extensive +corps of assistants, the work done in it is not of a +perfunctory nature, but is a continuation of his regular +activities, and serves to keep him in touch with the +progress of experiments at Orange, and enables him +to give instructions for their variation and continuance +as their scope is expanded by his own investigations +made while enjoying what he calls "vacation." What +Edison in Florida speaks of as "loafing" would be +for most of us extreme and healthy activity in the +cooler Far North. + +A word or two may be devoted to the visitors received +at the laboratory, and to the correspondence. +It might be injudicious to gauge the greatness of a +man by the number of his callers or his letters; but +they are at least an indication of the degree to which +he interests the world. In both respects, for these +forty years, Edison has been a striking example of +the manner in which the sentiment of hero-worship +can manifest itself, and of the deep desire of curiosity +to get satisfaction by personal observation or contact. +Edison's mail, like that of most well-known +men, is extremely large, but composed in no small +degree of letters--thousands of them yearly--that +concern only the writers, and might well go to the +waste-paper basket without prolonged consideration. +The serious and important part of the mail, some +personal and some business, occupies the attention of +several men; all such letters finding their way promptly +into the proper channels, often with a pithy +endorsement by Edison scribbled on the margin. What +to do with a host of others it is often difficult to +decide, even when written by "cranks," who imagine +themselves subject to strange electrical ailments from +which Edison alone can relieve them. Many people +write asking his opinion as to a certain invention, or +offering him an interest in it if he will work it out. +Other people abroad ask help in locating lost +relatives; and many want advice as to what they shall +do with their sons, frequently budding geniuses whose +ability to wire a bell has demonstrated unusual +qualities. A great many persons want autographs, +and some would like photographs. The amazing +thing about it all is that this flood of miscellaneous +letters flows on in one steady, uninterrupted stream, +year in and year out; always a curious psychological +study in its variety and volume; and ever a +proof of the fact that once a man has become established +as a personality in the public eye and mind, +nothing can stop the tide of correspondence that +will deluge him. + +It is generally, in the nature of things, easier to +write a letter than to make a call; and the semi- +retirement of Edison at a distance of an hour by +train from New York stands as a means of protection +to him against those who would certainly present +their respects in person, if he could be got at without +trouble. But it may be seriously questioned whether +in the aggregate Edison's visitors are less numerous +or less time-consuming than his epistolary besiegers. +It is the common experience of any visitor to the +laboratory that there are usually several persons +ahead of him, no matter what the hour of the day, and +some whose business has been sufficiently vital to +get them inside the porter's gate, or even into the big +library and lounging-room. Celebrities of all kinds +and distinguished foreigners are numerous--princes, +noblemen, ambassadors, artists, litterateurs, scientists, +financiers, women. A very large part of the visiting +is done by scientific bodies and societies; and then +the whole place will be turned over to hundreds of +eager, well-dressed men and women, anxious to see +everything and to be photographed in the big courtyard +around the central hero. Nor are these groups +and delegations limited to this country, for even +large parties of English, Dutch, Italian, or Japanese +visitors come from time to time, and are greeted with +the same ready hospitality, although Edison, it is easy to +see, is torn between the conflicting emotions of a desire to +be courteous, and an anxiety to guard the precious hours +of work, or watch the critical stage of a new experiment. + +One distinct group of visitors has always been +constituted by the "newspaper men." Hardly a day +goes by that the journals do not contain some reference +to Edison's work or remarks; and the items are +generally based on an interview. The reporters are +never away from the laboratory very long; for if they +have no actual mission of inquiry, there is always the +chance of a good story being secured offhand; and +the easy, inveterate good-nature of Edison toward +reporters is proverbial in the craft. Indeed, it must +be stated here that once in a while this confidence has +been abused; that stories have been published utterly +without foundation; that interviews have been +printed which never took place; that articles with +Edison's name as author have been widely circulated, +although he never saw them; and that in such ways +he has suffered directly. But such occasional incidents +tend in no wise to lessen Edison's warm admiration +of the press or his readiness to avail himself of +it whenever a representative goes over to Orange to +get the truth or the real facts in regard to any matter +of public importance. As for the newspaper clippings +containing such articles, or others in which Edison's +name appears--they are literally like sands of the +sea-shore for number; and the archives of the laboratory +that preserve only a very minute percentage of +them are a further demonstration of what publicity +means, where a figure like Edison is concerned. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +EDISON IN COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURE + +AN applicant for membership in the Engineers' +Club of Philadelphia is required to give a brief +statement of the professional work he has done. +Some years ago a certain application was made, and +contained the following terse and modest sentence: + + +"I have designed a concentrating plant and built a +machine shop, etc., etc. THOMAS A. EDISON." + + +Although in the foregoing pages the reader has been +made acquainted with the tremendous import of the +actualities lying behind those "etc., etc.," the narrative +up to this point has revealed Edison chiefly in +the light of inventor, experimenter, and investigator. +There have been some side glimpses of the industries +he has set on foot, and of their financial aspects, and +a later chapter will endeavor to sum up the intrinsic +value of Edison's work to the world. But there are +some other interesting points that may be touched on +now in regard to a few of Edison's financial and commercial +ventures not generally known or appreciated. + +It is a popular idea founded on experience that an +inventor is not usually a business man. One of the +exceptions proving the rule may perhaps be met in +Edison, though all depends on the point of view. +All his life he has had a great deal to do with finance +and commerce, and as one looks at the magnitude of +the vast industries he has helped to create, it would +not be at all unreasonable to expect him to be among +the multi-millionaires. That he is not is due to the +absence of certain qualities, the lack of which Edison +is himself the first to admit. Those qualities may not +be amiable, but great wealth is hardly ever accumulated +without them. If he had not been so intent +on inventing he would have made more of his great +opportunities for getting rich. If this utter detachment +from any love of money for its own sake has not +already been illustrated in some of the incidents +narrated, one or two stories are available to emphasize +the point. They do not involve any want of the higher +business acumen that goes to the proper conduct +of affairs. It was said of Gladstone that he was the +greatest Chancellor of the Exchequer England ever +saw, but that as a retail merchant he would soon +have ruined himself by his bookkeeping. + +Edison confesses that he has never made a cent +out of his patents in electric light and power--in +fact, that they have been an expense to him, and thus +a free gift to the world.[18] This was true of the Euro- +pean patents as well as the American. "I endeavored +to sell my lighting patents in different countries +of Europe, and made a contract with a couple of +men. On account of their poor business capacity +and lack of practicality, they conveyed under the +patents all rights to different corporations but in +such a way and with such confused wording of the +contracts that I never got a cent. One of the companies +started was the German Edison, now the great +Allgemeine Elektricitaets Gesellschaft. The English +company I never got anything for, because a +lawyer had originally advised Drexel, Morgan & Co. +as to the signing of a certain document, and said it +was all right for me to sign. I signed, and I never +got a cent because there was a clause in it which +prevented me from ever getting anything." A certain +easy-going belief in human nature, and even a +certain carelessness of attitude toward business +affairs, are here revealed. We have already pointed +out two instances where in his dealings with the +Western Union Company he stipulated that payments +of $6000 per year for seventeen years were to +be made instead of $100,000 in cash, evidently forgetful +of the fact that the annual sum so received was +nothing more than legal interest, which could have +been earned indefinitely if the capital had been only +insisted upon. In later life Edison has been more +circumspect, but throughout his early career he was +constantly getting into some kind of scrape. Of one +experience he says: + + +[18] Edison received some stock from the parent lighting company, +but as the capital stock of that company was increased from time +to time, his proportion grew smaller, and he ultimately used it to +obtain ready money with which to create and finance the various +"shops" in which were manufactured the various items of electric- +lighting apparatus necessary to exploit his system. Besides, he +was obliged to raise additional large sums of money from other +sources for this purpose. He thus became a manufacturer with +capital raised by himself, and the stock that he received later, on +the formation of the General Electric Company, was not for his +electric-light patents, but was in payment for his manufacturing +establishments, which had then grown to be of great commercial +importance. + + + +"In the early days I was experimenting with metallic +filaments for the incandescent light, and sent a +certain man out to California in search of platinum. +He found a considerable quantity in the sluice-boxes +of the Cherokee Valley Mining Company; but just +then he found also that fruit-gardening was the thing, +and dropped the subject. He then came to me and +said that if he could raise $4000 he could go into some +kind of orchard arrangement out there, and would +give me half the profits. I was unwilling to do it, +not having very much money just then, but his persistence +was such that I raised the money and gave +it to him. He went back to California, and got into +mining claims and into fruit-growing, and became +one of the politicians of the Coast, and, I believe, was +on the staff of the Governor of the State. A couple +of years ago he wounded his daughter and shot himself +because he had become ruined financially. I +never heard from him after he got the money." + +Edison tells of another similar episode. "I had two +men working for me--one a German, the other a Jew. +They wanted me to put up a little money and start +them in a shop in New York to make repairs, etc. I +put up $800, and was to get half of the profits, and +each of them one-quarter. I never got anything for +it. A few years afterward I went to see them, and +asked what they were doing, and said I would like +to sell my interest. They said: `Sell out what?' +`Why,' I said, `my interest in the machinery.' They +said: `You don't own this machinery. This is our +machinery. You have no papers to show anything. +You had better get out.' I am inclined to think that +the percentage of crooked people was smaller when +I was young. It has been steadily rising, and has got +up to a very respectable figure now. I hope it will +never reach par." To which lugubrious episode so +provocative of cynicism, Edison adds: "When I was +a young fellow the first thing I did when I went to +a town was to put something into the savings-bank +and start an account. When I came to New York +I put $30 into a savings-bank under the New York +Sun office. After the money had been in about two +weeks the bank busted. That was in 1870. In 1909 +I got back $6.40, with a charge for $1.75 for law +expenses. That shows the beauty of New York +receiverships." + +It is hardly to be wondered at that Edison is rather +frank and unsparing in some of his criticisms of shady +modern business methods, and the mention of the +following incident always provokes him to a fine +scorn. "I had an interview with one of the wealthiest +men in New York. He wanted me to sell out my +associates in the electric lighting business, and offered +me all I was going to get and $100,000 besides. Of +course I would not do it. I found out that the reason +for this offer was that he had had trouble with Mr. +Morgan, and wanted to get even with him." Wall +Street is, in fact, a frequent object of rather sarcastic +reference, applying even to its regular and probably +correct methods of banking. "When I was running +my ore-mine," he says, "and got up to the point of +making shipments to John Fritz, I didn't have capital +enough to carry the ore, so I went to J. P. Morgan & +Co. and said I wanted them to give me a letter +to the City Bank. I wanted to raise some money. +I got a letter to Mr. Stillman; and went over and told +him I wanted to open an account and get some loans +and discounts. He turned me down, and would not +do it. `Well,' I said, `isn't it banking to help a man +in this way?' He said: `What you want is a partner.' +I felt very much crestfallen. I went over to a bank +in Newark--the Merchants'--and told them what I +wanted. They said: `Certainly, you can have the +money.' I made my deposit, and they pulled me +through all right. My idea of Wall Street banking +has been very poor since that time. Merchant banking +seems to be different." + +As a general thing, Edison has had no trouble in +raising money when he needed it, the reason being +that people have faith in him as soon as they come +to know him. A little incident bears on this point. +"In operating the Schenectady works Mr. Insull and +I had a terrible burden. We had enormous orders and +little money, and had great difficulty to meet our pay- +rolls and buy supplies. At one time we had so many +orders on hand we wanted $200,000 worth of copper, +and didn't have a cent to buy it. We went down to +the Ansonia Brass and Copper Company, and told Mr. +Cowles just how we stood. He said: `I will see what +I can do. Will you let my bookkeeper look at your +books?' We said: `Come right up and look them +over.' He sent his man up and found we had the +orders and were all right, although we didn't have the +money. He said: `I will let you have the copper.' +And for years he trusted us for all the copper we wanted, +even if we didn't have the money to pay for it." + +It is not generally known that Edison, in addition +to being a newsboy and a contributor to the technical +press, has also been a backer and an "angel" for +various publications. This is perhaps the right place +at which to refer to the matter, as it belongs in the +list of his financial or commercial enterprises. Edison +sums up this chapter of his life very pithily. "I was +interested, as a telegrapher, in journalism, and started +the Telegraph Journal, and got out about a dozen +numbers when it was taken over by W. J. Johnston, +who afterward founded the Electrical World on it as +an offshoot from the Operator. I also started Science, +and ran it for a year and a half. It cost me too much +money to maintain, and I sold it to Gardiner Hubbard, +the father-in-law of Alexander Graham Bell. +He carried it along for years." Both these papers are +still in prosperous existence, particularly the Electrical +World, as the recognized exponent of electrical +development in America, where now the public spends +as much annually for electricity as it does for daily +bread. + +From all that has been said above it will be understood +that Edison's real and remarkable capacity for +business does not lie in ability to "take care of himself," +nor in the direction of routine office practice, +nor even in ordinary administrative affairs. In short, +he would and does regard it as a foolish waste of his +time to give attention to the mere occupancy of a +desk. + +His commercial strength manifests itself rather in +the outlining of matters relating to organization and +broad policy with a sagacity arising from a shrewd +perception and appreciation of general business +requirements and conditions, to which should be added +his intensely comprehensive grasp of manufacturing +possibilities and details, and an unceasing vigilance +in devising means of improving the quality of products +and increasing the economy of their manufacture. + +Like other successful commanders, Edison also possesses +the happy faculty of choosing suitable lieutenants +to carry out his policies and to manage the +industries he has created, such, for instance, as those +with which this chapter has to deal--namely, the +phonograph, motion picture, primary battery, and +storage battery enterprises. + +The Portland cement business has already been +dealt with separately, and although the above remarks +are appropriate to it also, Edison being its head and +informing spirit, the following pages are intended to +be devoted to those industries that are grouped around +the laboratory at Orange, and that may be taken as +typical of Edison's methods on the manufacturing side. + +Within a few months after establishing himself at +the present laboratory, in 1887, Edison entered upon +one of those intensely active periods of work that +have been so characteristic of his methods in +commercializing his other inventions. In this case his +labors were directed toward improving the phonograph +so as to put it into thoroughly practicable +form, capable of ordinary use by the public at large. +The net result of this work was the general type of +machine of which the well-known phonograph of today +is a refinement evolved through many years of +sustained experiment and improvement. + +After a considerable period of strenuous activity +in the eighties, the phonograph and its wax records +were developed to a sufficient degree of perfection to +warrant him in making arrangements for their manufacture +and commercial introduction. At this time +the surroundings of the Orange laboratory were +distinctly rural in character. Immediately adjacent to +the main building and the four smaller structures, +constituting the laboratory plant, were grass meadows +that stretched away for some considerable distance +in all directions, and at its back door, so to +speak, ducks paddled around and quacked in a pond +undisturbed. Being now ready for manufacturing, +but requiring more facilities, Edison increased his +real-estate holdings by purchasing a large tract of +land lying contiguous to what he already owned. At +one end of the newly acquired land two unpretentious +brick structures were erected, equipped with first- +class machinery, and put into commission as shops +for manufacturing phonographs and their record +blanks; while the capacious hall forming the third +story of the laboratory, over the library, was fitted +up and used as a music-room where records were +made. + +Thus the modern Edison phonograph made its +modest debut in 1888, in what was then called the +"Improved" form to distinguish it from the original +style of machine he invented in 1877, in which the +record was made on a sheet of tin-foil held in place +upon a metallic cylinder. The "Improved" form is +the general type so well known for many years and +sold at the present day--viz., the spring or electric +motor-driven machine with the cylindrical wax record--in +fact, the regulation Edison phonograph. + +It did not take a long time to find a market for the +products of the newly established factory, for a world- +wide public interest in the machine had been created +by the appearance of newspaper articles from time +to time, announcing the approaching completion by +Edison of his improved phonograph. The original +(tin-foil) machine had been sufficient to illustrate the +fact that the human voice and other sounds could +be recorded and reproduced, but such a type +of machine had sharp limitations in general use; +hence the coming into being of a type that any +ordinary person could handle was sufficient of itself +to insure a market. Thus the demand for the new +machines and wax records grew apace as the corporations +organized to handle the business extended their +lines. An examination of the newspaper files of the +years 1888, 1889, and 1890 will reveal the great +excitement caused by the bringing out of the new +phonograph, and how frequently and successfully it +was employed in public entertainments, either for +the whole or part of an evening. In this and other +ways it became popularized to a still further extent. +This led to the demand for a nickel-in-the-slot +machine, which, when established, became immensely +popular over the whole country. In its earlier forms +the "Improved" phonograph was not capable of +such general non-expert handling as is the machine +of the present day, and consequently there was a +constant endeavor on Edison's part to simplify the +construction of the machine and its manner of opera- +tion. Experimentation was incessantly going on with +this in view, and in the processes of evolution changes +were made here and there that resulted in a still greater +measure of perfection. + +In various ways there was a continual slow and +steady growth of the industry thus created, necessitating +the erection of many additional buildings as the +years passed by. During part of the last decade +there was a lull, caused mostly from the failure of +corporate interests to carry out their contract relations +with Edison, and he was thereby compelled to +resort to legal proceedings, at the end of which he +bought in the outstanding contracts and assumed +command of the business personally. + +Being thus freed from many irksome restrictions +that had hung heavily upon him, Edison now proceeded +to push the phonograph business under a +broader policy than that which obtained under his +previous contractual relations. With the ever-increasing +simplification and efficiency of the machine +and a broadening of its application, the results of this +policy were manifested in a still more rapid growth +of the business that necessitated further additions to +the manufacturing plant. And thus matters went on +until the early part of the present decade, when the +factory facilities were becoming so rapidly outgrown +as to render radical changes necessary. It +was in these circumstances that Edison's sagacity and +breadth of business capacity came to the front. With +characteristic boldness and foresight he planned the +erection of the series of magnificent concrete buildings +that now stand adjacent to and around the +laboratory, and in which the manufacturing plant is +at present housed. + +There was no narrowness in his views in designing +these buildings, but, on the contrary, great faith in +the future, for his plans included not only the phonograph +industry, but provided also for the coming +development of motion pictures and of the primary +and storage battery enterprises. + +In the aggregate there are twelve structures (including +the administration building), of which six +are of imposing dimensions, running from 200 feet +long by 50 feet wide to 440 feet in length by 115 feet +in width, all these larger buildings, except one, being +five stories in height. They are constructed entirely +of reinforced concrete with Edison cement, including +walls, floors, and stairways, thus eliminating fire +hazard to the utmost extent, and insuring a high +degree of protection, cleanliness, and sanitation. As +fully three-fourths of the area of their exterior framework +consists of windows, an abundance of daylight +is secured. These many advantages, combined with +lofty ceilings on every floor, provide ideal conditions +for the thousands of working people engaged in this +immense plant. + +In addition to these twelve concrete structures +there are a few smaller brick and wooden buildings on +the grounds, in which some special operations are +conducted. These, however, are few in number, and +at some future time will be concentrated in one or +more additional concrete buildings. It will afford a +clearer idea of the extent of the industries clustered +immediately around the laboratory when it is stated +that the combined floor space which is occupied by +them in all these buildings is equivalent in the aggregate +to over fourteen acres. + +It would be instructive, but scarcely within the +scope of the narrative, to conduct the reader through +this extensive plant and see its many interesting +operations in detail. It must suffice, however, to +note its complete and ample equipment with modern +machinery of every kind applicable to the work; +its numerous (and some of them wonderfully ingenious) +methods, processes, machines, and tools +specially designed or invented for the manufacture +of special parts and supplemental appliances for the +phonograph or other Edison products; and also to +note the interesting variety of trades represented in +the different departments, in which are included +chemists, electricians, electrical mechanicians, machinists, +mechanics, pattern-makers, carpenters, cabinet-makers, +varnishers, japanners, tool-makers, lapidaries, +wax experts, photographic developers and +printers, opticians, electroplaters, furnacemen, and +others, together with factory experimenters and a +host of general employees, who by careful training +have become specialists and experts in numerous +branches of these industries. + +Edison's plans for this manufacturing plant were +sufficiently well outlined to provide ample capacity +for the natural growth of the business; and although +that capacity (so far as phonographs is concerned) +has actually reached an output of over 6000 complete +phonographs PER WEEK, and upward of 130,000 +molded records PER DAY--with a pay-roll embracing +over 3500 employees, including office force--and +amounting to about $45,000 per week--the limits of +production have not yet been reached. + +The constant outpouring of products in such large +quantities bespeaks the unremitting activities of an +extensive and busy selling organization to provide +for their marketing and distribution. This important +department (the National Phonograph Company), in +all its branches, from president to office-boy, includes +about two hundred employees on its office pay-roll, and +makes its headquarters in the administration building, +which is one of the large concrete structures +above referred to. The policy of the company is to +dispose of its wares through regular trade channels +rather than to deal direct with the public, trusting +to local activity as stimulated by a liberal policy of +national advertising. Thus, there has been gradually +built up a very extensive business until at the present +time an enormous output of phonographs and records +is distributed to retail customers in the United +States and Canada through the medium of about +one hundred and fifty jobbers and over thirteen +thousand dealers. The Edison phonograph industry +thus organized is helped by frequent conventions of +this large commercial force. + +Besides this, the National Phonograph Company +maintains a special staff for carrying on the business +with foreign countries. While the aggregate transactions +of this department are not as extensive as +those for the United States and Canada, they are of +considerable volume, as the foreign office distributes +in bulk a very large number of phonographs and rec- +ords to selling companies and agencies in Europe, +Asia, Australia, Japan, and, indeed, to all the countries +of the civilized world.[19] Like England's drumbeat, +the voice of the Edison phonograph is heard around +the world in undying strains throughout the twenty- +four hours. + + +[19] It may be of interest to the reader to note some parts of +the globe to which shipments of phonographs and records are made: + +Samoan Islands +Falkland Islands +Siam +Corea +Crete Island +Paraguay +Chile +Canary Islands +Egypt +British East Africa +Cape Colony +Portuguese East Africa +Liberia +Java +Straits Settlements +Madagascar +Fanning Islands +New Zealand +French Indo-China +Morocco +Ecuador +Brazil +Madeira +South Africa +Azores +Manchuria +Ceylon +Sierra +Leone + + + +In addition to the main manufacturing plant at +Orange, another important adjunct must not be forgotten, +and that is, the Recording Department in +New York City, where the master records are made +under the superintendence of experts who have +studied the intricacies of the art with Edison himself. +This department occupies an upper story in +a lofty building, and in its various rooms may be +seen and heard many prominent musicians, vocalists, +speakers, and vaudeville artists studiously and busily +engaged in making the original records, which are +afterward sent to Orange, and which, if approved by +the expert committee, are passed on to the proper +department for reproduction in large quantities. + +When we consider the subject of motion pictures +we find a similarity in general business methods, for +while the projecting machines and copies of picture +films are made in quantity at the Orange works (just +as phonographs and duplicate records are so made), +the original picture, or film, like the master record, +is made elsewhere. There is this difference, however: +that, from the particular nature of the work, practically +ALL master records are made at one convenient +place, while the essential interest in SOME motion +pictures lies in the fact that they are taken in various +parts of the world, often under exceptional circumstances. +The "silent drama," however, calls also for +many representations which employ conventional +acting, staging, and the varied appliances of stage- +craft. Hence, Edison saw early the necessity of +providing a place especially devised and arranged for +the production of dramatic performances in pantomime. + +It is a far cry from the crude structure of early +days--the "Black Maria" of 1891, swung around on +its pivot in the Orange laboratory yard--to the well- +appointed Edison theatres, or pantomime studios, in +New York City. The largest of these is located in +the suburban Borough of the Bronx, and consists of +a three-story-and-basement building of reinforced +concrete, in which are the offices, dressing-rooms, +wardrobe and property-rooms, library and developing +department. Contiguous to this building, and +connected with it, is the theatre proper, a large and +lofty structure whose sides and roof are of glass, and +whose floor space is sufficiently ample for six different +sets of scenery at one time, with plenty of room left +for a profusion of accessories, such as tables, chairs, +pianos, bunch-lights, search-lights, cameras, and a +host of varied paraphernalia pertaining to stage +effects. + +The second Edison theatre, or studio, is located +not far from the shopping district in New York City. +In all essential features, except size and capacity, it +is a duplicate of the one in the Bronx, of which it +is a supplement. + +To a visitor coming on the floor of such a theatre +for the first time there is a sense of confusion in +beholding the heterogeneous "sets" of scenery and the +motley assemblage of characters represented in the +various plays in the process of "taking," or rehearsal. +While each set constitutes virtually a separate stage, +they are all on the same floor, without wings or +proscenium-arches, and separated only by a few feet. +Thus, for instance, a Japanese house interior may be +seen cheek by jowl with an ordinary prison cell, +flanked by a mining-camp, which in turn stands next +to a drawing-room set, and in each a set of appropriate +characters in pantomimic motion. The action +is incessant, for in any dramatic representation +intended for the motion-picture film every second +counts. + +The production of several completed plays per +week necessitates the employment of a considerable +staff of people of miscellaneous trades and abilities. +At each of these two studios there is employed a +number of stage-directors, scene-painters, carpenters, +property-men, photographers, costumers, electricians, +clerks, and general assistants, besides a capable stock +company of actors and actresses, whose generous num- +bers are frequently augmented by the addition of a +special star, or by a number of extra performers, such +as Rough Riders or other specialists. It may be, +occasionally, that the exigencies of the occasion require +the work of a performing horse, dog, or other animal. +No matter what the object required may be, whether +animate or inanimate, if it is necessary for the play +it is found and pressed into service. + +These two studios, while separated from the main +plant, are under the same general management, and +their original negative films are forwarded as made +to the Orange works, where the large copying department +is located in one of the concrete buildings. +Here, after the film has been passed upon by a committee, +a considerable number of positive copies are +made by ingenious processes, and after each one is +separately tested, or "run off," in one or other of the +three motion-picture theatres in the building, they +are shipped out to film exchanges in every part of +the country. How extensive this business has become +may be appreciated when it is stated that at +the Orange plant there are produced at this time +over eight million feet of motion-picture film per +year. And Edison's company is only one of many +producers. + +Another of the industries at the Orange works is +the manufacture of projecting kinetoscopes, by means +of which the motion pictures are shown. While this +of itself is also a business of considerable magnitude +in its aggregate yearly transactions, it calls for no +special comment in regard to commercial production, +except to note that a corps of experimenters is con- +stantly employed refining and perfecting details of +the machine. Its basic features of operation as conceived +by Edison remain unchanged. + +On coming to consider the Edison battery enterprises, +we must perforce extend the territorial view to +include a special chemical-manufacturing plant, which +is in reality a branch of the laboratory and the Orange +works, although actually situated about three miles +away. + +Both the primary and the storage battery employ +certain chemical products as essential parts of their +elements, and indeed owe their very existence to the +peculiar preparation and quality of such products, as +exemplified by Edison's years of experimentation and +research. Hence the establishment of his own chemical +works at Silver Lake, where, under his personal +supervision, the manufacture of these products is carried +on in charge of specially trained experts. At the +present writing the plant covers about seven acres +of ground; but there is ample room for expansion, +as Edison, with wise forethought, secured over forty +acres of land, so as to be prepared for developments. + +Not only is the Silver Lake works used for the +manufacture of the chemical substances employed in +the batteries, but it is the plant at which the Edison +primary battery is wholly assembled and made up +for distribution to customers. This in itself is a +business of no small magnitude, having grown steadily +on its merits year by year until it has now arrived at +a point where its sales run into the hundreds of +thousands of cells per annum, furnished largely to the +steam railroads of the country for their signal service. + +As to the storage battery, the plant at Silver Lake +is responsible only for the production of the chemical +compounds, nickel-hydrate and iron oxide, which enter +into its construction. All the mechanical parts, the +nickel plating, the manufacture of nickel flake, the +assembling and testing, are carried on at the Orange +works in two of the large concrete buildings above +referred to. A visit to this part of the plant reveals an +amazing fertility of resourcefulness and ingenuity in the +devising of the special machines and appliances employed +in constructing the mechanical parts of these +cells, for it is practically impossible to fashion them +by means of machinery and tools to be found in the +open market, notwithstanding the immense variety +that may be there obtained. + +Since Edison completed his final series of investigations +on his storage battery and brought it to its +present state of perfection, the commercial values +have increased by leaps and bounds. The battery, +as it was originally put out some years ago, made for +itself an enviable reputation; but with its improved +form there has come a vast increase of business. +Although the largest of the concrete buildings where +its manufacture is carried on is over four hundred +feet long and four stories in height, it has already +become necessary to plan extensions and enlargements +of the plant in order to provide for the production +of batteries to fill the present demands. It +was not until the summer of 1909 that Edison was +willing to pronounce the final verdict of satisfaction +with regard to this improved form of storage battery; +but subsequent commercial results have justified his +judgment, and it is not too much to predict that in +all probability the business will assume gigantic +proportions within a very few years. At the present +time (1910) the Edison storage-battery enterprise is +in its early stages of growth, and its status may be +compared with that of the electric-light system about +the year 1881. + +There is one more industry, though of comparatively +small extent, that is included in the activities +of the Orange works, namely, the manufacture and +sale of the Bates numbering machine. This is a well- +known article of commerce, used in mercantile +establishments for the stamping of consecutive, +duplicate, and manifold numbers on checks and other +documents. It is not an invention of Edison, but +the organization owning it, together with the patent +rights, were acquired by him some years ago, and he +has since continued and enlarged the business both +in scope and volume, besides, of course, improving +and perfecting the apparatus itself. These machines +are known everywhere throughout the country, and +while the annual sales are of comparatively moderate +amount in comparison with the totals of the other +Edison industries at Orange, they represent in the +aggregate a comfortable and encouraging business. + +In this brief outline review of the flourishing and +extensive commercial enterprises centred around the +Orange laboratory, the facts, it is believed, contain a +complete refutation of the idea that an inventor +cannot be a business man. They also bear abundant +evidence of the compatibility of these two widely +divergent gifts existing, even to a high degree, in the +same person. A striking example of the correctness +of this proposition is afforded in the present case, +when it is borne in mind that these various industries +above described (whose annual sales run into many +millions of dollars) owe not only their very creation +(except the Bates machine) and existence to Edison's +inventive originality and commercial initiative, but +also their continued growth and prosperity to his +incessant activities in dealing with their multifarious +business problems. In publishing a portrait of Edison +this year, one of the popular magazines placed under +it this caption: "Were the Age called upon to pay +Thomas A. Edison all it owes to him, the Age would +have to make an assignment." The present chapter +will have thrown some light on the idiosyncrasies of +Edison as financier and as manufacturer, and will +have shown that while the claim thus suggested may +be quite good, it will certainly never be pressed or +collected. + + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +THE VALUE OF EDISON'S INVENTIONS TO +THE WORLD + +IF the world were to take an account of stock, so +to speak, and proceed in orderly fashion to marshal +its tangible assets in relation to dollars and +cents, the natural resources of our globe, from centre +to circumference, would head the list. Next would +come inventors, whose value to the world as an asset +could be readily estimated from an increase of its +wealth resulting from the actual transformations of +these resources into items of convenience and comfort +through the exercise of their inventive ingenuity. + +Inventors of practical devices may be broadly divided +into two classes--first, those who may be said +to have made two blades of grass grow where only +one grew before; and, second, great inventors, who +have made grass grow plentifully on hitherto unproductive +ground. The vast majority of practical inventors +belong to and remain in the first of these +divisions, but there have been, and probably always +will be, a less number who, by reason of their greater +achievements, are entitled to be included in both +classes. Of these latter, Thomas Alva Edison is one, +but in the pages of history he stands conspicuously +pre-eminent--a commanding towering figure, even +among giants. + +The activities of Edison have been of such great +range, and his conquests in the domains of practical +arts so extensive and varied, that it is somewhat +difficult to estimate with any satisfactory degree of +accuracy the money value of his inventions to the +world of to-day, even after making due allowance +for the work of other great inventors and the propulsive +effect of large amounts of capital thrown into +the enterprises which took root, wholly or in part, +through the productions of his genius and energies. +This difficulty will be apparent, for instance, when we +consider his telegraph and telephone inventions. +These were absorbed in enterprises already existing, +and were the means of assisting their rapid growth +and expansion, particularly the telephone industry. +Again, in considering the fact that Edison was one +of the first in the field to design and perfect a practical +and operative electric railway, the main features +of which are used in all electric roads of to-day, we are +confronted with the problem as to what proportion of +their colossal investment and earnings should be +ascribed to him. + +Difficulties are multiplied when we pause for a +moment to think of Edison's influence on collateral +branches of business. In the public mind he is +credited with the invention of the incandescent electric +light, the phonograph, and other widely known +devices; but how few realize his actual influence on +other trades that are not generally thought of in connection +with these things. For instance, let us note +what a prominent engine builder, the late Gardiner +C. Sims, has said: "Watt, Corliss, and Porter brought +forward steam-engines to a high state of proficiency, +yet it remained for Mr. Edison to force better proportions, +workmanship, designs, use of metals, regulation, +the solving of the complex problems of high +speed and endurance, and the successful development +of the shaft governor. Mr. Edison is pre- +eminent in the realm of engineering." + +The phenomenal growth of the copper industry was +due to a rapid and ever-increasing demand, owing to +the exploitation of the telephone, electric light, electric +motor, and electric railway industries. Without +these there might never have been the romance of +"Coppers" and the rise and fall of countless fortunes. +And although one cannot estimate in definite figures +the extent of Edison's influence in the enormous increase +of copper production, it is to be remembered +that his basic inventions constitute a most important +factor in the demand for the metal. Besides, one +must also give him the credit, as already noted, for +having recognized the necessity for a pure quality of +copper for electric conductors, and for his persistence +in having compelled the manufacturers of that period +to introduce new and additional methods of refinement +so as to bring about that result, which is now +a sine qua non. + +Still considering his influence on other staples and +collateral trades, let us enumerate briefly and in a +general manner some of the more important and additional +ones that have been not merely stimulated, +but in many cases the business and sales have been +directly increased and new arts established through +the inventions of this one man--namely, iron, steel, +brass, zinc, nickel, platinum ($5 per ounce in 1878, +now $26 an ounce), rubber, oils, wax, bitumen, various +chemical compounds, belting, boilers, injectors, structural +steel, iron tubing, glass, silk, cotton, porcelain, +fine woods, slate, marble, electrical measuring instruments, +miscellaneous machinery, coal, wire, paper, +building materials, sapphires, and many others. + +The question before us is, To what extent has +Edison added to the wealth of the world by his +inventions and his energy and perseverance? It will +be noted from the foregoing that no categorical answer +can be offered to such a question, but sufficient material +can be gathered from a statistical review of the +commercial arts directly influenced to afford an +approximate idea of the increase in national wealth that +has been affected by or has come into being through +the practical application of his ideas. + +First of all, as to inventions capable of fairly definite +estimate, let us mention the incandescent electric +light and systems of distribution of electric light, +heat, and power, which may justly be considered as +the crowning inventions of Edison's life. Until October +21, 1879, there was nothing in existence resembling +our modern incandescent lamp. On that date, +as we have seen in a previous chapter, Edison's labors +culminated in his invention of a practical incandescent +electric lamp embodying absolutely all the essentials +of the lamp of to-day, thus opening to the +world the doors of a new art and industry. To-day +there are in the United States more than 41,000,000 +of these lamps, connected to existing central-station +circuits in active operation. + +Such circuits necessarily imply the existence of +central stations with their equipment. Until the +beginning of 1882 there were only a few arc-lighting +stations in existence for the limited distribution of +current. At the present time there are over 6000 +central stations in this country for the distribution +of electric current for light, heat, and power, with +capital obligations amounting to not less than +$1,000,000,000. Besides the above-named 41,000,000 +incandescent lamps connected to their mains, there are +about 500,000 arc lamps and 150,000 motors, using +750,000 horse-power, besides countless fan motors +and electric heating and cooking appliances. + +When it is stated that the gross earnings of these +central stations approximate the sum of $225,000,000 +yearly, the significant import of these statistics of +an art that came so largely from Edison's laboratory +about thirty years ago will undoubtedly be apparent. + +But the above are not by any means all the facts +relating to incandescent electric lighting in the United +States, for in addition to central stations there are +upward of 100,000 isolated or private plants in mills, +factories, steamships, hotels, theatres, etc., owned by +the persons or concerns who operate them. These +plants represent an approximate investment of +$500,000,000, and the connection of not less than +25,000,000 incandescent lamps or their equivalent. + +Then there are the factories where these incandescent +lamps are made, about forty in number, repre- +sensing a total investment that may be approximated +at $25,000,000. It is true that many of these factories +are operated by other than the interests which +came into control of the Edison patents (General +Electric Company), but the 150,000,000 incandescent +electric lamps now annually made are broadly covered +in principle by Edison's fundamental ideas and +patents. + +It will be noted that these figures are all in round +numbers, but they are believed to be well within the +mark, being primarily founded upon the special reports +of the Census Bureau issued in 1902 and 1907, +with the natural increase from that time computed +by experts who are in position to obtain the facts. +It would be manifestly impossible to give exact figures +of such a gigantic and swiftly moving industry, +whose totals increase from week to week. + +The reader will naturally be disposed to ask whether +it is intended to claim that Edison has brought about +all this magnificent growth of the electric-lighting +art. The answer to this is decidedly in the negative, +for the fact is that he laid some of the foundation +and erected a building thereon, and in the natural +progressive order of things other inventors of more +or less fame have laid substructures or added a wing +here and a story there until the resultant great structure +has attained such proportions as to evoke the +admiration of the beholder; but the old foundation +and the fundamental building still remain to support +other parts. In other words, Edison created the +incandescent electric lamp, and invented certain +broad and fundamental systems of distribution of +current, with all the essential devices of detail necessary +for successful operation. These formed a foundation. +He also spent great sums of money and devoted +several years of patient labor in the early +practical exploitation of the dynamo and central +station and isolated plants, often under, adverse and +depressing circumstances, with a dogged determination +that outlived an opposition steadily threatening +defeat. These efforts resulted in the firm commercial +establishment of modern electric lighting. It is true +that many important inventions of others have a +distinguished place in the art as it is exploited today, +but the fact remains that the broad essentials, +such as the incandescent lamp, systems of distribution, +and some important details, are not only universally +used, but are as necessary to-day for successful +commercial practice as they were when Edison +invented them many years ago. + +The electric railway next claims our consideration, +but we are immediately confronted by a difficulty +which seems insurmountable when we attempt to +formulate any definite estimate of the value and +influence of Edison's pioneer work and inventions. +There is one incontrovertible fact--namely, that he +was the first man to devise, construct, and operate +from a central station a practicable, life-size electric +railroad, which was capable of transporting and did +transport passengers and freight at variable speeds +over varying grades, and under complete control +of the operator. These are the essential elements +in all electric railroading of the present day; but +while Edison's original broad ideas are embodied +in present practice, the perfection of the modern electric +railway is greatly due to the labors and inventions +of a large number of other well-known inventors. +There was no reason why Edison could not have continued +the commercial development of the electric +railway after he had helped to show its practicability +in 1880, 1881, and 1882, just as he had completed his +lighting system, had it not been that his financial +allies of the period lacked faith in the possibilities of +electric railroads, and therefore declined to furnish +the money necessary for the purpose of carrying on +the work. + +With these facts in mind, we shall ask the reader +to assign to Edison a due proportion of credit for his +pioneer and basic work in relation to the prodigious +development of electric railroading that has since +taken place. The statistics of 1908 for American +street and elevated railways show that within twenty- +five years the electric-railway industry has grown to +embrace 38,812 miles of track on streets and for +elevated railways, operated under the ownership of +1238 separate companies, whose total capitalization +amounted to the enormous sum of $4,123,834,598. In +the equipments owned by such companies there are +included 68,636 electric cars and 17,568 trailers and +others, making a total of 86,204 of such vehicles. +These cars and equipments earned over $425,000,000 +in 1907, in giving the public transportation, at a cost, +including transfers, of a little over three cents per +passenger, for whom a fifteen-mile ride would be +possible. It is the cheapest transportation in the +world. + +Some mention should also be made of the great +electrical works of the country, in which the dynamos, +motors, and other varied paraphernalia are made for +electric lighting, electric railway, and other purposes. +The largest of these works is undoubtedly that of the +General Electric Company at Schenectady, New York, +a continuation and enormous enlargement of the +shops which Edison established there in 1886. This +plant at the present time embraces over 275 acres, +of which sixty acres are covered by fifty large and +over one hundred small buildings; besides which the +company also owns other large plants elsewhere, +representing a total investment approximating the sum +of $34,850,000 up to 1908. The productions of the +General Electric Company alone average annual sales +of nearly $75,000,000, but they do not comprise +the total of the country's manufactures in these +lines. + +Turning our attention now to the telephone, we +again meet a condition that calls for thoughtful +consideration before we can properly appreciate how +much the growth of this industry owes to Edison's +inventive genius. In another place there has already +been told the story of the telephone, from which we +have seen that to Alexander Graham Bell is due the +broad idea of transmission of speech by means of an +electrical circuit; also that he invented appropriate +instruments and devices through which he accomplished +this result, although not to that extent which +gave promise of any great commercial practicability +for the telephone as it then existed. While the art +was in this inefficient condition, Edison went to work +on the subject, and in due time, as we have already +learned, invented and brought out the carbon transmitter, +which is universally acknowledged to have +been the needed device that gave to the telephone +the element of commercial practicability, and has +since led to its phenomenally rapid adoption and +world-wide use. It matters not that others were +working in the same direction, Edison was legally +adjudicated to have been the first to succeed in point +of time, and his inventions were put into actual use, +and may be found in principle in every one of the +7,000,000 telephones which are estimated to be employed +in the country at the present day. Basing +the statements upon facts shown by the Census reports +of 1902 and 1907, and adding thereto the growth +of the industry since that time, we find on a conservative +estimate that at this writing the investment has +been not less than $800,000,000 in now existing telephone +systems, while no fewer than 10,500,000,000 +talks went over the lines during the year 1908. These +figures relate only to telephone systems, and do not +include any details regarding the great manufacturing +establishments engaged in the construction of +telephone apparatus, of which there is a production +amounting to at least $15,000,000 per annum. + +Leaving the telephone, let us now turn our attention +to the telegraph, and endeavor to show as best we can +some idea of the measure to which it has been affected +by Edison's inventions. Although, as we have seen +in a previous part of this book, his earliest fame arose +from his great practical work in telegraphic inventions +and improvements, there is no way in which any +definite computation can be made of the value of his +contributions in the art except, perhaps, in the case +of his quadruplex, through which alone it is estimated +that there has been saved from $15,000,000 to $20,000,000 +in the cost of line construction in this country. +If this were the only thing that he had ever accomplished, +it would entitle him to consideration as an +inventor of note. The quadruplex, however, has +other material advantages, but how far they and the +natural growth of the business have contributed to +the investment and earnings of the telegraph companies, +is beyond practicable computation. + +It would, perhaps, be interesting to speculate upon +what might have been the growth of the telegraph +and the resultant benefit to the community had +Edison's automatic telegraph inventions been allowed +to take their legitimate place in the art, but we shall +not allow ourselves to indulge in flights of fancy, as +the value of this chapter rests not upon conjecture, +but only upon actual fact. Nor shall we attempt +to offer any statistics regarding Edison's numerous +inventions relating to telegraphs and kindred devices, +such as stock tickers, relays, magnets, rheotomes, +repeaters, printing telegraphs, messenger calls, etc., +on which he was so busily occupied as an inventor +and manufacturer during the ten years that +began with January, 1869. The principles of many +of these devices are still used in the arts, but have +become so incorporated in other devices as to be +inseparable, and cannot now be dealt with +separately. To show what they mean, however, it +might be noted that New York City alone has 3000 +stock "tickers," consuming 50,000 miles of record +tape every year. + +Turning now to other important arts and industries +which have been created by Edison's inventions, and +in which he is at this time taking an active personal +interest, let us visit Orange, New Jersey. When his +present laboratory was nearing completion in 1887, he +wrote to Mr. J. Hood Wright, a partner in the firm of +Drexel, Morgan & Co.: "My ambition is to build up a +great industrial works in the Orange Valley, starting +in a small way and gradually working up." + +In this plant, which represents an investment +approximating the sum of $4,000,000, are grouped a +number of industrial enterprises of which Edison is +either the sole or controlling owner and the guiding +spirit. These enterprises are the National Phonograph +Company, the Edison Business Phonograph +Company, the Edison Phonograph Works, the Edison +Manufacturing Company, the Edison Storage Battery +Company, and the Bates Manufacturing Company. +The importance of these industries will be apparent +when it is stated that at this plant the maximum +pay-roll shows the employment of over 4200 +persons, with annual earnings in salaries and wages +of more than $2,750,000. + +In considering the phonograph in its commercial +aspect, and endeavoring to arrive at some idea of the +world's estimate of the value of this invention, we +feel the ground more firm under our feet, for Edison +has in later years controlled its manufacture and sale. +It will be remembered that the phonograph lay dormant, +commercially speaking, for about ten years +after it came into being, and then later invention reduced +it to a device capable of more popular utility. +A few years of rather unsatisfactory commercial +experience brought about a reorganization, through +which Edison resumed possession of the business. It +has since been continued under his general direction +and ownership, and he has made a great many additional +inventions tending to improve the machine +in all its parts. + +The uses made of the phonograph up to this time +have been of four kinds, generally speaking--first, +and principally, for amusement; second, for instruction +in languages; third, for business, in the dictation +of correspondence; and fourth, for sentimental reasons +in preserving the voices of friends. No separate +figures are available to show the extent of its +employment in the second and fourth classes, as they +are probably included in machines coming under the +first subdivision. Under this head we find that there +have been upward of 1,310,000 phonographs sold +during the last twenty years, with and for which there +have been made and sold no fewer than 97,845,000 +records of a musical or other character. Phonographic +records are now being manufactured at +Orange at the rate of 75,000 a day, the annual sale +of phonographs and records being approximately +$7,000,000, including business phonographs. This +does not include blank records, of which large numbers +have also been supplied to the public. + +The adoption of the business phonograph has not +been characterized by the unanimity that obtained +in the case of the one used merely for amusement, as +its use involves some changes in methods that business +men are slow to adopt until they realize the resulting +convenience and economy. Although it is +only a few years since the business phonograph has +begun to make some headway, it is not difficult to +appreciate that Edison's prediction in 1878 as to the +value of such an appliance is being realized, when +we find that up to this time the sales run up to 12,695 +in number. At the present time the annual sales of +the business phonographs and supplies, cylinders, etc., +are not less than $350,000. + +We must not forget that the basic patent of Edison +on the phonograph has long since expired, thus throwing +open to the world the wonderful art of reproducing +human speech and other sounds. The world was +not slow to take advantage of the fact, hence there +are in the field numerous other concerns in the same +business. It is conservatively estimated by those +who know the trade and are in position to form +an opinion, that the figures above given represent +only about one-half of the entire business of the +country in phonographs, records, cylinders, and +supplies. + +Taking next his inventions that pertain to a more +recently established but rapidly expanding branch +of business that provides for the amusement of the +public, popularly known as "motion pictures," we +also find a general recognition of value created. Referring +the reader to a previous chapter for a discussion +of Edison's standing as a pioneer inventor in +this art, let us glance at the commercial proportions +of this young but lusty business, whose ramifications +extend to all but the most remote and primitive hamlets +of our country. + +The manufacture of the projecting machines and +accessories, together with the reproduction of films, +is carried on at the Orange Valley plant, and from the +inception of the motion-picture business to the present +time there have been made upward of 16,000 +projecting machines and many million feet of films +carrying small photographs of moving objects. Although +the motion-picture business, as a commercial +enterprise, is still in its youth, it is of sufficient +moment to call for the annual production of thousands +of machines and many million feet of films in Edison's +shops, having a sale value of not less than $750,000. +To produce the originals from which these Edison +films are made, there have been established two +"studios," the largest of which is in the Bronx, New +York City. + +In this, as well as in the phonograph business, there +are many other manufacturers in the field. Indeed, +the annual product of the Edison Manufacturing +Company in this line is only a fractional part of the +total that is absorbed by the 8000 or more motion- +picture theatres and exhibitions that are in operation +in the United States at the present time, +and which represent an investment of some $45,000,000. +Licensees under Edison patents in this +country alone produce upward of 60,000,000 feet of +films annually, containing more than a billion and +a half separate photographs. To what extent the +motion-picture business may grow in the not remote +future it is impossible to conjecture, for it has taken +a place in the front rank of rapidly increasing enterprises. + +The manufacture and sale of the Edison-Lalande +primary battery, conducted by the Edison Manufacturing +Company at the Orange Valley plant, is a +business of no mean importance. Beginning about +twenty years ago with a battery that, without polarizing, +would furnish large currents specially adapted +for gas-engine ignition and other important purposes, +the business has steadily grown in magnitude until +the present output amounts to about 125,000 cells +annually; the total number of cells put into the +hands of the public up to date being approximately +1,500,000. It will be readily conceded that to most +men this alone would be an enterprise of a lifetime, +and sufficient in itself to satisfy a moderate ambition. +But, although it has yielded a considerable profit to +Edison and gives employment to many people, it is +only one of the many smaller enterprises that owe +an existence to his inventive ability and commercial +activity. + +So it also is in regard to the mimeograph, whose +forerunner, the electric pen, was born of Edison's +brain in 1877. He had been long impressed by the +desirability of the rapid production of copies of written +documents, and, as we have seen by a previous +chapter, he invented the electric pen for this purpose, +only to improve upon it later with a more desirable +device which he called the mimeograph, that is in +use, in various forms, at this time. Although the +electric pen had a large sale and use in its time, the +statistics relating to it are not available. The mimeo- +graph, however, is, and has been for many years, a +standard office appliance, and is entitled to consideration, +as the total number put into use up to this +time is approximately 180,000, valued at $3,500,000, +while the annual output is in the neighborhood of +9000 machines, sold for about $150,000, besides the +vast quantity of special paper and supplies which its +use entails in the production of the many millions of +facsimile letters and documents. The extent of production +and sale of supplies for the mimeograph may +be appreciated when it is stated that they bring +annually an equivalent of three times the amount +realized from sales of machines. The manufacture +and sale of the mimeograph does not come within the +enterprises conducted under Edison's personal direction, +as he sold out the whole thing some years ago +to Mr. A. B. Dick, of Chicago. + +In making a somewhat radical change of subject, +from duplicating machines to cement, we find ourselves +in a field in which Edison has made a most +decided impression. The reader has already learned +that his entry into this field was, in a manner, +accidental, although logically in line with pronounced +convictions of many years' standing, and following up +the fund of knowledge gained in the magnetic ore-milling +business. From being a new-comer in the cement +business, his corporation in five years has grown to be +the fifth largest producer in the United States, with +a still increasing capacity. From the inception of +this business there has been a steady and rapid +development, resulting in the production of a grand +total of over 7,300,000 barrels of cement up to the +present date, having a value of about $6,000,000, +exclusive of package. At the time of this writing, +the rate of production is over 8000 barrels of cement +per day, or, say, 2,500,000 barrels per year, having an +approximate selling value of a little less than $2,000,000, +with prospects of increasing in the near future +to a daily output of 10,000 barrels. This enterprise +is carried on by a corporation called the Edison +Portland Cement Company, in which he is very largely +interested, and of which he is the active head and +guiding spirit. + +Had not Edison suspended the manufacture and +sale of his storage battery a few years ago because +he was not satisfied with it, there might have been +given here some noteworthy figures of an extensive +business, for the company's books show an astonishing +number of orders that were received during the time +of the shut-down. He was implored for batteries, +but in spite of the fact that good results had been +obtained from the 18,000 or 20,000 cells sold some +years ago, he adhered firmly to his determination to +perfect them to a still higher standard before resuming +and continuing their manufacture as a regular +commodity. As we have noted in a previous chapter, +however, deliveries of the perfected type were +begun in the summer of 1909, and since that time the +business has continued to grow in the measure indicated +by the earlier experience. + +Thus far we have concerned ourselves chiefly with +those figures which exhibit the extent of investment +and production, but there is another and humanly +important side that presents itself for consideration +namely, the employment of a vast industrial army of +men and women, who earn a living through their +connection with some of the arts and industries to +which our narrative has direct reference. To this the +reader's attention will now be drawn. + +The following figures are based upon the Special +Reports of the Census Bureau, 1902 and 1907, with +additions computed upon the increase that has subsequently +taken place. In the totals following is included +the compensation paid to salaried officials and +clerks. Details relating to telegraph systems are +omitted. + +Taking the electric light into consideration first, +we find that in the central stations of the United +States there are not less than an average of 50,000 +persons employed, requiring an aggregate yearly pay- +roll of over $40,000,000. This does not include the +100,000 or more isolated electric-light plants scattered +throughout the land. Many of these are quite large, +and at least one-third of them require one additional +helper, thus adding, say, 33,000 employees to the +number already mentioned. If we assume as low +a wage as $10 per week for each of these helpers, we +must add to the foregoing an additional sum of over +$17,000,000 paid annually for wages, almost entirely +in the isolated incandescent electric lighting field. + +Central stations and isolated plants consume over +100,000,000 incandescent electric lamps annually, and +in the production of these there are engaged about +forty factories, on whose pay-rolls appear an average +of 14,000 employees, earning an aggregate yearly sum +of $8,000,000. + +Following the incandescent lamp we must not forget +an industry exclusively arising from it and absolutely +dependent upon it--namely, that of making +fixtures for such lamps, the manufacture of which +gives employment to upward of 6000 persons, who +annually receive at least $3,750,000 in compensation. + +The detail devices of the incandescent electric lighting +system also contribute a large quota to the country's +wealth in the millions of dollars paid out in +salaries and wages to many thousands of persons who +are engaged in their manufacture. + +The electric railways of our country show even +larger figures than the lighting stations and plants, +as they employ on the average over 250,000 persons, +whose annual compensation amounts to not less than +$155,000,000. + +In the manufacture of about $50,000,000 worth of +dynamos and motors annually, for central-station +equipment, isolated plants, electric railways, and +other purposes, the manufacturers of the country +employ an average of not less than 30,000 people, +whose yearly pay-roll amounts to no less a sum than +$20,000,000, + +The growth of the telephone systems of the United +States also furnishes us with statistics of an analogous +nature, for we find that the average number of employees +engaged in this industry is at least 140,000, +whose annual earnings aggregate a minimum of +$75,000,000; besides which the manufacturers of +telephone apparatus employ over 12,000 persons, to +whom is paid annually about $5,500,000. + +No attempt is made to include figures of collateral +industries, such, for instance, as copper, which is +very closely allied with the electrical arts, and the +great bulk of which is refined electrically. + +The 8000 or so motion-picture theatres of the +country employ no fewer than 40,000 people, whose +aggregate annual income amounts to not less than +$37,000,000. + +Coming now to the Orange Valley plant, we take a +drop from these figures to the comparatively modest +ones which give us an average of 3600 employees +and calling for an annual pay-roll of about $2,250,000. +It must be remembered, however, that the sums +mentioned above represent industries operated by +great aggregations of capital, while the Orange Valley +plant, as well as the Edison Portland Cement Company, +with an average daily number of 530 employees +and over $400,000 annual pay-roll, represent in a +large measure industries that are more in the nature +of closely held enterprises and practically under the +direction of one mind. + +The table herewith given summarizes the figures +that have just been presented, and affords an idea of +the totals affected by the genius of this one man. It +is well known that many other men and many other +inventions have been needed for the perfection of +these arts; but it is equally true that, as already +noted, some of these industries are directly the creation +of Edison, while in every one of the rest his impress +has been deep and significant. Before he began +inventing, only two of them were known at all +as arts--telegraphy and the manufacture of cement. +Moreover, these figures deal only with the United +States, and take no account of the development of +many of the Edison inventions in Europe or of their +adoption throughout the world at large. Let it suffice + + +STATISTICAL RESUME (APPROXIMATE) OF SOME OF THE INDUSTRIES +IN THE UNITED STATES DIRECTLY FOUNDED UPON OR +AFFECTED BY INVENTIONS OF THOMAS A. EDISON + + Annual + Gross Rev- Number Annual +Class of Industry Investment enue or of Em- Pay-Rolls + sales +Central station lighting + and power $1,000,000,000 $125,000,000 50,000 $40,000,000 +Isolated incandescent + lighting 500,000,000 -- 33,000 17,000 000 +Incandescent lamps 25,000,000 20,000,000 14,000 8,000 000 +Electric fixtures 8,000,000 5,000,000 6,000 3,750,000 +Dynamos and motors 60,000,000 50,000,000 30,000 20,000,000 +Electric railways 4,000,000,000 430,000,000 250,000 155,000,000 +Telephone systems 800,000,000 175,000,000 140,000 75,000,000 +Telephone apparatus 30,000,000 15,000,000 12,000 5,500,000 +Phonograph and motion + pictures 10,000,000 15,000,000 5,000 6,000,000 +Motion picture theatres 40,000,000 80,000,000 40,000 37,000,000 +Edison Portland cement 4,000,000 2,000,000 530 400,000 +Telegraphy 250,000,000 60,000,000 100,000 30,000,000 +----------------------------------------------------------------------------- +Totals 6,727,000,000 1,077,000,000 680,530 397,650,000 + + +that in America alone the work of Edison has been +one of the most potent factors in bringing into existence +new industries now capitalized at nearly $ 7,000,000,000, +earning annually over $1,000,000,000, and +giving employment to an army of more than six +hundred thousand people. + +A single diamond, prismatically flashing from its +many facets the beauties of reflected light, comes +well within the limits of comprehension of the human +mind and appeals to appreciation by the finer sensibilities; +but in viewing an exhibition of thousands +of these beautiful gems, the eye and brain are simply +bewildered with the richness of a display which tends +to confuse the intellect until the function of analysis +comes into play and leads to more adequate apprehension. + +So, in presenting the mass of statistics contained in +this chapter, we fear that the result may have been +the bewilderment of the reader to some extent. +Nevertheless, in writing a biography of Edison, the +main object is to present the facts as they are, and +leave it to the intelligent reader to classify, apply, +and analyze them in such manner as appeals most +forcibly to his intellectual processes. If in the +foregoing pages there has appeared to be a tendency to +attribute to Edison the entire credit for the growth +to which many of the above-named great enterprises +have in these latter days attained, we must especially +disclaim any intention of giving rise to such a +deduction. No one who has carefully followed the +course of this narrative can deny, however, that +Edison is the father of some of the arts and industries +that have been mentioned, and that as to some of the +others it was the magic of his touch that helped make +them practicable. Not only to his work and ingenuity +is due the present magnitude of these arts and industries, +but it is attributable also to the splendid work +and numerous contributions of other great inventors, +such as Brush, Bell, Elihu Thomson, Weston, Sprague, +and many others, as well as to the financiers and +investors who in the past thirty years have furnished +the vast sums of money that were necessary to exploit +and push forward these enterprises. + +The reader may have noticed in a perusal of this +chapter the lack of autobiographical quotations, such +as have appeared in other parts of this narrative. +Edison's modesty has allowed us but one remark on +the subject. This was made by him to one of the +writers a short time ago, when, after an interesting +indulgence in reminiscences of old times and early +inventions, he leaned back in his chair, and with +a broad smile on his face, said, reflectively: "Say, +I HAVE been mixed up in a whole lot of things, +haven't I?" + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII + +THE BLACK FLAG + +THROUGHOUT the forty-odd years of his creative +life, Edison has realized by costly experience +the truth of the cynical proverb that "A patent +is merely a title to a lawsuit." It is not intended, +however, by this statement to lead to any inference +on the part of the reader that HE stands peculiarly +alone in any such experience, for it has been and +still is the common lot of every successful inventor, +sooner or later. + +To attribute dishonesty or cupidity as the root of +the defence in all patent litigation would be aiming +very wide of the mark, for in no class of suits that +come before the courts are there any that present a +greater variety of complex, finely shaded questions, +or that require more delicacy of interpretation, than +those that involve the construction of patents, particularly +those relating to electrical devices. Indeed, +a careful study of legal procedure of this character +could not be carried far without discovery of the fact +that in numerous instances the differences of opinion +between litigants were marked by the utmost bona +fides. + +On the other hand, such study would reveal many +cases of undoubted fraudulent intent, as well as many +bold attempts to deprive the inventor of the fruits +of his endeavors by those who have sought to evade, +through subtle technicalities of the law, the penalty +justly due them for trickery, evasion, or open contempt +of the rights of others. + +In the history of science and of the arts to which +the world has owed its continued progress from year +to year there is disclosed one remarkable fact, and that +is, that whenever any important discovery or invention +has been made and announced by one man, it has +almost always been disclosed later that other men +--possibly widely separated and knowing nothing of +the other's work--have been following up the same +general lines of investigation, independently, with the +same object in mind. Their respective methods might +be dissimilar while tending to the same end, but it +does not necessarily follow that any one of these +other experimenters might ever have achieved the result +aimed at, although, after the proclamation of +success by one, it is easy to believe that each of the +other independent investigators might readily persuade +himself that he would ultimately have reached +the goal in just that same way. + +This peculiar coincidence of simultaneous but +separate work not only comes to light on the bringing +out of great and important discoveries or inventions, +but becomes more apparent if a new art is disclosed, +for then the imagination of previous experimenters +is stimulated through wide dissemination of the tidings, +sometimes resulting in more or less effort to +enter the newly opened field with devices or methods +that resemble closely the original and fundamental +ones in principle and application. In this and other +ways there arises constantly in the United States +Patent Office a large number of contested cases, +called "Interferences," where applications for patents +covering the invention of a similar device have been +independently filed by two or even more persons. +In such cases only one patent can be issued, and that +to the inventor who on the taking of testimony shows +priority in date of invention.[20] + + +[20] A most remarkable instance of contemporaneous invention +and without a parallel in the annals of the United States Patent +Office, occurred when, on the same day, February 15, 1876, two +separate descriptions were filed in that office, one a complete +application and the other a caveat, but each covering an invention +for "transmitting vocal sounds telegraphically." The application +was made by Alexander Graham Bell, of Salem, Massachusetts, +and the caveat by Elisha Gray, of Chicago, Illinois. On +examination of the two papers it was found that both of them +covered practically the same ground, hence, as only one patent +could be granted, it became necessary to ascertain the precise +hour at which the documents were respectively filed, and put the +parties in interference. This was done, with the result that the +patent was ultimately awarded to Bell. + + + +In the opening up and development of any new art +based upon a fundamental discovery or invention, +there ensues naturally an era of supplemental or +collateral inventive activity--the legitimate outcome +of the basic original ideas. Part of this development +may be due to the inventive skill and knowledge of +the original inventor and his associates, who, by reason +of prior investigation, would be in better position +to follow up the art in its earliest details than others, +who might be regarded as mere outsiders. Thus a +new enterprise may be presented before the world +by its promoters in the belief that they are strongly +fortified by patent rights which will protect them in +a degree commensurate with the risks they have +assumed. + +Supplemental inventions, however, in any art, new +or old, are not limited to those which emanate from +the original workers, for the ingenuity of man, influenced +by the spirit of the times, seizes upon any +novel line of action and seeks to improve or enlarge +upon it, or, at any rate, to produce more or less variation +of its phases. Consequently, there is a constant +endeavor on the part of a countless host of men possessing +some degree of technical skill and inventive +ability, to win fame and money by entering into +the already opened fields of endeavor with devices +and methods of their own, for which subsidiary +patents may be obtainable. Some of such patents +may prove to be valuable, while it is quite certain +that in the natural order of things others will be +commercially worthless, but none may be entirely +disregarded in the history and development of the +art. + +It will be quite obvious, therefore, that the advent +of any useful invention or discovery, great or small, +is followed by a clashing of many interests which become +complex in their interpretation by reason of +the many conflicting claims that cluster around the +main principle. Nor is the confusion less confounded +through efforts made on the part of dishonest persons, +who, like vultures, follow closely on the trail +of successful inventors and (sometimes through +information derived by underhand methods) obtain +patents on alleged inventions, closely approximating +the real ones, solely for the purpose of harassing the +original patentee until they are bought up, or else, +with the intent of competing boldly in the new business, +trust in the delays of legal proceedings to obtain +a sure foothold in their questionable enterprise. + +Then again there are still others who, having no +patent rights, but waving aside all compunction and +in downright fraud, simply enter the commercial field +against the whole world, using ruthlessly whatever +inventive skill and knowledge the original patentee +may have disclosed, and trusting to the power of +money, rapid movement, and mendacious advertising +to build up a business which shall presently assume +such formidable proportions as to force a compromise, +or stave off an injunction until the patent +has expired. In nine cases out of ten such a course +can be followed with relative impunity; and guided +by skilful experts who may suggest really trivial +changes here and there over the patented structure, +and with the aid of keen and able counsel, hardly a +patent exists that could not be invaded by such infringers. +Such is the condition of our laws and practice +that the patentee in seeking to enforce his rights +labors under a terrible handicap. + +And, finally, in this recital of perplexing conditions +confronting the inventor, there must not be forgotten +the commercial "shark," whose predatory instincts +are ever keenly alert for tender victims. In the wake +of every newly developed art of world-wide importance +there is sure to follow a number of unscrupulous +adventurers, who hasten to take advantage of general +public ignorance of the true inwardness of affairs. +Basing their operations on this lack of knowledge, +and upon the tendency of human nature to give +credence to widely advertised and high-sounding descriptions +and specious promises of vast profits, these +men find little difficulty in conjuring money out of +the pockets of the unsophisticated and gullible, who +rush to become stockholders in concerns that have +"airy nothings" for a foundation, and that collapse +quickly when the bubble is pricked.[21] + + +[21] A notable instance of the fleecing of unsuspecting and credulous +persons occurred in the early eighties, during the furor +occasioned by the introduction of Mr. Edison's electric-light system. +A corporation claiming to have a self-generating dynamo +(practically perpetual motion) advertised its preposterous claims +extensively, and actually succeeded in selling a large amount of +stock, which, of course, proved to be absolutely worthless. + + + +To one who is unacquainted with the trying circumstances +attending the introduction and marketing of +patented devices, it might seem unnecessary that an +inventor and his business associates should be obliged +to take into account the unlawful or ostensible competition +of pirates or schemers, who, in the absence +of legal decision, may run a free course for a long +time. Nevertheless, as public patronage is the element +vitally requisite for commercial success, and as +the public is not usually in full possession of all the +facts and therefore cannot discriminate between the +genuine and the false, the legitimate inventor must +avail himself of every possible means of proclaiming +and asserting his rights if he desires to derive any +benefit from the results of his skill and labor. Not +only must he be prepared to fight in the Patent +Office and pursue a regular course of patent litigation +against those who may honestly deem themselves to +be protected by other inventions or patents of similar +character, and also proceed against more palpable +infringers who are openly, defiantly, and illegitimately +engaged in competitive business operations, +but he must, as well, endeavor to protect himself +against the assaults of impudent fraud by educating +the public mind to a point of intelligent apprehension +of the true status of his invention and the conflicting +claims involved. + +When the nature of a patent right is considered it +is difficult to see why this should be so. The inventor +creates a new thing--an invention of utility--and the +people, represented by the Federal Government, say +to him in effect: "Disclose your invention to us in a +patent so that we may know how to practice it, and +we will agree to give you a monopoly for seventeen +years, after which we shall be free to use it. If the +right thus granted is invaded, apply to a Federal +Court and the infringer will be enjoined and required +to settle in damages." Fair and false promise! Is +it generally realized that no matter how flagrant the +infringement nor how barefaced and impudent the +infringer, no Federal Court will grant an injunction +UNTIL THE PATENT SHALL HAVE BEEN FIRST LITIGATED TO FINAL +HEARING AND SUSTAINED? A procedure, it may be +stated, requiring years of time and thousands of +dollars, during which other infringers have generally +entered the field, and all have grown fat. + +Thus Edison and his business associates have been +forced into a veritable maelstrom of litigation during +the major part of the last forty years, in the effort +to procure for themselves a small measure of protec- +tion for their interests under the numerous inventions +of note that he has made at various times in that +period. The earlier years of his inventive activity, +while productive of many important contributions +to electrical industries, such as stock tickers and +printers, duplex, quadruplex, and automatic telegraphs, +were not marked by the turmoil of interminable +legal conflicts that arose after the beginning of +the telephone and electric-light epochs. In fact, his +inventions; up to and including his telephone +improvements (which entered into already existing arts), +had been mostly purchased by the Western Union +and other companies, and while there was more or +less contesting of his claims (especially in respect of +the telephone), the extent of such litigation was not +so conspicuously great as that which centred +subsequently around his patents covering incandescent +electric lighting and power systems. + +Through these inventions there came into being +an entirely new art, complete in its practicability +evolved by Edison after protracted experiments founded +upon most patient, thorough, and original methods +of investigation extending over several years. Long +before attaining the goal, he had realized with +characteristic insight the underlying principles of the +great and comprehensive problem he had started out to +solve, and plodded steadily along the path that he had +marked out, ignoring the almost universal scientific +disbelief in his ultimate success. "Dreamer," "fool," +"boaster" were among the appellations bestowed +upon him by unbelieving critics. Ridicule was heaped +upon him in the public prints, and mathematics were +called into service by learned men to settle the point +forever that he was attempting the utterly impossible. + +But, presto! no sooner had he accomplished the +task and shown concrete results to the world than +he found himself in the anomalous position of being +at once surrounded by the conditions which inevitably +confront every inventor. The path through the +trackless forest had been blazed, and now every one +could find the way. At the end of the road was a +rich prize belonging rightfully to the man who had +opened a way to it, but the struggles of others to +reach it by more or less honest methods now began +and continued for many years. If, as a former +commissioner once said, "Edison was the man who kept +the path to the Patent Office hot with his footsteps," +there were other great inventors abreast or immediately +on his heels, some, to be sure, with legitimate, +original methods and vital improvements representing +independent work; while there were also those +who did not trouble to invent, but simply helped +themselves to whatever ideas were available, and +coming from any source. + +Possibly events might have happened differently +had Edison been able to prevent the announcement +of his electric-light inventions until he was entirely +prepared to bring out the system as a whole, ready +for commercial exploitation, but the news of his +production of a practical and successful incandescent +lamp became known and spread like wild-fire to all +corners of the globe. It took more than a year after +the evolution of the lamp for Edison to get into position +to do actual business, and during that time his +laboratory was the natural Mecca of every inquiring +person. Small wonder, then, that when he was prepared +to market his invention he should find others +entering that market, at home and abroad, at the +same time, and with substantially similar merchandise. + +Edison narrates two incidents that may be taken +as characteristic of a good deal that had to be contended +with, coming in the shape of nefarious attack. +"In the early days of my electric light," he says, +"curiosity and interest brought a great many people +to Menlo Park to see it. Some of them did not come +with the best of intentions. I remember the visit of +one expert, a well-known electrician, a graduate of +Johns Hopkins University, and who then represented +a Baltimore gas company. We had the lamps exhibited +in a large room, and so arranged on a table +as to illustrate the regular layout of circuits for +houses and streets. Sixty of the men employed at +the laboratory were used as watchers, each to keep +an eye on a certain section of the exhibit, and see +there was no monkeying with it. This man had a +length of insulated No. 10 wire passing through his +sleeves and around his back, so that his hands would +conceal the ends and no one would know he had it. +His idea, of course, was to put this wire across the +ends of the supplying circuits, and short-circuit the +whole thing--put it all out of business without being +detected. Then he could report how easily the electric +light went out, and a false impression would be conveyed +to the public. He did not know that we had +already worked out the safety-fuse, and that every +group of lights was thus protected independently. +He put this jumper slyly in contact with the wires-- +and just four lamps went out on the section he tampered +with. The watchers saw him do it, however, +and got hold of him and just led him out of the place +with language that made the recording angels jump +for their typewriters." + +The other incident is as follows: "Soon after I had +got out the incandescent light I had an interference +in the Patent Office with a man from Wisconsin. He +filed an application for a patent and entered into a +conspiracy to `swear back' of the date of my invention, +so as to deprive me of it. Detectives were put +on the case, and we found he was a `faker,' and we +took means to break the thing up. Eugene Lewis, of +Eaton & Lewis, had this in hand for me. Several years +later this same man attempted to defraud a leading +firm of manufacturing chemists in New York, and was +sent to State prison. A short time after that a syndicate +took up a man named Goebel and tried to do +the same thing, but again our detective-work was +too much for them. This was along the same line as +the attempt of Drawbaugh to deprive Bell of his +telephone. Whenever an invention of large prospective +value comes out, these cases always occur. +The lamp patent was sustained in the New York +Federal Court. I thought that was final and would +end the matter, but another Federal judge out in +St. Louis did not sustain it. The result is I have +never enjoyed any benefits from my lamp patents, +although I fought for many years." The Goebel +case will be referred to later in this chapter. + +The original owner of the patents and inventions +covering his electric-lighting system, the Edison +Electric Light Company (in which Edison was largely +interested as a stockholder), thus found at the outset +that its commercial position was imperilled by the +activity of competitors who had sprung up like +mushrooms. It became necessary to take proper +preliminary legal steps to protect the interests which +had been acquired at the cost of so much money and +such incessant toil and experiment. During the first +few years in which the business of the introduction +of the light was carried on with such strenuous and +concentrated effort, the attention of Edison and his +original associates was constantly focused upon the +commercial exploitation and the further development +of the system at home and abroad. The difficult +and perplexing situation at that time is thus +described by Major S. B. Eaton: + +"The reason for the delay in beginning and pushing +suits for infringements of the lamp patent has +never been generally understood. In my official position +as president of the Edison Electric Light Company +I became the target, along with Mr. Edison, for +censure from the stockholders and others on account +of this delay, and I well remember how deep the feeling +was. In view of the facts that a final injunction +on the lamp patent was not obtained until the life +of the patent was near its end, and, next, that no +damages in money were ever paid by the guilty infringers, +it has been generally believed that Mr. Edison +sacrificed the interest of his stockholders selfishly +when he delayed the prosecution of patent suits and +gave all his time and energies to manufacturing. +This belief was the stronger because the manufacturing +enterprises belonged personally to Mr. Edison +and not to his company. But the facts render it +easy to dispel this false belief. The Edison inventions +were not only a lamp; they comprised also an entire +system of central stations. Such a thing was new to +the world, and the apparatus, as well as the manufacture +thereof, was equally new. Boilers, engines, +dynamos, motors, distribution mains, meters, house- +wiring, safety-devices, lamps, and lamp-fixtures--all +were vital parts of the whole system. Most of them +were utterly novel and unknown to the arts, and all +of them required quick, and, I may say, revolutionary +thought and invention. The firm of Babcock & Wilcox +gave aid on the boilers, Armington & Sims undertook +the engines, but everything else was abnormal. +No factories in the land would take up the manufacture. +I remember, for instance, our interviews +with Messrs. Mitchell, Vance & Co., the leading +manufacturers of house gas-lighting fixtures, such as +brackets and chandeliers. They had no faith in electric +lighting, and rejected all our overtures to induce +them to take up the new business of making electric- +light fixtures. As regards other parts of the Edison +system, notably the Edison dynamo, no such machines +had ever existed; there was no factory in the +world equipped to make them, and, most discouraging +of all, the very scientific principles of their +construction were still vague and experimental. + +"What was to be done? Mr. Edison has never +been greater than when he met and solved this crisis. +`If there are no factories,' he said, `to make my +inventions, I will build the factories myself. Since +capital is timid, I will raise and supply it. The issue +is factories or death.' Mr. Edison invited the co- +operation of his leading stockholders. They lacked +confidence or did not care to increase their +investments. He was forced to go on alone. The chain +of Edison shops was then created. By far the most +perplexing of these new manufacturing problems was +the lamp. Not only was it a new industry, one without +shadow of prototype, but the mechanical devices +for making the lamps, and to some extent the very +machines to make those devices, were to be invented. +All of this was done by the courage, capital, and +invincible energy and genius of the great inventor. +But Mr. Edison could not create these great and +diverse industries and at the same time give requisite +attention to litigation. He could not start and develop +the new and hard business of electric lighting +and yet spare one hour to pursue infringers. One +thing or the other must wait. All agreed that it must +be the litigation. And right there a lasting blow was +given to the prestige of the Edison patents. The delay +was translated as meaning lack of confidence; +and the alert infringer grew strong in courage and +capital. Moreover, and what was the heaviest blow +of all, he had time, thus unmolested, to get a good +start. + +"In looking back on those days and scrutinizing +them through the years, I am impressed by the greatness, +the solitary greatness I may say, of Mr. Edison. +We all felt then that we were of importance, and that +our contribution of effort and zeal were vital. I can +see now, however, that the best of us was nothing but +the fly on the wheel. Suppose anything had happened +to Edison? All would have been chaos and ruin.. +To him, therefore, be the glory, if not the profit." + +The foregoing remarks of Major Eaton show authoritatively +how the much-discussed delay in litigating +the Edison patents was so greatly misunderstood at +the time, and also how imperatively necessary it was +for Edison and his associates to devote their entire +time and energies to the commercial development of +the art. As the lighting business increased, however, +and a great number of additional men were +initiated into its mysteries, Edison and his experts +were able to spare some time to legal matters, and +an era of active patent litigation against infringers +was opened about the year 1885 by the Edison company, +and thereafter continued for many years. + +While the history of this vast array of legal proceedings +possesses a fascinating interest for those involved, +as well as for professional men, legal and scientific, +it could not be expected that it would excite any +such feeling on the part of a casual reader. Hence, +it is not proposed to encumber this narrative with +any detailed record of the numerous suits that were +brought and conducted through their complicated +ramifications by eminent counsel. Suffice it to say +that within about sixteen years after the commencement +of active patent litigation, there had been spent +by the owners of the Edison lighting patents upward +of two million dollars in prosecuting more than two +hundred lawsuits brought against persons who were +infringing many of the patents of Edison on the +incandescent electric lamp and component parts of his +system. Over fifty separate patents were involved +in these suits, including the basic one on the lamp +(ordinarily called the "Filament" patent), other detail +lamp patents, as well as those on sockets, switches, +dynamos, motors, and distributing systems. + +The principal, or "test," suit on the "Filament" +patent was that brought against "The United States +Electric Lighting Company," which became a cause +celebre in the annals of American jurisprudence. +Edison's claims were strenuously and stubbornly contested +throughout a series of intense legal conflicts +that raged in the courts for a great many years. Both +sides of the controversy were represented by legal +talent of the highest order, under whose examination +and cross-examination volumes of testimony were +taken, until the printed record (including exhibits) +amounted to more than six thousand pages. Scientific +and technical literature and records in all parts of +the civilized world were subjected to the most minute +scrutiny of opposing experts in the endeavor to prove +Edison to be merely an adapter of methods and devices +already projected or suggested by others. The +world was ransacked for anything that might be +claimed as an anticipation of what he had done. +Every conceivable phase of ingenuity that could be +devised by technical experts was exercised in the +attempt to show that Edison had accomplished nothing +new. Everything that legal acumen could suggest-- +every subtle technicality of the law--all the +complicated variations of phraseology that the novel +nomenclature of a young art would allow--all were +pressed into service and availed of by the contestors +of the Edison invention in their desperate effort to +defeat his claims. It was all in vain, however, for +the decision of the court was in favor of Edison, and +his lamp patent was sustained not only by the +tribunal of the first resort, but also by the Appellate +Court some time afterward. + +The first trial was had before Judge Wallace in the +United States Circuit Court for the Southern District +of New York, and the appeal was heard by Judges +Lacombe and Shipman, of the United States Circuit +Court of Appeals. Before both tribunals the cause +had been fully represented by counsel chosen from +among the most eminent representatives of the bar +at that time, those representing the Edison interests +being the late Clarence A. Seward and Grosvenor P. +Lowrey, together with Sherburne Blake Eaton, +Albert H. Walker, and Richard N. Dyer. The presentation +of the case to the courts had in both instances +been marked by masterly and able arguments, elucidated +by experiments and demonstrations to educate +the judges on technical points. Some appreciation +of the magnitude of this case may be gained from the +fact that the argument on its first trial employed a +great many days, and the minutes covered hundreds +of pages of closely typewritten matter, while the +argument on appeal required eight days, and was set +forth in eight hundred and fifty pages of typewriting. +Eliminating all purely forensic eloquence and exparte +statements, the addresses of counsel in this celebrated +suit are worthy of deep study by an earnest +student, for, taken together, they comprise the most +concise, authentic, and complete history of the prior +state of the art and the development of the incandescent +lamp that had been made up to that time.[22] + + +[22] The argument on appeal was conducted with the dignity and +decorum that characterize such a proceeding in that court. +There is usually little that savors of humor in the ordinary conduct +of a case of this kind, but in the present instance a pertinent +story was related by Mr. Lowrey, and it is now reproduced. In +the course of his address to the court, Mr. Lowrey said: + + +"I have to mention the name of one expert whose testimony +will, I believe, be found as accurate, as sincere, as straightforward +as if it were the preaching of the gospel. I do it with great pleasure, +and I ask you to read the testimony of Charles L. Clarke +along with that of Thomas A. Edison. He had rather a hard row +to hoe. He is a young gentleman; he is a very well-instructed +man in his profession; he is not what I have called in the argument +below an expert in the art of testifying, like some of the +others, he has not yet become expert; what he may descend to +later cannot be known; he entered upon his first experience, I +think, with my brother Duncan, who is no trifler when he comes +to deal with these questions, and for several months Mr. Clarke +was pursued up and down, over a range of suggestions of what he +would have thought if he had thought something else had been +said at some time when something else was not said." + +Mr. Duncan--"I got three pages a day out of him, too." + +Mr. Lowrey--"Well, it was a good result. It always recalled +to me what I venture now, since my friend breaks in upon me in +this rude manner, to tell the court as well illustrative of what +happened there. It is the story of the pickerel and the roach. +My friend, Professor Von Reisenberg, of the University of Ghent, +pursued a series of investigations into the capacity of various +animals to receive ideas. Among the rest he put a pickerel into +a tank containing water, and separated across its middle by a +transparent glass plate, and on the other side he put a red roach. +Now your Honors both know how a pickerel loves a red roach, +and I have no doubt you will remember that he is a fish of a very +low forehead and an unlimited appetite. When this pickerel saw +the red roach through the glass, he made one of those awful dashes +which is usually the ruin of whatever stands in its-way; but he +didn't reach the red roach. He received an impression, doubtless. +It was not sufficient, however, to discourage him, and he +immediately tried again, and he continued to try for three- +quarters of an hour. At the end of three-quarters of an hour he +seemed a little shaken and discouraged, and stopped, and the +red roach was taken out for that day and the pickerel left. On +the succeeding day the red roach was restored, and the pickerel +had forgotten the impressions of the first day, and he repeated +this again. At the end of the second day the roach was taken +out. This was continued, not through so long a period as the +effort to take my friend Clarke and devour him, but for a period +of about three weeks. At the end of the three weeks, the time +during which the pickerel persisted each day had been shortened +and shortened, until it was at last discovered that he didn't try +at all. The plate glass was then removed, and the pickerel and +the red roach sailed around together in perfect peace ever afterward. +The pickerel doubtless attributed to the roach all this +shaking, the rebuff which he had received. And that is about +the condition in which my brother Duncan and my friend Clarke +were at the end of this examination." + +Mr. Duncan--"I notice on the redirect that Mr. Clarke changed +his color." + +Mr. Lowrey--"Well, perhaps he was a different kind of a +roach then; but you didn't succeed in taking him. + +"I beg your Honors to read the testimony of Mr. Clarke in the +light of the anecdote of the pickerel and the roach." + + + +Owing to long-protracted delays incident to the +taking of testimony and preparation for trial, the +argument before the United States Circuit Court of +Appeals was not had until the late spring of 1892, +and its decision in favor of the Edison Lamp patent +was filed on October 4, 1892, MORE THAN TWELVE YEARS +AFTER THE ISSUANCE OF THE PATENT ITSELF. + +As the term of the patent had been limited under +the law, because certain foreign patents had been +issued to Edison before that in this country, there +was now but a short time left for enjoyment of +the exclusive rights contemplated by the statute and +granted to Edison and his assigns by the terms of +the patent itself. A vigorous and aggressive legal +campaign was therefore inaugurated by the Edison +Electric Light Company against the numerous infringing +companies and individuals that had sprung +up while the main suit was pending. Old suits were +revived and new ones instituted. Injunctions were +obtained against many old offenders, and it seemed +as though the Edison interests were about to come +into their own for the brief unexpired term of the +fundamental patent, when a new bombshell was +dropped into the Edison camp in the shape of an +alleged anticipation of the invention forty years +previously by one Henry Goebel. Thus, in 1893, +the litigation was reopened, and a protracted series +of stubbornly contested conflicts was fought in the +courts. + +Goebel's claims were not unknown to the Edison +Company, for as far back as 1882 they had been +officially brought to its notice coupled with an offer +of sale for a few thousand dollars. A very brief +examination into their merits, however, sufficed to +demonstrate most emphatically that Goebel had never +made a practical incandescent lamp, nor had he ever +contributed a single idea or device bearing, remotely +or directly, on the development of the art. Edison +and his company, therefore, rejected the offer unconditionally +and declined to enter into any arrangements +whatever with Goebel. During the prosecution +of the suits in 1893 it transpired that the Goebel +claims had also been investigated by the counsel of +the defendant company in the principal litigation already +related, but although every conceivable defence +and anticipation had been dragged into the case +during the many years of its progress, the alleged +Goebel anticipation was not even touched upon therein. +From this fact it is quite apparent that they placed +no credence on its bona fides. + +But desperate cases call for desperate remedies. +Some of the infringing lamp-manufacturing concerns, +which during the long litigation had grown strong +and lusty, and thus far had not been enjoined by the +court, now saw injunctions staring them in the face, +and in desperation set up the Goebel so-called +anticipation as a defence in the suits brought against +them. + +This German watchmaker, Goebel, located in the +East Side of New York City, had undoubtedly been +interested, in a desultory kind of way, in simple +physical phenomena, and a few trifling experiments +made by him some forty or forty-five years previously +were magnified and distorted into brilliant and all- +comprehensive discoveries and inventions. Avalanches +of affidavits of himself, "his sisters and his +cousins and his aunts," practically all persons in +ordinary walks of life, and of old friends, contributed +a host of recollections that seemed little short of +miraculous in their detailed accounts of events of a +scientific nature that were said to have occurred so +many years before. According to affidavits of Goebel +himself and some of his family, nothing that would +anticipate Edison's claim had been omitted from his +work, for he (Goebel) claimed to have employed the +all-glass globe, into which were sealed platinum wires +carrying a tenuous carbon filament, from which the +occluded gases had been liberated during the process +of high exhaustion. He had even determined upon +bamboo as the best material for filaments. On the +face of it he was seemingly gifted with more than +human prescience, for in at least one of his exhibit +lamps, said to have been made twenty years previously, +he claimed to have employed processes which Edison +and his associates had only developed by several +years of experience in making thousands of lamps! + +The Goebel story was told by the affidavits in an +ingenuous manner, with a wealth of simple homely +detail that carried on its face an appearance of truth +calculated to deceive the elect, had not the elect been +somewhat prepared by their investigation made some +eleven years before. + +The story was met by the Edison interests with +counter-affidavits, showing its utter improbabilities +and absurdities from the standpoint of men of science +and others versed in the history and practice of the +art; also affidavits of other acquaintances and neighbors +of Goebel flatly denying the exhibitions he +claimed to have made. The issue thus being joined, +the legal battle raged over different sections of the +country. A number of contumeliously defiant infringers +in various cities based fond hopes of immunity +upon the success of this Goebel evidence, but +were defeated. The attitude of the courts is well +represented in the opinion of Judge Colt, rendered in +a motion for injunction against the Beacon Vacuum +Pump and Electrical Company. The defence alleged +the Goebel anticipation, in support of which it offered +in evidence four lamps, Nos. 1, 2, and 3 purporting +to have been made before 1854, and No. 4 before +1872. After a very full review of the facts in the +case, and a fair consideration of the defendants' +affidavits, Judge Colt in his opinion goes on to say: + + +"It is extremely improbable that Henry Goebel constructed +a practical incandescent lamp in 1854. This is +manifest from the history of the art for the past fifty +years, the electrical laws which since that time have been +discovered as applicable to the incandescent lamp, the +imperfect means which then existed for obtaining a +vacuum, the high degree of skill necessary in the construction +of all its parts, and the crude instruments with +which Goebel worked. + +"Whether Goebel made the fiddle-bow lamps, 1, 2, +and 3, is not necessary to determine. The weight of +evidence on this motion is in the direction that he made +these lamp or lamps similar in general appearance, though +it is manifest that few, if any, of the many witnesses who +saw the Goebel lamp could form an accurate judgment of +the size of the filament or burner. But assuming they +were made, they do not anticipate the invention of Edison. +At most they were experimental toys used to advertise +his telescope, or to flash a light upon his clock, +or to attract customers to his shop. They were crudely +constructed, and their life was brief. They could not +be used for domestic purposes. They were in no proper +sense the practical commercial lamp of Edison. The +literature of the art is full of better lamps, all of which +are held not to anticipate the Edison patent. + +"As for Lamp No. 4, I cannot but view it with +suspicion. It presents a new appearance. The reason +given for not introducing it before the hearing is +unsatisfactory. This lamp, to my mind, envelops with a cloud +of distrust the whole Goebel story. It is simply +impossible under the circumstances to believe that a lamp +so constructed could have been made by Goebel before +1872. Nothing in the evidence warrants such a sup- +position, and other things show it to be untrue. This +lamp has a carbon filament, platinum leading-in wires, a +good vacuum, and is well sealed and highly finished. It +is said that this lamp shows no traces of mercury in the +bulb because the mercury was distilled, but Goebel says +nothing about distilled mercury in his first affidavit, and +twice he speaks of the particles of mercury clinging to +the inside of the chamber, and for that reason he +constructed a Geissler pump after he moved to 468 Grand +Street, which was in 1877. Again, if this lamp has been +in his possession since before 1872, as he and his son swear, +why was it not shown to Mr. Crosby, of the American +Company, when he visited his shop in 1881 and was +much interested in his lamps? Why was it not shown +to Mr. Curtis, the leading counsel for the defendants in +the New York cases, when he was asked to produce a +lamp and promised to do so? Why did not his son take +this lamp to Mr. Bull's office in 1892, when he took the +old fiddle-bow lamps, 1, 2, and 3? Why did not his son +take this lamp to Mr. Eaton's office in 1882, when he tried +to negotiate the sale of his father's inventions to the +Edison Company? A lamp so constructed and made before +1872 was worth a large sum of money to those interested +in defeating the Edison patent like the American +Company, and Goebel was not a rich man. Both he and +one of his sons were employed in 1881 by the American +Company. Why did he not show this lamp to McMahon +when he called in the interest of the American Company +and talked over the electrical matters? When Mr. +Dreyer tried to organize a company in 1882, and procured +an option from him of all his inventions relating +to electric lighting for which $925 was paid, and when +an old lamp of this kind was of vital consequence and +would have insured a fortune, why was it not +forthcoming? Mr. Dreyer asked Goebel to produce an old +lamp, and was especially anxious to find one pending +his negotiations with the Edison Company for the sale +of Goebel's inventions. Why did he not produce this +lamp in his interviews with Bohm, of the American Company, +or Moses, of the Edison Company, when it was for +his interest to do so? The value of such an anticipation +of the Edison lamp was made known to him. He was +desirous of realizing upon his inventions. He was proud +of his incandescent lamps, and was pleased to talk about +them with anybody who would listen. Is it conceivable +under all these circumstances, that he should have had +this all-important lamp in his possession from 1872 to +1893, and yet no one have heard of it or seen it except +his son? It cannot be said that ignorance of the English +language offers an excuse. He knew English very well +although Bohm and Dreyer conversed with him in German. +His children spoke English. Neither his ignorance +nor his simplicity prevented him from taking out +three patents: the first in 1865 for a sewing-machine +hemmer, and the last in 1882 for an improvement in +incandescent lamps. If he made Lamp No. 4 previous to +1872, why was it not also patented? + +"There are other circumstances which throw doubt +on this alleged Goebel anticipation. The suit against the +United States Electric Lighting Company was brought +in the Southern District of New York in 1885. Large +interests were at stake, and the main defence to the +Edison patent was based on prior inventions. This +Goebel claim was then investigated by the leading counsel +for the defence, Mr. Curtis. It was further inquired into +in 1892, in the case against the Sawyer-Man Company. +It was brought to the attention and considered by the +Edison Company in 1882. It was at that time known to +the American Company, who hoped by this means to +defeat the monopoly under the Edison patent. Dreyer +tried to organize a company for its purchase. Young +Goebel tried to sell it. It must have been known to +hundreds of people. And now when the Edison Company +after years of litigation, leaving but a short time for the +patent to run, have obtained a final adjudication establishing +its validity, this claim is again resurrected to defeat +the operation of the judgment so obtained. A court +in equity should not look with favor on such a defence. +Upon the evidence here presented, I agree with the first +impression of Mr. Curtis and with the opinion of Mr. +Dickerson that whatever Goebel did must be considered +as an abandoned experiment. + +"It has often been laid down that a meritorious invention +is not to be defeated by something which rests +in speculation or experiment, or which is rudimentary or +incomplete. + +"The law requires not conjecture, but certainty. It +is easy after an important invention has gone into public +use for persons to come forward with claims that they +invented the same thing years before, and to endeavor +to establish this by the recollection of witnesses as to +events long past. Such evidence is to be received with +great caution, and the presumption of novelty arising +from the grant of the patent is not to be overcome except +upon clear and convincing proof. + +"When the defendant company entered upon the +manufacture of incandescent lamps in May, 1891, it well +knew the consequences which must follow a favorable +decision for the Edison Company in the New York case." + + +The injunction was granted. + +Other courts took practically the same view of the +Goebel story as was taken by Judge Colt, and the +injunctions asked in behalf of the Edison interests +were granted on all applications except one in St. +Louis, Missouri, in proceedings instituted against a +strong local concern of that city. + +Thus, at the eleventh hour in the life of this important +patent, after a long period of costly litigation, +Edison and his associates were compelled to assume +the defensive against a claimant whose utterly baseless +pretensions had already been thoroughly investigated +and rejected years before by every interested +party, and ultimately, on examination by the +courts, pronounced legally untenable, if not indeed +actually fraudulent. Irritating as it was to be forced +into the position of combating a proposition so well +known to be preposterous and insincere, there was +nothing else to do but to fight this fabrication with +all the strenuous and deadly earnestness that would +have been brought to bear on a really meritorious +defence. Not only did this Goebel episode divert +for a long time the energies of the Edison interests +from activities in other directions, but the cost of +overcoming the extravagantly absurd claims ran up +into hundreds of thousands of dollars. + +Another quotation from Major Eaton is of interest +in this connection: + +"Now a word about the Goebel case. I took personal +charge of running down this man and his pretensions +in the section of the city where he lived and +among his old neighbors. They were a typical East +Side lot--ignorant, generally stupid, incapable of +long memory, but ready to oblige a neighbor and to +turn an easy dollar by putting a cross-mark at the +bottom of a forthcoming friendly affidavit. I can +say in all truth and justice that their testimony +was utterly false, and that the lawyers who took it +must have known it. + +"The Goebel case emphasizes two defects in the +court procedure in patent cases. One is that they +may be spun out almost interminably, even, possibly, +to the end of the life of the patent; the other is that +the judge who decides the case does not see the witnesses. +That adverse decision at St. Louis would +never have been made if the court could have seen +the men who swore for Goebel. When I met Mr. F. +P. Fish on his return from St. Louis, after he had +argued the Edison side, he felt keenly that disadvantage, +to say nothing of the hopeless difficulty of educating +the court." + +In the earliest days of the art, when it was apparent +that incandescent lighting had come to stay, the +Edison Company was a shining mark at which the +shafts of the dishonest were aimed. Many there were +who stood ready to furnish affidavits that they or +some one else whom they controlled had really invented +the lamp, but would obligingly withdraw and +leave Edison in possession of the field on payment of +money. Investigation of these cases, however, revealed +invariably the purely fraudulent nature of all +such offers, which were uniformly declined. + +As the incandescent light began to advance rapidly +in public favor, the immense proportions of the future +market became sufficiently obvious to tempt +unauthorized persons to enter the field and become +manufacturers. When the lamp became a thoroughly +established article it was not a difficult matter to +copy it, especially when there were employees to be +hired away at increased pay, and their knowledge +utilized by the more unscrupulous of these new +competitors. This is not conjecture but known to be a +fact, and the practice continued many years, during +which new lamp companies sprang up on every side. +Hence, it is not surprising that, on the whole, the +Edison lamp litigation was not less remarkable for +quantity than quality. Between eighty and ninety +separate suits upon Edison's fundamental lamp and +detail patents were brought in the courts of the +United States and prosecuted to completion. + +In passing it may be mentioned that in England +France, and Germany also the Edison fundamental +lamp patent was stubbornly fought in the judicial +arena, and his claim to be the first inventor of +practical incandescent lighting was uniformly sustained +in all those countries. + +Infringement was not, however, confined to the +lamp alone, but, in America, extended all along the +line of Edison's patents relating to the production +and distribution of electric light, including those on +dynamos, motors, distributing systems, sockets, +switches, and other details which he had from time +to time invented. Consequently, in order to protect +its interests at all points, the Edison Company had +found it necessary to pursue a vigorous policy of +instituting legal proceedings against the infringers of +these various patents, and, in addition to the large +number of suits on the lamp alone, not less than one +hundred and twenty-five other separate actions, +involving some fifty or more of Edison's principal +electric-lighting patents, were brought against concerns +which were wrongfully appropriating his ideas +and actively competing with his companies in the +market. + +The ramifications of this litigation became so +extensive and complex as to render it necessary to +institute a special bureau, or department, through +which the immense detail could be systematically +sifted, analyzed, and arranged in collaboration with +the numerous experts and counsel responsible for the +conduct of the various cases. This department was +organized in 1889 by Major Eaton, who was at this +time and for some years afterward its general counsel. + +In the selection of the head of this department a +man of methodical and analytical habit of mind was +necessary, capable of clear reasoning, and at the same +time one who had gained a thoroughly practical +experience in electric light and power fields, and the +choice fell upon Mr. W. J. Jenks, the manager of the +Edison central station at Brockton, Massachusetts. +He had resigned that position in 1885, and had spent +the intervening period in exploiting the Edison +municipal system of lighting, as well as taking an +active part in various other branches of the Edison +enterprises. + +Thus, throughout the life of Edison's patents on +electric light, power, and distribution, the interminable +legal strife has continued from day to day, from +year to year. Other inventors, some of them great +and notable, have been coming into the field since +the foundation of the art, patents have multiplied +exceedingly, improvement has succeeded improvement, +great companies have grown greater, new concerns +have come into existence, coalitions and mergers +have taken place, all tending to produce changes in +methods, but not much in diminution of patent +litigation. While Edison has not for a long time +past interested himself particularly in electric light +and power inventions, the bureau which was initiated +under the old regime in 1889 still continues, enlarged +in scope, directed by its original chief, but now conducted +under the auspices of several allied companies +whose great volumes of combined patents (including +those of Edison) cover a very wide range of the +electrical field. + +As the general conception and theory of a lawsuit +is the recovery of some material benefit, the lay mind +is apt to conceive of great sums of money being +awarded to a complainant by way of damages upon +a favorable decision in an important patent case. It +might, therefore, be natural to ask how far Edison +or his companies have benefited pecuniarily by reason +of the many belated victories they have scored +in the courts. To this question a strict regard for +truth compels the answer that they have not been +benefited at all, not to the extent of a single dollar, +so far as cash damages are concerned. + +It is not to be denied, however, that substantial +advantages have accrued to them more or less directly +through the numerous favorable decisions obtained +by them as a result of the enormous amount +of litigation, in the prosecution of which so great a +sum of money has been spent and so concentrated an +amount of effort and time lavished. Indeed, it would +be strange and unaccountable were the results otherwise. +While the benefits derived were not directly +pecuniary in their nature, they were such as tended +to strengthen commercially the position of the rightful +owners of the patents. Many irresponsible and +purely piratical concerns were closed altogether; +others were compelled to take out royalty licenses; +consolidations of large interests were brought about; +the public was gradually educated to a more correct +view of the true merits of conflicting claims, and, +generally speaking, the business has been greatly +unified and brought within well-defined and controllable +lines. + +Not only in relation to his electric light and power +inventions has the progress of Edison and his associates +been attended by legal controversy all through +the years of their exploitation, but also in respect to +other inventions, notably those relating to the phonograph +and to motion pictures. + +The increasing endeavors of infringers to divert into +their own pockets some of the proceeds arising from +the marketing of the devices covered by Edison's inventions +on these latter lines, necessitated the institution +by him, some years ago, of a legal department which, +as in the case of the light inventions, was designed to +consolidate all law and expert work and place it under +the management of a general counsel. The department +is of considerable extent, including a number of +resident and other associate counsel, and a general +office staff, all of whom are constantly engaged from +day to day in patent litigation and other legal work +necessary to protect the Edison interests. Through +their labors the old story is reiterated in the contesting +of approximate but conflicting claims, the never- +ending effort to suppress infringement, and the +destruction as far as possible of the commercial pirates +who set sail upon the seas of all successful enterprises. +The details, circumstances, and technical +questions are, of course, different from those relating +to other classes of inventions, and although there has +been no cause celebre concerning the phonograph and +motion-picture patents, the contention is as sharp and +strenuous as it was in the cases relating to electric +lighting and heavy current technics. + +Mr. Edison's storage battery and the poured cement +house have not yet reached the stage of great commercial +enterprises, and therefore have not yet risen +to the dignity of patent litigation. If, however, the +experience of past years is any criterion, there will +probably come a time in the future when, despite +present widely expressed incredulity and contemptuous +sniffs of unbelief in the practicability of his ideas +in these directions, ultimate success will give rise to +a series of hotly contested legal conflicts such as have +signalized the practical outcome of his past efforts +in other lines. + +When it is considered what Edison has done, what +the sum and substance of his contributions to human +comfort and happiness have been, the results, as +measured by legal success, have been pitiable. With +the exception of the favorable decision on the incandescent +lamp filament patent, coming so late, however, +that but little practical good was accomplished, +the reader may search the law-books in vain for a +single decision squarely and fairly sustaining a single +patent of first order. There never was a monopoly in +incandescent electric lighting, and even from the +earliest days competitors and infringers were in the +field reaping the benefits, and though defeated in the +end, paying not a cent of tribute. The market was +practically as free and open as if no patent existed. +There never was a monopoly in the phonograph; +practically all of the vital inventions were deliberately +appropriated by others, and the inventor was +laughed at for his pains. Even so beautiful a process +as that for the duplication of phonograph records was +solemnly held by a Federal judge as lacking invention +--as being obvious to any one. The mere fact +that Edison spent years of his life in developing that +process counted for nothing. + +The invention of the three-wire system, which, when +it was first announced as saving over 60 per cent. of +copper in the circuits, was regarded as an utter +impossibility--this patent was likewise held by a Federal +judge to be lacking in invention. In the motion- +picture art, infringements began with its very +birth, and before the inevitable litigation could be +terminated no less than ten competitors were in the +field, with whom compromises had to be made. + +In a foreign country, Edison would have undoubtedly +received signal honors; in his own country he +has won the respect and admiration of millions; but +in his chosen field as an inventor and as a patentee +his reward has been empty. The courts abroad have +considered his patents in a liberal spirit and given him +his due; the decisions in this country have fallen wide +of the mark. We make no criticism of our Federal +judges; as a body they are fair, able, and hard- +working; but they operate under a system of procedure +that stifles absolutely the development of inventive +genius. + +Until that system is changed and an opportunity +offered for a final, swift, and economical adjudication +of patent rights, American inventors may well hesitate +before openly disclosing their inventions to the +public, and may seriously consider the advisability +of retaining them as "trade secrets." + + + +CHAPTER XXIX + +THE SOCIAL SIDE OF EDISON + +THE title of this chapter might imply that there +is an unsocial side to Edison. In a sense this is +true, for no one is more impatient or intolerant of +interruption when deeply engaged in some line of +experiment. Then the caller, no matter how important +or what his mission, is likely to realize his utter +insignificance and be sent away without accomplishing +his object. But, generally speaking, Edison is easy +tolerance itself, with a peculiar weakness toward those +who have the least right to make any demands on his +time. Man is a social animal, and that describes +Edison; but it does not describe accurately the inventor +asking to be let alone. + +Edison never sought Society; but "Society" has +never ceased to seek him, and to-day, as ever, the pressure +upon him to give up his work and receive honors, +meet distinguished people, or attend public functions, +is intense. Only two or three years ago, a flattering +invitation came from one of the great English universities +to receive a degree, but at that moment he was +deep in experiments on his new storage battery, and +nothing could budge him. He would not drop the +work, and while highly appreciative of the proposed +honor, let it go by rather than quit for a week or two +the stern drudgery of probing for the fact and the +truth. Whether one approves or not, it is at least +admirable stoicism, of which the world has too little. +A similar instance is that of a visit paid to the laboratory +by some one bringing a gold medal from a foreign +society. It was a very hot day in summer, the visitor +was in full social regalia of silk hat and frock-coat, and +insisted that he could deliver the medal only into +Edison's hands. At that moment Edison, stripped +pretty nearly down to the buff, was at the very crisis +of an important experiment, and refused absolutely +to be interrupted. He had neither sought nor +expected the medal; and if the delegate didn't care to +leave it he could take it away. At last Edison was +overpersuaded, and, all dirty and perspiring as he was, +received the medal rather than cause the visitor to +come again. On one occasion, receiving a medal in +New York, Edison forgot it on the ferry-boat and left +it behind him. A few years ago, when Edison had +received the Albert medal of the Royal Society of +Arts, one of the present authors called at the laboratory +to see it. Nobody knew where it was; hours +passed before it could be found; and when at last the +accompanying letter was produced, it had an office +date stamp right over the signature of the royal president. +A visitor to the laboratory with one of these +medallic awards asked Edison if he had any others. +"Oh yes," he said, "I have a couple of quarts more +up at the house!" All this sounds like lack of +appreciation, but it is anything else than that. While in +Paris, in 1889, he wore the decoration of the Legion of +Honor whenever occasion required, but at all other +times turned the badge under his lapel "because he +hated to have fellow-Americans think he was showing +off." And any one who knows Edison will bear testimony +to his utter absence of ostentation. It may be +added that, in addition to the two quarts of medals +up at the house, there will be found at Glenmont +many other signal tokens of esteem and good-will--a +beautiful cigar-case from the late Tsar of Russia, +bronzes from the Government of Japan, steel trophies +from Krupp, and a host of other mementos, to one of +which he thus refers: "When the experiments with +the light were going on at Menlo Park, Sarah +Bernhardt came to America. One evening, Robert L. +Cutting, of New York, brought her out to see the light. +She was a terrific `rubberneck.' She jumped all over +the machinery, and I had one man especially to guard +her dress. She wanted to know everything. She +would speak in French, and Cutting would translate +into English. She stayed there about an hour and a +half. Bernhardt gave me two pictures, painted by +herself, which she sent me from Paris." + +Reference has already been made to the callers upon +Edison; and to give simply the names of persons of +distinction would fill many pages of this record. Some +were mere consumers of time; others were gladly +welcomed, like Lord Kelvin, the greatest physicist of +the last century, with whom Edison was always in +friendly communication. "The first time I saw Lord +Kelvin, he came to my laboratory at Menlo Park in +1876." (He reported most favorably on Edison's +automatic telegraph system at the Philadelphia +Exposition of 1876.) "I was then experimenting with +sending eight messages simultaneously over a wire by +means of synchronizing tuning-forks. I would take a +wire with similar apparatus at both ends, and would +throw it over on one set of instruments, take it away, +and get it back so quickly that you would not miss it, +thereby taking advantage of the rapidity of electricity +to perform operations. On my local wire I got it to +work very nicely. When Sir William Thomson (Kelvin) +came in the room, he was introduced to me, and +had a number of friends with him. He said: `What +have you here?' I told him briefly what it was. He +then turned around, and to my great surprise explained +the whole thing to his friends. Quite a different +exhibition was given two weeks later by another +well-known Englishman, also an electrician, who came +in with his friends, and I was trying for two hours to +explain it to him and failed." + +After the introduction of the electric light, Edison +was more than ever in demand socially, but he shunned +functions like the plague, not only because of the +serious interference with work, but because of his deafness. +Some dinners he had to attend, but a man who +ate little and heard less could derive practically no +pleasure from them. "George Washington Childs was +very anxious I should go down to Philadelphia to dine +with him. I seldom went to dinners. He insisted I +should go--that a special car would leave New York. +It was for me to meet Mr. Joseph Chamberlain. We +had the private car of Mr. Roberts, President of the +Pennsylvania Railroad. We had one of those celebrated +dinners that only Mr. Childs could give, and +I heard speeches from Charles Francis Adams and dif- +ferent people. When I came back to the depot, Mr. +Roberts was there, and insisted on carrying my satchel +for me. I never could understand that." + +Among the more distinguished visitors of the electric- +lighting period was President Diaz, with whom +Edison became quite intimate. "President Diaz, of +Mexico, visited this country with Mrs. Diaz, a highly +educated and beautiful woman. She spoke very good +English. They both took a deep interest in all they +saw. I don't know how it ever came about, as it is +not in my line, but I seemed to be delegated to show +them around. I took them to railroad buildings, +electric-light plants, fire departments, and showed +them a great variety of things. It lasted two days." +Of another visit Edison says: "Sitting Bull and fifteen +Sioux Indians came to Washington to see the +Great Father, and then to New York, and went to the +Goerck Street works. We could make some very +good pyrotechnics there, so we determined to give the +Indians a scare. But it didn't work. We had an arc +there of a most terrifying character, but they never +moved a muscle." Another episode at Goerck Street +did not find the visitors quite so stoical. "In testing +dynamos at Goerck Street we had a long flat belt running +parallel with the floor, about four inches above +it, and travelling four thousand feet a minute. One +day one of the directors brought in three or four ladies +to the works to see the new electric-light system. One +of the ladies had a little poodle led by a string. The +belt was running so smoothly and evenly, the poodle +did not notice the difference between it and the floor, +and got into the belt before we could do anything. +The dog was whirled around forty or fifty times, and +a little flat piece of leather came out--and the ladies +fainted." + +A very interesting period, on the social side, was the +visit paid by Edison and his family to Europe in 1889, +when he had made a splendid exhibit of his inventions +and apparatus at the great Paris Centennial Exposition +of that year, to the extreme delight of the French, +who welcomed him with open arms. The political +sentiments that the Exposition celebrated were not +such as to find general sympathy in monarchical +Europe, so that the "crowned heads" were conspicuous +by their absence. It was not, of course, by +way of theatrical antithesis that Edison appeared in +Paris at such a time. But the contrast was none the +less striking and effective. It was felt that, after all, +that which the great exposition exemplified at its best +--the triumph of genius over matter, over ignorance, +over superstition--met with its due recognition when +Edison came to participate, and to felicitate a noble +nation that could show so much in the victories of +civilization and the arts, despite its long trials and +its long struggle for liberty. It is no exaggeration to +say that Edison was greeted with the enthusiastic +homage of the whole French people. They could find +no praise warm enough for the man who had "organized +the echoes" and "tamed the lightning," and +whose career was so picturesque with eventful and +romantic development. In fact, for weeks together +it seemed as though no Parisian paper was considered +complete and up to date without an article on Edison. +The exuberant wit and fancy of the feuilletonists +seized upon his various inventions evolving from +them others of the most extraordinary nature with +which to bedazzle and bewilder the reader. At the +close of the Exposition Edison was created a Commander +of the Legion of Honor. His own exhibit, +made at a personal expense of over $100,000, covered +several thousand square feet in the vast Machinery +Hall, and was centred around a huge Edison lamp +built of myriads of smaller lamps of the ordinary size. +The great attraction, however, was the display of +the perfected phonograph. Several instruments were +provided, and every day, all day long, while the Exposition +lasted, queues of eager visitors from every +quarter of the globe were waiting to hear the little +machine talk and sing and reproduce their own voices. +Never before was such a collection of the languages +of the world made. It was the first linguistic +concourse since Babel times. We must let Edison tell +the story of some of his experiences: + +"At the Universal Exposition at Paris, in 1889, I +made a personal exhibit covering about an acre. As +I had no intention of offering to sell anything I was +showing, and was pushing no companies, the whole +exhibition was made for honor, and without any hope +of profit. But the Paris newspapers came around and +wanted pay for notices of it, which we promptly refused; +whereupon there was rather a stormy time for +a while, but nothing was published about it. + +"While at the Exposition I visited the Opera-House. +The President of France lent me his private box. The +Opera-House was one of the first to be lighted by +the incandescent lamp, and the managers took great +pleasure in showing me down through the labyrinth +containing the wiring, dynamos, etc. When I came +into the box, the orchestra played the `Star-Spangled +Banner,' and all the people in the house arose; whereupon +I was very much embarrassed. After I had been +an hour at the play, the manager came around and +asked me to go underneath the stage, as they were +putting on a ballet of 300 girls, the finest ballet in +Europe. It seems there is a little hole on the stage +with a hood over it, in which the prompter sits when +opera is given. In this instance it was not occupied, +and I was given the position in the prompter's seat, +and saw the whole ballet at close range. + +"The city of Paris gave me a dinner at the new +Hotel de Ville, which was also lighted with the Edison +system. They had a very fine installation of machinery. +As I could not understand or speak a word +of French, I went to see our minister, Mr. Whitelaw +Reid, and got him to send a deputy to answer for me, +which he did, with my grateful thanks. Then the +telephone company gave me a dinner, and the engineers +of France; and I attended the dinner celebrating +the fiftieth anniversary of the discovery of photography. +Then they sent to Reid my decoration, and +they tried to put a sash on me, but I could not stand +for that. My wife had me wear the little red button, +but when I saw Americans coming I would slip it out +of my lapel, as I thought they would jolly me for wearing +it." + +Nor was this all. Edison naturally met many of +the celebrities of France: "I visited the Eiffel Tower +at the invitation of Eiffel. We went to the top, where +there was an extension and a small place in which +was Eiffel's private office. In this was a piano. +When my wife and I arrived at the top, we found that +Gounod, the composer, was there. We stayed a +couple of hours, and Gounod sang and played for us. +We spent a day at Meudon, an old palace given by the +government to Jansen, the astronomer. He occupied +three rooms, and there were 300. He had the grand +dining-room for his laboratory. He showed me a +gyroscope he had got up which made the incredible +number of 4000 revolutions in a second. A modification +of this was afterward used on the French Atlantic +lines for making an artificial horizon to take +observations for position at sea. In connection with +this a gentleman came to me a number of years afterward, +and I got out a part of some plans for him. He +wanted to make a gigantic gyroscope weighing several +tons, to be run by an electric motor and put on a sailing +ship. He wanted this gyroscope to keep a platform +perfectly horizontal, no matter how rough the sea was. +Upon this platform he was going to mount a telescope +to observe an eclipse off the Gold Coast of Africa. But +for some reason it was never completed. + +"Pasteur invited me to come down to the Institute, +and I went and had quite a chat with him. I saw +a large number of persons being inoculated, and also +the whole modus operandi, which was very interesting. +I saw one beautiful boy about ten, the son of +an English lord. His father was with him. He had +been bitten in the face, and was taking the treatment. +I said to Pasteur, `Will he live?' `No,' said he, `the +boy will be dead in six days. He was bitten too +near the top of the spinal column, and came too +late!' " + +Edison has no opinion to offer as an expert on art, +but has his own standard of taste: "Of course I +visited the Louvre and saw the Old Masters, which I +could not enjoy. And I attended the Luxembourg, +with modern masters, which I enjoyed greatly. To +my mind, the Old Masters are not art, and I suspect +that many others are of the same opinion; and that +their value is in their scarcity and in the variety of +men with lots of money." Somewhat akin to this is +a shrewd comment on one feature of the Exposition: +"I spent several days in the Exposition at Paris. I +remember going to the exhibit of the Kimberley diamond +mines, and they kindly permitted me to take +diamonds from some of the blue earth which they +were washing by machinery to exhibit the mine operations. +I found several beautiful diamonds, but they +seemed a little light weight to me when I was picking +them out. They were diamonds for exhibition purposes +--probably glass." + +This did not altogether complete the European trip +of 1889, for Edison wished to see Helmholtz. "After +leaving Paris we went to Berlin. The French papers +then came out and attacked me because I went to +Germany; and said I was now going over to the enemy. +I visited all the things of interest in Berlin; and then +on my way home I went with Helmholtz and Siemens +in a private compartment to the meeting of the German +Association of Science at Heidelberg, and spent +two days there. When I started from Berlin on the +trip, I began to tell American stories. Siemens was +very fond of these stories and would laugh immensely +at them, and could see the points and the humor, by +his imagination; but Helmholtz could not see one of +them. Siemens would quickly, in German, explain +the point, but Helmholtz could not see it, although he +understood English, which Siemens could speak. Still +the explanations were made in German. I always +wished I could have understood Siemens's explanations +of the points of those stories. At Heidelberg, my +assistant, Mr. Wangemann, an accomplished German- +American, showed the phonograph before the Association." + +Then came the trip from the Continent to England, +of which this will certainly pass as a graphic picture: +"When I crossed over to England I had heard a good +deal about the terrors of the English Channel as regards +seasickness. I had been over the ocean three +times and did not know what seasickness was, so far +as I was concerned myself. I was told that while a +man might not get seasick on the ocean, if he met a +good storm on the Channel it would do for him. +When we arrived at Calais to cross over, everybody +made for the restaurant. I did not care about eating, +and did not go to the restaurant, but my family did. +I walked out and tried to find the boat. Going along +the dock I saw two small smokestacks sticking up, +and looking down saw a little boat. `Where is the +steamer that goes across the Channel?' `This is the +boat.' There had been a storm in the North Sea that +had carried away some of the boats on the German +steamer, and it certainly looked awful tough outside. +I said to the man: `Will that boat live in that sea?' +`Oh yes,' he said, `but we've had a bad storm.' So I +made up my mind that perhaps I would get sick this +time. The managing director of the English railroad +owning this line was Forbes, who heard I was coming +over, and placed the private saloon at my disposal. +The moment my family got in the room with the +French lady's maid and the rest, they commenced to +get sick, so I felt pretty sure I was in for it. We +started out of the little inlet and got into the Channel, +and that boat went in seventeen directions simultaneously. +I waited awhile to see what was going to +occur, and then went into the smoking-compartment. +Nobody was there. By-and-by the fun began. +Sounds of all kinds and varieties were heard in every +direction. They were all sick. There must have +been 100 people aboard. I didn't see a single exception +except the waiters and myself. I asked one of +the waiters concerning the boat itself, and was taken +to see the engineer, and went down to look at the +engines, and saw the captain. But I kept mostly in +the smoking-room. I was smoking a big cigar, and +when a man looked in I would give a big puff, and +every time they saw that they would go away and +begin again. The English Channel is a holy terror, +all right, but it didn't affect me. I must be out of +balance." + +While in Paris, Edison had met Sir John Pender, +the English "cable king," and had received an invitation +from him to make a visit to his country residence: +"Sir John Pender, the master of the cable system of +the world at that time, I met in Paris. I think he +must have lived among a lot of people who were very +solemn, because I went out riding with him in the Bois +de Boulogne and started in to tell him American +stories. Although he was a Scotchman he laughed +immoderately. He had the faculty of understanding +and quickly seeing the point of the stories; and for +three days after I could not get rid of him. Finally +I made him a promise that I would go to his country +house at Foot's Cray, near London. So I went there, +and spent two or three days telling him stories. + +"While at Foot's Cray, I met some of the backers +of Ferranti, then putting up a gigantic alternating- +current dynamo near London to send ten or fifteen +thousand volts up into the main district of the city for +electric lighting. I think Pender was interested. At +any rate the people invited to dinner were very much +interested, and they questioned me as to what I +thought of the proposition. I said I hadn't any +thought about it, and could not give any opinion +until I saw it. So I was taken up to London to see +the dynamo in course of construction and the methods +employed; and they insisted I should give them some +expression of my views. While I gave them my +opinion, it was reluctantly; I did not want to do so. +I thought that commercially the thing was too ambitious, +that Ferranti's ideas were too big, just then; +that he ought to have started a little smaller until he +was sure. I understand that this installation was not +commercially successful, as there were a great many +troubles. But Ferranti had good ideas, and he was +no small man." + +Incidentally it may be noted here that during the +same year (1889) the various manufacturing Edison +lighting interests in America were brought together, +under the leadership of Mr. Henry Villard, and +consolidated in the Edison General Electric Company +with a capital of no less than $12,000,000 on an eight- +per-cent.-dividend basis. The numerous Edison central +stations all over the country represented much +more than that sum, and made a splendid outlet for +the product of the factories. A few years later came +the consolidation with the Thomson-Houston interests +in the General Electric Company, which under the +brilliant and vigorous management of President C. A. +Coffin has become one of the greatest manufacturing +institutions of the country, with an output of apparatus +reaching toward $75,000,000 annually. The net result +of both financial operations was, however, to +detach Edison from the special field of invention to +which he had given so many of his most fruitful years; +and to close very definitely that chapter of his life, +leaving him free to develop other ideas and interests +as set forth in these volumes. + +It might appear strange on the surface, but one of +the reasons that most influenced Edison to regrets in +connection with the "big trade" of 1889 was that it +separated him from his old friend and ally, Bergmann, +who, on selling out, saw a great future for himself in +Germany, went there, and realized it. Edison has +always had an amused admiration for Bergmann, and +his "social side" is often made evident by his love of +telling stories about those days of struggle. Some of +the stories were told for this volume. "Bergmann +came to work for me as a boy," says Edison. "He +started in on stock-quotation printers. As he was a +rapid workman and paid no attention to the clock, I +took a fancy to him, and gave him piece-work. He +contrived so many little tools to cheapen the work +that he made lots of money. I even helped him get +up tools until it occurred to me that this was too rapid +a process of getting rid of my money, as I hadn't the +heart to cut the price when it was originally fair. +After a year or so, Bergmann got enough money to +start a small shop in Wooster Street, New York, and +it was at this shop that the first phonographs were +made for sale. Then came the carbon telephone +transmitter, a large number of which were made by +Bergmann for the Western Union. Finally came the +electric light. A dynamo was installed in Bergmann's +shop to permit him to test the various small devices +which he was then making for the system. He rented +power from a Jew who owned the building. Power +was supplied from a fifty-horse-power engine to +other tenants on the several floors. Soon after the +introduction of the big dynamo machine, the landlord +appeared in the shop and insisted that Bergmann was +using more power than he was paying for, and said +that lately the belt on the engine was slipping and +squealing. Bergmann maintained that he must be +mistaken. The landlord kept going among his +tenants and finally discovered the dynamo. `Oh! Mr. +Bergmann, now I know where my power goes to,' +pointing to the dynamo. Bergmann gave him a +withering look of scorn, and said, `Come here and I +will show you.' Throwing off the belt and disconnecting +the wires, he spun the armature around by hand. +`There,' said Bergmann, `you see it's not here that +you must look for your loss.' This satisfied the landlord, +and he started off to his other tenants. He did +not know that that machine, when the wires were +connected, could stop his engine. + +"Soon after, the business had grown so large that +E. H. Johnson and I went in as partners, and Bergmann +rented an immense factory building at the +corner of Avenue B and East Seventeenth Street, +New York, six stories high and covering a quarter of +a block. Here were made all the small things used on +the electric-lighting system, such as sockets, chandeliers, +switches, meters, etc. In addition, stock tickers, +telephones, telephone switchboards, and typewriters +were made the Hammond typewriters were perfected +and made there. Over 1500 men were finally +employed. This shop was very successful both +scientifically and financially. Bergmann was a man of +great executive ability and carried economy of +manufacture to the limit. Among all the men I have had +associated with me, he had the commercial instinct +most highly developed." + +One need not wonder at Edison's reminiscent remark +that, "In any trade any of my `boys' made with +Bergmann he always got the best of them, no matter +what it was. One time there was to be a convention +of the managers of Edison illuminating companies at +Chicago. There were a lot of representatives from +the East, and a private car was hired. At Jersey City +a poker game was started by one of the delegates. +Bergmann was induced to enter the game. This was +played right through to Chicago without any sleep, +but the boys didn't mind that. I had gotten them +immune to it. Bergmann had won all the money, and +when the porter came in and said `Chicago,' Bergmann +jumped up and said: `What! Chicago! I thought it +was only Philadelphia!' " + +But perhaps this further story is a better indication +of developed humor and shrewdness: "A man by the +name of Epstein had been in the habit of buying brass +chips and trimmings from the lathes, and in some way +Bergmann found out that he had been cheated. This +hurt his pride, and he determined to get even. One +day Epstein appeared and said: `Good-morning, Mr. +Bergmann, have you any chips to-day?' `No,' said +Bergmann, `I have none.' `That's strange, Mr. +Bergmann; won't you look?' No, he wouldn't look; +he knew he had none. Finally Epstein was so persistent +that Bergmann called an assistant and told +him to go and see if he had any chips. He returned +and said they had the largest and finest lot they ever +had. Epstein went up to several boxes piled full of +chips, and so heavy that he could not lift even one end +of a box. `Now, Mr. Bergmann,' said Epstein, `how +much for the lot?' `Epstein,' said Bergmann, `you +have cheated me, and I will no longer sell by the lot, +but will sell only by the pound.' No amount of argument +would apparently change Bergmann's determination +to sell by the pound, but finally Epstein got up +to $250 for the lot, and Bergmann, appearing as if +disgusted, accepted and made him count out the +money. Then he said: `Well, Epstein, good-bye, +I've got to go down to Wall Street.' Epstein and his +assistant then attempted to lift the boxes to carry +them out, but couldn't; and then discovered that cal- +culations as to quantity had been thrown out because +the boxes had all been screwed down to the floor and +mostly filled with boards with a veneer of brass chips. +He made such a scene that he had to be removed by +the police. I met him several days afterward and he +said he had forgiven Mr. Bergmann, as he was such a +smart business man, and the scheme was so ingenious. + +"One day as a joke I filled three or four sheets of +foolscap paper with a jumble of figures and told +Bergmann they were calculations showing the great +loss of power from blowing the factory whistle. +Bergmann thought it real, and never after that would +he permit the whistle to blow." + +Another glimpse of the "social side" is afforded in +the following little series of pen-pictures of the same +place and time: "I had my laboratory at the top of +the Bergmann works, after moving from Menlo Park. +The building was six stories high. My father came +there when he was eighty years of age. The old man +had powerful lungs. In fact, when I was examined +by the Mutual Life Insurance Company, in 1873, my +lung expansion was taken by the doctor, and the old +gentleman was there at the time. He said to the +doctor: `I wish you would take my lung expansion, +too.' The doctor took it, and his surprise was very +great, as it was one of the largest on record. I think +it was five and one-half inches. There were only +three or four could beat it. Little Bergmann hadn't +much lung power. The old man said to him, one day: +`Let's run up-stairs.' Bergmann agreed and ran up. +When they got there Bergmann was all done up, but +my father never showed a sign of it. There was an +elevator there, and each day while it was travelling up +I held the stem of my Waterbury watch up against +the column in the elevator shaft and it finished the +winding by the time I got up the six stories." This +original method of reducing the amount of physical +labor involved in watch-winding brings to mind another +instance of shrewdness mentioned by Edison, +with regard to his newsboy days. Being asked whether +he did not get imposed upon with bad bank-bills, he +replied that he subscribed to a bank-note detector and +consulted it closely whenever a note of any size fell +into his hands. He was then less than fourteen +years old. + +The conversations with Edison that elicited these +stories brought out some details as to peril that +attends experimentation. He has confronted many a +serious physical risk, and counts himself lucky to have +come through without a scratch or scar. Four +instances of personal danger may be noted in his own +language: "When I started at Menlo, I had an electric +furnace for welding rare metals that I did not +know about very clearly. I was in the dark-room, +where I had a lot of chloride of sulphur, a very corrosive +liquid. I did not know that it would decompose +by water. I poured in a beakerful of water, and the +whole thing exploded and threw a lot of it into my +eyes. I ran to the hydrant, leaned over backward, +opened my eyes, and ran the hydrant water right +into them. But it was two weeks before I could see. + +"The next time we just saved ourselves. I was +making some stuff to squirt into filaments for the +incandescent lamp. I made about a pound of it. I +had used ammonia and bromine. I did not know it +at the time, but I had made bromide of nitrogen. I +put the large bulk of it in three filters, and after it had +been washed and all the water had come through the +filter, I opened the three filters and laid them on a hot +steam plate to dry with the stuff. While I and Mr. +Sadler, one of my assistants, were working near it, +there was a sudden flash of light, and a very smart +explosion. I said to Sadler: `What is that?' `I +don't know,' he said, and we paid no attention. In +about half a minute there was a sharp concussion, +and Sadler said: `See, it is that stuff on the steam +plate.' I grabbed the whole thing and threw it in the +sink, and poured water on it. I saved a little of it +and found it was a terrific explosive. The reason why +those little preliminary explosions took place was that +a little had spattered out on the edge of the filter paper, +and had dried first and exploded. Had the main body +exploded there would have been nothing left of the +laboratory I was working in. + +"At another time, I had a briquetting machine for +briquetting iron ore. I had a lever held down by a +powerful spring, and a rod one inch in diameter and +four feet long. While I was experimenting with it, +and standing beside it, a washer broke, and that +spring threw the rod right up to the ceiling with a +blast; and it came down again just within an inch +of my nose, and went clear through a two-inch +plank. That was `within an inch of your life,' as +they say. + +"In my experimental plant for concentrating iron +ore in the northern part of New Jersey, we had a verti- +cal drier, a column about nine feet square and eighty +feet high. At the bottom there was a space where +two men could go through a hole; and then all the rest +of the column was filled with baffle plates. One day +this drier got blocked, and the ore would not run +down. So I and the vice-president of the company, +Mr. Mallory, crowded through the manhole to see why +the ore would not come down. After we got in, the +ore did come down and there were fourteen tons of it +above us. The men outside knew we were in there, +and they had a great time digging us out and getting +air to us." + +Such incidents brought out in narration the fact +that many of the men working with him had been less +fortunate, particularly those who had experimented +with the Roentgen X-ray, whose ravages, like those of +leprosy, were responsible for the mutilation and death +of at least one expert assistant. In the early days of +work on the incandescent lamp, also, there was +considerable trouble with mercury. "I had a series of +vacuum-pumps worked by mercury and used for exhausting +experimental incandescent lamps. The main +pipe, which was full of mercury, was about seven and +one-half feet from the floor. Along the length of the +pipe were outlets to which thick rubber tubing was +connected, each tube to a pump. One day, while +experimenting with the mercury pump, my assistant, +an awkward country lad from a farm on Staten Island, +who had adenoids in his nose and breathed through +his mouth, which was always wide open, was looking +up at this pipe, at a small leak of mercury, when the +rubber tube came off and probably two pounds of +mercury went into his mouth and down his throat, +and got through his system somehow. In a short +time he became salivated, and his teeth got loose. +He went home, and shortly his mother appeared at +the laboratory with a horsewhip, which she proposed +to use on the proprietor. I was fortunately absent, +and she was mollified somehow by my other assistants. +I had given the boy considerable iodide of potassium +to prevent salivation, but it did no good in this case. + +"When the first lamp-works were started at Menlo +Park, one of my experiments seemed to show that hot +mercury gave a better vacuum in the lamp than cold +mercury. I thereupon started to heat it. Soon all +the men got salivated, and things looked serious; but +I found that in the mirror factories, where mercury +was used extensively, the French Government made +the giving of iodide of potassium compulsory to prevent +salivation. I carried out this idea, and made +every man take a dose every day, but there was great +opposition, and hot mercury was finally abandoned." + +It will have been gathered that Edison has owed his +special immunity from "occupational diseases" not +only to luck but to unusual powers of endurance, and +a strong physique, inherited, no doubt, from his father. +Mr. Mallory mentions a little fact that bears on this +exceptional quality of bodily powers. "I have often +been surprised at Edison's wonderful capacity for the +instant visual perception of differences in materials +that were invisible to others until he would patiently +point them out. This had puzzled me for years, but +one day I was unexpectedly let into part of the secret. +For some little time past Mr. Edison had noticed that +he was bothered somewhat in reading print, and I +asked him to have an oculist give him reading-glasses. +He partially promised, but never took time to attend +to it. One day he and I were in the city, and as Mrs. +Edison had spoken to me about it, and as we happened +to have an hour to spare, I persuaded him to go to +an oculist with me. Using no names, I asked the latter +to examine the gentleman's eyes. He did so very +conscientiously, and it was an interesting experience, +for he was kept busy answering Mr. Edison's numerous +questions. When the oculist finished, he turned to +me and said: "I have been many years in the business, +but have never seen an optic nerve like that of +this gentleman. An ordinary optic nerve is about +the thickness of a thread, but his is like a cord. He +must be a remarkable man in some walk of life. +Who is he?" + +It has certainly required great bodily vigor and +physical capacity to sustain such fatigue as Edison +has all his life imposed upon himself, to the extent on +one occasion of going five days without sleep. In a +conversation during 1909, he remarked, as though it +were nothing out of the way, that up to seven years +previously his average of daily working hours was +nineteen and one-half, but that since then he figured +it at eighteen. He said he stood it easily, because he +was interested in everything, and was reading and +studying all the time. For instance, he had gone to +bed the night before exactly at twelve and had arisen +at 4.30 A. M. to read some New York law reports. It +was suggested that the secret of it might be that he +did not live in the past, but was always looking for- +ward to a greater future, to which he replied: "Yes, +that's it. I don't live with the past; I am living for +to-day and to-morrow. I am interested in every +department of science, arts, and manufacture. I read +all the time on astronomy, chemistry, biology, physics, +music, metaphysics, mechanics, and other branches-- +political economy, electricity, and, in fact, all things +that are making for progress in the world. I get all +the proceedings of the scientific societies, the principal +scientific and trade journals, and read them. I also +read The Clipper, The Police Gazette, The Billboard, +The Dramatic Mirror, and a lot of similar publications, +for I like to know what is going on. In this way I +keep up to date, and live in a great moving world of +my own, and, what's more, I enjoy every minute of it." +Referring to some event of the past, he said: "Spilt +milk doesn't interest me. I have spilt lots of it, and +while I have always felt it for a few days, it is quickly +forgotten, and I turn again to the future." During +another talk on kindred affairs it was suggested to +Edison that, as he had worked so hard all his life, it +was about time for him to think somewhat of the +pleasures of travel and the social side of life. To +which he replied laughingly: "I already have a schedule +worked out. From now until I am seventy-five +years of age, I expect to keep more or less busy with +my regular work, not, however, working as many +hours or as hard as I have in the past. At seventy +five I expect to wear loud waistcoats with fancy +buttons; also gaiter tops; at eighty I expect to learn how +to play bridge whist and talk foolishly to the ladies. +At eighty-five I expect to wear a full-dress suit every +evening at dinner, and at ninety--well, I never plan +more than thirty years ahead." + +The reference to clothes is interesting, as it is one +of the few subjects in which Edison has no interest. +It rather bores him. His dress is always of the plainest; +in fact, so plain that, at the Bergmann shops in +New York, the children attending a parochial Catholic +school were wont to salute him with the finger to the +head, every time he went by. Upon inquiring, he +found that they took him for a priest, with his dark +garb, smooth-shaven face, and serious expression. +Edison says: "I get a suit that fits me; then I compel +the tailors to use that as a jig or pattern or blue-print +to make others by. For many years a suit was used +as a measurement; once or twice they took fresh +measurements, but these didn't fit and they had to +go back. I eat to keep my weight constant, hence I +need never change measurements." In regard to +this, Mr. Mallory furnishes a bit of chat as follows: +"In a lawsuit in which I was a witness, I went out to +lunch with the lawyers on both sides, and the lawyer +who had been cross-examining me stated that he had +for a client a Fifth Avenue tailor, who had told him +that he had made all of Mr. Edison's clothes for the +last twenty years, and that he had never seen him. +He said that some twenty years ago a suit was sent +to him from Orange, and measurements were made +from it, and that every suit since had been made from +these measurements. I may add, from my own personal +observation, that in Mr. Edison's clothes there is +no evidence but that every new suit that he has worn +in that time looks as if he had been specially measured +for it, which shows how very little he has changed +physically in the last twenty years." + +Edison has never had any taste for amusements, +although he will indulge in the game of "Parchesi" +and has a billiard-table in his house. The coming of +the automobile was a great boon to him, because it +gave him a form of outdoor sport in which he could +indulge in a spirit of observation, without the guilty +feeling that he was wasting valuable time. In his +automobile he has made long tours, and with his +family has particularly indulged his taste for botany. +That he has had the usual experience in running +machines will be evidenced by the following little +story from Mr. Mallory: "About three years ago I +had a motor-car of a make of which Mr. Edison had +already two cars; and when the car was received I made +inquiry as to whether any repair parts were carried +by any of the various garages in Easton, Pennsylvania, +near our cement works. I learned that this particular +car was the only one in Easton. Knowing that Mr. +Edison had had an experience lasting two or three +years with this particular make of car, I determined +to ask him for information relative to repair parts; so +the next time I was at the laboratory I told him I +was unable to get any repair parts in Easton, and that +I wished to order some of the most necessary, so that, +in case of breakdowns, I would not be compelled to +lose the use of the car for several days until the parts +came from the automobile factory. I asked his advice +as to what I should order, to which he replied: +`I don't think it will be necessary to order an extra +top.' " Since that episode, which will probably be +appreciated by most automobilists, Edison has taken +up the electric automobile, and is now using it as well +as developing it. One of the cars equipped with his +battery is the Bailey, and Mr. Bee tells the following +story in regard to it: "One day Colonel Bailey, of +Amesbury, Massachusetts, who was visiting the Automobile +Show in New York, came out to the laboratory +to see Mr. Edison, as the latter had expressed a desire +to talk with him on his next visit to the metropolis. +When he arrived at the laboratory, Mr. Edison, who +had been up all night experimenting, was asleep on the +cot in the library. As a rule we never wake Mr. Edison +from sleep, but as he wanted to see Colonel Bailey, who +had to go, I felt that an exception should be made, so +I went and tapped him on the shoulder. He awoke +at once, smiling, jumped up, was instantly himself as +usual, and advanced and greeted the visitor. His +very first question was: `Well, Colonel, how did you +come out on that experiment?'--referring to some +suggestions he had made at their last meeting a year +before. For a minute Colonel Bailey did not recall +what was referred to; but a few words from Mr. Edison +brought it back to his remembrance, and he reported +that the results had justified Mr. Edison's expectations." + +It might be expected that Edison would have extreme +and even radical ideas on the subject of education--and +he has, as well as a perfect readiness to +express them, because he considers that time is wasted +on things that are not essential: "What we need," +he has said, "are men capable of doing work. I +wouldn't give a penny for the ordinary college grad- +uate, except those from the institutes of technology. +Those coming up from the ranks are a darned sight +better than the others. They aren't filled up with +Latin, philosophy, and the rest of that ninny stuff." +A further remark of his is: "What the country needs +now is the practical skilled engineer, who is capable +of doing everything. In three or four centuries, when +the country is settled, and commercialism is diminished, +there will be time for the literary men. At +present we want engineers, industrial men, good +business-like managers, and railroad men." It is +hardly to be marvelled at that such views should +elicit warm protest, summed up in the comment: +"Mr. Edison and many like him see in reverse the +course of human progress. Invention does not +smooth the way for the practical men and make them +possible. There is always too much danger of neglecting +thoughts for things, ideas for machinery. No +theory of education that aggravates this danger is +consistent with national well-being." + +Edison is slow to discuss the great mysteries of life, +but is of reverential attitude of mind, and ever tolerant +of others' beliefs. He is not a religious man in the +sense of turning to forms and creeds, but, as might be +expected, is inclined as an inventor and creator to +argue from the basis of "design" and thence to infer +a designer. "After years of watching the processes +of nature," he says, "I can no more doubt the existence +of an Intelligence that is running things than I +do of the existence of myself. Take, for example, the +substance water that forms the crystals known as ice. +Now, there are hundreds of combinations that form +crystals, and every one of them, save ice, sinks in +water. Ice, I say, doesn't, and it is rather lucky for +us mortals, for if it had done so, we would all be +dead. Why? Simply because if ice sank to the bottoms +of rivers, lakes, and oceans as fast as it froze, +those places would be frozen up and there would be +no water left. That is only one example out of thousands +that to me prove beyond the possibility of a +doubt that some vast Intelligence is governing this +and other planets." + +A few words as to the domestic and personal side +of Edison's life, to which many incidental references +have already been made in these pages. He was +married in 1873 to Miss Mary Stillwell, who died in +1884, leaving three children--Thomas Alva, William +Leslie, and Marion Estelle. + +Mr. Edison was married again in 1886 to Miss +Mina Miller, daughter of Mr. Lewis Miller, a distinguished +pioneer inventor and manufacturer in the +field of agricultural machinery, and equally entitled +to fame as the father of the "Chautauqua idea," and +the founder with Bishop Vincent of the original Chautauqua, +which now has so many replicas all over the +country, and which started in motion one of the +great modern educational and moral forces in America. +By this marriage there are three children--Charles, +Madeline, and Theodore. + +For over a score of years, dating from his marriage +to Miss Miller, Edison's happy and perfect domestic +life has been spent at Glenmont, a beautiful property +acquired at that time in Llewellyn Park, on the higher +slopes of Orange Mountain, New Jersey, within easy +walking distance of the laboratory at the foot of the +hill in West Orange. As noted already, the latter +part of each winter is spent at Fort Myers, Florida, +where Edison has, on the banks of the Calahoutchie +River, a plantation home that is in many +ways a miniature copy of the home and laboratory +up North. Glenmont is a rather elaborate and +florid building in Queen Anne English style, of brick, +stone, and wooden beams showing on the exterior, +with an abundance of gables and balconies. It is +set in an environment of woods and sweeps of lawn, +flanked by unusually large conservatories, and +always bright in summer with glowing flower beds. It +would be difficult to imagine Edison in a stiffly formal +house, and this big, cozy, three-story, rambling mansion +has an easy freedom about it, without and within, +quite in keeping with the genius of the inventor, but +revealing at every turn traces of feminine taste and +culture. The ground floor, consisting chiefly of broad +drawing-rooms, parlors, and dining-hall, is chiefly +noteworthy for the "den," or lounging-room, at the +end of the main axis, where the family and friends +are likely to be found in the evening hours, unless +the party has withdrawn for more intimate social +intercourse to the interesting and fascinating private +library on the floor above. The lounging-room on +the ground floor is more or less of an Edison museum, +for it is littered with souvenirs from great people, and +with mementos of travel, all related to some event +or episode. A large cabinet contains awards, +decorations, and medals presented to Edison, accumulating +in the course of a long career, some of which +may be seen in the illustration opposite. Near by +may be noticed a bronze replica of the Edison gold +medal which was founded in the American Institute +of Electrical Engineers, the first award of which was +made to Elihu Thomson during the present year (1910). +There are statues of serpentine marble, gifts of the +late Tsar of Russia, whose admiration is also represented +by a gorgeous inlaid and enamelled cigar-case. + +There are typical bronze vases from the Society of +Engineers of Japan, and a striking desk-set of writing +apparatus from Krupp, all the pieces being made out +of tiny but massive guns and shells of Krupp steel. +In addition to such bric-a-brac and bibelots of all +kinds are many pictures and photographs, including +the original sketches of the reception given to Edison +in 1889 by the Paris Figaro, and a letter from Madame +Carnot, placing the Presidential opera-box at the disposal +of Mr. and Mrs. Edison. One of the most conspicuous +features of the room is a phonograph equipment +on which the latest and best productions by +the greatest singers and musicians can always be +heard, but which Edison himself is everlastingly +experimenting with, under the incurable delusion that +this domestic retreat is but an extension of his +laboratory. + +The big library--semi-boudoir--up-stairs is also +very expressive of the home life of Edison, but again +typical of his nature and disposition, for it is difficult +to overlay his many technical books and scientific +periodicals with a sufficiently thick crust of popular +magazines or current literature to prevent their +outcropping into evidence. In like manner the chat +and conversation here, however lightly it may begin, +turns invariably to large questions and deep problems, +especially in the fields of discovery and invention; +and Edison, in an easy-chair, will sit through +the long evenings till one or two in the morning, +pulling meditatively at his eyebrows, quoting something +he has just read pertinent to the discussion, +hearing and telling new stories with gusto, offering all +kinds of ingenious suggestions, and without fail +getting hold of pads and sheets of paper on which to +make illustrative sketches. He is wonderfully handy +with the pencil, and will sometimes amuse himself, +while chatting, with making all kinds of fancy bits +of penmanship, twisting his signature into circles and +squares, but always writing straight lines--so straight +they could not be ruled truer. Many a night it is a +question of getting Edison to bed, for he would much +rather probe a problem than eat or sleep; but at +whatever hour the visitor retires or gets up, he is sure +to find the master of the house on hand, serene and +reposeful, and just as brisk at dawn as when he +allowed the conversation to break up at midnight. +The ordinary routine of daily family life is of course +often interrupted by receptions and parties, visits to +the billiard-room, the entertainment of visitors, the +departure to and return from college, at vacation +periods, of the young people, and matters relating to +the many social and philanthropic causes in which +Mrs. Edison is actively interested; but, as a matter +of fact, Edison's round of toil and relaxation is singularly +uniform and free from agitation, and that is the +way he would rather have it. + +Edison at sixty-three has a fine physique, and being +free from serious ailments of any kind, should carry +on the traditions of his long-lived ancestors as to a +vigorous old age. His hair has whitened, but is still +thick and abundant, and though he uses glasses for +certain work, his gray-blue eyes are as keen and +bright and deeply lustrous as ever, with the direct, +searching look in them that they have ever worn. +He stands five feet nine and one-half inches high, +weighs one hundred and seventy-five pounds, and +has not varied as to weight in a quarter of a +century, although as a young man he was slim to +gauntness. He is very abstemious, hardly ever +touching alcohol, caring little for meat, but fond of +fruit, and never averse to a strong cup of coffee or +a good cigar. He takes extremely little exercise, +although his good color and quickness of step would +suggest to those who do not know better that he is in +the best of training, and one who lives in the open air. + +His simplicity as to clothes has already been +described. One would be startled to see him with a +bright tie, a loud checked suit, or a fancy waistcoat, +and yet there is a curious sense of fastidiousness about +the plain things he delights in. Perhaps he is not +wholly responsible personally for this state of affairs. +In conversation Edison is direct, courteous, ready to +discuss a topic with anybody worth talking to, and, +in spite of his sore deafness, an excellent listener. +No one ever goes away from Edison in doubt as to +what he thinks or means, but he is ever shy and +diffident to a degree if the talk turns on himself +rather than on his work. + +If the authors were asked, after having written the +foregoing pages, to explain here the reason for Edison's +success, based upon their observations so far made, +they would first answer that he combines with a vigorous +and normal physical structure a mind capable of +clear and logical thinking, and an imagination of +unusual activity. But this would by no means offer +a complete explanation. There are many men of +equal bodily and mental vigor who have not achieved +a tithe of his accomplishment. What other factors +are there to be taken into consideration to explain +this phenomenon? First, a stolid, almost phlegmatic, +nervous system which takes absolutely no notice of +ennui--a system like that of a Chinese ivory-carver who +works day after day and month after month on a piece +of material no larger than your hand. No better +illustration of this characteristic can be found than in +the development of the nickel pocket for the storage +battery, an element the size of a short lead-pencil, on +which upward of five years were spent in experiments, +costing over a million dollars, day after day, +always apparently with the same tubes but with +small variations carefully tabulated in the note-books. +To an ordinary person the mere sight of such a tube +would have been as distasteful, certainly after a week +or so, as the smell of a quail to a man striving to eat +one every day for a month, near the end of his gastronomic +ordeal. But to Edison these small perforated +steel tubes held out as much of a fascination at the +end of five years as when the search was first begun, +and every morning found him as eager to begin the +investigation anew as if the battery was an absolutely +novel problem to which his thoughts had just been +directed. + +Another and second characteristic of Edison's personality +contributing so strongly to his achievements +is an intense, not to say courageous, optimism in +which no thought of failure can enter, an optimism +born of self-confidence, and becoming--after forty or +fifty years of experience more and more a sense of +certainty in the accomplishment of success. In the +overcoming of difficulties he has the same intellectual +pleasure as the chess-master when confronted with a +problem requiring all the efforts of his skill and +experience to solve. To advance along smooth and +pleasant paths, to encounter no obstacles, to wrestle +with no difficulties and hardships--such has absolutely +no fascination to him. He meets obstruction +with the keen delight of a strong man battling with the +waves and opposing them in sheer enjoyment, and the +greater and more apparently overwhelming the forces +that may tend to sweep him back, the more vigorous his +own efforts to forge through them. At the conclusion +of the ore-milling experiments, when practically his +entire fortune was sunk in an enterprise that had to +be considered an impossibility, when at the age of +fifty he looked back upon five or six years of intense +activity expended apparently for naught, when everything +seemed most black and the financial clouds were +quickly gathering on the horizon, not the slightest +idea of repining entered his mind. The main experiment +had succeeded--he had accomplished what he +sought for. Nature at another point had outstripped +him, yet he had broadened his own sum of knowledge +to a prodigious extent. It was only during the past +summer (1910) that one of the writers spent a Sunday +with him riding over the beautiful New Jersey roads +in an automobile, Edison in the highest spirits and +pointing out with the keenest enjoyment the many +beautiful views of valley and wood. The wanderings +led to the old ore-milling plant at Edison, now +practically a mass of deserted buildings all going to decay. +It was a depressing sight, marking such titanic but +futile struggles with nature. To Edison, however, no +trace of sentiment or regret occurred, and the whole +ruins were apparently as much a matter of unconcern +as if he were viewing the remains of Pompeii. Sitting +on the porch of the White House, where he lived during +that period, in the light of the setting sun, his fine face +in repose, he looked as placidly over the scene as a +happy farmer over a field of ripening corn. All that +he said was: "I never felt better in my life than during +the five years I worked here. Hard work, nothing to +divert my thought, clear air and simple food made my +life very pleasant. We learned a great deal. It will +be of benefit to some one some time." Similarly, in +connection with the storage battery, after having +experimented continuously for three years, it was found +to fall below his expectations, and its manufacture had +to be stopped. Hundreds of thousands of dollars had +been spent on the experiments, and, largely without +Edison's consent, the battery had been very generally +exploited in the press. To stop meant not only to +pocket a great loss already incurred, facing a dark and +uncertain future, but to most men animated by +ordinary human feelings, it meant more than anything +else, an injury to personal pride. Pride? Pooh! +that had nothing to do with the really serious practical +problem, and the writers can testify that at the +moment when his decision was reached, work stopped +and the long vista ahead was peered into, Edison was +as little concerned as if he had concluded that, after all, +perhaps peach-pie might be better for present diet +than apple-pie. He has often said that time meant +very little to him, that he had but a small realization +of its passage, and that ten or twenty years were as +nothing when considering the development of a vital +invention. + +These references to personal pride recall another +characteristic of Edison wherein he differs from most +men. There are many individuals who derive an intense +and not improper pleasure in regalia or military +garments, with plenty of gold braid and brass buttons, +and thus arrayed, in appearing before their friends +and neighbors. Putting at the head of the procession +the man who makes his appeal to public attention +solely because of the brilliancy of his plumage, and +passing down the ranks through the multitudes having +a gradually decreasing sense of vanity in their personal +accomplishment, Edison would be placed at the +very end. Reference herein has been made to the +fact that one of the two great English universities +wished to confer a degree upon him, but that he was +unable to leave his work for the brief time necessary +to accept the honor. At that occasion it was pointed +out to him that he should make every possible sacrifice +to go, that the compliment was great, and that but +few Americans had been so recognized. It was hope- +less--an appeal based on sentiment. Before him was +something real--work to be accomplished--a problem +to be solved. Beyond, was a prize as intangible as +the button of the Legion of Honor, which he concealed +from his friends that they might not feel he was +"showing off." The fact is that Edison cares little +for the approval of the world, but that he cares everything +for the approval of himself. Difficult as it may +be--perhaps impossible--to trace its origin, Edison +possesses what he would probably call a well-developed +case of New England conscience, for whose approval +he is incessantly occupied. + +These, then, may be taken as the characteristics of +Edison that have enabled him to accomplish more +than most men--a strong body, a clear and active +mind, a developed imagination, a capacity of great +mental and physical concentration, an iron-clad nervous +system that knows no ennui, intense optimism, +and courageous self-confidence. Any one having these +capacities developed to the same extent, with the +same opportunities for use, would probably accomplish +as much. And yet there is a peculiarity about +him that so far as is known has never been referred to +before in print. He seems to be conscientiously +afraid of appearing indolent, and in consequence +subjects himself regularly to unnecessary hardship. +Working all night is seldom necessary, or until two or +three o'clock in the morning, yet even now he persists +in such tests upon his strength. Recently one of the +writers had occasion to present to him a long type- +written document of upward of thirty pages for his +approval. It was taken home to Glenmont. Edison +had a few minor corrections to make, probably not +more than a dozen all told. They could have been +embodied by interlineations and marginal notes in the +ordinary way, and certainly would not have required +more than ten or fifteen minutes of his time. Yet +what did he do? HE COPIED OUT PAINSTAKINGLY THE +ENTIRE PAPER IN LONG HAND, embodying the corrections +as he went along, and presented the result of his work +the following morning. At the very least such a task +must have occupied several hours. How can such a +trait--and scores of similar experiences could be given +--be explained except by the fact that, evidently, he +felt the need of special schooling in industry--that +under no circumstances must he allow a thought of +indolence to enter his mind? + +Undoubtedly in the days to come Edison will not +only be recognized as an intellectual prodigy, but as a +prodigy of industry--of hard work. In his field as +inventor and man of science he stands as clear-cut and +secure as the lighthouse on a rock, and as indifferent +to the tumult around. But as the "old man"-- +and before he was thirty years old he was affectionately +so called by his laboratory associates--he is a +normal, fun-loving, typical American. His sense of +humor is intense, but not of the hothouse, over- +developed variety. One of his favorite jokes is to +enter the legal department with an air of great +humility and apply for a job as an inventor! Never is +he so preoccupied or fretted with cares as not to drop +all thought of his work for a few moments to listen to +a new story, with a ready smile all the while, and a +hearty, boyish laugh at the end. His laugh, in fact, +is sometimes almost aboriginal; slapping his hands +delightedly on his knees, he rocks back and forth and +fairly shouts his pleasure. Recently a daily report +of one of his companies that had just been started +contained a large order amounting to several thousand +dollars, and was returned by him with a miniature +sketch of a small individual viewing that particular +item through a telescope! His facility in making +hasty but intensely graphic sketches is proverbial. +He takes great delight in imitating the lingo of the +New York street gamin. A dignified person named +James may be greeted with: "Hully Gee! Chimmy, +when did youse blow in?" He likes to mimic and +imitate types, generally, that are distasteful to him. +The sanctimonious hypocrite, the sleek speculator, +and others whom he has probably encountered in life +are done "to the queen's taste." + +One very cold winter's day he entered the laboratory +library in fine spirits, "doing" the decayed dandy, +with imaginary cane under his arm, struggling to put +on a pair of tattered imaginary gloves, with a self- +satisfied smirk and leer that would have done credit +to a real comedian. This particular bit of acting was +heightened by the fact that even in the coldest weather +he wears thin summer clothes, generally acid-worn and +more or less disreputable. For protection he varies +the number of his suits of underclothing, sometimes +wearing three or four sets, according to the thermometer. + +If one could divorce Edison from the idea of work, +and could regard him separate and apart from his +embodiment as an inventor and man of science, it +might truly be asserted that his temperament is essentially +mercurial. Often he is in the highest spirits, +with all the spontaneity of youth, and again he is +depressed, moody, and violently angry. Anger with +him, however, is a good deal like the story attributed +to Napoleon: + +"Sire, how is it that your judgment is not affected +by your great rage?" asked one of his courtiers. + +"Because," said the Emperor, "I never allow it to +rise above this line," drawing his hand across his +throat. Edison has been seen sometimes almost beside +himself with anger at a stupid mistake or inexcusable +oversight on the part of an assistant, his voice +raised to a high pitch, sneeringly expressing his feelings +of contempt for the offender; and yet when the +culprit, like a bad school-boy, has left the room, +Edison has immediately returned to his normal poise, +and the incident is a thing of the past. At other +times the unsettled condition persists, and his spleen +is vented not only on the original instigator but upon +others who may have occasion to see him, sometimes +hours afterward. When such a fit is on him the word +is quickly passed around, and but few of his associates +find it necessary to consult with him at the time. The +genuine anger can generally be distinguished from the +imitation article by those who know him intimately +by the fact that when really enraged his forehead +between the eyes partakes of a curious rotary movement +that cannot be adequately described in words. +It is as if the storm-clouds within are moving like a +whirling cyclone. As a general rule, Edison does not +get genuinely angry at mistakes and other human +weaknesses of his subordinates; at best he merely +simulates anger. But woe betide the one who has +committed an act of bad faith, treachery, dishonesty, +or ingratitude; THEN Edison can show what it is for a +strong man to get downright mad. But in this respect +he is singularly free, and his spells of anger are +really few. In fact, those who know him best are +continually surprised at his moderation and patience, +often when there has been great provocation. People +who come in contact with him and who may have +occasion to oppose his views, may leave with the +impression that he is hot-tempered; nothing could be +further from the truth. He argues his point with +great vehemence, pounds on the table to emphasize +his views, and illustrates his theme with a wealth of +apt similes; but, on account of his deafness, it is +difficult to make the argument really two-sided. Before +the visitor can fully explain his side of the matter +some point is brought up that starts Edison off again, +and new arguments from his viewpoint are poured +forth. This constant interruption is taken by many +to mean that Edison has a small opinion of any +arguments that oppose him; but he is only intensely in +earnest in presenting his own side. If the visitor +persists until Edison has seen both sides of the controversy, +he is always willing to frankly admit that his +own views may be unsound and that his opponent is +right. In fact, after such a controversy, both parties +going after each other hammer and tongs, the arguments +TO HIM being carried on at the very top of one's +voice to enable him to hear, and FROM HIM being equally +loud in the excitement of the discussion, he has often +said: "I see now that my position was absolutely +rotten. " + +Obviously, however, all of these personal characteristics +have nothing to do with Edison's position in the +world of affairs. They show him to be a plain, easy- +going, placid American, with no sense of self-importance, +and ready at all times to have his mind turned +into a lighter channel. In private life they show him +to be a good citizen, a good family man, absolutely +moral, temperate in all things, and of great charitableness +to all mankind. But what of his position in the +age in which he lives? Where does he rank in the +mountain range of great Americans? + +It is believed that from the other chapters of this +book the reader can formulate his own answer to the +question. + + + +INTRODUCTION TO THE APPENDIX + +THE reader who has followed the foregoing narrative +may feel that inasmuch as it is intended to +be an historical document, an appropriate addendum +thereto would be a digest of all the inventions of +Edison. The desirability of such a digest is not to +be denied, but as there are some twenty-five hundred +or more inventions to be considered (including those +covered by caveats), the task of its preparation would +be stupendous. Besides, the resultant data would +extend this book into several additional volumes, +thereby rendering it of value chiefly to the technical +student, but taking it beyond the bounds of biography. + +We should, however, deem our presentation of Mr. +Edison's work to be imperfectly executed if we neglected +to include an intelligible exposition of the broader +theoretical principles of his more important inventions. In +the following Appendix we have therefore endeavored +to present a few brief statements regarding Mr. Edison's +principal inventions, classified as to subject- +matter and explained in language as free from +technicalities as is possible. No attempt has been made +to conform with strictly scientific terminology, but, +for the benefit of the general reader, well-understood +conventional expressions, such as "flow of current," +etc., have been employed. It should be borne in +mind that each of the following items has been treated +as a whole or class, generally speaking, and not as a +digest of all the individual patents relating to it. +Any one who is sufficiently interested can obtain copies +of any of the patents referred to for five cents each +by addressing the Commissioner of Patents, Washington, +D. C. + + + +APPENDIX + +THE STOCK PRINTER + +IN these modern days, when the Stock Ticker is in universal +use, one seldom, if ever, hears the name of Edison +coupled with the little instrument whose chatterings have +such tremendous import to the whole world. It is of much +interest, however, to remember the fact that it was by reason +of his notable work in connection with this device that +he first became known as an inventor. Indeed, it was +through the intrinsic merits of his improvements in stock +tickers that he made his real entree into commercial +life. + +The idea of the ticker did not originate with Edison, as +we have already seen in Chapter VII of the preceding narrative, +but at the time of his employment with the Western +Union, in Boston, in 1868, the crudities of the earlier forms +made an impression on his practical mind, and he got out +an improved instrument of his own, which he introduced in +Boston through the aid of a professional promoter. Edison, +then only twenty-one, had less business experience than the +promoter, through whose manipulation he soon lost his financial +interest in this early ticker enterprise. The narrative +tells of his coming to New York in 1869, and immediately +plunging into the business of gold and stock reporting. It +was at this period that his real work on stock printers +commenced, first individually, and later as a co-worker with +F. L. Pope. This inventive period extended over a number +of years, during which time he took out forty-six patents on +stock-printing instruments and devices, two of such patents +being issued to Edison and Pope as joint inventors. These +various inventions were mostly in the line of development of +the art as it progressed during those early years, but out +of it all came the Edison universal printer, which entered +into very extensive use, and which is still used throughout +the United States and in some foreign countries to a +considerable extent at this very day. + +Edison's inventive work on stock printers has left its +mark upon the art as it exists at the present time. In his +earlier work he directed his attention to the employment of +a single-circuit system, in which only one wire was required, +the two operations of setting the type-wheels and of printing +being controlled by separate electromagnets which were +actuated through polarized relays, as occasion required, one +polarity energizing the electromagnet controlling the type- +wheels, and the opposite polarity energizing the electromagnet +controlling the printing. Later on, however, he +changed over to a two-wire circuit, such as shown in Fig. 2 +of this article in connection with the universal stock printer. +In the earliest days of the stock printer, Edison realized the +vital commercial importance of having all instruments recording +precisely alike at the same moment, and it was he +who first devised (in 1869) the "unison stop," by means of +which all connected instruments could at any moment be +brought to zero from the central transmitting station, and +thus be made to work in correspondence with the central +instrument and with one another. He also originated the +idea of using only one inking-pad and shifting it from side to +side to ink the type-wheels. It was also in Edison's stock +printer that the principle of shifting type-wheels was first +employed. Hence it will be seen that, as in many other +arts, he made a lasting impression in this one by the intrinsic +merits of the improvements resulting from his work +therein. + +We shall not attempt to digest the forty-six patents above +named, nor to follow Edison through the progressive steps +which led to the completion of his universal printer, but +shall simply present a sketch of the instrument itself, and +follow with a very brief and general explanation of its theory. +The Edison universal printer, as it virtually appears in +practice, is illustrated in Fig. 1 below, from which it will be +seen that the most prominent parts are the two type-wheels, +the inking-pad, and the paper tape feeding from the reel, +all appropriately placed in a substantial framework. + +The electromagnets and other actuating +mechanism cannot be seen plainly +in this figure, but are produced +diagrammatically in Fig. 2, and somewhat +enlarged for convenience of explanation. + +It will be seen that there are two electromagnets, one of which, TM, is known +as the "type-magnet," and the other, PM, as the "press-magnet," +the former having to do with the operation of the type- +wheels, and the latter with the pressing of the +paper tape against them. As will be seen from the +diagram, the armature, A, of the type-magnet +has an extension arm, on the end of which is +an escapement engaging with a toothed wheel placed at the extremity of the shaft +carrying the type-wheels. This extension arm is pivoted +at B. Hence, as the armature is alternately attracted +when current passes around its electromagnet, and +drawn up by the spring on cessation of current, it moves +up and down, thus actuating the escapement and causing a +rotation of the toothed wheel in the direction of the arrow. +This, in turn, brings any desired letters or figures on the +type-wheels to a central point, where they may be impressed +upon the paper tape. One type-wheel carries letters, and +the other one figures. These two wheels are mounted rigidly +on a sleeve carried by the wheel-shaft. As it is desired +to print from only one type-wheel at a time, it becomes +necessary to shift them back and forth from time to time, in +order to bring the desired characters in line with the paper +tape. This is accomplished through the movements of a +three-arm rocking-lever attached to the wheel-sleeve at +the end of the shaft. This lever is actuated through the +agency of two small pins carried by an arm projecting from +the press-lever, PL. As the latter moves up and down the +pins play upon the under side of the lower arm of the rocking- +lever, thus canting it and pushing the type-wheels to the +right or left, as the case may be. The operation of shifting +the type-wheels will be given further on. + +The press-lever is actuated by the press-magnet. From +the diagram it will be seen that the armature of the latter +has a long, pivoted extension arm, or platen, trough-like in +shape, in which the paper tape runs. It has already been +noted that the object of the press-lever is to press this tape +against that character of the type-wheel centrally located +above it at the moment. It will at once be perceived that +this action takes place when current flows through the +electromagnet and its armature is attracted downward, the +platen again dropping away from the type-wheel as the +armature is released upon cessation of current. The paper +"feed" is shown at the end of the press-lever, and consists +of a push "dog," or pawl, which operates to urge the paper +forward as the press-lever descends. + +The worm-gear which appears in the diagram on the shaft, +near the toothed wheel, forms part of the unison stop above +referred to, but this device is not shown in full, in order to +avoid unnecessary complications of the drawing. + +At the right-hand side of the diagram (Fig. 2) is shown a +portion of the transmitting apparatus at a central office. +Generally speaking, this consists of a motor-driven cylinder +having metallic pins placed at intervals, and arranged +spirally, around its periphery. These pins correspond in +number to the characters on the type-wheels. A keyboard +(not shown) is arranged above the cylinder, having keys +lettered and numbered corresponding to the letters and +figures on the type-wheels. Upon depressing any one of +these keys the motion of the cylinder is arrested when one +of its pins is caught and held by the depressed key. When +the key is released the cylinder continues in motion. Hence, +it is evident that the revolution of the cylinder may be +interrupted as often as desired by manipulation of the various +keys in transmitting the letters and figures which are to be +recorded by the printing instrument. The method of transmission +will presently appear. + +In the sketch (Fig. 2) there will be seen, mounted upon +the cylinder shaft, two wheels made up of metallic segments +insulated from each other, and upon the hubs of these +wheels are two brushes which connect with the main battery. +Resting upon the periphery of these two segmental wheels +there are two brushes to which are connected the wires which +carry the battery current to the type-magnet and press- +magnet, respectively, as the brushes make circuit by coming +in contact with the metallic segments. It will be remembered +that upon the cylinder there are as many pins as there +are characters on the type-wheels of the ticker, and one of +the segmental wheels, W, has a like number of metallic +segments, while upon the other wheel, W', there are only +one-half that number. The wheel W controls the supply of +current to the press-magnet, and the wheel W' to the type- +magnet. The type-magnet advances the letter and figure +wheels one step when the magnet is energized, and a succeeding +step when the circuit is broken. Hence, the metallic +contact surfaces on wheel W' are, as stated, only half as +many as on the wheel W, which controls the press-magnet. + +It should be borne in mind, however, that the contact +surfaces and insulated surfaces on wheel W' are together +equal in number to the characters on the type-wheels, but +the retractile spring of TM does half the work of operating +the escapement. On the other hand, the wheel W has the +full number of contact surfaces, because it must provide +for the operative closure of the press-magnet circuit whether +the brush B' is in engagement with a metallic segment or +an insulated segment of the wheel W'. As the cylinder +revolves, the wheels are carried around with its shaft and +current impulses flow through the wires to the magnets as +the brushes make contact with the metallic segments of +these wheels. + +One example will be sufficient to convey to the reader +an idea of the operation of the apparatus. Assuming, for +instance, that it is desired to send out the letters AM to the +printer, let us suppose that the pin corresponding to the +letter A is at one end of the cylinder and near the upper part +of its periphery, and that the letter M is about the centre +of the cylinder and near the lower part of its periphery. +The operator at the keyboard would depress the letter A, +whereupon the cylinder would in its revolution bring the +first-named pin against the key. During the rotation of the +cylinder a current would pass through wheel W' and actuate +TM, drawing down the armature and operating the escapement, +which would bring the type-wheel to a point where +the letter A would be central as regards the paper tape +When the cylinder came to rest, current would flow through +the brush of wheel W to PM, and its armature would be +attracted, causing the platen to be lifted and thus bringing +the paper tape in contact with the type-wheel and printing +the letter A. The operator next sends the letter M by +depressing the appropriate key. On account of the position +of the corresponding pin, the cylinder would make nearly +half a revolution before bringing the pin to the key. During +this half revolution the segmental wheels have also been +turning, and the brushes have transmitted a number of current +impulses to TM, which have caused it to operate the +escapement a corresponding number of times, thus turning +the type-wheels around to the letter M. When the cylinder +stops, current once more goes to the press-magnet, and the +operation of lifting and printing is repeated. As a matter +of fact, current flows over both circuits as the cylinder is +rotated, but the press-magnet is purposely made to be +comparatively "sluggish" and the narrowness of the segments +on wheel W tends to diminish the flow of current in the press +circuit until the cylinder comes to rest, when the current +continuously flows over that circuit without interruption +and fully energizes the press-magnet. The shifting of the +type-wheels is brought about as follows: On the keyboard +of the transmitter there are two characters known as "dots"-- +namely, the letter dot and the figure dot. If the operator +presses one of these dot keys, it is engaged by an appropriate +pin on the revolving cylinder. Meanwhile the type-wheels +are rotating, carrying with them the rocking-lever, and current +is pulsating over both circuits. When the type-wheels +have arrived at the proper point the rocking-lever has been +carried to a position where its lower arm is directly over one +of the pins on the arm extending from the platen of the +press-lever. The cylinder stops, and current operates the +sluggish press-magnet, causing its armature to be attracted, +thus lifting the platen and its projecting arm. As the arm +lifts upward, the pin moves along the under side of the +lower arm of the rocking-lever, thus causing it to cant and +shift the type-wheels to the right or left, as desired. The +principles of operation of this apparatus have been confined +to a very brief and general description, but it is believed +to be sufficient for the scope of this article. + + + +NOTE.--The illustrations in this article are reproduced from American Telegra- +phy +and Encyclopedia of the Telegraph, by William Maver, Jr., by permission of +Maver Publishing Company, New York. + + + +II + +THE QUADRUPLEX AND PHONOPLEX + +EDISON'S work in stock printers and telegraphy had marked +him as a rising man in the electrical art of the period +but his invention of quadruplex telegraphy in 1874 was what +brought him very prominently before the notice of the public. +Duplex telegraphy, or the sending of two separate messages +in opposite directions at the same time over one line +was known and practiced previous to this time, but quadruplex +telegraphy, or the simultaneous sending of four +separate messages, two in each direction, over a single line +had not been successfully accomplished, although it had +been the subject of many an inventor's dream and the object +of anxious efforts for many long years. + +In the early part of 1873, and for some time afterward, +the system invented by Joseph Stearns was the duplex in +practical use. In April of that year, however, Edison took +up the study of the subject and filed two applications for +patents. One of these applications[23] embraced an invention +by which two messages could be sent not only duplex, +or in opposite directions as above explained, but could also +be sent "diplex"--that is to say, in one direction, simultaneously, +as separate and distinct messages, over the one line. +Thus there was introduced a new feature into the art of +multiplex telegraphy, for, whereas duplexing (accomplished +by varying the strength of the current) permitted messages +to be sent simultaneously from opposite stations, diplexing +(achieved by also varying the direction of the current) permitted +the simultaneous transmission of two messages from +the same station and their separate reception at the distant +station. + + +[23] Afterward issued as Patent No. 162,633, April 27, 1875. + + + +The quadruplex was the tempting goal toward which Edison +now constantly turned, and after more than a year's strenuous +work he filed a number of applications for patents in the +late summer of 1874. Among them was one which was issued +some years afterward as Patent No. 480,567, covering +his well-known quadruplex. He had improved his own +diplex, combined it with the Stearns duplex and thereby +produced a system by means of which four messages could +be sent over a single line at the same time, two in each +direction. + +As the reader will probably be interested to learn something +of the theoretical principles of this fascinating invention, +we shall endeavor to offer a brief and condensed explanation +thereof with as little technicality as the subject +will permit. This explanation will necessarily be of somewhat +elementary character for the benefit of the lay reader, +whose indulgence is asked for an occasional reiteration +introduced for the sake of clearness of comprehension. While +the apparatus and the circuits are seemingly very intricate, +the principles are really quite simple, and the difficulty of +comprehension is more apparent than real if the underlying +phenomena are studied attentively. + +At the root of all systems of telegraphy, including multiplex +systems, there lies the single basic principle upon which +their performance depends--namely, the obtaining of a +slight mechanical movement at the more or less distant end +of a telegraph line. This is accomplished through the +utilization of the phenomena of electromagnetism. These +phenomena are easy of comprehension and demonstration. +If a rod of soft iron be wound around with a number of turns +of insulated wire, and a current of electricity be sent through +the wire, the rod will be instantly magnetized and will remain +a magnet as long as the current flows; but when the +current is cut off the magnetic effect instantly ceases. This +device is known as an electromagnet, and the charging and +discharging of such a magnet may, of course, be repeated +indefinitely. Inasmuch as a magnet has the power of attracting +to itself pieces of iron or steel, the basic importance +of an electromagnet in telegraphy will be at once apparent +when we consider the sounder, whose clicks are familiar to +every ear. This instrument consists essentially of an electro- +magnet of horseshoe form with its two poles close together, +and with its armature, a bar of iron, maintained in close +proximity to the poles, but kept normally in a retracted position +by a spring. When the distant operator presses down +his key the circuit is closed and a current passes along the +line and through the (generally two) coils of the electromagnet, +thus magnetizing the iron core. Its attractive power +draws the armature toward the poles. When the operator +releases the pressure on his key the circuit is broken, current +does not flow, the magnetic effect ceases, and the armature +is drawn back by its spring. These movements give rise +to the clicking sounds which represent the dots and dashes +of the Morse or other alphabet as transmitted by the operator. +Similar movements, produced in like manner, are availed +of in another instrument known as the relay, whose office +is to act practically as an automatic transmitter key, repeating +the messages received in its coils, and sending them +on to the next section of the line, equipped with its own +battery; or, when the message is intended for its own station, +sending the message to an adjacent sounder included +in a local battery circuit. With a simple circuit, therefore, +between two stations and where an intermediate battery is +not necessary, a relay is not used. + +Passing on to the consideration of another phase of the +phenomena of electromagnetism, the reader's attention is +called to Fig. 1, in which will be seen on the left a simple +form of electromagnet consisting of a bar of soft iron wound +around with insulated wire, through which a current is flowing +from a battery. The arrows indicate the direction of +flow. + +All magnets have two poles, north and south. A permanent +magnet (made of steel, which, as distinguished from soft +iron, retains its magnetism for long periods) is so called +because it is permanently magnetized and its polarity remains +fixed. In an electromagnet the magnetism exists +only as long as current is flowing through the wire, and the +polarity of the soft-iron bar is determined by the DIRECTION +of flow of current around it for the time being. If the direction +is reversed, the polarity will also be reversed. Assuming, +for instance, the bar to be end-on toward the observer, +that end will be a south pole if the current is flowing +from left to right, clockwise, around the bar; or a north +pole if flowing in the other direction, as illustrated at the +right of the figure. It is immaterial which way the wire is +wound around the bar, the determining factor of polarity +being the DIRECTION of the current. It will be clear, therefore, +that if two EQUAL currents be passed around a bar in opposite +directions (Fig. 3) they will tend to produce exactly opposite +polarities and thus neutralize each other. Hence, the bar +would remain non-magnetic. + +As the path to the quadruplex passes through the duplex, +let us consider the Stearns system, after noting one other +principle--namely, that if more than one path is presented +in which an electric current may complete its circuit, it +divides in proportion to the resistance of each path. Hence, +if we connect one pole of a battery with the earth, and from +the other pole run to the earth two wires of equal resistance +as illustrated in Fig. 2, equal currents will traverse +the wires. + +The above principles were employed in the Stearns differential +duplex system in the following manner: Referring to +Fig. 3, suppose a wire, A, is led from a battery around a bar +of soft iron from left to right, and another wire of equal +resistance and equal number of turns, B, around from right +to left. The flow of current will cause two equal opposing +actions to be set up in the bar; one will exactly offset the +other, and no magnetic effect will be produced. A relay +thus wound is known as a differential relay--more generally +called a neutral relay. + +The non-technical reader may wonder what use can possibly +be made of an apparently non-operative piece of appara- +tus. It must be borne in mind, however, in considering a +duplex system, that a differential relay is used AT EACH END +of the line and forms part of the circuit; and that while each +relay must be absolutely unresponsive to the signals SENT +OUT FROM ITS HOME OFFICE, it must respond to signals transmitted +by a DISTANT OFFICE. Hence, the next figure (4), with +its accompanying explanation, will probably make the +matter clear. If another battery, D, be introduced at the +distant end of the wire A the differential or neutral relay +becomes actively operative as follows: Battery C supplies +wires A and B with an equal current, but battery D doubles +the strength of the current traversing wire A. This is sufficient +to not only neutralize the magnetism which the cur- +rent in wire B would tend to set up, but also--by reason of +the excess of current in wire A--to make the bar a magnet +whose polarity would be determined by the direction of the +flow of current around it. + +In the arrangement shown in Fig. 4 the batteries are so +connected that current flow is in the same direction, thus +doubling the amount of current flowing through wire A. +But suppose the batteries were so connected that the current +from each set flowed in an opposite direction? The result +would be that these currents would oppose and neutralize +each other, and, therefore, none would flow in wire A. +Inasmuch, however, as there is nothing to hinder, current +would flow from battery C through wire B, and the bar +would therefore be magnetized. Hence, assuming that the +relay is to be actuated from the distant end, D, it is in a +sense immaterial whether the batteries connected with wire +A assist or oppose each other, as, in either case, the bar would +be magnetized only through the operation of the distant key. + +A slight elaboration of Fig. 4 will further illustrate the +principle of the differential duplex. In Fig. 5 are two stations, +A the home end, and B the distant station to which +a message is to be sent. The relay at each end has two coils, +1 and 2, No. 1 in each case being known as the "main-line +coil" and 2 as the "artificial-line coil." The latter, in each +case, has in its circuit a resistance, R, to compensate for the +resistance of the main line, so that there shall be no inequalities +in the circuits. The artificial line, as well as that +to which the two coils are joined, are connected to earth. +There is a battery, C, and a key, K. When the key is depressed, +current flows through the relay coils at A, but no +magnetism is produced, as they oppose each other. The +current, however, flows out through the main-line coil over +the line and through the main-line coil 1 at B, completing +its circuit to earth and magnetizing the bar of the relay, +thus causing its armature to be attracted. On releasing +the key the circuit is broken and magnetism instantly ceases. + +It will be evident, therefore, that the operator at A may +cause the relay at B to act without affecting his own relay. +Similar effects would be produced from B to A if the battery +and key were placed at the B end. + +If, therefore, like instruments are placed at each end of +the line, as in Fig. 6, we have a differential duplex arrangement +by means of which two operators may actuate relays +at the ends distant from them, without causing the operation +of the relays at their home ends. In practice this is +done by means of a special instrument known as a continuity +preserving transmitter, or, usually, as a transmitter. +This consists of an electromagnet, T, operated by a key, K, +and separate battery. The armature lever, L, is long, +pivoted in the centre, and is bent over at the end. At a +point a little beyond its centre is a small piece of insulating +material to which is screwed a strip of spring metal, +S. Conveniently placed with reference to the end of the +lever is a bent metallic piece, P, having a contact screw in +its upper horizontal arm, and attached to the lower end of +this bent piece is a post, or standard, to which the main +battery is electrically connected. The relay coils are connected +by wire to the spring piece, S, and the armature lever +is connected to earth. If the key is depressed, the armature +is attracted and its bent end is moved upward, depressing +the spring which makes contact with the upper screw, +which places the battery to the line, and simultaneously +breaks the ground connection between the spring and the +upturned end of the lever, as shown at the left. When the +key is released the battery is again connected to earth. +The compensating resistances and condensers necessary for +a duplex arrangement are shown in the diagram. + +In Fig. 6 one transmitter is shown as closed, at A, while +the other one is open. From our previous illustrations and +explanations it will be readily seen that, with the transmitter +closed at station A, current flows via post P, through +S, and to both relay coils at A, thence over the main line to +main-line coil at B, and down to earth through S and the +armature lever with its grounded wire. The relay at A +would be unresponsive, but the core of the relay at B would +be magnetized and its armature respond to signals from A. +In like manner, if the transmitter at B be closed, current +would flow through similar parts and thus cause the relay +at A to respond. If both transmitters be closed simultaneously, +both batteries will be placed to the line, which would +practically result in doubling the current in each of the +main-line coils, in consequence of which both relays are +energized and their armatures attracted through the operation +of the keys at the distant ends. Hence, two messages +can be sent in opposite directions over the same line simultaneously. + +The reader will undoubtedly see quite clearly from the +above system, which rests upon varying the STRENGTH of the +current, that two messages could not be sent in the same +direction over the one line at the same time. To accomplish +this object Edison introduced another and distinct +feature--namely, the using of the same current, but ALSO +varying its DIRECTION of flow; that is to say, alternately +reversing the POLARITY of the batteries as applied to the line +and thus producing corresponding changes in the polarity +of another specially constructed type of relay, called a +polarized relay. To afford the reader a clear conception of +such a relay we would refer again to Fig. 1 and its explanation, +from which it appears that the polarity of a soft-iron bar +is determined not by the strength of the current flowing +around it but by the direction thereof. + +With this idea clearly in mind, the theory of the polarized +relay, generally called "polar" relay, as presented in the +diagram (Fig. 7), will be readily understood. + +A is a bar of soft iron, bent as shown, and wound around +with insulated copper wire, the ends of which are connected +with a battery, B, thus forming an electromagnet. An +essential part of this relay consists of a swinging PERMANENT +magnet, C, whose polarity remains fixed, that end between +the terminals of the electromagnet being a north pole. +Inasmuch as unlike poles of magnets are attracted to each +other and like poles repelled, it follows that this north pole +will be repelled by the north pole of the electromagnet, but +will swing over and be attracted by its south pole. If the +direction of flow of current be reversed, by reversing the +battery, the electromagnetic polarity also reverses and the +end of the permanent magnet swings over to the other side. +This is shown in the two figures of Fig. 7. This device being +a relay, its purpose is to repeat transmitted signals into a +local circuit, as before explained. For this purpose there are +provided at D and E a contact and a back stop, the former +of which is opened and closed by the swinging permanent +magnet, thus opening and closing the local circuit. + +Manifestly there must be provided some convenient way +for rapidly transposing the direction of the current flow if +such a device as the polar relay is to be used for the reception +of telegraph messages, and this is accomplished by means +of an instrument called a pole-changer, which consists +essentially of a movable contact piece connected permanently +to the earth, or grounded, and arranged to connect one or +the other pole of a battery to the line and simultaneously +ground the other pole. This action of the pole-changer is +effected by movements of the armature of an electromagnet +through the manipulation of an ordinary telegraph key by +an operator at the home station, as in the operation of the +"transmitter," above referred to. + +By a combination of the neutral relay and the polar relay +two operators, by manipulating two telegraph keys in the +ordinary way, can simultaneously send two messages over +one line in the SAME direction with the SAME current, one +operator varying its strength and the other operator varying +its polarity or direction of flow. This principle was covered +by Edison's Patent No. 162,633, and was known as +the "diplex" system, although, in the patent referred to, +Edison showed and claimed the adaptation of the principle +to duplex telegraphy. Indeed, as a matter of fact, it was +found that by winding the polar relay differentially and +arranging the circuits and collateral appliances appropriately, +the polar duplex system was more highly efficient than +the neutral system, and it is extensively used to the present +day. + +Thus far we have referred to two systems, one the neutral +or differential duplex, and the other the combination of the +neutral and polar relays, making a diplex system. By one +of these two systems a single wire could be used for sending +two messages in opposite directions, and by the other in +the same direction or in opposite directions. Edison followed +up his work on the diplex and combined the two +systems into the quadruplex, by means of which FOUR messages +could be sent and received simultaneously over the +one wire, two in each direction, thus employing eight +operators--four at each end--two sending and two receiving. +The general principles of quadruplex telegraphy are +based upon the phenomena which we have briefly outlined +in connection with the neutral relay and the polar relay. +The equipment of such a system at each end of the line consists +of these two instruments, together with the special +form of transmitter and the pole-changer and their keys for +actuating the neutral and polar relays at the other, or distant, +end. Besides these there are the compensating resistances +and condensers. All of these will be seen in the +diagram (Fig. 8). It will be understood, of course, that the +polar relay, as used in the quadruplex system, is wound +differentially, and therefore its operation is somewhat similar +in principle to that of the differentially wound neutral relay, +in that it does not respond to the operation of the key at the +home office, but only operates in response to the movements +of the distant key. + +Our explanation has merely aimed to show the underlying +phenomena and principles in broad outline without entering +into more detail than was deemed absolutely necessary. It +should be stated, however, that between the outline and the +filling in of the details there was an enormous amount of +hard work, study, patient plodding, and endless experiments +before Edison finally perfected his quadruplex system +in the year 1874. + +If it were attempted to offer here a detailed explanation +of the varied and numerous operations of the quadruplex, +this article would assume the proportions of a treatise. An +idea of their complexity may be gathered from the following, +which is quoted from American Telegraphy and Encyclopedia +of the Telegraph, by William Maver, Jr.: + + +"It may well be doubted whether in the whole range of +applied electricity there occur such beautiful combinations, +so quickly made, broken up, and others reformed, as in the +operation of the Edison quadruplex. For example, it is +quite demonstrable that during the making of a simple dash +of the Morse alphabet by the neutral relay at the home +station the distant pole-changer may reverse its battery +several times; the home pole-changer may do likewise, and the +home transmitter may increase and decrease the electromotive +force of the home battery repeatedly. Simultaneously, +and, of course, as a consequence of the foregoing +actions, the home neutral relay itself may have had its +magnetism reversed several times, and the SIGNAL, that is, +the dash, will have been made, partly by the home battery, +partly by the distant and home batteries combined, partly +by current on the main line, partly by current on the artificial +line, partly by the main-line `static' current, partly +by the condenser static current, and yet, on a well-adjusted +circuit the dash will have been produced on the quadruplex +sounder as clearly as any dash on an ordinary single-wire +sounder." + +We present a diagrammatic illustration of the Edison +quadruplex, battery key system, in Fig. 8, and refer the +reader to the above or other text-books if he desires to make +a close study of its intricate operations. Before finally +dismissing the quadruplex, and for the benefit of the inquiring +reader who may vainly puzzle over the intricacies of the circuits +shown in Fig. 8, a hint as to an essential difference between +the neutral relay, as used in the duplex and as used +in the quadruplex, may be given. With the duplex, as we +have seen, the current on the main line is changed in strength +only when both keys at OPPOSITE stations are closed together, +so that a current due to both batteries flows over the main +line. When a single message is sent from one station to the +other, or when both stations are sending messages that do +not conflict, only one battery or the other is connected to +the main line; but with the quadruplex, suppose one of the +operators, in New York for instance, is sending reversals of +current to Chicago; we can readily see how these changes +in polarity will operate the polar relay at the distant station, +but why will they not also operate the neutral relay at the +distant station as well? This difficulty was solved by dividing +the battery at each station into two unequal parts, the +smaller battery being always in circuit with the pole-changer +ready to have its polarity reversed on the main line to operate +the distant polar relay, but the spring retracting the +armature of the neutral relay is made so stiff as to resist +these weak currents. If, however, the transmitter is operated +at the same end, the entire battery is connected to the +main line, and the strength of this current is sufficient to +operate the neutral relay. Whether the part or all the battery +is alternately connected to or disconnected from the +main line by the transmitter, the current so varied in +strength is subject to reversal of polarity by the pole-changer; +but the variations in strength have no effect upon the distant +polar relay, because that relay being responsive to +changes in polarity of a weak current is obviously responsive +to corresponding changes in polarity of a powerful current. +With this distinction before him, the reader will have +no difficulty in following the circuits of Fig. 8, bearing always +in mind that by reason of the differential winding of the polar +and neutral relays, neither of the relays at one station will +respond to the home battery, and can only respond to the +distant battery--the polar relay responding when the polarity +of the current is reversed, whether the current be strong +or weak, and the neutral relay responding when the line- +current is increased, regardless of its polarity. It should +be added that besides the system illustrated in Fig. 8, which +is known as the differential principle, the quadruplex was +also arranged to operate on the Wheatstone bridge principle; +but it is not deemed necessary to enter into its details. The +underlying phenomena were similar, the difference consisting +largely in the arrangement of the circuits and apparatus.[24] + + +[24] Many of the illustrations in this article are reproduced +from American Telegraphy and Encyclopedia of the Telegraph, +by William Maver, Jr., by permission of Maver Publishing Company, New York. + + + +Edison made another notable contribution to multiplex +telegraphy some years later in the Phonoplex. The name +suggests the use of the telephone, and such indeed is the +case. The necessity for this invention arose out of the +problem of increasing the capacity of telegraph lines employed +in "through" and "way" service, such as upon railroads. +In a railroad system there are usually two terminal +stations and a number of way stations. There is naturally +much intercommunication, which would be greatly curtailed +by a system having the capacity of only a single message +at a time. The duplexes above described could not +be used on a railroad telegraph system, because of the +necessity of electrically balancing the line, which, while +entirely feasible on a through line, would not be practicable +between a number of intercommunicating points. Edison's +phonoplex normally doubled the capacity of telegraph lines, +whether employed on way business or through traffic, but +in actual practice made it possible to obtain more than +double service. It has been in practical use for many years +on some of the leading railroads of the United States. + +The system is a combination of telegraphic apparatus and +telephone receiver, although in this case the latter instrument +is not used in the generally understood manner. It +is well known that the diaphragm of a telephone vibrates +with the fluctuations of the current energizing the magnet +beneath it. If the make and break of the magnetizing current +be rapid, the vibrations being within the limits of the +human ear, the diaphragm will produce an audible sound; +but if the make and break be as slow as with ordinary Morse +transmission, the diaphragm will be merely flexed and return +to its original form without producing a sound. If, therefore, +there be placed in the same circuit a regular telegraph +relay and a special telephone, an operator may, by manipulating +a key, operate the relay (and its sounder) without +producing a sound in the telephone, as the makes and breaks +of the key are far below the limit of audibility. But if +through the same circuit, by means of another key suitably +connected there is sent the rapid changes in current from +an induction-coil, it will cause a series of loud clicks in the +telephone, corresponding to the signals transmitted; but +this current is too weak to affect the telegraph relay. It +will be seen, therefore, that this method of duplexing is +practiced, not by varying the strength or polarity, but by +sending TWO KINDS OF CURRENT over the wire. Thus, two sets +of Morse signals can be transmitted by two operators over +one line at the same time without interfering with each +other, and not only between terminal offices, but also between +a terminal office and any intermediate office, or between two +intermediate offices alone. + + + +III + +AUTOMATIC TELEGRAPHY + +FROM the year 1848, when a Scotchman, Alexander Bain, +first devised a scheme for rapid telegraphy by automatic +methods, down to the beginning of the seventies, many other +inventors had also applied themselves to the solution of +this difficult problem, with only indifferent success. "Cheap +telegraphy" being the slogan of the time, Edison became +arduously interested in the subject, and at the end of three +years of hard work produced an entirely successful system, +a public test of which was made on December 11, 1873 +when about twelve thousand (12,000) words were transmitted +over a single wire from Washington to New York. +in twenty-two and one-half minutes. Edison's system was +commercially exploited for several years by the Automatic +Telegraph Company, as related in the preceding narrative. + +As a premise to an explanation of the principles involved +it should be noted that the transmission of telegraph messages +by hand at a rate of fifty words per minute is considered +a good average speed; hence, the availability of a +telegraph line, as thus operated, is limited to this capacity +except as it may be multiplied by two with the use of the +duplex, or by four, with the quadruplex. Increased rapidity +of transmission may, however, be accomplished by automatic +methods, by means of which, through the employment of +suitable devices, messages may be stamped in or upon a +paper tape, transmitted through automatically acting instruments, +and be received at distant points in visible characters, +upon a similar tape, at a rate twenty or more times +greater--a speed far beyond the possibilities of the human +hand to transmit or the ear to receive. + +In Edison's system of automatic telegraphy a paper tape +was perforated with a series of round holes, so arranged and +spaced as to represent Morse characters, forming the words +of the message to be transmitted. This was done in a special +machine of Edison's invention, called a perforator, consisting +of a series of punches operated by a bank of keys--typewriter +fashion. The paper tape passed over a cylinder, and was +kept in regular motion so as to receive the perforations in +proper sequence. + +The perforated tape was then placed in the transmitting +instrument, the essential parts of which were a metallic +drum and a projecting arm carrying two small wheels, which, +by means of a spring, were maintained in constant pressure +on the drum. The wheels and drum were electrically connected +in the line over which the message was to be sent. +current being supplied by batteries in the ordinary manner. + +When the transmitting instrument was in operation, the +perforated tape was passed over the drum in continuous, +progressive motion. Thus, the paper passed between the +drum and the two small wheels, and, as dry paper is a non- +conductor, current was prevented from passing until a +perforation was reached. As the paper passed along, the wheels +dropped into the perforations, making momentary contacts +with the drum beneath and causing momentary impulses of +current to be transmitted over the line in the same way that +they would be produced by the manipulation of the telegraph +key, but with much greater rapidity. The perforations +being so arranged as to regulate the length of the +contact, the result would be the transmission of long and +short impulses corresponding with the dots and dashes of +the Morse alphabet. + +The receiving instrument at the other end of the line was +constructed upon much the same general lines as the transmitter, +consisting of a metallic drum and reels for the paper +tape. Instead of the two small contact wheels, however, a +projecting arm carried an iron pin or stylus, so arranged +that its point would normally impinge upon the periphery +of the drum. The iron pin and the drum were respectively +connected so as to be in circuit with the transmission line +and batteries. As the principle involved in the receiving +operation was electrochemical decomposition, the paper +tape upon which the incoming message was to be received +was moistened with a chemical solution readily decom- +posable by the electric current. This paper, while still in +a damp condition, was passed between the drum and stylus +in continuous, progressive motion. When an electrical impulse +came over the line from the transmitting end, current +passed through the moistened paper from the iron pin, causing +chemical decomposition, by reason of which the iron would +be attacked and would mark a line on the paper. Such a +line would be long or short, according to the duration of the +electric impulse. Inasmuch as a succession of such impulses +coming over the line owed their origin to the perforations +in the transmitting tape, it followed that the resulting +marks upon the receiving tape would correspond thereto in +their respective lengths. Hence, the transmitted message +was received on the tape in visible dots and dashes representing +characters of the Morse alphabet. + +The system will, perhaps, be better understood by reference +to the following diagrammatic sketch of its general principles: + +Some idea of the rapidity of automatic telegraphy may +be obtained when we consider the fact that with the use +of Edison's system in the early seventies it was common +practice to transmit and receive from three to four thousand +words a minute over a single line between New York and +Philadelphia. This system was exploited through the use +of a moderately paid clerical force. + +In practice, there was employed such a number of perforating +machines as the exigencies of business demanded. +Each machine was operated by a clerk, who translated the +message into telegraphic characters and prepared the transmitting +tape by punching the necessary perforations therein. +An expert clerk could perforate such a tape at the rate of +fifty to sixty words per minute. At the receiving end the +tape was taken by other clerks who translated the Morse +characters into ordinary words, which were written on +message blanks for delivery to persons for whom the messages +were intended. + +This latter operation--"copying." as it was called--was +not consistent with truly economical business practice. +Edison therefore undertook the task of devising an improved +system whereby the message when received would +not require translation and rewriting, but would automatically +appear on the tape in plain letters and words, ready +for instant delivery. + +The result was his automatic Roman letter system, the +basis for which included the above-named general principles +of perforated transmission tape and electrochemical +decomposition. Instead of punching Morse characters in the +transmission tape however, it was perforated with a series +of small round holes forming Roman letters. The verticals +of these letters were originally five holes high. The transmitting +instrument had five small wheels or rollers, instead +of two, for making contacts through the perforations and +causing short electric impulses to pass over the lines. At +first five lines were used to carry these impulses to the +receiving instrument, where there were five iron pins impinging +on the drum. By means of these pins the chemically +prepared tape was marked with dots corresponding to the +impulses as received, leaving upon it a legible record of the +letters and words transmitted. + +For purposes of economy in investment and maintenance, +Edison devised subsequently a plan by which the number +of conducting lines was reduced to two, instead of five. The +verticals of the letters were perforated only four holes high, +and the four rollers were arranged in pairs, one pair being +slightly in advance of the other. There were, of course, only +four pins at the receiving instrument. Two were of iron and +two of tellurium, it being the gist of Edison's plan to effect +the marking of the chemical paper by one metal with a +positive current, and by the other metal with a negative +current. In the following diagram, which shows the theory +of this arrangement, it will be seen that both the transmitting +rollers and the receiving pins are arranged in pairs, +one pair in each case being slightly in advance of the other. +Of these receiving pins, one pair--1 and 3--are of iron, and +the other pair--2 and 4--of tellurium. Pins 1-2 and 3-4 +are electrically connected together in other pairs, and then +each of these pairs is connected with one of the main lines +that run respectively to the middle of two groups of +batteries at the transmitting end. The terminals of these +groups of batteries are connected respectively to the four +rollers which impinge upon the transmitting drum, the +negatives being connected to 5 and 7, and the positives to 6 +and 8, as denoted by the letters N and P. The transmitting +and receiving drums are respectively connected to earth. + +In operation the perforated tape is placed on the +transmission drum, and the chemically prepared tape on the +receiving drum. As the perforated tape passes over the +transmission drum the advanced rollers 6 or 8 first close +the circuit through the perforations, and a positive current +passes from the batteries through the drum and down to the +ground; thence through the earth at the receiving end up +to the other drum and back to the batteries via the tellurium +pins 2 or 4 and the line wire. With this positive current the +tellurium pins make marks upon the paper tape, but the +iron pins make no mark. In the merest fraction of a second, +as the perforated paper continues to pass over the transmission +drum, the rollers 5 or 7 close the circuit through +other perforations and t e current passes in the opposite +direction, over the line wire, through pins 1 or 3, and +returns through the earth. In this case the iron pins mark +the paper tape, but the tellurium pins make no mark. It +will be obvious, therefore, that as the rollers are set so as to +allow of currents of opposite polarity to be alternately and +rapidly sent by means of the perforations, the marks upon +the tape at the receiving station will occupy their proper +relative positions, and the aggregate result will be letters +corresponding to those perforated in the transmission tape. + +Edison subsequently made still further improvements in +this direction, by which he reduced the number of conducting +wires to one, but the principles involved were analogous +to the one just described. + +This Roman letter system was in use for several years on +lines between New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, +and was so efficient that a speed of three thousand words a +minute was attained on the line between the two first-named +cities. + +Inasmuch as there were several proposed systems of rapid +automatic telegraphy in existence at the time Edison entered +the field, but none of them in practical commercial +use, it becomes a matter of interest to inquire wherein they +were deficient, and what constituted the elements of Edison's +success. + +The chief difficulties in the transmission of Morse +characters had been two in number, the most serious of which +was that on the receiving tape the characters would be +prolonged and run into one another, forming a draggled line and +thus rendering the message unintelligible. This arose from +the fact that, on account of the rapid succession of the electric +impulses, there was not sufficient time between them for +the electric action to cease entirely. Consequently the line +could not clear itself, and became surcharged, as it were; +the effect being an attenuated prolongation of each impulse +as manifested in a weaker continuation of the mark on the +tape, thus making the whole message indistinct. These +secondary marks were called "tailings." + +For many years electricians had tried in vain to overcome +this difficulty. Edison devoted a great deal of thought +and energy to the question, in the course of which he +experimented through one hundred and twenty consecutive +nights, in the year 1873, on the line between New York and +Washington. His solution of the problem was simple but +effectual. It involved the principle of inductive compensation. +In a shunt circuit with the receiving instrument he +introduced electromagnets. The pulsations of current +passed through the helices of these magnets, producing an +augmented marking effect upon the receiving tape, but +upon the breaking of the current, the magnet, in discharging +itself of the induced magnetism, would set up momentarily +a counter-current of opposite polarity. This neutralized +the "tailing" effect by clearing the line between +pulsations, thus allowing the telegraphic characters to be +clearly and distinctly outlined upon the tape. Further +elaboration of this method was made later by the addition +of rheostats, condensers, and local opposition batteries on +long lines. + +The other difficulty above referred to was one that had +also occupied considerable thought and attention of many +workers in the field, and related to the perforating of the +dash in the transmission tape. It involved mechanical +complications that seemed to be insurmountable, and up to the +time Edison invented his perforating machine no really good +method was available. He abandoned the attempt to cut +dashes as such, in the paper tape, but instead punched three +round holes so arranged as to form a triangle. A concrete +example is presented in the illustration below, which shows +a piece of tape with perforations representing the word +"same." + +The philosophy of this will be at once perceived when it +is remembered that the two little wheels running upon the +drum of the transmitting instrument were situated side by +side, corresponding in distance to the two rows of holes. +When a triangle of three holes, intended to form the dash, +reached the wheels, one of them dropped into a lower hole. +Before it could get out, the other wheel dropped into the hole +at the apex of the triangle, thus continuing the connection, +which was still further prolonged by the first wheel dropping +into the third hole. Thus, an extended contact was made, +which, by transmitting a long impulse, resulted in the marking +of a dash upon the receiving tape. + +This method was in successful commercial use for some +time in the early seventies, giving a speed of from three to +four thousand words a minute over a single line, but later +on was superseded by Edison's Roman letter system, above +referred to. + +The subject of automatic telegraphy received a vast +amount of attention from inventors at the time it was in +vogue. None was more earnest or indefatigable than Edison, +who, during the progress of his investigations, took out +thirty-eight patents on various inventions relating thereto, +some of them covering chemical solutions for the receiving +paper. This of itself was a subject of much importance +and a vast amount of research and labor was expended +upon it. In the laboratory note-books there are recorded +thousands of experiments showing that Edison's investigations +not only included an enormous number of chemical +salts and compounds, but also an exhaustive variety of +plants, flowers, roots, herbs, and barks. + +It seems inexplicable at first view that a system of telegraphy +sufficiently rapid and economical to be practically +available for important business correspondence should have +fallen into disuse. This, however, is made clear--so far as +concerns Edison's invention at any rate--in Chapter VIII +of the preceding narrative. + + + +IV + +WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY + + +ALTHOUGH Mr. Edison has taken no active part in the +development of the more modern wireless telegraphy, and +his name has not occurred in connection therewith, the +underlying phenomena had been noted by him many years in +advance of the art, as will presently be explained. The +authors believe that this explanation will reveal a status of +Edison in relation to the subject that has thus far been unknown +to the public. + +While the term "wireless telegraphy," as now applied to +the modern method of electrical communication between distant +points without intervening conductors, is self-explanatory, +it was also applicable, strictly speaking, to the previous +art of telegraphing to and from moving trains, and between +points not greatly remote from each other, and not connected +together with wires. + +The latter system (described in Chapter XXIII and in a +succeeding article of this Appendix) was based upon the +phenomena of electromagnetic or electrostatic induction between +conductors separated by more or less space, whereby +electric impulses of relatively low potential and low frequency +set up in. one conductor were transmitted inductively +across the air to another conductor, and there received +through the medium of appropriate instruments connected +therewith. + +As distinguished from this system, however, modern wireless +telegraphy--so called--has its basis in the utilization of +electric or ether waves in free space, such waves being set up +by electric oscillations, or surgings, of comparatively high +potential and high frequency, produced by the operation of +suitable electrical apparatus. Broadly speaking, these oscillations +arise from disruptive discharges of an induction +coil, or other form of oscillator, across an air-gap, and their +character is controlled by the manipulation of a special type +of circuit-breaking key, by means of which long and short +discharges are produced. The electric or etheric waves +thereby set up are detected and received by another special +form of apparatus more or less distant, without any intervening +wires or conductors. + +In November, 1875, Edison, while experimenting in his +Newark laboratory, discovered a new manifestation of electricity +through mysterious sparks which could be produced +under conditions unknown up to that time. Recognizing +at once the absolutely unique character of the phenomena, +he continued his investigations enthusiastically over two +mouths, finally arriving at a correct conclusion as to the +oscillatory nature of the hitherto unknown manifestations. +Strange to say, however, the true import and practical +applicability of these phenomena did not occur to his mind. +Indeed, it was not until more than TWELVE YEARS AFTERWARD, +in 1887, upon the publication of the notable work of Prof. +H. Hertz proving the existence of electric waves in free space, +that Edison realized the fact that the fundamental principle +of aerial telegraphy had been within his grasp in the winter +of 1875; for although the work of Hertz was more profound +and mathematical than that of Edison, the principle involved +and the phenomena observed were practically identical--in +fact, it may be remarked that some of the methods and experimental +apparatus were quite similar, especially the "dark +box" with micrometer adjustment, used by both in observing +the spark.[25] + + +[25] During the period in which Edison exhibited his lighting system at +the Paris Exposition in 1881, his representative, Mr. Charles Batchelor, +repeated Edison's remarkable experiments of the winter of 1875 for the +benefit of a great number of European savants, using with other apparatus +the original "dark box" with micrometer adjustment. + + + +There is not the slightest intention on the part of the +authors to detract in the least degree from the brilliant work +of Hertz, but, on the contrary, to ascribe to him the honor +that is his due in having given mathematical direction and +certainty to so important a discovery. The adaptation of +the principles thus elucidated and the subsequent development +of the present wonderful art by Marconi, Branly, +Lodge, Slaby, and others are now too well known to call for +further remark at this place. + +Strange to say, that although Edison's early experiments +in "etheric force" called forth extensive comment and +discussion in the public prints of the period, they seemed to +have been generally overlooked when the work of Hertz was +published. At a meeting of the Institution of Electrical +Engineers, held in London on May 16, 1889, at which there +was a discussion on the celebrated paper of Prof. (Sir) Oliver +Lodge on "Lightning Conductors," however; the chairman, +Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), made the following +remarks: + +"We all know how Faraday made himself a cage six feet +in diameter, hung it up in mid-air in the theatre of the +Royal Institution, went into it, and, as he said, lived in it +and made experiments. It was a cage with tin-foil hanging +all round it; it was not a complete metallic enclosing shell. +Faraday had a powerful machine working in the neighborhood, +giving all varieties of gradual working-up and discharges +by `impulsive rush'; and whether it was a sudden +discharge of ordinary insulated conductors, or of Leyden +jars in the neighborhood outside the cage, or electrification +and discharge of the cage itself, he saw no effects on his +most delicate gold-leaf electroscopes in the interior. His attention +was not directed to look for Hertz sparks, or probably +he might have found them in the interior. Edison seems to +have noticed something of the kind in what he called the +etheric force. His name `etheric' may, thirteen years ago, +have seemed to many people absurd. But now we are all +beginning to call these inductive phenomena `etheric.' " + +With these preliminary observations, let us now glance +briefly at Edison's laboratory experiments, of which mention +has been made. + +Oh the first manifestation of the unusual phenomena in +November, 1875, Edison's keenness of perception led him +at once to believe that he had discovered a new force. Indeed, +the earliest entry of this discovery in the laboratory +note-book bore that caption. After a few days of further +experiment and observation, however, he changed it to +"Etheric Force," and the further records thereof (all in Mr. +Batchelor's handwriting) were under that heading. + +The publication of Edison's discovery created considerable +attention at the time, calling forth a storm of general +ridicule and incredulity. But a few scientific men of the +period, whose experimental methods were careful and exact, +corroborated his deductions after obtaining similar phenomena +by repeating his experiments with intelligent precision. +Among these was the late Dr. George M. Beard, a +noted physicist, who entered enthusiastically into the +investigation, and, in addition to a great deal of independent +experiment, spent much time with Edison at his laboratory. +Doctor Beard wrote a treatise of some length on the subject, +in which he concurred with Edison's deduction that the +phenomena were the manifestation of oscillations, or rapidly +reversing waves of electricity, which did not respond to the +usual tests. Edison had observed the tendency of this force +to diffuse itself in various directions through the air and +through matter, hence the name "Etheric" that he had +provisionally applied to it. + +Edison's laboratory notes on this striking investigation +are fascinating and voluminous, but cannot be reproduced +in full for lack of space. In view of the later practical +application of the principles involved, however, the reader will +probably be interested in perusing a few extracts therefrom +as illustrated by facsimiles of the original sketches from the +laboratory note-book. + +As the full significance of the experiments shown by these +extracts may not be apparent to a lay reader, it may be +stated by way of premise that, ordinarily, a current only +follows a closed circuit. An electric bell or electric light is a +familiar instance of this rule. There is in each case an open +(wire) circuit which is closed by pressing the button or turning +the switch, thus making a complete and uninterrupted +path in which the current may travel and do its work. Until +the time of Edison's investigations of 1875, now under +consideration, electricity had never been known to manifest +itself except through a closed circuit. But, as the reader +will see from the following excerpts, Edison discovered a +hitherto unknown phenomenon--namely, that under certain +conditions the rule would be reversed and electricity would +pass through space and through matter entirely unconnected +with its point of origin. In other words, he had found the +forerunner of wireless telegraphy. Had he then realized the +full import of his discovery, all he needed was to increase the +strength of the waves and to provide a very sensitive detector, +like the coherer, in order to have anticipated the principal +developments that came many years afterward. With +these explanatory observations, we will now turn to the +excerpts referred to, which are as follows: + +"November 22, 1875. New Force.--In experimenting +with a vibrator magnet consisting of a bar of Stubb's steel +fastened at one end and made to vibrate by means of a +magnet, we noticed a spark coming from the cores of the +magnet. This we have noticed often in relays, in stock- +printers, when there were a little iron filings between the +armature and core, and more often in our new electric pen, +and we have always come to the conclusion that it was +caused by strong induction. But when we noticed it on this +vibrator it seemed so strong that it struck us forcibly there +might be something more than induction. We now found +that if we touched any metallic part of the vibrator or magnet +we got the spark. The larger the body of iron touched to +the vibrator the larger the spark. We now connected a +wire to X, the end of the vibrating rod, and we found we +could get a spark from it by touching a piece of iron to it, +and one of the most curious phenomena is that if you turn +the wire around on itself and let the point of the wire touch +any other portion of itself you get a spark. By connecting +X to the gas-pipe we drew sparks from the gas-pipes in any +part of the room by drawing an iron wire over the brass jet +of the cock. This is simply wonderful, and a good proof +that the cause of the spark is a TRUE UNKNOWN FORCE." + +"November 23, 1815. New Force.--The following very +curious result was obtained with it. The vibrator shown in +Fig. 1 and battery were placed on insulated stands; and a +wire connected to X (tried both copper and iron) carried +over to the stove about twenty feet distant. When the end +of the wire was rubbed on the stove it gave out splendid +sparks. When permanently connected to the stove, sparks +could be drawn from the stove by a piece of wire held in +the hand. The point X of vibrator was now connected to +the gas-pipe and still the sparks could be drawn from the +stove." + + . . . . . . . . . + + +"Put a coil of wire over the end of rod X and passed the +ends of spool through galvanometer without affecting it in +any way. Tried a 6-ohm spool add a 200-ohm. We now +tried all the metals, touching each one in turn to the point +X." [Here follows a list of metals and the character of spark +obtained with each.] + + . . . . . . . . . + + +"By increasing the battery from eight to twelve cells we +get a spark when the vibrating magnet is shunted with 3 +ohms. Cannot taste the least shock at B, yet between carbon +points the spark is very vivid. As will be seen, X has no +connection with anything. With a glass rod four feet long, well +rubbed with a piece of silk over a hot stove, with a piece +of battery carbon secured to one end, we received vivid +sparks into the carbon when the other end was held in the +hand with the handkerchief, yet the galvanometer, chemical +paper, the sense of shock in the tongue, and a gold-leaf +electroscope which would diverge at two feet from a half- +inch spark plate-glass machine were not affected in the +least by it. + +"A piece of coal held to the wire showed faint sparks. + +"We had a box made thus: whereby two points could be +brought together within a dark box provided with an eyepiece. +The points were iron, and we found the sparks were +very irregular. After testing some time two lead-pencils +found more regular and very much more vivid. We then +substituted the graphite points instead of iron."[26] + + +[26] The dark box had micrometer screws for delicate adjustment of the carbon +points, and was thereafter largely used in this series of investigations for +better study of the spark. When Mr. Edison's experiments were repeated by Mr. +Batchelor, who represented him at the Paris Exposition of 1881, the dark box +was employed for a similar purpose. + + + . . . . . . . . . + + +After recording a considerable number of other experiments, +the laboratory notes go on to state: + + +"November 30, 1875. Etheric Force.--We found the +addition of battery to the Stubb's wire vibrator greatly +increased the volume of spark. Several persons could obtain +sparks from the gas-pipes at once, each spark being equal +in volume and brilliancy to the spark drawn by a single +person.... Edison now grasped the (gas) pipe, and with the +other hand holding a piece of metal, he touched several +other metallic substances, obtained sparks, showing that the +force passed through his body." + +. . . . . . . . . + + +"December 3, 1875. Etheric Force.--Charley Edison +hung to the gas-pipe with feet above the floor, and with a +knife got a spark from the pipe he was hanging on. We now +took the wire from the vibrator in one hand and stood on a +block of paraffin eighteen inches square and six inches thick; +holding a knife in the other hand, we drew sparks from the +stove-pipe. We now tried the crucial test of passing the +etheric current through the sciatic nerve of a frog just killed. +Previous to trying, we tested its sensibility by the current +from a single Bunsen cell. We put in resistance up to +500,000 ohms, and the twitching was still perceptible. We +tried the induced current from our induction coil having one +cell on primary,, the spark jumping about one-fiftieth of an +inch, the terminal of the secondary connected to the frog +and it straightened out with violence. We arranged frog's +legs to pass etheric force through. We placed legs on an +inverted beaker, and held the two ends of the wires on glass +rods eight inches long. On connecting one to the sciatic +nerve and the other to the fleshy part of the leg no movement +could be discerned, although brilliant sparks could be ob- +tained on the graphite points when the frog was in circuit. +Doctor Beard was present when this was tried." + + . . . . . . . . . + + +"December 5, 1875. Etheric Force.--Three persons +grasping hands and standing upon blocks of paraffin twelve +inches square and six thick drew sparks from the adjoining +stove when another person touched the sounder with any +piece of metal.... A galvanoscopic frog giving contractions +with one cell through two water rheostats was then placed +in circuit. When the wires from the vibrator and the gas- +pipe were connected, slight contractions were noted, sometimes +very plain and marked, showing the apparent presence +of electricity, which from the high insulation seemed improbable. +Doctor Beard, who was present, inferred from +the way the leg contracted that it moved on both opening +and closing the circuit. To test this we disconnected the +wire between the frog and battery, and placed, instead of a +vibrating sounder, a simple Morse key and a sounder taking +the `etheric' from armature. The spark was now tested in +dark box and found to be very strong. It was then connected +to the nerves of the frog, BUT NO MOVEMENT OF ANY KIND +COULD BE DETECTED UPON WORKING THE KEY, although the brilliancy +and power of the spark were undiminished. The thought +then occurred to Edison that the movement of the frog was +due to mechanical vibrations from the vibrator (which gives +probably two hundred and fifty vibrations per second), passing +through the wires and irritating the sensitive nerves of +the frog. Upon disconnecting the battery wires and holding +a tuning-fork giving three hundred and twenty-six vibrations +per second to the base of the sounder, the vibrations over +the wire made the frog contract nearly every time.... The +contraction of the frog's legs may with considerable safety +be said to be caused by these mechanical vibrations being +transmitted through the conducting wires." + +Edison thought that the longitudinal vibrations caused +by the sounder produced a more marked effect, and proceeded +to try out his theory. The very next entry in the +laboratory note-book bears the same date as the above +(December 5, 1875), and is entitled "Longitudinal Vibrations," +and reads as follows: + + +"We took a long iron wire one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter +and rubbed it lengthways with a piece of leather with +resin on for about three feet, backward and forward. About +ten feet away we applied the wire to the back of the neck +and it gives a horrible sensation, showing the vibrations +conducted through the wire." + +. . . . . . . . . + +The following experiment illustrates notably the movement +of the electric waves through free space: + + +"December 26, 1875. Etheric Force.--An experiment +tried to-night gives a curious result. A is a vibrator, B, C, +D, E are sheets of tin-foil hung on insulating stands. The +sheets are about twelve by eight inches. B and C are +twenty-six inches apart, C and D forty-eight inches and D +and E twenty-six inches. B is connected to the vibrator +and E to point in dark box, the other point to ground. We +received sparks at intervals, although insulated by such +space." + + +With the above our extracts must close, although we have +given but a few of the interesting experiments tried at the +time. It will be noticed, however, that these records show +much progression in a little over a month. Just after the +item last above extracted, the Edison shop became greatly +rushed on telegraphic inventions, and not many months +afterward came the removal to Menlo Park; hence the +etheric-force investigations were side-tracked for other +matters deemed to be more important at that time. + +Doctor Beard in his previously mentioned treatise refers, +on page 27, to the views of others who have repeated Edison's +experiments and observed the phenomena, and in a foot-note +says: + + +"Professor Houston, of Philadelphia, among others, has +repeated some of these physical experiments, has adopted +in full and after but a partial study of the subject, the +hypothesis of rapidly reversed electricity as suggested in +my letter to the Tribune of December 8th, and further claims +priority of discovery, because he observed the spark of this +when experimenting with a Ruhmkorff coil four years ago. +To this claim, if it be seriously entertained, the obvious reply +is that thousands of persons, probably, had seen this spark +before it was DISCOVERED by Mr. Edison; it had been seen by +Professor Nipher, who supposed, and still supposes, it is the +spark of the extra current; it has been seen by my friend, +Prof. J. E. Smith, who assumed, as he tells me, without +examination, that it was inductive electricity breaking +through bad insulation; it had been seen, as has been stated, +by Mr. Edison many times before he thought it worthy of +study, it was undoubtedly seen by Professor Houston, who, +like so many others, failed to even suspect its meaning and +thus missed an important discovery. The honor of a scientific +discovery belongs, not to him who first sees a thing, but +to him who first sees it with expert eyes; not to him even +who drops an original suggestion, but to him who first makes, +that suggestion fruitful of results. If to see with the eyes +a phenomenon is to discover the law of which that phenomenon +is a part, then every schoolboy who, before the time +of Newton, ever saw an apple fall, was a discoverer of the +law of gravitation...." + + +Edison took out only one patent on long-distance telegraphy +without wires. While the principle involved therein +(induction) was not precisely analogous to the above, or to +the present system of wireless telegraphy, it was a step forward +in the progress of the art. The application was filed +May 23, 1885, at the time he was working on induction +telegraphy (two years before the publication of the work of +Hertz), but the patent (No. 465,971) was not issued until +December 29, 1891. In 1903 it was purchased from him by +the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company. Edison has always +had a great admiration for Marconi and his work, and +a warm friendship exists between the two men. During the +formative period of the Marconi Company attempts were +made to influence Edison to sell this patent to an opposing +concern, but his regard for Marconi and belief in the +fundamental nature of his work were so strong that he refused +flatly, because in the hands of an enemy the patent might be +used inimically to Marconi's interests. + +Edison's ideas, as expressed in the specifications of this +patent, show very clearly the close analogy of his system to +that now in vogue. As they were filed in the Patent Office +several years before the possibility of wireless telegraphy +was suspected, it will undoubtedly be of interest to give the +following extract therefrom: + + +"I have discovered that if sufficient elevation be obtained +to overcome the curvature of the earth's surface and to reduce +to the minimum the earth's absorption, electric telegraphing +or signalling between distant points can be carried +on by induction without the use of wires connecting such +distant points. This discovery is especially applicable to +telegraphing across bodies of water, thus avoiding the use +of submarine cables, or for communicating between vessels +at sea, or between vessels at sea and points on land, but it +is also applicable to electric communication between distant +points on land, it being necessary, however, on land (with +the exception of communication over open prairie) to increase +the elevation in order to reduce to the minimum the +induction-absorbing effect of houses, trees, and elevations in +the land itself. At sea from an elevation of one hundred +feet I can communicate electrically a great distance, and +since this elevation or one sufficiently high can be had by +utilizing the masts of ships, signals can be sent and received +between ships separated a considerable distance, and by +repeating the signals from ship to ship communication can +be established between points at any distance apart or +across the largest seas and even oceans. The collision of +ships in fogs can be prevented by this character of signalling, +by the use of which, also, the safety of a ship in approaching +a dangerous coast in foggy weather can be assured. In +communicating between points on land, poles of great height +can be used, or captive balloons. At these elevated points, +whether upon the masts of ships, upon poles or balloons, +condensing surfaces of metal or other conductor of electricity +are located. Each condensing surface is connected with +earth by an electrical conducting wire. On land this earth +connection would be one of usual character in telegraphy. +At sea the wire would run to one or more metal plates on +the bottom of the vessel, where the earth connection would +be made with the water. The high-resistance secondary +circuit of an induction coil is located in circuit between the +condensing surface and the ground. The primary circuit of +the induction coil includes a battery and a device for transmitting +signals, which may be a revolving circuit-breaker +operated continually by a motor of any suitable kind, either +electrical or mechanical, and a key normally short-circuiting +the circuit-breaker or secondary coil. For receiving signals +I locate in said circuit between the condensing surface and +the ground a diaphragm sounder, which is preferably one of +my electromotograph telephone receivers. The key normally +short-circuiting the revolving circuit-breaker, no impulses +are produced in the induction coil until the key is +depressed, when a large number of impulses are produced in +the primary, and by means of the secondary corresponding +impulses or variations in tension are produced at the elevated +condensing surface, producing thereat electrostatic impulses. +These electrostatic impulses are transmitted inductively to +the elevated condensing surface at the distant point, and are +made audible by the electromotograph connected in the +ground circuit with such distant condensing surface." + + +The accompanying illustrations are reduced facsimiles of +the drawings attached to the above patent, No. 465,971. + + + + +V + +THE ELECTROMOTOGRAPH + +IN solving a problem that at the time was thought to be +insurmountable, and in the adaptability of its principles to +the successful overcoming of apparently insuperable difficulties +subsequently arising in other lines of work, this invention +is one of the most remarkable of the many that +Edison has made in his long career as an inventor. + +The object primarily sought to be accomplished was the +repeating of telegraphic signals from a distance without the +aid of a galvanometer or an electromagnetic relay, to overcome +the claims of the Page patent referred to in the preceding +narrative. This object was achieved in the device +described in Edison's basic patent No. 158,787, issued +January 19, 1875, by the substitution of friction and anti- +friction for the presence and absence of magnetism in a +regulation relay. + +It may be observed, parenthetically, for the benefit of the +lay reader, that in telegraphy the device known as the relay +is a receiving instrument containing an electromagnet +adapted to respond to the weak line-current. Its armature +moves in accordance with electrical impulses, or signals, +transmitted from a distance, and, in so responding, operates +mechanically to alternately close and open a separate local +circuit in which there is a sounder and a powerful battery. +When used for true relaying purposes the signals received +from a distance are in turn repeated over the next section +of the line, the powerful local battery furnishing current for +this purpose. As this causes a loud repetition of the original +signals, it will be seen that relaying is an economic method +of extending a telegraph circuit beyond the natural limits of +its battery power. + +At the time of Edison's invention, as related in Chapter +IX of the preceding narrative, there existed no other known +method than the one just described for the repetition of +transmitted signals, thus limiting the application of +telegraphy to the pleasure of those who might own any patent +controlling the relay, except on simple circuits where a +single battery was sufficient. Edison's previous discovery +of differential friction of surfaces through electrochemical +decomposition was now adapted by him to produce motion +at the end of a circuit without the intervention of an electromagnet. +In other words, he invented a telegraph instrument +having a vibrator controlled by electrochemical +decomposition, to take the place of a vibrating armature +operated by an electromagnet, and thus opened an entirely +new and unsuspected avenue in the art. + +Edison's electromotograph comprised an ingeniously +arranged apparatus in which two surfaces, normally in contact +with each other, were caused to alternately adhere by +friction or slip by reason of electrochemical decomposition. +One of these surfaces consisted of a small drum or cylinder +of chalk, which was kept in a moistened condition with a +suitable chemical solution, and adapted to revolve +continuously by clockwork. The other surface consisted of a +small pad which rested with frictional pressure on the +periphery of the drum. This pad was carried on the end of a +vibrating arm whose lateral movement was limited between +two adjustable points. Normally, the frictional pressure +between the drum and pad would carry the latter with the +former as it revolved, but if the friction were removed a +spring on the end of the vibrator arm would draw it back to +its starting-place. + +In practice, the chalk drum was electrically connected +with one pole of an incoming telegraph circuit, and the +vibrating arm and pad with the other pole. When the drum +rotated, the friction of the pad carried the vibrating arm +forward, but an electrical impulse coming over the line would +decompose the chemical solution with which the drum was +moistened, causing an effect similar to lubrication, and thus +allowing the pad to slip backward freely in response to the +pull of its retractile spring. The frictional movements of +the pad with the drum were comparatively long or short, +and corresponded with the length of the impulses sent in over +the line. Thus, the transmission of Morse dots and dashes +by the distant operator resulted in movements of corresponding +length by the frictional pad and vibrating arm. + +This brings us to the gist of the ingenious way in which +Edison substituted the action of electrochemical decomposition +for that of the electromagnet to operate a relay. +The actual relaying was accomplished through the medium +of two contacts making connection with the local or relay +circuit. One of these contacts was fixed, while the other +was carried by the vibrating arm; and, as the latter made +its forward and backward movements, these contacts were +alternately brought together or separated, thus throwing in +and out of circuit the battery and sounder in the local circuit +and causing a repetition of the incoming signals. The +other side of the local circuit was permanently connected to +an insulated block on the vibrator. This device not only +worked with great rapidity, but was extremely sensitive, +and would respond to currents too weak to affect the most +delicate electromagnetic relay. It should be stated that +Edison did not confine himself to the working of the electromotograph +by the slipping of surfaces through the action of +incoming current, but by varying the character of the surfaces +in contact the frictional effect might be intensified by +the electrical current. In such a case the movements would +be the reverse of those above indicated, but the end sought +--namely, the relaying of messages--would be attained with +the same certainty. + +While the principal object of this invention was to accomplish +the repetition of signals without the aid of an electromagnetic +relay, the instrument devised by Edison was +capable of use as a recorder also, by employing a small wheel +inked by a fountain wheel and attached to the vibrating arm +through suitable mechanism. By means of this adjunct the +dashes and dots of the transmitted impulses could be recorded +upon a paper ribbon passing continuously over the drum. + +The electromotograph is shown diagrammatically in Figs. +1 and 2, in plan and vertical section respectively. The +reference letters in each case indicate identical parts: A +being the chalk drum, B the paper tape, C the auxiliary +cylinder, D the vibrating arm, E the frictional pad, F the +spring, G and H the two contacts, I and J the two wires leading +to local circuit, K a battery, and L an ordinary telegraph +key. The two last named, K and L, are shown to make the +sketch complete but in practice would be at the transmitting +end, which might be hundreds of miles away. It +will be understood, of course, that the electromotograph is +a receiving and relaying instrument. + +Another notable use of the electromotograph principle +was in its adaptation to the receiver in Edison's loud-speaking +telephone, on which United States Patent No. 221,957 +was issued November 25, 1879. A chalk cylinder moistened +with a chemical solution was revolved by hand or a small +motor. Resting on the cylinder was a palladium-faced pen +or spring, which was attached to a mica diaphragm in a +resonator. The current passed from the main line through +the pen to the chalk and to the battery. The sound-waves +impinging upon the distant transmitter varied the resistance +of the carbon button therein, thus causing corresponding +variations in the strength of the battery current. These +variations, passing through the chalk cylinder produced +more or less electrochemical decomposition, which in turn +caused differences of adhesion between the pen and cylinder +and hence gave rise to mechanical vibrations of the diaphragm +by reason of which the speaker's words were reproduced. +Telephones so operated repeated speaking and +singing in very loud tones. In one instance, spoken words +and the singing of songs originating at a distance were heard +perfectly by an audience of over five thousand people. + +The loud-speaking telephone is shown in section, +diagrammatically, in the sketch (Fig. 3), in which A is the chalk +cylinder mounted on a shaft, B. The palladium-faced pen +or spring, C, is connected to diaphragm D. The instrument +in its commercial form is shown in Fig. 4. + + + +VI + +THE TELEPHONE + +ON April 27, 1877, Edison filed in the United States Patent +Office an application for a patent on a telephone, and on +May 3, 1892, more than fifteen years afterward, Patent No. +474,230 was granted thereon. Numerous other patents have +been issued to him for improvements in telephones, but the +one above specified may be considered as the most important +of them, since it is the one that first discloses the principle +of the carbon transmitter. + +This patent embodies but two claims, which are as follows: + + +"1. In a speaking-telegraph transmitter, the combination +of a metallic diaphragm and disk of plumbago or equivalent +material, the contiguous faces of said disk and diaphragm +being in contact, substantially as described. + +"2. As a means for effecting a varying surface contact +in the circuit of a speaking-telegraph transmitter, the combination +of two electrodes, one of plumbago or similar material, +and both having broad surfaces in vibratory contact +with each other, substantially as described." + + +The advance that was brought about by Edison's carbon +transmitter will be more apparent if we glance first at the +state of the art of telephony prior to his invention. + +Bell was undoubtedly the first inventor of the art of transmitting +speech over an electric circuit, but, with his particular +form of telephone, the field was circumscribed. Bell's +telephone is shown in the diagrammatic sectional sketch +(Fig. 1). + +In the drawing M is a bar magnet contained in the rubber +case, L. A bobbin, or coil of wire, B, surrounds one end of +the magnet. A diaphragm of soft iron is shown at D, and +E is the mouthpiece. The wire terminals of the coil, B, +connect with the binding screws, C C. + +The next illustration shows a pair of such telephones +connected for use, the working parts only being designated by +the above reference letters. + +It will be noted that the wire terminals are here put to +their proper uses, two being joined together to form a line +of communication, and the other two being respectively connected +to "ground." + +Now, if we imagine a person at each one of the instruments +(Fig. 2) we shall find that when one of them speaks +the sound vibrations impinge upon the diaphragm and cause +it to act as a vibrating armature. By reason of its vibrations, +this diaphragm induces very weak electric impulses +in the magnetic coil. These impulses, according to Bell's +theory, correspond in form to the sound-waves, and, passing +over the line, energize the magnet coil at the receiving end, +thus giving rise to corresponding variations in magnetism +by reason of which the receiving diaphragm is similarly vibrated +so as to reproduce the sounds. A single apparatus +at each end is therefore sufficient, performing the double +function of transmitter and receiver. It will be noticed that +in this arrangement no battery is used The strength of the +impulses transmitted is therefore limited to that of the +necessarily weak induction currents generated by the original +sounds minus any loss arising by reason of resistance in the +line. + +Edison's carbon transmitter overcame this vital or limiting +weakness by providing for independent power on the transmission +circuit, and by introducing the principle of varying the +resistance of that circuit with changes in the pressure. With +Edison's telephone there is used a closed circuit on which a +battery current constantly flows, and in that circuit is a +pair of electrodes, one or both of which is carbon. These +electrodes are always in contact with a certain initial pressure, +so that current will be always flowing over the circuit. One +of the electrodes is connected with the diaphragm on which +the sound-waves impinge, and the vibrations of this diaphragm +cause corresponding variations in pressure between +the electrodes, and thereby effect similar variations in the +current which is passing over the line to the receiving end. +This current, flowing around the receiving magnet, causes +corresponding impulses therein, which, acting upon its +diaphragm, effect a reproduction of the original vibrations +and hence of the original sounds. + +In other words, the essential difference is that with Bell's +telephone the sound-waves themselves generate the electric +impulses, which are therefore extremely faint. With Edison's +telephone the sound-waves simply actuate an electric +valve, so to speak, and permit variations in a current of any +desired strength. + +A second distinction between the two telephones is this: +With the Bell apparatus the very weak electric impulses generated +by the vibration of the transmitting diaphragm pass +over the entire line to the receiving end, and, in consequence, +the possible length of line is limited to a few miles, even +under ideal conditions. With Edison's telephone the battery +current does not flow on the main line, but passes +through the primary circuit of an induction-coil, from the +secondary of which corresponding impulses of enormously +higher potential are sent out on the main line to the receiving +end. In consequence, the line may be hundreds of miles +in length. No modern telephone system is in use to-day +that does not use these characteristic features: the varying +resistance and the induction-coil. The system inaugurated +by Edison is shown by the diagram (Fig. 3), in which the car- +bon transmitter, the induction-coil, the line, and the distant +receiver are respectively indicated. + +In Fig. 4 an early form of the Edison carbon transmitter is +represented in sectional view. + +The carbon disk is represented by the black portion, E, +near the diaphragm, A, placed between two platinum plates +D and G, which are connected in the battery circuit, as shown +by the lines. A small piece of rubber tubing, B, is attached +to the centre of the metallic diaphragm, and presses lightly +against an ivory piece, F, which is placed directly over one +of the platinum plates. Whenever, therefore, any motion is +given to the diaphragm, it is immediately followed by a +corresponding pressure upon the carbon, and by a change of +resistance in the latter, as described above. + +It is interesting to note the position which Edison occupies +in the telephone art from a legal standpoint. To this end +the reader's attention is called to a few extracts from a +decision of Judge Brown in two suits brought in the United +States Circuit Court, District of Massachusetts, by the American +Bell Telephone Company against the National Telephone +Manufacturing Company, et al., and Century Telephone +Company, et al., reported in Federal Reporter, 109, page 976, +et seq. These suits were brought on the Berliner patent, +which, it was claimed, covered broadly the electrical transmission +of speech by variations of pressure between opposing +electrodes in constant contact. The Berliner patent was +declared invalid, and in the course of a long and exhaustive +opinion, in which the state of art and the work of Bell, Edison, +Berliner, and others was fully discussed, the learned Judge +made the following remarks: "The carbon electrode was the +invention of Edison.... Edison preceded Berliner in the transmission +of speech.... The carbon transmitter was an experimental +invention of a very high order of merit.... Edison, +by countless experiments, succeeded in advancing the art. +. . . That Edison did produce speech with solid electrodes +before Berliner is clearly proven.... The use of carbon in a +transmitter is, beyond controversy, the invention of Edison. +Edison was the first to make apparatus in which carbon was +used as one of the electrodes.... The carbon transmitter +displaced Bell's magnetic transmitter, and, under several +forms of construction, remains the only commercial +instrument.... The advance in the art was due to the carbon +electrode of Edison.... It is conceded that the Edison +transmitter as apparatus is a very important invention.... An +immense amount of painstaking and highly ingenious experiment +preceded Edison's successful result. The discovery of +the availability of carbon was unquestionably invention, +and it resulted in the `first practical success in the art.' " + + + +VII + +EDISON'S TASIMETER + +THIS interesting and remarkable device is one of Edison's +many inventions not generally known to the public at large, +chiefly because the range of its application has been limited +to the higher branches of science. He never applied for a +patent on the instrument, but dedicated it to the public. + +The device was primarily intended for use in detecting and +measuring infinitesimal degrees of temperature, however +remote, and its conception followed Edison's researches on +the carbon telephone transmitter. Its principle depends +upon the variable resistance of carbon in accordance with +the degree of pressure to which it is subjected. By means +of this instrument, pressures that are otherwise inappreciable +and undiscoverable may be observed and indicated. + +The detection of small variations of temperatures is +brought about through the changes which heat or cold will +produce in a sensitive material placed in contact with a +carbon button, which is put in circuit with a battery and +delicate galvanometer. In the sketch (Fig. 1) there is illustrated, +partly in section, the form of tasimeter which Edison +took with him to Rawlins, Wyoming, in July, 1878, on the +expedition to observe the total eclipse of the sun. + +The substance on whose expansion the working of the +instrument depends is a strip of some material extremely +sensitive to heat, such as vulcanite. shown at A, and firmly +clamped at B. Its lower end fits into a slot in a metal plate, +C, which in turn rests upon a carbon button. This latter +and the metal plate are connected in an electric circuit which +includes a battery and a sensitive galvanometer. A vulcanite +or other strip is easily affected by differences of +temperature, expanding and contracting by reason of the +minutest changes. Thus, an infinitesimal variation in its +length through expansion or contraction changes the press- +ure on the carbon and affects the resistance of the circuit +to a corresponding degree, thereby causing a deflection of +the galvanometer; a movement of the needle in one direction +denoting expansion, and in the other contraction. The +strip, A, is first put under a slight pressure, deflecting the +needle a few degrees from zero. Any subsequent expansion +or contraction of the strip may readily be noted by further +movements of the needle. In practice, and for measurements +of a very delicate nature, the tasimeter is inserted in +one arm of a Wheatstone bridge, as shown at A in the +diagram (Fig. 2). The galvanometer is shown at B in the +bridge wire, and at C, D, and E there are shown the resistances +in the other arms of the bridge, which are adjusted to +equal the resistance of the tasimeter circuit. The battery +is shown at F. This arrangement tends to obviate any misleading +deflections that might arise through changes in the battery. + +The dial on the front of the instrument is intended to indicate +the exact amount of physical expansion or contraction +of the strip. This is ascertained by means of a micrometer +screw, S, which moves a needle, T, in front of the dial. +This screw engages with a second and similar screw which +is so arranged as to move the strip of vulcanite up or down. +After a galvanometer deflection has been obtained through +the expansion or contraction of the strip by reason of a +change of temperature, a similar deflection is obtained +mechanically by turning the screw, S, one way or the other. +This causes the vulcanite strip to press more or less upon +the carbon button, and thus produces the desired change +in the resistance of the circuit. When the galvanometer +shows the desired deflection, the needle, T, will indicate upon +the dial, in decimal fractions of an inch, the exact distance +through which the strip has been moved. + +With such an instrument as the above, Edison demonstrated +the existence of heat in the corona at the above- +mentioned total eclipse of the sun, but exact determinations +could not be made at that time, because the tasimeter adjustment +was too delicate, and at the best the galvanometer +deflections were so marked that they could not be kept +within the limits of the +scale. The sensitiveness +of the instrument may +be easily comprehended +when it is stated that +the heat of the hand +thirty feet away from +the cone-like funnel of +the tasimeter will so +affect the galvanometer +as to cause the spot of +light to leave the scale. + +This instrument can also be used to indicate minute changes of +moisture in the air by substituting a strip of gelatine in +place of the vulcanite. When so arranged a moistened +piece of paper held several feet away will cause a minute +expansion of the gelatine strip, which effects a pressure +on the carbon, and causes a variation in the circuit sufficient +to throw the spot of light from the galvanometer mirror off +the scale. + +The tasimeter has been used to demonstrate heat from +remote stars (suns), such as Arcturus. + + + +VIII + +THE EDISON PHONOGRAPH + +THE first patent that was ever granted on a device for +permanently recording the human voice and other sounds, and +for reproducing the same audibly at any future time, was +United States Patent No. 200,251, issued to Thomas A. +Edison on February 19, 1878, the application having been +filed December 24, 1877. It is worthy of note that no references +whatever were cited against the application while +under examination in the Patent Office. This invention +therefore, marked the very beginning of an entirely new +art, which, with the new industries attendant upon its +development, has since grown to occupy a position of worldwide +reputation. + +That the invention was of a truly fundamental character +is also evident from the fact that although all "talking- +machines" of to-day differ very widely in refinement from +the first crude but successful phonograph of Edison, their +performance is absolutely dependent upon the employment +of the principles stated by him in his Patent No. 200,251. +Quoting from the specification attached to this patent, we +find that Edison said: + +"The invention consists in arranging a plate, diaphragm +or other flexible body capable of being vibrated by the +human voice or other sounds, in conjunction with a material +capable of registering the movements of such vibrating +body by embossing or indenting or altering such material, +in such a manner that such register marks will be sufficient to +cause a second vibrating plate or body to be set in motion +by them, and thus reproduce the motions of the first vibrating +body." + +It will be at once obvious that these words describe perfectly +the basic principle of every modern phonograph or +other talking-machine, irrespective of its manufacture or +trade name. + +Edison's first model of the phonograph is shown in the +following illustration. + +It consisted of a metallic cylinder having a helical indenting +groove cut upon it from end to end. This cylinder was +mounted on a shaft supported on two standards. This +shaft at one end was fitted with a handle, by means of which +the cylinder was rotated. There were two diaphragms, one +on each side of the cylinder, one being for recording and the +other for reproducing speech or other sounds. Each diaphragm +had attached to it a needle. By means of the needle +attached to the recording diaphragm, indentations were +made in a sheet of tin-foil stretched over the peripheral sur- +face of the cylinder when the diaphragm was vibrated by +reason of speech or other sounds. The needle on the other +diaphragm subsequently followed these indentations, thus +reproducing the original sounds. + +Crude as this first model appears in comparison with +machines of later development and refinement, it embodied +their fundamental essentials, and was in fact a complete, +practical phonograph from the first moment of its operation. + +The next step toward the evolution of the improved phono- +graph of to-day was another form of tin-foil machine, as seen +in the illustration. + +It will be noted that this was merely an elaborated form +of the first model, and embodied several mechanical +modifications, among which was the employment of only one +diaphragm for recording and reproducing. Such was the +general type of phonograph used for exhibition purposes in +America and other countries in the three or four years +immediately succeeding the date of this invention. + +In operating the machine the recording diaphragm was +advanced nearly to the cylinder, so that as the diaphragm +was vibrated by the voice the needle would prick or indent a +wave-like record in the tin-foil that was on the cylinder. The +cylinder was constantly turned during the recording, and +in turning, was simultaneously moved forward. Thus the +record would be formed on the tin-foil in a continuous spiral +line. To reproduce this record it was only necessary to +again start at the beginning and cause the needle to retrace +its path in the spiral line. The needle, in passing rapidly +in contact with the recorded waves, was vibrated up and +down, causing corresponding vibrations of the diaphragm. +In this way sound-waves similar to those caused by the +original sounds would be set up in the air, thus reproducing +the original speech. + +The modern phonograph operates in a precisely similar +way, the only difference being in details of refinement. In- +stead of tin-foil, a wax cylinder is employed, the record being +cut thereon by a cutting-tool attached to a diaphragm, while +the reproduction is effected by means of a blunt stylus +similarly attached. + +The cutting-tool and stylus are devices made of sapphire, +a gem next in hardness to a diamond, and they have to be +cut and formed to an exact nicety by means of diamond dust, +most of the work being performed under high-powered +microscopes. The minute proportions of these devices will be +apparent by a glance at the accompanying illustrations, in +which the object on the left represents a +common pin, and the objects on the right +the cutting-tool and reproducing stylus, +all actual sizes. + +In the next illustration (Fig. 4) there is +shown in the upper sketch, greatly magnified, +the cutting or recording tool in the +act of forming the record, being vibrated +rapidly by the diaphragm; and in the +lower sketch, similarly enlarged, a representation +of the stylus travelling over the +record thus made, in the act of effecting +a reproduction. + +From the late summer of 1878 and to the fall of 1887 +Edison was intensely busy on the electric light, electric railway, +and other problems, and virtually gave no attention to +the phonograph. Hence, just +prior to the latter-named period +the instrument was still +in its tin-foil age; but he +then began to devote serious +attention to the development +of an improved type that +should be of greater commercial +importance. The practical +results are too well known +to call for further comment. +That his efforts were not limited +in extent may be inferred +from the fact that since the fall of 1887 to the present +writing he has been granted in the United States one hun- +dred and four patents relating to the phonograph and its +accessories. + +Interesting as the numerous inventions are, it would be +a work of supererogation to digest all these patents in the +present pages, as they represent not only the inception but +also the gradual development and growth of the wax-record +type of phonograph from its infancy to the present perfected +machine and records now so widely known all over the world. +From among these many inventions, however, we will select +two or three as examples of ingenuity and importance in their +bearing upon present perfection of results + +One of the difficulties of reproduction for many years was +the trouble experienced in keeping the stylus in perfect en- +gagement with the wave-like record, so that every minute +vibration would be reproduced. It should be remembered +that the deepest cut of the recording tool is only about one- +third the thickness of tissue-paper. Hence, it will be quite +apparent that the slightest inequality in the surface of the +wax would be sufficient to cause false vibration, and thus +give rise to distorted effects in such music or other sounds +as were being reproduced. To remedy this, Edison added +an attachment which is called a "floating weight," and is +shown at A in the illustration above. + +The function of the floating weight is to automatically keep +the stylus in close engagement with the record, thus insuring +accuracy of reproduction. The weight presses the stylus to +its work, but because of its mass it cannot respond to the +extremely rapid vibrations of the stylus. They are therefore +communicated to the diaphragm. + +Some of Edison's most remarkable inventions are revealed +in a number of interesting patents relating to the duplication +of phonograph records. It would be obviously impossible, +from a commercial standpoint, to obtain a musical record +from a high-class artist and sell such an original to the public, +as its cost might be from one hundred to several thousand +dollars. Consequently, it is necessary to provide some way +by which duplicates may be made cheaply enough to permit +their purchase by the public at a reasonable price. + +The making of a perfect original musical or other record +is a matter of no small difficulty, as it requires special technical +knowledge and skill gathered from many years of actual +experience; but in the exact copying, or duplication, of such +a record, with its many millions of microscopic waves and +sub-waves, the difficulties are enormously increased. The +duplicates must be microscopically identical with the original, +they must be free from false vibrations or other defects, +although both original and duplicates are of such easily +defacable material as wax; and the process must be cheap and +commercial not a scientific laboratory possibility. + +For making duplicates it was obviously necessary to first +secure a mold carrying the record in negative or reversed +form. From this could be molded, or cast, positive copies +which would be identical with the original. While the art +of electroplating would naturally suggest itself as the means +of making such a mold, an apparently insurmountable +obstacle appeared on the very threshold. Wax, being a non- +conductor, cannot be electroplated unless a conducting surface +be first applied. The coatings ordinarily used in electro- +deposition were entirely out of the question on account of +coarseness, the deepest waves of the record being less than +one-thousandth of an inch in depth, and many of them probably +ten to one hundred times as shallow. Edison finally +decided to apply a preliminary metallic coating of infinitesimal +thinness, and accomplished this object by a remarkable +process known as the vacuous deposit. With this he ap- +plied to the original record a film of gold probably no thicker +than one three-hundred-thousandth of an inch, or several +hundred times less than the depth of an average wave. +Three hundred such layers placed one on top of the other +would make a sheet no thicker than tissue-paper. + +The process consists in placing in a vacuum two leaves, +or electrodes, of gold, and between them the original record. +A constant discharge of electricity of high tension between +the electrodes is effected by means of an induction-coil. The +metal is vaporized by this discharge, and is carried by it +directly toward and deposited upon the original record, thus +forming the minute film of gold above mentioned. The +record is constantly rotated until its entire surface is coated. +A sectional diagram of the apparatus (Fig. 6.) will aid to a +clearer understanding of this ingenious process. + +After the gold film is formed in the manner described +above, a heavy backing of baser metal is electroplated upon +it, thus forming a substantial mold, from which the original +record is extracted by breakage or shrinkage. + +Duplicate records in any quantity may now be made from +this mold by surrounding it with a cold-water jacket and +dipping it in a molten wax-like material. This congeals on +the record surface just as melted butter would collect on a +cold knife, and when the mold is removed the surplus wax +falls out, leaving a heavy deposit of the material which forms +the duplicate record. Numerous ingenious inventions have +been made by Edison providing for a variety of rapid and +economical methods of duplication, including methods of +shrinking a newly made copy to facilitate its quick removal +from the mold; methods of reaming, of forming ribs on the +interior, and for many other important and essential details, +which limits of space will not permit of elaboration. Those +mentioned above are but fair examples of the persistent and +effective work he has done to bring the phonograph to its +present state of perfection. + +In perusing Chapter X of the foregoing narrative, the +reader undoubtedly noted Edison's clear apprehension of +the practical uses of the phonograph, as evidenced by his +prophetic utterances in the article written by him for the +North American Review in June, 1878. In view of the +crudity of the instrument at that time, it must be acknowl- +edged that Edison's foresight, as vindicated by later events +was most remarkable. No less remarkable was his intensely +practical grasp of mechanical possibilities of future types of +the machine, for we find in one of his early English patents +(No. 1644 of 1878) the disk form of phonograph which, some +ten to fifteen years later, was supposed to be a new development +in the art. This disk form was also covered by Edison's +application for a United States patent, filed in 1879. +This application met with some merely minor technical objections +in the Patent Office, and seems to have passed into +the "abandoned" class for want of prosecution, probably +because of being overlooked in the tremendous pressure +arising from his development of his electric-lighting system. + + + +IX + +THE INCANDESCENT LAMP + + +ALTHOUGH Edison's contributions to human comfort and +progress are extensive in number and extraordinarily vast +and comprehensive in scope and variety, the universal verdict +of the world points to his incandescent lamp and system +of distribution of electrical current as the central and crowning +achievements of his life up to this time. This view +would seem entirely justifiable when we consider the wonderful +changes in the conditions of modern life that have +been brought about by the wide-spread employment of these +inventions, and the gigantic industries that have grown up +and been nourished by their world-wide application. That +he was in this instance a true pioneer and creator is +evident as we consider the subject, for the United States +Patent No. 223,898, issued to Edison on January 27, 1880, +for an incandescent lamp, was of such fundamental character +that it opened up an entirely new and tremendously important +art--the art of incandescent electric lighting. This +statement cannot be successfully controverted, for it has +been abundantly verified after many years of costly litigation. +If further proof were desired, it is only necessary to +point to the fact that, after thirty years of most strenuous +and practical application in the art by the keenest intellects +of the world, every incandescent lamp that has ever since +been made, including those of modern days, is still dependent +upon the employment of the essentials disclosed in the +above-named patent--namely, a filament of high resistance +enclosed in a sealed glass globe exhausted of air, with conducting +wires passing through the glass. + +An incandescent lamp is such a simple-appearing article-- +merely a filament sealed into a glass globe--that its intrinsic +relation to the art of electric lighting is far from being ap- +parent at sight. To the lay mind it would seem that this +must have been THE obvious device to make in order to obtain +electric light by incandescence of carbon or other material. +But the reader has already learned from the preceding +narrative that prior to its invention by Edison such a device +was NOT obvious, even to the most highly trained experts of +the world at that period; indeed, it was so far from being +obvious that, for some time after he had completed practical +lamps and was actually lighting them up twenty-four +hours a day, such a device and such a result were declared +by these same experts to be an utter impossibility. For a +short while the world outside of Menlo Park held Edison's +claims in derision. His lamp was pronounced a fake, a +myth, possibly a momentary success magnified to the dignity +of a permanent device by an overenthusiastic inventor. + +Such criticism, however, did not disturb Edison. He +KNEW that he had reached the goal. Long ago, by a close +process of reasoning, he had clearly seen that the only road +to it was through the path he had travelled, and which was +now embodied in the philosophy of his incandescent lamp-- +namely, a filament, or carbon, of high resistance and small +radiating surface, sealed into a glass globe exhausted of air +to a high degree of vacuum. In originally committing himself +to this line of investigation he was well aware that he +was going in a direction diametrically opposite to that followed +by previous investigators. Their efforts had been confined +to low-resistance burners of large radiating surface for +their lamps, but he realized the utter futility of such devices. +The tremendous problems of heat and the prohibitive quantities +of copper that would be required for conductors for +such lamps would be absolutely out of the question in commercial +practice. + +He was convinced from the first that the true solution of +the problem lay in a lamp which should have as its illuminating +body a strip of material which would offer such a resistance +to the flow of electric current that it could be raised +to a high temperature--incandescence--and be of such small +cross-section that it would radiate but little heat. At the +same time such a lamp must require a relatively small amount +of current, in order that comparatively small conductors +could be used, and its burner must be capable of withstand- +ing the necessarily high temperatures without disintegration. + +It is interesting to note that these conceptions were in +Edison's mind at an early period of his investigations, when +the best expert opinion was that the subdivision of the electric +current was an ignis fatuus. Hence we quote the following +notes he made, November 15, 1878, in one of the +laboratory note-books: + + +"A given straight wire having 1 ohm resistance and certain +length is brought to a given degree of temperature by +given battery. If the same wire be coiled in such a manner +that but one-quarter of its surface radiates, its temperature +will be increased four times with the same battery, or, one- +quarter of this battery will bring it to the temperature of +straight wire. Or the same given battery will bring a wire +whose total resistance is 4 ohms to the same temperature as +straight wire. + +"This was actually determined by trial. + +"The amount of heat lost by a body is in proportion to +the radiating surface of that body. If one square inch of +platina be heated to 100 degrees it will fall to, say, zero in one second, +whereas, if it was at 200 degrees it would require two seconds. + +"Hence, in the case of incandescent conductors, if the +radiating surface be twelve inches and the temperature on +each inch be 100, or 1200 for all, if it is so coiled or arranged +that there is but one-quarter, or three inches, of radiating +surface, then the temperature on each inch will be 400. If +reduced to three-quarters of an inch it will have on that three- +quarters of an inch 1600 degrees Fahr., notwithstanding the original +total amount was but 1200, because the radiation has been reduced +to three-quarters, or 75 units; hence, the effect of the +lessening of the radiation is to raise the temperature of each +remaining inch not radiating to 125 degrees. If the radiating surface +should be reduced to three-thirty-seconds of an inch, the +temperature would reach 6400 degrees Fahr. To carry out this law +to the best advantage in regard to platina, etc., then with a +given length of wire to quadruple the heat we must lessen the +radiating surface to one-quarter, and to do this in a spiral, +three-quarters must be within the spiral and one-quarter +outside for radiating; hence, a square wire or other means, +such as a spiral within a spiral, must be used. These results +account for the enormous temperature of the Electric Arc +with one horse-power; as, for instance, if one horse-power +will heat twelve inches of wire to 1000 degrees Fahr., and this is +concentrated to have one-quarter of the radiating surface, +it would reach a temperature of 4000 degrees or sufficient to melt it; +but, supposing it infusible, the further concentration to one- +eighth its surface, it would reach a temperature of 16,000 degrees, +and to one-thirty-second its surface, which would be about +the radiating surface of the Electric Arc, it would reach +64,000 degrees Fahr. Of course, when Light is radiated in great +quantities not quite these temperatures would be reached. + +"Another curious law is this: It will require a greater +initial battery to bring an iron wire of the same size and +resistance to a given temperature than it will a platina wire +in proportion to their specific heats, and in the case of Carbon, +a piece of Carbon three inches long and one-eighth diameter, +with a resistance of 1 ohm, will require a greater battery +power to bring it to a given temperature than a cylinder +of thin platina foil of the same length, diameter, and resistance, +because the specific heat of Carbon is many times greater; +besides, if I am not mistaken, the radiation of a roughened +body for heat is greater than a polished one like platina." + +Proceeding logically upon these lines of thought and +following them out through many ramifications, we have seen +how he at length made a filament of carbon of high resistance +and small radiating surface, and through a concurrent +investigation of the phenomena of high vacua and occluded +gases was able to produce a true incandescent lamp. Not +only was it a lamp as a mere article--a device to give light-- +but it was also an integral part of his great and complete +system of lighting, to every part of which it bore a fixed and +definite ratio, and in relation to which it was the keystone +that held the structure firmly in place. + +The work of Edison on incandescent lamps did not stop +at this fundamental invention, but extended through more +than eighteen years of a most intense portion of his busy +life. During that period he was granted one hundred and +forty-nine other patents on the lamp and its manufacture. +Although very many of these inventions were of the utmost +importance and value, we cannot attempt to offer a detailed +exposition of them in this necessarily brief article, but must +refer the reader, if interested, to the patents themselves, a +full list being given at the end of this Appendix. +The outline sketch will indicate the principal patents +covering the basic features of the lamp. + +The litigation on the Edison lamp patents was one of the +most determined and stubbornly fought contests in the +history of modern jurisprudence. Vast interests were at +stake. All of the technical, expert, and professional skill +and knowledge that money could procure or experience devise +were availed of in the bitter fights that raged in the +courts for many years. And although the Edison interests +had spent from first to last nearly $2,000,000, and had only +about three years left in the life of the fundamental patent, +Edison was thoroughly sustained as to priority by the decisions +in the various suits. We shall offer a few brief extracts +from some of these decisions. + +In a suit against the United States Electric Lighting Company, +United States Circuit Court for the Southern District +of New York, July 14, 1891, Judge Wallace said, in his opinion: +"The futility of hoping to maintain a burner in vacuo +with any permanency had discouraged prior inventors, and +Mr. Edison is entitled to the credit of obviating the mechanical +difficulties which disheartened them.... He was +the first to make a carbon of materials, and by a process +which was especially designed to impart high specific resistance +to it; the first to make a carbon in the special form +for the special purpose of imparting to it high total resistance; +and the first to combine such a burner with the necessary adjuncts +of lamp construction to prevent its disintegration and +give it sufficiently long life. By doing these things he made +a lamp which was practically operative and successful, the +embryo of the best lamps now in commercial use, and but +for which the subdivision of the electric light by incandescence +would still be nothing but the ignis fatuus which it +was proclaimed to be in 1879 by some of the reamed experts +who are now witnesses to belittle his achievement and show +that it did not rise to the dignity of an invention.... It is +impossible to resist the conclusion that the invention of the +slender thread of carbon as a substitute for the burners +previously employed opened the path to the practical subdivision +of the electric light." + +An appeal was taken in the above suit to the United States +Circuit Court of Appeals, and on October 4, 1892, the decree +of the lower court was affirmed. The judges (Lacombe and +Shipman), in a long opinion reviewed the facts and the art, +and said, inter alia: "Edison's invention was practically +made when he ascertained the theretofore unknown fact that +carbon would stand high temperature, even when very at- +tenuated, if operated in a high vacuum, without the phenomenon +of disintegration. This fact he utilized by the means +which he has described, a lamp having a filamentary carbon +burner in a nearly perfect vacuum." + +In a suit against the Boston Incandescent Lamp Company +et al., in the United States Circuit Court for the District +of Massachusetts, decided in favor of Edison on June 11, +1894, Judge Colt, in his opinion, said, among other things: +"Edison made an important invention; he produced the +first practical incandescent electric lamp; the patent is a +pioneer in the sense of the patent law; it may be said that +his invention created the art of incandescent electric lighting." + +Opinions of other courts, similar in tenor to the foregoing, +might be cited, but it would be merely in the nature of +reiteration. The above are sufficient to illustrate the direct +clearness of judicial decision on Edison's position as the +founder of the art of electric lighting by incandescence. + + + +EDISON'S DYNAMO WORK + +AT the present writing, when, after the phenomenally +rapid electrical development of thirty years, we find on the +market a great variety of modern forms of efficient current +generators advertised under the names of different inventors +(none, however, bearing the name of Edison), a young electrical +engineer of the present generation might well inquire +whether the great inventor had ever contributed anything +to the art beyond a mere TYPE of machine formerly made and +bearing his name, but not now marketed except second hand. + +For adequate information he might search in vain the +books usually regarded as authorities on the subject of +dynamo-electric machinery, for with slight exceptions there +has been a singular unanimity in the omission of writers to +give Edison credit for his great and basic contributions to +heavy-current technics, although they have been universally +acknowledged by scientific and practical men to have laid +the foundation for the efficiency of, and to be embodied in +all modern generators of current. + +It might naturally be expected that the essential facts of +Edison's work would appear on the face of his numerous +patents on dynamo-electric machinery, but such is not +necessarily the case, unless they are carefully studied in the +light of the state of the art as it existed at the time. While +some of these patents (especially the earlier ones) cover +specific devices embodying fundamental principles that not +only survive to the present day, but actually lie at the foundation +of the art as it now exists, there is no revelation +therein of Edison's preceding studies of magnets, which extended +over many years, nor of his later systematic investigations +and deductions. + +Dynamo-electric machines of a primitive kind had been +invented and were in use to a very limited extent for arc +lighting and electroplating for some years prior to the summer +of 1819, when Edison, with an embryonic lighting SYSTEM +in mind, cast about for a type of machine technically and +commercially suitable for the successful carrying out of his +plans. He found absolutely none. On the contrary, all of +the few types then obtainable were uneconomical, indeed +wasteful, in regard to efficiency. The art, if indeed there +can be said to have been an art at that time, was in chaotic +confusion, and only because of Edison's many years' study +of the magnet was he enabled to conclude that insufficiency +in quantity of iron in the magnets of such machines, together +with poor surface contacts, rendered the cost of magnetization +abnormally high. The heating of solid armatures, the +only kind then known, and poor insulation in the commutators, +also gave rise to serious losses. But perhaps the most +serious drawback lay in the high-resistance armature, based +upon the highest scientific dictum of the time that in order +to obtain the maximum amount of work from a machine, +the internal resistance of the armature must equal the resistance +of the exterior circuit, although the application of +this principle entailed the useless expenditure of at least +50 per cent. of the applied energy. + +It seems almost incredible that only a little over thirty +years ago the sum of scientific knowledge in regard to dynamo- +electric machines was so meagre that the experts of the +period should settle upon such a dictum as this, but such +was the fact, as will presently appear. Mechanical generators +of electricity were comparatively new at that time; +their theory and practice were very imperfectly understood; +indeed, it is quite within the bounds of truth to say that the +correct principles were befogged by reason of the lack of +practical knowledge of their actual use. Electricians and +scientists of the period had been accustomed for many years +past to look to the chemical battery as the source from +which to obtain electrical energy; and in the practical +application of such energy to telegraphy and kindred uses, +much thought and ingenuity had been expended in studying +combinations of connecting such cells so as to get the +best results. In the text-books of the period it was stated +as a settled principle that, in order to obtain the maximum +work out of a set of batteries, the internal resistance must +approximately equal the resistance of the exterior circuit. +This principle and its application in practice were quite correct +as regards chemical batteries, but not as regards dynamo +machines. Both were generators of electrical current, but +so different in construction and operation, that rules applicable +to the practical use of the one did not apply with +proper commercial efficiency to the other. At the period +under consideration, which may be said to have been just +before dawn of the day of electric light, the philosophy of +the dynamo was seen only in mysterious, hazy outlines-- +just emerging from the darkness of departing night. Perhaps +it is not surprising, then, that the dynamo was loosely +regarded by electricians as the practical equivalent of a +chemical battery; that many of the characteristics of performance +of the chemical cell were also attributed to it, and +that if the maximum work could be gotten out of a set of +batteries when the internal and external resistances were +equal (and this was commercially the best thing to do), so +must it be also with a dynamo. + +It was by no miracle that Edison was far and away ahead +of his time when he undertook to improve the dynamo. He +was possessed of absolute KNOWLEDGE far beyond that of his +contemporaries. This he ad acquired by the hardest kind +of work and incessant experiment with magnets of all kinds +during several years preceding, particularly in connection +with his study of automatic telegraphy. His knowledge of +magnets was tremendous. He had studied and experimented +with electromagnets in enormous variety, and +knew their peculiarities in charge and discharge, lag, self- +induction, static effects, condenser effects, and the various +other phenomena connected therewith. He had also made +collateral studies of iron, steel, and copper, insulation, winding, +etc. Hence, by reason of this extensive work and knowledge, +Edison was naturally in a position to realize the utter +commercial impossibility of the then best dynamo machine +in existence, which had an efficiency of only about 40 per +cent., and was constructed on the "cut-and-try" principle. + +He was also naturally in a position to assume the task he +set out to accomplish, of undertaking to plan and-build an +improved type of machine that should be commercial in hav- +ing an efficiency of at least 90 per cent. Truly a prodigious +undertaking in those dark days, when from the standpoint +of Edison's large experience the most practical and correct +electrical treatise was contained in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, +and in a German publication which Mr. Upton had +brought with him after he had finished his studies with the +illustrious Helmholtz. It was at this period that Mr. Upton +commenced his association with Edison, bringing to the great +work the very latest scientific views and the assistance of +the higher mathematics, to which he had devoted his attention +for several years previously. + +As some account of Edison's investigations in this connection +has already been given in Chapter XII of the narrative, +we shall not enlarge upon them here, but quote from +An Historical Review, by Charles L. Clarke, Laboratory +Assistant at Menlo Park, 1880-81; Chief Engineer of the +Edison Electric Light Company, 1881-84: + + +"In June, 1879, was published the account of the Edison +dynamo-electric machine that survived in the art. This +machine went into extensive commercial use, and was notable +for its very massive and powerful field-magnets and +armature of extremely low resistance as compared with the +combined external resistance of the supply-mains and lamps. +By means of the large masses of iron in the field-magnets, +and closely fitted joints between the several parts thereof, +the magnetic resistance (reluctance) of the iron parts of the +magnetic circuit was reduced to a minimum, and the required +magnetization effected with the maximum economy. +At the same time Mr. Edison announced the commercial +necessity of having the armature of the dynamo of low resistance, +as compared with the external resistance, in order +that a large percentage of the electrical energy developed +should be utilized in the lamps, and only a small percentage +lost in the armature, albeit this procedure reduced the total +generating capacity of the machine. He also proposed to +make the resistance of the supply-mains small, as compared +with the combined resistance of the lamps in multiple arc, +in order to still further increase the percentage of energy +utilized in the lamps. And likewise to this end the combined +resistance of the generator armatures in multiple arc +was kept relatively small by adjusting the number of generators +operating in multiple at any time to the number of lamps +then in use. The field-magnet circuits of the dynamos were +connected in multiple with a separate energizing source; +and the field-current; and strength of field, were regulated +to maintain the required amount of electromotive force +upon the supply-mains under all conditions of load from the +maximum to the minimum number of lamps in use, and to +keep the electromotive force of all machines alike." + + +Among the earliest of Edison's dynamo experiments were +those relating to the core of the armature. He realized at +once that the heat generated in a solid core was a prolific +source of loss. He experimented with bundles of iron wires +variously insulated, also with sheet-iron rolled cylindrically +and covered with iron wire wound concentrically. These +experiments and many others were tried in a great variety +of ways, until, as the result of all this work, Edison arrived +at the principle which has remained in the art to this day. +He split up the iron core of the armature into thin laminations, +separated by paper, thus practically suppressing Foucault +currents therein and resulting heating effect. It was +in his machine also that mica was used for the first time as +an insulating medium in a commutator.[27] + + +[27] The commercial manufacture of built-up sheets of mica for electrical +purposes was first established at the Edison Machine Works, Goerck Street, +New York, in 1881. + + +Elementary as these principles will appear to the modern +student or engineer, they were denounced as nothing short +of absurdity at the time of their promulgation--especially +so with regard to Edison's proposal to upset the then settled +dictum that the armature resistance should be equal to the +external resistance. His proposition was derided in the +technical press of the period, both at home and abroad. As +public opinion can be best illustrated by actual quotation, +we shall present a characteristic instance. + + +In the Scientific American of October 18, 1879, there appeared +an illustrated article by Mr. Upton on Edison's +dynamo machine, in which Edison's views and claims were +set forth. A subsequent issue contained a somewhat acri- +monious letter of criticism by a well-known maker of dynamo +machines. At the risk of being lengthy, we must quote +nearly all this letter: "I can scarcely conceive it as possible +that the article on the above subject "(Edison's Electric +Generator)" in last week's Scientific American could have +been written from statements derived from Mr. Edison himself, +inasmuch as so many of the advantages claimed for +the machine described and statements of the results obtained +are so manifestly absurd as to indicate on the part of both +writer and prompter a positive want of knowledge of the +electric circuit and the principles governing the construction +and operation of electric machines. + +"It is not my intention to criticise the design or construction +of the machine (not because they are not open to +criticism), as I am now and have been for many years engaged +in the manufacture of electric machines, but rather +to call attention to the impossibility of obtaining the described +results without destroying the doctrine of the conservation +and correlation of forces. + + . . . . . + +"It is stated that `the internal resistance of the armature' +of this machine `is only 1/2 ohm.' On this fact and the +disproportion between this resistance and that of the external +circuit, the theory of the alleged efficiency of the +machine is stated to be based, for we are informed that, +`while this generator in general principle is the same as in +the best well-known forms, still there is an all-important +difference, which is that it will convert and deliver for useful +work nearly double the number of foot-pounds that any +other machine will under like conditions.' " The writer of +this critical letter then proceeds to quote Mr. Upton's statement +of this efficiency: "`Now the energy converted is distributed +over the whole resistance, hence if the resistance of +the machine be represented by 1 and the exterior circuit by +9, then of the total energy converted nine-tenths will be +useful, as it is outside of the machine, and one-tenth is lost +in the resistance of the machine.'" + +After this the critic goes on to say: + +"How any one acquainted with the laws of the electric +circuit can make such statements is what I cannot understand. +The statement last quoted is mathematically absurd. +It implies either that the machine is CAPABLE OF INCREASING +ITS OWN ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE NINE TIMES WITHOUT AN INCREASED +EXPENDITURE OF POWER, or that external resistance is +NOT resistance to the current induced in the Edison machine. + +"Does Mr. Edison, or any one for him, mean to say that +r/n enables him to obtain nE, and that C IS NOT = E / (r/n + R)? +If so +Mr. Edison has discovered something MORE than perpetual +motion, and Mr. Keely had better retire from the field. + +"Further on the writer (Mr. Upton) gives us another example +of this mode of reasoning when, emboldened and +satisfied with the absurd theory above exposed, he endeavors +to prove the cause of the inefficiency of the Siemens and +other machines. Couldn't the writer of the article see that +since C = E/(r + R) that by R/n or by making R = r, the machine +would, according to his theory, have returned more useful +current to the circuit than could be due to the power employed +(and in the ratio indicated), so that there would +actually be a creation of force! + . . . . . . . + +"In conclusion allow me to say that if Mr Edison thinks +he has accomplished so much by the REDUCTION OF THE INTERNAL +RESISTANCE of his machine, that he has much more to do in +this direction before his machine will equal IN THIS RESPECT +others already in the market." + +Another participant in the controversy on Edison's generator +was a scientific gentleman, who in a long article published +in the Scientific American, in November, 1879, gravely +undertook to instruct Edison in the A B C of electrical +principles, and then proceeded to demonstrate mathematically +the IMPOSSIBILITY of doing WHAT EDISON HAD ACTUALLY DONE. This +critic concludes with a gentle rebuke to the inventor for ill- +timed jesting, and a suggestion to furnish AUTHENTIC information! + +In the light of facts, as they were and are, this article is +so full of humor that we shall indulge in a few quotations +It commences in A B C fashion as follows: "Electric machines +convert mechanical into electrical energy.... The +ratio of yield to consumption is the expression of the efficiency +of the machine.... How many foot-pounds of elec- +tricity can be got out of 100 foot-pounds of mechanical +energy? Certainly not more than 100: certainly less.... +The facts and laws of physics, with the assistance of mathematical +logic, never fail to furnish precious answers to +such questions." + +The would-be critic then goes on to tabulate tests of certain +other dynamo machines by a committee of the Franklin +Institute in 1879, the results of which showed that these +machines returned about 50 per cent. of the applied mechanical +energy, ingenuously remarking: "Why is it that +when we have produced the electricity, half of it must slip +away? Some persons will be content if they are told simply +that it is a way which electricity has of behaving. But there +is a satisfactory rational explanation which I believe can be +made plain to persons of ordinary intelligence. It ought to +be known to all those who are making or using machines. +I am grieved to observe that many persons who talk and +write glibly about electricity do not understand it; some even +ignore or deny the fact to be explained." + +Here follows HIS explanation, after which he goes on to +say: "At this point plausibly comes in a suggestion that the +internal part of the circuit be made very small and the external +part very large. Why not (say) make the internal +part 1 and the external 9, thus saving nine-tenths and losing +only one-tenth? Unfortunately, the suggestion is not practical; +a fallacy is concealed in it." + +He then goes on to prove his case mathematically, to his +own satisfaction, following it sadly by condoling with and +a warning to Edison: "But about Edison's electric generator! +. . . No one capable of making the improvements in the +telegraph and telephone, for which we are indebted to Mr. +Edison, could be other than an accomplished electrician. +His reputation as a scientist, indeed, is smirched by the newspaper +exaggerations, and no doubt he will be more careful +in future. But there is a danger nearer home, indeed, among +his own friends and in his very household. + +". . . The writer of page 242" (the original article) "is +probably a friend of Mr. Edison, but possibly, alas! a wicked +partner. Why does he say such things as these? `Mr. Edison +claims that he realizes 90 per cent. of the power applied +to this machine in external work.' . . . Perhaps the writer +is a humorist, and had in his mind Colonel Sellers, etc., +which he could not keep out of a serious discussion; but +such jests are not good. + +"Mr. Edison has built a very interesting machine, and he +has the opportunity of making a valuable contribution to +the electrical arts by furnishing authentic accounts of its +capabilities." + +The foregoing extracts are unavoidably lengthy, but, +viewed in the light of facts, serve to illustrate most clearly +that Edison's conceptions and work were far and away ahead +of the comprehension of his contemporaries in the art, and +that his achievements in the line of efficient dynamo design +and construction were indeed truly fundamental and revolutionary +in character. Much more of similar nature to the +above could be quoted from other articles published elsewhere, +but the foregoing will serve as instances generally +representing all. In the controversy which appeared in the +columns of the Scientific American, Mr. Upton, Edison's +mathematician, took up the question on his side, and answered +the critics by further elucidations of the principles +on which Edison had founded such remarkable and radical +improvements in the art. The type of Edison's first dynamo- +electric machine, the description of which gave rise to the +above controversy, is shown in Fig. 1. + +Any account of Edison's work on the dynamo would be +incomplete did it omit to relate his conception and construction +of the great direct-connected steam-driven generator +that was the prototype of the colossal units which are +used throughout the world to-day. + +In the demonstrating plant installed and operated by him +at Menlo Park in 1880 ten dynamos of eight horse-power +each were driven by a slow-speed engine through a complicated +system of counter-shafting, and, to quote from Mr. +Clarke's Historical Review, "it was found that a considerable +percentage of the power of the engine was necessarily wasted +in friction by this method of driving, and to prevent this +waste and thus increase the economy of his system, Mr. Edison +conceived the idea of substituting a single large dynamo +for the several small dynamos, and directly coupling it with +the driving engine, and at the same time preserve the requisite +high armature speed by using an engine of the high- +speed type. He also expected to realize still further gains +in economy from the use of a large dynamo in place of several +small machines by a more than correspondingly lower +armature resistance, less energy for magnetizing the field, +and for other minor reasons. To the same end, he intended +to supply steam to the engine under a much higher boiler +pressure than was customary in stationary-engine driving +at that time." + +The construction of the first one of these large machines +was commenced late in the year 1880. Early in 1881 it was +completed and tested, but some radical defects in armature +construction were developed, and it was also demonstrated +that a rate of engine speed too high for continuously safe +and economical operation had been chosen. The machine +was laid aside. An accurate illustration of this machine, as +it stood in the engine-room at Menlo Park, is given in Van +Nostrand's Engineering Magazine, Vol. XXV, opposite page +439, and a brief description is given on page 450. + +With the experience thus gained, Edison began, in the +spring of 1881, at the Edison Machine Works, Goerck Street, +New York City, the construction of the first successful machine +of this type. This was the great machine known as +"Jumbo No. 1," which is referred to in the narrative as having +been exhibited at the Paris International Electrical Exposition, +where it was regarded as the wonder of the electrical +world. An intimation of some of the tremendous difficulties +encountered in the construction of this machine has already +been given in preceding pages, hence we shall not now enlarge +on the subject, except to note in passing that the terribly +destructive effects of the spark of self-induction and +the arcing following it were first manifested in this powerful +machine, but were finally overcome by Edison after a strenuous +application of his powers to the solution of the problem. + +It may be of interest, however, to mention some of its +dimensions and electrical characteristics, quoting again from +Mr. Clarke: "The field-magnet had eight solid cylindrical +cores, 8 inches in diameter and 57 inches long, upon each of +which was wound an exciting-coil of 3.2 ohms resistance, +consisting of 2184 turns of No. 10 B. W. G. insulated copper +wire, disposed in six layers. The laminated iron core of the +armature, formed of thin iron disks, was 33 3/4 inches long, +and had an internal diameter of 12 1/2 inches, and an external +diameter of 26 7/16 inches. It was mounted on a 6-inch shaft. +The field-poles were 33 3/4 inches long, and 27 1/2 inches inside +diameter The armature winding consisted of 146 copper +bars on the face of the core, connected into a closed-coil +winding by means of 73 copper disks at each end of the core. +The cross-sectional area of each bar was 0.2 square inch +their average length was 42.7 inches, and the copper end- +disks were 0.065 inch thick. The commutator had 73 sec- +tions. The armature resistance was 0.0092 ohm,[28] of which +0.0055 ohm was in the armature bars and 0.0037 ohm in the +end-disks." An illustration of the next latest type of this +machine is presented in Fig. 2. + + +[28] Had Edison in Upton's Scientific American article in 1879 proposed +such an exceedingly low armature resistance for this immense generator +(although its ratio was proportionate to the original machine), +his critics might probably have been sufficiently indignant +as to be unable to express themselves coherently. + + +The student may find it interesting to look up Edison's +United States Patents Nos. 242,898, 263,133, 263,146, and +246,647, bearing upon the construction of the "Jumbo"; +also illustrated articles in the technical journals of the time, +among which may be mentioned: Scientific American, Vol. +XLV, page 367; Engineering, London, Vol. XXXII, pages +409 and 419, The Telegraphic Journal and Electrical Review, +London, Vol. IX, pages 431-433, 436-446; La Nature, Paris, +9th year, Part II, pages 408-409; Zeitschrift fur Angewandte +Elektricitaatslehre, Munich and Leipsic, Vol. IV, pages 4-14; +and Dredge's Electric Illumination, 1882, Vol. I, page 261. + +The further development of these great machines later on, +and their extensive practical use, are well known and need +no further comment, except in passing it may be noted that +subsequent machines had each a capacity of 1200 lamps of +16 candle-power, and that the armature resistance was still +further reduced to 0.0039 ohm. + +Edison's clear insight into the future, as illustrated by his +persistent advocacy of large direct-connected generating +units, is abundantly vindicated by present-day practice. +His Jumbo machines, of 175 horse-power, so enormous for +their time, have served as prototypes, and have been succeeded +by generators which have constantly grown in size +and capacity until at this time (1910) it is not uncommon +to employ such generating units of a capacity of 14,000 kilowatts, +or about 18,666 horse-power. + +We have not entered into specific descriptions of the +many other forms of dynamo machines invented by Edison, +such as the multipolar, the disk dynamo, and the armature +with two windings, for sub-station distribution; indeed, it is +not possible within our limited space to present even a brief +digest of Edison's great and comprehensive work on the +dynamo-electric machine, as embodied in his extensive ex- +periments and in over one hundred patents granted to him. +We have, therefore, confined ourselves to the indication of +a few salient and basic features, leaving it to the interested +student to examine the patents and the technical literature +of the long period of time over which Edison's labors +were extended. + +Although he has not given any attention to the subject +of generators for many years, an interesting instance of his +incisive method of overcoming minor difficulties occurred +while the present volumes were under preparation (1909). +Carbon for commutator brushes has been superseded by +graphite in some cases, the latter material being found much +more advantageous, electrically. Trouble developed, however, +for the reason that while carbon was hard and would +wear away the mica insulation simultaneously with the +copper, graphite, being softer, would wear away only the +copper, leaving ridges of mica and thus causing sparking +through unequal contact. At this point Edison was asked +to diagnose the trouble and provide a remedy. He suggested +the cutting out of the mica pieces almost to the bottom, +leaving the commutator bars separated by air-spaces. +This scheme was objected to on the ground that particles +of graphite would fill these air-spaces and cause a short- +circuit. His answer was that the air-spaces constituted the +value of his plan, as the particles of graphite falling into them +would be thrown out by the action of centrifugal force as the +commutator revolved. And thus it occurred as a matter of +fact, and the trouble was remedied. This idea was subsequently +adopted by a great manufacturer of generators. + + + +XI + +THE EDISON FEEDER SYSTEM + +TO quote from the preamble of the specifications of United +States Patent No. 264,642, issued to Thomas A. Edison +September 19, 1882: "This invention relates to a method +of equalizing the tension or `pressure' of the current through +an entire system of electric lighting or other translation of +electric force, preventing what is ordinarily known as a +`drop' in those portions of the system the more remote from +the central station...." + +The problem which was solved by the Edison feeder +system was that relating to the equal distribution of current +on a large scale over extended areas, in order that a constant +and uniform electrical pressure could be maintained in every +part of the distribution area without prohibitory expenditure +for copper for mains and conductors. + +This problem had a twofold aspect, although each side +was inseparably bound up in the other. On the one hand +it was obviously necessary in a lighting system that each +lamp should be of standard candle-power, and capable of +interchangeable use on any part of the system, giving the +same degree of illumination at every point, whether near to +or remote from the source of electrical energy. On the other +hand, this must be accomplished by means of a system of +conductors so devised and arranged that while they would +insure the equal pressure thus demanded, their mass and +consequent cost would not exceed the bounds of practical +and commercially economical investment. + +The great importance of this invention can be better understood +and appreciated by a brief glance at the state of the +art in 1878-79, when Edison was conducting the final series +of investigations which culminated in his invention of the +incandescent lamp and SYSTEM of lighting. At this time, and +for some years previously, the scientific world had been working +on the "subdivision of the electric light," as it was then +termed. Some leading authorities pronounced it absolutely +impossible of achievement on any extended scale, while a +very few others, of more optimistic mind, could see no gleam +of light through the darkness, but confidently hoped for +future developments by such workers as Edison. + +The earlier investigators, including those up to the period +above named, thought of the problem as involving the subdivision +of a FIXED UNIT of current, which, being sufficient to +cause illumination by one large lamp, might be divided into +a number of small units whose aggregate light would equal +the candle-power of this large lamp. It was found, however, +in their experiments that the contrary effect was produced, +for with every additional lamp introduced in the +circuit the total candle-power decreased instead of increasing. +If they were placed in series the light varied inversely as +the SQUARE of the number of lamps in circuit; while if they +were inserted in multiple arc, the light diminished as the +CUBE of the number in circuit.[29] The idea of maintaining a +constant potential and of PROPORTIONING THE CURRENT to the +number of lamps in circuit did not occur to most of these +early investigators as a feasible method of overcoming the +supposed difficulty. + + +[29] M. Fontaine, in his book on Electric Lighting (1877), showed that with +the current of a battery composed of sixteen elements, one lamp gave an +illumination equal to 54 burners; whereas two similar lamps, if introduced +in parallel or multiple arc, gave the light of only 6 1/2 burners in all; +three lamps of only 2 burners in all; four lamps of only 3/4 of one burner, +and five lamps of 1/4 of a burner. + + +It would also seem that although the general method of +placing experimental lamps in multiple arc was known at +this period, the idea of "drop" of electrical pressure was +imperfectly understood, if, indeed, realized at all, as a most +important item to be considered in attempting the solution +of the problem. As a matter of fact, the investigators preceding +Edison do not seem to have conceived the idea of a +"system" at all; hence it is not surprising to find them far +astray from the correct theory of subdivision of the electric +current. It may easily be believed that the term "subdivision" +was a misleading one to these early experimenters. +For a very short time Edison also was thus misled, but as +soon as he perceived that the problem was one involving the +MULTIPLICATION OF CURRENT UNITS, his broad conception of a +"system" was born. + +Generally speaking, all conductors of electricity offer more +or less resistance to the passage of current through them +and in the technical terminology of electrical science the +word "drop" (when used in reference to a system of distribution) +is used to indicate a fall or loss of initial electrical +pressure arising from the resistance offered by the copper +conductors leading from the source of energy to the lamps. +The result of this resistance is to convert or translate a +portion of the electrical energy into another form--namely, +heat, which in the conductors is USELESS and wasteful and to +some extent inevitable in practice, but is to be avoided and +remedied as far as possible. + +It is true that in an electric-lighting system there is also +a fall or loss of electrical pressure which occurs in overcoming +the much greater resistance of the filament in an +incandescent lamp. In this case there is also a translation +of the energy, but here it accomplishes a USEFUL purpose, as +the energy is converted into the form of light through the +incandescence of the filament. Such a conversion is called +"work" as distinguished from "drop," although a fall of +initial electrical pressure is involved in each case. + +The percentage of "drop" varies according to the quantity +of copper used in conductors, both as to cross-section and +length. The smaller the cross-sectional area, the greater the +percentage of drop. The practical effect of this drop would +be a loss of illumination in the lamps as we go farther away +from the source of energy. This may be illustrated by a +simple diagram in which G is a generator, or source of energy, +furnishing current at a potential or electrical pressure of +110 volts; 1 and 2 are main conductors, from which 110-volt +lamps, L, are taken in derived circuits. It will be understood +that the circuits represented in Fig. 1 are theoretically +supposed to extend over a large area. The main conductors +are sufficiently large in cross-section to offer but little +resistance in those parts which are comparatively near the +generator, but as the current traverses their extended +length there is a gradual increase of resistance to overcome, +and consequently the drop increases, as shown by the figures. +The result of the drop in such a case would be that while the +two lamps, or groups, nearest the generator would be burning +at their proper degree of illumination, those beyond would +give lower and lower candle-power, successively, until the +last lamp, or group, would be giving only about two-thirds +the light of the first two. In other words, a very slight drop +in voltage means a disproportionately great loss in illumination. +Hence, by using a primitive system of distribution, +such as that shown by Fig. 1, the initial voltage would have +to be so high, in order to obtain the proper candle-power at +the end of the circuit, that the lamps nearest the generator +would be dangerously overheated. It might be suggested +as a solution of this problem that lamps of different voltages +could be used. But, as we are considering systems of extended +distribution employing vast numbers of lamps (as in +New York City, where millions are in use), it will be seen that +such a method would lead to inextricable confusion, and +therefore be absolutely out of the question. Inasmuch as +the percentage of drop decreases in proportion to the increased +cross-section of the conductors, the only feasible plan +would seem to be to increase their size to such dimensions +as to eliminate the drop altogether, beginning with conductors +of large cross-section and tapering off as necessary. +This would, indeed, obviate the trouble, but, on the other +hand, would give rise to a much more serious difficulty-- +namely, the enormous outlay for copper; an outlay so great +as to be absolutely prohibitory in considering the electric +lighting of large districts, as now practiced. + +Another diagram will probably make this more clear. +The reference figures are used as before, except that the +horizontal lines extending from square marked G represent +the main conductors. As each lamp requires and takes its +own proportion of the total current generated, it is obvious +that the size of the conductors to carry the current for a +number of lamps must be as large as the sum of ALL the +separate conductors which would be required to carry the +necessary amount of current to each lamp separately. +Hence, in a primitive multiple-arc system, it was found that +the system must have conductors of a size equal to the +aggregate of the individual conductors necessary for every +lamp. Such conductors might either be separate, as shown +above (Fig. 2), or be bunched together, or made into a solid +tapering conductor, as shown in the following figure: + +The enormous mass of copper needed in such a system +can be better appreciated by a concrete example. Some +years ago Mr. W. J. Jenks made a comparative calculation +which showed that such a system of conductors (known as +the "Tree" system), to supply 8640 lamps in a territory +extending over so small an area as nine city blocks, would +require 803,250 pounds of copper, which at the then price of +25 cents per pound would cost $200,812.50! + +Such, in brief, was the state of the art, generally speaking, +at the period above named (1878-79). As early in the art +as the latter end of the year 1878, Edison had developed his +ideas sufficiently to determine that the problem of electric +illumination by small units could be solved by using incandescent +lamps of high resistance and small radiating surface, +and by distributing currents of constant potential +thereto in multiple arc by means of a ramification of conductors, +starting from a central source and branching therefrom +in every direction. This was an equivalent of the +method illustrated in Fig. 3, known as the "Tree" system, +and was, in fact, the system used by Edison in the first and +famous exhibition of his electric light at Menlo Park around +the Christmas period of 1879. He realized, however, that +the enormous investment for copper would militate against +the commercial adoption of electric lighting on an extended +scale. His next inventive step covered the division of a large +city district into a number of small sub-stations supplying +current through an interconnected network of conductors, thus +reducing expenditure for copper to some extent, because each +distribution unit was small and limited the drop. + +His next development was the radical advancement of the +state of the art to the feeder system, covered by the patent +now under discussion. This invention swept away the tree and +other systems, and at one bound brought into being the possibility +of effectively distributing large currents over extended +areas with a commercially reasonable investment for copper. + +The fundamental principles of this invention were, first, +to sever entirely any direct connection of the main conductors +with the source of energy; and, second, to feed current +at a constant potential to central points in such main +conductors by means of other conductors, called "feeders," +which were to be connected directly with the source of energy +at the central station. This idea will be made more clear by +reference to the following simple diagram, in which the same +letters are used as before, with additions: + +In further elucidation of the diagram, it may be considered +that the mains are laid in the street along a city +block, more or less distant from the station, while the feeders +are connected at one end with the source of energy at the +station, their other extremities being connected to the mains +at central points of distribution. Of course, this system +was intended to be applied in every part of a district to be +supplied with current, separate sets of feeders running out +from the station to the various centres. The distribution +mains were to be of sufficiently large size that between their +most extreme points the loss would not be more than 3 volts. +Such a slight difference would not make an appreciable +variation in the candle-power of the lamps. + +By the application of these principles, the inevitable but +useless loss, or "drop," required by economy might be incurred, +but was LOCALIZED IN THE FEEDERS, where it would not +affect the uniformity of illumination of the lamps in any of +the circuits, whether near to or remote from the station, +because any variations of loss in the feeders would not give +rise to similar fluctuations in any lamp circuit. The feeders +might be operated at any desired percentage of loss that +would realize economy in copper, so long as they delivered +current to the main conductors at the potential represented +by the average voltage of the lamps. + +Thus the feeders could be made comparatively small in +cross-section. It will be at once appreciated that, inasmuch +as the mains required to be laid ONLY along the blocks to be +lighted, and were not required to be run all the way to the +central station (which might be half a mile or more away), +the saving of copper by Edison's feeder system was enormous. +Indeed, the comparative calculation of Mr. Jenks, +above referred to, shows that to operate the same number +of lights in the same extended area of territory, the feeder +system would require only 128,739 pounds of copper, which, +at the then price of 25 cents per pound, would cost only +$39,185, or A SAVING of $168,627.50 for copper in this very +small district of only nine blocks. + +An additional illustration, appealing to the eye, is +presented in the following sketch, in which the comparative +masses of copper of the tree and feeder systems for carrying +the same current are shown side by side: + + + +XII + +THE THREE-WIRE SYSTEM + +THIS invention is covered by United States Patent No. +274,290, issued to Edison on March 20, 1883. The object +of the invention was to provide for increased economy in the +quantity of copper employed for the main conductors in +electric light and power installations of considerable extent +at the same time preserving separate and independent control +of each lamp, motor, or other translating device, upon +any one of the various distribution circuits. + +Immediately prior to this invention the highest state of +the art of electrical distribution was represented by Edison's +feeder system, which has already been described as a straight +parallel or multiple-arc system wherein economy of copper +was obtained by using separate sets of conductors--minus +load--feeding current at standard potential or electrical +pressure into the mains at centres of distribution. + +It should be borne in mind that the incandescent lamp +which was accepted at the time as a standard (and has so +remained to the present day) was a lamp of 110 volts or +thereabouts. In using the word "standard," therefore, it +is intended that the same shall apply to lamps of about that +voltage, as well as to electrical circuits of the approximate +potential to operate them. + +Briefly stated, the principle involved in the three-wire +system is to provide main circuits of double the standard +potential, so as to operate standard lamps, or other translating +devices, in multiple series of two to each series; and +for the purpose of securing independent, individual control +of each unit, to divide each main circuit into any desired +number of derived circuits of standard potential (properly +balanced) by means of a central compensating conductor +which would be normally neutral, but designed to carry any +minor excess of current that might flow by reason of any +temporary unbalancing of either side of the main circuit. + +Reference to the following diagrams will elucidate this +principle more clearly than words alone can do. For the +purpose of increased lucidity we will first show a plain +multiple-series system. + +In this diagram G<1S> and G<2S> represent two generators, each +producing current at a potential of 110 volts. By connect- +ing them in series this potential is doubled, thus providing +a main circuit (P and N) of 220 volts. The figures marked +L represent eight lamps of 110 volts each, in multiple series +of two, in four derived circuits. The arrows indicate the +flow of current. By this method each pair of lamps takes, +together, only the same quantity or volume of current +required by a single lamp in a simple multiple-arc system; +and, as the cross-section of a conductor depends upon the +quantity of current carried, such an arrangement as the +above would allow the use of conductors of only one-fourth +the cross-section that would be otherwise required. From +the standpoint of economy of investment such an arrangement +would be highly desirable, but considered commercially +it is impracticable because the principle of independent +control of each unit would be lost, as the turning out of a lamp +in any series would mean the extinguishment of its +companion also. By referring to the diagram it will be seen +that each series of two forms one continuous path between +the main conductors, and if this path be broken at any one +point current will immediately cease to flow in that particular +series. + +Edison, by his invention of the three-wire system, over- +came this difficulty entirely, and at the same time conserved +approximately, the saving of copper, as will be apparent +from the following illustration of that system, in its simplest +form. + +The reference figures are similar to those in the preceding +diagram, and all conditions are also alike except that a +central compensating, or balancing, conductor, PN, is here +introduced. This is technically termed the "neutral" wire, +and in the discharge of its functions lies the solution of the +problem of economical distribution. Theoretically, a three- +wire installation is evenly balanced by wiring for an equal +number of lamps on both sides. If all these lamps were +always lighted, burned, and extinguished simultaneously the +central conductor would, in fact, remain neutral, as there +would be no current passing through it, except from lamp +to lamp. In practice, however, no such perfect conditions +can obtain, hence the necessity of the provision for balancing +in order to maintain the principle of independent control of +each unit. + +It will be apparent that the arrangement shown in Fig. 2 +comprises practically two circuits combined in one system, +in which the central conductor, PN, in case of emergency, +serves in two capacities--namely, as negative to generator +G<1S> or as positive to generator G<2S>, although normally neutral. +There are two sides to the system, the positive side being +represented by the conductors P and PN, and the negative +side by the conductors PN and N. Each side, if considered +separately, has a potential of about 110 volts, yet the potential +of the two outside conductors, P and N, is 220 volts. +The lamps are 110 volts. + +In practical use the operation of the system is as follows: +If all the lamps were lighted the current would flow along +P and through each pair of lamps to N, and so back to the +source of energy. In this case the balance is preserved and +the central wire remains neutral, as no return current flows +through it to the source of energy. But let us suppose that +one lamp on the positive side is extinguished. None of the +other lamps is affected thereby, but the system is immediately +thrown out of balance, and on the positive side there +is an excess of current to this extent which flows along or +through the central conductor and returns to the generator, +the central conductor thus becoming the negative of that +side of the system for the time being. If the lamp extinguished +had been one of those on the negative side of the +system results of a similar nature would obtain, except that +the central conductor would for the time being become the +positive of that side, and the excess of current would flow +through the negative, N, back to the source of energy. Thus +it will be seen that a three-wire system, considered as a +whole, is elastic in that it may operate as one when in balance +and as two when unbalanced, but in either event giving independent +control of each unit. + +For simplicity of illustration a limited number of circuits, +shown in Fig. 2, has been employed. In practice, however, +where great numbers of lamps are in use (as, for instance, +in New York City, where about 7,000,000 lamps are operated +from various central stations), there is constantly occurring +more or less change in the balance of many circuits extending +over considerable distances, but of course there is a net +result which is always on one side of the system or the other +for the time being, and this is met by proper adjustment at +the appropriate generator in the station. + +In order to make the explanation complete, there is presented +another diagram showing a three-wire system unbalanced: + +The reference figures are used as before, but in this case +the vertical lines represent branches taken from the main +conductors into buildings or other spaces to be lighted, and +the loops between these branch wires represent lamps in +operation. It will be seen from this sketch that there are +ten lamps on the positive side and twelve on the negative +side. Hence, the net result is an excess of current equal +to that required by two lamps flowing through the central +or compensating conductor, which is now acting as positive +to generator G<2S> The arrows show the assumed direction of +flow of current throughout the system, and the small figures +at the arrow-heads the volume of that current expressed in +the number of lamps which it supplies. + +The commercial value of this invention may be appreciated +from the fact that by the application of its principles +there is effected a saving of 62 1/2 per cent. of the amount of +copper over that which would be required for conductors +in any previously devised two-wire system carrying the same +load. This arises from the fact that by the doubling of +potential the two outside mains are reduced to one-quarter +the cross-section otherwise necessary. A saving of 75 per +cent. would thus be assured, but the addition of a third, or +compensating, conductor of the same cross-section as one +of the outside mains reduces the total saving to 62 1/2 per cent. + +The three-wire system is in universal use throughout the +world at the present day. + + + +XIII + +EDISON'S ELECTRIC RAILWAY + +AS narrated in Chapter XVIII, there were two electric +railroads installed by Edison at Menlo Park--one in 1880, +originally a third of a mile long, but subsequently increased +to about a mile in length, and the other in 1882, about three +miles long. As the 1880 road was built very soon after +Edison's notable improvements in dynamo machines, and as +the art of operating them to the best advantage was then being +developed, this early road was somewhat crude as compared +with the railroad of 1882; but both were practicable and +serviceable for the purpose of hauling passengers and freight. +The scope of the present article will be confined to a +description of the technical details of these two installations. + +The illustration opposite page 454 of the preceding narrative +shows the first Edison locomotive and train of 1880 at +Menlo Park. + +For the locomotive a four-wheel iron truck was used, and +upon it was mounted one of the long "Z" type 110-volt +Edison dynamos, with a capacity of 75 amperes, which was +to be used as a motor. This machine was laid on its side, +its armature being horizontal and located toward the front +of the locomotive. + +We now quote from an article by Mr. E. W. Hammer, +published in the Electrical World, New York, June 10, 1899, +and afterward elaborated and reprinted in a volume entitled +Edisonia, compiled and published under the auspices of a +committee of the Association of Edison Illuminating Companies, +in 1904: "The gearing originally employed consisted +of a friction-pulley upon the armature shaft, another friction- +pulley upon the driven axle, and a third friction-pulley which +could be brought in contact with the other two by a suitable +lever. Each wheel of the locomotive was made with +metallic rim and a centre portion made of wood or papier- +mache. A three-legged spider connected the metal rim of +each front wheel to a brass hub, upon which rested a collecting +brush. The other wheels were subsequently so equipped. +It was the intention, therefore, that the current should enter +the locomotive wheels at one side, and after passing through +the metal spiders, collecting brushes and motor, would pass +out through the corresponding brushes, spiders, and wheels +to the other rail." + +As to the road: "The rails were light and were spiked to +ordinary sleepers, with a gauge of about three and one-half +feet. The sleepers were laid upon the natural grade, and +there was comparatively no effort made to ballast the road. +. . . No special precautions were taken to insulate the rails +from the earth or from each other." + +The road started about fifty feet away from the generating +station, which in this case was the machine shop. Two +of the "Z" type dynamos were used for generating the current, +which was conveyed to the two rails of the road by +underground conductors. + +On Thursday, May 13, 1880, at 4 o'clock in the afternoon, +this historic locomotive made its first trip, packed with as +many of the "boys" as could possibly find a place to hang +on. "Everything worked to a charm, until, in starting up +at one end of the road, the friction gearing was brought into +action too suddenly and it was wrecked. This accident +demonstrated that some other method of connecting the +armature with the driven axle should be arranged. + +"As thus originally operated, the motor had its field circuit +in permanent connection as a shunt across the rails, +and this field circuit was protected by a safety-catch made +by turning up two bare ends of the wire in its circuit and +winding a piece of fine copper wire across from one bare +end to the other. The armature circuit had a switch in it +which permitted the locomotive to be reversed by reversing +the direction of current flow through the armature. + +"After some consideration of the gearing question, it was +decided to employ belts instead of the friction-pulleys." +Accordingly, Edison installed on the locomotive a system of +belting, including an idler-pulley which was used by means +of a lever to tighten the main driving-belt, and thus power +was applied to the driven axle. This involved some slipping +and consequent burning of belts; also, if the belt were +prematurely tightened, the burning-out of the armature. This +latter event happened a number of times, "and proved to +be such a serious annoyance that resistance-boxes were +brought out from the laboratory and placed upon the locomotive +in series with the armature. This solved the difficulty. +The locomotive would be started with these resistance-boxes +in circuit, and after reaching full speed the operator could +plug the various boxes out of circuit, and in that way increase +the speed." To stop, the armature circuit was opened +by the main switch and the brake applied. + +This arrangement was generally satisfactory, but the +resistance-boxes scattered about the platform and foot-rests +being in the way, Edison directed that some No. 8 B. & S. +copper wire be wound on the lower leg of the motor field- +magnet. "By doing this the resistance was put where it +would take up the least room, and where it would serve as +an additional field-coil when starting the motor, and it +replaced all the resistance-boxes which had heretofore been +in plain sight. The boxes under the seat were still retained +in service. The coil of coarse wire was in series with the +armature, just as the resistance-boxes had been, and could +be plugged in or out of circuit at the will of the locomotive +driver. The general arrangement thus secured was operated +as long as this road was in commission." + +On this short stretch of road there were many sharp curves +and steep grades, and in consequence of the high speed attained +(as high as forty-two miles an hour) several derailments +took place, but fortunately without serious results. +Three cars were in service during the entire time of operating +this 1880 railroad: one a flat-car for freight; one an open +car with two benches placed back to back; and the third +a box-car, familiarly known as the "Pullman." This latter +car had an interesting adjunct in an electric braking system +(covered by Edison's Patent No. 248,430). "Each car axle had +a large iron disk mounted on and revolving with it between +the poles of a powerful horseshoe electromagnet. The pole- +pieces of the magnet were movable, and would be attracted +to the revolving disk when the magnet was energized, grasping +the same and acting to retard the revolution of the car axle." + +Interesting articles on Edison's first electric railroad were +published in the technical and other papers, among which +may be mentioned the New York Herald, May 15 and July +23, 1880; the New York Graphic, July 27, 1880; and the +Scientific American, June 6, 1880. + +Edison's second electric railroad of 1882 was more pretentious +as regards length, construction, and equipment. It +was about three miles long, of nearly standard gauge, and +substantially constructed. Curves were modified, and grades +eliminated where possible by the erection of numerous +trestles. This road also had some features of conventional +railroads, such as sidings, turn-tables, freight platform, and +car-house. "Current was supplied to the road by underground +feeder cables from the dynamo-room of the laboratory. +The rails were insulated from the ties by giving them +two coats of japan, baking them in the oven, and then placing +them on pads of tar-impregnated muslin laid on the ties. +The ends of the rails were not japanned, but were electroplated, +to give good contact surfaces for fish-plates and copper +bonds." + +The following notes of Mr. Frederick A. Scheffler, who designed +the passenger locomotive for the 1882 road, throw +an interesting light on its technical details: + + +"In May, 1881, I was engaged by Mr. M. F. Moore, who +was the first General Manager of the Edison Company for +Isolated Lighting, as a draftsman to undertake the work of +designing and building Edison's electric locomotive No. 2. + +"Previous to that time I had been employed in the engineering +department of Grant Locomotive Works, Paterson, +New Jersey, and the Rhode Island Locomotive Works, +Providence, Rhode Island.... + +"It was Mr. Edison's idea, as I understood it at that time, +to build a locomotive along the general lines of steam locomotives +(at least, in outward appearance), and to combine +in that respect the framework, truck, and other parts +known to be satisfactory in steam locomotives at the same +time. + +"This naturally required the services of a draftsman accustomed +to steam-locomotive practice.... Mr. Moore was +a man of great railroad and locomotive experience, and his +knowledge in that direction was of great assistance in the +designing and building of this locomotive. + +"At that time I had no knowledge of electricity.... One +could count so-called electrical engineers on his fingers then, +and have some fingers left over. + +"Consequently, the ELECTRICAL equipment was designed by +Mr. Edison and his assistants. The data and parts, such as +motor, rheostat, switches, etc., were given to me, and my +work was to design the supporting frame, axles, countershafts, +driving mechanism, speed control, wheels and boxes, +cab, running board, pilot (or `cow-catcher'), buffers, and even +supports for the headlight. I believe I also designed a bell +and supports. From this it will be seen that the locomotive +had all the essential paraphernalia to make it LOOK like a +steam locomotive. + +"The principal part of the outfit was the electric motor. +At that time motors were curiosities. There were no electric +motors even for stationary purposes, except freaks built for +experimental uses. This motor was made from the parts-- +such as fields, armature, commutator, shaft and bearings, +etc., of an Edison "Z," or 60-light dynamo. It was the only +size of dynamo that the Edison Company had marketed at +that time.... As a motor, it was wound to run at maximum +speed to develop a torque equal to about fifteen horse-power +with 220 volts. At the generating station at Menlo Park +four Z dynamos of 110 volts were used, connected two in +series, in multiple arc, giving a line voltage of 220. + +"The motor was located in the front part of the locomotive, +on its side, with the armature shaft across the frames, or +parallel with the driving axles. + +"On account of the high speed of the armature shaft it +was not possible to connect with driving-axles direct, but +this was an advantage in one way, as by introducing an +intermediate counter-shaft (corresponding to the well-known +type of double-reduction motor used on trolley-cars since +1885), a fairly good arrangement was obtained to regulate +the speed of the locomotive, exclusive of resistance in the +electric circuit. + +"Endless leather belting was used to transmit the power +from the motor to the counter-shaft, and from the latter to +the driving-wheels, which were the front pair. A vertical +idler-pulley was mounted in a frame over the belt from +motor to counter-shaft, terminating in a vertical screw and +hand-wheel for tightening the belt to increase speed, or the +reverse to lower speed. This hand-wheel was located in the +cab, where it was easily accessible.... + +"The rough outline sketched below shows the location +of motor in relation to counter-shaft, belting, driving-wheels, +idler, etc.: + +"On account of both rails being used for circuits, . . . the +driving-wheels had to be split circumferentially and completely +insulated from the axles. This was accomplished by +means of heavy wood blocks well shellacked or otherwise +treated to make them water and weather proof, placed radially +on the inside of the wheels, and then substantially bolted +to the hubs and rims of the latter. + +"The weight of the locomotive was distributed over the +driving-wheels in the usual locomotive practice by means +of springs and equalizers. + +"The current was taken from the rims of the driving-wheels +by a three-pronged collector of brass, against which flexible +copper brushes were pressed--a simple manner of overcoming +any inequalities of the road-bed. + +"The late Mr. Charles T. Hughes was in charge of the +track construction at Menlo Park.... His work was excellent +throughout, and the results were highly satisfactory so far +as they could possibly be with the arrangement originally +planned by Mr. Edison and his assistants. + +"Mr. Charles L. Clarke, one of the earliest electrical +engineers employed by Mr. Edison, made a number of tests +on this 1882 railroad. I believe that the engine driving the +four Z generators at the power-house indicated as high as +seventy horse-power at the time the locomotive was actually +in service." + + +The electrical features of the 1882 locomotive were very +similar to those of the earlier one, already described. Shunt +and series field-windings were added to the motor, and the +series windings could be plugged in and out of circuit as +desired. The series winding was supplemented by resistance- +boxes, also capable of being plugged in or out of circuit. +These various electrical features are diagrammatically shown +in Fig. 2, which also illustrates the connection with the +generating plant. + +We quote again from Mr. Hammer, who says: "The freight- +locomotive had single reduction gears, as is the modern practice, +but the power was applied through a friction-clutch +The passenger-locomotive was very speedy, and ninety +passengers have been carried at a time by it; the freight- +locomotive was not so fast, but could pull heavy trains at a +good speed. Many thousand people were carried on this +road during 1882." The general appearance of Edison's +electric locomotive of 1882 is shown in the illustration +opposite page 462 of the preceding narrative. In the picture +Mr. Edison may be seen in the cab, and Mr. Insull on the +front platform of the passenger-car. + + + +XIV + +TRAIN TELEGRAPHY + +WHILE the one-time art of telegraphing to and from moving +trains was essentially a wireless system, and allied in +some of its principles to the art of modern wireless telegraphy +through space, the two systems cannot, strictly speaking +be regarded as identical, as the practice of the former was +based entirely on the phenomenon of induction. + +Briefly described in outline, the train telegraph system +consisted of an induction circuit obtained by laying strips +of metal along the top or roof of a railway-car, and the +installation of a special telegraph line running parallel with +the track and strung on poles of only medium height. The +train, and also each signalling station, was equipped with +regulation telegraph apparatus, such as battery, key, relay, +and sounder, together with induction-coil and condenser. In +addition, there was a special transmitting device in the shape +of a musical reed, or "buzzer." In practice, this buzzer was +continuously operated at a speed of about five hundred vibrations +per second by an auxiliary battery. Its vibrations were +broken by means of a telegraph key into long and short +periods, representing Morse characters, which were transmitted +inductively from the train circuit to the pole line +or vice versa, and received by the operator at the other end +through a high-resistance telephone receiver inserted in the +secondary circuit of the induction-coil. + +The accompanying diagrammatic sketch of a simple form of +the system, as installed on a car, will probably serve to make +this more clear. + +An insulated wire runs from the metallic layers on the +roof of the car to switch S, which is shown open in the sketch. +When a message is to be received on the car from a station +more or less remote, the switch is thrown to the left to con- +nect with a wire running to the telephone receiver, T. The +other wire from this receiver is run down to one of the axles +and there permanently connected, thus making a ground. +The operator puts the receiver to his ear and listens for the +message, which the telephone renders audible in the Morse +characters. + +If a message is to be transmitted from the car to a receiving +station, near or distant, the switch, S, is thrown to the +other side, thus connecting with a wire leading to one end +of the secondary of induction-coil C. The other end of the +secondary is connected with the grounding wire. The primary +of the induction-coil is connected as shown, one end going +to key K and the other to the buzzer circuit. The other +side of the key is connected to the transmitting battery, while +the opposite pole of this battery is connected in the buzzer +circuit. The buzzer, R, is maintained in rapid vibration by +its independent auxiliary battery, B<1S>. + +When the key is pressed down the circuit is closed, and +current from the transmitting battery, B, passes through +primary of the coil, C, and induces a current of greatly increased +potential in the secondary. The current as it passes +into the primary, being broken up into short impulses by +the tremendously rapid vibrations of the buzzer, induces +similarly rapid waves of high potential in the secondary, and +these in turn pass to the roof and thence through the intervening +air by induction to the telegraph wire. By a continued +lifting and depression of the key in the regular manner, +these waves are broken up into long and short periods, +and are thus transmitted to the station, via the wire, in +Morse characters, dots and dashes. + +The receiving stations along the line of the railway were +similarly equipped as to apparatus, and, generally speaking +the operations of sending and receiving messages were +substantially the same as above described. + +The equipment of an operator on a car was quite simple +consisting merely of a small lap-board, on which were +mounted the key, coil, and buzzer, leaving room for telegraph +blanks. To this board were also attached flexible conductors +having spring clips, by means of which connections +could be made quickly with conveniently placed terminals +of the ground, roof, and battery wires. The telephone receiver +was held on the head with a spring, the flexible connecting +wire being attached to the lap board, thus leaving the operator +with both hands free. + +The system, as shown in the sketch and elucidated by +the text, represents the operation of train telegraphy in a +simple form, but combining the main essentials of the art +as it was successfully and commercially practiced for a number +of years after Edison and Gilliland entered the field. +They elaborated the system in various ways, making it more +complete; but it has not been deemed necessary to enlarge +further upon the technical minutiae of the art for the purpose +of this work. + + + +XV + +KINETOGRAPH AND PROJECTING KINETOSCOPE + + +ALTHOUGH many of the arts in which Edison has been a +pioneer have been enriched by his numerous inventions +and patents, which were subsequent to those of a fundamental +nature, the (so-called) motion-picture art is an exception, +as the following, together with three other additional patents[30] +comprise all that he has taken out on this subject: +United States Patent No. 589,168, issued August 31, 1897, +reissued in two parts--namely, No. 12,037, under date of +September 30,1902, and No. 12,192, under date of January +12, 1904. Application filed August 24, 1891. + + +[30] Not 491,993, issued February 21, 1893; No. 493,426, +issued March 14, 1893; No. 772,647, issued October 18, 1904. + + +There is nothing surprising in this, however, as the +possibility of photographing and reproducing actual scenes of +animate life are so thoroughly exemplified and rendered +practicable by the apparatus and methods disclosed in the +patents above cited, that these basic inventions in themselves +practically constitute the art--its development proceeding +mainly along the line of manufacturing details. That +such a view of his work is correct, the highest criterion-- +commercial expediency--bears witness; for in spite of the +fact that the courts have somewhat narrowed the broad +claims of Edison's patents by reason of the investigations of +earlier experimenters, practically all the immense amount +of commercial work that is done in the motion-picture field +to-day is accomplished through the use of apparatus and +methods licensed under the Edison patents. + +The philosophy of this invention having already been +described in Chapter XXI, it will be unnecessary to repeat +it here. Suffice it to say by way of reminder that it is +founded upon the physiological phenomenon known as the +persistence of vision, through which a series of sequential +photographic pictures of animate motion projected upon a +screen in rapid succession will reproduce to the eye all the +appearance of the original movements. + +Edison's work in this direction comprised the invention +not only of a special form of camera for making original +photographic exposures from a single point of view with +very great rapidity, and of a machine adapted to effect the +reproduction of such pictures in somewhat similar manner +but also of the conception and invention of a continuous +uniform, and evenly spaced tape-like film, so absolutely +essential for both the above objects. + +The mechanism of such a camera, as now used, consists of +many parts assembled in such contiguous proximity to each +other that an illustration from an actual machine would not +help to clearness of explanation to the general reader. Hence +a diagram showing a sectional view of a simple form of such +a camera is presented below. + +In this diagram, A represents an outer light-tight box +containing a lens, C, and the other necessary mechanism +for making the photographic exposures, H<1S> and H<2S> being +cases for holding reels of film before and after exposure, +F the long, tape-like film, G a sprocket whose teeth engage +in perforations on the edges of the film, such sprocket being +adapted to be revolved with an intermittent or step-by-step +movement by hand or by motor, and B a revolving shutter +having an opening and connected by gears with G, and +arranged to expose the film during the periods of rest. A +full view of this shutter is also represented, with its opening, +D, in the small illustration to the right. + +In practice, the operation would be somewhat as follows, +generally speaking: The lens would first be focussed on the +animate scene to be photographed. On turning the main +shaft of the camera the sprocket, G, is moved intermittently, +and its teeth, catching in the holes in the sensitized film, +draws it downward, bringing a new portion of its length in +front of the lens, the film then remaining stationary for an +instant. In the mean time, through gearing connecting the +main shaft with the shutter, the latter is rotated, bringing +its opening, D, coincident with the lens, and therefore exposing +the film while it is stationary, after which the film again +moves forward. So long as the action is continued these +movements are repeated, resulting in a succession of enormously +rapid exposures upon the film during its progress from +reel H<1S> to its automatic rewinding on reel H<2S>. While the +film is passing through the various parts of the machine it +is guided and kept straight by various sets of rollers between +which it runs, as indicated in the diagram. + +By an ingenious arrangement of the mechanism, the film +moves intermittently so that it may have a much longer +period of rest than of motion. As in practice the pictures +are taken at a rate of twenty or more per second, it will be +quite obvious that each period of rest is infinitesimally brief, +being generally one-thirtieth of a second or less. Still it is +sufficient to bring the film to a momentary condition of complete +rest, and to allow for a maximum time of exposure, +comparatively speaking, thus providing means for taking +clearly defined pictures. The negatives so obtained are +developed in the regular way, and the positive prints +subsequently made from them are used for reproduction. + +The reproducing machine, or, as it is called in practice, the +Projecting Kinetoscope, is quite similar so far as its general +operations in handling the film are concerned. In appearance +it is somewhat different; indeed, it is in two parts, the +one containing the lighting arrangements and condensing +lens, and the other embracing the mechanism and objective +lens. The "taking" camera must have its parts enclosed +in a light-tight box, because of the undeveloped, sensitized +film, but the projecting kinetoscope, using only a fully developed +positive film, may, and, for purposes of convenient +operation, must be accessibly open. The illustration (Fig. 2) +will show the projecting apparatus as used in practice. + +The philosophy of reproduction is very simple, and is illustrated +diagrammatically in Fig. 3, reference letters being the +same as in Fig. 1. As to the additional reference letters, I is +a condenser J the source of light, and K a reflector. + +The positive film is moved intermittently but swiftly +throughout its length between the objective lens and a beam +of light coming through the condenser, being exposed by the +shutter during the periods of rest. This results in a pro- +jection of the photographs upon a screen in such rapid succession +as to present an apparently continuous photograph +of the successive positions of the moving objects, which, +therefore, appear to the human eye to be in motion. + +The first claim of Reissue Patent No. 12,192 describes the +film. It reads as follows: + + +"An unbroken transparent or translucent tape-like photographic +film having thereon uniform, sharply defined, equidistant +photographs of successive positions of an object in +motion as observed from a single point of view at rapidly +recurring intervals of time, such photographs being arranged +in a continuous straight-line sequence, unlimited in number +save by the length of the film, and sufficient in number to +represent the movements of the object throughout an extended +period of time." + + + +XVI + +EDISON'S ORE-MILLING INVENTIONS + +THE wide range of Edison's activities in this department +of the arts is well represented in the diversity of the numerous +patents that have been issued to him from time to +time. These patents are between fifty and sixty in number, +and include magnetic ore separators of ten distinct types; also +breaking, crushing, and grinding +rolls, conveyors, dust-proof bearings, +screens, driers, mixers, bricking +apparatus and machines, ovens, +and processes of various kinds. + +A description of the many devices +in each of these divisions +would require more space than is +available; hence, we shall confine +ourselves to a few items of predominating +importance, already referred +to in the narrative. commencing +with the fundamental magnetic ore +separator, which was covered by +United States Patent No. 228,329, +issued June 1, 1880. + +The illustration here presented is copied from the drawing forming part of this patent. A hopper +with adjustable feed is supported several feet above a bin having a central partition. Almost +midway between the hopper and the bin is placed an electromagnet whose polar extension is so +arranged as to be a little to one side of a stream of material falling from the hopper. Normally, +a stream of finely divided ore falling from the hopper would fall into that portion of the bin lying +to the left of the partition. If, however, the magnet is energized from a source of current, the +magnetic particles in the falling stream are attracted by and move toward the magnet, which +is so placed with relation to the falling material that the magnetic particles cannot be attracted +entirely to the magnet before gravity has carried them past. Hence, their trajectory +is altered, and they fall on the right-hand side of the +partition in the bin, while the non-magnetic portion of the +stream continues in a straight line and falls on the other +side, thus effecting a complete separation. + +This simple but effective principle was the one employed +by Edison in his great concentrating plant already described. +In practice, the numerous hoppers, magnets, and bins were +many feet in length; and they were arranged in batteries of +varied magnetic strength, in order that the intermingled +mass of crushed rock and iron ore might be more thoroughly +separated by being passed through magnetic fields of +successively increasing degrees of attracting power. Altogether +there were about four hundred and eighty of these immense +magnets in the plant, distributed in various buildings in +batteries as above mentioned, the crushed rock containing +the iron ore being delivered to them by conveyors, and the +gangue and ore being taken away after separation by two +other conveyors and delivered elsewhere. The magnetic +separators at first used by Edison at this plant were of the +same generality as the ones employed some years previously +in the separation of sea-shore sand, but greatly enlarged +and improved. The varied experiences gained in the concentration +of vast quantities of ore led naturally to a greater +development, and several new types and arrangements of +magnetic separators were evolved and elaborated by him +from first to last, during the progress of the work at the +concentrating plant. + +The magnetic separation of iron from its ore being the +foundation idea of the inventions now under discussion, a +consideration of the separator has naturally taken precedence +over those of collateral but inseparable interest. The ore- +bearing rock, however, must first be ground to powder before +it can be separated; hence, we will now begin at the +root of this operation and consider the "giant rolls," which +Edison devised for breaking huge masses of rock. In his +application for United States Patent No. 672,616, issued +April 23, 1901, applied for on July 16, 1897, he says: "The +object of my invention is to produce a method for the breaking +of rock which will be simple and effective, will not require +the hand-sledging or blasting of the rock down to pieces +of moderate size, and will involve the consumption of a small +amount of power." + +While this quotation refers to the method as "simple," +the patent under consideration covers one of the most bold +and daring projects that Edison has ever evolved. He +proposed to eliminate the slow and expensive method of +breaking large boulders manually, and to substitute therefor +momentum and kinetic energy applied through the medium +of massive machinery, which, in a few seconds, would break +into small pieces a rock as big as an ordinary upright cottage +piano, and weighing as much as six tons. Engineers to +whom Edison communicated his ideas were unanimous in +declaring the thing an impossibility; it was like driving two +express-trains into each other at full speed to crack a great +rock placed between them; that no practical machinery +could be built to stand the terrific impact and strains. Edison's +convictions were strong, however, and he persisted. +The experiments were of heroic size, physically and financially, +but after a struggle of several years and an expenditure +of about $100,000, he realized the correctness and practicability +of his plans in the success of the giant rolls, which +were the outcome of his labors. + +The giant rolls consist of a pair of iron cylinders of massive +size and weight, with removable wearing plates having +irregular surfaces formed by projecting knobs. These rolls +are mounted side by side in a very heavy frame (leaving a +gap of about fourteen inches between them), and are so +belted up with the source of power that they run in opposite +directions. The giant rolls described by Edison in the above- +named patent as having been built and operated by him had +a combined weight of 167,000 pounds, including all moving +parts, which of themselves weighed about seventy tons, each +roll being six feet in diameter and five feet long. A top view +of the rolls is shown in the sketch, one roll and one of its +bearings being shown in section. + +In Fig. 2 the rolls are illustrated diagrammatically. As +a sketch of this nature, even if given with a definite scale, +does not always carry an adequate idea of relative dimensions +to a non-technical reader, we present in Fig. 3 a perspective +illustration of the giant rolls as installed in the concentrating +plant. + +In practice, a small amount of power is applied to run the +giant rolls gradually up to a surface speed of several thousand +feet a minute. When this high speed is attained, masses of +rock weighing several tons in one or more pieces are dumped +into a hopper which guides them into the gap between the +rapidly revolving rolls. The effect is to partially arrest the +swift motion of the rolls instantaneously, and thereby +develop and expend an enormous amount of kinetic energy, +which with pile-driver effect cracks the rocks and breaks +them into pieces small enough to pass through the fourteen- +inch gap. As the power is applied to the rolls through +slipping friction-clutches, the speed of the driving-pulleys +is not materially reduced; hence the rolls may again be +quickly speeded up to their highest velocity while another +load of rock is being hoisted in position to be dumped into +the hopper. It will be obvious from the foregoing that if +it were attempted to supply the great energy necessary for +this operation by direct application of steam-power, an +engine of enormous horse-power would be required, and even +then it is doubtful if one could be constructed of sufficient +strength to withstand the terrific strains that would ensue. +But the work is done by the great momentum and kinetic +energy obtained by speeding up these tremendous masses +of metal, and then suddenly opposing their progress, the +engine being relieved of all strain through the medium of +the slipping friction-clutches. Thus, this cyclopean operation +may be continuously conducted with an amount of +power prodigiously inferior, in proportion, to the results +accomplished. + +The sketch (Fig. 4) showing a large boulder being dumped +into the hopper, or roll-pit, will serve to illustrate the method +of feeding these great masses of rock to the rolls, and will +also enable the reader to form an idea of the rapidity of the +breaking operation, when it is stated that a boulder of the +size represented would be reduced by the giant rolls to pieces +a trifle larger than a man's head in a few seconds. + +After leaving the giant rolls the broken rock passed on +through other crushing-rolls of somewhat similar construc- +tion. These also were invented by Edison, but antedated +those previously described; being covered by Patent No. +567,187, issued September 8, 1896. These rolls were +intended for the reducing of "one-man-size" rocks to small +pieces, which at the time of their original inception was +about the standard size of similar machines. At the +Edison concentrating plant the broken rock, after passing +through these rolls, was further reduced in size by other rolls, +and was then ready to be crushed to a fine powder through +the medium of another remarkable machine devised by + + +NOTE.--Figs. 3 and 4 are reproduced from similar sketches on pages 84 and 85 +of McClure's Magazine for November, 1897, by permission of S. S. McClure Co. + + +Edison to meet his ever-recurring and well-defined ideas of +the utmost economy and efficiency. The best fine grinding- +machines that it was then possible to obtain were so +inefficient as to involve a loss of 82 per cent. of the power +applied. The thought of such an enormous loss was unbearable, +and he did not rest until he had invented and put into +use an entirely new grinding-machine, which was called the +"three-high" rolls. The device was covered by a patent +issued to him on November 21, 1899, No. 637,327. It was +a most noteworthy invention, for it brought into the art +not only a greater efficiency of grinding than had ever been +dreamed of before, but also a tremendous economy by the +saving of power; for whereas the previous efficiency had +been 18 per cent. and the loss 82 per cent., Edison reversed +these figures, and in his three-high rolls produced a working +efficiency of 84 per cent., thus reducing the loss of power +by friction to 16 per cent. A diagrammatic sketch of this +remarkable machine is shown in Fig. 5, which shows a front +elevation with the casings, hopper, etc., removed, and also +shows above the rolls the rope and pulleys, the supports for +which are also removed for the sake of clearness in the +illustration. + +For the convenience of the reader, in referring to Fig. 5, +we will repeat the description of the three-high rolls, which +is given on pages 487 and 488 of the preceding narrative. + +In the two end-pieces of a heavy iron frame were set three +rolls, or cylinders--one in the centre, another below, and +the other above--all three being in a vertical line. These +rolls were about three feet in diameter, made of cast-iron, +and had face-plates of chilled-iron.[31] The lowest roll was set +in a fixed bearing at the bottom of the frame, and, therefore, +could only turn around on its axis. The middle and top +rolls were free to move up or down from and toward the +lower roll, and the shafts of the middle and upper rolls were +set in a loose bearing which could slip up and down in the +iron frame. It will be apparent, therefore, that any material +which passed in between the top and the middle rolls, +and the middle and bottom rolls, could be ground as fine as +might be desired, depending entirely upon the amount of +pressure applied to the loose rolls. In operation the material +passed first through the upper and middle rolls, and then +between the middle and lowest rolls. + + +[31] The faces of these rolls were smooth, but as three-high rolls +came into use later in Edison's Portland cement operations the faces +were corrugated so as to fit into each other, gear-fashion, to provide +for a high rate of feed. + + +This pressure was applied in a most ingenious manner. +On the ends of the shafts of the bottom and top rolls there +were cylindrical sleeves, or bearings, having seven sheaves +in which was run a half-inch endless wire rope. This rope +was wound seven times over the sheaves as above, and led +upward and over a single-groove sheave, which was operated +by the piston of an air-cylinder, and in this manner the +pressure was applied to the rolls. It will be seen, therefore +that the system consisted in a single rope passed over sheaves +and so arranged that it could be varied in length, thus providing +for elasticity in exerting pressure and regulating it +as desired. The efficiency of this system was incomparably +greater than that of any other known crusher or grinder, for +while a pressure of one hundred and twenty-five thousand +pounds could be exerted by these rolls, friction was almost +entirely eliminated, because the upper and lower roll bearings +turned with the rolls and revolved in the wire rope, +which constituted the bearing proper. + +Several other important patents have been issued to Edison +for crushing and grinding rolls, some of them being for +elaborations and improvements of those above described +but all covering methods of greater economy and effectiveness +in rock-grinding. + +Edison's work on conveyors during the period of his ore- +concentrating labors was distinctively original, ingenious +and far in advance of the times. His conception of the +concentrating problem was broad and embraced an entire +system, of which a principal item was the continuous transfer +of enormous quantities of material from place to place +at the lowest possible cost. As he contemplated the concentration +of six thousand tons daily, the expense of manual +labor to move such an immense quantity of rock, sand, and +ore would be absolutely prohibitive. Hence, it became +necessary to invent a system of conveyors that would be +capable of transferring this mass of material from one place +to another. And not only must these conveyors be capable +of carrying the material, but they must also be devised so +that they would automatically receive and discharge their +respective loads at appointed places. Edison's ingenuity, +engineering ability, and inventive skill were equal to the task, +however, and were displayed in a system and variety of conveyors +that in practice seemed to act with almost human +discrimination. When fully installed throughout the plant, +they automatically transferred daily a mass of material equal +to about one hundred thousand cubic feet, from mill to mill, +covering about a mile in the transit. Up and down, winding +in and out, turning corners, delivering material from one to +another, making a number of loops in the drying-oven, filling +up bins and passing on to the next when they were full, +these conveyors in automatic action seemingly played their +part with human intelligence, which was in reality the reflection +of the intelligence and ingenuity that had originally +devised them and set them in motion. + +Six of Edison's patents on conveyors include a variety +of devices that have since came into broad general use for +similar work, and have been the means of effecting great +economies in numerous industries of widely varying kinds. +Interesting as they are, however, we shall not attempt to +describe them in detail, as the space required would be too +great. They are specified in the list of patents following this +Appendix, and may be examined in detail by any interested +student. + +In the same list will also be found a large number of Edison's +patents on apparatus and methods of screening, drying, +mixing, and briquetting, as well as for dust-proof +bearings, and various types and groupings of separators, +all of which were called forth by the exigencies and magnitude +of his great undertaking, and without which he could +not possibly have attained the successful physical results +that crowned his labors. Edison's persistence in reducing +the cost of his operations is noteworthy in connection with +his screening and drying inventions, in which the utmost +advantage is taken of the law of gravitation. With its +assistance, which cost nothing, these operations were +performed perfectly. It was only necessary to deliver the +material at the top of the chambers, and during its natural +descent it was screened or dried as the case might be. + +All these inventions and devices, as well as those described +in detail above (except magnetic separators and mixing +and briquetting machines), are being used by him to-day +in the manufacture of Portland cement, as that industry +presents many of the identical problems which presented +themselves in relation to the concentration of iron ore. + + + +XVII + +THE LONG CEMENT KILN + +IN this remarkable invention, which has brought about a +striking innovation in a long-established business, we see +another characteristic instance of Edison's incisive reasoning +and boldness of conception carried into practical effect +in face of universal opinions to the contrary. + +For the information of those unacquainted with the process +of manufacturing Portland cement, it may be stated +that the material consists preliminarily of an intimate mixture +of cement rock and limestone, ground to a very fine +powder. This powder is technically known in the trade as +"chalk," and is fed into rotary kilns and "burned"; that is +to say, it is subjected to a high degree of heat obtained by +the combustion of pulverized coal, which is injected into the +interior of the kiln. This combustion effects a chemical +decomposition of the chalk, and causes it to assume a plastic +consistency and to collect together in the form of small +spherical balls. which are known as "clinker." Kilns are +usually arranged with a slight incline, at the upper end of +which the chalk is fed in and gradually works its way down +to the interior flame of burning fuel at the other end. When +it arrives at the lower end, the material has been "burned," +and the clinker drops out into a receiving chamber below. +The operation is continuous, a constant supply of chalk +passing in at one end of the kiln and a continuous dribble of +clinker-balls dropping out at the other. After cooling, the +clinker is ground into very fine powder, which is the Portland +cement of commerce. + +It is self-evident that an ideal kiln would be one that +produced the maximum quantity of thoroughly clinkered +material with a minimum amount of fuel, labor, and investment. +When Edison was preparing to go into the cement +business, he looked the ground over thoroughly, and, after +considerable investigation and experiment, came to the conclusion +that prevailing conditions as to kilns were far from +ideal. + +The standard kilns then in use were about sixty feet in +length, with an internal diameter of about five feet. In all +rotary kilns for burning cement, the true clinkering operation +takes place only within a limited portion of their total +length, where the heat is greatest; hence the interior of the +kiln may be considered as being divided longitudinally into +two parts or zones--namely, the combustion, or clinkering, +zone, and the zone of oncoming raw material. In the sixty- +foot kiln the length of the combustion zone was about ten +feet, extending from a point six or eight feet from the lower, +or discharge, end to a point about eighteen feet from that +end. Consequently, beyond that point there was a zone of +only about forty feet, through which the heated gases passed +and came in contact with the oncoming material, which was +in movement down toward the clinkering zone. Since the +bulk of oncoming material was small, the gases were not +called upon to part with much of their heat, and therefore +passed on up the stack at very high temperatures, ranging +from 1500 degrees to 1800 degrees Fahr. Obviously, this heat was entirely +lost. + +An additional loss of efficiency arose from the fact that +the material moved so rapidly toward the combustion zone +that it had not given up all its carbon dioxide on reaching +there; and by the giving off of large quantities of that gas +within the combustion zone, perfect and economical combustion +of coal could not be effected. + +The comparatively short length of the sixty-foot kiln not +only limited the amount of material that could be fed into +it, but the limitation in length of the combustion zone militated +against a thorough clinkering of the material, this +operation being one in which the elements of time and proper +heat are prime considerations. Thus the quantity of good +clinker obtainable was unfavorably affected. By reason of +these and other limitations and losses, it had been possible, +in practice, to obtain only about two hundred and fifty +barrels of clinker per day of twenty-four hours; and that +with an expenditure for coal proportionately equal to about +29 to 33 per cent. of the quantity of clinker produced, even +assuming that all the clinker was of good quality. + +Edison realized that the secret of greater commercial +efficiency and improvement of quality lay in the ability to +handle larger quantities of material within a given time, and +to produce a more perfect product without increasing cost +or investment in proportion. His reasoning led him to the +conclusion that this result could only be obtained through +the use of a kiln of comparatively great length, and his +investigations and experiments enabled him to decide upon +a length of one hundred and fifty feet, but with an increase +in diameter of only six inches to a foot over that of the sixty- +foot kiln. + +The principal considerations that influenced Edison in +making this radical innovation may be briefly stated as +follows: + +First. The ability to maintain in the kiln a load from five +to seven times greater than ordinarily employed, thereby +tending to a more economical output. + +Second. The combustion of a vastly increased bulk of +pulverized coal and a greatly enlarged combustion zone, +extending about forty feet longitudinally into the kiln--thus +providing an area within which the material might be maintained +in a clinkering temperature for a sufficiently long +period to insure its being thoroughly clinkered from periphery +to centre. + +Third. By reason of such a greatly extended length of the +zone of oncoming material (and consequently much greater +bulk), the gases and other products of combustion would be +cooled sufficiently between the combustion zone and the stack +so as to leave the kiln at a comparatively low temperature. +Besides, the oncoming material would thus be gradually +raised in temperature instead of being heated abruptly, as +in the shorter kilns. + +Fourth. The material having thus been greatly raised in +temperature before reaching the combustion zone would +have parted with substantially all its carbon dioxide, and +therefore would not introduce into the combustion zone +sufficient of that gas to disturb the perfect character of the +combustion. + +Fifth. On account of the great weight of the heavy load +in a long kiln, there would result the formation of a continuous +plastic coating on that portion of the inner surface +of the kiln where temperatures are highest. This would +effectively protect the fire-brick lining from the destructive +effects of the heat. + +Such, in brief, were the essential principles upon which +Edison based his conception and invention of the long kiln, +which has since become so well known in the cement business. + +Many other considerations of a minor and mechanical +nature, but which were important factors in his solution of +this difficult problem, are worthy of study by those intimately +associated with or interested in the art. Not the least +of the mechanical questions was settled by Edison's decision +to make this tremendously long kiln in sections of cast-iron, +with flanges, bolted together, and supported on rollers +rotated by electric motors. Longitudinal expansion and +thrust were also important factors to be provided for, as +well as special devices to prevent the packing of the mass +of material as it passed in and out of the kiln. Special +provision was also made for injecting streams of pulverized coal +in such manner as to create the largely extended zone of +combustion. As to the details of these and many other in- +genious devices, we must refer the curious reader to the +patents, as it is merely intended in these pages to indicate +in a brief manner the main principles of Edison's notable +inventions. The principal United States patent on the long +kiln was issued October 24, 1905, No. 802,631. + +That his reasonings and deductions were correct in this +case have been indubitably proven by some years of experience +with the long kiln in its ability to produce from +eight hundred to one thousand barrels of good clinker every +twenty-four hours, with an expenditure for coal proportionately +equal to about only 20 per cent. of the quantity of +clinker produced. + +To illustrate the long cement kiln by diagram would convey +but little to the lay mind, and we therefore present an +illustration (Fig. 1) of actual kilns in perspective, from which +sense of their proportions may be gathered. + + + +XVIII + +EDISON'S NEW STORAGE BATTERY + +GENERICALLY considered, a "battery" is a device which +generates electric current. There are two distinct species +of battery, one being known as "primary," and the other +as "storage," although the latter is sometimes referred to +as a "secondary battery" or "accumulator." Every type +of each of these two species is essentially alike in its general +make-up; that is to say, every cell of battery of any kind +contains at least two elements of different nature immersed +in a more or less liquid electrolyte of chemical character. +On closing the circuit of a primary battery an electric current +is generated by reason of the chemical action which is +set up between the electrolyte and the elements. This involves +a gradual consumption of one of the elements and a +corresponding exhaustion of the active properties of the +electrolyte. By reason of this, both the element and the +electrolyte that have been used up must be renewed from +time to time, in order to obtain a continued supply of electric +current. + +The storage battery also generates electric current through +chemical action, but without involving the constant repriming +with active materials to replace those consumed and +exhausted as above mentioned. The term "storage," as +applied to this species of battery, is, however, a misnomer, +and has been the cause of much misunderstanding to nontechnical +persons. To the lay mind a "storage" battery +presents itself in the aspect of a device in which electric +energy is STORED, just as compressed air is stored or accumulated +in a tank. This view, however, is not in accordance +with facts. It is exactly like the primary battery in the +fundamental circumstance that its ability for generating +electric current depends upon chemical action. In strict +terminology it is a "reversible" battery, as will be quite obvious +if we glance briefly at its philosophy. When a storage +battery is "charged," by having an electric current passed +through it, the electric energy produces a chemical effect, +adding oxygen to the positive plate, and taking oxygen away +from the negative plate. Thus, the positive plate becomes +oxidized, and the negative plate reduced. After the charging +operation is concluded the battery is ready for use, and +upon its circuit being closed through a translating device, +such as a lamp or motor, a reversion ("discharge") takes +place, the positive plate giving up its oxygen, and the negative +plate being oxidized. These chemical actions result in +the generation of an electric current as in a primary battery. +As a matter of fact, the chemical actions and reactions +in a storage battery are much more complex, but the +above will serve to afford the lay reader a rather simple idea +of the general result arrived at through the chemical activity +referred to. + +The storage battery, as a commercial article, was introduced +into the market in the year 1881. At that time, and +all through the succeeding years, until about 1905, there +was only one type that was recognized as commercially +practicable--namely, that known as the lead-sulphuric-acid +cell, consisting of lead plates immersed in an electrolyte of +dilute sulphuric acid. In the year last named Edison first +brought out his new form of nickel-iron cell with alkaline +electrolyte, as we have related in the preceding narrative. +Early in the eighties, at Menlo Park, he had given much +thought to the lead type of storage battery, and during the +course of three years had made a prodigious number of experiments +in the direction of improving it, probably performing +more experiments in that time than the aggregate +of those of all other investigators. Even in those early days +he arrived at the conclusion that the lead-sulphuric-acid +combination was intrinsically wrong, and did not embrace +the elements of a permanent commercial device. He did +not at that time, however, engage in a serious search for +another form of storage battery, being tremendously occupied +with his lighting system and other matters. + +It may here be noted, for the information of the lay +reader, that the lead-acid type of storage battery consists +of two or more lead plates immersed in dilute sulphuric acid +and contained in a receptacle of glass, hard rubber, or other +special material not acted upon by acid. The plates are +prepared and "formed" in various ways, and the chemical +actions are similar to those above stated, the positive plate +being oxidized and the negative reduced during "charge," +and reversed during "discharge." This type of cell, however, +has many serious disadvantages inherent to its very +nature. We will name a few of them briefly. Constant +dropping of fine particles of active material often causes +short-circuiting of the plates, and always necessitates occasional +washing out of cells; deterioration through "sulphation" +if discharge is continued too far or if recharging is not +commenced quickly enough; destruction of adjacent metal- +work by the corrosive fumes given out during charge and +discharge; the tendency of lead plates to "buckle" under +certain conditions; the limitation to the use of glass, hard +rubber, or similar containers on account of the action of the +acid; and the immense weight for electrical capacity. The +tremendously complex nature of the chemical reactions which +take place in the lead-acid storage battery also renders it an +easy prey to many troublesome diseases. + +In the year 1900, when Edison undertook to invent a +storage battery, he declared it should be a new type into +which neither sulphuric nor any other acid should enter. +He said that the intimate and continued companionship of +an acid and a metal was unnatural, and incompatible with +the idea of durability and simplicity. He furthermore +stated that lead was an unmechanical metal for a battery, +being heavy and lacking stability and elasticity, and that +as most metals were unaffected by alkaline solutions, he +was going to experiment in that direction. The soundness +of his reasoning is amply justified by the perfection of results +obtained in the new type of storage battery bearing his +name, and now to be described. + +The essential technical details of this battery are fully +described in an article written by one of Edison's laboratory +staff, Walter E. Holland, who for many years has been +closely identified with the inventor's work on this cell +The article was published in the Electrical World, New +York, April 28, 1910; and the following extracts there- +from will afford an intelligent comprehension of this invention: + +"The `A' type Edison cell is the outcome of nine years of +costly experimentation and persistent toil on the part of its +inventor and his associates.... + +"The Edison invention involves the use of an entirely new +voltaic combination in an alkaline electrolyte, in place of the +lead-lead-peroxide combination and acid electrolyte, characteristic +of all other commercial storage batteries. Experience +has proven that this not only secures durability and +greater output per unit-weight of battery, but in addition +there is eliminated a long list of troubles and diseases inherent +in the lead-acid combination.... + +"The principle on which the action of this new battery is +based is the oxidation and reduction of metals in an electrolyte +which does not combine with, and will not dissolve, +either the metals or their oxides; and an electrolyte, furthermore, +which, although decomposed by the action of the +battery, is immediately re-formed in equal quantity; and +therefore in effect is a CONSTANT element, not changing in density +or in conductivity. + +"A battery embodying this basic principle will have features +of great value where lightness and durability are desiderata. +For instance, the electrolyte, being a constant +factor, as explained, is not required in any fixed and large +amount, as is the case with sulphuric acid in the lead battery; +thus the cell may be designed with minimum distancing of +plates and with the greatest economy of space that is consistent +with safe insulation and good mechanical design. +Again, the active materials of the electrodes being insoluble +in, and absolutely unaffected by, the electrolyte, are not liable +to any sort of chemical deterioration by action of the +electrolyte--no matter how long continued.... + +"The electrolyte of the Edison battery is a 21 per cent. + +solution of potassium hydrate having, in addition, a small +amount of lithium hydrate. The active metals of the electrodes +--which will oxidize and reduce in this electrolyte +without dissolution or chemical deterioration--are nickel +and iron. These active elements are not put in the plates +AS METALS; but one, nickel, in the form of a hydrate, and the +other, iron, as an oxide. + +"The containing cases of both kinds of active material +(Fig. 1), and their supporting grids (Fig. 2), as well as the +bolts, washers, and nuts used in assembling (Fig. 3), and +even the retaining can and its cover (Fig. 4), are all made of +nickel-plated steel--a material in which lightness, durability +and mechanical strength are most happily combined, and a +material beyond suspicion as to corrosion in an alkaline +electrolyte.... + +"An essential part of Edison's discovery of active ma- +setials for an alkaline storage battery was the PREPARATION +of these materials. Metallic powder of iron and nickel, or +even oxides of these metals, prepared in the ordinary way, +are not chemically active in a sufficient degree to work in a +battery. It is only when specially prepared iron oxide of +exceeding fineness, and nickel hydrate conforming to certain +physical, as well as chemical, standards can be made that the +alkaline battery is practicable. Needless to say, the working +out of the conditions and processes of manufacture of the +materials has involved great ingenuity and endless experimentation." + + +The article then treats of Edison's investigations into +means for supporting and making electrical connection with +the active materials, showing some of the difficulties encountered +and the various discoveries made in developing the perfected +cell, after which the writer continues his description +of the "A" type cell, as follows: + + +"It will be seen at once that the construction of the two +kinds of plate is radically different. The negative or iron +plate (Fig. 5) has the familiar flat-pocket construction. +Each negative contains twenty-four pockets--a pocket being +1/2 inch wide by 3 inches long, and having a maximum thickness +of a little more than 1/8 inch. The positive or nickel +plate (Fig. 6) is seen to consist of two rows of round rods +or pencils, thirty in number, held in a vertical position by +a steel support-frame. The pencils have flat flanges at the +ends (formed by closing in the metal case), by which they +are supported and electrical connection is made. The frame +is slit at the inner horizontal edges, and then folded in such +a way as to make individual clamping-jaws for each end- +flange. The clamping-in is done at great pressure, and the +resultant plate has great rigidity and strength. + +"The perforated tubes into which the nickel active material +is loaded are made of nickel-plated steel of high quality. +They are put together with a double-lapped spiral seam to +give expansion-resisting qualities, and as an additional +precaution small metal rings are slipped on the outside. Each +tube is 1/4 inch in diameter by 4 1/8 inches long, add has eight +of the reinforcing rings. + +"It will be seen that the `A' positive plate has been given +the theoretically best design to prevent expansion and overcome +trouble from that cause. Actual tests, long continued +under very severe conditions, have shown that the construction +is right, and fulfils the most sanguine expectations." + + +Mr. Holland in his article then goes on to explain the +development of the nickel flakes as the conducting factor in +the positive element, but as this has already been described +in Chapter XXII, we shall pass on to a later point, where +he says: + + +"An idea of the conditions inside a loaded tube can best +be had by microscopic examination. Fig. 7 shows a magnified +section of a regularly loaded tube which has been +sawed lengthwise. The vertical bounding walls are edges +of the perforated metal containing tube; the dark horizontal +lines are layers of nickel flake, while the light-colored +thicker layers represent the nickel hydrate. It should be +noted that the layers of flake nickel extend practically +unbroken across the tube and make contact with the metal wall +at both sides. These metal layers conduct current to or from +the active nickel hydrate in all parts of the tube very +efficiently. There are about three hundred and fifty layers of +each kind of material in a 4 1/8 -inch tube, each layer of nickel +hydrate being about 0.01 inch thick; so it will be seen that +the current does not have to penetrate very far into the nickel +hydrate--one-half a layer's thickness being the maximum +distance. The perforations of the containing tube, through +which the electrolyte reaches the active material, are also +shown in Fig. 7." + + +In conclusion, the article enumerates the chief +characteristics of the Edison storage battery which fit it pre- +eminently for transportation service, as follows: 1. No +loss of active material, hence no sediment short-circuits. +2. No jar breakage. 3. Possibility of quick disconnection +or replacement of any cell without employment of skilled +labor. 4. Impossibility of "buckling" and harmlessness of +a dead short-circuit. 5. Simplicity of care required. 6. +Durability of materials and construction. 7. Impossibility +of "sulphation." 8. Entire absence of corrosive fumes. +9. Commercial advantages of light weight. 10. Duration +on account of its dependability. 11. Its high practical +efficiency. + + + +XIX + +EDISON'S POURED CEMENT HOUSE + +THE inventions that have been thus far described fall into +two classes--first, those that were fundamental in the great +arts and industries which have been founded and established +upon them, and, second, those that have entered into +and enlarged other arts that were previously in existence. +On coming to consider the subject now under discussion, +however, we find ourselves, at this writing, on the threshold +of an entirely new and undeveloped art of such boundless +possibilities that its ultimate extent can only be a matter of +conjecture. + +Edison's concrete house, however, involves two main +considerations, first of which was the conception or creation of +the IDEA--vast and comprehensive--of providing imperishable +and sanitary homes for the wage-earner by molding +an entire house in one piece in a single operation, so to speak, +and so simply that extensive groups of such dwellings could +be constructed rapidly and at very reasonable cost. With +this idea suggested, one might suppose that it would be a +simple matter to make molds and pour in a concrete mixture. +Not so, however. And here the second consideration +presents itself. An ordinary cement mixture is composed +of crushed stone, sand, cement, and water. If such a mixture +be poured into deep molds the heavy stone and sand +settle to the bottom. Should the mixture be poured into +a horizontal mold, like the floor of a house, the stone and +sand settle, forming an ununiform mass. It was at this +point that invention commenced, in order to produce a concrete +mixture which would overcome this crucial difficulty. +Edison, with characteristic thoroughness, took up a line of +investigation, and after a prolonged series of experiments +succeeded in inventing a mixture that upon hardening re- +mained uniform throughout its mass. In the beginning of +his experimentation he had made the conditions of test +very severe by the construction of forms similar to that +shown in the sketch below. + +This consisted of a hollow wooden form of the dimensions +indicated. The mixture was to be poured into the hopper +until the entire form was filled, such mixture flowing down +and along the horizontal legs and up the vertical members. +It was to be left until the mixture was hard, and the requirement +of the test was that there should be absolute uniformity +of mixture and mass throughout. This was finally +accomplished, and further invention then proceeded along +engineering lines looking toward the devising of a system +of molds with which practicable dwellings might be cast. + +Edison's boldness and breadth of conception are well illustrated +in his idea of a poured house, in which he displays his +accustomed tendency to reverse accepted methods. In fact, +it is this very reversal of usual procedure that renders it +difficult for the average mind to instantly grasp the full +significance of the principles involved and the results attained. + +Up to this time we have been accustomed to see the erection +of a house begun at the foundation and built up slowly, +piece by piece, of solid materials: first the outer frame, then +the floors and inner walls, followed by the stairways, and +so on up to the putting on of the roof. Hence, it requires a +complete rearrangement of mental conceptions to appreciate +Edison's proposal to build a house FROM THE TOP DOWNWARD, +in a few hours, with a freely flowing material poured into +molds, and in a few days to take away the molds and find +a complete indestructible sanitary house, including foundation, +frame, floors, walls, stairways, chimneys, sanitary +arrangements, and roof, with artistic ornamentation inside and +out, all in one solid piece, as if it were graven or bored out +of a rock. + +To bring about the accomplishment of a project so extraordinarily +broad involves engineering and mechanical conceptions +of a high order, and, as we have seen, these have +been brought to bear on the subject by Edison, together with +an intimate knowledge of compounded materials. + +The main features of this invention are easily comprehensible +with the aid of the following diagrammatic sectional sketch: + +It should be first understood that the above sketch is in +broad outline, without elaboration, merely to illustrate the +working principle; and while the upright structure on the +right is intended to represent a set of molds in position to +form a three-story house, with cellar, no regular details of +such a building (such as windows, doors, stairways, etc.) are +here shown, as they would only tend to complicate an +explanation. + +It will be noted that there are really two sets of molds, +an inside and an outside set, leaving a space between them +throughout. Although not shown in the sketch, there is in +practice a number of bolts passing through these two sets +of molds at various places to hold them together in their +relative positions. In the open space between the molds +there are placed steel rods for the purpose of reinforcement; +while all through the entire structure provision is made for +water and steam pipes, gas-pipes and electric-light wires +being placed in appropriate positions as the molds are +assembled. + +At the centre of the roof there will be noted a funnel- +shaped opening. Into this there is delivered by the endless +chain of buckets shown on the left a continuous stream of +a special free-flowing concrete mixture. This mixture descends +by gravity, and gradually fills the entire space between +the two sets of molds. The delivery of the material--or +"pouring," as it is called--is continued until every part of +the space is filled and the mixture is even with the tip of +the roof, thus completing the pouring, or casting, of the +house. In a few days afterward the concrete will have +hardened sufficiently to allow the molds to be taken away +leaving an entire house, from cellar floor to the peak of the +roof, complete in all its parts, even to mantels and picture +molding, and requiring only windows and doors, plumbing, +heating, and lighting fixtures to make it ready for habitation. + +In the above sketch the concrete mixers, A, B, are driven +by the electric motor, C. As the material is mixed it descends +into the tank, D, and flows through a trough into a lower +tank, E, in which it is constantly stirred, and from which it +is taken by the endless chain of buckets and dumped into +the funnel-shaped opening at the top of the molds, as above +described. + +The molds are made of cast-iron in sections of such size +and weight as will be most convenient for handling, mostly +in pieces not exceeding two by four feet in rectangular +dimensions. The subjoined sketch shows an exterior view of +several of these molds as they appear when bolted together, +the intersecting central portions representing ribs, which are +included as part of the casting for purposes of strength and +rigidity. + +The molds represented above are those for straight work, +such as walls and floors. Those intended for stairways, +eaves, cornices, windows, doorways, etc., are much more +complicated in design, although the same general principles +are employed in their construction. + +While the philosophy of pouring or casting a complete +house in its entirety is apparently quite simple, the development +of the engineering and mechanical questions involves +the solution of a vast number of most intricate and complicated +problems covering not only the building as a whole, +but its numerous parts, down to the minutest detail. Safety, +convenience, duration, and the practical impossibility of +altering a one-piece solid dwelling are questions that must +be met before its construction, and therefore Edison has +proceeded calmly on his way toward the goal he has ever had +clearly in mind, with utter indifference to the criticisms and +jeers of those who, as "experts," have professed positive +knowledge of the impossibility of his carrying out this daring +scheme. + + + +LIST OF UNITED STATES PATENTS + +List of United States patents granted to Thomas A. Edison, +arranged according to dates of execution of +applications for such patents. This list shows +the inventions as Mr. Edison has worked +upon them from year to year + + +1868 + +NO. TITLE OF PATENT DATE EXECUTED DATE EXECUTED +90,646, Electrographic Vote Recorder . . . . .Oct. 13, 1868 + +1869 + +91,527 Printing Telegraph (reissued October + 25, 1870, numbered 4166, and August + 5, 1873, numbered 5519). . . . . . . .Jan. 25, 1869 +96,567 Apparatus for Printing Telegraph (reissued + February 1, 1870, numbered + 3820). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 17, 1869 +96,681 Electrical Switch for Telegraph ApparatusAug. 27, 1869 +102,320 Printing Telegraph--Pope and Edison + (reissued April 17, 1877, numbered + 7621, and December 9, 1884, numbered + 10,542). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 16, 1869 +103,924 Printing Telegraphs--Pope and Edison + (reissued August 5, 1873) + +1870 + +103,035 Electromotor Escapement. . . . . . . . Feb. 5, 1870 +128,608 Printing Telegraph Instruments . . . . .May 4, 1870 +114,656 Telegraph Transmitting Instruments . .June 22, 1870 +114,658 Electro Magnets for Telegraph + Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 22, 1870 +114,657 Relay Magnets for Telegraph + Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 6, 1870 +111,112 Electric Motor Governors . . . . . . .June 29, 1870 +113,033 Printing Telegraph Apparatus . . . . .Nov. 17, 1870 + +1871 + +113,034 Printing Telegraph Apparatus . . . . .Jan. 10, 1871 +123,005 Telegraph Apparatus. . . . . . . . . .July 26, 1871 +123,006 Printing Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .July 26, 1871 +123,984 Telegraph Apparatus. . . . . . . . . .July 26, 1871 +124,800 Telegraphic Recording Instruments. . .Aug. 12, 1871 +121,601 Machinery for Perforating Paper for + Telegraph Purposes . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 16, 1871 +126,535 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1871 +133,841 Typewriting Machine. . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1871 + +1872 +126,532 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 3 1872 +126,531 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Jan. 17, 1872 +126,534 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Jan. 17, 1872 +126,528 Type Wheels for Printing Telegraphs. .Jan. 23, 1872 +126,529 Type Wheels for Printing Telegraphs. .Jan. 23, 1872 +126,530 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 14, 1872 +126,533 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 14, 1872 +132,456 Apparatus for Perforating Paper for + Telegraphic Use. . . . . . . . . . . March 15, 1872 +132,455 Improvement in Paper for Chemical + Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 10, 1872 +133,019 Electrical Printing Machine. . . . . April 18, 1872 +128,131 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 26, 1872 +128,604 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 26, 1872 +128,605 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 26, 1872 +128,606 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 26, 1872 +128,607 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 26, 1872 +131,334 Rheotomes or Circuit Directors . . . . .May 6, 1872 +134,867 Automatic Telegraph Instruments. . . . .May 8, 1872 +134,868 Electro Magnetic Adjusters . . . . . . .May 8, 1872 +130,795 Electro Magnets. . . . . . . . . . . . .May 9, 1872 +131,342 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .May 9, 1872 +131,341 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . May 28, 1872 +131,337 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1872 +131,340 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1872 +131,343 Transmitters and Circuits for Printing + Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1872 +131,335 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1872 +131,336 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1872 +131,338 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 29, 1872 +131,339 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 29, 1872 +131,344 Unison Stops for Printing Telegraphs .June 29, 1872 +134,866 Printing and Telegraph Instruments . .Oct. 16, 1872 +138,869 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Oct. 16, 1872 +142,999 Galvanic Batteries . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 31, 1872 +141,772 Automatic or Chemical Telegraphs . . . Nov. 5, 1872 +135,531 Circuits for Chemical Telegraphs . . . Nov. 9, 1872 +146,812 Telegraph Signal Boxes . . . . . . . .Nov. 26, 1872 +141,773 Circuits for Automatic Telegraphs. . .Dec. 12, 1872 +141,776 Circuits for Automatic Telegraphs. . .Dec. 12, 1872 +150,848 Chemical or Automatic Telegraphs . . .Dec. 12, 1872 + + +1873 + +139,128 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Jan. 21, 1873 +139,129 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 13, 1873 +140,487 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 13, 1873 +140,489 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 13, 1873 +138,870 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1873 +141,774 Chemical Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1873 +141,775 Perforator for Automatic Telegraphs. .March 7, 1873 +141,777 Relay Magnets. . . . . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1873 +142,688 Electric Regulators for Transmitting + Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1873 +156,843 Duplex Chemical Telegraphs . . . . . .March 7, 1873 +147,312 Perforators for Automatic Telegraphy March 24, 1873 +147,314 Circuits for Chemical Telegraphs . . March 24, 1873 +150,847 Receiving Instruments for Chemical + Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 24, 1873 +140,488 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 +147,311 Electric Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 +147,313 Chemical Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 +147,917 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 +150,846 Telegraph Relays . . . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 +160,405 Adjustable Electro Magnets for + Relays, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 +162,633 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . April 22, 1873 +151,209 Automatic Telegraphy and Perforators + Therefor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1873 +160,402 Solutions for Chemical Telegraph PaperSept. 29, 1873 +160,404 Solutions for Chemical Telegraph PaperSept. 29, 1873 +160,580 Solutions for Chemical Telegraph PaperOct. 14, 1873 +160,403 Solutions for Chemical Telegraph PaperOct. 29, 1873 + +1874 + + +154,788 District Telegraph Signal Box. . . . .April 2, 1874 +168,004 Printing Telegraph . . . . . . . . . . May 22, 1874 +166,859 Chemical Telegraphy. . . . . . . . . . June 1, 1874 +166,860 Chemical Telegraphy. . . . . . . . . . June 1, 1874 +166,861 Chemical Telegraphy. . . . . . . . . . June 1, 1874 +158,787 Telegraph Apparatus. . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1874 +172,305 Automatic Roman Character + Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1874 +173,718 Automatic Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1874 +178,221 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . Aug. 19, 1874 +178,222 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 19, 1874 +178,223 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 19, 1874 +180,858 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 19, 1874 +207,723 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 19, 1874 +480,567 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 19, 1874 +207,724 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 14, 1874 + + +1875 + +168,242 Transmitter and Receiver for Automatic + Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 18, 1875 +168,243 Automatic Telegraphs . . . . . . . . .Jan. 18, 1875 +168,385 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 18, 1875 +168,466 Solution for Chemical Telegraphs . . .Jan. 18, 1875 +168,467 Recording Point for Chemical TelegraphJan. 18, 1875 +195,751 Automatic Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . Jan. 18 1875 +195,752 Automatic Telegraphs . . . . . . . . .Jan. 19, 1875 +171,273 Telegraph Apparatus. . . . . . . . . . Feb 11, 1875 +169,972 Electric Signalling Instrument . . . . Feb 24, 1875 +209,241 Quadruplex Telegraph Repeaters (reissued + September 23, 1879, numbered + 8906). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb 24, 1875 + +1876 + +180,857 Autographic Printing . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1876 +198,088 Telephonic Telegraphs. . . . . . . . .April 3, 1876 +198,089 Telephonic or Electro Harmonic + Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .April 3, 1876 +182,996 Acoustic Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .May 9, 1876 +186,330 Acoustic Electric Telegraphs . . . . . .May 9, 1876 +186,548 Telegraph Alarm and Signal Apparatus . .May 9, 1876 +198,087 Telephonic Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .May 9, 1876 +185,507 Electro Harmonic Multiplex Telegraph .Aug. 16, 1876 +200,993 Acoustic Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 26, 1876 +235,142 Acoustic Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 26, 1876 +200,032 Synchronous Movements for Electric + Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 30, 1876 +200,994 Automatic Telegraph Perforator and + Transmitter. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 30, 1876 + +1877 +205,370 Pneumatic Stencil Pens . . . . . . . . Feb. 3, 1877 +213,554 Automatic Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . Feb. 3, 1877 +196,747 Stencil Pens . . . . . . . . . . . . April 18, 1877 +203,329 Perforating Pens . . . . . . . . . . April 18, 1877 +474,230 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . April 18, 1877 +217,781 Sextuplex Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . .May 8, 1877 +230,621 Addressing Machine . . . . . . . . . . .May 8, 1877 +377,374 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 8, 1877 +453,601 Sextuplex Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . May 31, 1877 +452,913 Sextuplex Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . May 31, 1877 +512,872 Sextuplex Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . May 31, 1877 +474,231 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . . July 9, 1877 +203,014 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .July 16, 1877 +208,299 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .July 16, 1877 +203,015 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 16, 1877 +420,594 Quadruplex Telegraph . . . . . . . . .Aug. 16, 1877 +492,789 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 31, 1877 +203,013 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 8, 1877 +203 018 Telephone or Speaking Telegraph. . . . Dec. 8, 1877 +200 521 Phonograph or Speaking Machine . . . .Dec. 15, 1877 + +1878 + +203,019 Circuit for Acoustic or Telephonic + Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 13, 1878 +201,760 Speaking Machines. . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1878 +203,016 Speaking Machines. . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1878 +203,017 Telephone Call Signals . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1878 +214,636 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 5, 1878 +222,390 Carbon Telephones. . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 8, 1878 +217,782 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 11, 1878 +214,637 Thermal Regulator for Electric Lights.Nov. 14, 1878 +210,767 Vocal Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 31, 1878 +218,166 Magneto Electric Machines. . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1878 +218,866 Electric Lighting Apparatus. . . . . . Dec. 3, 1878 +219,628 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1878 +295,990 Typewriter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 4, 1878 +218,167 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 31, 1878 + +1879 + +224,329 Electric Lighting Apparatus. . . . . .Jan. 23, 1879 +227,229 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 28, 1879 +227,227 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 6, 1879 +224.665 Autographic Stencils for Printing. . March 10, 1879 +227.679 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 19, 1879 +221,957 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 24, 1879 +227,229 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . April 12, 1879 +264,643 Magneto Electric Machines. . . . . . April 21, 1879 +219,393 Dynamo Electric Machines . . . . . . . July 7, 1879 +231,704 Electro Chemical Receiving Telephone .July 17, 1879 +266,022 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 1, 1879 +252,442 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 4, 1879 +222,881 Magneto Electric Machines. . . . . . .Sept. 4, 1879 +223,898 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 1, 1879 + +1880 + +230,255 Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 28, 1880 +248,425 Apparatus for Producing High Vacuums Jan.28 1880 +265,311 Electric Lamp and Holder for Same. . . Jan. 28 1880 +369,280 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Jan. 28, 1880 +227,226 Safety Conductor for Electric Lights .March 10,1880 +228,617 Brake for Electro Magnetic Motors. . March 10, 1880 +251,545 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . March 10, 1880 +525,888 Manufacture of Carbons for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 10, 1880 +264,649 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machines. March 11, +1880 +228,329 Magnetic Ore Separator . . . . . . . .April 3, 1880 +238,868 Manufacture of Carbons for Incandescent + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . April 25, 1880 +237,732 Electric Light . . . . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1880 +248,417 Manufacturing Carbons for Electric + Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1880 +298,679 Treating Carbons for Electric Lights .June 15, 1880 +248,430 Electro Magnetic Brake . . . . . . . . July 2, 1880 +265,778 Electro Magnetic Railway Engine. . . . July 3, 1880 +248,432 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . .July 26, 1880 +239,150 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . .July 27, 1880 +239,372 Testing Electric Light Carbons--Edison + and Batchelor. . . . . . . . . . . . .July 28, 1880 +251,540 Carbon Electric Lamps. . . . . . . . .July 28, 1880 +263,139 Manufacture of Carbons for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 28, 1880 +434,585 Telegraph Relay. . . . . . . . . . . .July 29, 1880 +248 423 Carbonizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 30, 1880 +263 140 Dynamo Electric Machines . . . . . . .July 30, 1880 +248,434 Governor for Electric Engines. . . . .July 31, 1880 +239,147 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .July 31, 1880 +264,642 Electric Distribution and Translation + System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 4, 1880 +293,433 Insulation of Railroad Tracks used for + Electric Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 6, 1880 +239,373 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1880 +239,745 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1880 +263,135 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1880 +251,546 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 10, 1880 +239,153 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 11, 1880 +351,855 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 11, 1880 +248,435 Utilizing Electricity as Motive Power.Aug. 12, 1880 +263,132 Electro Magnetic Roller. . . . . . . .Aug. 14, 1880 +264,645 System of Conductors for the Distribution + of Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 1, 1880 +240,678 Webermeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 22, 1880 +239,152 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .Oct. 14, 1880 +239,148 Treating Carbons for Electric Lights .Oct. 15, 1880 +238,098 Magneto Signalling Apparatus--Edison + and Johnson. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 21, 1880 +242,900 Manufacturing Carbons for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 21, 1880 +251,556 Regulator for Magneto or Dynamo + Electric Machines. . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 21, 1880 +248,426 Apparatus for Treating Carbons for + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 5, 1880 +239,151 Forming Enlarged Ends on Carbon + Filaments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 19, 1880 +12,631 Design Patent--Incandescent Electric + Lamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 23, 1880 +239,149 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1880 +242,896 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1880 +242,897 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1880 +248,565 Webermeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1880 +263,878 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1880 +239,154 Relay for Telegraphs . . . . . . . . .Dec. 11, 1880 +242,898 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .Dec. 11, 1880 +248,431 Preserving Fruit . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 11, 1880 +265,777 Treating Carbons for Electric Lamps. .Dec. 11, 1880 +239,374 Regulating the Generation of Electric + Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 16, 1880 +248,428 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 16, 1880 +248,427 Apparatus for Treating Carbons for + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 21, 1880 +248,437 Apparatus for Treating Carbons for + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 21, 1880 +248,416 Manufacture of Carbons for Electric + Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 30, 1880 + +1881 + +242,899 Electric Lighting. . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 19, 1881 +248,418 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Jan. 19 1881 +248,433 Vacuum Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . Jan. 19 1881 +251,548 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . .Jan. 19, 1881 +406,824 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 19, 1881 +248,422 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .Jan. 20, 1881 +431,018 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machine . . Feb. 3, 1881 +242,901 Electric Motor . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 24, 1881 +248,429 Electric Motor . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 24, 1881 +248,421 Current Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 25, 1881 +251,550 Magneto or Dynamo Electric Machines. .Feb. 26, 1881 +251,555 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 26, 1881 +482,549 Means for Controlling Electric + Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .March 2, 1881 +248,420 Fixture and Attachment for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1881 +251,553 Electric Chandeliers . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1881 +251,554 Electric Lamp and Socket or Holder . .March 7, 1881 +248,424 Fitting and Fixtures for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .March 8, 1881 +248,419 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . March 30, 1881 +251,542 System of Electric Light . . . . . . April 19, 1881 +263,145 Making Incandescents . . . . . . . . April 19, 1881 +266,447 Electric Incandescent Lamp . . . . . April 21, 1881 +251,552 Underground Conductors . . . . . . . April 22, 1881 +476,531 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . April 22, 1881 +248,436 Depositing Cell for Plating the Connections + of Electric Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . May 17, 1881 +251,539 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . May 17, 1881 +263,136 Regulator for Dynamo or Magneto + Electric Machine . . . . . . . . . . . May 17, 1881 +251,557 Webermeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 19, 1881 +263,134 Regulator for Magneto Electric + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 19, 1881 +251,541 Electro Magnetic Motor . . . . . . . . May 20, 1881 +251,544 Manufacture of Electric Lamps. . . . . May 20, 1881 +251,549 Electric Lamp and the Manufacture + thereof. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 20, 1881 +251,558 Webermeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 20, 1881 +341,644 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . May 20, 1881 +251,551 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . . May 21, 1881 +263,137 Electric Chandelier. . . . . . . . . . May 21, 1881 +263,141 Straightening Carbons for Incandescent + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 21, 1881 +264,657 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . . May 21, 1881 +251,543 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . May 24, 1881 +251,538 Electric Light . . . . . . . . . . . . May 27, 1881 +425,760 Measurement of Electricity in Distribution + System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 3 1, 1881 +251,547 Electrical Governor. . . . . . . . . . June 2, 1881 +263,150 Magneto or Dynamo Electric Machines. June 3, 1881 +263,131 Magnetic Ore Separator . . . . . . . . June 4, 1881 +435,687 Means for Charging and Using Secondary + Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 21, 1881 +263,143 Magneto or Dynamo Electric Machines. .June 24, 1881 +251,537 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .June 25, 1881 +263,147 Vacuum Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . .July 1, 188 1 +439,389 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . . July 1, 1881 +263,149 Commutator for Dynamo or Magneto + Electric Machines. . . . . . . . . . .July 22, 1881 +479,184 Facsimile Telegraph--Edison and Kenny.July 26, 1881 +400,317 Ore Separator. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 11, 1881 +425,763 Commutator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 20, 1881 +263,133 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machine . .Aug. 24, 1881 +263,142 Electrical Distribution System . . . .Aug. 24, 1881 +264,647 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machines. .Aug. 24, 1881 +404,902 Electrical Distribution System . . . .Aug. 24, 1881 +257,677 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 7, 1881 +266,021 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 7, 1881 +263,144 Mold for Carbonizing Incandescents . Sept. 19, 1881 +265,774 Maintaining Temperatures in + Webermeters. . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 21, 1881 +264,648 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machines. Sept. 23, 1881 +265,776 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . Sept. 27, 1881 +524,136 Regulator for Dynamo Electrical + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 27, 1881 +273,715 Malleableizing Iron. . . . . . . . . . Oct. 4, 1881 +281,352 Webermeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 5, 1881 +446,667 Locomotives for Electric Railways. . .Oct. 11, 1881 +288,318 Regulator for Dynamo or Magneto + Electric Machines. . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 17, 1881 +263,148 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machines. Oct. 25, 1881 +264,646 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machines. Oct. 25, 1881 +251,559 Electrical Drop Light. . . . . . . . .Oct. 25, 1881 +266,793 Electric Distribution System . . . . .Oct. 25, 1881 +358,599 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Oct. 29, 1881 +264,673 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machine. Nov. 3, 1881 +263,138 Electric Arc Light . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 7, 1881 +265,775 Electric Arc Light . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 7 1881 +297,580 Electric Arc Light . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 7 1881 +263,146 Dynamo Magneto Electric Machines . . .Nov. 22, 1881 +266,588 Vacuum Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 25, 1881 +251,536 Vacuum Pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 +264,650 Manufacturing Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 +264,660 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 +379,770 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 +293,434 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 +439,391 Junction Box for Electric Wires. . . . Dec. 5, 1881 +454,558 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 +264,653 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1881 +358,600 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1881 +264,652 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Dec. 15, 1881 +278,419 Dynamo Electric Machines . . . . . . .Dec. 15, 1881 + +1882 + +265,779 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 17, 1882 +264,654 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . .Feb. 10, 1882 +264,661 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines Feb. 10, 1882 +264,664 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines Feb. 10, 1882 +264,668 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines Feb. 10, 1882 +264,669 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 10, 1882 +264,671 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 10, 1882 +275,613 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . .Feb. 10, 1882 +401,646 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . .Feb. 10, 1882 +264,658 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 +264,659 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 +265,780 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 +265,781 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 +278,416 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 +379,771 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 +272,034 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 30, 1882 +274,576 Transmitting Telephone . . . . . . . March 30, 1882 +274,577 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 30, 1882 +264,662 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 +264,663 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 +264,665 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 +264,666 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 +268,205 Dynamo or Magneto Electric + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 +273,488 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 +273,492 Secondary Battery. . . . . . . . . . . May 19, 1882 +460,122 Process of and Apparatus for + Generating Electricity . . . . . . . . May 19, 1882 +466,460 Electrolytic Decomposition . . . . . .May 19,. 1882 +264,672 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 22, 1882 +264,667 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 22, 1882 +265,786 Apparatus for Electrical Transmission + of Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 22, 1882 +273,828 System of Underground Conductors of + Electric Distribution. . . . . . . . . May 22, 1882 +379,772 System of Electrical Distribution. . . May 22, 1882 +274,292 Secondary Battery. . . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1882 +281,353 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machine . . June 3, 1882 +287,523 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machine . . June 3, 1882 +365,509 Filament for Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 3 1882 +446,668 Electric Are Light . . . . . . . . . . .June 3 1882 +543,985 Incandescent Conductor for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1882 +264,651 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . . June 9, 1882 +264,655 Incandescing Electric Lamps. . . . . . June 9, 1882 +264,670 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 9, 1882 +273,489 Turn-Table for Electric Railway. . . . June 9, 1882 +273,490 Electro Magnetic Railway System. . . . June 9, 1882 +401,486 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .June 12, 1882 +476,527 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .June 12, 1882 +439,390 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . .June 19, 1882 +446,666 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .June 19, 1882 +464,822 System of Distributing Electricity . .June 19, 1882 +304,082 Electrical Meter . . . . . . . . . . .June 24, 1882 +274,296 Manufacture of Incandescents . . . . . July 5, 1882 +264,656 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . July 7, 1882 +265,782 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines July 7, 1882 +265,783 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines July 7, 1882 +265,784 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines July 7, 1882 +265,785 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 +273,494 Electrical Railroad. . . . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 +278,418 Translating Electric Currents from High + to Low Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 +293,435 Electrical Meter . . . . . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 +334,853 Mold for Carbonizing . . . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 +339,278 Electric Railway . . . . . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 +273,714 Magnetic Electric Signalling + Apparatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 5, 1882 +282,287 Magnetic Electric Signalling + Apparatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 5, 1882 +448,778 Electric Railway . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 5, 1882 +439,392 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . .Aug. 12, 1882 +271,613 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1882 +287,518 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1882 +406,825 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1882 +439,393 Carbonizing Chamber. . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1882 +273,487 Regulator for Dynamo Electric MachinesSept. 12, 1882 +297,581 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . Sept. 12, 1882 +395,962 Manufacturing Electric Lamps . . . . Sept. 16, 1882 +287,525 Regulator for Systems of Electrical + Distribution--Edison and C. L. + Clarke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 4, 1882 +365,465 Valve Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 5, 1882 +317,631 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Oct. 7, 1882 +307,029 Filament for Incandescent Lamp . . . . Oct. 9, 1882 +268,206 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . .Oct. 10, 1882 +273,486 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . .Oct. 12, 1882 +274,293 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 14, 1882 +275,612 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 14, 1882 +430,932 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 14, 1882 +271,616 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 16, 1882 +543,986 Process for Treating Products Derived + from Vegetable Fibres. . . . . . . . .Oct. 17, 1882 +543,987 Filament for Incandescent Lamps. . . .Oct. 17, 1882 +271,614 Shafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 +271,615 Governor for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 +273,491 Regulator for Driving Engines of + Electrical Generators. . . . . . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 +273,493 Valve Gear for Electrical Generator + Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 +411,016 Manufacturing Carbon Filaments . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 +492,150 Coating Conductors for Incandescent + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 +273,485 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . .Oct. 26, 1882 +317,632 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . .Oct. 26, 1882 +317,633 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . .Oct. 26, 1882 +287,520 Incandescing Conductor for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 3, 1882 +353,783 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Nov. 3, 1882 +430,933 Filament for Incandescent Lamps. . . . Nov. 3, 1882 +274,294 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1882 +281,350 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1882 +274,295 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Nov. 14, 1882 +276,233 Electrical Generator and Motor . . . .Nov. 14, 1882 +274,290 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Nov. 20, 1882 +274,291 Mold for Carbonizer. . . . . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1882 +278,413 Regulator for Dynamo Electric MachinesNov. 28, 1882 +278,414 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1882 +287,519 Manufacturing Incandescing Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1882 +287,524 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1882 +438,298 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1882 +276,232 Operating and Regulating Electrical + Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 20, 1882 + +1883 + +278,415 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 13, 1883 +278,417 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 13, 1883 +281,349 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 13, 1883 +283,985 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Jan. 13 1883 +283,986 System o' Electrical Distribution. . . Jan. 13 1883 +459,835 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 13, 1883 +13,940 Design Patent--Incandescing Electric + Lamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 13 1883 +280,727 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Feb. 13 1883 +395,123 Circuit Controller for Dynamo Machine.Feb. 13, 1883 +287,521 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machine . .Feb. 17, 1883 +287,522 Molds for Carbonizing. . . . . . . . .Feb. 17, 1883 +438,299 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . .Feb. 17, 1883 +446,669 Manufacture of Filaments for Incandescent + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 17, 1883 +476,528 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Feb. 17, 1883 +281,351 Electrical Generator . . . . . . . . .March 5, 1883 +283,984 System of Electrical Distribution. . .March 5, 1883 +287,517 System of Electrical Distribution. . .March 14,1883 +283,983 System of Electrical Distribution. . .April 5, 1883 +354,310 Manufacture of Carbon Conductors . . .April 6, 1883 +370,123 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . .April 6, 1883 +411,017 Carbonizing Flask. . . . . . . . . . .April 6, 1883 +370,124 Manufacture of Filament for Incandescing + Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . April 12, 1883 +287,516 System of Electrical Distribution. . . .May 8, 1883 +341,839 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . .May 8, 1883 +398,774 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . .May 8, 1883 +370,125 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 +370,126 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 +370,127 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 +370,128 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 +370,129 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 +370,130 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 +370,131 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 +438,300 Gauge for Testing Fibres for + Incandescent Lamp Carbons. . . . . . . June 1, 1883 +287,511 Electric Regulator . . . . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 +287,512 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 +287,513 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 +287,514 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 +287,515 System of Electrical Distribution. . .June 25, 1883 +297,582 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 +328,572 Commutator for Dynamo Electric MachinesJune 25, 1883 +430,934 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 +438,301 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .June 25, 1883 +297,583 Dynamo Electric Machines . . . . . . .July 27, 1883 +304,083 Dynamo Electric Machines . . . . . . .July 27; 1883 +304,084 Device for Protecting Electric Light + Systems from Lightning . . . . . . . .July 27, 1883 +438,302 Commutator for Dynamo Electric + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 27, 1883 +476,529 System of Electrical Distribution. . .July 27, 1883 +297,584 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . . Aug. 8, 1883 +307,030 Electrical Meter . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 8, 1883 +297,585 Incandescing Conductor for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 14, 1883 +297,586 Electrical Conductor . . . . . . . . Sept. 14, 1883 +435,688 Process and Apparatus for Generating + Electricity. . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 14, 1883 +470,922 Manufacture of Filaments for + Incandescent Lamps . . . . . . . . . Sept. 14, 1883 +490,953 Generating Electricity . . . . . . . . Oct. 9, 1883 +293,432 Electrical Generator or Motor. . . . .Oct. 17, 1883 +307,031 Electrical Indicator . . . . . . . . . Nov. 2, 1883 +337,254 Telephone--Edison and Bergmann . . . .Nov. 10, 1883 +297,587 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .Nov. 16, 1883 +298,954 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .Nov. 15, 1883 +298,955 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .Nov. 15, 1883 +304,085 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Nov. 15, 1883 +509,517 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Nov. 15, 1883 +425,761 Incandescent Lamp. . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 20, 1883 +304,086 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Dec. 15, 1883 + +1884 + +298,956 Operating Dynamo Electric Machine. . . Jan. 5, 1884 +304,087 Electrical Conductor . . . . . . . . .Jan. 12, 1884 +395,963 Incandescent Lamp Filament . . . . . .Jan. 22, 1884 +526,147 Plating One Material with Another. . .Jan. 22, 1884 +339,279 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Feb. 8, 1884 +314,115 Chemical Stock Quotation Telegraph-- + Edison and Kenny . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 9, 1884 +436,968 Method and Apparatus for Drawing + Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 2, 1884 +436,969 Apparatus for Drawing Wire . . . . . . June 2, 1884 +438,303 Arc Lamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 2, 1884 +343,017 System of Electrical Distribution. . .June 27, 1884 +391,595 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .July 16, 1884 +328,573 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . Sept. 12, 1884 +328,574 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . Sept. 12, 1884 +328,575 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . Sept. 12, 1884 +391,596 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . Sept. 24, 1884 +438,304 Electric Signalling Apparatus. . . . Sept. 24, 1884 +422,577 Apparatus for Speaking Telephones-- + Edison and Gilliland . . . . . . . . .Oct. 21, 1884 +329,030 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1884 +422,578 Telephone Repeater . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 9, 1884 +422,579 Telephone Repeater . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 9, 1884 +340,707 Telephonic Repeater. . . . . . . . . . Dec. 9, 1884 +340,708 Electrical Signalling Apparatus. . . .Dec. 19, 1884 +347,097 Electrical Signalling Apparatus. . . .Dec. 19, 1884 +478,743 Telephone Repeater . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 31, 1884 + +1885 + +340,709 Telephone Circuit--Edison and + Gilliland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jan. 2, 1885 +378,044 Telephone Transmitter. . . . . . . . . Jan. 9, 1885 +348,114 Electrode for Telephone Transmitters .Jan. 12, 1885 +438,305 Fuse Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 14, 1885 +350,234 System of Railway Signalling--Edison + and Gilliland. . . . . . . . . . . . .March 27,1885 +486,634 System of Railway Signalling--Edison + and Gilliland. . . . . . . . . . . . .March 27,1885 +333,289 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 27, 1885 +333,290 Duplex Telegraphy. . . . . . . . . . April 30, 1885 +333,291 Way Station Quadruplex Telegraph . . . .May 6, 1885 +465,971 Means for Transmitting Signals ElectricallyMay 14, 1885 +422 072 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 7, 1885 +437 422 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 7, 1885 +422,073 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. I 2, 1885 +422,074 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 24, 1885 +435,689 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 30, 1885 +438,306 Telephone - Edison and Gilliland . . .Dec. 22, 1885 +350,235 Railway Telegraphy--Edison and + Gilliland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 28, 1885 + +1886 + +406,567 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 28, 1886 +474,232 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 17, 1886 +370 132 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 11, 1886 +411,018 Manufacture of Incandescent Lamps. . .July 15, 1886 +438,307 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July I 5, 1886 +448,779 Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July IS, 1886 +411,019 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 20, 1886 +406,130 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 6, 1886 +351,856 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . Sept. 30, 1886 +454,262 Incandescent Lamp Filaments. . . . . .Oct. 26, 1886 +466,400 Cut-Out for Incandescent Lamps--Edison + and J. F. Ott. . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 26, 1886 +484,184 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . .Oct. 26, 1886 +490,954 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments for + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 2, 1886 +438,308 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Nov. 9, 1886 +524,378 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Nov. 9, 1886 +365,978 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Nov. 22, 1886 +369 439 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Nov. 22, 1886 +384 830 Railway Signalling--Edison and GillilandNov. 24, 1886 +379,944 Commutator for Dynamo Electric MachinesNov. 26, 1886 +411,020 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . .Nov. 26, 1886 +485,616 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . . .Dec 6, 1886 +485,615 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . . .Dec 6, 1886 +525,007 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . . Dec. 6, 1886 +369,441 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Dec. 10, 1886 +369,442 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Dec. 16, 1886 +369,443 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Dec. 16, 1886 +484,185 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . .Dec. 20, 1886 +534,207 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . .Dec. 20, 1886 +373,584 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .Dec. 21, 1886 + +1887 + +468,949 Converter System for Electric + Railways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 7, 1887 +380,100 Pyromagnetic Motor . . . . . . . . . . May 24, 1887 +476,983 Pyromagnetic Generator . . . . . . . . .May 24 1887 +476,530 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . June 1, 1887 +377,518 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . .June 30, 1887 +470,923 Railway Signalling . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 9, 1887 +545,405 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Aug. 26, 1887 +380,101 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Sept. 13 1887 +380,102 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Sept. 14 1887 +470,924 Electric Conductor . . . . . . . . . Sept. 26, 1887 +563,462 Method of and Apparatus for Drawing + Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 17, 1887 +385,173 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Nov. 5, 1887 +506,215 Making Plate Glass . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 9, 1887 +382,414 Burnishing Attachments for PhonographsNov. 22, 1887 +386,974 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 22, 1887 +430,570 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 22, 1887 +382,416 Feed and Return Mechanism for PhonographsNov. 29, 1887 +382,415 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Dec. 4, 1887 +382,462 Phonogram Blanks . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1887 + +1888 + +484,582 Duplicating Phonograms . . . . . . . .Jan. 17, 1888 +434,586 Electric Generator . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 21, 1888 +434,587 Thermo Electric Battery. . . . . . . .Jan. 21, 1888 +382,417 Making Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . .Jan. 30, 1888 +389,369 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . . Feb. 2, 1888 +382,418 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 20, 1888 +390,462 Making Carbon Filaments. . . . . . . .Feb. 20, 1888 +394,105 Phonograph Recorder. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 20, 1888 +394,106 Phonograph Reproducer. . . . . . . . .Feb. 20, 1888 +382,419 Duplicating Phonograms . . . . . . . .March 3, 1888 +425,762 Cut-Out for Incandescent Lamps . . . .March 3, 1888 +396,356 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . .March 19,1888 +393,462 Making Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . April 28, 1888 +393,463 Machine for Making Phonogram Blanks. April 28, 1888 +393,464 Machine for Making Phonogram Blanks. April 28, 1888 +534,208 Induction Converter. . . . . . . . . . .May 7, 1888 +476,991 Method of and Apparatus for Separating + Ores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 9, 1888 +400,646 Phonograph Recorder and Reproducer . . May 22, 1888 +488,190 Phonograph Reproducer. . . . . . . . . May 22, 1888 +488,189 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 26, 1888 +470,925 Manufacture of Filaments for Incandescent + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . .June 21, 1888 +393,465 Preparing Phonograph Recording SurfacesJune 30, 1888 +400,647 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 30, 1888 +448,780 Device for Turning Off Phonogram BlanksJune 30, 1888 +393,466 Phonograph Recorder. . . . . . . . . .July 14, 1888 +393,966 Recording and Reproducing Sounds . . .July 14, 1888 +393,967 Recording and Reproducing Sounds . . .July 14, 1888 +430,274 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .July 14, 1888 +437,423 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 14, 1888 +450,740 Phonograph Recorder. . . . . . . . . .July 14, 1888 +485,617 Incandescent Lamp Filament . . . . . .July 14, 1888 +448,781 Turning-Off Device for Phonographs . .July 16, 1888 +400,648 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .July 27, 1888 +499,879 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 27, 1888 +397,705 Winding Field Magnets. . . . . . . . .Aug. 31, 1888 +435,690 Making Armatures for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 31, 1888 +430,275 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . Sept. 12, 1888 +474,591 Extracting Gold from Sulphide Ores . Sept. 12, 1888 +397,280 Phonograph Recorder and Reproducer . Sept. 19, 1888 +397,706 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 29, 1888 +400,649 Making Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . Sept. 29, 1888 +400,650 Making Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . .Oct. 15, 1888 +406,568 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 15, 1888 +437,424 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 15, 1888 +393,968 Phonograph Recorder. . . . . . . . . .Oct. 31, 1888 + +1889 + +406,569 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 10, 1889 +488,191 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 10, 1889 +430,276 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 12, 1889 +406,570 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 +406,571 Treating Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 +406,572 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 +406,573 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 +406,574 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 +406,575 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 +406,576 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 +430,277 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 +437,425 Phonograph Recorder. . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 +414,759 Phonogram Blanks . . . . . . . . . . March 22, 1889 +414,760 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 22, 1889 +462,540 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . March 22, 1889 +430,278 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .April 8, 1889 +438,309 Insulating Electrical Conductors . . April 25, 1889 +423,039 Phonograph Doll or Other Toys. . . . .June 15, 1889 +426,527 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1889 +430,279 Voltaic Battery. . . . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1889 +506,216 Apparatus for Making Glass . . . . . .June 29, 1889 +414,761 Phonogram Blanks . . . . . . . . . . .July 16, 1889 +430,280 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . .July 20, 1889 +437,426 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 20, 1889 +465,972 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 14, 1889 +443,507 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 11 1889 +513,095 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 11 1889 + +1890 + +434,588 Magnetic Ore Separator--Edison and + W. K. L. Dickson . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 16, 1890 +437,427 Making Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . . Feb. 8, 1890 +465,250 Extracting Copper Pyrites. . . . . . . Feb. 8, 1890 +434,589 Propelling Mechanism for Electric VehiclesFeb. 14, 1890 +438,310 Lamp Base. . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 25, 1890 +437,428 Propelling Device for Electric Cars. April 29, 1890 +437,429 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . April 29, 1890 +454,941 Phonograph Recorder and Reproducer . . .May 6, 1890 +436,127 Electric Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . May 17, 1890 +484,583 Phonograph Cutting Tool. . . . . . . . May 24, 1890 +484,584 Phonograph Reproducer. . . . . . . . . May 24, 1890 +436,970 Apparatus for Transmitting Power . . . June 2, 1890 +453,741 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July 5, 1890 +454,942 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July 5, 1890 +456,301 Phonograph Doll. . . . . . . . . . . . July 5, 1890 +484,585 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July 5, 1890 +456,302 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 4, 1890 +476,984 Expansible Pulley. . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 9, 1890 +493,858 Transmission of Power. . . . . . . . . Aug. 9, 1890 +457,343 Magnetic Belting . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 6, 1890 +444,530 Leading-in Wires for Incandescent Electric + Lamps (reissued October 10, 1905, + No. 12,393). . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 12, 1890 +534 209 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . Sept. 13, 1890 +476 985 Trolley for Electric Railways. . . . .Oct. 27, 1890 +500,280 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 27, 1890 +541,923 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 27, 1890 +457,344 Smoothing Tool for Phonogram + Blanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 17, 1890 +460,123 Phonogram Blank Carrier. . . . . . . .Nov. 17, 1890 +500,281 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 17, 1890 +541,924 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 17, 1890 +500,282 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 1, 1890 +575,151 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 1, 1890 +605,667 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 1, 1890 +610,706 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 1, 1890 +622,843 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 1, 1890 +609,268 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 6, 1890 +493,425 Electric Locomotive. . . . . . . . . .Dec. 20, 1890 + +1891 + +476,992 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Jan. 20, 1891 +470,926 Dynamo Electric Machine or Motor . . . Feb. 4, 1891 +496,191 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 4, 1891 +476,986 Means for Propelling Electric Cars . .Feb. 24, 1891 +476,987 Electric Locomotive. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 24, 1891 +465,973 Armatures for Dynamos or Motors. . . .March 4, 1891 +470,927 Driving Mechanism for Cars . . . . . .March 4, 1891 +465,970 Armature Connection for Motors or + Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 20, 1891 +468,950 Commutator Brush for Electric Motors + and Dynamos. . . . . . . . . . . . . March 20, 1891 +475,491 Electric Locomotive. . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1891 +475,492 Electric Locomotive. . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1891 +475,493 Electric Locomotive. . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1891 +475,494 Electric Railway . . . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1891 +463,251 Bricking Fine Ores . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 +470,928 Alternating Current Generator. . . . .July 31, 1891 +476,988 Lightning Arrester . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 +476,989 Conductor for Electric Railways. . . .July 31, 1891 +476,990 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 +476,993 Electric Arc . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 +484,183 Electrical Depositing Meter. . . . . .July 31, 1891 +485,840 Bricking Fine Iron Ores. . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 +493,426 Apparatus for Exhibiting Photographs + of Moving Objects. . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 +509,518 Electric Railway . . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 +589,168 Kinetographic Camera (reissued September + 30, 1902, numbered 12,037 + and 12,038, and January 12, 1904, + numbered 12,192) . . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 +470,929 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 +471,268 Ore Conveyor and Method of Arranging + Ore Thereon. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 +472,288 Dust-Proof Bearings for Shafts . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 +472,752 Dust-Proof Journal Bearings. . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 +472,753 Ore-Screening Apparatus. . . . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 +474,592 Ore-Conveying Apparatus. . . . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 +474,593 Dust-Proof Swivel Shaft Bearing. . . .Aug. 28, 1891 +498,385 Rollers for Ore-Crushing or Other + Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 +470,930 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . . .Oct 8, 1891 +476,532 Ore-Screening Apparatus. . . . . . . . .Oct 8, 1891 +491,992 Cut-Out for Incandescent Electric LampsNov. 10, 1891 + +1892 + +491,993 Stop Device. . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 5 1892 +564,423 Separating Ores. . . . . . . . . . . .June 2;, 1892 +485,842 Magnetic Ore Separation. . . . . . . . July 9, 1892 +485,841 Mechanically Separating Ores . . . . . July 9, 1892 +513,096 Method of and Apparatus for Mixing + Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 24, 1892 + +1893 + +509,428 Composition Brick and Making Same. . March 15, 1893 +513,097 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 22, 1893 +567,187 Crushing Rolls . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1893 +602 064 Conveyor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1893 +534 206 Filament for Incandescent Lamps. . . .Dec. 15, 1893 + +1896 + +865,367 Fluorescent Electric Lamp. . . . . . . May 16, 1896 + +1897 + +604.740 Governor for Motors. . . . . . . . . .Jan. 25, 1897 +607,588 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 25, 1897 +637,327 Rolls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 14, 1897 +672,616 Breaking Rock. . . . . . . . . . . . . May 14, 1897 +675,056 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . . May 14, 1897 +676,618 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . . May 14, 1897 +605,475 Drying Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1897 +605,668 Mixer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1897 +667,201 Flight Conveyor. . . . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1897 +671,314 Lubricating Journal Bearings . . . . .June 10, 1897 +671,315 Conveyor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1897 +675,057 Screening Pulverized Material. . . . .June 10, 1897 + +1898 + +713,209 Duplicating Phonograms . . . . . . . .Feb. 21, 1898 +703,774 Reproducer for Phonographs . . . . . March 21, 1898 +626,460 Filament for Incandescent Lamps and + Manufacturing Same . . . . . . . . . .March 29,1898 +648,933 Dryer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 11, 1898 +661,238 Machine for Forming Pulverized + Material in Briquettes . . . . . . . April 11, 1898 +674,057 Crushing Rolls . . . . . . . . . . . April 11, 1898 +703,562 Apparatus for Bricking Pulverized MaterialApril 11, 1898 +704,010 Apparatus for Concentrating Magnetic + Iron Ores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 11, 1898 +659,389 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 19, 1898 + +1899 + +648,934 Screening or Sizing Very Fine MaterialsFeb. 6, 1899 +663,015 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 6, 1899 +688,610 Phonographic Recording Apparatus . . .Feb. 10, 1899 +643,764 Reheating Compressed Air for + Industrial Purposes. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 24, 1899 +660,293 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . .March 23,1899 +641,281 Expanding Pulley--Edison and Johnson .March 28,1899 +727,116 Grinding Rolls . . . . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1899 +652,457 Phonograph (reissued September 25, + 1900, numbered 11,857) . . . . . . . Sept. 12, 1899 +648,935 Apparatus for Duplicating Phonograph + Records. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 27, 1899 +685,911 Apparatus for Reheating Compressed + Air for Industrial Purposes. . . . . .Nov. 24, 1899 +657,922 Apparatus for Reheating Compressed + Air for Industrial Purposes. . . . . . Dec. 9, 1899 + +1900 + +676,840 Magnetic Separating Apparatus. . . . . Jan. 3, 1900 +660,845 Apparatus for Sampling, Averaging, + Mixing, and Storing Materials in Bulk Jan. 9, 1900 +662,063 Process of Sampling, Averaging, Mixing, + and Storing Materials in Bulk. . . . . Jan. 9, 1900 +679,500 Apparatus for Screening Fine Materials Jan. 24, 1900 +671,316 Apparatus for Screening Fine Materials Feb. 23, 1900 +671,317 Apparatus for Screening Fine Materials March 28, 1900 +759,356 Burning Portland Cement Clinker, etc April 10, 1900 +759,357 Apparatus for Burning Portland Cement + Clinker, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . .April 10 1900 +655,480 Phonographic Reproducing Device. . . .April 30 1900 +657,527 Making Metallic Phonograph Records . April 30, 1900 +667,202 Duplicating Phonograph Records . . . April 30, 1900 +667,662 Duplicating Phonograph Records . . . April 30, 1900 +713,863 Coating Phonograph Records . . . . . . May IS, 1900 +676,841 Magnetic Separating Apparatus. . . . . June 11 1900 +759,358 Magnetic Separating Apparatus. . . . . June 11 1900 +680,520 Phonograph Records . . . . . . . . . .July 23, 1900 +672,617 Apparatus for Breaking Rock. . . . . . Aug. 1, 1900 +676,225 Phonographic Recording Apparatus . . .Aug. 10, 1900 +703,051 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 28, 1900 +684,204 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . . Oct. IS 1900 +871,214 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . . Oct. IS 1900 +704,303 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Dec. 22, 1900 + +1901 + +700,136 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . . Feb. 18 1901 +700,137 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . . Feb. 23 1901 +704,304 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Feb. 23, 1901 +704,305 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . . May 10, 1901 +678,722 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .June 17, 1901 +684,205 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .June 17, 1901 +692,507 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .June 17, 1901 +701,804 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .June 17, 1901 +704,306 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .June 17, 1901 +705,829 Reproducer for Sound Records . . . . .Oct. 24, 1901 +831,606 Sound Recording Apparatus. . . . . . .Oct. 24, 1901 +827,089 Calcining Furnaces . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 24, 1901 + + +1902 + +734,522 Process of Nickel-Plating. . . . . . .Feb. 11, 1902 +727,117 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . Sept. 29, 1902 + +727,118 Manufacturing Electrolytically Active + Finely Divided Iron. . . . . . . . . .Oct. 13, 1902 +721,682 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 +721,870 Funnel for Filling Storage Battery JarsNov. 13, 1902 +723,449 Electrode for Storage Batteries. . . .Nov. 13, 1902 +723,450 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 +754,755 Compressing Dies . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 +754,858 Storage Battery Tray . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 +754,859 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 +764,183 Separating Mechanically Entrained + Globules from Gases. . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 +802,631 Apparatus for Burning Portland Cement + Clinker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 +852,424 Secondary Batteries. . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 +722,502 Handling Cable Drawn Cars on Inclines. Dec. 18, +1902 +724,089 Operating Motors in Dust Laden + Atmospheres. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 18, 1902 +750,102 Electrical Automobile. . . . . . . . .Dec. 18, 1902 +758,432 Stock House Conveyor . . . . . . . . .Dec. 18, 1902 +873,219 Feed Regulators for Grinding Machines. Dec. 18, +1902 +832,046 Automatic Weighing and Mixing ApparatusDec. 18, 1902 + +1903 + +772,647 Photographic Film for Moving Picture + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 13, 1903 +841,677 Apparatus for Separating and Grinding + Fine Materials . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 22, 1903 +790,351 Duplicating Phonograph Records . . . .Jan. 30. 1903 +831,269 Storage Battery Electrode Plate. . . .Jan. 30, 1903 +775,965 Dry Separator. . . . . . . . . . . . April 27, 1903 +754,756 Process of Treating Ores from Magnetic + Gangue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 25, 1903 +775,600 Rotary Cement Kilns. . . . . . . . . .July 20, 1903 +767,216 Apparatus for Vacuously Depositing + Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July 30 1903 +796,629 Lamp Guard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July 30 1903 +772,648 Vehicle Wheel. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1903 +850,912 Making Articles by Electro-Plating . . .Oct 3, 1903 +857,041 Can or Receptacle for Storage Batteries.Oct 3, 1903 +766,815 Primary Battery. . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 16, 1903 +943,664 Sound Recording Apparatus. . . . . . .Nov. 16, 1903 +873,220 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Nov. 20, 1903 +898,633 Filling Apparatus for Storage Battery + Jars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 8, 1903 + +1904 + +767,554 Rendering Storage Battery Gases Non- + Explosive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 8, 1904 +861,241 Portland Cement and Manufacturing SameJune 20, 1904 +800,800 Phonograph Records and Making Same . .June 24, 1904 +821,622 Cleaning Metallic Surfaces . . . . . .June 24, 1904 +879,612 Alkaline Storage Batteries . . . . . .June 24, 1904 +880,484 Process of Producing Very Thin Sheet + Metal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 24, 1904 +827,297 Alkaline Batteries . . . . . . . . . .July 12, 1904 +797,845 Sheet Metal for Perforated Pockets of + Storage Batteries. . . . . . . . . . .July 12, 1904 +847,746 Electrical Welding Apparatus . . . . .July 12, 1904 +821,032 Storage Battery. . . . . . . . . . . . Aug 10, 1904 +861,242 Can or Receptacle for Storage Battery. Aug 10, 1904 +970,615 Methods and Apparatus for Making + Sound Records. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 23, 1904 +817,162 Treating Alkaline Storage Batteries. Sept. 26, 1904 +948,542 Method of Treating Cans of Alkaline + Storage Batteries. . . . . . . . . . Sept. 28, 1904 +813,490 Cement Kiln. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct 29, 1904 +821,625 Treating Alkaline Storage Batteries. . Oct 29, 1904 +821,623 Storage Battery Filling Apparatus. . . Nov. 1, 1904 +821,624 Gas Separator for Storage Battery. . .Oct. 29, 1904 + +1905 + +879,859 Apparatus for Producing Very Thin- + Sheet Metal. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 16, 1905 +804,799 Apparatus for Perforating Sheet MetalMarch 17, 1905 +870,024 Apparatus for Producing Perforated + Strips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 23, 1905 +882,144 Secondary Battery Electrodes . . . . March 29, 1905 +821,626 Process of Making Metallic Films or + Flakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .March 29,1905 +821,627 Making Metallic Flakes or Scales . . .March 29,1905 +827,717 Making Composite Metal . . . . . . . .March 29,1905 +839,371 Coating Active Material with Flake-like + Conducting Material. . . . . . . . . .March 29,1905 +854,200 Making Storage Battery Electrodes. . .March 29,1905 +857,929 Storage Battery Electrodes . . . . . March 29, 1905 +860,195 Storage Battery Electrodes . . . . . April 26, 1905 +862,145 Process of Making Seamless Tubular + Pockets or Receptacles for Storage + Battery Electrodes . . . . . . . . . April 26, 1905 +839,372 Phonograph Records or Blanks . . . . April 28, 1905 +813,491 Pocket Filling Machine . . . . . . . . May 15, 1905 +821,628 Making Conducting Films. . . . . . . . May 20, 1905 +943,663 Horns for Talking Machines . . . . . . May 20, 1905 +950 226 Phonograph Recording Apparatus . . . . May 20, 1905 +785 297 Gas Separator for Storage Batteries. .July 18, 1905 +950,227 Apparatus for Making Metallic Films + or Flakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 10, 1905 +936,433 Tube Filling and Tamping Machine . . .Oct. 12, 1905 +967,178 Tube Forming Machines--Edison and + John F. Ott. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 16, 1905 +880,978 Electrode Elements for Storage + Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 31, 1905 +880,979 Method of Making Storage Battery + Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 31, 1905 +850,913 Secondary Batteries. . . . . . . . . . Dec. 6, 1905 +914,342 Storage Battery. . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 6, 1905 + +1906 + +858,862 Primary and Secondary Batteries. . . . Jan. 9, 1906 +850,881 Composite Metal. . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 19, 1906 +964,096 Processes of Electro-Plating . . . . .Feb. 24, 1906 +914,372 Making Thin Metallic Flakes. . . . . .July 13, 1906 +962,822 Crushing Rolls . . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 4, 1906 +923,633 Shaft Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 11, 1906 +962,823 Crushing Rolls . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 11, 1906 +930,946 Apparatus for Burning Portland Cement. Oct. 22,1906 +898 404 Making Articles by Electro-Plating . . Nov. 2, 1906 +930,948 Apparatus for Burning Portland Cement.Nov. 16, 1906 +930,949 Apparatus for Burning Portland Cement. Nov. 26 1906 +890,625 Apparatus for Grinding Coal. . . . . . Nov, 33 1906 +948,558 Storage Battery Electrodes . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1906 +964,221 Sound Records. . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 28, 1906 + +1907 + +865,688 Making Metallic Films or Flakes. . . .Jan. 11, 1907 +936,267 Feed Mechanism for Phonographs and + Other Machines . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 11, 1907 +936,525 Making Metallic Films or Flakes. . . .Jan. 17, 1907 +865,687 Making Nickel Films. . . . . . . . . .Jan. 18, 1907 +939,817 Cement Kiln. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 8, 1907 +855,562 Diaphragm for Talking Machines . . . .Feb. 23, 1907 +939,992 Phonographic Recording and Reproducing + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 25, 1907 +941,630 Process and Apparatus for Artificially + Aging or Seasoning Portland Cement . .Feb. 25, 1907 +876,445 Electrolyte for Alkaline Storage BatteriesMay 8, 1907 +914,343 Making Storage Battery Electrodes. . . May 15, 1907 +861,819 Discharging Apparatus for Belt ConveyorsJune 11, 1907 +954,789 Sprocket Chain Drives. . . . . . . . .June 11, 1907 +909,877 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 18, 1907 + +1908 + +896,811 Metallic Film for Use with Storage Batteries + and Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 4, 1908 +940,635 Electrode Element for Storage Batteries Feb. 4, +1908 +909,167 Water-Proofing Paint for Portland + Cement Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 4, 1908 +896,812 Storage Batteries. . . . . . . . . . March 13, 1908 +944,481 Processes and Apparatus for Artificially + Aging or Seasoning Portland Cement. March 13,1908 +947,806 Automobiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . March 13,-1908 +909,168 Water-Proofing Fibres and Fabrics. . . May 27, 1908 +909,169 Water-Proofing Paint for Portland + Cement Structures. . . . . . . . . . . May 27, 1908 +970,616 Flying Machines. . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 20, 1908 + +1909 +930,947 Gas Purifier . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 15, 1909 +40,527 Design Patent for Phonograph Cabinet. Sept. 13, 1909 + + +FOREIGN PATENTS + + +In addition to the United States patents issued to Edison, +as above enumerated, there have been granted to him (up to Oc- +tober, 1910) by foreign governments 1239 patents, as follows: + +Argentine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 +Australia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 +Austria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101 +Belgium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 +Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 +Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129 +Cape of Good Hope. . . . . . . . . . . . .5 +Ceylon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 +Cuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 +Denmark. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 +France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111 +Germany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130 +Great Britain. . . . . . . . . . . . . .131 +Hungary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 +India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 +Italy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 +Japan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 +Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 +Natal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 +New South Wales. . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 +New Zealand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 +Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 +Orange Free State. . . . . . . . . . . . .2 +Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 +Queensland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 +Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 +South African Republic . . . . . . . . . .4 +South Australia. . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 +Spain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 +Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 +Switzerland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 +Tasmania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 +Victoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 +West Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 + + ---- +Total of Edison's Foreign Patents. . . 1239 + + + + + + +End of The Project Gutenberg Etext of Edison, His Life and Inventions + diff --git a/old/ehlai10.zip b/old/ehlai10.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a19f6e4 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/ehlai10.zip |