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@@ -0,0 +1,25700 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Edison, His Life and Inventions, by +Frank Lewis Dyer and Thomas Commerford Martin + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Edison, His Life and Inventions + +Author: Frank Lewis Dyer and Thomas Commerford Martin + +Release Date: January 21, 2006 [EBook #820] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EDISON, HIS LIFE AND INVENTIONS *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Keller and David Widger + + + + + +EDISON HIS LIFE AND INVENTIONS + +By Frank Lewis Dyer + +General Counsel For The Edison Laboratory And Allied Interests + +And + +Thomas Commerford Martin + +Ex-President Of The American Institute Of Electrical Engineers + + + +CONTENTS + + INTRODUCTION + I. THE AGE OF ELECTRICITY + II. EDISON'S PEDIGREE + III. BOYHOOD AT PORT HURON, MICHIGAN + IV. THE YOUNG TELEGRAPH OPERATOR + V. ARDUOUS YEARS IN THE CENTRAL WEST + VI. WORK AND INVENTION IN BOSTON + VII. THE STOCK TICKER + VIII. AUTOMATIC, DUPLEX, AND QUADRUPLEX TELEGRAPHY + IX. THE TELEPHONE, MOTOGRAPH, AND MICROPHONE + X. THE PHONOGRAPH + XI. THE INVENTION OF THE INCANDESCENT LAMP + XII. MEMORIES OF MENLO PARK + XIII. A WORLD-HUNT FOR FILAMENT MATERIAL + XIV. INVENTING A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF LIGHTING + XV. INTRODUCTION OF THE EDISON ELECTRIC LIGHT + XVI. THE FIRST EDISON CENTRAL STATION + XVII. OTHER EARLY STATIONS--THE METER + XVIII. THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY + XIX. MAGNETIC ORE MILLING WORK + XX. EDISON PORTLAND CEMENT + XXI. MOTION PICTURES + XXII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EDISON STORAGE BATTERY + XXIII. MISCELLANEOUS INVENTIONS + XXIV. EDISON'S METHOD IN INVENTING + XXV. THE LABORATORY AT ORANGE AND THE STAFF + XXVI. EDISON IN COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURE + XXVII. THE VALUE OF EDISON'S INVENTIONS TO THE WORLD + XXVIII. THE BLACK FLAG + XXIX. THE SOCIAL SIDE OF EDISON + APPENDIX + LIST OF UNITED STATES PATENTS + FOREIGN PATENTS + INDEX + + + +INTRODUCTION + +PRIOR to this, no complete, authentic, and authorized record of the work +of Mr. Edison, during an active life, has been given to the world. That +life, if there is anything in heredity, is very far from finished; and +while it continues there will be new achievement. + +An insistently expressed desire on the part of the public for a +definitive biography of Edison was the reason for the following pages. +The present authors deem themselves happy in the confidence reposed in +them, and in the constant assistance they have enjoyed from Mr. Edison +while preparing these pages, a great many of which are altogether +his own. This co-operation in no sense relieves the authors of +responsibility as to any of the views or statements of their own that +the book contains. They have realized the extreme reluctance of Mr. +Edison to be made the subject of any biography at all; while he has felt +that, if it must be written, it were best done by the hands of friends +and associates of long standing, whose judgment and discretion he could +trust, and whose intimate knowledge of the facts would save him from +misrepresentation. + +The authors of the book are profoundly conscious of the fact that the +extraordinary period of electrical development embraced in it has been +prolific of great men. They have named some of them; but there has +been no idea of setting forth various achievements or of ascribing +distinctive merits. This treatment is devoted to one man whom his +fellow-citizens have chosen to regard as in many ways representative of +the American at his finest flowering in the field of invention during +the nineteenth century. + +It is designed in these pages to bring the reader face to face with +Edison; to glance at an interesting childhood and a youthful period +marked by a capacity for doing things, and by an insatiable thirst for +knowledge; then to accompany him into the great creative stretch of +forty years, during which he has done so much. This book shows him +plunged deeply into work for which he has always had an incredible +capacity, reveals the exercise of his unsurpassed inventive ability, his +keen reasoning powers, his tenacious memory, his fertility of resource; +follows him through a series of innumerable experiments, conducted +methodically, reaching out like rays of search-light into all the +regions of science and nature, and finally exhibits him emerging +triumphantly from countless difficulties bearing with him in new arts +the fruits of victorious struggle. + +These volumes aim to be a biography rather than a history of +electricity, but they have had to cover so much general ground in +defining the relations and contributions of Edison to the electrical +arts, that they serve to present a picture of the whole development +effected in the last fifty years, the most fruitful that electricity has +known. The effort has been made to avoid technique and abstruse phrases, +but some degree of explanation has been absolutely necessary in regard +to each group of inventions. The task of the authors has consisted +largely in summarizing fairly the methods and processes employed by +Edison; and some idea of the difficulties encountered by them in +so doing may be realized from the fact that one brief chapter, for +example,--that on ore milling--covers nine years of most intense +application and activity on the part of the inventor. It is something +like exhibiting the geological eras of the earth in an outline lantern +slide, to reduce an elaborate series of strenuous experiments and a vast +variety of ingenious apparatus to the space of a few hundred words. + +A great deal of this narrative is given in Mr. Edison's own language, +from oral or written statements made in reply to questions addressed to +him with the object of securing accuracy. A further large part is based +upon the personal contributions of many loyal associates; and it is +desired here to make grateful acknowledgment to such collaborators as +Messrs. Samuel Insull, E. H. Johnson, F. R. Upton, R. N Dyer, S. B. +Eaton, Francis Jehl, W. S. Andrews, W. J. Jenks, W. J. Hammer, F. J. +Sprague, W. S. Mallory, and C. L. Clarke, and others, without whose +aid the issuance of this book would indeed have been impossible. In +particular, it is desired to acknowledge indebtedness to Mr. W. H. +Meadowcroft not only for substantial aid in the literary part of the +work, but for indefatigable effort to group, classify, and summarize the +boundless material embodied in Edison's note-books and memorabilia of +all kinds now kept at the Orange laboratory. Acknowledgment must also +be made of the courtesy and assistance of Mrs. Edison, and especially +of the loan of many interesting and rare photographs from her private +collection. + + + + +EDISON HIS LIFE AND INVENTIONS + + + + +CHAPTER I + +THE AGE OF ELECTRICITY + +THE year 1847 marked a period of great territorial acquisition by +the American people, with incalculable additions to their actual and +potential wealth. By the rational compromise with England in the dispute +over the Oregon region, President Polk had secured during 1846, for +undisturbed settlement, three hundred thousand square miles of forest, +fertile land, and fisheries, including the whole fair Columbia Valley. +Our active "policy of the Pacific" dated from that hour. With swift and +clinching succession came the melodramatic Mexican War, and February, +1848, saw another vast territory south of Oregon and west of the Rocky +Mountains added by treaty to the United States. Thus in about eighteen +months there had been pieced into the national domain for quick +development and exploitation a region as large as the entire Union +of Thirteen States at the close of the War of Independence. Moreover, +within its boundaries was embraced all the great American gold-field, +just on the eve of discovery, for Marshall had detected the shining +particles in the mill-race at the foot of the Sierra Nevada nine days +before Mexico signed away her rights in California and in all the vague, +remote hinterland facing Cathayward. + +Equally momentous were the times in Europe, where the attempt to secure +opportunities of expansion as well as larger liberty for the individual +took quite different form. The old absolutist system of government was +fast breaking up, and ancient thrones were tottering. The red lava of +deep revolutionary fires oozed up through many glowing cracks in the +political crust, and all the social strata were shaken. That the wild +outbursts of insurrection midway in the fifth decade failed and died +away was not surprising, for the superincumbent deposits of tradition +and convention were thick. But the retrospect indicates that many +reforms and political changes were accomplished, although the process +involved the exile of not a few ardent spirits to America, to become +leading statesmen, inventors, journalists, and financiers. In 1847, too, +Russia began her tremendous march eastward into Central Asia, just +as France was solidifying her first gains on the littoral of northern +Africa. In England the fierce fervor of the Chartist movement, with its +violent rhetoric as to the rights of man, was sobering down and passing +pervasively into numerous practical schemes for social and political +amelioration, constituting in their entirety a most profound change +throughout every part of the national life. + +Into such times Thomas Alva Edison was born, and his relations to +them and to the events of the past sixty years are the subject of +this narrative. Aside from the personal interest that attaches to the +picturesque career, so typically American, there is a broader aspect in +which the work of the "Franklin of the Nineteenth Century" touches +the welfare and progress of the race. It is difficult at any time to +determine the effect of any single invention, and the investigation +becomes more difficult where inventions of the first class have been +crowded upon each other in rapid and bewildering succession. But it will +be admitted that in Edison one deals with a central figure of the great +age that saw the invention and introduction in practical form of the +telegraph, the submarine cable, the telephone, the electric light, the +electric railway, the electric trolley-car, the storage battery, the +electric motor, the phonograph, the wireless telegraph; and that the +influence of these on the world's affairs has not been excelled at +any time by that of any other corresponding advances in the arts and +sciences. These pages deal with Edison's share in the great work of the +last half century in abridging distance, communicating intelligence, +lessening toil, improving illumination, recording forever the human +voice; and on behalf of inventive genius it may be urged that its +beneficent results and gifts to mankind compare with any to be credited +to statesman, warrior, or creative writer of the same period. + +Viewed from the standpoint of inventive progress, the first half of +the nineteenth century had passed very profitably when Edison +appeared--every year marked by some notable achievement in the arts and +sciences, with promise of its early and abundant fruition in commerce +and industry. There had been exactly four decades of steam navigation +on American waters. Railways were growing at the rate of nearly +one thousand miles annually. Gas had become familiar as a means of +illumination in large cities. Looms and tools and printing-presses were +everywhere being liberated from the slow toil of man-power. The first +photographs had been taken. Chloroform, nitrous oxide gas, and ether +had been placed at the service of the physician in saving life, and +the revolver, guncotton, and nitroglycerine added to the agencies for +slaughter. New metals, chemicals, and elements had become available in +large numbers, gases had been liquefied and solidified, and the range +of useful heat and cold indefinitely extended. The safety-lamp had been +given to the miner, the caisson to the bridge-builder, the anti-friction +metal to the mechanic for bearings. It was already known how to +vulcanize rubber, and how to galvanize iron. The application of +machinery in the harvest-field had begun with the embryonic reaper, +while both the bicycle and the automobile were heralded in primitive +prototypes. The gigantic expansion of the iron and steel industry was +foreshadowed in the change from wood to coal in the smelting furnaces. +The sewing-machine had brought with it, like the friction match, one of +the most profound influences in modifying domestic life, and making it +different from that of all preceding time. + +Even in 1847 few of these things had lost their novelty, most of them +were in the earlier stages of development. But it is when we turn to +electricity that the rich virgin condition of an illimitable new kingdom +of discovery is seen. Perhaps the word "utilization" or "application" is +better than discovery, for then, as now, an endless wealth of phenomena +noted by experimenters from Gilbert to Franklin and Faraday awaited the +invention that could alone render them useful to mankind. The eighteenth +century, keenly curious and ceaselessly active in this fascinating field +of investigation, had not, after all, left much of a legacy in either +principles or appliances. The lodestone and the compass; the frictional +machine; the Leyden jar; the nature of conductors and insulators; +the identity of electricity and the thunder-storm flash; the use of +lightning-rods; the physiological effects of an electrical shock--these +constituted the bulk of the bequest to which philosophers were the only +heirs. Pregnant with possibilities were many of the observations that +had been recorded. But these few appliances made up the meagre kit +of tools with which the nineteenth century entered upon its task of +acquiring the arts and conveniences now such an intimate part of "human +nature's daily food" that the average American to-day pays more for his +electrical service than he does for bread. + +With the first year of the new century came Volta's invention of the +chemical battery as a means of producing electricity. A well-known +Italian picture represents Volta exhibiting his apparatus before the +young conqueror Napoleon, then ravishing from the Peninsula its treasure +of ancient art and founding an ephemeral empire. At such a moment this +gift of despoiled Italy to the world was a noble revenge, setting in +motion incalculable beneficent forces and agencies. For the first +time man had command of a steady supply of electricity without toil or +effort. The useful results obtainable previously from the current of a +frictional machine were not much greater than those to be derived from +the flight of a rocket. While the frictional appliance is still +employed in medicine, it ranks with the flint axe and the tinder-box +in industrial obsolescence. No art or trade could be founded on it; no +diminution of daily work or increase of daily comfort could be secured +with it. But the little battery with its metal plates in a weak +solution proved a perennial reservoir of electrical energy, safe and +controllable, from which supplies could be drawn at will. That which was +wild had become domesticated; regular crops took the place of haphazard +gleanings from brake or prairie; the possibility of electrical +starvation was forever left behind. + +Immediately new processes of inestimable value revealed themselves; new +methods were suggested. Almost all the electrical arts now employed +made their beginnings in the next twenty-five years, and while the more +extensive of them depend to-day on the dynamo for electrical energy, +some of the most important still remain in loyal allegiance to the older +source. The battery itself soon underwent modifications, and new types +were evolved--the storage, the double-fluid, and the dry. Various +analogies next pointed to the use of heat, and the thermoelectric cell +emerged, embodying the application of flame to the junction of two +different metals. Davy, of the safety-lamp, threw a volume of current +across the gap between two sticks of charcoal, and the voltaic arc, +forerunner of electric lighting, shed its bright beams upon a dazzled +world. The decomposition of water by electrolytic action was recognized +and made the basis of communicating at a distance even before the days +of the electromagnet. The ties that bind electricity and magnetism in +twinship of relation and interaction were detected, and Faraday's work +in induction gave the world at once the dynamo and the motor. "Hitch +your wagon to a star," said Emerson. To all the coal-fields and all the +waterfalls Faraday had directly hitched the wheels of industry. Not +only was it now possible to convert mechanical energy into electricity +cheaply and in illimitable quantities, but electricity at once showed +its ubiquitous availability as a motive power. Boats were propelled by +it, cars were hauled, and even papers printed. Electroplating became +an art, and telegraphy sprang into active being on both sides of the +Atlantic. + +At the time Edison was born, in 1847, telegraphy, upon which he was to +leave so indelible an imprint, had barely struggled into acceptance by +the public. In England, Wheatstone and Cooke had introduced a ponderous +magnetic needle telegraph. In America, in 1840, Morse had taken out his +first patent on an electromagnetic telegraph, the principle of which +is dominating in the art to this day. Four years later the memorable +message "What hath God wrought!" was sent by young Miss Ellsworth over +his circuits, and incredulous Washington was advised by wire of the +action of the Democratic Convention in Baltimore in nominating Polk. +By 1847 circuits had been strung between Washington and New York, under +private enterprise, the Government having declined to buy the Morse +system for $100,000. Everything was crude and primitive. The poles were +two hundred feet apart and could barely hold up a wash-line. The slim, +bare, copper wire snapped on the least provocation, and the circuit +was "down" for thirty-six days in the first six months. The little +glass-knob insulators made seductive targets for ignorant sportsmen. +Attempts to insulate the line wire were limited to coating it with +tar or smearing it with wax for the benefit of all the bees in the +neighborhood. The farthest western reach of the telegraph lines in +1847 was Pittsburg, with three-ply iron wire mounted on square glass +insulators with a little wooden pentroof for protection. In that office, +where Andrew Carnegie was a messenger boy, the magnets in use to receive +the signals sent with the aid of powerful nitric-acid batteries weighed +as much as seventy-five pounds apiece. But the business was fortunately +small at the outset, until the new device, patronized chiefly by +lottery-men, had proved its utility. Then came the great outburst of +activity. Within a score of years telegraph wires covered the whole +occupied country with a network, and the first great electrical industry +was a pronounced success, yielding to its pioneers the first great +harvest of electrical fortunes. It had been a sharp struggle for bare +existence, during which such a man as the founder of Cornell University +had been glad to get breakfast in New York with a quarter-dollar picked +up on Broadway. + + + +CHAPTER II + +EDISON'S PEDIGREE + +THOMAS ALVA EDISON was born at Milan Ohio, February 11, 1847. The State +that rivals Virginia as a "Mother of Presidents" has evidently other +titles to distinction of the same nature. For picturesque detail it +would not be easy to find any story excelling that of the Edison family +before it reached the Western Reserve. The story epitomizes American +idealism, restlessness, freedom of individual opinion, and ready +adjustment to the surrounding conditions of pioneer life. The ancestral +Edisons who came over from Holland, as nearly as can be determined, in +1730, were descendants of extensive millers on the Zuyder Zee, and took +up patents of land along the Passaic River, New Jersey, close to the +home that Mr. Edison established in the Orange Mountains a hundred and +sixty years later. They landed at Elizabethport, New Jersey, and first +settled near Caldwell in that State, where some graves of the family may +still be found. President Cleveland was born in that quiet hamlet. It is +a curious fact that in the Edison family the pronunciation of the name +has always been with the long "e" sound, as it would naturally be in +the Dutch language. The family prospered and must have enjoyed public +confidence, for we find the name of Thomas Edison, as a bank official on +Manhattan Island, signed to Continental currency in 1778. According +to the family records this Edison, great-grandfather of Thomas Alva, +reached the extreme old age of 104 years. But all was not well, and, +as has happened so often before, the politics of father and son were +violently different. The Loyalist movement that took to Nova Scotia so +many Americans after the War of Independence carried with it John, the +son of this stalwart Continental. Thus it came about that Samuel Edison, +son of John, was born at Digby, Nova Scotia, in 1804. Seven years later +John Edison who, as a Loyalist or United Empire emigrant, had become +entitled under the laws of Canada to a grant of six hundred acres of +land, moved westward to take possession of this property. He made his +way through the State of New York in wagons drawn by oxen to the remote +and primitive township of Bayfield, in Upper Canada, on Lake Huron. +Although the journey occurred in balmy June, it was necessarily attended +with difficulty and privation; but the new home was situated in good +farming country, and once again this interesting nomadic family settled +down. + +John Edison moved from Bayfield to Vienna, Ontario, on the northern bank +of Lake Erie. Mr. Edison supplies an interesting reminiscence of the old +man and his environment in those early Canadian days. "When I was five +years old I was taken by my father and mother on a visit to Vienna. We +were driven by carriage from Milan, Ohio, to a railroad, then to a +port on Lake Erie, thence by a canal-boat in a tow of several to Port +Burwell, in Canada, across the lake, and from there we drove to Vienna, +a short distance away. I remember my grandfather perfectly as he +appeared, at 102 years of age, when he died. In the middle of the day +he sat under a large tree in front of the house facing a well-travelled +road. His head was covered completely with a large quantity of very +white hair, and he chewed tobacco incessantly, nodding to friends as +they passed by. He used a very large cane, and walked from the chair to +the house, resenting any assistance. I viewed him from a distance, and +could never get very close to him. I remember some large pipes, and +especially a molasses jug, a trunk, and several other things that came +from Holland." + +John Edison was long-lived, like his father, and reached the ripe old +age of 102, leaving his son Samuel charged with the care of the family +destinies, but with no great burden of wealth. Little is known of the +early manhood of this father of T. A. Edison until we find him keeping a +hotel at Vienna, marrying a school-teacher there (Miss Nancy Elliott, in +1828), and taking a lively share in the troublous politics of the time. +He was six feet in height, of great bodily vigor, and of such personal +dominance of character that he became a captain of the insurgent forces +rallying under the banners of Papineau and Mackenzie. The opening +years of Queen Victoria's reign witnessed a belated effort in Canada +to emphasize the principle that there should not be taxation without +representation; and this descendant of those who had left the United +States from disapproval of such a doctrine, flung himself headlong into +its support. + +It has been said of Earl Durham, who pacified Canada at this time and +established the present system of government, that he made a country +and marred a career. But the immediate measures of repression enforced +before a liberal policy was adopted were sharp and severe, and Samuel +Edison also found his own career marred on Canadian soil as one result +of the Durham administration. Exile to Bermuda with other insurgents was +not so attractive as the perils of a flight to the United States. A very +hurried departure was effected in secret from the scene of trouble, and +there are romantic traditions of his thrilling journey of one hundred +and eighty-two miles toward safety, made almost entirely without food +or sleep, through a wild country infested with Indians of unfriendly +disposition. Thus was the Edison family repatriated by a picturesque +political episode, and the great inventor given a birthplace on American +soil, just as was Benjamin Franklin when his father came from England +to Boston. Samuel Edison left behind him, however, in Canada, several +brothers, all of whom lived to the age of ninety or more, and from whom +there are descendants in the region. + +After some desultory wanderings for a year or two along the shores of +Lake Erie, among the prosperous towns then springing up, the family, +with its Canadian home forfeited, and in quest of another resting-place, +came to Milan, Ohio, in 1842. That pretty little village offered at the +moment many attractions as a possible Chicago. The railroad system of +Ohio was still in the future, but the Western Reserve had already become +a vast wheat-field, and huge quantities of grain from the central and +northern counties sought shipment to Eastern ports. The Huron River, +emptying into Lake Erie, was navigable within a few miles of the +village, and provided an admirable outlet. Large granaries were +established, and proved so successful that local capital was tempted +into the project of making a tow-path canal from Lockwood Landing all +the way to Milan itself. The quaint old Moravian mission and quondam +Indian settlement of one hundred inhabitants found itself of a sudden +one of the great grain ports of the world, and bidding fair to rival +Russian Odessa. A number of grain warehouses, or primitive elevators, +were built along the bank of the canal, and the produce of the region +poured in immediately, arriving in wagons drawn by four or six horses +with loads of a hundred bushels. No fewer than six hundred wagons came +clattering in, and as many as twenty sail vessels were loaded with +thirty-five thousand bushels of grain, during a single day. The canal +was capable of being navigated by craft of from two hundred to two +hundred and fifty tons burden, and the demand for such vessels soon +led to the development of a brisk ship-building industry, for which +the abundant forests of the region supplied the necessary lumber. An +evidence of the activity in this direction is furnished by the fact that +six revenue cutters were launched at this port in these brisk days of +its prime. + +Samuel Edison, versatile, buoyant of temper, and ever optimistic, would +thus appear to have pitched his tent with shrewd judgment. There was +plenty of occupation ready to his hand, and more than one enterprise +received his attention; but he devoted his energies chiefly to the +making of shingles, for which there was a large demand locally and along +the lake. Canadian lumber was used principally in this industry. The +wood was imported in "bolts" or pieces three feet long. A bolt made two +shingles; it was sawn asunder by hand, then split and shaved. None but +first-class timber was used, and such shingles outlasted far those made +by machinery with their cross-grain cut. A house in Milan, on which some +of those shingles were put in 1844, was still in excellent condition +forty-two years later. Samuel Edison did well at this occupation, and +employed several men, but there were other outlets from time to time for +his business activity and speculative disposition. + +Edison's mother was an attractive and highly educated woman, whose +influence upon his disposition and intellect has been profound and +lasting. She was born in Chenango County, New York, in 1810, and was the +daughter of the Rev. John Elliott, a Baptist minister and descendant of +an old Revolutionary soldier, Capt. Ebenezer Elliott, of Scotch descent. +The old captain was a fine and picturesque type. He fought all through +the long War of Independence--seven years--and then appears to have +settled down at Stonington, Connecticut. There, at any rate, he found +his wife, "grandmother Elliott," who was Mercy Peckham, daughter of a +Scotch Quaker. Then came the residence in New York State, with final +removal to Vienna, for the old soldier, while drawing his pension at +Buffalo, lived in the little Canadian town, and there died, over 100 +years old. The family was evidently one of considerable culture and deep +religious feeling, for two of Mrs. Edison's uncles and two brothers were +also in the same Baptist ministry. As a young woman she became a teacher +in the public high school at Vienna, and thus met her husband, who was +residing there. The family never consisted of more than three children, +two boys and a girl. A trace of the Canadian environment is seen in the +fact that Edison's elder brother was named William Pitt, after the +great English statesman. Both his brother and the sister exhibited +considerable ability. William Pitt Edison as a youth was so clever with +his pencil that it was proposed to send him to Paris as an art student. +In later life he was manager of the local street railway lines at Port +Huron, Michigan, in which he was heavily interested. He also owned a +good farm near that town, and during the ill-health at the close of +his life, when compelled to spend much of the time indoors, he devoted +himself almost entirely to sketching. It has been noted by intimate +observers of Thomas A. Edison that in discussing any project or new idea +his first impulse is to take up any piece of paper available and make +drawings of it. His voluminous note-books are a mass of sketches. +Mrs-Tannie Edison Bailey, the sister, had, on the other hand, a great +deal of literary ability, and spent much of her time in writing. + +The great inventor, whose iron endurance and stern will have enabled him +to wear down all his associates by work sustained through arduous days +and sleepless nights, was not at all strong as a child, and was of +fragile appearance. He had an abnormally large but well-shaped head, and +it is said that the local doctors feared he might have brain trouble. +In fact, on account of his assumed delicacy, he was not allowed to go to +school for some years, and even when he did attend for a short time +the results were not encouraging--his mother being hotly indignant upon +hearing that the teacher had spoken of him to an inspector as "addled." +The youth was, indeed, fortunate far beyond the ordinary in having a +mother at once loving, well-informed, and ambitious, capable herself, +from her experience as a teacher, of undertaking and giving him an +education better than could be secured in the local schools of the day. +Certain it is that under this simple regime studious habits were formed +and a taste for literature developed that have lasted to this day. If +ever there was a man who tore the heart out of books it is Edison, and +what has once been read by him is never forgotten if useful or worthy of +submission to the test of experiment. + +But even thus early the stronger love of mechanical processes and of +probing natural forces manifested itself. Edison has said that he +never saw a statement in any book as to such things that he did not +involuntarily challenge, and wish to demonstrate as either right or +wrong. As a mere child the busy scenes of the canal and the grain +warehouses were of consuming interest, but the work in the ship-building +yards had an irresistible fascination. His questions were so ceaseless +and innumerable that the penetrating curiosity of an unusually strong +mind was regarded as deficiency in powers of comprehension, and the +father himself, a man of no mean ingenuity and ability, reports that +the child, although capable of reducing him to exhaustion by endless +inquiries, was often spoken of as rather wanting in ordinary acumen. +This apparent dulness is, however, a quite common incident to youthful +genius. + +The constructive tendencies of this child of whom his father said once +that he had never had any boyhood days in the ordinary sense, were early +noted in his fondness for building little plank roads out of the debris +of the yards and mills. His extraordinarily retentive memory was shown +in his easy acquisition of all the songs of the lumber gangs and canal +men before he was five years old. One incident tells how he was found +one day in the village square copying laboriously the signs of the +stores. A highly characteristic event at the age of six is described by +his sister. He had noted a goose sitting on her eggs and the result. One +day soon after, he was missing. By-and-by, after an anxious search, his +father found him sitting in a nest he had made in the barn, filled with +goose-eggs and hens' eggs he had collected, trying to hatch them out. + +One of Mr. Edison's most vivid recollections goes back to 1850, when as +a child three of four years old he saw camped in front of his home six +covered wagons, "prairie schooners," and witnessed their departure for +California. The great excitement over the gold discoveries was thus felt +in Milan, and these wagons, laden with all the worldly possessions of +their owners, were watched out of sight on their long journey by this +fascinated urchin, whose own discoveries in later years were to tempt +many other argonauts into the auriferous realms of electricity. + +Another vivid memory of this period concerns his first realization +of the grim mystery of death. He went off one day with the son of +the wealthiest man in the town to bathe in the creek. Soon after they +entered the water the other boy disappeared. Young Edison waited around +the spot for half an hour or more, and then, as it was growing dark, +went home puzzled and lonely, but silent as to the occurrence. About two +hours afterward, when the missing boy was being searched for, a man came +to the Edison home to make anxious inquiry of the companion with whom +he had last been seen. Edison told all the circumstances with a painful +sense of being in some way implicated. The creek was at once dragged, +and then the body was recovered. + +Edison had himself more than one narrow escape. Of course he fell in the +canal and was nearly drowned; few boys in Milan worth their salt omitted +that performance. On another occasion he encountered a more novel peril +by falling into the pile of wheat in a grain elevator and being almost +smothered. Holding the end of a skate-strap for another lad to shorten +with an axe, he lost the top of a finger. Fire also had its perils. He +built a fire in a barn, but the flames spread so rapidly that, although +he escaped himself, the barn was wholly destroyed, and he was publicly +whipped in the village square as a warning to other youths. Equally well +remembered is a dangerous encounter with a ram that attacked him while +he was busily engaged digging out a bumblebee's nest near an orchard +fence. The animal knocked him against the fence, and was about to butt +him again when he managed to drop over on the safe side and escape. He +was badly hurt and bruised, and no small quantity of arnica was needed +for his wounds. + +Meantime little Milan had reached the zenith of its prosperity, and all +of a sudden had been deprived of its flourishing grain trade by the new +Columbus, Sandusky & Hocking Railroad; in fact, the short canal was one +of the last efforts of its kind in this country to compete with the +new means of transportation. The bell of the locomotive was everywhere +ringing the death-knell of effective water haulage, with such dire +results that, in 1880, of the 4468 miles of American freight canal, that +had cost $214,000,000, no fewer than 1893 miles had been abandoned, +and of the remaining 2575 miles quite a large proportion was not paying +expenses. The short Milan canal suffered with the rest, and to-day +lies well-nigh obliterated, hidden in part by vegetable gardens, a mere +grass-grown depression at the foot of the winding, shallow valley. Other +railroads also prevented any further competition by the canal, for a +branch of the Wheeling & Lake Erie now passes through the village, while +the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern runs a few miles to the south. + +The owners of the canal soon had occasion to regret that they had +disdained the overtures of enterprising railroad promoters desirous +of reaching the village, and the consequences of commercial isolation +rapidly made themselves felt. It soon became evident to Samuel Edison +and his wife that the cozy brick home on the bluff must be given up +and the struggle with fortune resumed elsewhere. They were well-to-do, +however, and removing, in 1854, to Port Huron, Michigan, occupied a +large colonial house standing in the middle of an old Government fort +reservation of ten acres overlooking the wide expanse of the St. Clair +River just after it leaves Lake Huron. It was in many ways an ideal +homestead, toward which the family has always felt the strongest +attachment, but the association with Milan has never wholly ceased. The +old house in which Edison was born is still occupied (in 1910) by Mr. +S. O. Edison, a half-brother of Edison's father, and a man of marked +inventive ability. He was once prominent in the iron-furnace industry of +Ohio, and was for a time associated in the iron trade with the father +of the late President McKinley. Among his inventions may be mentioned a +machine for making fuel from wheat straw, and a smoke-consuming device. + +This birthplace of Edison remains the plain, substantial little brick +house it was originally: one-storied, with rooms finished on the attic +floor. Being built on the hillside, its basement opens into the rear +yard. It was at first heated by means of open coal grates, which may not +have been altogether adequate in severe winters, owing to the altitude +and the north-eastern exposure, but a large furnace is one of the more +modern changes. Milan itself is not materially unlike the smaller Ohio +towns of its own time or those of later creation, but the venerable +appearance of the big elm-trees that fringe the trim lawns tells of its +age. It is, indeed, an extremely neat, snug little place, with well-kept +homes, mostly of frame construction, and flagged streets crossing +each other at right angles. There are no poor--at least, everybody is +apparently well-to-do. While a leisurely atmosphere pervades the +town, few idlers are seen. Some of the residents are engaged in local +business; some are occupied in farming and grape culture; others are +employed in the iron-works near-by, at Norwalk. The stores and places +of public resort are gathered about the square, where there is plenty +of room for hitching when the Saturday trading is done at that point, +at which periods the fitful bustle recalls the old wheat days when young +Edison ran with curiosity among the six and eight horse teams that had +brought in grain. This square is still covered with fine primeval forest +trees, and has at its centre a handsome soldiers' monument of the Civil +War, to which four paved walks converge. It is an altogether pleasant +and unpretentious town, which cherishes with no small amount of pride +its association with the name of Thomas Alva Edison. + +In view of Edison's Dutch descent, it is rather singular to find him +with the name of Alva, for the Spanish Duke of Alva was notoriously the +worst tyrant ever known to the Low Countries, and his evil deeds occupy +many stirring pages in Motley's famous history. As a matter of fact, +Edison was named after Capt. Alva Bradley, an old friend of his father, +and a celebrated ship-owner on the Lakes. Captain Bradley died a few +years ago in wealth, while his old associate, with equal ability for +making money, was never able long to keep it (differing again from the +Revolutionary New York banker from whom his son's other name, "Thomas," +was taken). + + + +CHAPTER III + +BOYHOOD AT PORT HURON, MICHIGAN + +THE new home found by the Edison family at Port Huron, where Alva spent +his brief boyhood before he became a telegraph operator and roamed the +whole middle West of that period, was unfortunately destroyed by fire +just after the close of the Civil War. A smaller but perhaps more +comfortable home was then built by Edison's father on some property he +had bought at the near-by village of Gratiot, and there his mother spent +the remainder of her life in confirmed invalidism, dying in 1871. Hence +the pictures and postal cards sold largely to souvenir-hunters as the +Port Huron home do not actually show that in or around which the events +now referred to took place. + +It has been a romance of popular biographers, based upon the fact that +Edison began his career as a newsboy, to assume that these earlier years +were spent in poverty and privation, as indeed they usually are by the +"newsies" who swarm and shout their papers in our large cities. While +it seems a pity to destroy this erroneous idea, suggestive of a heroic +climb from the depths to the heights, nothing could be further from the +truth. Socially the Edison family stood high in Port Huron at a time +when there was relatively more wealth and general activity than to-day. +The town in its pristine prime was a great lumber centre, and hummed +with the industry of numerous sawmills. An incredible quantity of +lumber was made there yearly until the forests near-by vanished and the +industry with them. The wealth of the community, invested largely in +this business and in allied transportation companies, was accumulated +rapidly and as freely spent during those days of prosperity in St. Clair +County, bringing with it a high standard of domestic comfort. In all +this the Edisons shared on equal terms. + +Thus, contrary to the stories that have been so widely published, the +Edisons, while not rich by any means, were in comfortable circumstances, +with a well-stocked farm and large orchard to draw upon also for +sustenance. Samuel Edison, on moving to Port Huron, became a dealer in +grain and feed, and gave attention to that business for many years. But +he was also active in the lumber industry in the Saginaw district and +several other things. It was difficult for a man of such mercurial, +restless temperament to stay constant to any one occupation; in fact, +had he been less visionary he would have been more prosperous, but might +not have had a son so gifted with insight and imagination. One instance +of the optimistic vagaries which led him incessantly to spend time and +money on projects that would not have appealed to a man less sanguine +was the construction on his property of a wooden observation tower over +a hundred feet high, the top of which was reached toilsomely by winding +stairs, after the payment of twenty-five cents. It is true that the +tower commanded a pretty view by land and water, but Colonel Sellers +himself might have projected this enterprise as a possible source of +steady income. At first few visitors panted up the long flights of steps +to the breezy platform. During the first two months Edison's father +took in three dollars, and felt extremely blue over the prospect, and +to young Edison and his relatives were left the lonely pleasures of the +lookout and the enjoyment of the telescope with which it was equipped. +But one fine day there came an excursion from an inland town to see the +lake. They picnicked in the grove, and six hundred of them went up +the tower. After that the railroad company began to advertise these +excursions, and the receipts each year paid for the observatory. + +It might be thought that, immersed in business and preoccupied with +schemes of this character, Mr. Edison was to blame for the neglect of +his son's education. But that was not the case. The conditions were +peculiar. It was at the Port Huron public school that Edison received +all the regular scholastic instruction he ever enjoyed--just three +months. He might have spent the full term there, but, as already noted, +his teacher had found him "addled." He was always, according to his own +recollection, at the foot of the class, and had come almost to regard +himself as a dunce, while his father entertained vague anxieties as to +his stupidity. The truth of the matter seems to be that Mrs. Edison, a +teacher of uncommon ability and force, held no very high opinion of +the average public-school methods and results, and was both eager to +undertake the instruction of her son and ambitious for the future of +a boy whom she knew from pedagogic experience to be receptive and +thoughtful to a very unusual degree. With her he found study easy and +pleasant. The quality of culture in that simple but refined home, as +well as the intellectual character of this youth without schooling, may +be inferred from the fact that before he had reached the age of twelve +he had read, with his mother's help, Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the +Roman Empire, Hume's History of England, Sears' History of the World, +Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy, and the Dictionary of Sciences; and had +even attempted to struggle through Newton's Principia, whose mathematics +were decidedly beyond both teacher and student. Besides, Edison, like +Faraday, was never a mathematician, and has had little personal use +for arithmetic beyond that which is called "mental." He said once to a +friend: "I can always hire some mathematicians, but they can't hire me." +His father, by-the-way, always encouraged these literary tastes, and +paid him a small sum for each new book mastered. It will be noted that +fiction makes no showing in the list; but it was not altogether +excluded from the home library, and Edison has all his life enjoyed +it, particularly the works of such writers as Victor Hugo, after whom, +because of his enthusiastic admiration--possibly also because of his +imagination--he was nicknamed by his fellow-operators, "Victor Hugo +Edison." + +Electricity at that moment could have no allure for a youthful mind. +Crude telegraphy represented what was known of it practically, and about +that the books read by young Edison were not redundantly informational. +Even had that not been so, the inclinations of the boy barely ten years +old were toward chemistry, and fifty years later there is seen no change +of predilection. It sounds like heresy to say that Edison became an +electrician by chance, but it is the sober fact that to this pre-eminent +and brilliant leader in electrical achievement escape into the chemical +domain still has the aspect of a delightful truant holiday. One of +the earliest stories about his boyhood relates to the incident when +he induced a lad employed in the family to swallow a large quantity of +Seidlitz powders in the belief that the gases generated would enable +him to fly. The agonies of the victim attracted attention, and Edison's +mother marked her displeasure by an application of the switch kept +behind the old Seth Thomas "grandfather clock." The disastrous result +of this experiment did not discourage Edison at all, as he attributed +failure to the lad rather than to the motive power. In the cellar of +the Edison homestead young Alva soon accumulated a chemical outfit, +constituting the first in a long series of laboratories. The word +"laboratory" had always been associated with alchemists in the past, +but as with "filament" this untutored stripling applied an iconoclastic +practicability to it long before he realized the significance of the +new departure. Goethe, in his legend of Faust, shows the traditional +or conventional philosopher in his laboratory, an aged, tottering, +gray-bearded investigator, who only becomes youthful upon diabolical +intervention, and would stay senile without it. In the Edison laboratory +no such weird transformation has been necessary, for the philosopher +had youth, fiery energy, and a grimly practical determination that would +submit to no denial of the goal of something of real benefit to mankind. +Edison and Faust are indeed the extremes of philosophic thought and +accomplishment. + +The home at Port Huron thus saw the first Edison laboratory. The boy +began experimenting when he was about ten or eleven years of age. He got +a copy of Parker's School Philosophy, an elementary book on physics, and +about every experiment in it he tried. Young Alva, or "Al," as he was +called, thus early displayed his great passion for chemistry, and in +the cellar of the house he collected no fewer than two hundred bottles, +gleaned in baskets from all parts of the town. These were arranged +carefully on shelves and all labelled "Poison," so that no one else +would handle or disturb them. They contained the chemicals with which +he was constantly experimenting. To others this diversion was both +mysterious and meaningless, but he had soon become familiar with all +the chemicals obtainable at the local drug stores, and had tested to +his satisfaction many of the statements encountered in his scientific +reading. Edison has said that sometimes he has wondered how it was +he did not become an analytical chemist instead of concentrating on +electricity, for which he had at first no great inclination. + +Deprived of the use of a large part of her cellar, tiring of the "mess" +always to be found there, and somewhat fearful of results, his mother +once told the boy to clear everything out and restore order. The thought +of losing all his possessions was the cause of so much ardent distress +that his mother relented, but insisted that he must get a lock and key, +and keep the embryonic laboratory closed up all the time except when he +was there. This was done. From such work came an early familiarity with +the nature of electrical batteries and the production of current from +them. Apparently the greater part of his spare time was spent in the +cellar, for he did not share to any extent in the sports of the boys of +the neighborhood, his chum and chief companion, Michael Oates, being a +lad of Dutch origin, many years older, who did chores around the +house, and who could be recruited as a general utility Friday for the +experiments of this young explorer--such as that with the Seidlitz +powders. + +Such pursuits as these consumed the scant pocket-money of the boy very +rapidly. He was not in regular attendance at school, and had read all +the books within reach. It was thus he turned newsboy, overcoming the +reluctance of his parents, particularly that of his mother, by pointing +out that he could by this means earn all he wanted for his experiments +and get fresh reading in the shape of papers and magazines free of +charge. Besides, his leisure hours in Detroit he would be able to spend +at the public library. He applied (in 1859) for the privilege of selling +newspapers on the trains of the Grand Trunk Railroad, between Port Huron +and Detroit, and obtained the concession after a short delay, during +which he made an essay in his task of selling newspapers. + +Edison had, as a fact, already had some commercial experience from the +age of eleven. The ten acres of the reservation offered an excellent +opportunity for truck-farming, and the versatile head of the family +could not avoid trying his luck in this branch of work. A large "market +garden" was laid out, in which Edison worked pretty steadily with the +help of the Dutch boy, Michael Oates--he of the flying experiment. These +boys had a horse and small wagon intrusted to them, and every morning in +the season they would load up with onions, lettuce, peas, etc., and go +through the town. + +As much as $600 was turned over to Mrs. Edison in one year from this +source. The boy was indefatigable but not altogether charmed with +agriculture. "After a while I tired of this work, as hoeing corn in +a hot sun is unattractive, and I did not wonder that it had built up +cities. Soon the Grand Trunk Railroad was extended from Toronto to Port +Huron, at the foot of Lake Huron, and thence to Detroit, at about the +same time the War of the Rebellion broke out. By a great amount of +persistence I got permission from my mother to go on the local train +as a newsboy. The local train from Port Huron to Detroit, a distance of +sixty-three miles, left at 7 A.M. and arrived again at 9.30 P.M. After +being on the train for several months, I started two stores in Port +Huron--one for periodicals, and the other for vegetables, butter, and +berries in the season. These were attended by two boys who shared in the +profits. The periodical store I soon closed, as the boy in charge could +not be trusted. The vegetable store I kept up for nearly a year. After +the railroad had been opened a short time, they put on an express which +left Detroit in the morning and returned in the evening. I received +permission to put a newsboy on this train. Connected with this train was +a car, one part for baggage and the other part for U. S. mail, but for +a long time it was not used. Every morning I had two large baskets of +vegetables from the Detroit market loaded in the mail-car and sent to +Port Huron, where the boy would take them to the store. They were much +better than those grown locally, and sold readily. I never was asked to +pay freight, and to this day cannot explain why, except that I was so +small and industrious, and the nerve to appropriate a U. S. mail-car to +do a free freight business was so monumental. However, I kept this up +for a long time, and in addition bought butter from the farmers along +the line, and an immense amount of blackberries in the season. I bought +wholesale and at a low price, and permitted the wives of the engineers +and trainmen to have the benefit of the discount. After a while there +was a daily immigrant train put on. This train generally had from seven +to ten coaches filled always with Norwegians, all bound for Iowa and +Minnesota. On these trains I employed a boy who sold bread, tobacco, and +stick candy. As the war progressed the daily newspaper sales became very +profitable, and I gave up the vegetable store." + +The hours of this occupation were long, but the work was not +particularly heavy, and Edison soon found opportunity for his favorite +avocation--chemical experimentation. His train left Port Huron at 7 +A.M., and made its southward trip to Detroit in about three hours. This +gave a stay in that city from 10 A.M. until the late afternoon, when the +train left, arriving at Port Huron about 9.30 P.M. The train was made up +of three coaches--baggage, smoking, and ordinary passenger or "ladies." +The baggage-car was divided into three compartments--one for trunks and +packages, one for the mail, and one for smoking. In those days no use +was made of the smoking-compartment, as there was no ventilation, and it +was turned over to young Edison, who not only kept papers there and his +stock of goods as a "candy butcher," but soon had it equipped with an +extraordinary variety of apparatus. There was plenty of leisure on the +two daily runs, even for an industrious boy, and thus he found time +to transfer his laboratory from the cellar and re-establish it on the +train. + +His earnings were also excellent--so good, in fact, that eight or ten +dollars a day were often taken in, and one dollar went every day to his +mother. Thus supporting himself, he felt entitled to spend any other +profit left over on chemicals and apparatus. And spent it was, for with +access to Detroit and its large stores, where he bought his supplies, +and to the public library, where he could quench his thirst for +technical information, Edison gave up all his spare time and money to +chemistry. Surely the country could have presented at that moment no +more striking example of the passionate pursuit of knowledge under +difficulties than this newsboy, barely fourteen years of age, with his +jars and test-tubes installed on a railway baggage-car. + +Nor did this amazing equipment stop at batteries and bottles. The same +little space a few feet square was soon converted by this precocious +youth into a newspaper office. The outbreak of the Civil War gave a +great stimulus to the demand for all newspapers, noticing which he +became ambitious to publish a local journal of his own, devoted to the +news of that section of the Grand Trunk road. A small printing-press +that had been used for hotel bills of fare was picked up in Detroit, +and type was also bought, some of it being placed on the train so that +composition could go on in spells of leisure. To one so mechanical in +his tastes as Edison, it was quite easy to learn the rudiments of the +printing art, and thus the Weekly Herald came into existence, of which +he was compositor, pressman, editor, publisher, and newsdealer. Only one +or two copies of this journal are now discoverable, but its appearance +can be judged from the reduced facsimile here shown. The thing was +indeed well done as the work of a youth shown by the date to be less +than fifteen years old. The literary style is good, there are only a few +trivial slips in spelling, and the appreciation is keen of what would be +interesting news and gossip. The price was three cents a copy, or eight +cents a month for regular subscribers, and the circulation ran up to +over four hundred copies an issue. This was by no means the result of +mere public curiosity, but attested the value of the sheet as a genuine +newspaper, to which many persons in the railroad service along the +line were willing contributors. Indeed, with the aid of the railway +telegraph, Edison was often able to print late news of importance, of +local origin, that the distant regular papers like those of Detroit, +which he handled as a newsboy, could not get. It is no wonder that this +clever little sheet received the approval and patronage of the English +engineer Stephenson when inspecting the Grand Trunk system, and was +noted by no less distinguished a contemporary than the London Times as +the first newspaper in the world to be printed on a train in motion. +The youthful proprietor sometimes cleared as much as twenty to thirty +dollars a month from this unique journalistic enterprise. + +But all this extra work required attention, and Edison solved the +difficulty of attending also to the newsboy business by the employment +of a young friend, whom he trained and treated liberally as an +understudy. There was often plenty of work for both in the early days +of the war, when the news of battle caused intense excitement and large +sales of papers. Edison, with native shrewdness already so strikingly +displayed, would telegraph the station agents and get them to bulletin +the event of the day at the front, so that when each station was reached +there were eager purchasers waiting. He recalls in particular the +sensation caused by the great battle of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, +in April, 1862, in which both Grant and Sherman were engaged, in which +Johnston died, and in which there was a ghastly total of 25,000 killed +and wounded. + +In describing his enterprising action that day, Edison says that when +he reached Detroit the bulletin-boards of the newspaper offices were +surrounded with dense crowds, which read awestricken the news that there +were 60,000 killed and wounded, and that the result was uncertain. "I +knew that if the same excitement was attained at the various small towns +along the road, and especially at Port Huron, the sale of papers would +be great. I then conceived the idea of telegraphing the news ahead, went +to the operator in the depot, and by giving him Harper's Weekly and +some other papers for three months, he agreed to telegraph to all the +stations the matter on the bulletin-board. I hurriedly copied it, and he +sent it, requesting the agents to display it on the blackboards used for +stating the arrival and departure of trains. I decided that instead of +the usual one hundred papers I could sell one thousand; but not having +sufficient money to purchase that number, I determined in my desperation +to see the editor himself and get credit. The great paper at that time +was the Detroit Free Press. I walked into the office marked 'Editorial' +and told a young man that I wanted to see the editor on important +business--important to me, anyway, I was taken into an office where +there were two men, and I stated what I had done about telegraphing, and +that I wanted a thousand papers, but only had money for three hundred, +and I wanted credit. One of the men refused it, but the other told the +first spokesman to let me have them. This man, I afterward learned, was +Wilbur F. Storey, who subsequently founded the Chicago Times, and became +celebrated in the newspaper world. By the aid of another boy I lugged +the papers to the train and started folding them. The first station, +called Utica, was a small one where I generally sold two papers. I saw +a crowd ahead on the platform, and thought it some excursion, but +the moment I landed there was a rush for me; then I realized that the +telegraph was a great invention. I sold thirty-five papers there. The +next station was Mount Clemens, now a watering-place, but then a town of +about one thousand. I usually sold six to eight papers there. I decided +that if I found a corresponding crowd there, the only thing to do to +correct my lack of judgment in not getting more papers was to raise +the price from five cents to ten. The crowd was there, and I raised the +price. At the various towns there were corresponding crowds. It had +been my practice at Port Huron to jump from the train at a point +about one-fourth of a mile from the station, where the train generally +slackened speed. I had drawn several loads of sand to this point to jump +on, and had become quite expert. The little Dutch boy with the horse met +me at this point. When the wagon approached the outskirts of the town +I was met by a large crowd. I then yelled: 'Twenty-five cents apiece, +gentlemen! I haven't enough to go around!' I sold all out, and made what +to me then was an immense sum of money." + +Such episodes as this added materially to his income, but did not +necessarily increase his savings, for he was then, as now, an utter +spendthrift so long as some new apparatus or supplies for experiment +could be had. In fact, the laboratory on wheels soon became crowded +with such equipment, most costly chemicals were bought on the instalment +plan, and Fresenius' Qualitative Analysis served as a basis for +ceaseless testing and study. George Pullman, who then had a small shop +at Detroit and was working on his sleeping-car, made Edison a lot of +wooden apparatus for his chemicals, to the boy's delight. Unfortunately +a sudden change came, fraught with disaster. The train, running one day +at thirty miles an hour over a piece of poorly laid track, was thrown +suddenly out of the perpendicular with a violent lurch, and, before +Edison could catch it, a stick of phosphorus was jarred from its shelf, +fell to the floor, and burst into flame. The car took fire, and the boy, +in dismay, was still trying to quench the blaze when the conductor, a +quick-tempered Scotchman, who acted also as baggage-master, hastened to +the scene with water and saved his car. On the arrival at Mount Clemens +station, its next stop, Edison and his entire outfit, laboratory, +printing-plant, and all, were promptly ejected by the enraged conductor, +and the train then moved off, leaving him on the platform, tearful and +indignant in the midst of his beloved but ruined possessions. It was +lynch law of a kind; but in view of the responsibility, this action of +the conductor lay well within his rights and duties. + +It was through this incident that Edison acquired the deafness that +has persisted all through his life, a severe box on the ears from the +scorched and angry conductor being the direct cause of the infirmity. +Although this deafness would be regarded as a great affliction by most +people, and has brought in its train other serious baubles, Mr. Edison +has always regarded it philosophically, and said about it recently: +"This deafness has been of great advantage to me in various ways. When +in a telegraph office, I could only hear the instrument directly on the +table at which I sat, and unlike the other operators, I was not bothered +by the other instruments. Again, in experimenting on the telephone, +I had to improve the transmitter so I could hear it. This made the +telephone commercial, as the magneto telephone receiver of Bell was too +weak to be used as a transmitter commercially. It was the same with the +phonograph. The great defect of that instrument was the rendering of the +overtones in music, and the hissing consonants in speech. I worked over +one year, twenty hours a day, Sundays and all, to get the word 'specie' +perfectly recorded and reproduced on the phonograph. When this was done +I knew that everything else could be done which was a fact. Again, +my nerves have been preserved intact. Broadway is as quiet to me as a +country village is to a person with normal hearing." + +Saddened but not wholly discouraged, Edison soon reconstituted his +laboratory and printing-office at home, although on the part of the +family there was some fear and objection after this episode, on the +score of fire. But Edison promised not to bring in anything of a +dangerous nature. He did not cease the publication of the Weekly Herald. +On the contrary, he prospered in both his enterprises until persuaded +by the "printer's devil" in the office of the Port Huron Commercial to +change the character of his journal, enlarge it, and issue it under the +name of Paul Pry, a happy designation for this or kindred ventures +in the domain of society journalism. No copies of Paul Pry can now be +found, but it is known that its style was distinctly personal, that +gossip was its specialty, and that no small offence was given to the +people whose peculiarities or peccadilloes were discussed in a frank +and breezy style by the two boys. In one instance the resentment of the +victim of such unsought publicity was so intense he laid hands on Edison +and pitched the startled young editor into the St. Clair River. The name +of this violator of the freedom of the press was thereafter excluded +studiously from the columns of Paul Pry, and the incident may have been +one of those which soon caused the abandonment of the paper. Edison +had great zest in this work, and but for the strong influences in other +directions would probably have continued in the newspaper field, in +which he was, beyond question, the youngest publisher and editor of the +day. + +Before leaving this period of his career, it is to be noted that it gave +Edison many favorable opportunities. In Detroit he could spend frequent +hours in the public library, and it is matter of record that he began +his liberal acquaintance with its contents by grappling bravely with a +certain section and trying to read it through consecutively, shelf by +shelf, regardless of subject. In a way this is curiously suggestive +of the earnest, energetic method of "frontal attack" with which the +inventor has since addressed himself to so many problems in the arts and +sciences. + +The Grand Trunk Railroad machine-shops at Port Huron were a great +attraction to the boy, who appears to have spent a good deal of his time +there. He who was to have much to do with the evolution of the modern +electric locomotive was fascinated by the mechanism of the steam +locomotive; and whenever he could get the chance Edison rode in the cab +with the engineer of his train. He became thoroughly familiar with the +intricacies of fire-box, boiler, valves, levers, and gears, and liked +nothing better than to handle the locomotive himself during the run. +On one trip, when the engineer lay asleep while his eager substitute +piloted the train, the boiler "primed," and a deluge overwhelmed the +young driver, who stuck to his post till the run and the ordeal were +ended. Possibly this helped to spoil a locomotive engineer, but went +to make a great master of the new motive power. "Steam is half an +Englishman," said Emerson. The temptation is strong to say that workaday +electricity is half an American. Edison's own account of the incident +is very laughable: "The engine was one of a number leased to the Grand +Trunk by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy. It had bright brass bands all +over, the woodwork beautifully painted, and everything highly polished, +which was the custom up to the time old Commodore Vanderbilt stopped +it on his roads. After running about fifteen miles the fireman couldn't +keep his eyes open (this event followed an all-night dance of the +trainmen's fraternal organization), and he agreed to permit me to run +the engine. I took charge, reducing the speed to about twelve miles +an hour, and brought the train of seven cars to her destination at the +Grand Trunk junction safely. But something occurred which was very much +out of the ordinary. I was very much worried about the water, and I +knew that if it got low the boiler was likely to explode. I hadn't gone +twenty miles before black damp mud blew out of the stack and covered +every part of the engine, including myself. I was about to awaken the +fireman to find out the cause of this when it stopped. Then I approached +a station where the fireman always went out to the cowcatcher, opened +the oil-cup on the steam-chest, and poured oil in. I started to carry +out the procedure when, upon opening the oil-cup, the steam rushed out +with a tremendous noise, nearly knocking me off the engine. I succeeded +in closing the oil-cup and got back in the cab, and made up my mind +that she would pull through without oil. I learned afterward that the +engineer always shut off steam when the fireman went out to oil. This +point I failed to notice. My powers of observation were very much +improved after this occurrence. Just before I reached the junction +another outpour of black mud occurred, and the whole engine was a +sight--so much so that when I pulled into the yard everybody turned to +see it, laughing immoderately. I found the reason of the mud was that I +carried so much water it passed over into the stack, and this washed out +all the accumulated soot." + +One afternoon about a week before Christmas Edison's train jumped the +track near Utica, a station on the line. Four old Michigan Central +cars with rotten sills collapsed in the ditch and went all to pieces, +distributing figs, raisins, dates, and candies all over the track and +the vicinity. Hating to see so much waste, Edison tried to save all he +could by eating it on the spot, but as a result "our family doctor had +the time of his life with me in this connection." + +An absurd incident described by Edison throws a vivid light on the +free-and-easy condition of early railroad travel and on the Southern +extravagance of the time. "In 1860, just before the war broke out there +came to the train one afternoon, in Detroit, two fine-looking young men +accompanied by a colored servant. They bought tickets for Port Huron, +the terminal point for the train. After leaving the junction just +outside of Detroit, I brought in the evening papers. When I came +opposite the two young men, one of them said: 'Boy, what have you got?' +I said: 'Papers.' 'All right.' He took them and threw them out of the +window, and, turning to the colored man, said: 'Nicodemus, pay this +boy.' I told Nicodemus the amount, and he opened a satchel and paid me. +The passengers didn't know what to make of the transaction. I returned +with the illustrated papers and magazines. These were seized and thrown +out of the window, and I was told to get my money of Nicodemus. I then +returned with all the old magazines and novels I had not been able to +sell, thinking perhaps this would be too much for them. I was small and +thin, and the layer reached above my head, and was all I could possibly +carry. I had prepared a list, and knew the amount in case they bit +again. When I opened the door, all the passengers roared with laughter. +I walked right up to the young men. One asked me what I had. I said +'Magazines and novels.' He promptly threw them out of the window, +and Nicodemus settled. Then I came in with cracked hickory nuts, then +pop-corn balls, and, finally, molasses candy. All went out of the +window. I felt like Alexander the Great!--I had no more chance! I had +sold all I had. Finally I put a rope to my trunk, which was about +the size of a carpenter's chest, and started to pull this from the +baggage-car to the passenger-car. It was almost too much for my +strength, but at last I got it in front of those men. I pulled off my +coat, shoes, and hat, and laid them on the chest. Then he asked: 'What +have you got, boy?' I said: 'Everything, sir, that I can spare that is +for sale.' The passengers fairly jumped with laughter. Nicodemus paid me +$27 for this last sale, and threw the whole out of the door in the rear +of the car. These men were from the South, and I have always retained a +soft spot in my heart for a Southern gentleman." + +While Edison was a newsboy on the train a request came to him one day +to go to the office of E. B. Ward & Company, at that time the largest +owners of steamboats on the Great Lakes. The captain of their largest +boat had died suddenly, and they wanted a message taken to another +captain who lived about fourteen miles from Ridgeway station on the +railroad. This captain had retired, taken up some lumber land, and had +cleared part of it. Edison was offered $15 by Mr. Ward to go and fetch +him, but as it was a wild country and would be dark, Edison stood out +for $25, so that he could get the companionship of another lad. The +terms were agreed to. Edison arrived at Ridgeway at 8.30 P.M., when it +was raining and as dark as ink. Getting another boy with difficulty to +volunteer, he launched out on his errand in the pitch-black night. The +two boys carried lanterns, but the road was a rough path through dense +forest. The country was wild, and it was a usual occurrence to see deer, +bear, and coon skins nailed up on the sides of houses to dry. Edison had +read about bears, but couldn't remember whether they were day or night +prowlers. The farther they went the more apprehensive they became, and +every stump in the ravished forest looked like a bear. The other lad +proposed seeking safety up a tree, but Edison demurred on the plea that +bears could climb, and that the message must be delivered that night to +enable the captain to catch the morning train. First one lantern went +out, then the other. "We leaned up against a tree and cried. I thought +if I ever got out of that scrape alive I would know more about the +habits of animals and everything else, and be prepared for all kinds of +mischance when I undertook an enterprise. However, the intense darkness +dilated the pupils of our eyes so as to make them very sensitive, and +we could just see at times the outlines of the road. Finally, just as +a faint gleam of daylight arrived, we entered the captain's yard and +delivered the message. In my whole life I never spent such a night of +horror as this, but I got a good lesson." + +An amusing incident of this period is told by Edison. "When I was a +boy," he says, "the Prince of Wales, the late King Edward, came to +Canada (1860). Great preparations were made at Sarnia, the Canadian town +opposite Port Huron. About every boy, including myself, went over to +see the affair. The town was draped in flags most profusely, and carpets +were laid on the cross-walks for the prince to walk on. There were +arches, etc. A stand was built raised above the general level, where the +prince was to be received by the mayor. Seeing all these preparations, +my idea of a prince was very high; but when he did arrive I mistook the +Duke of Newcastle for him, the duke being a fine-looking man. I soon saw +that I was mistaken: that the prince was a young stripling, and did +not meet expectations. Several of us expressed our belief that a prince +wasn't much, after all, and said that we were thoroughly disappointed. +For this one boy was whipped. Soon the Canuck boys attacked the Yankee +boys, and we were all badly licked. I, myself, got a black eye. That has +always prejudiced me against that kind of ceremonial and folly." It is +certainly interesting to note that in later years the prince for whom +Edison endured the ignominy of a black eye made generous compensation +in a graceful letter accompanying the gold Albert Medal awarded by the +Royal Society of Arts. + +Another incident of the period is as follows: "After selling papers in +Port Huron, which was often not reached until about 9.30 at night, I +seldom got home before 11.00 or 11.30. About half-way home from the +station and the town, and within twenty-five feet of the road in a +dense wood, was a soldiers' graveyard where three hundred soldiers were +buried, due to a cholera epidemic which took place at Fort Gratiot, near +by, many years previously. At first we used to shut our eyes and run the +horse past this graveyard, and if the horse stepped on a twig my heart +would give a violent movement, and it is a wonder that I haven't some +valvular disease of that organ. But soon this running of the horse +became monotonous, and after a while all fears of graveyards absolutely +disappeared from my system. I was in the condition of Sam Houston, the +pioneer and founder of Texas, who, it was said, knew no fear. Houston +lived some distance from the town and generally went home late at night, +having to pass through a dark cypress swamp over a corduroy road. One +night, to test his alleged fearlessness, a man stationed himself behind +a tree and enveloped himself in a sheet. He confronted Houston suddenly, +and Sam stopped and said: 'If you are a man, you can't hurt me. If you +are a ghost, you don't want to hurt me. And if you are the devil, come +home with me; I married your sister!'" + +It is not to be inferred, however, from some of the preceding statements +that the boy was of an exclusively studious bent of mind. He had then, +as now, the keen enjoyment of a joke, and no particular aversion to the +practical form. An incident of the time is in point. "After the breaking +out of the war there was a regiment of volunteer soldiers quartered +at Fort Gratiot, the reservation extending to the boundary line of our +house. Nearly every night we would hear a call, such as 'Corporal of +the Guard, No. 1.' This would be repeated from sentry to sentry until it +reached the barracks, when Corporal of the Guard, No. 1, would come and +see what was wanted. I and the little Dutch boy, after returning from +the town after selling our papers, thought we would take a hand at +military affairs. So one night, when it was very dark, I shouted for +Corporal of the Guard, No. 1. The second sentry, thinking it was the +terminal sentry who shouted, repeated it to the third, and so on. This +brought the corporal along the half mile, only to find that he was +fooled. We tried him three nights; but the third night they were +watching, and caught the little Dutch boy, took him to the lock-up at +the fort, and shut him up. They chased me to the house. I rushed for the +cellar. In one small apartment there were two barrels of potatoes and a +third one nearly empty. I poured these remnants into the other barrels, +sat down, and pulled the barrel over my head, bottom up. The soldiers +had awakened my father, and they were searching for me with candles and +lanterns. The corporal was absolutely certain I came into the cellar, +and couldn't see how I could have gotten out, and wanted to know from my +father if there was no secret hiding-place. On assurance of my father, +who said that there was not, he said it was most extraordinary. I was +glad when they left, as I was cramped, and the potatoes were rotten that +had been in the barrel and violently offensive. The next morning I was +found in bed, and received a good switching on the legs from my father, +the first and only one I ever received from him, although my mother kept +a switch behind the old Seth Thomas clock that had the bark worn off. +My mother's ideas and mine differed at times, especially when I got +experimenting and mussed up things. The Dutch boy was released next +morning." + + + +CHAPTER IV + +THE YOUNG TELEGRAPH OPERATOR + +"WHILE a newsboy on the railroad," says Edison, "I got very much +interested in electricity, probably from visiting telegraph offices with +a chum who had tastes similar to mine." It will also have been noted +that he used the telegraph to get items for his little journal, and to +bulletin his special news of the Civil War along the line. The next step +was natural, and having with his knowledge of chemistry no trouble about +"setting up" his batteries, the difficulties of securing apparatus were +chiefly those connected with the circuits and the instruments. American +youths to-day are given, if of a mechanical turn of mind, to amateur +telegraphy or telephony, but seldom, if ever, have to make any part of +the system constructed. In Edison's boyish days it was quite different, +and telegraphic supplies were hard to obtain. But he and his "chum" +had a line between their homes, built of common stove-pipe wire. The +insulators were bottles set on nails driven into trees and short poles. +The magnet wire was wound with rags for insulation, and pieces of spring +brass were used for keys. With an idea of securing current cheaply, +Edison applied the little that he knew about static electricity, +and actually experimented with cats, which he treated vigorously as +frictional machines until the animals fled in dismay, and Edison had +learned his first great lesson in the relative value of sources of +electrical energy. The line was made to work, however, and additional to +the messages that the boys interchanged, Edison secured practice in an +ingenious manner. His father insisted on 11.30 as proper bedtime, which +left but a short interval after the long day on the train. But each +evening, when the boy went home with a bundle of papers that had +not been sold in the town, his father would sit up reading the +"returnables." Edison, therefore, on some excuse, left the papers +with his friend, but suggested that he could get the news from him by +telegraph, bit by bit. The scheme interested his father, and was +put into effect, the messages being written down and handed over for +perusal. This yielded good practice nightly, lasting until 12 and +1 o'clock, and was maintained for some time until Mr. Edison became +willing that his son should stay up for a reasonable time. The papers +were then brought home again, and the boys amused themselves to their +hearts' content until the line was pulled down by a stray cow wandering +through the orchard. Meantime better instruments had been secured, and +the rudiments of telegraphy had been fairly mastered. + +The mixed train on which Edison was employed as newsboy did the +way-freight work and shunting at the Mount Clemens station, about half +an hour being usually spent in the work. One August morning, in 1862, +while the shunting was in progress, and a laden box-car had been pushed +out of a siding, Edison, who was loitering about the platform, saw the +little son of the station agent, Mr. J. U. Mackenzie, playing with the +gravel on the main track along which the car without a brakeman was +rapidly approaching. Edison dropped his papers and his glazed cap, +and made a dash for the child, whom he picked up and lifted to safety +without a second to spare, as the wheel of the car struck his heel; and +both were cut about the face and hands by the gravel ballast on which +they fell. The two boys were picked up by the train-hands and carried +to the platform, and the grateful father at once offered to teach the +rescuer, whom he knew and liked, the art of train telegraphy and to make +an operator of him. It is needless to say that the proposal was eagerly +accepted. + +Edison found time for his new studies by letting one of his friends look +after the newsboy work on the train for part of the trip, reserving +to himself the run between Port Huron and Mount Clemens. That he was +already well qualified as a beginner is evident from the fact that he +had mastered the Morse code of the telegraphic alphabet, and was able +to take to the station a neat little set of instruments he had just +finished with his own hands at a gun-shop in Detroit. This was probably +a unique achievement in itself among railway operators of that day or of +later times. The drill of the student involved chiefly the acquisition +of the special signals employed in railway work, including the numerals +and abbreviations applied to save time. Some of these have passed +into the slang of the day, "73" being well known as a telegrapher's +expression of compliments or good wishes, while "23" is an accident +or death message, and has been given broader popular significance as +a general synonym for "hoodoo." All of this came easily to Edison, who +had, moreover, as his Herald showed, an unusual familiarity with train +movement along that portion of the Grand Trunk road. + +Three or four months were spent pleasantly and profitably by the youth +in this course of study, and Edison took to it enthusiastically, giving +it no less than eighteen hours a day. He then put up a little telegraph +line from the station to the village, a distance of about a mile, and +opened an office in a drug store; but the business was naturally very +small. The telegraph operator at Port Huron knowing of his proficiency, +and wanting to get into the United States Military Telegraph Corps, +where the pay in those days of the Civil War was high, succeeded in +convincing his brother-in-law, Mr. M. Walker, that young Edison could +fill the position. Edison was, of course, well acquainted with the +operators along the road and at the southern terminal, and took up his +new duties very easily. The office was located in a jewelry store, where +newspapers and periodicals were also sold. Edison was to be found at the +office both day and night, sleeping there. "I became quite valuable to +Mr. Walker. After working all day I worked at the office nights as well, +for the reason that 'press report' came over one of the wires until 3 +A.M., and I would cut in and copy it as well as I could, to become more +rapidly proficient. The goal of the rural telegraph operator was to be +able to take press. Mr. Walker tried to get my father to apprentice me +at $20 per month, but they could not agree. I then applied for a job on +the Grand Trunk Railroad as a railway operator, and was given a place, +nights, at Stratford Junction, Canada." Apparently his friend Mackenzie +helped him in the matter. The position carried a salary of $25 per +month. No serious objections were raised by his family, for the distance +from Port Huron was not great, and Stratford was near Bayfield, the +old home from which the Edisons had come, so that there were doubtless +friends or even relatives in the vicinity. This was in 1863. + +Mr. Walker was an observant man, who has since that time installed a +number of waterworks systems and obtained several patents of his own. He +describes the boy of sixteen as engrossed intensely in his experiments +and scientific reading, and somewhat indifferent, for this reason, to +his duties as operator. This office was not particularly busy, taking +from $50 to $75 a month, but even the messages taken in would remain +unsent on the hook while Edison was in the cellar below trying to solve +some chemical problem. The manager would see him studying sometimes +an article in such a paper as the Scientific American, and then +disappearing to buy a few sundries for experiments. Returning from the +drug store with his chemicals, he would not be seen again until required +by his duties, or until he had found out for himself, if possible, in +this offhand manner, whether what he had read was correct or not. When +he had completed his experiment all interest in it was lost, and the +jars and wires would be left to any fate that might befall them. In like +manner Edison would make free use of the watchmaker's tools that lay +on the little table in the front window, and would take the wire pliers +there without much thought as to their value as distinguished from a +lineman's tools. The one idea was to do quickly what he wanted to do; +and the same swift, almost headlong trial of anything that comes to +hand, while the fervor of a new experiment is felt, has been noted +at all stages of the inventor's career. One is reminded of Palissy's +recklessness, when in his efforts to make the enamel melt on his pottery +he used the very furniture of his home for firewood. + +Mr. Edison remarks the fact that there was very little difference +between the telegraph of that time and of to-day, except the general use +of the old Morse register with the dots and dashes recorded by indenting +paper strips that could be read and checked later at leisure if +necessary. He says: "The telegraph men couldn't explain how it worked, +and I was always trying to get them to do so. I think they couldn't. I +remember the best explanation I got was from an old Scotch line repairer +employed by the Montreal Telegraph Company, which operated the railroad +wires. He said that if you had a dog like a dachshund, long enough to +reach from Edinburgh to London, if you pulled his tail in Edinburgh he +would bark in London. I could understand that, but I never could get +it through me what went through the dog or over the wire." To-day +Mr. Edison is just as unable to solve the inner mystery of electrical +transmission. Nor is he alone. At the banquet given to celebrate his +jubilee in 1896 as professor at Glasgow University, Lord Kelvin, the +greatest physicist of our time, admitted with tears in his eyes and the +note of tragedy in his voice, that when it came to explaining the +nature of electricity, he knew just as little as when he had begun as +a student, and felt almost as though his life had been wasted while he +tried to grapple with the great mystery of physics. + +Another episode of this period is curious in its revelation of the +tenacity with which Edison has always held to some of his oldest +possessions with a sense of personal attachment. "While working +at Stratford Junction," he says, "I was told by one of the freight +conductors that in the freight-house at Goodrich there were several +boxes of old broken-up batteries. I went there and found over eighty +cells of the well-known Grove nitric-acid battery. The operator there, +who was also agent, when asked by me if I could have the electrodes of +each cell, made of sheet platinum, gave his permission readily, thinking +they were of tin. I removed them all, amounting to several ounces. +Platinum even in those days was very expensive, costing several dollars +an ounce, and I owned only three small strips. I was overjoyed at this +acquisition, and those very strips and the reworked scrap are used to +this day in my laboratory over forty years later." + +It was at Stratford that Edison's inventiveness was first displayed. The +hours of work of a night operator are usually from 7 P.M. to 7 A.M., and +to insure attention while on duty it is often provided that the operator +every hour, from 9 P.M. until relieved by the day operator, shall send +in the signal "6" to the train dispatcher's office. Edison revelled in +the opportunity for study and experiment given him by his long hours +of freedom in the daytime, but needed sleep, just as any healthy youth +does. Confronted by the necessity of sending in this watchman's signal +as evidence that he was awake and on duty, he constructed a small wheel +with notches on the rim, and attached it to the clock in such a manner +that the night-watchman could start it when the line was quiet, and at +each hour the wheel revolved and sent in accurately the dots required +for "sixing." The invention was a success, the device being, indeed, +similar to that of the modern district messenger box; but it was soon +noticed that, in spite of the regularity of the report, "Sf" could not +be raised even if a train message were sent immediately after. Detection +and a reprimand came in due course, but were not taken very seriously. + +A serious occurrence that might have resulted in accident drove him soon +after from Canada, although the youth could hardly be held to blame for +it. Edison says: "This night job just suited me, as I could have the +whole day to myself. I had the faculty of sleeping in a chair any time +for a few minutes at a time. I taught the night-yardman my call, so I +could get half an hour's sleep now and then between trains, and in case +the station was called the watchman would awaken me. One night I got an +order to hold a freight train, and I replied that I would. I rushed out +to find the signalman, but before I could find him and get the signal +set, the train ran past. I ran to the telegraph office, and reported +that I could not hold her. The reply was: 'Hell!' The train dispatcher, +on the strength of my message that I would hold the train, had permitted +another to leave the last station in the opposite direction. There was a +lower station near the junction where the day operator slept. I started +for it on foot. The night was dark, and I fell into a culvert and was +knocked senseless." Owing to the vigilance of the two engineers on +the locomotives, who saw each other approaching on the straight single +track, nothing more dreadful happened than a summons to the thoughtless +operator to appear before the general manager at Toronto. On reaching +the manager's office, his trial for neglect of duty was fortunately +interrupted by the call of two Englishmen; and while their conversation +proceeded, Edison slipped quietly out of the room, hurried to the Grand +Trunk freight depot, found a conductor he knew taking out a freight +train for Sarnia, and was not happy until the ferry-boat from Sarnia had +landed him once more on the Michigan shore. The Grand Trunk still owes +Mr. Edison the wages due him at the time he thus withdrew from its +service, but the claim has never been pressed. + +The same winter of 1863-64, while at Port Huron, Edison had a further +opportunity of displaying his ingenuity. An ice-jam had broken the light +telegraph cable laid in the bed of the river across to Sarnia, and thus +communication was interrupted. The river is three-quarters of a mile +wide, and could not be crossed on foot; nor could the cable be repaired. +Edison at once suggested using the steam whistle of the locomotive, +and by manipulating the valve conversed the short and long outbursts of +shrill sound into the Morse code. An operator on the Sarnia shore was +quick enough to catch the significance of the strange whistling, and +messages were thus sent in wireless fashion across the ice-floes in the +river. It is said that such signals were also interchanged by military +telegraphers during the war, and possibly Edison may have heard of +the practice; but be that as it may, he certainly showed ingenuity +and resource in applying such a method to meet the necessity. It is +interesting to note that at this point the Grand Trunk now has its St. +Clair tunnel, through which the trains are hauled under the river-bed by +electric locomotives. + +Edison had now begun unconsciously the roaming and drifting that took +him during the next five years all over the Middle States, and that +might well have wrecked the career of any one less persistent +and industrious. It was a period of his life corresponding to the +Wanderjahre of the German artisan, and was an easy way of gratifying a +taste for travel without the risk of privation. To-day there is little +temptation to the telegrapher to go to distant parts of the country on +the chance that he may secure a livelihood at the key. The ranks are +well filled everywhere, and of late years the telegraph as an art or +industry has shown relatively slight expansion, owing chiefly to the +development of telephony. Hence, if vacancies occur, there are plenty of +operators available, and salaries have remained so low as to lead to one +or two formidable and costly strikes that unfortunately took no account +of the economic conditions of demand and supply. But in the days of the +Civil War there was a great dearth of skilful manipulators of the key. +About fifteen hundred of the best operators in the country were at the +front on the Federal side alone, and several hundred more had enlisted. +This created a serious scarcity, and a nomadic operator going to any +telegraphic centre would be sure to find a place open waiting for him. +At the close of the war a majority of those who had been with the two +opposed armies remained at the key under more peaceful surroundings, but +the rapid development of the commercial and railroad systems fostered a +new demand, and then for a time it seemed almost impossible to train +new operators fast enough. In a few years, however, the telephone sprang +into vigorous existence, dating from 1876, drawing off some of the +most adventurous spirits from the telegraph field; and the deterrent +influence of the telephone on the telegraph had made itself felt by +1890. The expiration of the leading Bell telephone patents, five years +later, accentuated even more sharply the check that had been put +on telegraphy, as hundreds and thousands of "independent" telephone +companies were then organized, throwing a vast network of toll lines +over Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and other States, and affording +cheap, instantaneous means of communication without any necessity for +the intervention of an operator. + +It will be seen that the times have changed radically since Edison +became a telegrapher, and that in this respect a chapter of electrical +history has been definitely closed. There was a day when the art offered +a distinct career to all of its practitioners, and young men of ambition +and good family were eager to begin even as messenger boys, and were +ready to undergo a severe ordeal of apprenticeship with the belief that +they could ultimately attain positions of responsibility and profit. +At the same time operators have always been shrewd enough to regard the +telegraph as a stepping-stone to other careers in life. A bright fellow +entering the telegraph service to-day finds the experience he may +gain therein valuable, but he soon realizes that there are not enough +good-paying official positions to "go around," so as to give each worthy +man a chance after he has mastered the essentials of the art. He feels, +therefore, that to remain at the key involves either stagnation or +deterioration, and that after, say, twenty-five years of practice he +will have lost ground as compared with friends who started out in other +occupations. The craft of an operator, learned without much difficulty, +is very attractive to a youth, but a position at the key is no place +for a man of mature years. His services, with rare exceptions, grow less +valuable as he advances in age and nervous strain breaks him down. On +the contrary, men engaged in other professions find, as a rule, that +they improve and advance with experience, and that age brings larger +rewards and opportunities. + +The list of well-known Americans who have been graduates of the key is +indeed an extraordinary one, and there is no department of our national +life in which they have not distinguished themselves. The contrast, +in this respect, between them and their European colleagues is highly +significant. In Europe the telegraph systems are all under government +management, the operators have strictly limited spheres of promotion, +and at the best the transition from one kind of employment to another is +not made so easily as in the New World. But in the United States we have +seen Rufus Bullock become Governor of Georgia, and Ezra Cornell Governor +of New York. Marshall Jewell was Postmaster-General of President +Grant's Cabinet, and Daniel Lamont was Secretary of State in President +Cleveland's. Gen. T. T. Eckert, past-President of the Western Union +Telegraph Company, was Assistant Secretary of War under President +Lincoln; and Robert J. Wynne, afterward a consul-general, served as +Assistant Postmaster General. A very large proportion of the +presidents and leading officials of the great railroad systems are old +telegraphers, including Messrs. W. C. Brown, President of the New York +Central Railroad, and Marvin Hughitt, President of the Chicago & North +western Railroad. In industrial and financial life there have been +Theodore N. Vail, President of the Bell telephone system; L. C. Weir, +late President of the Adams Express; A. B. Chandler, President of the +Postal Telegraph and Cable Company; Sir W. Van Home, identified with +Canadian development; Robert C. Clowry, President of the Western +Union Telegraph Company; D. H. Bates, Manager of the Baltimore & +Ohio telegraph for Robert Garrett; and Andrew Carnegie, the greatest +ironmaster the world has ever known, as well as its greatest +philanthropist. In journalism there have been leaders like Edward +Rosewater, founder of the Omaha Bee; W. J. Elverson, of the Philadelphia +Press; and Frank A. Munsey, publisher of half a dozen big magazines. +George Kennan has achieved fame in literature, and Guy Carleton and +Harry de Souchet have been successful as dramatists. These are but +typical of hundreds of men who could be named who have risen from +work at the key to become recognized leaders in differing spheres of +activity. + +But roving has never been favorable to the formation of steady habits. +The young men who thus floated about the country from one telegraph +office to another were often brilliant operators, noted for speed in +sending and receiving, but they were undisciplined, were without the +restraining influences of home life, and were so highly paid for their +work that they could indulge freely in dissipation if inclined that way. +Subjected to nervous tension for hours together at the key, many of them +unfortunately took to drink, and having ended one engagement in a city +by a debauch that closed the doors of the office to them, would drift +away to the nearest town, and there securing work, would repeat the +performance. At one time, indeed, these men were so numerous and so +much in evidence as to constitute a type that the public was disposed +to accept as representative of the telegraphic fraternity; but as the +conditions creating him ceased to exist, the "tramp operator" also +passed into history. It was, however, among such characters that Edison +was very largely thrown in these early days of aimless drifting, to +learn something perhaps of their nonchalant philosophy of life, sharing +bed and board with them under all kinds of adverse conditions, but +always maintaining a stoic abstemiousness, and never feeling other than +a keen regret at the waste of so much genuine ability and kindliness on +the part of those knights errant of the key whose inevitable fate might +so easily have been his own. + +Such a class or group of men can always be presented by an individual +type, and this is assuredly best embodied in Milton F. Adams, one of +Edison's earliest and closest friends, to whom reference will be made in +later chapters, and whose life has been so full of adventurous episodes +that he might well be regarded as the modern Gil Blas. That career is +certainly well worth the telling as "another story," to use the Kipling +phrase. Of him Edison says: "Adams was one of a class of operators never +satisfied to work at any place for any great length of time. He had the +'wanderlust.' After enjoying hospitality in Boston in 1868-69, on the +floor of my hall-bedroom, which was a paradise for the entomologist, +while the boarding-house itself was run on the banting system of flesh +reduction, he came to me one day and said: 'Good-bye, Edison; I have +got sixty cents, and I am going to San Francisco.' And he did go. How, I +never knew personally. I learned afterward that he got a job there, and +then within a week they had a telegraphers' strike. He got a big +torch and sold patent medicine on the streets at night to support the +strikers. Then he went to Peru as partner of a man who had a grizzly +bear which they proposed entering against a bull in the bull-ring in +that city. The grizzly was killed in five minutes, and so the scheme +died. Then Adams crossed the Andes, and started a market-report +bureau in Buenos Ayres. This didn't pay, so he started a restaurant in +Pernambuco, Brazil. There he did very well, but something went wrong +(as it always does to a nomad), so he went to the Transvaal, and ran a +panorama called 'Paradise Lost' in the Kaffir kraals. This didn't pay, +and he became the editor of a newspaper; then went to England to raise +money for a railroad in Cape Colony. Next I heard of him in New York, +having just arrived from Bogota, United States of Colombia, with a power +of attorney and $2000 from a native of that republic, who had applied +for a patent for tightening a belt to prevent it from slipping on a +pulley--a device which he thought a new and great invention, but which +was in use ever since machinery was invented. I gave Adams, then, a +position as salesman for electrical apparatus. This he soon got tired +of, and I lost sight of him." Adams, in speaking of this episode, says +that when he asked for transportation expenses to St. Louis, Edison +pulled out of his pocket a ferry ticket to Hoboken, and said to his +associates: "I'll give him that, and he'll get there all right." This +was in the early days of electric lighting; but down to the present +moment the peregrinations of this versatile genius of the key have never +ceased in one hemisphere or the other, so that as Mr. Adams himself +remarked to the authors in April, 1908: "The life has been somewhat +variegated, but never dull." + +The fact remains also that throughout this period Edison, while himself +a very Ishmael, never ceased to study, explore, experiment. Referring +to this beginning of his career, he mentions a curious fact that +throws light on his ceaseless application. "After I became a telegraph +operator," he says, "I practiced for a long time to become a rapid +reader of print, and got so expert I could sense the meaning of a whole +line at once. This faculty, I believe, should be taught in schools, as +it appears to be easily acquired. Then one can read two or three books +in a day, whereas if each word at a time only is sensed, reading is +laborious." + + + +CHAPTER V + +ARDUOUS YEARS IN THE CENTRAL WEST + +IN 1903, when accepting the position of honorary electrician to the +International Exposition held in St. Louis in 1904, to commemorate the +centenary of the Louisiana Purchase, Mr. Edison spoke in his letter +of the Central West as a "region where as a young telegraph operator I +spent many arduous years before moving East." The term of probation +thus referred to did not end until 1868, and while it lasted Edison's +wanderings carried him from Detroit to New Orleans, and took him, among +other cities, to Indianapolis, Cincinnati, Louisville, and Memphis, some +of which he visited twice in his peregrinations to secure work. From +Canada, after the episodes noted in the last chapter, he went to Adrian, +Michigan, and of what happened there Edison tells a story typical of +his wanderings for several years to come. "After leaving my first job +at Stratford Junction, I got a position as operator on the Lake Shore & +Michigan Southern at Adrian, Michigan, in the division superintendent's +office. As usual, I took the 'night trick,' which most operators +disliked, but which I preferred, as it gave me more leisure to +experiment. I had obtained from the station agent a small room, and had +established a little shop of my own. One day the day operator wanted to +get off, and I was on duty. About 9 o'clock the superintendent handed me +a despatch which he said was very important, and which I must get off at +once. The wire at the time was very busy, and I asked if I should +break in. I got orders to do so, and acting under those orders of the +superintendent, I broke in and tried to send the despatch; but the +other operator would not permit it, and the struggle continued for ten +minutes. Finally I got possession of the wire and sent the message. The +superintendent of telegraph, who then lived in Adrian and went to his +office in Toledo every day, happened that day to be in the Western Union +office up-town--and it was the superintendent I was really struggling +with! In about twenty minutes he arrived livid with rage, and I was +discharged on the spot. I informed him that the general superintendent +had told me to break in and send the despatch, but the general +superintendent then and there repudiated the whole thing. Their families +were socially close, so I was sacrificed. My faith in human nature got a +slight jar." + +Edison then went to Toledo and secured a position at Fort Wayne, on the +Pittsburg, Fort Wayne & Chicago Railroad, now leased to the Pennsylvania +system. This was a "day job," and he did not like it. He drifted two +months later to Indianapolis, arriving there in the fall of 1864, when +he was at first assigned to duty at the Union Station at a salary of $75 +a month for the Western Union Telegraph Company, whose service he +now entered, and with which he has been destined to maintain highly +important and close relationships throughout a large part of his life. +Superintendent Wallick appears to have treated him generously and to +have loaned him instruments, a kindness that was greatly appreciated, +for twenty years later the inventor called on his old employer, and +together they visited the scene where the borrowed apparatus had been +mounted on a rough board in the depot. Edison did not stay long in +Indianapolis, however, resigning in February, 1865, and proceeding to +Cincinnati. The transfer was possibly due to trouble caused by one of +his early inventions embodying what has been characterized by an expert +as "probably the most simple and ingenious arrangement of connections +for a repeater." His ambition was to take "press report," but finding, +even after considerable practice, that he "broke" frequently, he +adjusted two embossing Morse registers--one to receive the press +matter, and the other to repeat the dots and dashes at a lower speed, so +that the message could be copied leisurely. Hence he could not be rushed +or "broken" in receiving, while he could turn out "copy" that was a +marvel of neatness and clearness. All was well so long as ordinary +conditions prevailed, but when an unusual pressure occurred the little +system fell behind, and the newspapers complained of the slowness with +which reports were delivered to them. It is easy to understand that with +matter received at a rate of forty words per minute and worked off at +twenty-five words per minute a serious congestion or delay would result, +and the newspapers were more anxious for the news than they were for +fine penmanship. + +Of this device Mr. Edison remarks: "Together we took press for several +nights, my companion keeping the apparatus in adjustment and I copying. +The regular press operator would go to the theatre or take a nap, only +finishing the report after 1 A.M. One of the newspapers complained of +bad copy toward the end of the report--that, is from 1 to 3 A.M., and +requested that the operator taking the report up to 1 A.M.--which was +ourselves--take it all, as the copy then was perfectly unobjectionable. +This led to an investigation by the manager, and the scheme was +forbidden. + +"This instrument, many years afterward, was applied by me for +transferring messages from one wire to any other wire simultaneously, +or after any interval of time. It consisted of a disk of paper, the +indentations being formed in a volute spiral, exactly as in the disk +phonograph to-day. It was this instrument which gave me the idea of the +phonograph while working on the telephone." + +Arrived in Cincinnati, where he got employment in the Western Union +commercial telegraph department at a wage of $60 per month, Edison +made the acquaintance of Milton F. Adams, already referred to as facile +princeps the typical telegrapher in all his more sociable and brilliant +aspects. Speaking of that time, Mr. Adams says: "I can well recall when +Edison drifted in to take a job. He was a youth of about eighteen years, +decidedly unprepossessing in dress and rather uncouth in manner. I was +twenty-one, and very dudish. He was quite thin in those days, and his +nose was very prominent, giving a Napoleonic look to his face, although +the curious resemblance did not strike me at the time. The boys did not +take to him cheerfully, and he was lonesome. I sympathized with him, and +we became close companions. As an operator he had no superiors and very +few equals. Most of the time he was monkeying with the batteries and +circuits, and devising things to make the work of telegraphy less +irksome. He also relieved the monotony of office-work by fitting up the +battery circuits to play jokes on his fellow-operators, and to deal with +the vermin that infested the premises. He arranged in the cellar what he +called his 'rat paralyzer,' a very simple contrivance consisting of two +plates insulated from each other and connected with the main battery. +They were so placed that when a rat passed over them the fore feet on +the one plate and the hind feet on the other completed the circuit and +the rat departed this life, electrocuted." + +Shortly after Edison's arrival at Cincinnati came the close of the Civil +War and the assassination of President Lincoln. It was natural that +telegraphers should take an intense interest in the general struggle, +for not only did they handle all the news relating to it, but many of +them were at one time or another personal participants. For example, one +of the operators in the Cincinnati office was George Ellsworth, who was +telegrapher for Morgan, the famous Southern Guerrilla, and was with him +when he made his raid into Ohio and was captured near the Pennsylvania +line. Ellsworth himself made a narrow escape by swimming the Ohio +River with the aid of an army mule. Yet we can well appreciate the +unimpressionable way in which some of the men did their work, from an +anecdote that Mr. Edison tells of that awful night of Friday, April 14, +1865: "I noticed," he says, "an immense crowd gathering in the street +outside a newspaper office. I called the attention of the other +operators to the crowd, and we sent a messenger boy to find the cause +of the excitement. He returned in a few minutes and shouted 'Lincoln's +shot.' Instinctively the operators looked from one face to another to +see which man had received the news. All the faces were blank, and every +man said he had not taken a word about the shooting. 'Look over your +files,' said the boss to the man handling the press stuff. For a few +moments we waited in suspense, and then the man held up a sheet of +paper containing a short account of the shooting of the President. The +operator had worked so mechanically that he had handled the news without +the slightest knowledge of its significance." Mr. Adams says that at the +time the city was en fete on account of the close of the war, the name +of the assassin was received by telegraph, and it was noted with a +thrill of horror that it was that of a brother of Edwin Booth and of +Junius Brutus Booth--the latter of whom was then playing at the old +National Theatre. Booth was hurried away into seclusion, and the next +morning the city that had been so gay over night with bunting was draped +with mourning. + +Edison's diversions in Cincinnati were chiefly those already observed. +He read a great deal, but spent most of his leisure in experiment. Mr. +Adams remarks: "Edison and I were very fond of tragedy. Forrest and John +McCullough were playing at the National Theatre, and when our capital +was sufficient we would go to see those eminent tragedians alternate in +Othello and Iago. Edison always enjoyed Othello greatly. Aside from an +occasional visit to the Loewen Garden 'over the Rhine,' with a glass of +beer and a few pretzels, consumed while listening to the excellent music +of a German band, the theatre was the sum and substance of our innocent +dissipation." + +The Cincinnati office, as a central point, appears to have been +attractive to many of the clever young operators who graduated from it +to positions of larger responsibility. Some of them were conspicuous for +their skill and versatility. Mr. Adams tells this interesting story as +an illustration: "L. C. Weir, or Charlie, as he was known, at that +time agent for the Adams Express Company, had the remarkable ability of +taking messages and copying them twenty-five words behind the sender. +One day he came into the operating-room, and passing a table he heard +Louisville calling Cincinnati. He reached over to the key and answered +the call. My attention was arrested by the fact that he walked off after +responding, and the sender happened to be a good one. Weir coolly asked +for a pen, and when he sat down the sender was just one message ahead +of him with date, address, and signature. Charlie started in, and in a +beautiful, large, round hand copied that message. The sender went right +along, and when he finished with six messages closed his key. When Weir +had done with the last one the sender began to think that after all +there had been no receiver, as Weir did not 'break,' but simply gave +his O. K. He afterward became president of the Adams Express, and was +certainly a wonderful operator." The operating-room referred to was on +the fifth floor of the building with no elevators. + +Those were the early days of trade unionism in telegraphy, and the +movement will probably never quite die out in the craft which has always +shown so much solidarity. While Edison was in Cincinnati a delegation +of five union operators went over from Cleveland to form a local branch, +and the occasion was one of great conviviality. Night came, but the +unionists were conspicuous by their absence, although more circuits than +one were intolerant of delay and clamorous for attention---eight local +unionists being away. The Cleveland report wire was in special need, and +Edison, almost alone in the office, devoted himself to it all through +the night and until 3 o'clock the next morning, when he was relieved. + +He had previously been getting $80 a month, and had eked this out +by copying plays for the theatre. His rating was that of a "plug" or +inferior operator; but he was determined to lift himself into the class +of first-class operators, and had kept up the practice of going to the +office at night to "copy press," acting willingly as a substitute for +any operator who wanted to get off for a few hours--which often meant +all night. Speaking of this special ordeal, for which he had thus been +unconsciously preparing, Edison says: "My copy looked fine if viewed +as a whole, as I could write a perfectly straight line across the wide +sheet, which was not ruled. There were no flourishes, but the individual +letters would not bear close inspection. When I missed understanding a +word, there was no time to think what it was, so I made an illegible one +to fill in, trusting to the printers to sense it. I knew they could read +anything, although Mr. Bloss, an editor of the Inquirer, made such bad +copy that one of his editorials was pasted up on the notice-board in the +telegraph office with an offer of one dollar to any man who could 'read +twenty consecutive words.' Nobody ever did it. When I got through I +was too nervous to go home, so waited the rest of the night for the day +manager, Mr. Stevens, to see what was to be the outcome of this Union +formation and of my efforts. He was an austere man, and I was afraid of +him. I got the morning papers, which came out at 4 A. M., and the press +report read perfectly, which surprised me greatly. I went to work on +my regular day wire to Portsmouth, Ohio, and there was considerable +excitement, but nothing was said to me, neither did Mr. Stevens examine +the copy on the office hook, which I was watching with great interest. +However, about 3 P. M. he went to the hook, grabbed the bunch and +looked at it as a whole without examining it in detail, for which I +was thankful. Then he jabbed it back on the hook, and I knew I was all +right. He walked over to me, and said: 'Young man, I want you to work +the Louisville wire nights; your salary will be $125.' Thus I got from +the plug classification to that of a 'first-class man.'" + +But no sooner was this promotion secured than he started again on his +wanderings southward, while his friend Adams went North, neither +having any difficulty in making the trip. "The boys in those days +had extraordinary facilities for travel. As a usual thing it was only +necessary for them to board a train and tell the conductor they were +operators. Then they would go as far as they liked. The number of +operators was small, and they were in demand everywhere." It was in this +way Edison made his way south as far as Memphis, Tennessee, where the +telegraph service at that time was under military law, although the +operators received $125 a month. Here again Edison began to invent and +improve on existing apparatus, with the result of having once more to +"move on." The story may be told in his own terse language: "I was not +the inventor of the auto repeater, but while in Memphis I worked on +one. Learning that the chief operator, who was a protege of the +superintendent, was trying in some way to put New York and New Orleans +together for the first time since the close of the war, I redoubled my +efforts, and at 2 o'clock one morning I had them speaking to each other. +The office of the Memphis Avalanche was in the same building. The paper +got wind of it and sent messages. A column came out in the morning about +it; but when I went to the office in the afternoon to report for duty I +was discharged with out explanation. The superintendent would not even +give me a pass to Nashville, so I had to pay my fare. I had so little +money left that I nearly starved at Decatur, Alabama, and had to stay +three days before going on north to Nashville. Arrived in that city, +I went to the telegraph office, got money enough to buy a little solid +food, and secured a pass to Louisville. I had a companion with me who +was also out of a job. I arrived at Louisville on a bitterly cold day, +with ice in the gutters. I was wearing a linen duster and was not much +to look at, but got a position at once, working on a press wire. My +travelling companion was less successful on account of his 'record.' +They had a limit even in those days when the telegraph service was so +demoralized." + +Some reminiscences of Mr. Edison are of interest as bearing not only +upon the "demoralized" telegraph service, but the conditions from +which the New South had to emerge while working out its salvation. "The +telegraph was still under military control, not having been turned over +to the original owners, the Southern Telegraph Company. In addition to +the regular force, there was an extra force of two or three operators, +and some stranded ones, who were a burden to us, for board was high. +One of these derelicts was a great source of worry to me, personally. He +would come in at all hours and either throw ink around or make a lot +of noise. One night he built a fire in the grate and started to throw +pistol cartridges into the flames. These would explode, and I was twice +hit by the bullets, which left a black-and-blue mark. Another night he +came in and got from some part of the building a lot of stationery with +'Confederate States' printed at the head. He was a fine operator, and +wrote a beautiful hand. He would take a sheet of this paper, write +capital 'A', and then take another sheet and make the 'A' differently; +and so on through the alphabet; each time crumpling the paper up in his +hand and throwing it on the floor. He would keep this up until the room +was filled nearly flush with the table. Then he would quit. + +"Everything at that time was 'wide open.' Disorganization reigned +supreme. There was no head to anything. At night myself and a companion +would go over to a gorgeously furnished faro-bank and get our midnight +lunch. Everything was free. There were over twenty keno-rooms running. +One of them that I visited was in a Baptist church, the man with the +wheel being in the pulpit, and the gamblers in the pews. + +"While there the manager of the telegraph office was arrested for +something I never understood, and incarcerated in a military prison +about half a mile from the office. The building was in plain sight from +the office, and four stories high. He was kept strictly incommunicado. +One day, thinking he might be confined in a room facing the office, I +put my arm out of the window and kept signalling dots and dashes by the +movement of the arm. I tried this several times for two days. Finally +he noticed it, and putting his arm through the bars of the window he +established communication with me. He thus sent several messages to his +friends, and was afterward set free." + +Another curious story told by Edison concerns a fellow-operator on night +duty at Chattanooga Junction, at the time he was at Memphis: "When it +was reported that Hood was marching on Nashville, one night a Jew came +into the office about 11 o'clock in great excitement, having heard the +Hood rumor. He, being a large sutler, wanted to send a message to save +his goods. The operator said it was impossible--that orders had been +given to send no private messages. Then the Jew wanted to bribe my +friend, who steadfastly refused for the reason, as he told the Jew, that +he might be court-martialled and shot. Finally the Jew got up to $800. +The operator swore him to secrecy and sent the message. Now there was +no such order about private messages, and the Jew, finding it out, +complained to Captain Van Duzer, chief of telegraphs, who investigated +the matter, and while he would not discharge the operator, laid him +off indefinitely. Van Duzer was so lenient that if an operator were +discharged, all the operator had to do was to wait three days and then +go and sit on the stoop of Van Duzer's office all day, and he would be +taken back. But Van Duzer swore he would never give in in this case. +He said that if the operator had taken $800 and sent the message at the +regular rate, which was twenty-five cents, it would have been all right, +as the Jew would be punished for trying to bribe a military operator; +but when the operator took the $800 and then sent the message deadhead, +he couldn't stand it, and he would never relent." + +A third typical story of this period deals with a cipher message for +Thomas. Mr. Edison narrates it as follows: "When I was an operator in +Cincinnati working the Louisville wire nights for a time, one night a +man over on the Pittsburg wire yelled out: 'D. I. cipher,' which meant +that there was a cipher message from the War Department at Washington +and that it was coming--and he yelled out 'Louisville.' I started +immediately to call up that place. It was just at the change of shift in +the office. I could not get Louisville, and the cipher message began to +come. It was taken by the operator on the other table direct from the +War Department. It was for General Thomas, at Nashville. I called for +about twenty minutes and notified them that I could not get Louisville. +I kept at it for about fifteen minutes longer, and notified them that +there was still no answer from Louisville. They then notified the War +Department that they could not get Louisville. Then we tried to get it +by all kinds of roundabout ways, but in no case could anybody get them +at that office. Soon a message came from the War Department to send +immediately for the manager of the Cincinnati office. He was brought to +the office and several messages were exchanged, the contents of which, +of course, I did not know, but the matter appeared to be very serious, +as they were afraid of General Hood, of the Confederate Army, who was +then attempting to march on Nashville; and it was very important that +this cipher of about twelve hundred words or so should be got through +immediately to General Thomas. I kept on calling up to 12 or 1 o'clock, +but no Louisville. About 1 o'clock the operator at the Indianapolis +office got hold of an operator on a wire which ran from Indianapolis to +Louisville along the railroad, who happened to come into his office. He +arranged with this operator to get a relay of horses, and the message +was sent through Indianapolis to this operator who had engaged horses to +carry the despatches to Louisville and find out the trouble, and get the +despatches through without delay to General Thomas. In those days the +telegraph fraternity was rather demoralized, and the discipline was very +lax. It was found out a couple of days afterward that there were +three night operators at Louisville. One of them had gone over to +Jeffersonville and had fallen off a horse and broken his leg, and was +in a hospital. By a remarkable coincidence another of the men had +been stabbed in a keno-room, and was also in hospital while the third +operator had gone to Cynthiana to see a man hanged and had got left by +the train." + + I think the most important line of + investigation is the production of + Electricity direct from carbon. + Edison + +Young Edison remained in Louisville for about two years, quite a long +stay for one with such nomadic instincts. It was there that he perfected +the peculiar vertical style of writing which, beginning with him in +telegraphy, later became so much of a fad with teachers of penmanship +and in the schools. He says of this form of writing, a current example +of which is given above: "I developed this style in Louisville while +taking press reports. My wire was connected to the 'blind' side of a +repeater at Cincinnati, so that if I missed a word or sentence, or if +the wire worked badly, I could not break in and get the last words, +because the Cincinnati man had no instrument by which he could hear me. +I had to take what came. When I got the job, the cable across the +Ohio River at Covington, connecting with the line to Louisville, had a +variable leak in it, which caused the strength of the signalling current +to make violent fluctuations. I obviated this by using several relays, +each with a different adjustment, working several sounders all connected +with one sounding-plate. The clatter was bad, but I could read it with +fair ease. When, in addition to this infernal leak, the wires north to +Cleveland worked badly, it required a large amount of imagination to get +the sense of what was being sent. An imagination requires an appreciable +time for its exercise, and as the stuff was coming at the rate of +thirty-five to forty words a minute, it was very difficult to write down +what was coming and imagine what wasn't coming. Hence it was necessary +to become a very rapid writer, so I started to find the fastest style. I +found that the vertical style, with each letter separate and without +any flourishes, was the most rapid, and that the smaller the letter +the greater the rapidity. As I took on an average from eight to fifteen +columns of news report every day, it did not take long to perfect +this method." Mr. Edison has adhered to this characteristic style of +penmanship down to the present time. + +As a matter of fact, the conditions at Louisville at that time were not +much better than they had been at Memphis. The telegraph operating-room +was in a deplorable condition. It was on the second story of a +dilapidated building on the principal street of the city, with the +battery-room in the rear; behind which was the office of the agent of +the Associated Press. The plastering was about one-third gone from the +ceiling. A small stove, used occasionally in the winter, was connected +to the chimney by a tortuous pipe. The office was never cleaned. The +switchboard for manipulating the wires was about thirty-four inches +square. The brass connections on it were black with age and with the +arcing effects of lightning, which, to young Edison, seemed particularly +partial to Louisville. "It would strike on the wires," he says, "with +an explosion like a cannon-shot, making that office no place for an +operator with heart-disease." Around the dingy walls were a dozen +tables, the ends next to the wall. They were about the size of those +seen in old-fashioned country hotels for holding the wash-bowl and +pitcher. The copper wires connecting the instruments to the switchboard +were small, crystallized, and rotten. The battery-room was filled +with old record-books and message bundles, and one hundred cells of +nitric-acid battery, arranged on a stand in the centre of the room. This +stand, as well as the floor, was almost eaten through by the destructive +action of the powerful acid. Grim and uncompromising as the description +reads, it was typical of the equipment in those remote days of the +telegraph at the close of the war. + +Illustrative of the length to which telegraphers could go at a time when +they were so much in demand, Edison tells the following story: "When I +took the position there was a great shortage of operators. One night at +2 A.M. another operator and I were on duty. I was taking press report, +and the other man was working the New York wire. We heard a heavy tramp, +tramp, tramp on the rickety stairs. Suddenly the door was thrown +open with great violence, dislodging it from one of the hinges. There +appeared in the doorway one of the best operators we had, who +worked daytime, and who was of a very quiet disposition except when +intoxicated. He was a great friend of the manager of the office. His +eyes were bloodshot and wild, and one sleeve had been torn away from his +coat. Without noticing either of us he went up to the stove and kicked +it over. The stove-pipe fell, dislocated at every joint. It was half +full of exceedingly fine soot, which floated out and filled the room +completely. This produced a momentary respite to his labors. When the +atmosphere had cleared sufficiently to see, he went around and pulled +every table away from the wall, piling them on top of the stove in the +middle of the room. Then he proceeded to pull the switchboard away from +the wall. It was held tightly by screws. He succeeded, finally, and when +it gave way he fell with the board, and striking on a table cut +himself so that he soon became covered with blood. He then went to the +battery-room and knocked all the batteries off on the floor. The nitric +acid soon began to combine with the plaster in the room below, which +was the public receiving-room for messengers and bookkeepers. The excess +acid poured through and ate up the account-books. After having finished +everything to his satisfaction, he left. I told the other operator to +do nothing. We would leave things just as they were, and wait until the +manager came. In the mean time, as I knew all the wires coming through +to the switchboard, I rigged up a temporary set of instruments so that +the New York business could be cleared up, and we also got the remainder +of the press matter. At 7 o'clock the day men began to appear. They were +told to go down-stairs and wait the coming of the manager. At 8 o'clock +he appeared, walked around, went into the battery-room, and then came to +me, saying: 'Edison, who did this?' I told him that Billy L. had come in +full of soda-water and invented the ruin before him. He walked backward +and forward, about a minute, then coming up to my table put his fist +down, and said: 'If Billy L. ever does that again, I will discharge +him.' It was needless to say that there were other operators who took +advantage of that kind of discipline, and I had many calls at night +after that, but none with such destructive effects." + +This was one aspect of life as it presented itself to the sensitive +and observant young operator in Louisville. But there was another, +more intellectual side, in the contact afforded with journalism and its +leaders, and the information taken in almost unconsciously as to the +political and social movements of the time. Mr. Edison looks back on +this with great satisfaction. "I remember," he says, "the discussions +between the celebrated poet and journalist George D. Prentice, then +editor of the Courier-Journal, and Mr. Tyler, of the Associated Press. +I believe Prentice was the father of the humorous paragraph of the +American newspaper. He was poetic, highly educated, and a brilliant +talker. He was very thin and small. I do not think he weighed over one +hundred and twenty five pounds. Tyler was a graduate of Harvard, and had +a very clear enunciation, and, in sharp contrast to Prentice, he was a +large man. After the paper had gone to press, Prentice would generally +come over to Tyler's office and start talking. Having while in Tyler's +office heard them arguing on the immortality of the soul, etc., I asked +permission of Mr. Tyler if, after finishing the press matter, I might +come in and listen to the conversation, which I did many times after. +One thing I never could comprehend was that Tyler had a sideboard with +liquors and generally crackers. Prentice would pour out half a glass of +what they call corn whiskey, and would dip the crackers in it and eat +them. Tyler took it sans food. One teaspoonful of that stuff would put +me to sleep." + +Mr. Edison throws also a curious side-light on the origin of the comic +column in the modern American newspaper, the telegraph giving to a new +joke or a good story the ubiquity and instantaneity of an important +historical event. "It was the practice of the press operators all over +the country at that time, when a lull occurred, to start in and send +jokes or stories the day men had collected; and these were copied and +pasted up on the bulletin-board. Cleveland was the originating +office for 'press,' which it received from New York, and sent it out +simultaneously to Milwaukee, Chicago, Toledo, Detroit, Pittsburg, +Columbus, Dayton, Cincinnati, Indianapolis, Vincennes, Terre Haute, St. +Louis, and Louisville. Cleveland would call first on Milwaukee, if he +had anything. If so, he would send it, and Cleveland would repeat it to +all of us. Thus any joke or story originating anywhere in that area +was known the next day all over. The press men would come in and copy +anything which could be published, which was about three per cent. I +collected, too, quite a large scrap-book of it, but unfortunately have +lost it." + +Edison tells an amusing story of his own pursuits at this time. Always +an omnivorous reader, he had some difficulty in getting a sufficient +quantity of literature for home consumption, and was in the habit +of buying books at auctions and second-hand stores. One day at an +auction-room he secured a stack of twenty unbound volumes of the North +American Review for two dollars. These he had bound and delivered at the +telegraph office. One morning, when he was free as usual at 3 o'clock, +he started off at a rapid pace with ten volumes on his shoulder. He +found himself very soon the subject of a fusillade. When he stopped, a +breathless policeman grabbed him by the throat and ordered him to drop +his parcel and explain matters, as a suspicious character. He opened the +package showing the books, somewhat to the disgust of the officer, who +imagined he had caught a burglar sneaking away in the dark alley with +his booty. Edison explained that being deaf he had heard no challenge, +and therefore had kept moving; and the policeman remarked apologetically +that it was fortunate for Edison he was not a better shot. + +The incident is curiously revelatory of the character of the man, for +it must be admitted that while literary telegraphers are by no means +scarce, there are very few who would spend scant savings on back numbers +of a ponderous review at an age when tragedy, beer, and pretzels are far +more enticing. Through all his travels Edison has preserved those books, +and has them now in his library at Llewellyn Park, on Orange Mountain, +New Jersey. + +Drifting after a time from Louisville, Edison made his way as far north +as Detroit, but, like the famous Duke of York, soon made his way back +again. Possibly the severer discipline after the happy-go-lucky regime +in the Southern city had something to do with this restlessness, which +again manifested itself, however, on his return thither. The end of the +war had left the South a scene of destruction and desolation, and +many men who had fought bravely and well found it hard to reconcile +themselves to the grim task of reconstruction. To them it seemed better +to "let ill alone" and seek some other clime where conditions would +be less onerous. At this moment a great deal of exaggerated talk was +current as to the sunny life and easy wealth of Latin America, and under +its influences many "unreconstructed" Southerners made their way +to Mexico, Brazil, Peru, or the Argentine. Telegraph operators were +naturally in touch with this movement, and Edison's fertile +imagination was readily inflamed by the glowing idea of all these vague +possibilities. Again he threw up his steady work and, with a couple of +sanguine young friends, made his way to New Orleans. They had the +notion of taking positions in the Brazilian Government telegraphs, as +an advertisement had been inserted in some paper stating that operators +were wanted. They had timed their departure from Louisville so as to +catch a specially chartered steamer, which was to leave New Orleans for +Brazil on a certain day, to convey a large number of Confederates and +their families, who were disgusted with the United States and were +going to settle in Brazil, where slavery still prevailed. Edison and his +friends arrived in New Orleans just at the time of the great riot, when +several hundred negroes were killed, and the city was in the hands of +a mob. The Government had seized the steamer chartered for Brazil, in +order to bring troops from the Yazoo River to New Orleans to stop the +rioting. The young operators therefore visited another shipping-office +to make inquiries as to vessels for Brazil, and encountered an old +Spaniard who sat in a chair near the steamer agent's desk, and to +whom they explained their intentions. He had lived and worked in South +America, and was very emphatic in his assertion, as he shook his yellow, +bony finger at them, that the worst mistake they could possibly make +would be to leave the United States. He would not leave on any account, +and they as young Americans would always regret it if they forsook their +native land, whose freedom, climate, and opportunities could not be +equalled anywhere on the face of the globe. Such sincere advice as this +could not be disdained, and Edison made his way North again. One cannot +resist speculation as to what might have happened to Edison himself and +to the development of electricity had he made this proposed plunge into +the enervating tropics. It will be remembered that at a somewhat similar +crisis in life young Robert Burns entertained seriously the idea of +forsaking Scotland for the West Indies. That he did not go was certainly +better for Scottish verse, to which he contributed later so many +immortal lines; and it was probably better for himself, even if he died +a gauger. It is simply impossible to imagine Edison working out the +phonograph, telephone, and incandescent lamp under the tropical climes +he sought. Some years later he was informed that both his companions had +gone to Vera Cruz, Mexico, and had died there of yellow fever. + +Work was soon resumed at Louisville, where the dilapidated old office +occupied at the close of the war had been exchanged for one much more +comfortable and luxurious in its equipment. As before, Edison was +allotted to press report, and remembers very distinctly taking the +Presidential message and veto of the District of Columbia bill +by President Johnson. As the matter was received over the wire he +paragraphed it so that each printer had exactly three lines, thus +enabling the matter to be set up very expeditiously in the newspaper +offices. This earned him the gratitude of the editors, a dinner, and all +the newspaper "exchanges" he wanted. Edison's accounts of the sprees and +debauches of other night operators in the loosely managed offices enable +one to understand how even a little steady application to the work in +hand would be appreciated. On one occasion Edison acted as treasurer for +his bibulous companions, holding the stakes, so to speak, in order that +the supply of liquor might last longer. One of the mildest mannered of +the party took umbrage at the parsimony of the treasurer and knocked +him down, whereupon the others in the party set upon the assailant and +mauled him so badly that he had to spend three weeks in hospital. At +another time two of his companions sharing the temporary hospitality of +his room smashed most of the furniture, and went to bed with their boots +on. Then his kindly good-nature rebelled. "I felt that this was running +hospitality into the ground, so I pulled them out and left them on the +floor to cool off from their alcoholic trance." + +Edison seems on the whole to have been fairly comfortable and happy in +Louisville, surrounding himself with books and experimental apparatus, +and even inditing a treatise on electricity. But his very thirst for +knowledge and new facts again proved his undoing. The instruments in the +handsome new offices were fastened in their proper places, and operators +were strictly forbidden to remove them, or to use the batteries except +on regular work. This prohibition meant little to Edison, who had access +to no other instruments except those of the company. "I went one night," +he says, "into the battery-room to obtain some sulphuric acid for +experimenting. The carboy tipped over, the acid ran out, went through +to the manager's room below, and ate up his desk and all the carpet. The +next morning I was summoned before him, and told that what the company +wanted was operators, not experimenters. I was at liberty to take my pay +and get out." + +The fact that Edison is a very studious man, an insatiate lover and +reader of books, is well known to his associates; but surprise is often +expressed at his fund of miscellaneous information. This, it will be +seen, is partly explained by his work for years as a "press" reporter. +He says of this: "The second time I was in Louisville, they had moved +into a new office, and the discipline was now good. I took the press +job. In fact, I was a very poor sender, and therefore made the taking +of press report a specialty. The newspaper men allowed me to come over +after going to press at 3 A.M. and get all the exchanges I wanted. These +I would take home and lay at the foot of my bed. I never slept more than +four or five hours' so that I would awake at nine or ten and read +these papers until dinner-time. I thus kept posted, and knew from their +activity every member of Congress, and what committees they were on; and +all about the topical doings, as well as the prices of breadstuffs +in all the primary markets. I was in a much better position than +most operators to call on my imagination to supply missing words or +sentences, which were frequent in those days of old, rotten wires, badly +insulated, especially on stormy nights. Upon such occasions I had to +supply in some cases one-fifth of the whole matter--pure guessing--but +I got caught only once. There had been some kind of convention in +Virginia, in which John Minor Botts was the leading figure. There +was great excitement about it, and two votes had been taken in the +convention on the two days. There was no doubt that the vote the next +day would go a certain way. A very bad storm came up about 10 o'clock, +and my wire worked very badly. Then there was a cessation of all +signals; then I made out the words 'Minor Botts.' The next was a New +York item. I filled in a paragraph about the convention and how the vote +had gone, as I was sure it would. But next day I learned that instead of +there being a vote the convention had adjourned without action until the +day after." In like manner, it was at Louisville that Mr. Edison got +an insight into the manner in which great political speeches are more +frequently reported than the public suspects. "The Associated Press +had a shorthand man travelling with President Johnson when he made his +celebrated swing around the circle in a private train delivering hot +speeches in defence of his conduct. The man engaged me to write out +the notes from his reading. He came in loaded and on the verge of +incoherence. We started in, but about every two minutes I would have to +scratch out whole paragraphs and insert the same things said in +another and better way. He would frequently change words, always to the +betterment of the speech. I couldn't understand this, and when he got +through, and I had copied about three columns, I asked him why those +changes, if he read from notes. 'Sonny,' he said, 'if these politicians +had their speeches published as they deliver them, a great many +shorthand writers would be out of a job. The best shorthanders and the +holders of good positions are those who can take a lot of rambling, +incoherent stuff and make a rattling good speech out of it.'" + +Going back to Cincinnati and beginning his second term there as an +operator, Edison found the office in new quarters and with greatly +improved management. He was again put on night duty, much to his +satisfaction. He rented a room in the top floor of an office building, +bought a cot and an oil-stove, a foot lathe, and some tools. He +cultivated the acquaintance of Mr. Sommers, superintendent of telegraph +of the Cincinnati & Indianapolis Railroad, who gave him permission to +take such scrap apparatus as he might desire, that was of no use to the +company. With Sommers on one occasion he had an opportunity to indulge +his always strong sense of humor. "Sommers was a very witty man," +he says, "and fond of experimenting. We worked on a self-adjusting +telegraph relay, which would have been very valuable if we could have +got it. I soon became the possessor of a second-hand Ruhmkorff induction +coil, which, although it would only give a small spark, would twist the +arms and clutch the hands of a man so that he could not let go of the +apparatus. One day we went down to the round-house of the Cincinnati & +Indianapolis Railroad and connected up the long wash-tank in the room +with the coil, one electrode being connected to earth. Above this +wash-room was a flat roof. We bored a hole through the roof, and could +see the men as they came in. The first man as he entered dipped his +hands in the water. The floor being wet he formed a circuit, and up went +his hands. He tried it the second time, with the same result. He then +stood against the wall with a puzzled expression. We surmised that +he was waiting for somebody else to come in, which occurred shortly +after--with the same result. Then they went out, and the place was soon +crowded, and there was considerable excitement. Various theories +were broached to explain the curious phenomenon. We enjoyed the sport +immensely." It must be remembered that this was over forty years ago, +when there was no popular instruction in electricity, and when its +possibilities for practical joking were known to very few. To-day such a +crowd of working-men would be sure to include at least one student of +a night school or correspondence course who would explain the mystery +offhand. + +Note has been made of the presence of Ellsworth in the Cincinnati +office, and his service with the Confederate guerrilla Morgan, for whom +he tapped Federal wires, read military messages, sent false ones, and +did serious mischief generally. It is well known that one operator can +recognize another by the way in which he makes his signals--it is his +style of handwriting. Ellsworth possessed in a remarkable degree the +skill of imitating these peculiarities, and thus he deceived the Union +operators easily. Edison says that while apparently a quiet man in +bearing, Ellsworth, after the excitement of fighting, found the tameness +of a telegraph office obnoxious, and that he became a bad "gun man" +in the Panhandle of Texas, where he was killed. "We soon became +acquainted," says Edison of this period in Cincinnati, "and he wanted me +to invent a secret method of sending despatches so that an intermediate +operator could not tap the wire and understand it. He said that if it +could be accomplished, he could sell it to the Government for a large +sum of money. This suited me, and I started in and succeeded in making +such an instrument, which had in it the germ of my quadruplex now used +throughout the world, permitting the despatch of four messages over +one wire simultaneously. By the time I had succeeded in getting the +apparatus to work, Ellsworth suddenly disappeared. Many years afterward +I used this little device again for the same purpose. At Menlo Park, New +Jersey, I had my laboratory. There were several Western Union wires cut +into the laboratory, and used by me in experimenting at night. One day +I sat near an instrument which I had left connected during the night. I +soon found it was a private wire between New York and Philadelphia, and +I heard among a lot of stuff a message that surprised me. A week after +that I had occasion to go to New York, and, visiting the office of +the lessee of the wire, I asked him if he hadn't sent such and such a +message. The expression that came over his face was a sight. He asked me +how I knew of any message. I told him the circumstances, and suggested +that he had better cipher such communications, or put on a secret +sounder. The result of the interview was that I installed for him my old +Cincinnati apparatus, which was used thereafter for many years." + +Edison did not make a very long stay in Cincinnati this time, but went +home after a while to Port Huron. Soon tiring of idleness and isolation +he sent "a cry from Macedonia" to his old friend "Milt" Adams, who was +in Boston, and whom he wished to rejoin if he could get work promptly in +the East. + +Edison himself gives the details of this eventful move, when he went +East to grow up with the new art of electricity. "I had left Louisville +the second time, and went home to see my parents. After stopping at home +for some time, I got restless, and thought I would like to work in the +East. Knowing that a former operator named Adams, who had worked with me +in the Cincinnati office, was in Boston, I wrote him that I wanted a job +there. He wrote back that if I came on immediately he could get me in +the Western Union office. I had helped out the Grand Trunk Railroad +telegraph people by a new device when they lost one of the two submarine +cables they had across the river, making the remaining cable act just as +well for their purpose, as if they had two. I thought I was entitled +to a pass, which they conceded; and I started for Boston. After leaving +Toronto a terrific blizzard came up and the train got snowed under in a +cut. After staying there twenty-four hours, the trainmen made snowshoes +of fence-rail splints and started out to find food, which they did about +a half mile away. They found a roadside inn, and by means of snowshoes +all the passengers were taken to the inn. The train reached Montreal +four days late. A number of the passengers and myself went to the +military headquarters to testify in favor of a soldier who was on +furlough, and was two days late, which was a serious matter with +military people, I learned. We willingly did this, for this soldier +was a great story-teller, and made the time pass quickly. I met here a +telegraph operator named Stanton, who took me to his boarding-house, +the most cheerless I have ever been in. Nobody got enough to eat; the +bedclothes were too short and too thin; it was 28 degrees below zero, +and the wash-water was frozen solid. The board was cheap, being only +$1.50 per week. + +"Stanton said that the usual live-stock accompaniment of operators' +boarding-houses was absent; he thought the intense cold had caused +them to hibernate. Stanton, when I was working in Cincinnati, left his +position and went out on the Union Pacific to work at Julesburg, which +was a cattle town at that time and very tough. I remember seeing him off +on the train, never expecting to see him again. Six months afterward, +while working press wire in Cincinnati, about 2 A.M., there was flung +into the middle of the operating-room a large tin box. It made a +report like a pistol, and we all jumped up startled. In walked Stanton. +'Gentlemen,' he said 'I have just returned from a pleasure trip to the +land beyond the Mississippi. All my wealth is contained in my metallic +travelling case and you are welcome to it.' The case contained one +paper collar. He sat down, and I noticed that he had a woollen comforter +around his neck with his coat buttoned closely. The night was intensely +warm. He then opened his coat and revealed the fact that he had nothing +but the bare skin. 'Gentlemen,' said he, 'you see before you an operator +who has reached the limit of impecuniosity.'" Not far from the limit of +impecuniosity was Edison himself, as he landed in Boston in 1868 after +this wintry ordeal. + +This chapter has run to undue length, but it must not close without one +citation from high authority as to the service of the military telegraph +corps so often referred to in it. General Grant in his Memoirs, +describing the movements of the Army of the Potomac, lays stress on the +service of his telegraph operators, and says: "Nothing could be more +complete than the organization and discipline of this body of brave and +intelligent men. Insulated wires were wound upon reels, two men and a +mule detailed to each reel. The pack-saddle was provided with a rack +like a sawbuck, placed crosswise, so that the wheel would revolve +freely; there was a wagon provided with a telegraph operator, +battery, and instruments for each division corps and army, and for my +headquarters. Wagons were also loaded with light poles supplied with an +iron spike at each end to hold the wires up. The moment troops were in +position to go into camp, the men would put up their wires. Thus in a +few minutes' longer time than it took a mule to walk the length of +its coil, telegraphic communication would be effected between all the +headquarters of the army. No orders ever had to be given to establish +the telegraph." + + + +CHAPTER VI + +WORK AND INVENTION IN BOSTON + +MILTON ADAMS was working in the office of the Franklin Telegraph Company +in Boston when he received Edison's appeal from Port Huron, and with +characteristic impetuosity at once made it his business to secure a +position for his friend. There was no opening in the Franklin office, so +Adams went over to the Western Union office, and asked the manager, +Mr. George F. Milliken, if he did not want an operator who, like young +Lochinvar, came out of the West. "What kind of copy does he make?" was +the cautious response. "I passed Edison's letter through the window for +his inspection. Milliken read it, and a look of surprise came over his +countenance as he asked me if he could take it off the line like that. I +said he certainly could, and that there was nobody who could stick him. +Milliken said that if he was that kind of an operator I could send for +him, and I wrote to Edison to come on, as I had a job for him in the +main office of the Western Union." Meantime Edison had secured his pass +over the Grand Trunk Railroad, and spent four days and nights on the +journey, suffering extremes of cold and hunger. Franklin's arrival in +Philadelphia finds its parallel in the very modest debut of Adams's +friend in Boston. + +It took only five minutes for Edison to get the "job," for +Superintendent Milliken, a fine type of telegraph official, saw quickly +through the superficialities, and realized that it was no ordinary +young operator he was engaging. Edison himself tells the story of what +happened. "The manager asked me when I was ready to go to work. 'Now,' +I replied I was then told to return at 5.30 P.M., and punctually at that +hour I entered the main operating-room and was introduced to the night +manager. The weather being cold, and being clothed poorly, my peculiar +appearance caused much mirth, and, as I afterward learned, the night +operators had consulted together how they might 'put up a job on the jay +from the woolly West.' I was given a pen and assigned to the New York +No. 1 wire. After waiting an hour, I was told to come over to a special +table and take a special report for the Boston Herald, the conspirators +having arranged to have one of the fastest senders in New York send the +despatch and 'salt' the new man. I sat down unsuspiciously at the table, +and the New York man started slowly. Soon he increased his speed, to +which I easily adapted my pace. This put my rival on his mettle, and he +put on his best powers, which, however, were soon reached. At this +point I happened to look up, and saw the operators all looking over my +shoulder, with their faces shining with fun and excitement. I knew then +that they were trying to put up a job on me, but kept my own counsel. +The New York man then commenced to slur over his words, running them +together and sticking the signals; but I had been used to this style +of telegraphy in taking report, and was not in the least discomfited. +Finally, when I thought the fun had gone far enough, and having +about completed the special, I quietly opened the key and remarked, +telegraphically, to my New York friend: 'Say, young man, change off and +send with your other foot.' This broke the New York man all up, and he +turned the job over to another man to finish." + +Edison had a distaste for taking press report, due to the fact that +it was steady, continuous work, and interfered with the studies and +investigations that could be carried on in the intervals of ordinary +commercial telegraphy. He was not lazy in any sense. While he had no +very lively interest in the mere routine work of a telegraph office, +he had the profoundest curiosity as to the underlying principles of +electricity that made telegraphy possible, and he had an unflagging +desire and belief in his own ability to improve the apparatus he handled +daily. The whole intellectual atmosphere of Boston was favorable to the +development of the brooding genius in this shy, awkward, studious youth, +utterly indifferent to clothes and personal appearance, but ready to +spend his last dollar on books and scientific paraphernalia. It is +matter of record that he did once buy a new suit for thirty dollars in +Boston, but the following Sunday, while experimenting with acids in his +little workshop, the suit was spoiled. "That is what I get for putting +so much money in a new suit," was the laconic remark of the youth, who +was more than delighted to pick up a complete set of Faraday's works +about the same time. Adams says that when Edison brought home these +books at 4 A.M. he read steadily until breakfast-time, and then he +remarked, enthusiastically: "Adams, I have got so much to do and life is +so short, I am going to hustle." And thereupon he started on a run for +breakfast. Edison himself says: "It was in Boston I bought Faraday's +works. I think I must have tried about everything in those books. His +explanations were simple. He used no mathematics. He was the Master +Experimenter. I don't think there were many copies of Faraday's works +sold in those days. The only people who did anything in electricity were +the telegraphers and the opticians making simple school apparatus to +demonstrate the principles." One of these firms was Palmer & Hall, whose +catalogue of 1850 showed a miniature electric locomotive made by Mr. +Thomas Hall, and exhibited in operation the following year at the +Charitable Mechanics' Fair in Boston. In 1852 Mr. Hall made for a Dr. +A. L. Henderson, of Buffalo, New York, a model line of railroad with +electric-motor engine, telegraph line, and electric railroad signals, +together with a figure operating the signals at each end of the line +automatically. This was in reality the first example of railroad trains +moved by telegraph signals, a practice now so common and universal as +to attract no comment. To show how little some fundamental methods can +change in fifty years, it may be noted that Hall conveyed the current +to his tiny car through forty feet of rail, using the rail as conductor, +just as Edison did more than thirty years later in his historic +experiments for Villard at Menlo Park; and just as a large proportion of +American trolley systems do at this present moment. + +It was among such practical, investigating folk as these that Edison was +very much at home. Another notable man of this stamp, with whom Edison +was thrown in contact, was the late Mr. Charles Williams, who, beginning +his career in the electrical field in the forties, was at the height of +activity as a maker of apparatus when Edison arrived in the city; and +who afterward, as an associate of Alexander Graham Bell, enjoyed the +distinction of being the first manufacturer in the world of telephones. +At his Court Street workshop Edison was a frequent visitor. Telegraph +repairs and experiments were going on constantly, especially on the +early fire-alarm telegraphs [1] of Farmer and Gamewell, and with the aid +of one of the men there--probably George Anders--Edison worked out +into an operative model his first invention, a vote-recorder, the first +Edison patent, for which papers were executed on October 11, 1868, +and which was taken out June 1, 1869, No. 90,646. The purpose of +this particular device was to permit a vote in the National House of +Representatives to be taken in a minute or so, complete lists being +furnished of all members voting on the two sides of any question Mr. +Edison, in recalling the circumstances, says: "Roberts was the telegraph +operator who was the financial backer to the extent of $100. The +invention when completed was taken to Washington. I think it was +exhibited before a committee that had something to do with the Capitol. +The chairman of the committee, after seeing how quickly and perfectly +it worked, said: 'Young man, if there is any invention on earth that +we don't want down here, it is this. One of the greatest weapons in +the hands of a minority to prevent bad legislation is filibustering on +votes, and this instrument would prevent it.' I saw the truth of +this, because as press operator I had taken miles of Congressional +proceedings, and to this day an enormous amount of time is wasted during +each session of the House in foolishly calling the members' names and +recording and then adding their votes, when the whole operation could be +done in almost a moment by merely pressing a particular button at each +desk. For filibustering purposes, however, the present methods are +most admirable." Edison determined from that time forth to devote his +inventive faculties only to things for which there was a real, genuine +demand, something that subserved the actual necessities of humanity. +This first patent was taken out for him by the late Hon. Carroll +D. Wright, afterward U. S. Commissioner of Labor, and a well-known +publicist, then practicing patent law in Boston. He describes Edison as +uncouth in manner, a chewer rather than a smoker of tobacco, but full of +intelligence and ideas. + + [Footnote 1: The general scheme of a fire-alarm telegraph + system embodies a central office to which notice can be sent + from any number of signal boxes of the outbreak of a fire in + the district covered by the box, the central office in turn + calling out the nearest fire engines, and warning the fire + department in general of the occurrence. Such fire alarms + can be exchanged automatically, or by operators, and are + sometimes associated with a large fire-alarm bell or + whistle. Some boxes can be operated by the passing public; + others need special keys. The box mechanism is usually of + the ratchet, step-by-step movement, familiar in district + messenger call-boxes.] + +Edison's curiously practical, though imaginative, mind demanded +realities to work upon, things that belong to "human nature's daily +food," and he soon harked back to telegraphy, a domain in which he +was destined to succeed, and over which he was to reign supreme as +an inventor. He did not, however, neglect chemistry, but indulged his +tastes in that direction freely, although we have no record that +this work was anything more, at that time, than the carrying out of +experiments outlined in the books. The foundations were being laid for +the remarkable chemical knowledge that later on grappled successfully +with so many knotty problems in the realm of chemistry; notably with +the incandescent lamp and the storage battery. Of one incident in his +chemical experiments he tells the following story: "I had read in a +scientific paper the method of making nitroglycerine, and was so fired +by the wonderful properties it was said to possess, that I determined +to make some of the compound. We tested what we considered a very small +quantity, but this produced such terrible and unexpected results that we +became alarmed, the fact dawning upon us that we had a very large +white elephant in our possession. At 6 A.M. I put the explosive into +a sarsaparilla bottle, tied a string to it, wrapped it in a paper, +and gently let it down into the sewer, corner of State and Washington +Streets." The associate in this was a man whom he had found endeavoring +to make electrical apparatus for sleight-of-hand performances. + +In the Boston telegraph office at that time, as perhaps at others, there +were operators studying to enter college; possibly some were already in +attendance at Harvard University. This condition was not unusual at one +time; the first electrical engineer graduated from Columbia University, +New York, followed up his studies while a night operator, and came out +brilliantly at the head of his class. Edison says of these scholars that +they paraded their knowledge rather freely, and that it was his delight +to go to the second-hand book stores on Cornhill and study up questions +which he could spring upon them when he got an occasion. With those +engaged on night duty he got midnight lunch from an old Irishman called +"the Cake Man," who appeared regularly with his wares at 12 midnight. +"The office was on the ground floor, and had been a restaurant previous +to its occupation by the Western Union Telegraph Company. It was +literally loaded with cockroaches, which lived between the wall and the +board running around the room at the floor, and which came after the +lunch. These were such a bother on my table that I pasted two strips +of tinfoil on the wall at my desk, connecting one piece to the positive +pole of the big battery supplying current to the wires and the negative +pole to the other strip. The cockroaches moving up on the wall would +pass over the strips. The moment they got their legs across both strips +there was a flash of light and the cockroaches went into gas. This +automatic electrocuting device attracted so much attention, and got half +a column in an evening paper, that the manager made me stop it." The +reader will remember that a similar plan of campaign against rats was +carried out by Edison while in the West. + +About this time Edison had a narrow escape from injury that might easily +have shortened his career, and he seems to have provoked the trouble +more or less innocently by using a little elementary chemistry. "After +being in Boston several months," he says, "working New York wire No. +1, I was requested to work the press wire, called the 'milk route,' as +there were so many towns on it taking press simultaneously. New +York office had reported great delays on the wire, due to operators +constantly interrupting, or 'breaking,' as it was called, to have words +repeated which they had failed to get; and New York claimed that Boston +was one of the worst offenders. It was a rather hard position for me, +for if I took the report without breaking, it would prove the previous +Boston operator incompetent. The results made the operator have some +hard feelings against me. He was put back on the wire, and did much +better after that. It seems that the office boy was down on this man. +One night he asked me if I could tell him how to fix a key so that it +would not 'break,' even if the circuit-breaker was open, and also so +that it could not be easily detected. I told him to jab a penful of +ink on the platinum points, as there was sugar enough to make it +sufficiently thick to hold up when the operator tried to break--the +current still going through the ink so that he could not break. + +"The next night about 1 A.M. this operator, on the press wire, while +I was standing near a House printer studying it, pulled out a glass +insulator, then used upside down as a substitute for an ink-bottle, +and threw it with great violence at me, just missing my head. It would +certainly have killed me if it had not missed. The cause of the trouble +was that this operator was doing the best he could not to break, but +being compelled to, opened his key and found he couldn't. The press +matter came right along, and he could not stop it. The office boy had +put the ink in a few minutes before, when the operator had turned his +head during a lull. He blamed me instinctively as the cause of the +trouble. Later on we became good friends. He took his meals at the same +emaciator that I did. His main object in life seemed to be acquiring +the art of throwing up wash-pitchers and catching them without breaking +them. About one-third of his salary was used up in paying for pitchers." + +One day a request reached the Western Union Telegraph office in Boston, +from the principal of a select school for young ladies, to the effect +that she would like some one to be sent up to the school to exhibit and +describe the Morse telegraph to her "children." There has always been +a warm interest in Boston in the life and work of Morse, who was born +there, at Charlestown, barely a mile from the birthplace of Franklin, +and this request for a little lecture on Morse's telegraph was quite +natural. Edison, who was always ready to earn some extra money for his +experiments, and was already known as the best-informed operator in the +office, accepted the invitation. What happened is described by Adams +as follows: "We gathered up a couple of sounders, a battery, and sonic +wire, and at the appointed time called on her to do the stunt. Her +school-room was about twenty by twenty feet, not including a small +platform. We rigged up the line between the two ends of the room, Edison +taking the stage while I was at the other end of the room. All being +in readiness, the principal was told to bring in her children. The door +opened and in came about twenty young ladies elegantly gowned, not one +of whom was under seventeen. When Edison saw them I thought he would +faint. He called me on the line and asked me to come to the stage and +explain the mysteries of the Morse system. I replied that I thought he +was in the right place, and told him to get busy with his talk on dots +and dashes. Always modest, Edison was so overcome he could hardly speak, +but he managed to say, finally, that as his friend Mr. Adams was better +equipped with cheek than he was, we would change places, and he would +do the demonstrating while I explained the whole thing. This caused the +bevy to turn to see where the lecturer was. I went on the stage, said +something, and we did some telegraphing over the line. I guess it was +satisfactory; we got the money, which was the main point to us." Edison +tells the story in a similar manner, but insists that it was he who +saved the situation. "I managed to say that I would work the apparatus, +and Mr. Adams would make the explanations. Adams was so embarrassed +that he fell over an ottoman. The girls tittered, and this increased +his embarrassment until he couldn't say a word. The situation was so +desperate that for a reason I never could explain I started in myself +and talked and explained better than I ever did before or since. I can +talk to two or three persons; but when there are more they radiate some +unknown form of influence which paralyzes my vocal cords. However, I got +out of this scrape, and many times afterward when I chanced with other +operators to meet some of the young ladies on their way home from +school, they would smile and nod, much to the mystification of the +operators, who were ignorant of this episode." + +Another amusing story of this period of impecuniosity and financial +strain is told thus by Edison: "My friend Adams was working in the +Franklin Telegraph Company, which competed with the Western Union. Adams +was laid off, and as his financial resources had reached absolute zero +centigrade, I undertook to let him sleep in my hall bedroom. I generally +had hall bedrooms, because they were cheap and I needed money to +buy apparatus. I also had the pleasure of his genial company at the +boarding-house about a mile distant, but at the sacrifice of some +apparatus. One morning, as we were hastening to breakfast, we came +into Tremont Row, and saw a large crowd in front of two small 'gents' +furnishing goods stores. We stopped to ascertain the cause of the +excitement. One store put up a paper sign in the display window which +said: 'Three-hundred pairs of stockings received this day, five cents a +pair--no connection with the store next door.' Presently the other store +put up a sign stating they had received three hundred pairs, price three +cents per pair, and stated that they had no connection with the store +next door. Nobody went in. The crowd kept increasing. Finally, when the +price had reached three pairs for one cent, Adams said to me: 'I can't +stand this any longer; give me a cent.' I gave him a nickel, and he +elbowed his way in; and throwing the money on the counter, the store +being filled with women clerks, he said: 'Give me three pairs.' The +crowd was breathless, and the girl took down a box and drew out three +pairs of baby socks. 'Oh!' said Adams, 'I want men's size.' 'Well, sir, +we do not permit one to pick sizes for that amount of money.' And the +crowd roared; and this broke up the sales." + +It has generally been supposed that Edison did not take up work on the +stock ticker until after his arrival a little later in New York; but he +says: "After the vote-recorder I invented a stock ticker, and started a +ticker service in Boston; had thirty or forty subscribers, and operated +from a room over the Gold Exchange. This was about a year after Callahan +started in New York." To say the least, this evidenced great ability +and enterprise on the part of the youth. The dealings in gold during the +Civil War and after its close had brought gold indicators into use, and +these had soon been followed by "stock tickers," the first of which +was introduced in New York in 1867. The success of this new but still +primitively crude class of apparatus was immediate. Four manufacturers +were soon busy trying to keep pace with the demands for it from brokers; +and the Gold & Stock Telegraph Company formed to exploit the system soon +increased its capital from $200,000 to $300,000, paying 12 per cent. +dividends on the latter amount. Within its first year the capital was +again increased to $1,000,000, and dividends of 10 per cent. were paid +easily on that sum also. It is needless to say that such facts became +quickly known among the operators, from whose ranks, of course, the new +employees were enlisted; and it was a common ambition among the more +ingenious to produce a new ticker. From the beginning, each phase +of electrical development--indeed, each step in mechanics--has been +accompanied by the well-known phenomenon of invention; namely, the +attempt of the many to perfect and refine and even re-invent where one +or two daring spirits have led the way. The figures of capitalization +and profit just mentioned were relatively much larger in the sixties +than they are to-day; and to impressionable young operators they spelled +illimitable wealth. Edison was, how ever, about the only one in Boston +of whom history makes record as achieving any tangible result in this +new art; and he soon longed for the larger telegraphic opportunity of +New York. His friend, Milt Adams, went West with quenchless zest for +that kind of roving life and aimless adventure of which the serious +minded Edison had already had more than enough. Realizing that to New +York he must look for further support in his efforts, Edison, deep in +debt for his embryonic inventions, but with high hope and courage, +now made the next momentous step in his career. He was far riper in +experience and practice of his art than any other telegrapher of his +age, and had acquired, moreover, no little knowledge of the practical +business of life. Note has been made above of his invention of a stock +ticker in Boston, and of his establishing a stock-quotation circuit. +This was by no means all, and as a fitting close to this chapter he may +be quoted as to some other work and its perils in experimentation: +"I also engaged in putting up private lines, upon which I used +an alphabetical dial instrument for telegraphing between business +establishments, a forerunner of modern telephony. This instrument +was very simple and practical, and any one could work it after a few +minutes' explanation. I had these instruments made at Mr. Hamblet's, who +had a little shop where he was engaged in experimenting with electric +clocks. Mr. Hamblet was the father and introducer in after years of the +Western Union Telegraph system of time distribution. My laboratory was +the headquarters for the men, and also of tools and supplies for those +private lines. They were put up cheaply, as I used the roofs of houses, +just as the Western Union did. It never occurred to me to ask permission +from the owners; all we did was to go to the store, etc., say we +were telegraph men, and wanted to go up to the wires on the roof; and +permission was always granted. + +"In this laboratory I had a large induction coil which I had borrowed to +make some experiments with. One day I got hold of both electrodes of +the coil, and it clinched my hand on them so that I couldn't let go. The +battery was on a shelf. The only way I could get free was to back off +and pull the coil, so that the battery wires would pull the cells off +the shelf and thus break the circuit. I shut my eyes and pulled, but the +nitric acid splashed all over my face and ran down my back. I rushed to +a sink, which was only half big enough, and got in as well as I could +and wiggled around for several minutes to permit the water to dilute the +acid and stop the pain. My face and back were streaked with yellow; the +skin was thoroughly oxidized. I did not go on the street by daylight for +two weeks, as the appearance of my face was dreadful. The skin, however, +peeled off, and new skin replaced it without any damage." + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE STOCK TICKER + + +"THE letters and figures used in the language of the tape," said a +well-known Boston stock speculator, "are very few, but they spell ruin +in ninety-nine million ways." It is not to be inferred, however, that +the modern stock ticker has anything to do with the making or losing +of fortunes. There were regular daily stock-market reports in London +newspapers in 1825, and New York soon followed the example. As far back +as 1692, Houghton issued in London a weekly review of financial and +commercial transactions, upon which Macaulay based the lively narrative +of stock speculation in the seventeenth century, given in his famous +history. That which the ubiquitous stock ticker has done is to give +instantaneity to the news of what the stock market is doing, so that at +every minute, thousands of miles apart, brokers, investors, and gamblers +may learn the exact conditions. The existence of such facilities is to +be admired rather than deplored. News is vital to Wall Street, and there +is no living man on whom the doings in Wall Street are without effect. +The financial history of the United States and of the world, as shown +by the prices of government bonds and general securities, has been told +daily for forty years on these narrow strips of paper tape, of which +thousands of miles are run yearly through the "tickers" of New York +alone. It is true that the record of the chattering little machine, made +in cabalistic abbreviations on the tape, can drive a man suddenly to the +very verge of insanity with joy or despair; but if there be blame for +that, it attaches to the American spirit of speculation and not to +the ingenious mechanism which reads and registers the beating of the +financial pulse. + +Edison came first to New York in 1868, with his early stock printer, +which he tried unsuccessfully to sell. He went back to Boston, and quite +undismayed got up a duplex telegraph. "Toward the end of my stay in +Boston," he says, "I obtained a loan of money, amounting to $800, to +build a peculiar kind of duplex telegraph for sending two messages over +a single wire simultaneously. The apparatus was built, and I left +the Western Union employ and went to Rochester, New York, to test the +apparatus on the lines of the Atlantic & Pacific Telegraph between that +city and New York. But the assistant at the other end could not be made +to understand anything, notwithstanding I had written out a very minute +description of just what to do. After trying for a week I gave it up and +returned to New York with but a few cents in my pocket." Thus he who +has never speculated in a stock in his life was destined to make the +beginnings of his own fortune by providing for others the apparatus +that should bring to the eye, all over a great city, the momentary +fluctuations of stocks and bonds. No one could have been in direr +poverty than he when the steamboat landed him in New York in 1869. He +was in debt, and his few belongings in books and instruments had to +be left behind. He was not far from starving. Mr. W. S. Mallory, an +associate of many years, quotes directly from him on this point: "Some +years ago we had a business negotiation in New York which made it +necessary for Mr. Edison and me to visit the city five or six times +within a comparatively short period. It was our custom to leave Orange +about 11 A.M., and on arrival in New York to get our lunch before +keeping the appointments, which were usually made for two o'clock. +Several of these lunches were had at Delmonico's, Sherry's, and other +places of similar character, but one day, while en route, Mr. Edison +said: 'I have been to lunch with you several times; now to-day I am +going to take you to lunch with me, and give you the finest lunch you +ever had.' When we arrived in Hoboken, we took the downtown ferry across +the Hudson, and when we arrived on the Manhattan side Mr. Edison led the +way to Smith & McNell's, opposite Washington Market, and well known to +old New Yorkers. We went inside and as soon as the waiter appeared +Mr. Edison ordered apple dumplings and a cup of coffee for himself. He +consumed his share of the lunch with the greatest possible pleasure. +Then, as soon as he had finished, he went to the cigar counter and +purchased cigars. As we walked to keep the appointment he gave me the +following reminiscence: When he left Boston and decided to come to New +York he had only money enough for the trip. After leaving the boat his +first thought was of breakfast; but he was without money to obtain it. +However, in passing a wholesale tea-house he saw a man tasting tea, so +he went in and asked the 'taster' if he might have some of the tea. This +the man gave him, and thus he obtained his first breakfast in New York. +He knew a telegraph operator here, and on him he depended for a loan to +tide him over until such time as he should secure a position. During the +day he succeeded in locating this operator, but found that he also was +out of a job, and that the best he could do was to loan him one dollar, +which he did. This small sum of money represented both food and lodging +until such time as work could be obtained. Edison said that as the +result of the time consumed and the exercise in walking while he found +his friend, he was extremely hungry, and that he gave most serious +consideration as to what he should buy in the way of food, and what +particular kind of food would be most satisfying and filling. The result +was that at Smith & McNell's he decided on apple dumplings and a cup +of coffee, than which he never ate anything more appetizing. It was not +long before he was at work and was able to live in a normal manner." + +During the Civil War, with its enormous increase in the national debt +and the volume of paper money, gold had gone to a high premium; and, as +ever, by its fluctuations in price the value of all other commodities +was determined. This led to the creation of a "Gold Room" in Wall +Street, where the precious metal could be dealt in; while for dealings +in stocks there also existed the "Regular Board," the "Open Board," and +the "Long Room." Devoted to one, but the leading object of speculation, +the "Gold Room" was the very focus of all the financial and gambling +activity of the time, and its quotations governed trade and commerce. +At first notations in chalk on a blackboard sufficed, but seeing their +inadequacy, Dr. S. S. Laws, vice-president and actual presiding officer +of the Gold Exchange, devised and introduced what was popularly known +as the "gold indicator." This exhibited merely the prevailing price of +gold; but as its quotations changed from instant to instant, it was in +a most literal sense "the cynosure of neighboring eyes." One indicator +looked upon the Gold Room; the other opened toward the street. Within +the exchange the face could easily be seen high up on the west wall of +the room, and the machine was operated by Mr. Mersereau, the official +registrar of the Gold Board. + +Doctor Laws, who afterward became President of the State University of +Missouri, was an inventor of unusual ability and attainments. In +his early youth he had earned his livelihood in a tool factory; and, +apparently with his savings, he went to Princeton, where he studied +electricity under no less a teacher than the famous Joseph Henry. At the +outbreak of the war in 1861 he was president of one of the Presbyterian +synodical colleges in the South, whose buildings passed into the hands +of the Government. Going to Europe, he returned to New York in 1863, +and, becoming interested with a relative in financial matters, his +connection with the Gold Exchange soon followed, when it was organized. +The indicating mechanism he now devised was electrical, controlled at +central by two circuit-closing keys, and was a prototype of all the +later and modern step-by-step printing telegraphs, upon which the +distribution of financial news depends. The "fraction" drum of the +indicator could be driven in either direction, known as the advance and +retrograde movements, and was divided and marked in eighths. It geared +into a "unit" drum, just as do speed-indicators and cyclometers. Four +electrical pulsations were required to move the drum the distance +between the fractions. The general operation was simple, and in +normally active times the mechanism and the registrar were equal to all +emergencies. But it is obvious that the record had to be carried away +to the brokers' offices and other places by messengers; and the delay, +confusion, and mistakes soon suggested to Doctor Laws the desirability +of having a number of indicators at such scattered points, operated by a +master transmitter, and dispensing with the regiments of noisy boys. +He secured this privilege of distribution, and, resigning from the +exchange, devoted his exclusive attention to the "Gold Reporting +Telegraph," which he patented, and for which, at the end of 1866, he had +secured fifty subscribers. His indicators were small oblong boxes, in +the front of which was a long slot, allowing the dials as they travelled +past, inside, to show the numerals constituting the quotation; the dials +or wheels being arranged in a row horizontally, overlapping each other, +as in modern fare registers which are now seen on most trolley cars. It +was not long before there were three hundred subscribers; but the very +success of this device brought competition and improvement. Mr. E. A. +Callahan, an ingenious printing-telegraph operator, saw that there +were unexhausted possibilities in the idea, and his foresight and +inventiveness made him the father of the "ticker," in connection with +which he was thus, like Laws, one of the first to grasp and exploit the +underlying principle of the "central station" as a universal source +of supply. The genesis of his invention Mr. Callahan has told in an +interesting way: "In 1867, on the site of the present Mills Building on +Broad Street, opposite the Stock Exchange of today, was an old building +which had been cut up to subserve the necessities of its occupants, all +engaged in dealing in gold and stocks. It had one main entrance from the +street to a hallway, from which entrance to the offices of two prominent +broker firms was obtained. Each firm had its own army of boys, numbering +from twelve to fifteen, whose duties were to ascertain the latest +quotations from the different exchanges. Each boy devoted his attention +to some particularly active stock. Pushing each other to get into these +narrow quarters, yelling out the prices at the door, and pushing back +for later ones, the hustle made this doorway to me a most undesirable +refuge from an April shower. I was simply whirled into the street. +I naturally thought that much of this noise and confusion might be +dispensed with, and that the prices might be furnished through some +system of telegraphy which would not require the employment of skilled +operators. The conception of the stock ticker dates from this incident." + +Mr. Callahan's first idea was to distribute gold quotations, and to +this end he devised an "indicator." It consisted of two dials mounted +separately, each revolved by an electromagnet, so that the desired +figures were brought to an aperture in the case enclosing the apparatus, +as in the Laws system. Each shaft with its dial was provided with two +ratchet wheels, one the reverse of the other. One was used in connection +with the propelling lever, which was provided with a pawl to fit into +the teeth of the reversed ratchet wheel on its forward movement. It was +thus made impossible for either dial to go by momentum beyond its limit. +Learning that Doctor Laws, with the skilful aid of F. L. Pope, was +already active in the same direction, Mr. Callahan, with ready wit, +transformed his indicator into a "ticker" that would make a printed +record. The name of the "ticker" came through the casual remark of +an observer to whom the noise was the most striking feature of the +mechanism. Mr. Callahan removed the two dials, and, substituting type +wheels, turned the movements face to face, so that each type wheel +could imprint its characters upon a paper tape in two lines. Three wires +stranded together ran from the central office to each instrument. Of +these one furnished the current for the alphabet wheel, one for the +figure wheel, and one for the mechanism that took care of the inking and +printing on the tape. Callahan made the further innovation of insulating +his circuit wires, although the cost was then forty times as great as +that of bare wire. It will be understood that electromagnets were the +ticker's actuating agency. The ticker apparatus was placed under a +neat glass shade and mounted on a shelf. Twenty-five instruments were +energized from one circuit, and the quotations were supplied from a +"central" at 18 New Street. The Gold & Stock Telegraph Company was +promptly organized to supply to brokers the system, which was very +rapidly adopted throughout the financial district of New York, at the +southern tip of Manhattan Island. Quotations were transmitted by the +Morse telegraph from the floor of the Stock Exchange to the "central," +and thence distributed to the subscribers. Success with the "stock" news +system was instantaneous. + +It was at this juncture that Edison reached New York, and according to +his own statement found shelter at night in the battery-room of the Gold +Indicator Company, having meantime applied for a position as operator +with the Western Union. He had to wait a few days, and during this time +he seized the opportunity to study the indicators and the complicated +general transmitter in the office, controlled from the keyboard of the +operator on the floor of the Gold Exchange. What happened next has been +the basis of many inaccurate stories, but is dramatic enough as told +in Mr. Edison's own version: "On the third day of my arrival and while +sitting in the office, the complicated general instrument for sending +on all the lines, and which made a very great noise, suddenly came to +a stop with a crash. Within two minutes over three hundred boys--a boy +from every broker in the street--rushed up-stairs and crowded the long +aisle and office, that hardly had room for one hundred, all yelling that +such and such a broker's wire was out of order and to fix it at once. +It was pandemonium, and the man in charge became so excited that he lost +control of all the knowledge he ever had. I went to the indicator, and, +having studied it thoroughly, knew where the trouble ought to be, and +found it. One of the innumerable contact springs had broken off and had +fallen down between the two gear wheels and stopped the instrument; but +it was not very noticeable. As I went out to tell the man in charge +what the matter was, Doctor Laws appeared on the scene, the most excited +person I had seen. He demanded of the man the cause of the trouble, but +the man was speechless. I ventured to say that I knew what the trouble +was, and he said, 'Fix it! Fix it! Be quick!' I removed the spring and +set the contact wheels at zero; and the line, battery, and inspecting +men all scattered through the financial district to set the instruments. +In about two hours things were working again. Doctor Laws came in to ask +my name and what I was doing. I told him, and he asked me to come to his +private office the following day. His office was filled with stacks of +books all relating to metaphysics and kindred matters. He asked me a +great many questions about the instruments and his system, and I showed +him how he could simplify things generally. He then requested that I +should call next day. On arrival, he stated at once that he had decided +to put me in charge of the whole plant, and that my salary would be $300 +per month! This was such a violent jump from anything I had ever seen +before, that it rather paralyzed me for a while, I thought it was too +much to be lasting, but I determined to try and live up to that salary +if twenty hours a day of hard work would do it. I kept this position, +made many improvements, devised several stock tickers, until the Gold & +Stock Telegraph Company consolidated with the Gold Indicator Company." +Certainly few changes in fortune have been more sudden and dramatic in +any notable career than this which thus placed an ill-clad, unkempt, +half-starved, eager lad in a position of such responsibility in days +when the fluctuations in the price of gold at every instant meant +fortune or ruin to thousands. + +Edison, barely twenty-one years old, was a keen observer of the stirring +events around him. "Wall Street" is at any time an interesting study, +but it was never at a more agitated and sensational period of its +history than at this time. Edison's arrival in New York coincided +with an active speculation in gold which may, indeed, be said to have +provided him with occupation; and was soon followed by the attempt +of Mr. Jay Gould and his associates to corner the gold market, +precipitating the panic of Black Friday, September 24, 1869. Securing +its import duties in the precious metal and thus assisting to create an +artificial stringency in the gold market, the Government had made it +a practice to relieve the situation by selling a million of gold each +month. The metal was thus restored to circulation. In some manner, +President Grant was persuaded that general conditions and the movement +of the crops would be helped if the sale of gold were suspended for +a time; and, this put into effect, he went to visit an old friend in +Pennsylvania remote from railroads and telegraphs. The Gould pool had +acquired control of $10,000,000 in gold, and drove the price upward +rapidly from 144 toward their goal of 200. On Black Friday they +purchased another $28,000,000 at 160, and still the price went up. The +financial and commercial interests of the country were in panic; but +the pool persevered in its effort to corner gold, with a profit of many +millions contingent on success. Yielding to frantic requests, President +Grant, who returned to Washington, caused Secretary Boutwell, of the +Treasury, to throw $4,000,000 of gold into the market. Relief was +instantaneous, the corner was broken, but the harm had been done. +Edison's remarks shed a vivid side-light on this extraordinary episode: +"On Black Friday," he says, "we had a very exciting time with the +indicators. The Gould and Fisk crowd had cornered gold, and had run the +quotations up faster than the indicator could follow. The indicator was +composed of several wheels; on the circumference of each wheel were the +numerals; and one wheel had fractions. It worked in the same way as an +ordinary counter; one wheel made ten revolutions, and at the tenth +it advanced the adjacent wheel; and this in its turn having gone ten +revolutions, advanced the next wheel, and so on. On the morning of +Black Friday the indicator was quoting 150 premium, whereas the bids by +Gould's agents in the Gold Room were 165 for five millions or any part. +We had a paper-weight at the transmitter (to speed it up), and by one +o'clock reached the right quotation. The excitement was prodigious. New +Street, as well as Broad Street, was jammed with excited people. I sat +on the top of the Western Union telegraph booth to watch the surging, +crazy crowd. One man came to the booth, grabbed a pencil, and attempted +to write a message to Boston. The first stroke went clear off the blank; +he was so excited that he had the operator write the message for him. +Amid great excitement Speyer, the banker, went crazy and it took five +men to hold him; and everybody lost their head. The Western Union +operator came to me and said: 'Shake, Edison, we are O. K. We haven't +got a cent.' I felt very happy because we were poor. These occasions are +very enjoyable to a poor man; but they occur rarely." + +There is a calm sense of detachment about this description that has +been possessed by the narrator even in the most anxious moments of his +career. He was determined to see all that could be seen, and, quitting +his perch on the telegraph booth, sought the more secluded headquarters +of the pool forces. "A friend of mine was an operator who worked in the +office of Belden & Company, 60 Broadway, which were headquarters for +Fisk. Mr. Gould was up-town in the Erie offices in the Grand Opera +House. The firm on Broad Street, Smith, Gould & Martin, was the other +branch. All were connected with wires. Gould seemed to be in charge, +Fisk being the executive down-town. Fisk wore a velvet corduroy coat +and a very peculiar vest. He was very chipper, and seemed to be +light-hearted and happy. Sitting around the room were about a dozen +fine-looking men. All had the complexion of cadavers. There was a basket +of champagne. Hundreds of boys were rushing in paying checks, all checks +being payable to Belden & Company. When James Brown, of Brown Brothers +& Company, broke the corner by selling five million gold, all payments +were repudiated by Smith, Gould & Martin; but they continued to receive +checks at Belden & Company's for some time, until the Street got wind of +the game. There was some kind of conspiracy with the Government people +which I could not make out, but I heard messages that opened my eyes as +to the ramifications of Wall Street. Gold fell to 132, and it took us +all night to get the indicator back to that quotation. All night long +the streets were full of people. Every broker's office was brilliantly +lighted all night, and all hands were at work. The clearing-house for +gold had been swamped, and all was mixed up. No one knew if he was +bankrupt or not." + +Edison in those days rather liked the modest coffee-shops, and mentions +visiting one. "When on the New York No. 1 wire, that I worked in Boston, +there was an operator named Jerry Borst at the other end. He was a +first-class receiver and rapid sender. We made up a scheme to hold this +wire, so he changed one letter of the alphabet and I soon got used +to it; and finally we changed three letters. If any operator tried to +receive from Borst, he couldn't do it, so Borst and I always worked +together. Borst did less talking than any operator I ever knew. Never +having seen him, I went while in New York to call upon him. I did all +the talking. He would listen, stroke his beard, and say nothing. In the +evening I went over to an all-night lunch-house in Printing House Square +in a basement--Oliver's. Night editors, including Horace Greeley, and +Henry Raymond, of the New York Times, took their midnight lunch there. +When I went with Borst and another operator, they pointed out two or +three men who were then celebrated in the newspaper world. The night was +intensely hot and close. After getting our lunch and upon reaching the +sidewalk, Borst opened his mouth, and said: 'That's a great place; a +plate of cakes, a cup of coffee, and a Russian bath, for ten cents.' +This was about fifty per cent. of his conversation for two days." + +The work of Edison on the gold-indicator had thrown him into close +relationship with Mr. Franklin L. Pope, the young telegraph engineer +then associated with Doctor Laws, and afterward a distinguished expert +and technical writer, who became President of the American Institute of +Electrical Engineers in 1886. Each recognized the special ability of +the other, and barely a week after the famous events of Black Friday the +announcement of their partnership appeared in the Telegrapher of +October 1, 1869. This was the first "professional card," if it may be so +described, ever issued in America by a firm of electrical engineers, and +is here reproduced. It is probable that the advertisement, one of the +largest in the Telegrapher, and appearing frequently, was not paid for +at full rates, as the publisher, Mr. J. N. Ashley, became a partner in +the firm, and not altogether a "sleeping one" when it came to a division +of profits, which at times were considerable. In order to be nearer his +new friend Edison boarded with Pope at Elizabeth, New Jersey, for some +time, living "the strenuous life" in the performance of his duties. +Associated with Pope and Ashley, he followed up his work on telegraph +printers with marked success. "While with them I devised a printer +to print gold quotations instead of indicating them. The lines were +started, and the whole was sold out to the Gold & Stock Telegraph +Company. My experimenting was all done in the small shop of a Doctor +Bradley, located near the station of the Pennsylvania Railroad in Jersey +City. Every night I left for Elizabeth on the 1 A.M. train, then walked +half a mile to Mr. Pope's house and up at 6 A.M. for breakfast to catch +the 7 A.M. train. This continued all winter, and many were the occasions +when I was nearly frozen in the Elizabeth walk." This Doctor Bradley +appears to have been the first in this country to make electrical +measurements of precision with the galvanometer, but was an old-school +experimenter who would work for years on an instrument without +commercial value. He was also extremely irascible, and when on one +occasion the connecting wire would not come out of one of the binding +posts of a new and costly galvanometer, he jerked the instrument to +the floor and then jumped on it. He must have been, however, a man of +originality, as evidenced by his attempt to age whiskey by electricity, +an attempt that has often since been made. "The hobby he had at the +time I was there," says Edison, "was the aging of raw whiskey by passing +strong electric currents through it. He had arranged twenty jars with +platinum electrodes held in place by hard rubber. When all was ready, he +filled the cells with whiskey, connected the battery, locked the door of +the small room in which they were placed, and gave positive orders that +no one should enter. He then disappeared for three days. On the second +day we noticed a terrible smell in the shop, as if from some dead +animal. The next day the doctor arrived and, noticing the smell, asked +what was dead. We all thought something had got into his whiskey-room +and died. He opened it and was nearly overcome. The hard rubber he used +was, of course, full of sulphur, and this being attacked by the nascent +hydrogen, had produced sulphuretted hydrogen gas in torrents, displacing +all of the air in the room. Sulphuretted hydrogen is, as is well known, +the gas given off by rotten eggs." + +Another glimpse of this period of development is afforded by an +interesting article on the stock-reporting telegraph in the Electrical +World of March 4, 1899, by Mr. Ralph W. Pope, the well-known Secretary +of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, who had as a youth an +active and intimate connection with that branch of electrical industry. +In the course of his article he mentions the curious fact that Doctor +Laws at first, in receiving quotations from the Exchanges, was so +distrustful of the Morse system that he installed long lines of +speaking-tube as a more satisfactory and safe device than a telegraph +wire. As to the relations of that time Mr. Pope remarks: "The rivalry +between the two concerns resulted in consolidation, Doctor Laws's +enterprise being absorbed by the Gold & Stock Telegraph Company, while +the Laws stock printer was relegated to the scrap-heap and the museum. +Competition in the field did not, however, cease. Messrs. Pope and +Edison invented a one-wire printer, and started a system of 'gold +printers' devoted to the recording of gold quotations and sterling +exchange only. It was intended more especially for importers and +exchange brokers, and was furnished at a lower price than the indicator +service.... The building and equipment of private telegraph lines was +also entered upon. This business was also subsequently absorbed by the +Gold & Stock Telegraph Company, which was probably at this time at the +height of its prosperity. The financial organization of the company was +peculiar and worthy of attention. Each subscriber for a machine paid +in $100 for the privilege of securing an instrument. For the service +he paid $25 weekly. In case he retired or failed, he could transfer +his 'right,' and employees were constantly on the alert for purchasable +rights, which could be disposed of at a profit. It was occasionally +worth the profit to convince a man that he did not actually own the +machine which had been placed in his office.... The Western Union +Telegraph Company secured a majority of its stock, and Gen. Marshall +Lefferts was elected president. A private-line department was +established, and the business taken over from Pope, Edison, and Ashley +was rapidly enlarged." + +At this juncture General Lefferts, as President of the Gold & Stock +Telegraph Company, requested Edison to go to work on improving the stock +ticker, furnishing the money; and the well-known "Universal" ticker, in +wide-spread use in its day, was one result. Mr. Edison gives a graphic +picture of the startling effect on his fortunes: "I made a great many +inventions; one was the special ticker used for many years outside of +New York in the large cities. This was made exceedingly simple, as +they did not have the experts we had in New York to handle anything +complicated. The same ticker was used on the London Stock Exchange. +After I had made a great number of inventions and obtained patents, the +General seemed anxious that the matter should be closed up. One day I +exhibited and worked a successful device whereby if a ticker should get +out of unison in a broker's office and commence to print wild figures, +it could be brought to unison from the central station, which saved the +labor of many men and much trouble to the broker. He called me into his +office, and said: 'Now, young man, I want to close up the matter of your +inventions. How much do you think you should receive?' I had made up +my mind that, taking into consideration the time and killing pace I +was working at, I should be entitled to $5000, but could get along with +$3000. When the psychological moment arrived, I hadn't the nerve to +name such a large sum, so I said: 'Well, General, suppose you make me an +offer.' Then he said: 'How would $40,000 strike you?' This caused me to +come as near fainting as I ever got. I was afraid he would hear my heart +beat. I managed to say that I thought it was fair. 'All right, I will +have a contract drawn; come around in three days and sign it, and I +will give you the money.' I arrived on time, but had been doing some +considerable thinking on the subject. The sum seemed to be very large +for the amount of work, for at that time I determined the value by the +time and trouble, and not by what the invention was worth to others. I +thought there was something unreal about it. However, the contract was +handed to me. I signed without reading it." Edison was then handed the +first check he had ever received, one for $40,000 drawn on the Bank of +New York, at the corner of William and Wall Streets. On going to the +bank and passing in the check at the wicket of the paying teller, +some brief remarks were made to him, which in his deafness he did not +understand. The check was handed back to him, and Edison, fancying for a +moment that in some way he had been cheated, went outside "to the +large steps to let the cold sweat evaporate." He then went back to the +General, who, with his secretary, had a good laugh over the matter, +told him the check must be endorsed, and sent with him a young man to +identify him. The ceremony of identification performed with the paying +teller, who was quite merry over the incident, Edison was given the +amount in bundles of small bills "until there certainly seemed to be one +cubic foot." Unaware that he was the victim of a practical joke, Edison +proceeded gravely to stow away the money in his overcoat pockets and all +his other pockets. He then went to Newark and sat up all night with +the money for fear it might be stolen. Once more he sought help next +morning, when the General laughed heartily, and, telling the clerk that +the joke must not be carried any further, enabled him to deposit the +currency in the bank and open an account. + +Thus in an inconceivably brief time had Edison passed from poverty to +independence; made a deep impression as to his originality and ability +on important people, and brought out valuable inventions; lifting +himself at one bound out of the ruck of mediocrity, and away from the +deadening drudgery of the key. Best of all he was enterprising, one of +the leaders and pioneers for whom the world is always looking; and, to +use his own criticism of himself, he had "too sanguine a temperament +to keep money in solitary confinement." With quiet self-possession he +seized his opportunity, began to buy machinery, rented a shop and got +work for it. Moving quickly into a larger shop, Nos. 10 and 12 Ward +Street, Newark, New Jersey, he secured large orders from General +Lefferts to build stock tickers, and employed fifty men. As business +increased he put on a night force, and was his own foreman on both +shifts. Half an hour of sleep three or four times in the twenty-four +hours was all he needed in those days, when one invention succeeded +another with dazzling rapidity, and when he worked with the fierce, +eruptive energy of a great volcano, throwing out new ideas incessantly +with spectacular effect on the arts to which they related. It has always +been a theory with Edison that we sleep altogether too much; but on +the other hand he never, until long past fifty, knew or practiced the +slightest moderation in work or in the use of strong coffee and black +cigars. He has, moreover, while of tender and kindly disposition, never +hesitated to use men up as freely as a Napoleon or Grant; seeing only +the goal of a complete invention or perfected device, to attain which +all else must become subsidiary. He gives a graphic picture of his first +methods as a manufacturer: "Nearly all my men were on piece work, and +I allowed them to make good wages, and never cut until the pay became +absurdly high as they got more expert. I kept no books. I had two hooks. +All the bills and accounts I owed I jabbed on one hook; and memoranda of +all owed to myself I put on the other. When some of the bills fell due, +and I couldn't deliver tickers to get a supply of money, I gave a note. +When the notes were due, a messenger came around from the bank with the +note and a protest pinned to it for $1.25. Then I would go to New York +and get an advance, or pay the note if I had the money. This method of +giving notes for my accounts and having all notes protested I kept up +over two years, yet my credit was fine. Every store I traded with was +always glad to furnish goods, perhaps in amazed admiration of my system +of doing business, which was certainly new." After a while Edison got +a bookkeeper, whose vagaries made him look back with regret on the +earlier, primitive method. "The first three months I had him go over +the books to find out how much we had made. He reported $3000. I gave +a supper to some of my men to celebrate this, only to be told two days +afterward that he had made a mistake, and that we had lost $500; and +then a few days after that he came to me again and said he was all +mixed up, and now found that we had made over $7000." Edison changed +bookkeepers, but never thereafter counted anything real profit until he +had paid all his debts and had the profits in the bank. + +The factory work at this time related chiefly to stock tickers, +principally the "Universal," of which at one time twelve hundred were +in use. Edison's connection with this particular device was very close +while it lasted. In a review of the ticker art, Mr. Callahan stated, +with rather grudging praise, that "a ticker at the present time (1901) +would be considered as impracticable and unsalable if it were not +provided with a unison device," and he goes on to remark: "The first +unison on stock tickers was one used on the Laws printer. [2] It was a +crude and unsatisfactory piece of mechanism and necessitated doubling +of the battery in order to bring it into action. It was short-lived. The +Edison unison comprised a lever with a free end travelling in a spiral +or worm on the type-wheel shaft until it met a pin at the end of the +worm, thus obstructing the shaft and leaving the type-wheels at the +zero-point until released by the printing lever. This device is too +well known to require a further description. It is not applicable to any +instrument using two independently moving type-wheels; but on nearly if +not all other instruments will be found in use." The stock ticker has +enjoyed the devotion of many brilliant inventors--G. M. Phelps, H. Van +Hoevenbergh, A. A. Knudson, G. B. Scott, S. D. Field, John Burry--and +remains in extensive use as an appliance for which no substitute or +competitor has been found. In New York the two great stock exchanges +have deemed it necessary to own and operate a stock-ticker service for +the sole benefit of their members; and down to the present moment the +process of improvement has gone on, impelled by the increasing volume of +business to be reported. It is significant of Edison's work, now dimmed +and overlaid by later advances, that at the very outset he recognized +the vital importance of interchangeability in the construction of this +delicate and sensitive apparatus. But the difficulties of these early +days were almost insurmountable. Mr. R. W. Pope says of the "Universal" +machines that they were simple and substantial and generally +satisfactory, but adds: "These instruments were supposed to have been +made with interchangeable parts; but as a matter of fact the instances +in which these parts would fit were very few. The instruction-book +prepared for the use of inspectors stated that 'The parts should not be +tinkered nor bent, as they are accurately made and interchangeable.' The +difficulties encountered in fitting them properly doubtless gave rise +to a story that Mr. Edison had stated that there were three degrees of +interchangeability. This was interpreted to mean: First, the parts will +fit; second, they will almost fit; third, they do not fit, and can't be +made to fit." + + [Footnote 2: This I invented as well.--T. A. E.] + +This early shop affords an illustration of the manner in which Edison +has made a deep impression on the personnel of the electrical arts. At +a single bench there worked three men since rich or prominent. One +was Sigmund Bergmann, for a time partner with Edison in his lighting +developments in the United States, and now head and principal owner +of electrical works in Berlin employing ten thousand men. The next +man adjacent was John Kruesi, afterward engineer of the great General +Electric Works at Schenectady. A third was Schuckert, who left the bench +to settle up his father's little estate at Nuremberg, stayed there and +founded electrical factories, which became the third largest in Germany, +their proprietor dying very wealthy. "I gave them a good training as +to working hours and hustling," says their quondam master; and this is +equally true as applied to many scores of others working in companies +bearing the Edison name or organized under Edison patents. It is +curiously significant in this connection that of the twenty-one +presidents of the national society, the American Institute of Electrical +Engineers, founded in 1884, eight have been intimately associated with +Edison--namely, Norvin Green and F. L. Pope, as business colleagues of +the days of which we now write; while Messrs. Frank J. Sprague, T. C. +Martin, A. E. Kennelly, S. S. Wheeler, John W. Lieb, Jr., and Louis A. +Ferguson have all been at one time or another in the Edison employ. The +remark was once made that if a famous American teacher sat at one end +of a log and a student at the other end, the elements of a successful +university were present. It is equally true that in Edison and the many +men who have graduated from his stern school of endeavor, America has +had its foremost seat of electrical engineering. + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +AUTOMATIC, DUPLEX, AND QUADRUPLEX TELEGRAPHY + +WORK of various kinds poured in upon the young manufacturer, busy also +with his own schemes and inventions, which soon began to follow so many +distinct lines of inquiry that it ceases to be easy or necessary for the +historian to treat them all in chronological sequence. Some notion of +his ceaseless activity may be formed from the fact that he started no +fewer than three shops in Newark during 1870-71, and while directing +these was also engaged by the men who controlled the Automatic Telegraph +Company of New York, which had a circuit to Washington, to help it out +of its difficulties. "Soon after starting the large shop (10 and 12 Ward +Street, Newark), I rented shop-room to the inventor of a new rifle. +I think it was the Berdan. In any event, it was a rifle which was +subsequently adopted by the British Army. The inventor employed a +tool-maker who was the finest and best tool-maker I had ever seen. I +noticed that he worked pretty near the whole of the twenty-four hours. +This kind of application I was looking for. He was getting $21.50 per +week, and was also paid for overtime. I asked him if he could run the +shop. 'I don't know; try me!' he said. 'All right, I will give you $60 +per week to run both shifts.' He went at it. His executive ability +was greater than that of any other man I have yet seen. His memory was +prodigious, conversation laconic, and movements rapid. He doubled +the production inside three months, without materially increasing the +pay-roll, by increasing the cutting speeds of tools, and by the use of +various devices. When in need of rest he would lie down on a work-bench, +sleep twenty or thirty minutes, and wake up fresh. As this was just what +I could do, I naturally conceived a great pride in having such a man in +charge of my work. But almost everything has trouble connected with it. +He disappeared one day, and although I sent men everywhere that it was +likely he could be found, he was not discovered. After two weeks he came +into the factory in a terrible condition as to clothes and face. He sat +down and, turning to me, said: 'Edison, it's no use, this is the third +time; I can't stand prosperity. Put my salary back and give me a job.' I +was very sorry to learn that it was whiskey that spoiled such a career. +I gave him an inferior job and kept him for a long time." + +Edison had now entered definitely upon that career as an inventor which +has left so deep an imprint on the records of the United States Patent +Office, where from his first patent in 1869 up to the summer of 1910 +no fewer than 1328 separate patents have been applied for in his name, +averaging thirty-two every year, and one about every eleven days; with a +substantially corresponding number issued. The height of this inventive +activity was attained about 1882, in which year no fewer than 141 +patents were applied for, and seventy-five granted to him, or nearly +nine times as many as in 1876, when invention as a profession may +be said to have been adopted by this prolific genius. It will be +understood, of course, that even these figures do not represent the full +measure of actual invention, as in every process and at every step there +were many discoveries that were not brought to patent registration, but +remained "trade secrets." And furthermore, that in practically every +case the actual patented invention followed from one to a dozen or more +gradually developing forms of the same idea. + +An Englishman named George Little had brought over a system of automatic +telegraphy which worked well on a short line, but was a failure when put +upon the longer circuits for which automatic methods are best adapted. +The general principle involved in automatic or rapid telegraphs, except +the photographic ones, is that of preparing the message in advance, for +dispatch, by perforating narrow strips of paper with holes--work which +can be done either by hand-punches or by typewriter apparatus. A certain +group of perforations corresponds to a Morse group of dots and dashes +for a letter of the alphabet. When the tape thus made ready is run +rapidly through a transmitting machine, electrical contact occurs +wherever there is a perforation, permitting the current from the battery +to flow into the line and thus transmit signals correspondingly. At +the distant end these signals are received sometimes on an ink-writing +recorder as dots and dashes, or even as typewriting letters; but in +many of the earlier systems, like that of Bain, the record at the higher +rates of speed was effected by chemical means, a tell-tale stain +being made on the travelling strip of paper by every spurt of incoming +current. Solutions of potassium iodide were frequently used for this +purpose, giving a sharp, blue record, but fading away too rapidly. + +The Little system had perforating apparatus operated by electromagnets; +its transmitting machine was driven by a small electromagnetic motor; +and the record was made by electrochemical decomposition, the writing +member being a minute platinum roller instead of the more familiar iron +stylus. Moreover, a special type of wire had been put up for the single +circuit of two hundred and eighty miles between New York and Washington. +This is believed to have been the first "compound" wire made for +telegraphic or other signalling purposes, the object being to secure +greater lightness with textile strength and high conductivity. It had a +steel core, with a copper ribbon wound spirally around it, and tinned +to the core wire. But the results obtained were poor, and in their +necessity the parties in interest turned to Edison. + +Mr. E. H. Johnson tells of the conditions: "Gen. W. J. Palmer and some +New York associates had taken up the Little automatic system and had +expended quite a sum in its development, when, thinking they had reduced +it to practice, they got Tom Scott, of the Pennsylvania Railroad to send +his superintendent of telegraph over to look into and report upon it. Of +course he turned it down. The syndicate was appalled at this report, and +in this extremity General Palmer thought of the man who had impressed +him as knowing it all by the telling of telegraphic tales as a means of +whiling away lonesome hours on the plains of Colorado, where they were +associated in railroad-building. So this man--it was I--was sent for to +come to New York and assuage their grief if possible. My report was that +the system was sound fundamentally, that it contained the germ of a good +thing, but needed working out. Associated with General Palmer was one +Col. Josiah C. Reiff, then Eastern bond agent for the Kansas Pacific +Railroad. The Colonel was always resourceful, and didn't fail in +this case. He knew of a young fellow who was doing some good work for +Marshall Lefferts, and who it was said was a genius at invention, and +a very fiend for work. His name was Edison, and he had a shop out at +Newark, New Jersey. He came and was put in my care for the purpose of a +mutual exchange of ideas and for a report by me as to his competency in +the matter. This was my introduction to Edison. He confirmed my views +of the automatic system. He saw its possibilities, as well as the chief +obstacles to be overcome--viz., the sluggishness of the wire, together +with the need of mechanical betterment of the apparatus; and he agreed +to take the job on one condition--namely, that Johnson would stay and +help, as 'he was a man with ideas.' Mr. Johnson was accordingly given +three months' leave from Colorado railroad-building, and has never seen +Colorado since." + +Applying himself to the difficulties with wonted energy, Edison devised +new apparatus, and solved the problem to such an extent that he and his +assistants succeeded in transmitting and recording one thousand words +per minute between New York and Washington, and thirty-five hundred +words per minute to Philadelphia. Ordinary manual transmission by key +is not in excess of forty to fifty words a minute. Stated very briefly, +Edison's principal contribution to the commercial development of the +automatic was based on the observation that in a line of considerable +length electrical impulses become enormously extended, or sluggish, due +to a phenomenon known as self-induction, which with ordinary Morse work +is in a measure corrected by condensers. But in the automatic the aim +was to deal with impulses following each other from twenty-five to one +hundred times as rapidly as in Morse lines, and to attempt to receive +and record intelligibly such a lightning-like succession of signals +would have seemed impossible. But Edison discovered that by utilizing +a shunt around the receiving instrument, with a soft iron core, the +self-induction would produce a momentary and instantaneous reversal of +the current at the end of each impulse, and thereby give an absolutely +sharp definition to each signal. This discovery did away entirely with +sluggishness, and made it possible to secure high speeds over lines of +comparatively great lengths. But Edison's work on the automatic did +not stop with this basic suggestion, for he took up and perfected the +mechanical construction of the instruments, as well as the perforators, +and also suggested numerous electrosensitive chemicals for the +receivers, so that the automatic telegraph, almost entirely by reason of +his individual work, was placed on a plane of commercial practicability. +The long line of patents secured by him in this art is an interesting +exhibit of the development of a germ to a completed system, not, as +is usually the case, by numerous inventors working over considerable +periods of time, but by one man evolving the successive steps at a white +heat of activity. + +This system was put in commercial operation, but the company, now +encouraged, was quite willing to allow Edison to work out his idea of an +automatic that would print the message in bold Roman letters instead +of in dots and dashes; with consequent gain in speed in delivery of +the message after its receipt in the operating-room, it being obviously +necessary in the case of any message received in Morse characters to +copy it in script before delivery to the recipient. A large shop was +rented in Newark, equipped with $25,000 worth of machinery, and Edison +was given full charge. Here he built their original type of apparatus, +as improved, and also pushed his experiments on the letter system so far +that at a test, between New York and Philadelphia, three thousand words +were sent in one minute and recorded in Roman type. Mr. D. N. Craig, one +of the early organizers of the Associated Press, became interested +in this company, whose president was Mr. George Harrington, formerly +Assistant Secretary of the United States Treasury. + +Mr. Craig brought with him at this time--the early seventies--from +Milwaukee a Mr. Sholes, who had a wooden model of a machine to which had +been given the then new and unfamiliar name of "typewriter." Craig +was interested in the machine, and put the model in Edison's hands to +perfect. "This typewriter proved a difficult thing," says Edison, "to +make commercial. The alignment of the letters was awful. One letter +would be one-sixteenth of an inch above the others; and all the letters +wanted to wander out of line. I worked on it till the machine gave +fair results. [3] Some were made and used in the office of the Automatic +company. Craig was very sanguine that some day all business letters +would be written on a typewriter. He died before that took place; but +it gradually made its way. The typewriter I got into commercial shape is +now known as the Remington. About this time I got an idea I could devise +an apparatus by which four messages could simultaneously be sent over a +single wire without interfering with each other. I now had five shops, +and with experimenting on this new scheme I was pretty busy; at least I +did not have ennui." + + [Footnote 3: See illustration on opposite page, showing + reproduction of the work done with this machine.] + +A very interesting picture of Mr. Edison at this time is furnished by +Mr. Patrick B. Delany, a well-known inventor in the field of automatic +and multiplex telegraphy, who at that time was a chief operator of the +Franklin Telegraph Company at Philadelphia. His remark about Edison that +"his ingenuity inspired confidence, and wavering financiers stiffened +up when it became known that he was to develop the automatic" is a +noteworthy evidence of the manner in which the young inventor had +already gained a firm footing. He continues: "Edward H. Johnson was +brought on from the Denver & Rio Grande Railway to assist in the +practical introduction of automatic telegraphy on a commercial basis, +and about this time, in 1872, I joined the enterprise. Fairly good +results were obtained between New York and Washington, and Edison, +indifferent to theoretical difficulties, set out to prove high speeds +between New York and Charleston, South Carolina, the compound wire being +hitched up to one of the Southern & Atlantic wires from Washington to +Charleston for the purpose of experimentation. Johnson and I went to the +Charleston end to carry out Edison's plans, which were rapidly unfolded +by telegraph every night from a loft on lower Broadway, New York. We +could only get the wire after all business was cleared, usually about +midnight, and for months, in the quiet hours, that wire was subjected +to more electrical acrobatics than any other wire ever experienced. When +the experiments ended, Edison's system was put into regular commercial +operation between New York and Washington; and did fine work. If the +single wire had not broken about every other day, the venture would have +been a financial success; but moisture got in between the copper ribbon +and the steel core, setting up galvanic action which made short work of +the steel. The demonstration was, however, sufficiently successful to +impel Jay Gould to contract to pay about $4,000,000 in stock for the +patents. The contract was never completed so far as the $4,000,000 +were concerned, but Gould made good use of it in getting control of the +Western Union." + +One of the most important persons connected with the automatic +enterprise was Mr. George Harrington, to whom we have above referred, +and with whom Mr. Edison entered into close confidential relations, so +that the inventions made were held jointly, under a partnership deed +covering "any inventions or improvements that may be useful or desired +in automatic telegraphy." Mr. Harrington was assured at the outset by +Edison that while the Little perforator would give on the average only +seven or eight words per minute, which was not enough for commercial +purposes, he could devise one giving fifty or sixty words, and that +while the Little solution for the receiving tape cost $15 to $17 per +gallon, he could furnish a ferric solution costing only five or six +cents per gallon. In every respect Edison "made good," and in a short +time the system was a success, "Mr. Little having withdrawn his obsolete +perforator, his ineffective resistance, his costly chemical solution, to +give place to Edison's perforator, Edison's resistance and devices, and +Edison's solution costing a few cents per gallon. But," continues Mr. +Harrington, in a memorable affidavit, "the inventive efforts of Mr. +Edison were not confined to automatic telegraphy, nor did they cease +with the opening of that line to Washington." They all led up to the +quadruplex. + +Flattered by their success, Messrs. Harrington and Reiff, who owned with +Edison the foreign patents for the new automatic system, entered into an +arrangement with the British postal telegraph authorities for a trial +of the system in England, involving its probable adoption if successful. +Edison was sent to England to make the demonstration, in 1873, reporting +there to Col. George E. Gouraud, who had been an associate in the United +States Treasury with Mr. Harrington, and was now connected with the +new enterprise. With one small satchel of clothes, three large boxes of +instruments, and a bright fellow-telegrapher named Jack Wright, he took +voyage on the Jumping Java, as she was humorously known, of the Cunard +line. The voyage was rough and the little Java justified her reputation +by jumping all over the ocean. "At the table," says Edison, "there were +never more than ten or twelve people. I wondered at the time how it +could pay to run an ocean steamer with so few people; but when we got +into calm water and could see the green fields, I was astounded to see +the number of people who appeared. There were certainly two or three +hundred. I learned afterward that they were mostly going to the Vienna +Exposition. Only two days could I get on deck, and on one of these a +gentleman had a bad scalp wound from being thrown against the iron wall +of a small smoking-room erected over a freight hatch." + +Arrived in London, Edison set up his apparatus at the Telegraph Street +headquarters, and sent his companion to Liverpool with the instruments +for that end. The condition of the test was that he was to send from +Liverpool and receive in London, and to record at the rate of one +thousand words per minute, five hundred words to be sent every half hour +for six hours. Edison was given a wire and batteries to operate with, +but a preliminary test soon showed that he was going to fail. Both wire +and batteries were poor, and one of the men detailed by the authorities +to watch the test remarked quietly, in a friendly way: "You are not +going to have much show. They are going to give you an old Bridgewater +Canal wire that is so poor we don't work it, and a lot of 'sand +batteries' at Liverpool." [4] The situation was rather depressing to +the young American thus encountering, for the first time, the stolid +conservatism and opposition to change that characterizes so much of +official life and methods in Europe. "I thanked him," says Edison, "and +hoped to reciprocate somehow. I knew I was in a hole. I had been staying +at a little hotel in Covent Garden called the Hummums! and got nothing +but roast beef and flounders, and my imagination was getting into a +coma. What I needed was pastry. That night I found a French pastry shop +in High Holborn Street and filled up. My imagination got all right. +Early in the morning I saw Gouraud, stated my case, and asked if he +would stand for the purchase of a powerful battery to send to Liverpool. +He said 'Yes.' I went immediately to Apps on the Strand and asked if +he had a powerful battery. He said he hadn't; that all that he had was +Tyndall's Royal Institution battery, which he supposed would not +serve. I saw it--one hundred cells--and getting the price--one hundred +guineas--hurried to Gouraud. He said 'Go ahead.' I telegraphed to the +man in Liverpool. He came on, got the battery to Liverpool, set up and +ready, just two hours before the test commenced. One of the principal +things that made the system a success was that the line was put to earth +at the sending end through a magnet, and the extra current from this, +passed to the line, served to sharpen the recording waves. This new +battery was strong enough to pass a powerful current through the magnet +without materially diminishing the strength of the line current." + + [Footnote 4: The sand battery is now obsolete. In this type, + the cell containing the elements was filled with sand, which + was kept moist with an electrolyte.] + +The test under these more favorable circumstances was a success. "The +record was as perfect as copper plate, and not a single remark was made +in the 'time lost' column." Edison was now asked if he thought he could +get a greater speed through submarine cables with this system than with +the regular methods, and replied that he would like a chance to try +it. For this purpose, twenty-two hundred miles of Brazilian cable then +stored under water in tanks at the Greenwich works of the Telegraph +Construction & Maintenance Company, near London, was placed at his +disposal from 8 P.M. until 6 A.M. "This just suited me, as I preferred +night-work. I got my apparatus down and set up, and then to get a +preliminary idea of what the distortion of the signal would be, I sent a +single dot, which should have been recorded upon my automatic paper by +a mark about one-thirty-second of an inch long. Instead of that it was +twenty-seven feet long! If I ever had any conceit, it vanished from my +boots up. I worked on this cable more than two weeks, and the best I +could do was two words per minute, which was only one-seventh of what +the guaranteed speed of the cable should be when laid. What I did +not know at the time was that a coiled cable, owing to induction, was +infinitely worse than when laid out straight, and that my speed was as +good as, if not better than, with the regular system; but no one told me +this." While he was engaged on these tests Colonel Gouraud came down +one night to visit him at the lonely works, spent a vigil with him, and +toward morning wanted coffee. There was only one little inn near +by, frequented by longshoremen and employees from the soap-works and +cement-factories--a rough lot--and there at daybreak they went as soon +as the other customers had left for work. "The place had a bar and six +bare tables, and was simply infested with roaches. The only things +that I ever could get were coffee made from burnt bread, with brown +molasses-cake. I ordered these for Gouraud. The taste of the coffee, the +insects, etc., were too much. He fainted. I gave him a big dose of gin, +and this revived him. He went back to the works and waited until six +when the day men came, and telegraphed for a carriage. He lost all +interest in the experiments after that, and I was ordered back to +America." Edison states, however, that the automatic was finally adopted +in England and used for many years; indeed, is still in use there. But +they took whatever was needed from his system, and he "has never had a +cent from them." + +Arduous work was at once resumed at home on duplex and quadruplex +telegraphy, just as though there had been no intermission or +discouragement over dots twenty-seven feet long. A clue to his activity +is furnished in the fact that in 1872 he had applied for thirty-eight +patents in the class of telegraphy, and twenty-five in 1873; several +of these being for duplex methods, on which he had experimented. The +earlier apparatus had been built several years prior to this, as shown +by a curious little item of news that appeared in the Telegrapher +of January 30, 1869: "T. A. Edison has resigned his situation in the +Western Union office, Boston, and will devote his time to bringing out +his inventions." Oh, the supreme, splendid confidence of youth! Six +months later, as we have seen, he had already made his mark, and the +same journal, in October, 1869, could say: "Mr. Edison is a young man +of the highest order of mechanical talent, combined with good scientific +electrical knowledge and experience. He has already invented and +patented a number of valuable and useful inventions, among which may be +mentioned the best instrument for double transmission yet brought out." +Not bad for a novice of twenty-two. It is natural, therefore, after his +intervening work on indicators, stock tickers, automatic telegraphs, and +typewriters, to find him harking back to duplex telegraphy, if, indeed, +he can be said to have dropped it in the interval. It has always been +one of the characteristic features of Edison's method of inventing that +work in several lines has gone forward at the same time. No one line of +investigation has ever been enough to occupy his thoughts fully; or to +express it otherwise, he has found rest in turning from one field of +work to another, having absolutely no recreations or hobbies, and not +needing them. It may also be said that, once entering it, Mr. Edison has +never abandoned any field of work. He may change the line of attack; he +may drop the subject for a time; but sooner or later the note-books or +the Patent Office will bear testimony to the reminiscent outcropping of +latent thought on the matter. His attention has shifted chronologically, +and by process of evolution, from one problem to another, and some +results are found to be final; but the interest of the man in the thing +never dies out. No one sees more vividly than he the fact that in the +interplay of the arts one industry shapes and helps another, and that no +invention lives to itself alone. + +The path to the quadruplex lay through work on the duplex, which, +suggested first by Moses G. Farmer in 1852, had been elaborated by many +ingenious inventors, notably in this country by Stearns, before Edison +once again applied his mind to it. The different methods of such +multiple transmission--namely, the simultaneous dispatch of the two +communications in opposite directions over the same wire, or the +dispatch of both at once in the same direction--gave plenty of play to +ingenuity. Prescott's Elements of the Electric Telegraph, a standard +work in its day, described "a method of simultaneous transmission +invented by T. A. Edison, of New Jersey, in 1873," and says of it: "Its +peculiarity consists in the fact that the signals are transmitted in one +direction by reversing the polarity of a constant current, and in the +opposite direction by increasing or decreasing the strength of the same +current." Herein lay the germ of the Edison quadruplex. It is also noted +that "In 1874 Edison invented a method of simultaneous transmission +by induced currents, which has given very satisfactory results in +experimental trials." Interest in the duplex as a field of invention +dwindled, however, as the quadruplex loomed up, for while the one +doubled the capacity of a circuit, the latter created three "phantom +wires," and thus quadruplexed the working capacity of any line to which +it was applied. As will have been gathered from the above, the principle +embodied in the quadruplex is that of working over the line with two +currents from each end that differ from each other in strength or +nature, so that they will affect only instruments adapted to respond +to just such currents and no others; and by so arranging the receiving +apparatus as not to be affected by the currents transmitted from its +own end of the line. Thus by combining instruments that respond only +to variation in the strength of current from the distant station, with +instruments that respond only to the change in the direction of current +from the distant station, and by grouping a pair of these at each end of +the line, the quadruplex is the result. Four sending and four receiving +operators are kept busy at each end, or eight in all. Aside from other +material advantages, it is estimated that at least from $15,000,000 to +$20,000,000 has been saved by the Edison quadruplex merely in the cost +of line construction in America. + +The quadruplex has not as a rule the same working efficiency that +four separate wires have. This is due to the fact that when one of the +receiving operators is compelled to "break" the sending operator for +any reason, the "break" causes the interruption of the work of eight +operators, instead of two, as would be the case on a single wire. The +working efficiency of the quadruplex, therefore, with the apparatus in +good working condition, depends entirely upon the skill of the operators +employed to operate it. But this does not reflect upon or diminish the +ingenuity required for its invention. Speaking of the problem involved, +Edison said some years later to Mr. Upton, his mathematical assistant, +that "he always considered he was only working from one room to another. +Thus he was not confused by the amount of wire and the thought of +distance." + +The immense difficulties of reducing such a system to practice may be +readily conceived, especially when it is remembered that the "line" +itself, running across hundreds of miles of country, is subject to all +manner of atmospheric conditions, and varies from moment to moment in +its ability to carry current, and also when it is borne in mind that +the quadruplex requires at each end of the line a so-called "artificial +line," which must have the exact resistance of the working line and must +be varied with the variations in resistance of the working line. At this +juncture other schemes were fermenting in his brain; but the quadruplex +engrossed him. "This problem was of most difficult and complicated kind, +and I bent all my energies toward its solution. It required a peculiar +effort of the mind, such as the imagining of eight different things +moving simultaneously on a mental plane, without anything to demonstrate +their efficiency." It is perhaps hardly to be wondered at that when +notified he would have to pay 12 1/2 per cent. extra if his taxes in +Newark were not at once paid, he actually forgot his own name when asked +for it suddenly at the City Hall, lost his place in the line, and, the +fatal hour striking, had to pay the surcharge after all! + +So important an invention as the quadruplex could not long go begging, +but there were many difficulties connected with its introduction, some +of which are best described in Mr. Edison's own words: "Around 1873 the +owners of the Automatic Telegraph Company commenced negotiations with +Jay Gould for the purchase of the wires between New York and Washington, +and the patents for the system, then in successful operation. Jay Gould +at that time controlled the Atlantic & Pacific Telegraph Company, and +was competing with the Western Union and endeavoring to depress Western +Union stock on the Exchange. About this time I invented the quadruplex. +I wanted to interest the Western Union Telegraph Company in it, with +a view of selling it, but was unsuccessful until I made an arrangement +with the chief electrician of the company, so that he could be known as +a joint inventor and receive a portion of the money. At that time I was +very short of money, and needed it more than glory. This electrician +appeared to want glory more than money, so it was an easy trade. +I brought my apparatus over and was given a separate room with a +marble-tiled floor, which, by-the-way, was a very hard kind of floor to +sleep on, and started in putting on the finishing touches. + +"After two months of very hard work, I got a detail at regular times of +eight operators, and we got it working nicely from one room to another +over a wire which ran to Albany and back. Under certain conditions of +weather, one side of the quadruplex would work very shakily, and I had +not succeeded in ascertaining the cause of the trouble. On a certain +day, when there was a board meeting of the company, I was to make an +exhibition test. The day arrived. I had picked the best operators in New +York, and they were familiar with the apparatus. I arranged that if a +storm occurred, and the bad side got shaky, they should do the best +they could and draw freely on their imaginations. They were sending old +messages. About 1, o'clock everything went wrong, as there was a storm +somewhere near Albany, and the bad side got shaky. Mr. Orton, the +president, and Wm. H. Vanderbilt and the other directors came in. I had +my heart trying to climb up around my oesophagus. I was paying a sheriff +five dollars a day to withhold judgment which had been entered against +me in a case which I had paid no attention to; and if the quadruplex had +not worked before the president, I knew I was to have trouble and might +lose my machinery. The New York Times came out next day with a full +account. I was given $5000 as part payment for the invention, which +made me easy, and I expected the whole thing would be closed up. But Mr. +Orton went on an extended tour just about that time. I had paid for all +the experiments on the quadruplex and exhausted the money, and I was +again in straits. In the mean time I had introduced the apparatus on the +lines of the company, where it was very successful. + +"At that time the general superintendent of the Western Union was Gen. +T. T. Eckert (who had been Assistant Secretary of War with Stanton). +Eckert was secretly negotiating with Gould to leave the Western Union +and take charge of the Atlantic & Pacific--Gould's company. One day +Eckert called me into his office and made inquiries about money matters. +I told him Mr. Orton had gone off and left me without means, and I was +in straits. He told me I would never get another cent, but that he +knew a man who would buy it. I told him of my arrangement with the +electrician, and said I could not sell it as a whole to anybody; but if +I got enough for it, I would sell all my interest in any SHARE I might +have. He seemed to think his party would agree to this. I had a set +of quadruplex over in my shop, 10 and 12 Ward Street, Newark, and he +arranged to bring him over next evening to see the apparatus. So the +next morning Eckert came over with Jay Gould and introduced him to me. +This was the first time I had ever seen him. I exhibited and explained +the apparatus, and they departed. The next day Eckert sent for me, and +I was taken up to Gould's house, which was near the Windsor Hotel, Fifth +Avenue. In the basement he had an office. It was in the evening, and we +went in by the servants' entrance, as Eckert probably feared that he +was watched. Gould started in at once and asked me how much I wanted. +I said: 'Make me an offer.' Then he said: 'I will give you $30,000.' I +said: 'I will sell any interest I may have for that money,' which was +something more than I thought I could get. The next morning I went with +Gould to the office of his lawyers, Sherman & Sterling, and received a +check for $30,000, with a remark by Gould that I had got the steamboat +Plymouth Rock, as he had sold her for $30,000 and had just received the +check. There was a big fight on between Gould's company and the Western +Union, and this caused more litigation. The electrician, on account +of the testimony involved, lost his glory. The judge never decided +the case, but went crazy a few months afterward." It was obviously a +characteristically shrewd move on the part of Mr. Gould to secure an +interest in the quadruplex, as a factor in his campaign against the +Western Union, and as a decisive step toward his control of that system, +by the subsequent merger that included not only the Atlantic & Pacific +Telegraph Company, but the American Union Telegraph Company. + +Nor was Mr. Gould less appreciative of the value of Edison's automatic +system. Referring to matters that will be taken up later in the +narrative, Edison says: "After this Gould wanted me to help install the +automatic system in the Atlantic & Pacific company, of which General +Eckert had been elected president, the company having bought the +Automatic Telegraph Company. I did a lot of work for this company making +automatic apparatus in my shop at Newark. About this time I invented a +district messenger call-box system, and organized a company called the +Domestic Telegraph Company, and started in to install the system in +New York. I had great difficulty in getting subscribers, having tried +several canvassers, who, one after the other, failed to get subscribers. +When I was about to give it up, a test operator named Brown, who was +on the Automatic Telegraph wire between New York and Washington, which +passed through my Newark shop, asked permission to let him try and see +if he couldn't get subscribers. I had very little faith in his ability +to get any, but I thought I would give him a chance, as he felt +certain of his ability to succeed. He started in, and the results were +surprising. Within a month he had procured two hundred subscribers, and +the company was a success. I have never quite understood why six men +should fail absolutely, while the seventh man should succeed. Perhaps +hypnotism would account for it. This company was sold out to the +Atlantic & Pacific company." As far back as 1872, Edison had applied for +a patent on district messenger signal boxes, but it was not issued until +January, 1874, another patent being granted in September of the same +year. In this field of telegraph application, as in others, Edison was +a very early comer, his only predecessor being the fertile and ingenious +Callahan, of stock-ticker fame. The first president of the Gold & Stock +Telegraph Company, Elisha W. Andrews, had resigned in 1870 in order +to go to England to introduce the stock ticker in London. He lived in +Englewood, New Jersey, and the very night he had packed his trunk the +house was burglarized. Calling on his nearest friend the next morning +for even a pair of suspenders, Mr. Andrews was met with regrets of +inability, because the burglars had also been there. A third and fourth +friend in the vicinity was appealed to with the same disheartening reply +of a story of wholesale spoliation. Mr. Callahan began immediately to +devise a system of protection for Englewood; but at that juncture a +servant-girl who had been for many years with a family on the Heights +in Brooklyn went mad suddenly and held an aged widow and her daughter +as helpless prisoners for twenty-four hours without food or water. This +incident led to an extension of the protective idea, and very soon a +system was installed in Brooklyn with one hundred subscribers. Out of +this grew in turn the district messenger system, for it was just as +easy to call a messenger as to sound a fire-alarm or summon the police. +To-day no large city in America is without a service of this character, +but its function was sharply limited by the introduction of the +telephone. + +Returning to the automatic telegraph it is interesting to note that so +long as Edison was associated with it as a supervising providence it did +splendid work, which renders the later neglect of automatic or "rapid +telegraphy" the more remarkable. Reid's standard Telegraph in America +bears astonishing testimony on this point in 1880, as follows: "The +Atlantic & Pacific Telegraph Company had twenty-two automatic stations. +These included the chief cities on the seaboard, Buffalo, Chicago, +and Omaha. The through business during nearly two years was largely +transmitted in this way. Between New York and Boston two thousand words +a minute have been sent. The perforated paper was prepared at the rate +of twenty words per minute. Whatever its demerits this system enabled +the Atlantic & Pacific company to handle a much larger business during +1875 and 1876 than it could otherwise have done with its limited +number of wires in their then condition." Mr. Reid also notes as a +very thorough test of the perfect practicability of the system, that it +handled the President's message, December 3, 1876, of 12,600 words with +complete success. This long message was filed at Washington at 1.05 and +delivered in New York at 2.07. The first 9000 words were transmitted +in forty-five minutes. The perforated strips were prepared in thirty +minutes by ten persons, and duplicated by nine copyists. But to-day, +nearly thirty-five years later, telegraphy in America is still +practically on a basis of hand transmission! + +Of this period and his association with Jay Gould, some very interesting +glimpses are given by Edison. "While engaged in putting in the automatic +system, I saw a great deal of Gould, and frequently went uptown to his +office to give information. Gould had no sense of humor. I tried several +times to get off what seemed to me a funny story, but he failed to see +any humor in them. I was very fond of stories, and had a choice +lot, always kept fresh, with which I could usually throw a man into +convulsions. One afternoon Gould started in to explain the great future +of the Union Pacific Railroad, which he then controlled. He got a map, +and had an immense amount of statistics. He kept at it for over four +hours, and got very enthusiastic. Why he should explain to me, a mere +inventor, with no capital or standing, I couldn't make out. He had a +peculiar eye, and I made up my mind that there was a strain of insanity +somewhere. This idea was strengthened shortly afterward when the Western +Union raised the monthly rental of the stock tickers. Gould had one in +his house office, which he watched constantly. This he had removed, +to his great inconvenience, because the price had been advanced a few +dollars! He railed over it. This struck me as abnormal. I think Gould's +success was due to abnormal development. He certainly had one trait +that all men must have who want to succeed. He collected every kind of +information and statistics about his schemes, and had all the data. His +connection with men prominent in official life, of which I was aware, +was surprising to me. His conscience seemed to be atrophied, but that +may be due to the fact that he was contending with men who never had any +to be atrophied. He worked incessantly until 12 or 1 o'clock at night. +He took no pride in building up an enterprise. He was after money, and +money only. Whether the company was a success or a failure mattered not +to him. After he had hammered the Western Union through his opposition +company and had tired out Mr. Vanderbilt, the latter retired from +control, and Gould went in and consolidated his company and controlled +the Western Union. He then repudiated the contract with the Automatic +Telegraph people, and they never received a cent for their wires or +patents, and I lost three years of very hard labor. But I never had any +grudge against him, because he was so able in his line, and as long as +my part was successful the money with me was a secondary consideration. +When Gould got the Western Union I knew no further progress in +telegraphy was possible, and I went into other lines." The truth is +that General Eckert was a conservative--even a reactionary--and being +prejudiced like many other American telegraph managers against "machine +telegraphy," threw out all such improvements. + +The course of electrical history has been variegated by some very +remarkable litigation; but none was ever more extraordinary than that +referred to here as arising from the transfer of the Automatic Telegraph +Company to Mr. Jay Gould and the Atlantic & Pacific Telegraph Company. +The terms accepted by Colonel Reiff from Mr. Gould, on December 30, +1874, provided that the purchasing telegraph company should increase its +capital to $15,000,000, of which the Automatic interests were to receive +$4,000,000 for their patents, contracts, etc. The stock was then selling +at about 25, and in the later consolidation with the Western Union +"went in" at about 60; so that the real purchase price was not less than +$1,000,000 in cash. There was a private arrangement in writing with Mr. +Gould that he was to receive one-tenth of the "result" to the Automatic +group, and a tenth of the further results secured at home and abroad. +Mr. Gould personally bought up and gave money and bonds for one or two +individual interests on the above basis, including that of Harrington, +who in his representative capacity executed assignments to Mr. Gould. +But payments were then stopped, and the other owners were left without +any compensation, although all that belonged to them in the shape of +property and patents was taken over bodily into Atlantic & Pacific +hands, and never again left them. Attempts at settlement were made in +their behalf, and dragged wearily, due apparently to the fact that +the plans were blocked by General Eckert, who had in some manner taken +offence at a transaction effected without his active participation in +all the details. Edison, who became under the agreement the electrician +of the Atlantic & Pacific Telegraph Company, has testified to the +unfriendly attitude assumed toward him by General Eckert, as president. +In a graphic letter from Menlo Park to Mr. Gould, dated February 2, +1877, Edison makes a most vigorous and impassioned complaint of +his treatment, "which, acting cumulatively, was a long, unbroken +disappointment to me"; and he reminds Mr. Gould of promises made to +him the day the transfer had been effected of Edison's interest in the +quadruplex. The situation was galling to the busy, high-spirited young +inventor, who, moreover, "had to live"; and it led to his resumption of +work for the Western Union Telegraph Company, which was only too glad to +get him back. Meantime, the saddened and perplexed Automatic group was +left unpaid, and it was not until 1906, on a bill filed nearly thirty +years before, that Judge Hazel, in the United States Circuit Court +for the Southern District of New York, found strongly in favor of the +claimants and ordered an accounting. The court held that there had been +a most wrongful appropriation of the patents, including alike those +relating to the automatic, the duplex, and the quadruplex, all being +included in the general arrangement under which Mr. Gould had held put +his tempting bait of $4,000,000. In the end, however, the complainant +had nothing to show for all his struggle, as the master who made the +accounting set the damages at one dollar! + +Aside from the great value of the quadruplex, saving millions of +dollars, for a share in which Edison received $30,000, the automatic +itself is described as of considerable utility by Sir William Thomson in +his juror report at the Centennial Exposition of 1876, recommending it +for award. This leading physicist of his age, afterward Lord Kelvin, was +an adept in telegraphy, having made the ocean cable talk, and he saw in +Edison's "American Automatic," as exhibited by the Atlantic & Pacific +company, a most meritorious and useful system. With the aid of Mr. E. +H. Johnson he made exhaustive tests, carrying away with him to Glasgow +University the surprising records that he obtained. His official report +closes thus: "The electromagnetic shunt with soft iron core, invented +by Mr. Edison, utilizing Professor Henry's discovery of electromagnetic +induction in a single circuit to produce a momentary reversal of the +line current at the instant when the battery is thrown off and so cut +off the chemical marks sharply at the proper instant, is the electrical +secret of the great speed he has achieved. The main peculiarities of Mr. +Edison's automatic telegraph shortly stated in conclusion are: (1) the +perforator; (2) the contact-maker; (3) the electromagnetic shunt; and +(4) the ferric cyanide of iron solution. It deserves award as a very +important step in land telegraphy." The attitude thus disclosed toward +Mr. Edison's work was never changed, except that admiration grew as +fresh inventions were brought forward. To the day of his death Lord +Kelvin remained on terms of warmest friendship with his American +co-laborer, with whose genius he thus first became acquainted at +Philadelphia in the environment of Franklin. + +It is difficult to give any complete idea of the activity maintained at +the Newark shops during these anxious, harassed years, but the statement +that at one time no fewer than forty-five different inventions were +being worked upon, will furnish some notion of the incandescent activity +of the inventor and his assistants. The hours were literally endless; +and upon one occasion, when the order was in hand for a large quantity +of stock tickers, Edison locked his men in until the job had been +finished of making the machine perfect, and "all the bugs taken out," +which meant sixty hours of unintermitted struggle with the difficulties. +Nor were the problems and inventions all connected with telegraphy. +On the contrary, Edison's mind welcomed almost any new suggestion as a +relief from the regular work in hand. Thus: "Toward the latter part of +1875, in the Newark shop, I invented a device for multiplying copies of +letters, which I sold to Mr. A. B. Dick, of Chicago, and in the years +since it has been universally introduced throughout the world. It is +called the 'Mimeograph.' I also invented devices for and introduced +paraffin paper, now used universally for wrapping up candy, etc." +The mimeograph employs a pointed stylus, used as in writing with a +lead-pencil, which is moved over a kind of tough prepared paper placed +on a finely grooved steel plate. The writing is thus traced by means of +a series of minute perforations in the sheet, from which, as a stencil, +hundreds of copies can be made. Such stencils can be prepared on +typewriters. Edison elaborated this principle in two other forms--one +pneumatic and one electric--the latter being in essence a reciprocating +motor. Inside the barrel of the electric pen a little plunger, carrying +the stylus, travels to and fro at a very high rate of speed, due to the +attraction and repulsion of the solenoid coils of wire surrounding it; +and as the hand of the writer guides it the pen thus makes its record +in a series of very minute perforations in the paper. The current from +a small battery suffices to energize the pen, and with the stencil thus +made hundreds of copies of the document can be furnished. As a matter +of fact, as many as three thousand copies have been made from a single +mimeographic stencil of this character. + + + +CHAPTER IX + +THE TELEPHONE, MOTOGRAPH, AND MICROPHONE + +A VERY great invention has its own dramatic history. Episodes full of +human interest attend its development. The periods of weary struggle, +the daring adventure along unknown paths, the clash of rival claimants, +are closely similar to those which mark the revelation and subjugation +of a new continent. At the close of the epoch of discovery it is seen +that mankind as a whole has made one more great advance; but in the +earlier stages one watched chiefly the confused vicissitudes of fortune +of the individual pioneers. The great modern art of telephony has had +thus in its beginnings, its evolution, and its present status as a +universal medium of intercourse, all the elements of surprise, mystery, +swift creation of wealth, tragic interludes, and colossal battle that +can appeal to the imagination and hold public attention. And in this +new electrical industry, in laying its essential foundations, Edison has +again been one of the dominant figures. + +As far back as 1837, the American, Page, discovered the curious fact +that an iron bar, when magnetized and demagnetized at short intervals +of time, emitted sounds due to the molecular disturbances in the mass. +Philipp Reis, a simple professor in Germany, utilized this principle in +the construction of apparatus for the transmission of sound; but in the +grasp of the idea he was preceded by Charles Bourseul, a young French +soldier in Algeria, who in 1854, under the title of "Electrical +Telephony," in a Parisian illustrated paper, gave a brief and lucid +description as follows: + + +"We know that sounds are made by vibrations, and are made sensible to +the ear by the same vibrations, which are reproduced by the intervening +medium. But the intensity of the vibrations diminishes very rapidly with +the distance; so that even with the aid of speaking-tubes and trumpets +it is impossible to exceed somewhat narrow limits. Suppose a man speaks +near a movable disk sufficiently flexible to lose none of the vibrations +of the voice; that this disk alternately makes and breaks the connection +with a battery; you may have at a distance another disk which will +simultaneously execute the same vibrations.... Any one who is not deaf +and dumb may use this mode of transmission, which would require no +apparatus except an electric battery, two vibrating disks, and a wire." + +This would serve admirably for a portrayal of the Bell telephone, except +that it mentions distinctly the use of the make-and-break method (i. +e., where the circuit is necessarily opened and closed as in telegraphy, +although, of course, at an enormously higher rate), which has never +proved practical. + +So far as is known Bourseul was not practical enough to try his own +suggestion, and never made a telephone. About 1860, Reis built several +forms of electrical telephonic apparatus, all imitating in some degree +the human ear, with its auditory tube, tympanum, etc., and examples +of the apparatus were exhibited in public not only in Germany, but in +England. There is a variety of testimony to the effect that not only +musical sounds, but stray words and phrases, were actually transmitted +with mediocre, casual success. It was impossible, however, to maintain +the devices in adjustment for more than a few seconds, since the +invention depended upon the make-and-break principle, the circuit being +made and broken every time an impulse-creating sound went through it, +causing the movement of the diaphragm on which the sound-waves impinged. +Reis himself does not appear to have been sufficiently interested in the +marvellous possibilities of the idea to follow it up--remarking to the +man who bought his telephonic instruments and tools that he had shown +the world the way. In reality it was not the way, although a monument +erected to his memory at Frankfort styles him the inventor of the +telephone. As one of the American judges said, in deciding an early +litigation over the invention of the telephone, a hundred years of Reis +would not have given the world the telephonic art for public use. Many +others after Reis tried to devise practical make-and-break telephones, +and all failed; although their success would have rendered them very +valuable as a means of fighting the Bell patent. But the method was a +good starting-point, even if it did not indicate the real path. If Reis +had been willing to experiment with his apparatus so that it did not +make-and-break, he would probably have been the true father of the +telephone, besides giving it the name by which it is known. It was not +necessary to slam the gate open and shut. All that was required was to +keep the gate closed, and rattle the latch softly. Incidentally it +may be noted that Edison in experimenting with the Reis transmitter +recognized at once the defect caused by the make-and-break action, and +sought to keep the gap closed by the use, first, of one drop of water, +and later of several drops. But the water decomposed, and the incurable +defect was still there. + +The Reis telephone was brought to America by Dr. P. H. Van der Weyde, +a well-known physicist in his day, and was exhibited by him before a +technical audience at Cooper Union, New York, in 1868, and described +shortly after in the technical press. The apparatus attracted attention, +and a set was secured by Prof. Joseph Henry for the Smithsonian +Institution. There the famous philosopher showed and explained it to +Alexander Graham Bell, when that young and persevering Scotch genius +went to get help and data as to harmonic telegraphy, upon which he was +working, and as to transmitting vocal sounds. Bell took up immediately +and energetically the idea that his two predecessors had dropped--and +reached the goal. In 1875 Bell, who as a student and teacher of vocal +physiology had unusual qualifications for determining feasible methods +of speech transmission, constructed his first pair of magneto telephones +for such a purpose. In February of 1876 his first telephone patent was +applied for, and in March it was issued. The first published account +of the modern speaking telephone was a paper read by Bell before the +American Academy of Arts and Sciences in Boston in May of that year; +while at the Centennial Exposition at Philadelphia the public first +gained any familiarity with it. It was greeted at once with scientific +acclaim and enthusiasm as a distinctly new and great invention, although +at first it was regarded more as a scientific toy than as a commercially +valuable device. + +By an extraordinary coincidence, the very day that Bell's application +for a patent went into the United States Patent Office, a caveat was +filed there by Elisha Gray, of Chicago, covering the specific idea of +transmitting speech and reproducing it in a telegraphic circuit "through +an instrument capable of vibrating responsively to all the tones of +the human voice, and by which they are rendered audible." Out of this +incident arose a struggle and a controversy whose echoes are yet heard +as to the legal and moral rights of the two inventors, the assertion +even being made that one of the most important claims of Gray, that on +a liquid battery transmitter, was surreptitiously "lifted" into the +Bell application, then covering only the magneto telephone. It was also +asserted that the filing of the Gray caveat antedated by a few hours +the filing of the Bell application. All such issues when brought to +the American courts were brushed aside, the Bell patent being broadly +maintained in all its remarkable breadth and fullness, embracing an +entire art; but Gray was embittered and chagrined, and to the last +expressed his belief that the honor and glory should have been his. The +path of Gray to the telephone was a natural one. A Quaker carpenter who +studied five years at Oberlin College, he took up electrical invention, +and brought out many ingenious devices in rapid succession in the +telegraphic field, including the now universal needle annunciator for +hotels, etc., the useful telautograph, automatic self-adjusting relays, +private-line printers--leading up to his famous "harmonic" system. This +was based upon the principle that a sound produced in the presence of a +reed or tuning-fork responding to the sound, and acting as the armature +of a magnet in a closed circuit, would, by induction, set up electric +impulses in the circuit and cause a distant magnet having a similarly +tuned armature to produce the same tone or note. He also found that over +the same wire at the same time another series of impulses corresponding +to another note could be sent through the agency of a second set +of magnets without in any way interfering with the first series of +impulses. Building the principle into apparatus, with a keyboard and +vibrating "reeds" before his magnets, Doctor Gray was able not only to +transmit music by his harmonic telegraph, but went so far as to send +nine different telegraph messages at the same instant, each set of +instruments depending on its selective note, while any intermediate +office could pick up the message for itself by simply tuning its relays +to the keynote required. Theoretically the system could be split up into +any number of notes and semi-tones. Practically it served as the basis +of some real telegraphic work, but is not now in use. Any one can +realize, however, that it did not take so acute and ingenious a mind +very long to push forward to the telephone, as a dangerous competitor +with Bell, who had also, like Edison, been working assiduously in the +field of acoustic and multiple telegraphs. Seen in the retrospect, the +struggle for the goal at this moment was one of the memorable incidents +in electrical history. + +Among the interesting papers filed at the Orange Laboratory is a +lithograph, the size of an ordinary patent drawing, headed "First +Telephone on Record." The claim thus made goes back to the period +when all was war, and when dispute was hot and rife as to the actual +invention of the telephone. The device shown, made by Edison in 1875, +was actually included in a caveat filed January 14, 1876, a month before +Bell or Gray. It shows a little solenoid arrangement, with one end +of the plunger attached to the diaphragm of a speaking or resonating +chamber. Edison states that while the device is crudely capable of use +as a magneto telephone, he did not invent it for transmitting speech, +but as an apparatus for analyzing the complex waves arising from various +sounds. It was made in pursuance of his investigations into the subject +of harmonic telegraphs. He did not try the effect of sound-waves +produced by the human voice until Bell came forward a few months later; +but he found then that this device, made in 1875, was capable of use as +a telephone. In his testimony and public utterances Edison has always +given Bell credit for the discovery of the transmission of articulate +speech by talking against a diaphragm placed in front of an +electromagnet; but it is only proper here to note, in passing, the +curious fact that he had actually produced a device that COULD talk, +prior to 1876, and was therefore very close to Bell, who took the +one great step further. A strong characterization of the value and +importance of the work done by Edison in the development of the carbon +transmitter will be found in the decision of Judge Brown in the United +States Circuit Court of Appeals, sitting in Boston, on February 27, +1901, declaring void the famous Berliner patent of the Bell telephone +system. [5] + + [Footnote 5: See Federal Reporter, vol. 109, p. 976 et seq.] + +Bell's patent of 1876 was of an all-embracing character, which only +the make-and-break principle, if practical, could have escaped. It was +pointed out in the patent that Bell discovered the great principle that +electrical undulations induced by the vibrations of a current produced +by sound-waves can be represented graphically by the same sinusoidal +curve that expresses the original sound vibrations themselves; or, in +other words, that a curve representing sound vibrations will correspond +precisely to a curve representing electric impulses produced or +generated by those identical sound vibrations--as, for example, when +the latter impinge upon a diaphragm acting as an armature of an +electromagnet, and which by movement to and fro sets up the electric +impulses by induction. To speak plainly, the electric impulses +correspond in form and character to the sound vibration which they +represent. This reduced to a patent "claim" governed the art as firmly +as a papal bull for centuries enabled Spain to hold the Western +world. The language of the claim is: "The method of and apparatus for +transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically as herein described, +by causing electrical undulations similar in form to the vibrations of +the air accompanying the said vocal or other sounds substantially as set +forth." It was a long time, however, before the inclusive nature of this +grant over every possible telephone was understood or recognized, and +litigation for and against the patent lasted during its entire life. At +the outset, the commercial value of the telephone was little appreciated +by the public, and Bell had the greatest difficulty in securing capital; +but among far-sighted inventors there was an immediate "rush to the gold +fields." Bell's first apparatus was poor, the results being described by +himself as "unsatisfactory and discouraging," which was almost as +true of the devices he exhibited at the Philadelphia Centennial. The +new-comers, like Edison, Berliner, Blake, Hughes, Gray, Dolbear, and +others, brought a wealth of ideas, a fund of mechanical ingenuity, +and an inventive ability which soon made the telephone one of the most +notable gains of the century, and one of the most valuable additions +to human resources. The work that Edison did was, as usual, marked by +infinite variety of method as well as by the power to seize on the +one needed element of practical success. Every one of the six million +telephones in use in the United States, and of the other millions in use +through out the world, bears the imprint of his genius, as at one time +the instruments bore his stamped name. For years his name was branded +on every Bell telephone set, and his patents were a mainstay of what has +been popularly called the "Bell monopoly." Speaking of his own efforts +in this field, Mr. Edison says: + +"In 1876 I started again to experiment for the Western Union and +Mr. Orton. This time it was the telephone. Bell invented the first +telephone, which consisted of the present receiver, used both as a +transmitter and a receiver (the magneto type). It was attempted to +introduce it commercially, but it failed on account of its faintness and +the extraneous sounds which came in on its wires from various causes. +Mr. Orton wanted me to take hold of it and make it commercial. As I +had also been working on a telegraph system employing tuning-forks, +simultaneously with both Bell and Gray, I was pretty familiar with the +subject. I started in, and soon produced the carbon transmitter, which +is now universally used. + +"Tests were made between New York and Philadelphia, also between New +York and Washington, using regular Western Union wires. The noises were +so great that not a word could be heard with the Bell receiver when used +as a transmitter between New York and Newark, New Jersey. Mr. Orton and +W. K. Vanderbilt and the board of directors witnessed and took part +in the tests. The Western Union then put them on private lines. Mr. +Theodore Puskas, of Budapest, Hungary, was the first man to suggest +a telephone exchange, and soon after exchanges were established. The +telephone department was put in the hands of Hamilton McK. Twombly, +Vanderbilt's ablest son-in-law, who made a success of it. The Bell +company, of Boston, also started an exchange, and the fight was on, +the Western Union pirating the Bell receiver, and the Boston company +pirating the Western Union transmitter. About this time I wanted to be +taken care of. I threw out hints of this desire. Then Mr. Orton sent +for me. He had learned that inventors didn't do business by the regular +process, and concluded he would close it right up. He asked me how much +I wanted. I had made up my mind it was certainly worth $25,000, if it +ever amounted to anything for central-station work, so that was the sum +I had in mind to stick to and get--obstinately. Still it had been an +easy job, and only required a few months, and I felt a little shaky and +uncertain. So I asked him to make me an offer. He promptly said he would +give me $100,000. 'All right,' I said. 'It is yours on one condition, +and that is that you do not pay it all at once, but pay me at the rate +of $6000 per year for seventeen years'--the life of the patent. He +seemed only too pleased to do this, and it was closed. My ambition was +about four times too large for my business capacity, and I knew that I +would soon spend this money experimenting if I got it all at once, so +I fixed it that I couldn't. I saved seventeen years of worry by this +stroke." + +Thus modestly is told the debut of Edison in the telephone art, to which +with his carbon transmitter he gave the valuable principle of varying +the resistance of the transmitting circuit with changes in the pressure, +as well as the vital practice of using the induction coil as a means of +increasing the effective length of the talking circuit. Without these, +modern telephony would not and could not exist. [6] But Edison, in +telephonic work, as in other directions, was remarkably fertile and +prolific. His first inventions in the art, made in 1875-76, continue +through many later years, including all kinds of carbon instruments +--the water telephone, electrostatic telephone, condenser telephone, +chemical telephone, various magneto telephones, inertia telephone, +mercury telephone, voltaic pile telephone, musical transmitter, and the +electromotograph. All were actually made and tested. + + + [Footnote 6: Briefly stated, the essential difference + between Bell's telephone and Edison's is this: With the + former the sound vibrations impinge upon a steel diaphragm + arranged adjacent to the pole of a bar electromagnet, + whereby the diaphragm acts as an armature, and by its + vibrations induces very weak electric impulses in the + magnetic coil. These impulses, according to Bell's theory, + correspond in form to the sound-waves, and passing over the + line energize the magnet coil at the receiving end, and by + varying the magnetism cause the receiving diaphragm to be + similarly vibrated to reproduce the sounds. A single + apparatus is therefore used at each end, performing the + double function of transmitter and receiver. With Edison's + telephone a closed circuit is used on which is constantly + flowing a battery current, and included in that circuit is a + pair of electrodes, one or both of which is of carbon. These + electrodes are always in contact with a certain initial + pressure, so that current will be always flowing over the + circuit. One of the electrodes is connected with the + diaphragm on which the sound-waves impinge, and the + vibration of this diaphragm causes the pressure between the + electrodes to be correspondingly varied, and thereby effects + a variation in the current, resulting in the production of + impulses which actuate the receiving magnet. In other words, + with Bell's telephone the sound-waves themselves generate + the electric impulses, which are hence extremely faint. With + the Edison telephone, the sound-waves actuate an electric + valve, so to speak, and permit variations in a current of + any desired strength. + + A second distinction between the two telephones is this: + With the Bell apparatus the very weak electric impulses + generated by the vibration of the transmitting diaphragm + pass over the entire line to the receiving end, and in + consequence the permissible length of line is limited to a + few miles under ideal conditions. With Edison's telephone + the battery current does not flow on the main line, but + passes through the primary circuit of an induction coil, by + which corresponding impulses of enormously higher potential + are sent out on the main line to the receiving end. In + consequence, the line may be hundreds of miles in length. No + modern telephone system in use to-day lacks these + characteristic features--the varying resistance and the + induction coil.] + + +The principle of the electromotograph was utilized by Edison in +more ways than one, first of all in telegraphy at this juncture. The +well-known Page patent, which had lingered in the Patent Office for +years, had just been issued, and was considered a formidable weapon. It +related to the use of a retractile spring to withdraw the armature +lever from the magnet of a telegraph or other relay or sounder, and thus +controlled the art of telegraphy, except in simple circuits. "There was +no known way," remarks Edison, "whereby this patent could be evaded, and +its possessor would eventually control the use of what is known as the +relay and sounder, and this was vital to telegraphy. Gould was pounding +the Western Union on the Stock Exchange, disturbing its railroad +contracts, and, being advised by his lawyers that this patent was of +great value, bought it. The moment Mr. Orton heard this he sent for me +and explained the situation, and wanted me to go to work immediately and +see if I couldn't evade it or discover some other means that could be +used in case Gould sustained the patent. It seemed a pretty hard job, +because there was no known means of moving a lever at the other end of +a telegraph wire except by the use of a magnet. I said I would go at it +that night. In experimenting some years previously, I had discovered +a very peculiar phenomenon, and that was that if a piece of metal +connected to a battery was rubbed over a moistened piece of chalk +resting on a metal connected to the other pole, when the current passed +the friction was greatly diminished. When the current was reversed the +friction was greatly increased over what it was when no current was +passing. Remembering this, I substituted a piece of chalk rotated by +a small electric motor for the magnet, and connecting a sounder to a +metallic finger resting on the chalk, the combination claim of Page was +made worthless. A hitherto unknown means was introduced in the electric +art. Two or three of the devices were made and tested by the company's +expert. Mr. Orton, after he had me sign the patent application and got +it in the Patent Office, wanted to settle for it at once. He asked my +price. Again I said: 'Make me an offer.' Again he named $100,000. I +accepted, providing he would pay it at the rate of $6000 a year for +seventeen years. This was done, and thus, with the telephone money, I +received $12,000 yearly for that period from the Western Union Telegraph +Company." + +A year or two later the motograph cropped up again in Edison's work in a +curious manner. The telephone was being developed in England, and Edison +had made arrangements with Colonel Gouraud, his old associate in the +automatic telegraph, to represent his interests. A company was formed, a +large number of instruments were made and sent to Gouraud in London, and +prospects were bright. Then there came a threat of litigation from +the owners of the Bell patent, and Gouraud found he could not push +the enterprise unless he could avoid using what was asserted to be an +infringement of the Bell receiver. He cabled for help to Edison, who +sent back word telling him to hold the fort. "I had recourse again," +says Edison, "to the phenomenon discovered by me years previous, that +the friction of a rubbing electrode passing over a moist chalk surface +was varied by electricity. I devised a telephone receiver which was +afterward known as the 'loud-speaking telephone,' or 'chalk receiver.' +There was no magnet, simply a diaphragm and a cylinder of compressed +chalk about the size of a thimble. A thin spring connected to the centre +of the diaphragm extended outwardly and rested on the chalk cylinder, +and was pressed against it with a pressure equal to that which would be +due to a weight of about six pounds. The chalk was rotated by hand. +The volume of sound was very great. A person talking into the carbon +transmitter in New York had his voice so amplified that he could be +heard one thousand feet away in an open field at Menlo Park. This great +excess of power was due to the fact that the latter came from the person +turning the handle. The voice, instead of furnishing all the power +as with the present receiver, merely controlled the power, just as an +engineer working a valve would control a powerful engine. + +"I made six of these receivers and sent them in charge of an expert on +the first steamer. They were welcomed and tested, and shortly afterward +I shipped a hundred more. At the same time I was ordered to send twenty +young men, after teaching them to become expert. I set up an exchange, +around the laboratory, of ten instruments. I would then go out and get +each one out of order in every conceivable way, cutting the wires of +one, short-circuiting another, destroying the adjustment of a third, +putting dirt between the electrodes of a fourth, and so on. A man would +be sent to each to find out the trouble. When he could find the trouble +ten consecutive times, using five minutes each, he was sent to London. +About sixty men were sifted to get twenty. Before all had arrived, +the Bell company there, seeing we could not be stopped, entered into +negotiations for consolidation. One day I received a cable from Gouraud +offering '30,000' for my interest. I cabled back I would accept. When +the draft came I was astonished to find it was for L30,000. I had +thought it was dollars." + +In regard to this singular and happy conclusion, Edison makes some +interesting comments as to the attitude of the courts toward inventors, +and the difference between American and English courts. "The men I sent +over were used to establish telephone exchanges all over the Continent, +and some of them became wealthy. It was among this crowd in London that +Bernard Shaw was employed before he became famous. The chalk telephone +was finally discarded in favor of the Bell receiver--the latter being +more simple and cheaper. Extensive litigation with new-comers followed. +My carbon-transmitter patent was sustained, and preserved the monopoly +of the telephone in England for many years. Bell's patent was not +sustained by the courts. Sir Richard Webster, now Chief-Justice of +England, was my counsel, and sustained all of my patents in England for +many years. Webster has a marvellous capacity for understanding things +scientific; and his address before the courts was lucidity itself. His +brain is highly organized. My experience with the legal fraternity is +that scientific subjects are distasteful to them, and it is rare in this +country, on account of the system of trying patent suits, for a judge +really to reach the meat of the controversy, and inventors scarcely ever +get a decision squarely and entirely in their favor. The fault rests, in +my judgment, almost wholly with the system under which testimony to the +extent of thousands of pages bearing on all conceivable subjects, many +of them having no possible connection with the invention in dispute, +is presented to an over-worked judge in an hour or two of argument +supported by several hundred pages of briefs; and the judge is supposed +to extract some essence of justice from this mass of conflicting, blind, +and misleading statements. It is a human impossibility, no matter how +able and fair-minded the judge may be. In England the case is different. +There the judges are face to face with the experts and other witnesses. +They get the testimony first-hand and only so much as they need, and +there are no long-winded briefs and arguments, and the case is decided +then and there, a few months perhaps after suit is brought, instead of +many years afterward, as in this country. And in England, when a case is +once finally decided it is settled for the whole country, while here it +is not so. Here a patent having once been sustained, say, in Boston, +may have to be litigated all over again in New York, and again in +Philadelphia, and so on for all the Federal circuits. Furthermore, it +seems to me that scientific disputes should be decided by some +court containing at least one or two scientific men--men capable of +comprehending the significance of an invention and the difficulties of +its accomplishment--if justice is ever to be given to an inventor. And +I think, also, that this court should have the power to summon before it +and examine any recognized expert in the special art, who might be able +to testify to FACTS for or against the patent, instead of trying +to gather the truth from the tedious essays of hired experts, whose +depositions are really nothing but sworn arguments. The real gist of +patent suits is generally very simple, and I have no doubt that any +judge of fair intelligence, assisted by one or more scientific advisers, +could in a couple of days at the most examine all the necessary +witnesses; hear all the necessary arguments, and actually decide an +ordinary patent suit in a way that would more nearly be just, than +can now be done at an expenditure of a hundred times as much money and +months and years of preparation. And I have no doubt that the time taken +by the court would be enormously less, because if a judge attempts to +read the bulky records and briefs, that work alone would require several +days. + +"Acting as judges, inventors would not be very apt to correctly decide +a complicated law point; and on the other hand, it is hard to see how a +lawyer can decide a complicated scientific point rightly. Some inventors +complain of our Patent Office, but my own experience with the Patent +Office is that the examiners are fair-minded and intelligent, and when +they refuse a patent they are generally right; but I think the whole +trouble lies with the system in vogue in the Federal courts for trying +patent suits, and in the fact, which cannot be disputed, that the +Federal judges, with but few exceptions, do not comprehend complicated +scientific questions. To secure uniformity in the several Federal +circuits and correct errors, it has been proposed to establish a central +court of patent appeals in Washington. This I believe in; but this court +should also contain at least two scientific men, who would not be blind +to the sophistry of paid experts. [7] Men whose inventions would have +created wealth of millions have been ruined and prevented from making +any money whereby they could continue their careers as creators of +wealth for the general good, just because the experts befuddled the +judge by their misleading statements." + + + [Footnote 7: As an illustration of the perplexing nature of + expert evidence in patent cases, the reader will probably be + interested in perusing the following extracts from the + opinion of Judge Dayton, in the suit of Bryce Bros. Co. vs. + Seneca Glass Co., tried in the United States Circuit Court, + Northern District of West Virginia, reported in The Federal + Reporter, 140, page 161: + + "On this subject of the validity of this patent, a vast + amount of conflicting, technical, perplexing, and almost + hypercritical discussion and opinion has been indulged, both + in the testimony and in the able and exhaustive arguments + and briefs of counsel. Expert Osborn for defendant, after + setting forth minutely his superior qualifications + mechanical education, and great experience, takes up in + detail the patent claims, and shows to his own entire + satisfaction that none of them are new; that all of them + have been applied, under one form or another, in some + twenty-two previous patents, and in two other machines, not + patented, to-wit, the Central Glass and Kuny Kahbel ones; + that the whole machine is only 'an aggregation of well-known + mechanical elements that any skilled designer would bring to + his use in the construction of such a machine.' This + certainly, under ordinary conditions, would settle the + matter beyond peradventure; for this witness is a very wise + and learned man in these things, and very positive. But + expert Clarke appears for the plaintiff, and after setting + forth just as minutely his superior qualifications, + mechanical education, and great experience, which appear + fully equal in all respects to those of expert Osborn, + proceeds to take up in detail the patent claims, and shows + to his entire satisfaction that all, with possibly one + exception, are new, show inventive genius, and distinct + advances upon the prior art. In the most lucid, and even + fascinating, way he discusses all the parts of this machine, + compares it with the others, draws distinctions, points out + the merits of the one in controversy and the defects of all + the others, considers the twenty-odd patents referred to by + Osborn, and in the politest, but neatest, manner imaginable + shows that expert Osborn did not know what he was talking + about, and sums the whole matter up by declaring this + 'invention of Mr. Schrader's, as embodied in the patent in + suit, a radical and wide departure, from the Kahbel machine' + (admitted on all sides to be nearest prior approach to it), + 'a distinct and important advance in the art of engraving + glassware, and generally a machine for this purpose which + has involved the exercise of the inventive faculty in the + highest degree.' + + "Thus a more radical and irreconcilable disagreement between + experts touching the same thing could hardly be found. So it + is with the testimony. If we take that for the defendant, + the Central Glass Company machine, and especially the Kuny + Kahbel machine, built and operated years before this patent + issued, and not patented, are just as good, just as + effective and practical, as this one, and capable of turning + out just as perfect work and as great a variety of it. On + the other hand, if we take that produced by the plaintiff, + we are driven to the conclusion that these prior machines, + the product of the same mind, were only progressive steps + forward from utter darkness, so to speak, into full + inventive sunlight, which made clear to him the solution of + the problem in this patented machine. The shortcomings of + the earlier machines are minutely set forth, and the + witnesses for the plaintiff are clear that they are neither + practical nor profitable. + + "But this is not all of the trouble that confronts us in + this case. Counsel of both sides, with an indomitable + courage that must command admiration, a courage that has led + them to a vast amount of study, investigation, and thought, + that in fact has made them all experts, have dissected this + record of 356 closely printed pages, applied all mechanical + principles and laws to the facts as they see them, and, + besides, have ransacked the law-books and cited an enormous + number of cases, more or less in point, as illustration of + their respective contentions. The courts find nothing more + difficult than to apply an abstract principle to all classes + of cases that may arise. The facts in each case so + frequently create an exception to the general rule that such + rule must be honored rather in its breach than in its + observance. Therefore, after a careful examination of these + cases, it is no criticism of the courts to say that both + sides have found abundant and about an equal amount of + authority to sustain their respective contentions, and, as a + result, counsel have submitted, in briefs, a sum total of + 225 closely printed pages, in which they have clearly, yet, + almost to a mathematical certainty, demonstrated on the one + side that this Schrader machine is new and patentable, and + on the other that it is old and not so. Under these + circumstances, it would be unnecessary labor and a fruitless + task for me to enter into any further technical discussion + of the mechanical problems involved, for the purpose of + seeking to convince either side of its error. In cases of + such perplexity as this generally some incidents appear that + speak more unerringly than do the tongues of the witnesses, + and to some of these I purpose to now refer."] + +Mr. Bernard Shaw, the distinguished English author, has given a most +vivid and amusing picture of this introduction of Edison's telephone +into England, describing the apparatus as "a much too ingenious +invention, being nothing less than a telephone of such stentorian +efficiency that it bellowed your most private communications all over +the house, instead of whispering them with some sort of discretion." +Shaw, as a young man, was employed by the Edison Telephone Company, +and was very much alive to his surroundings, often assisting in public +demonstrations of the apparatus "in a manner which I am persuaded laid +the foundation of Mr. Edison's reputation." The sketch of the men sent +over from America is graphic: "Whilst the Edison Telephone Company +lasted it crowded the basement of a high pile of offices in Queen +Victoria Street with American artificers. These deluded and romantic men +gave me a glimpse of the skilled proletariat of the United States. They +sang obsolete sentimental songs with genuine emotion; and their language +was frightful even to an Irishman. They worked with a ferocious +energy which was out of all proportion to the actual result achieved. +Indomitably resolved to assert their republican manhood by taking no +orders from a tall-hatted Englishman whose stiff politeness covered +his conviction that they were relatively to himself inferior and common +persons, they insisted on being slave-driven with genuine American oaths +by a genuine free and equal American foreman. They utterly despised the +artfully slow British workman, who did as little for his wages as he +possibly could; never hurried himself; and had a deep reverence for one +whose pocket could be tapped by respectful behavior. Need I add that +they were contemptuously wondered at by this same British workman as +a parcel of outlandish adult boys who sweated themselves for their +employer's benefit instead of looking after their own interest? They +adored Mr. Edison as the greatest man of all time in every possible +department of science, art, and philosophy, and execrated Mr. Graham +Bell, the inventor of the rival telephone, as his Satanic adversary; +but each of them had (or intended to have) on the brink of completion +an improvement on the telephone, usually a new transmitter. They were +free-souled creatures, excellent company, sensitive, cheerful, and +profane; liars, braggarts, and hustlers, with an air of making slow old +England hum, which never left them even when, as often happened, they +were wrestling with difficulties of their own making, or struggling in +no-thoroughfares, from which they had to be retrieved like stray sheep +by Englishmen without imagination enough to go wrong." + +Mr. Samuel Insull, who afterward became private secretary to Mr. Edison, +and a leader in the development of American electrical manufacturing +and the central-station art, was also in close touch with the London +situation thus depicted, being at the time private secretary to Colonel +Gouraud, and acting for the first half hour as the amateur telephone +operator in the first experimental exchange erected in Europe. He +took notes of an early meeting where the affairs of the company were +discussed by leading men like Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) and the +Right Hon. E. P. Bouverie (then a cabinet minister), none of whom +could see in the telephone much more than an auxiliary for getting +out promptly in the next morning's papers the midnight debates in +Parliament. "I remember another incident," says Mr. Insull. "It was at +some celebration of one of the Royal Societies at the Burlington House, +Piccadilly. We had a telephone line running across the roofs to the +basement of the building. I think it was to Tyndall's laboratory in +Burlington Street. As the ladies and gentlemen came through, they +naturally wanted to look at the great curiosity, the loud-speaking +telephone: in fact, any telephone was a curiosity then. Mr. and Mrs. +Gladstone came through. I was handling the telephone at the Burlington +House end. Mrs. Gladstone asked the man over the telephone whether he +knew if a man or woman was speaking; and the reply came in quite loud +tones that it was a man!" + +With Mr. E. H. Johnson, who represented Edison, there went to England +for the furtherance of this telephone enterprise, Mr. Charles Edison, +a nephew of the inventor. He died in Paris, October, 1879, not twenty +years of age. Stimulated by the example of his uncle, this brilliant +youth had already made a mark for himself as a student and inventor, +and when only eighteen he secured in open competition the contract to +install a complete fire-alarm telegraph system for Port Huron. A few +months later he was eagerly welcomed by his uncle at Menlo Park, +and after working on the telephone was sent to London to aid in its +introduction. There he made the acquaintance of Professor Tyndall, +exhibited the telephone to the late King of England; and also won the +friendship of the late King of the Belgians, with whom he took up the +project of establishing telephonic communication between Belgium and +England. At the time of his premature death he was engaged in installing +the Edison quadruplex between Brussels and Paris, being one of the very +few persons then in Europe familiar with the working of that invention. + +Meantime, the telephonic art in America was undergoing very rapid +development. In March, 1878, addressing "the capitalists of the Electric +Telephone Company" on the future of his invention, Bell outlined with +prophetic foresight and remarkable clearness the coming of the modern +telephone exchange. Comparing with gas and water distribution, he said: +"In a similar manner, it is conceivable that cables of telephone wires +could be laid underground or suspended overhead communicating by branch +wires with private dwellings, country houses, shops, manufactories, +etc., uniting them through the main cable with a central office, +where the wire could be connected as desired, establishing direct +communication between any two places in the city.... Not only so, but I +believe, in the future, wires will unite the head offices of telephone +companies in different cities; and a man in one part of the country may +communicate by word of mouth with another in a distant place." + +All of which has come to pass. Professor Bell also suggested how this +could be done by "the employ of a man in each central office for the +purpose of connecting the wires as directed." He also indicated the two +methods of telephonic tariff--a fixed rental and a toll; and mentioned +the practice, now in use on long-distance lines, of a time charge. As +a matter of fact, this "centralizing" was attempted in May, 1877, in +Boston, with the circuits of the Holmes burglar-alarm system, four +banking-houses being thus interconnected; while in January of 1878 the +Bell telephone central-office system at New Haven, Connecticut, was +opened for business, "the first fully equipped commercial telephone +exchange ever established for public or general service." + +All through this formative period Bell had adhered to and introduced the +magneto form of telephone, now used only as a receiver, and very poorly +adapted for the vital function of a speech-transmitter. From August, +1877, the Western Union Telegraph Company worked along the other line, +and in 1878, with its allied Gold & Stock Telegraph Company, it brought +into existence the American Speaking Telephone Company to introduce +the Edison apparatus, and to create telephone exchanges all over the +country. In this warfare, the possession of a good battery transmitter +counted very heavily in favor of the Western Union, for upon that the +real expansion of the whole industry depended; but in a few months +the Bell system had its battery transmitter, too, tending to equalize +matters. Late in the same year patent litigation was begun which brought +out clearly the merits of Bell, through his patent, as the original and +first inventor of the electric speaking telephone; and the Western Union +Telegraph Company made terms with its rival. A famous contract bearing +date of November 10, 1879, showed that under the Edison and other +controlling patents the Western Union Company had already set going some +eighty-five exchanges, and was making large quantities of telephonic +apparatus. In return for its voluntary retirement from the telephonic +field, the Western Union Telegraph Company, under this contract, +received a royalty of 20 per cent. of all the telephone earnings of the +Bell system while the Bell patents ran; and thus came to enjoy an annual +income of several hundred thousand dollars for some years, based chiefly +on its modest investment in Edison's work. It was also paid several +thousand dollars in cash for the Edison, Phelps, Gray, and other +apparatus on hand. It secured further 40 per cent. of the stock of the +local telephone systems of New York and Chicago; and last, but by no +means least, it exacted from the Bell interests an agreement to stay out +of the telegraph field. + +By March, 1881, there were in the United States only nine cities of +more than ten thousand inhabitants, and only one of more than fifteen +thousand, without a telephone exchange. The industry thrived under +competition, and the absence of it now had a decided effect in checking +growth; for when the Bell patent expired in 1893, the total of telephone +sets in operation in the United States was only 291,253. To quote from +an official Bell statement: + + +"The brief but vigorous Western Union competition was a kind of blessing +in disguise. The very fact that two distinct interests were actively +engaged in the work of organizing and establishing competing telephone +exchanges all over the country, greatly facilitated the spread of the +idea and the growth of the business, and familiarized the people with +the use of the telephone as a business agency; while the keenness of the +competition, extending to the agents and employees of both companies, +brought about a swift but quite unforeseen and unlooked-for expansion +in the individual exchanges of the larger cities, and a corresponding +advance in their importance, value, and usefulness." + +The truth of this was immediately shown in 1894, after the Bell patents +had expired, by the tremendous outburst of new competitive activity, in +"independent" country systems and toll lines through sparsely settled +districts--work for which the Edison apparatus and methods were +peculiarly adapted, yet against which the influence of the Edison patent +was invoked. The data secured by the United States Census Office in 1902 +showed that the whole industry had made gigantic leaps in eight years, +and had 2,371,044 telephone stations in service, of which 1,053,866 +were wholly or nominally independent of the Bell. By 1907 an even +more notable increase was shown, and the Census figures for that year +included no fewer than 6,118,578 stations, of which 1,986,575 were +"independent." These six million instruments every single set employing +the principle of the carbon transmitter--were grouped into 15,527 public +exchanges, in the very manner predicted by Bell thirty years before, +and they gave service in the shape of over eleven billions of talks. The +outstanding capitalized value of the plant was $814,616,004, the income +for the year was nearly $185,000,000, and the people employed were +140,000. If Edison had done nothing else, his share in the creation +of such an industry would have entitled him to a high place among +inventors. + +This chapter is of necessity brief in its reference to many extremely +interesting points and details; and to some readers it may seem +incomplete in its references to the work of other men than Edison, whose +influence on telephony as an art has also been considerable. In reply to +this pertinent criticism, it may be pointed out that this is a life of +Edison, and not of any one else; and that even the discussion of his +achievements alone in these various fields requires more space than the +authors have at their disposal. The attempt has been made, however, +to indicate the course of events and deal fairly with the facts. The +controversy that once waged with great excitement over the invention +of the microphone, but has long since died away, is suggestive of the +difficulties involved in trying to do justice to everybody. A standard +history describes the microphone thus: + + +"A form of apparatus produced during the early days of the telephone +by Professor Hughes, of England, for the purpose of rendering faint, +indistinct sounds distinctly audible, depended for its operation on the +changes that result in the resistance of loose contacts. This apparatus +was called the microphone, and was in reality but one of the many forms +that it is possible to give to the telephone transmitter. For example, +the Edison granular transmitter was a variety of microphone, as was also +Edison's transmitter, in which the solid button of carbon was employed. +Indeed, even the platinum point, which in the early form of the Reis +transmitter pressed against the platinum contact cemented to the centre +of the diaphragm, was a microphone." + +At a time when most people were amazed at the idea of hearing, with +the aid of a "microphone," a fly walk at a distance of many miles, the +priority of invention of such a device was hotly disputed. Yet without +desiring to take anything from the credit of the brilliant American, +Hughes, whose telegraphic apparatus is still in use all over Europe, it +may be pointed out that this passage gives Edison the attribution of at +least two original forms of which those suggested by Hughes were mere +variations and modifications. With regard to this matter, Mr. Edison +himself remarks: "After I sent one of my men over to London especially, +to show Preece the carbon transmitter, and where Hughes first saw it, +and heard it--then within a month he came out with the microphone, +without any acknowledgment whatever. Published dates will show that +Hughes came along after me." + +There have been other ways also in which Edison has utilized the +peculiar property that carbon possesses of altering its resistance +to the passage of current, according to the pressure to which it is +subjected, whether at the surface, or through closer union of the +mass. A loose road with a few inches of dust or pebbles on it offers +appreciable resistance to the wheels of vehicles travelling over it; but +if the surface is kept hard and smooth the effect is quite different. +In the same way carbon, whether solid or in the shape of finely divided +powder, offers a high resistance to the passage of electricity; but +if the carbon is squeezed together the conditions change, with less +resistance to electricity in the circuit. For his quadruplex system, +Mr. Edison utilized this fact in the construction of a rheostat or +resistance box. It consists of a series of silk disks saturated with a +sizing of plumbago and well dried. The disks are compressed by means of +an adjustable screw; and in this manner the resistance of a circuit can +be varied over a wide range. + +In like manner Edison developed a "pressure" or carbon relay, adapted +to the transference of signals of variable strength from one circuit to +another. An ordinary relay consists of an electromagnet inserted in the +main line for telegraphing, which brings a local battery and sounder +circuit into play, reproducing in the local circuit the signals sent +over the main line. The relay is adjusted to the weaker currents likely +to be received, but the signals reproduced on the sounder by the agency +of the relay are, of course, all of equal strength, as they depend upon +the local battery, which has only this steady work to perform. In cases +where it is desirable to reproduce the signals in the local circuit with +the same variations in strength as they are received by the relay, +the Edison carbon pressure relay does the work. The poles of the +electromagnet in the local circuit are hollowed out and filled up with +carbon disks or powdered plumbago. The armature and the carbon-tipped +poles of the electromagnet form part of the local circuit; and if the +relay is actuated by a weak current the armature will be attracted +but feebly. The carbon being only slightly compressed will offer +considerable resistance to the flow of current from the local battery, +and therefore the signal on the local sounder will be weak. If, on the +contrary, the incoming current on the main line be strong, the armature +will be strongly attracted, the carbon will be sharply compressed, the +resistance in the local circuit will be proportionately lowered, and the +signal heard on the local sounder will be a loud one. Thus it will be +seen, by another clever juggle with the willing agent, carbon, for which +he has found so many duties, Edison is able to transfer or transmit +exactly, to the local circuit, the main-line current in all its minutest +variations. + +In his researches to determine the nature of the motograph phenomena, +and to open up other sources of electrical current generation, Edison +has worked out a very ingenious and somewhat perplexing piece of +apparatus known as the "chalk battery." It consists of a series of chalk +cylinders mounted on a shaft revolved by hand. Resting against each of +these cylinders is a palladium-faced spring, and similar springs make +contact with the shaft between each cylinder. By connecting all these +springs in circuit with a galvanometer and revolving the shaft rapidly, +a notable deflection is obtained of the galvanometer needle, indicating +the production of electrical energy. The reason for this does not appear +to have been determined. + +Last but not least, in this beautiful and ingenious series, comes the +"tasimeter," an instrument of most delicate sensibility in the presence +of heat. The name is derived from the Greek, the use of the apparatus +being primarily to measure extremely minute differences of pressure. +A strip of hard rubber with pointed ends rests perpendicularly on a +platinum plate, beneath which is a carbon button, under which again lies +another platinum plate. The two plates and the carbon button form part +of an electric circuit containing a battery and a galvanometer. The +hard-rubber strip is exceedingly sensitive to heat. The slightest degree +of heat imparted to it causes it to expand invisibly, thus increasing +the pressure contact on the carbon button and producing a variation +in the resistance of the circuit, registered immediately by the little +swinging needle of the galvanometer. The instrument is so sensitive that +with a delicate galvanometer it will show the impingement of the heat +from a person's hand thirty feet away. The suggestion to employ such +an apparatus in astronomical observations occurs at once, and it may +be noted that in one instance the heat of rays of light from the remote +star Arcturus gave results. + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE PHONOGRAPH + +AT the opening of the Electrical Show in New York City in October, 1908, +to celebrate the jubilee of the Atlantic Cable and the first quarter +century of lighting with the Edison service on Manhattan Island, the +exercises were all conducted by means of the Edison phonograph. This +included the dedicatory speech of Governor Hughes, of New York; the +modest remarks of Mr. Edison, as president; the congratulations of the +presidents of several national electric bodies, and a number of vocal +and instrumental selections of operatic nature. All this was heard +clearly by a very large audience, and was repeated on other evenings. +The same speeches were used again phonographically at the Electrical +Show in Chicago in 1909--and now the records are preserved for +reproduction a hundred or a thousand years hence. This tour de force, +never attempted before, was merely an exemplification of the value +of the phonograph not only in establishing at first hand the facts of +history, but in preserving the human voice. What would we not give to +listen to the very accents and tones of the Sermon on the Mount, the +orations of Demosthenes, the first Pitt's appeal for American liberty, +the Farewell of Washington, or the Address at Gettysburg? Until Edison +made his wonderful invention in 1877, the human race was entirely +without means for preserving or passing on to posterity its own +linguistic utterances or any other vocal sound. We have some idea how +the ancients looked and felt and wrote; the abundant evidence takes us +back to the cave-dwellers. But all the old languages are dead, and the +literary form is their embalmment. We do not even know definitely how +Shakespeare's and Goldsmith's plays were pronounced on the stage in +the theatres of the time; while it is only a guess that perhaps Chaucer +would sound much more modern than he scans. + +The analysis of sound, which owes so much to Helmholtz, was one step +toward recording; and the various means of illustrating the phenomena of +sound to the eye and ear, prior to the phonograph, were all ingenious. +One can watch the dancing little flames of Koenig, and see a voice +expressed in tongues of fire; but the record can only be photographic. +In like manner, the simple phonautograph of Leon Scott, invented about +1858, records on a revolving cylinder of blackened paper the sound +vibrations transmitted through a membrane to which a tiny stylus is +attached; so that a human mouth uses a pen and inscribes its sign vocal. +Yet after all we are just as far away as ever from enabling the young +actors at Harvard to give Aristophanes with all the true, subtle +intonation and inflection of the Athens of 400 B.C. The instrument +is dumb. Ingenuity has been shown also in the invention of +"talking-machines," like Faber's, based on the reed organ pipe. These +automata can be made by dexterous manipulation to jabber a little, like +a doll with its monotonous "ma-ma," or a cuckoo clock; but they lack +even the sterile utility of the imitative art of ventriloquism. The real +great invention lies in creating devices that shall be able to evoke +from tinfoil, wax, or composition at any time to-day or in the future +the sound that once was as evanescent as the vibrations it made on the +air. + +Contrary to the general notion, very few of the great modern inventions +have been the result of a sudden inspiration by which, Minerva-like, +they have sprung full-fledged from their creators' brain; but, on the +contrary, they have been evolved by slow and gradual steps, so that +frequently the final advance has been often almost imperceptible. The +Edison phonograph is an important exception to the general rule; not, +of course, the phonograph of the present day with all of its mechanical +perfection, but as an instrument capable of recording and reproducing +sound. Its invention has been frequently attributed to the discovery +that a point attached to a telephone diaphragm would, under the effect +of sound-waves, vibrate with sufficient force to prick the finger. The +story, though interesting, is not founded on fact; but, if true, it is +difficult to see how the discovery in question could have contributed +materially to the ultimate accomplishment. To a man of Edison's +perception it is absurd to suppose that the effect of the so-called +discovery would not have been made as a matter of deduction long +before the physical sensation was experienced. As a matter of fact, the +invention of the phonograph was the result of pure reason. Some time +prior to 1877, Edison had been experimenting on an automatic telegraph +in which the letters were formed by embossing strips of paper with the +proper arrangement of dots and dashes. By drawing this strip beneath a +contact lever, the latter was actuated so as to control the circuits and +send the desired signals over the line. It was observed that when the +strip was moved very rapidly the vibration of the lever resulted in +the production of an audible note. With these facts before him, Edison +reasoned that if the paper strip could be imprinted with elevations +and depressions representative of sound-waves, they might be caused to +actuate a diaphragm so as to reproduce the corresponding sounds. +The next step in the line of development was to form the necessary +undulations on the strip, and it was then reasoned that original sounds +themselves might be utilized to form a graphic record by actuating a +diaphragm and causing a cutting or indenting point carried thereby to +vibrate in contact with a moving surface, so as to cut or indent the +record therein. Strange as it may seem, therefore, and contrary to the +general belief, the phonograph was developed backward, the production of +the sounds being of prior development to the idea of actually recording +them. + +Mr. Edison's own account of the invention of the phonograph is intensely +interesting. "I was experimenting," he says, "on an automatic method +of recording telegraph messages on a disk of paper laid on a revolving +platen, exactly the same as the disk talking-machine of to-day. The +platen had a spiral groove on its surface, like the disk. Over this was +placed a circular disk of paper; an electromagnet with the embossing +point connected to an arm travelled over the disk; and any signals given +through the magnets were embossed on the disk of paper. If this disk was +removed from the machine and put on a similar machine provided with +a contact point, the embossed record would cause the signals to be +repeated into another wire. The ordinary speed of telegraphic signals +is thirty-five to forty words a minute; but with this machine several +hundred words were possible. + +"From my experiments on the telephone I knew of the power of a diaphragm +to take up sound vibrations, as I had made a little toy which, when +you recited loudly in the funnel, would work a pawl connected to the +diaphragm; and this engaging a ratchet-wheel served to give continuous +rotation to a pulley. This pulley was connected by a cord to a little +paper toy representing a man sawing wood. Hence, if one shouted: 'Mary +had a little lamb,' etc., the paper man would start sawing wood. I +reached the conclusion that if I could record the movements of the +diaphragm properly, I could cause such record to reproduce the original +movements imparted to the diaphragm by the voice, and thus succeed in +recording and reproducing the human voice. + +"Instead of using a disk I designed a little machine using a cylinder +provided with grooves around the surface. Over this was to be placed +tinfoil, which easily received and recorded the movements of the +diaphragm. A sketch was made, and the piece-work price, $18, was marked +on the sketch. I was in the habit of marking the price I would pay on +each sketch. If the workman lost, I would pay his regular wages; if he +made more than the wages, he kept it. The workman who got the sketch was +John Kruesi. I didn't have much faith that it would work, expecting that +I might possibly hear a word or so that would give hope of a future for +the idea. Kruesi, when he had nearly finished it, asked what it was for. +I told him I was going to record talking, and then have the machine talk +back. He thought it absurd. However, it was finished, the foil was +put on; I then shouted 'Mary had a little lamb,' etc. I adjusted the +reproducer, and the machine reproduced it perfectly. I was never so +taken aback in my life. Everybody was astonished. I was always afraid +of things that worked the first time. Long experience proved that +there were great drawbacks found generally before they could be got +commercial; but here was something there was no doubt of." + +No wonder that honest John Kruesi, as he stood and listened to the +marvellous performance of the simple little machine he had himself just +finished, ejaculated in an awe-stricken tone: "Mein Gott im Himmel!" And +yet he had already seen Edison do a few clever things. No wonder they +sat up all night fixing and adjusting it so as to get better and better +results--reciting and singing, trying each other's voices, and then +listening with involuntary awe as the words came back again and again, +just as long as they were willing to revolve the little cylinder with +its dotted spiral indentations in the tinfoil under the vibrating stylus +of the reproducing diaphragm. It took a little time to acquire the knack +of turning the crank steadily while leaning over the recorder to talk +into the machine; and there was some deftness required also in fastening +down the tinfoil on the cylinder where it was held by a pin running in +a longitudinal slot. Paraffined paper appears also to have been +experimented with as an impressible material. It is said that Carman, +the foreman of the machine shop, had gone the length of wagering Edison +a box of cigars that the device would not work. All the world knows that +he lost. + +The original Edison phonograph thus built by Kruesi is preserved in the +South Kensington Museum, London. That repository can certainly have no +greater treasure of its kind. But as to its immediate use, the inventor +says: "That morning I took it over to New York and walked into the +office of the Scientific American, went up to Mr. Beach's desk, and said +I had something to show him. He asked what it was. I told him I had a +machine that would record and reproduce the human voice. I opened the +package, set up the machine and recited, 'Mary had a little lamb,' etc. +Then I reproduced it so that it could be heard all over the room. They +kept me at it until the crowd got so great Mr. Beach was afraid the +floor would collapse; and we were compelled to stop. The papers next +morning contained columns. None of the writers seemed to understand how +it was done. I tried to explain, it was so very simple, but the results +were so surprising they made up their minds probably that they never +would understand it--and they didn't. + +"I started immediately making several larger and better machines, which +I exhibited at Menlo Park to crowds. The Pennsylvania Railroad ran +special trains. Washington people telegraphed me to come on. I took +a phonograph to Washington and exhibited it in the room of James G. +Blaine's niece (Gail Hamilton); and members of Congress and notable +people of that city came all day long until late in the evening. I made +one break. I recited 'Mary,' etc., and another ditty: + + 'There was a little girl, who had a little curl + Right in the middle of her forehead; + And when she was good she was very, very good, + But when she was bad she was horrid.' + +"It will be remembered that Senator Roscoe Conkling, then very prominent, +had a curl of hair on his forehead; and all the caricaturists developed +it abnormally. He was very sensitive about the subject. When he came in +he was introduced; but being rather deaf, I didn't catch his name, but +sat down and started the curl ditty. Everybody tittered, and I was told +that Mr. Conkling was displeased. About 11 o'clock at night word was +received from President Hayes that he would be very much pleased if I +would come up to the White House. I was taken there, and found Mr. Hayes +and several others waiting. Among them I remember Carl Schurz, who was +playing the piano when I entered the room. The exhibition continued till +about 12.30 A.M., when Mrs. Hayes and several other ladies, who had been +induced to get up and dress, appeared. I left at 3.30 A.M. + +"For a long time some people thought there was trickery. One morning +at Menlo Park a gentleman came to the laboratory and asked to see the +phonograph. It was Bishop Vincent, who helped Lewis Miller found the +Chautauqua I exhibited it, and then he asked if he could speak a few +words. I put on a fresh foil and told him to go ahead. He commenced to +recite Biblical names with immense rapidity. On reproducing it he said: +'I am satisfied, now. There isn't a man in the United States who could +recite those names with the same rapidity.'" + +The phonograph was now fairly launched as a world sensation, and a +reference to the newspapers of 1878 will show the extent to which it and +Edison were themes of universal discussion. Some of the press notices +of the period were most amazing--and amusing. As though the real +achievements of this young man, barely thirty, were not tangible +and solid enough to justify admiration of his genius, the "yellow +journalists" of the period began busily to create an "Edison myth," with +gross absurdities of assertion and attribution from which the modest +subject of it all has not yet ceased to suffer with unthinking people. +A brilliantly vicious example of this method of treatment is to be found +in the Paris Figaro of that year, which under the appropriate title of +"This Astounding Eddison" lay bare before the French public the most +startling revelations as to the inventor's life and character. "It +should be understood," said this journal, "that Mr. Eddison does not +belong to himself. He is the property of the telegraph company which +lodges him in New York at a superb hotel; keeps him on a luxurious +footing, and pays him a formidable salary so as to be the one to know +of and profit by his discoveries. The company has, in the dwelling of +Eddison, men in its employ who do not quit him for a moment, at the +table, on the street, in the laboratory. So that this wretched man, +watched more closely than ever was any malefactor, cannot even give a +moment's thought to his own private affairs without one of his guards +asking him what he is thinking about." This foolish "blague" was +accompanied by a description of Edison's new "aerophone," a steam +machine which carried the voice a distance of one and a half miles. "You +speak to a jet of vapor. A friend previously advised can answer you +by the same method." Nor were American journals backward in this wild +exaggeration. + +The furor had its effect in stimulating a desire everywhere on the +part of everybody to see and hear the phonograph. A small commercial +organization was formed to build and exploit the apparatus, and the +shops at Menlo Park laboratory were assisted by the little Bergmann shop +in New York. Offices were taken for the new enterprise at 203 Broadway, +where the Mail and Express building now stands, and where, in a +general way, under the auspices of a talented dwarf, C. A. Cheever, the +embryonic phonograph and the crude telephone shared rooms and expenses. +Gardiner G. Hubbard, father-in-law of Alex. Graham Bell, was one of the +stockholders in the Phonograph Company, which paid Edison $10,000 cash +and a 20 per cent. royalty. This curious partnership was maintained for +some time, even when the Bell Telephone offices were removed to Reade +Street, New York, whither the phonograph went also; and was perhaps +explained by the fact that just then the ability of the phonograph as +a money-maker was much more easily demonstrated than was that of +the telephone, still in its short range magneto stage and awaiting +development with the aid of the carbon transmitter. + +The earning capacity of the phonograph then, as largely now, lay in its +exhibition qualities. The royalties from Boston, ever intellectually +awake and ready for something new, ran as high as $1800 a week. In New +York there was a ceaseless demand for it, and with the aid of Hilbourne +L. Roosevelt, a famous organ builder, and uncle of ex-President +Roosevelt, concerts were given at which the phonograph was "featured." +To manage this novel show business the services of James Redpath were +called into requisition with great success. Redpath, famous as a friend +and biographer of John Brown, as a Civil War correspondent, and as +founder of the celebrated Redpath Lyceum Bureau in Boston, divided +the country into territories, each section being leased for exhibition +purposes on a basis of a percentage of the "gate money." To 203 +Broadway from all over the Union flocked a swarm of showmen, cranks, and +particularly of old operators, who, the seedier they were in appearance, +the more insistent they were that "Tom" should give them, for the sake +of "Auld lang syne," this chance to make a fortune for him and for +themselves. At the top of the building was a floor on which these +novices were graduated in the use and care of the machine, and then, +with an equipment of tinfoil and other supplies, they were sent out on +the road. It was a diverting experience while it lasted. The excitement +over the phonograph was maintained for many months, until a large +proportion of the inhabitants of the country had seen it; and then the +show receipts declined and dwindled away. Many of the old operators, +taken on out of good-nature, were poor exhibitors and worse accountants, +and at last they and the machines with which they had been intrusted +faded from sight. But in the mean time Edison had learned many lessons +as to this practical side of development that were not forgotten when +the renascence of the phonograph began a few years later, leading up to +the present enormous and steady demand for both machines and records. + +It deserves to be pointed out that the phonograph has changed little in +the intervening years from the first crude instruments of 1877-78. It +has simply been refined and made more perfect in a mechanical sense. +Edison was immensely impressed with its possibilities, and greatly +inclined to work upon it, but the coming of the electric light compelled +him to throw all his energies for a time into the vast new field +awaiting conquest. The original phonograph, as briefly noted above, was +rotated by hand, and the cylinder was fed slowly longitudinally by means +of a nut engaging a screw thread on the cylinder shaft. Wrapped +around the cylinder was a sheet of tinfoil, with which engaged a small +chisel-like recording needle, connected adhesively with the centre of +an iron diaphragm. Obviously, as the cylinder was turned, the needle +followed a spiral path whose pitch depended upon that of the feed screw. +Along this path a thread was cut in the cylinder so as to permit the +needle to indent the foil readily as the diaphragm vibrated. By rotating +the cylinder and by causing the diaphragm to vibrate under the effect +of vocal or musical sounds, the needle-like point would form a series +of indentations in the foil corresponding to and characteristic of the +sound-waves. By now engaging the point with the beginning of the grooved +record so formed, and by again rotating the cylinder, the undulations of +the record would cause the needle and its attached diaphragm to vibrate +so as to effect the reproduction. Such an apparatus was necessarily +undeveloped, and was interesting only from a scientific point of view. +It had many mechanical defects which prevented its use as a practical +apparatus. Since the cylinder was rotated by hand, the speed at which +the record was formed would vary considerably, even with the same +manipulator, so that it would have been impossible to record and +reproduce music satisfactorily; in doing which exact uniformity of +speed is essential. The formation of the record in tinfoil was also +objectionable from a practical standpoint, since such a record was faint +and would be substantially obliterated after two or three reproductions. +Furthermore, the foil could not be easily removed from and replaced +upon the instrument, and consequently the reproduction had to follow the +recording immediately, and the successive tinfoils were thrown away. The +instrument was also heavy and bulky. Notwithstanding these objections +the original phonograph created, as already remarked, an enormous +popular excitement, and the exhibitions were considered by many +sceptical persons as nothing more than clever ventriloquism. The +possibilities of the instrument as a commercial apparatus were +recognized from the very first, and some of the fields in which it was +predicted that the phonograph would be used are now fully occupied. +Some have not yet been realized. Writing in 1878 in the North +American-Review, Mr. Edison thus summed up his own ideas as to the +future applications of the new invention: + + +"Among the many uses to which the phonograph will be applied are the +following: + +1. Letter writing and all kinds of dictation without the aid of a +stenographer. + +2. Phonographic books, which will speak to blind people without effort +on their part. + +3. The teaching of elocution. + +4. Reproduction of music. + +5. The 'Family Record'--a registry of sayings, reminiscences, etc., by +members of a family in their own voices, and of the last words of dying +persons. + +6. Music-boxes and toys. + +7. Clocks that should announce in articulate speech the time for going +home, going to meals, etc. + +8. The preservation of languages by exact reproduction of the manner of +pronouncing. + +9. Educational purposes; such as preserving the explanations made by a +teacher, so that the pupil can refer to them at any moment, and +spelling or other lessons placed upon the phonograph for convenience in +committing to memory. + +10. Connection with the telephone, so as to make that instrument an +auxiliary in the transmission of permanent and invaluable records, +instead of being the recipient of momentary and fleeting communication." + + +Of the above fields of usefulness in which it was expected that +the phonograph might be applied, only three have been commercially +realized--namely, the reproduction of musical, including vaudeville or +talking selections, for which purpose a very large proportion of +the phonographs now made is used; the employment of the machine as a +mechanical stenographer, which field has been taken up actively only +within the past few years; and the utilization of the device for the +teaching of languages, for which purpose it has been successfully +employed, for example, by the International Correspondence Schools of +Scranton, Pennsylvania, for several years. The other uses, however, +which were early predicted for the phonograph have not as yet been +worked out practically, although the time seems not far distant when its +general utility will be widely enlarged. Both dolls and clocks have been +made, but thus far the world has not taken them seriously. + +The original phonograph, as invented by Edison, remained in its +crude and immature state for almost ten years--still the object of +philosophical interest, and as a convenient text-book illustration of +the effect of sound vibration. It continued to be a theme of curious +interest to the imaginative, and the subject of much fiction, while +its neglected commercial possibilities were still more or less vaguely +referred to. During this period of arrested development, Edison was +continuously working on the invention and commercial exploitation of +the incandescent lamp. In 1887 his time was comparatively free, and the +phonograph was then taken up with renewed energy, and the effort made to +overcome its mechanical defects and to furnish a commercial instrument, +so that its early promise might be realized. The important changes made +from that time up to 1890 converted the phonograph from a scientific toy +into a successful industrial apparatus. The idea of forming the record +on tinfoil had been early abandoned, and in its stead was substituted a +cylinder of wax-like material, in which the record was cut by a minute +chisel-like gouging tool. Such a record or phonogram, as it was then +called, could be removed from the machine or replaced at any time, many +reproductions could be obtained without wearing out the record, and +whenever desired the record could be shaved off by a turning-tool so +as to present a fresh surface on which a new record could be formed, +something like an ancient palimpsest. A wax cylinder having walls less +than one-quarter of an inch in thickness could be used for receiving a +large number of records, since the maximum depth of the record groove is +hardly ever greater than one one-thousandth of an inch. Later on, and +as the crowning achievement in the phonograph field, from a commercial +point of view, came the duplication of records to the extent of many +thousands from a single "master." This work was actively developed +between the years 1890 and 1898, and its difficulties may be appreciated +when the problem is stated; the copying from a single master of many +millions of excessively minute sound-waves having a maximum width of one +hundredth of an inch, and a maximum depth of one thousandth of an +inch, or less than the thickness of a sheet of tissue-paper. Among the +interesting developments of this process was the coating of the original +or master record with a homogeneous film of gold so thin that three +hundred thousand of these piled one on top of the other would present a +thickness of only one inch! + +Another important change was in the nature of a reversal of the original +arrangement, the cylinder or mandrel carrying the record being mounted +in fixed bearings, and the recording or reproducing device being fed +lengthwise, like the cutting-tool of a lathe, as the blank or record was +rotated. It was early recognized that a single needle for forming the +record and the reproduction therefrom was an undesirable arrangement, +since the formation of the record required a very sharp cutting-tool, +while satisfactory and repeated reproduction suggested the use of a +stylus which would result in the minimum wear. After many experiments +and the production of a number of types of machines, the present +recorders and reproducers were evolved, the former consisting of a +very small cylindrical gouging tool having a diameter of about forty +thousandths of an inch, and the latter a ball or button-shaped stylus +with a diameter of about thirty-five thousandths of an inch. By using +an incisor of this sort, the record is formed of a series of connected +gouges with rounded sides, varying in depth and width, and with which +the reproducer automatically engages and maintains its engagement. +Another difficulty encountered in the commercial development of the +phonograph was the adjustment of the recording stylus so as to enter the +wax-like surface to a very slight depth, and of the reproducer so as +to engage exactly the record when formed. The earlier types of machines +were provided with separate screws for effecting these adjustments; +but considerable skill was required to obtain good results, and great +difficulty was experienced in meeting the variations in the wax-like +cylinders, due to the warping under atmospheric changes. Consequently, +with the early types of commercial phonographs, it was first necessary +to shave off the blank accurately before a record was formed thereon, +in order that an absolutely true surface might be presented. To overcome +these troubles, the very ingenious suggestion was then made and adopted, +of connecting the recording and reproducing styluses to their respective +diaphragms through the instrumentality of a compensating weight, +which acted practically as a fixed support under the very rapid sound +vibrations, but which yielded readily to distortions or variations +in the wax-like cylinders. By reason of this improvement, it became +possible to do away with all adjustments, the mass of the compensating +weight causing the recorder to engage the blank automatically to the +required depth, and to maintain the reproducing stylus always with the +desired pressure on the record when formed. These automatic adjustments +were maintained even though the blank or record might be so much out of +true as an eighth of an inch, equal to more than two hundred times the +maximum depth of the record groove. + +Another improvement that followed along the lines adopted by Edison for +the commercial development of the phonograph was making the recording +and reproducing styluses of sapphire, an extremely hard, non-oxidizable +jewel, so that those tiny instruments would always retain their true +form and effectively resist wear. Of course, in this work many other +things were done that may still be found on the perfected phonograph +as it stands to-day, and many other suggestions were made which were +contemporaneously adopted, but which were later abandoned. For the +curious-minded, reference is made to the records in the Patent Office, +which will show that up to 1893 Edison had obtained upward of sixty-five +patents in this art, from which his line of thought can be very closely +traced. The phonograph of to-day, except for the perfection of its +mechanical features, in its beauty of manufacture and design, and in +small details, may be considered identical with the machine of 1889, +with the exception that with the latter the rotation of the record +cylinder was effected by an electric motor. + +Its essential use as then contemplated was as a substitute for +stenographers, and the most extravagant fancies were indulged in as to +utility in that field. To exploit the device commercially, the patents +were sold to Philadelphia capitalists, who organized the North American +Phonograph Company, through which leases for limited periods were +granted to local companies doing business in special territories, +generally within the confines of a single State. Under that plan, +resembling the methods of 1878, the machines and blank cylinders were +manufactured by the Edison Phonograph Works, which still retains its +factories at Orange, New Jersey. The marketing enterprise was early +doomed to failure, principally because the instruments were not well +understood, and did not possess the necessary refinements that would fit +them for the special field in which they were to be used. At first the +instruments were leased; but it was found that the leases were seldom +renewed. Efforts were then made to sell them, but the prices were +high--from $100 to $150. In the midst of these difficulties, the chief +promoter of the enterprise, Mr. Lippincott, died; and it was soon found +that the roseate dreams of success entertained by the sanguine promoters +were not to be realized. The North American Phonograph Company failed, +its principal creditor being Mr. Edison, who, having acquired the assets +of the defunct concern, organized the National Phonograph Company, to +which he turned over the patents; and with characteristic energy he +attempted again to build up a business with which his favorite and, to +him, most interesting invention might be successfully identified. The +National Phonograph Company from the very start determined to retire at +least temporarily from the field of stenographic use, and to exploit the +phonograph for musical purposes as a competitor of the music-box. Hence +it was necessary that for such work the relatively heavy and expensive +electric motor should be discarded, and a simple spring motor +constructed with a sufficiently sensitive governor to permit accurate +musical reproduction. Such a motor was designed, and is now used on +all phonographs except on such special instruments as may be made with +electric motors, as well as on the successful apparatus that has more +recently been designed and introduced for stenographic use. Improved +factory facilities were introduced; new tools were made, and various +types of machines were designed so that phonographs can now be bought at +prices ranging from $10 to $200. Even with the changes which were thus +made in the two machines, the work of developing the business was slow, +as a demand had to be created; and the early prejudice of the public +against the phonograph, due to its failure as a stenographic apparatus, +had to be overcome. The story of the phonograph as an industrial +enterprise, from this point of departure, is itself full of interest, +but embraces so many details that it is necessarily given in a separate +later chapter. We must return to the days of 1878, when Edison, with at +least three first-class inventions to his credit--the quadruplex, the +carbon telephone, and the phonograph--had become a man of mark and a +"world character." + +The invention of the phonograph was immediately followed, as usual, by +the appearance of several other incidental and auxiliary devices, some +patented, and others remaining simply the application of the +principles of apparatus that had been worked out. One of these was the +telephonograph, a combination of a telephone at a distant station with a +phonograph. The diaphragm of the phonograph mouthpiece is actuated by an +electromagnet in the same way as that of an ordinary telephone receiver, +and in this manner a record of the message spoken from a distance can +be obtained and turned into sound at will. Evidently such a process +is reversible, and the phonograph can send a message to the distant +receiver. + +This idea was brilliantly demonstrated in practice in February, 1889, by +Mr. W. J. Hammer, one of Edison's earliest and most capable associates, +who carried on telephonographic communication between New York and an +audience in Philadelphia. The record made in New York on the Edison +phonograph was repeated into an Edison carbon transmitter, sent over one +hundred and three miles of circuit, including six miles of underground +cable; received by an Edison motograph; repeated by that on to a +phonograph; transferred from the phonograph to an Edison carbon +transmitter, and by that delivered to the Edison motograph receiver in +the enthusiastic lecture-hall, where every one could hear each sound +and syllable distinctly. In real practice this spectacular playing with +sound vibrations, as if they were lacrosse balls to toss around between +the goals, could be materially simplified. + +The modern megaphone, now used universally in making announcements +to large crowds, particularly at sporting events, is also due to this +period as a perfection by Edison of many antecedent devices going back, +perhaps, much further than the legendary funnels through which Alexander +the Great is said to have sent commands to his outlying forces. The +improved Edison megaphone for long-distance work comprised two horns of +wood or metal about six feet long, tapering from a diameter of two feet +six inches at the mouth to a small aperture provided with ear-tubes. +These converging horns or funnels, with a large speaking-trumpet in +between them, are mounted on a tripod, and the megaphone is complete. +Conversation can be carried on with this megaphone at a distance of +over two miles, as with a ship or the balloon. The modern megaphone +now employs the receiver form thus introduced as its very effective +transmitter, with which the old-fashioned speaking-trumpet cannot +possibly compete; and the word "megaphone" is universally applied to the +single, side-flaring horn. + +A further step in this line brought Edison to the "aerophone," around +which the Figaro weaved its fanciful description. In the construction +of the aerophone the same kind of tympanum is used as in the phonograph, +but the imitation of the human voice, or the transmission of sound, +is effected by the quick opening and closing of valves placed within +a steam-whistle or an organ-pipe. The vibrations of the diaphragm +communicated to the valves cause them to operate in synchronism, so that +the vibrations are thrown upon the escaping air or steam; and the result +is an instrument with a capacity of magnifying the sounds two hundred +times, and of hurling them to great distances intelligibly, like a huge +fog-siren, but with immense clearness and penetration. All this study +of sound transmission over long distances without wires led up to +the consideration and invention of pioneer apparatus for wireless +telegraphy--but that also is another chapter. + +Yet one more ingenious device of this period must be noted--Edison's +vocal engine, the patent application for which was executed in August, +1878, the patent being granted the following December. Reference to +this by Edison himself has already been quoted. The "voice-engine," or +"phonomotor," converts the vibrations of the voice or of music, acting +on the diaphragm, into motion which is utilized to drive some secondary +appliance, whether as a toy or for some useful purpose. Thus a man can +actually talk a hole through a board. + +Somewhat weary of all this work and excitement, and not having enjoyed +any cessation from toil, or period of rest, for ten years, Edison jumped +eagerly at the opportunity afforded him in the summer of 1878 of making +a westward trip. Just thirty years later, on a similar trip over the +same ground, he jotted down for this volume some of his reminiscences. +The lure of 1878 was the opportunity to try the ability of his delicate +tasimeter during the total eclipse of the sun, July 29. His admiring +friend, Prof. George F. Barker, of the University of Pennsylvania, with +whom he had now been on terms of intimacy for some years, suggested the +holiday, and was himself a member of the excursion party that made +its rendezvous at Rawlins, Wyoming Territory. Edison had tested his +tasimeter, and was satisfied that it would measure down to the millionth +part of a degree Fahrenheit. It was just ten years since he had left the +West in poverty and obscurity, a penniless operator in search of a job; +but now he was a great inventor and famous, a welcome addition to the +band of astronomers and physicists assembled to observe the eclipse and +the corona. + +"There were astronomers from nearly every nation," says Mr. Edison. "We +had a special car. The country at that time was rather new; game was +in great abundance, and could be seen all day long from the car window, +especially antelope. We arrived at Rawlins about 4 P.M. It had a small +machine shop, and was the point where locomotives were changed for the +next section. The hotel was a very small one, and by doubling up we were +barely accommodated. My room-mate was Fox, the correspondent of the New +York Herald. After we retired and were asleep a thundering knock on +the door awakened us. Upon opening the door a tall, handsome man with +flowing hair dressed in western style entered the room. His eyes were +bloodshot, and he was somewhat inebriated. He introduced himself as +'Texas Jack'--Joe Chromondo--and said he wanted to see Edison, as he had +read about me in the newspapers. Both Fox and I were rather scared, and +didn't know what was to be the result of the interview. The landlord +requested him not to make so much noise, and was thrown out into the +hall. Jack explained that he had just come in with a party which had +been hunting, and that he felt fine. He explained, also, that he was the +boss pistol-shot of the West; that it was he who taught the celebrated +Doctor Carver how to shoot. Then suddenly pointing to a weather-vane on +the freight depot, he pulled out a Colt revolver and fired through the +window, hitting the vane. The shot awakened all the people, and they +rushed in to see who was killed. It was only after I told him I was +tired and would see him in the morning that he left. Both Fox and I were +so nervous we didn't sleep any that night. + +"We were told in the morning that Jack was a pretty good fellow, and was +not one of the 'bad men,' of whom they had a good supply. They had one +in the jail, and Fox and I went over to see him. A few days before he +had held up a Union Pacific train and robbed all the passengers. In +the jail also was a half-breed horse-thief. We interviewed the bad man +through bars as big as railroad rails. He looked like a 'bad man.' The +rim of his ear all around came to a sharp edge and was serrated. His +eyes were nearly white, and appeared as if made of glass and set +in wrong, like the life-size figures of Indians in the Smithsonian +Institution. His face was also extremely irregular. He wouldn't answer a +single question. I learned afterward that he got seven years in prison, +while the horse-thief was hanged. As horses ran wild, and there was no +protection, it meant death to steal one." + +This was one interlude among others. "The first thing the astronomers +did was to determine with precision their exact locality upon the earth. +A number of observations were made, and Watson, of Michigan University, +with two others, worked all night computing, until they agreed. They +said they were not in error more than one hundred feet, and that the +station was twelve miles out of the position given on the maps. It +seemed to take an immense amount of mathematics. I preserved one of +the sheets, which looked like the time-table of a Chinese railroad. The +instruments of the various parties were then set up in different parts +of the little town, and got ready for the eclipse which was to occur in +three or four days. Two days before the event we all got together, and +obtaining an engine and car, went twelve miles farther west to visit the +United States Government astronomers at a place called Separation, the +apex of the Great Divide, where the waters run east to the Mississippi +and west to the Pacific. Fox and I took our Winchester rifles with an +idea of doing a little shooting. After calling on the Government people +we started to interview the telegraph operator at this most lonely and +desolate spot. After talking over old acquaintances I asked him if +there was any game around. He said, 'Plenty of jack-rabbits.' These +jack-rabbits are a very peculiar species. They have ears about six +inches long and very slender legs, about three times as long as those +of an ordinary rabbit, and travel at a great speed by a series of jumps, +each about thirty feet long, as near as I could judge. The local +people called them 'narrow-gauge mules.' Asking the operator the best +direction, he pointed west, and noticing a rabbit in a clear space in +the sage bushes, I said, 'There is one now.' I advanced cautiously to +within one hundred feet and shot. The rabbit paid no attention. I +then advanced to within ten feet and shot again--the rabbit was still +immovable. On looking around, the whole crowd at the station were +watching--and then I knew the rabbit was stuffed! However, we did shoot +a number of live ones until Fox ran out of cartridges. On returning to +the station I passed away the time shooting at cans set on a pile of +tins. Finally the operator said to Fox: 'I have a fine Springfield +musket, suppose you try it!' So Fox took the musket and fired. It +knocked him nearly over. It seems that the musket had been run over by +a handcar, which slightly bent the long barrel, but not sufficiently for +an amateur like Fox to notice. After Fox had his shoulder treated with +arnica at the Government hospital tent, we returned to Rawlins." + +The eclipse was, however, the prime consideration, and Edison followed +the example of his colleagues in making ready. The place which he +secured for setting up his tasimeter was an enclosure hardly suitable +for the purpose, and he describes the results as follows: + +"I had my apparatus in a small yard enclosed by a board fence six feet +high, at one end there was a house for hens. I noticed that they all +went to roost just before totality. At the same time a slight wind +arose, and at the moment of totality the atmosphere was filled with +thistle-down and other light articles. I noticed one feather, +whose weight was at least one hundred and fifty milligrams, rise +perpendicularly to the top of the fence, where it floated away on the +wind. My apparatus was entirely too sensitive, and I got no results." +It was found that the heat from the corona of the sun was ten times +the index capacity of the instrument; but this result did not leave the +value of the device in doubt. The Scientific American remarked; + +"Seeing that the tasimeter is affected by a wider range of etheric +undulations than the eye can take cognizance of, and is withal far more +acutely sensitive, the probabilities are that it will open up hitherto +inaccessible regions of space, and possibly extend the range of aerial +knowledge as far beyond the limit obtained by the telescope as that is +beyond the narrow reach of unaided vision." + + +The eclipse over, Edison, with Professor Barker, Major Thornberg, +several soldiers, and a number of railroad officials, went hunting about +one hundred miles south of the railroad in the Ute country. A few months +later the Major and thirty soldiers were ambushed near the spot at +which the hunting-party had camped, and all were killed. Through an +introduction from Mr. Jay Gould, who then controlled the Union Pacific, +Edison was allowed to ride on the cow-catchers of the locomotives. "The +different engineers gave me a small cushion, and every day I rode in +this manner, from Omaha to the Sacramento Valley, except through the +snow-shed on the summit of the Sierras, without dust or anything else to +obstruct the view. Only once was I in danger when the locomotive struck +an animal about the size of a small cub bear--which I think was a +badger. This animal struck the front of the locomotive just under the +headlight with great violence, and was then thrown off by the rebound. I +was sitting to one side grasping the angle brace, so no harm was done." + +This welcome vacation lasted nearly two months; but Edison was back in +his laboratory and hard at work before the end of August, gathering +up many loose ends, and trying out many thoughts and ideas that had +accumulated on the trip. One hot afternoon--August 30th, as shown by +the document in the case--Mr. Edison was found by one of the authors +of this biography employed most busily in making a mysterious series of +tests on paper, using for ink acids that corrugated and blistered the +paper where written upon. When interrogated as to his object, he stated +that the plan was to afford blind people the means of writing directly +to each other, especially if they were also deaf and could not hear a +message on the phonograph. The characters which he was thus forming on +the paper were high enough in relief to be legible to the delicate touch +of a blind man's fingers, and with simple apparatus letters could be +thus written, sent, and read. There was certainly no question as to the +result obtained at the moment, which was all that was asked; but the +Edison autograph thus and then written now shows the paper eaten out by +the acid used, although covered with glass for many years. Mr. Edison +does not remember that he ever recurred to this very interesting test. + +He was, however, ready for anything new or novel, and no record can ever +be made or presented that would do justice to a tithe of the thoughts +and fancies daily and hourly put upon the rack. The famous note-books, +to which reference will be made later, were not begun as a regular +series, as it was only the profusion of these ideas that suggested +the vital value of such systematic registration. Then as now, the +propositions brought to Edison ranged over every conceivable subject, +but the years have taught him caution in grappling with them. He tells +an amusing story of one dilemma into which his good-nature led him at +this period: "At Menlo Park one day, a farmer came in and asked if I +knew any way to kill potato-bugs. He had twenty acres of potatoes, and +the vines were being destroyed. I sent men out and culled two quarts +of bugs, and tried every chemical I had to destroy them. Bisulphide of +carbon was found to do it instantly. I got a drum and went over to the +potato farm and sprinkled it on the vines with a pot. Every bug dropped +dead. The next morning the farmer came in very excited and reported +that the stuff had killed the vines as well. I had to pay $300 for not +experimenting properly." + +During this year, 1878, the phonograph made its way also to Europe, +and various sums of money were paid there to secure the rights to its +manufacture and exploitation. In England, for example, the Microscopic +Company paid $7500 down and agreed to a royalty, while arrangements were +effected also in France, Russia, and other countries. In every instance, +as in this country, the commercial development had to wait several +years, for in the mean time another great art had been brought into +existence, demanding exclusive attention and exhaustive toil. And when +the work was done the reward was a new heaven and a new earth--in the +art of illumination. + + + +CHAPTER XI + +THE INVENTION OF THE INCANDESCENT LAMP + +IT is possible to imagine a time to come when the hours of work and rest +will once more be regulated by the sun. But the course of civilization +has been marked by an artificial lengthening of the day, and by a +constant striving after more perfect means of illumination. Why mankind +should sleep through several hours of sunlight in the morning, and +stay awake through a needless time in the evening, can probably only be +attributed to total depravity. It is certainly a most stupid, expensive, +and harmful habit. In no one thing has man shown greater fertility of +invention than in lighting; to nothing does he cling more tenaciously +than to his devices for furnishing light. Electricity to-day reigns +supreme in the field of illumination, but every other kind of artificial +light that has ever been known is still in use somewhere. Toward its +light-bringers the race has assumed an attitude of veneration, though it +has forgotten, if it ever heard, the names of those who first brightened +its gloom and dissipated its darkness. If the tallow candle, hitherto +unknown, were now invented, its creator would be hailed as one of the +greatest benefactors of the present age. + +Up to the close of the eighteenth century, the means of house and street +illumination were of two generic kinds--grease and oil; but then came +a swift and revolutionary change in the adoption of gas. The ideas and +methods of Murdoch and Lebon soon took definite shape, and "coal smoke" +was piped from its place of origin to distant points of consumption. +As early as 1804, the first company ever organized for gas lighting was +formed in London, one side of Pall Mall being lit up by the enthusiastic +pioneer, Winsor, in 1807. Equal activity was shown in America, and +Baltimore began the practice of gas lighting in 1816. It is true that +there were explosions, and distinguished men like Davy and Watt opined +that the illuminant was too dangerous; but the "spirit of coal" had +demonstrated its usefulness convincingly, and a commercial development +began, which, for extent and rapidity, was not inferior to that marking +the concurrent adoption of steam in industry and transportation. + +Meantime the wax candle and the Argand oil lamp held their own bravely. +The whaling fleets, long after gas came into use, were one of the +greatest sources of our national wealth. To New Bedford, Massachusetts, +alone, some three or four hundred ships brought their whale and sperm +oil, spermaceti, and whalebone; and at one time that port was accounted +the richest city in the United States in proportion to its population. +The ship-owners and refiners of that whaling metropolis were slow to +believe that their monopoly could ever be threatened by newer sources of +illumination; but gas had become available in the cities, and coal-oil +and petroleum were now added to the list of illuminating materials. The +American whaling fleet, which at the time of Edison's birth mustered +over seven hundred sail, had dwindled probably to a bare tenth when he +took up the problem of illumination; and the competition of oil from the +ground with oil from the sea, and with coal-gas, had made the artificial +production of light cheaper than ever before, when up to the middle +of the century it had remained one of the heaviest items of domestic +expense. Moreover, just about the time that Edison took up incandescent +lighting, water-gas was being introduced on a large scale as a +commercial illuminant that could be produced at a much lower cost than +coal-gas. + +Throughout the first half of the nineteenth century the search for a +practical electric light was almost wholly in the direction of employing +methods analogous to those already familiar; in other words, obtaining +the illumination from the actual consumption of the light-giving +material. In the third quarter of the century these methods were +brought to practicality, but all may be referred back to the brilliant +demonstrations of Sir Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution, circa +1809-10, when, with the current from a battery of two thousand cells, he +produced an intense voltaic arc between the points of consuming sticks +of charcoal. For more than thirty years the arc light remained an +expensive laboratory experiment; but the coming of the dynamo placed +that illuminant on a commercial basis. The mere fact that electrical +energy from the least expensive chemical battery using up zinc and +acids costs twenty times as much as that from a dynamo--driven by +steam-engine--is in itself enough to explain why so many of the electric +arts lingered in embryo after their fundamental principles had been +discovered. Here is seen also further proof of the great truth that one +invention often waits for another. + +From 1850 onward the improvements in both the arc lamp and the dynamo +were rapid; and under the superintendence of the great Faraday, in 1858, +protecting beams of intense electric light from the voltaic arc were +shed over the waters of the Straits of Dover from the beacons of South +Foreland and Dungeness. By 1878 the arc-lighting industry had sprung +into existence in so promising a manner as to engender an extraordinary +fever and furor of speculation. At the Philadelphia Centennial +Exposition of 1876, Wallace-Farmer dynamos built at Ansonia, +Connecticut, were shown, with the current from which arc lamps were +there put in actual service. A year or two later the work of Charles F. +Brush and Edward Weston laid the deep foundation of modern arc lighting +in America, securing as well substantial recognition abroad. + +Thus the new era had been ushered in, but it was based altogether on the +consumption of some material--carbon--in a lamp open to the air. Every +lamp the world had ever known did this, in one way or another. Edison +himself began at that point, and his note-books show that he made +various experiments with this type of lamp at a very early stage. +Indeed, his experiments had led him so far as to anticipate in 1875 what +are now known as "flaming arcs," the exceedingly bright and generally +orange or rose-colored lights which have been introduced within the last +few years, and are now so frequently seen in streets and public places. +While the arcs with plain carbons are bluish-white, those with carbons +containing calcium fluoride have a notable golden glow. + +He was convinced, however, that the greatest field of lighting lay in +the illumination of houses and other comparatively enclosed areas, +to replace the ordinary gas light, rather than in the illumination +of streets and other outdoor places by lights of great volume +and brilliancy. Dismissing from his mind quickly the commercial +impossibility of using arc lights for general indoor illumination, +he arrived at the conclusion that an electric lamp giving light by +incandescence was the solution of the problem. + +Edison was familiar with the numerous but impracticable and commercially +unsuccessful efforts that had been previously made by other inventors +and investigators to produce electric light by incandescence, and at the +time that he began his experiments, in 1877, almost the whole scientific +world had pronounced such an idea as impossible of fulfilment. The +leading electricians, physicists, and experts of the period had been +studying the subject for more than a quarter of a century, and with but +one known exception had proven mathematically and by close reasoning +that the "Subdivision of the Electric Light," as it was then termed, was +practically beyond attainment. Opinions of this nature have ever been +but a stimulus to Edison when he has given deep thought to a subject, +and has become impressed with strong convictions of possibility, and +in this particular case he was satisfied that the subdivision of the +electric light--or, more correctly, the subdivision of the electric +current--was not only possible but entirely practicable. + +It will have been perceived from the foregoing chapters that from the +time of boyhood, when he first began to rub against the world, his +commercial instincts were alert and predominated in almost all of the +enterprises that he set in motion. This characteristic trait had grown +stronger as he matured, having received, as it did, fresh impetus and +strength from his one lapse in the case of his first patented invention, +the vote-recorder. The lesson he then learned was to devote his +inventive faculties only to things for which there was a real, genuine +demand, and that would subserve the actual necessities of humanity; and +it was probably a fortunate circumstance that this lesson was learned +at the outset of his career as an inventor. He has never assumed to be a +philosopher or "pure scientist." + +In order that the reader may grasp an adequate idea of the magnitude and +importance of Edison's invention of the incandescent lamp, it will be +necessary to review briefly the "state of the art" at the time he +began his experiments on that line. After the invention of the voltaic +battery, early in the last century, experiments were made which +determined that heat could be produced by the passage of the electric +current through wires of platinum and other metals, and through pieces +of carbon, as noted already, and it was, of course, also observed that +if sufficient current were passed through these conductors they could be +brought from the lower stage of redness up to the brilliant white heat +of incandescence. As early as 1845 the results of these experiments were +taken advantage of when Starr, a talented American who died at the early +age of twenty-five, suggested, in his English patent of that year, two +forms of small incandescent electric lamps, one having a burner made +from platinum foil placed under a glass cover without excluding the air; +and the other composed of a thin plate or pencil of carbon enclosed in +a Torricellian vacuum. These suggestions of young Starr were followed +by many other experimenters, whose improvements consisted principally in +devices to increase the compactness and portability of the lamp, in +the sealing of the lamp chamber to prevent the admission of air, and +in means for renewing the carbon burner when it had been consumed. Thus +Roberts, in 1852, proposed to cement the neck of the glass globe into a +metallic cup, and to provide it with a tube or stop-cock for exhaustion +by means of a hand-pump. Lodyguine, Konn, Kosloff, and Khotinsky, +between 1872 and 1877, proposed various ingenious devices for perfecting +the joint between the metal base and the glass globe, and also provided +their lamps with several short carbon pencils, which were automatically +brought into circuit successively as the pencils were consumed. In 1876 +or 1877, Bouliguine proposed the employment of a long carbon pencil, a +short section only of which was in circuit at any one time and formed +the burner, the lamp being provided with a mechanism for automatically +pushing other sections of the pencil into position between the contacts +to renew the burner. Sawyer and Man proposed, in 1878, to make +the bottom plate of glass instead of metal, and provided ingenious +arrangements for charging the lamp chamber with an atmosphere of pure +nitrogen gas which does not support combustion. + +These lamps and many others of similar character, ingenious as they +were, failed to become of any commercial value, due, among other things, +to the brief life of the carbon burner. Even under the best conditions +it was found that the carbon members were subject to a rapid +disintegration or evaporation, which experimenters assumed was due to +the disrupting action of the electric current; and hence the conclusion +that carbon contained in itself the elements of its own destruction, and +was not a suitable material for the burner of an incandescent lamp. On +the other hand, platinum, although found to be the best of all materials +for the purpose, aside from its great expense, and not combining with +oxygen at high temperatures as does carbon, required to be brought +so near the melting-point in order to give light, that a very slight +increase in the temperature resulted in its destruction. It was assumed +that the difficulty lay in the material of the burner itself, and not in +its environment. + +It was not realized up to such a comparatively recent date as 1879 that +the solution of the great problem of subdivision of the electric current +would not, however, be found merely in the production of a durable +incandescent electric lamp--even if any of the lamps above referred to +had fulfilled that requirement. The other principal features necessary +to subdivide the electric current successfully were: the burning of an +indefinite number of lights on the same circuit; each light to give +a useful and economical degree of illumination; and each light to +be independent of all the others in regard to its operation and +extinguishment. + +The opinions of scientific men of the period on the subject are well +represented by the two following extracts--the first, from a lecture at +the Royal United Service Institution, about February, 1879, by Mr. (Sir) +W. H. Preece, one of the most eminent electricians in England, +who, after discussing the question mathematically, said: "Hence the +sub-division of the light is an absolute ignis fatuus." The other +extract is from a book written by Paget Higgs, LL.D., D.Sc., published +in London in 1879, in which he says: "Much nonsense has been talked +in relation to this subject. Some inventors have claimed the power to +'indefinitely divide' the electric current, not knowing or forgetting +that such a statement is incompatible with the well-proven law of +conservation of energy." + +"Some inventors," in the last sentence just quoted, probably--indeed, +we think undoubtedly--refers to Edison, whose earlier work in electric +lighting (1878) had been announced in this country and abroad, and +who had then stated boldly his conviction of the practicability of +the subdivision of the electrical current. The above extracts are good +illustrations, however, of scientific opinions up to the end of +1879, when Mr. Edison's epoch-making invention rendered them entirely +untenable. The eminent scientist, John Tyndall, while not sharing these +precise views, at least as late as January 17, 1879, delivered a lecture +before the Royal Institution on "The Electric Light," when, after +pointing out the development of the art up to Edison's work, and showing +the apparent hopelessness of the problem, he said: "Knowing something of +the intricacy of the practical problem, I should certainly prefer seeing +it in Edison's hands to having it in mine." + +The reader may have deemed this sketch of the state of the art to be +a considerable digression; but it is certainly due to the subject to +present the facts in such a manner as to show that this great invention +was neither the result of improving some process or device that was +known or existing at the time, nor due to any unforeseen lucky chance, +nor the accidental result of other experiments. On the contrary, it was +the legitimate outcome of a series of exhaustive experiments founded +upon logical and original reasoning in a mind that had the courage and +hardihood to set at naught the confirmed opinions of the world, +voiced by those generally acknowledged to be the best exponents of the +art--experiments carried on amid a storm of jeers and derision, almost +as contemptuous as if the search were for the discovery of perpetual +motion. In this we see the man foreshadowed by the boy who, when he +obtained his books on chemistry or physics, did not accept any statement +of fact or experiment therein, but worked out every one of them himself +to ascertain whether or not they were true. + +Although this brings the reader up to the year 1879, one must turn back +two years and accompany Edison in his first attack on the electric-light +problem. In 1877 he sold his telephone invention (the carbon +transmitter) to the Western Union Telegraph Company, which had +previously come into possession also of his quadruplex inventions, +as already related. He was still busily engaged on the telephone, +on acoustic electrical transmission, sextuplex telegraphs, duplex +telegraphs, miscellaneous carbon articles, and other inventions of a +minor nature. During the whole of the previous year and until late in +the summer of 1877, he had been working with characteristic energy and +enthusiasm on the telephone; and, in developing this invention to a +successful issue, had preferred the use of carbon and had employed it in +numerous forms, especially in the form of carbonized paper. + +Eighteen hundred and seventy-seven in Edison's laboratory was a +veritable carbon year, for it was carbon in some shape or form for +interpolation in electric circuits of various kinds that occupied the +thoughts of the whole force from morning to night. It is not surprising, +therefore, that in September of that year, when Edison turned his +thoughts actively toward electric lighting by incandescence, his early +experiments should be in the line of carbon as an illuminant. His +originality of method was displayed at the very outset, for one of the +first experiments was the bringing to incandescence of a strip of carbon +in the open air to ascertain merely how much current was required. +This conductor was a strip of carbonized paper about an inch long, +one-sixteenth of an inch broad, and six or seven one-thousandths of an +inch thick, the ends of which were secured to clamps that formed the +poles of a battery. The carbon was lighted up to incandescence, and, of +course, oxidized and disintegrated immediately. Within a few days this +was followed by experiments with the same kind of carbon, but in vacuo +by means of a hand-worked air-pump. This time the carbon strip burned +at incandescence for about eight minutes. Various expedients to prevent +oxidization were tried, such, for instance, as coating the carbon with +powdered glass, which in melting would protect the carbon from the +atmosphere, but without successful results. + +Edison was inclined to concur in the prevailing opinion as to the easy +destructibility of carbon, but, without actually settling the point in +his mind, he laid aside temporarily this line of experiment and entered +a new field. He had made previously some trials of platinum wire as +an incandescent burner for a lamp, but left it for a time in favor of +carbon. He now turned to the use of almost infusible metals--such as +boron, ruthenium, chromium, etc.--as separators or tiny bridges between +two carbon points, the current acting so as to bring these separators +to a high degree of incandescence, at which point they would emit a +brilliant light. He also placed some of these refractory metals directly +in the circuit, bringing them to incandescence, and used silicon in +powdered form in glass tubes placed in the electric circuit. His notes +include the use of powdered silicon mixed with lime or other very +infusible non-conductors or semi-conductors. Edison's conclusions on +these substances were that, while in some respects they were within the +bounds of possibility for the subdivision of the electric current, they +did not reach the ideal that he had in mind for commercial results. + +Edison's systematized attacks on the problem were two in number, the +first of which we have just related, which began in September, 1877, and +continued until about January, 1878. Contemporaneously, he and his +force of men were very busily engaged day and night on other important +enterprises and inventions. Among the latter, the phonograph may be +specially mentioned, as it was invented in the late fall of 1877. From +that time until July, 1878, his time and attention day and night were +almost completely absorbed by the excitement caused by the invention and +exhibition of the machine. In July, feeling entitled to a brief vacation +after several years of continuous labor, Edison went with the expedition +to Wyoming to observe an eclipse of the sun, and incidentally to test +his tasimeter, a delicate instrument devised by him for measuring +heat transmitted through immense distances of space. His trip has been +already described. He was absent about two months. Coming home rested +and refreshed, Mr. Edison says: "After my return from the trip to +observe the eclipse of the sun, I went with Professor Barker, Professor +of Physics in the University of Pennsylvania, and Doctor Chandler, +Professor of Chemistry in Columbia College, to see Mr. Wallace, a large +manufacturer of brass in Ansonia, Connecticut. Wallace at this time was +experimenting on series arc lighting. Just at that time I wanted to take +up something new, and Professor Barker suggested that I go to work and +see if I could subdivide the electric light so it could be got in small +units like gas. This was not a new suggestion, because I had made a +number of experiments on electric lighting a year before this. They had +been laid aside for the phonograph. I determined to take up the search +again and continue it. On my return home I started my usual course of +collecting every kind of data about gas; bought all the transactions +of the gas-engineering societies, etc., all the back volumes of gas +journals, etc. Having obtained all the data, and investigated gas-jet +distribution in New York by actual observations, I made up my mind that +the problem of the subdivision of the electric current could be solved +and made commercial." About the end of August, 1878, he began his second +organized attack on the subdivision of the current, which was steadily +maintained until he achieved signal victory a year and two months later. + +The date of this interesting visit to Ansonia is fixed by an inscription +made by Edison on a glass goblet which he used. The legend in diamond +scratches runs: "Thomas A. Edison, September 8, 1878, made under the +electric light." Other members of the party left similar memorials, +which under the circumstances have come to be greatly prized. A number +of experiments were witnessed in arc lighting, and Edison secured +a small Wallace-Farmer dynamo for his own work, as well as a set of +Wallace arc lamps for lighting the Menlo Park laboratory. Before leaving +Ansonia, Edison remarked, significantly: "Wallace, I believe I can beat +you making electric lights. I don't think you are working in the right +direction." Another date which shows how promptly the work was resumed +is October 14, 1878, when Edison filed an application for his first +lighting patent: "Improvement in Electric Lights." In after years, +discussing the work of Wallace, who was not only a great pioneer +electrical manufacturer, but one of the founders of the wire-drawing and +brass-working industry, Edison said: "Wallace was one of the earliest +pioneers in electrical matters in this country. He has done a great deal +of good work, for which others have received the credit; and the +work which he did in the early days of electric lighting others +have benefited by largely, and he has been crowded to one side and +forgotten." Associated in all this work with Wallace at Ansonia was +Prof. Moses G. Farmer, famous for the introduction of the fire-alarm +system; as the discoverer of the self-exciting principle of the modern +dynamo; as a pioneer experimenter in the electric-railway field; as a +telegraph engineer, and as a lecturer on mines and explosives to +naval classes at Newport. During 1858, Farmer, who, like Edison, was a +ceaseless investigator, had made a series of studies upon the production +of light by electricity, and had even invented an automatic regulator +by which a number of platinum lamps in multiple arc could be kept at +uniform voltage for any length of time. In July, 1859, he lit up one of +the rooms of his house at Salem, Massachusetts, every evening with such +lamps, using in them small pieces of platinum and iridium wire, which +were made to incandesce by means of current from primary batteries. +Farmer was not one of the party that memorable day in September, but his +work was known through his intimate connection with Wallace, and there +is no doubt that reference was made to it. Such work had not led +very far, the "lamps" were hopelessly short-lived, and everything was +obviously experimental; but it was all helpful and suggestive to one +whose open mind refused no hint from any quarter. + +At the commencement of his new attempts, Edison returned to his +experiments with carbon as an incandescent burner for a lamp, and made +a very large number of trials, all in vacuo. Not only were the ordinary +strip paper carbons tried again, but tissue-paper coated with tar and +lampblack was rolled into thin sticks, like knitting-needles, carbonized +and raised to incandescence in vacuo. Edison also tried hard carbon, +wood carbons, and almost every conceivable variety of paper carbon in +like manner. With the best vacuum that he could then get by means of the +ordinary air-pump, the carbons would last, at the most, only from ten to +fifteen minutes in a state of incandescence. Such results were evidently +not of commercial value. + +Edison then turned his attention in other directions. In his earliest +consideration of the problem of subdividing the electric current, he had +decided that the only possible solution lay in the employment of a lamp +whose incandescing body should have a high resistance combined with a +small radiating surface, and be capable of being used in what is called +"multiple arc," so that each unit, or lamp, could be turned on or off +without interfering with any other unit or lamp. No other arrangement +could possibly be considered as commercially practicable. + +The full significance of the three last preceding sentences will not be +obvious to laymen, as undoubtedly many of the readers of this book may +be; and now being on the threshold of the series of Edison's experiments +that led up to the basic invention, we interpolate a brief explanation, +in order that the reader may comprehend the logical reasoning and work +that in this case produced such far-reaching results. + +If we consider a simple circuit in which a current is flowing, and +include in the circuit a carbon horseshoe-like conductor which it is +desired to bring to incandescence by the heat generated by the current +passing through it, it is first evident that the resistance offered to +the current by the wires themselves must be less than that offered by +the burner, because, otherwise current would be wasted as heat in the +conducting wires. At the very foundation of the electric-lighting art is +the essentially commercial consideration that one cannot spend very much +for conductors, and Edison determined that, in order to use wires of a +practicable size, the voltage of the current (i.e., its pressure or +the characteristic that overcomes resistance to its flow) should be one +hundred and ten volts, which since its adoption has been the standard. +To use a lower voltage or pressure, while making the solution of the +lighting problem a simple one as we shall see, would make it necessary +to increase the size of the conducting wires to a prohibitive extent. +To increase the voltage or pressure materially, while permitting +some saving in the cost of conductors, would enormously increase the +difficulties of making a sufficiently high resistance conductor to +secure light by incandescence. This apparently remote consideration +--weight of copper used--was really the commercial key to the problem, +just as the incandescent burner was the scientific key to that problem. +Before Edison's invention incandescent lamps had been suggested as +a possibility, but they were provided with carbon rods or strips of +relatively low resistance, and to bring these to incandescence required +a current of low pressure, because a current of high voltage would pass +through them so readily as not to generate heat; and to carry a current +of low pressure through wires without loss would require wires of +enormous size. [8] Having a current of relatively high pressure to +contend with, it was necessary to provide a carbon burner which, as +compared with what had previously been suggested, should have a very +great resistance. Carbon as a material, determined after patient search, +apparently offered the greatest hope, but even with this substance the +necessary high resistance could be obtained only by making the burner +of extremely small cross-section, thereby also reducing its radiating +surface. Therefore, the crucial point was the production of a hair-like +carbon filament, with a relatively great resistance and small radiating +surface, capable of withstanding mechanical shock, and susceptible of +being maintained at a temperature of over two thousand degrees for a +thousand hours or more before breaking. And this filamentary conductor +required to be supported in a vacuum chamber so perfectly formed and +constructed that during all those hours, and subjected as it is to +varying temperatures, not a particle of air should enter to disintegrate +the filament. And not only so, but the lamp after its design must not +be a mere laboratory possibility, but a practical commercial article +capable of being manufactured at low cost and in large quantities. A +statement of what had to be done in those days of actual as well as +scientific electrical darkness is quite sufficient to explain Tyndall's +attitude of mind in preferring that the problem should be in Edison's +hands rather than in his own. To say that the solution of the problem +lay merely in reducing the size of the carbon burner to a mere hair, is +to state a half-truth only; but who, we ask, would have had the temerity +even to suggest that such an attenuated body could be maintained at a +white heat, without disintegration, for a thousand hours? The solution +consisted not only in that, but in the enormous mass of patiently +worked-out details--the manufacture of the filaments, their uniform +carbonization, making the globes, producing a perfect vacuum, and +countless other factors, the omission of any one of which would probably +have resulted eventually in failure. + + + [Footnote 8: As a practical illustration of these facts it + was calculated by Professor Barker, of the University of + Pennsylvania (after Edison had invented the incandescent + lamp), that if it should cost $100,000 for copper conductors + to supply current to Edison lamps in a given area, it would + cost about $200,000,000 for copper conductors for lighting + the same area by lamps of the earlier experimenters--such, + for instance, as the lamp invented by Konn in 1875. This + enormous difference would be accounted for by the fact that + Edison's lamp was one having a high resistance and + relatively small radiating surface, while Konn's lamp was + one having a very low resistance and large radiating + surface.] + +Continuing the digression one step farther in order to explain the term +"multiple arc," it may be stated that there are two principal systems +of distributing electric current, one termed "series," and the other +"multiple arc." The two are illustrated, diagrammatically, side by side, +the arrows indicating flow of current. The series system, it will be +seen, presents one continuous path for the current. The current for the +last lamp must pass through the first and all the intermediate lamps. +Hence, if any one light goes out, the continuity of the path is broken, +current cannot flow, and all the lamps are extinguished unless a loop +or by-path is provided. It is quite obvious that such a system would be +commercially impracticable where small units, similar to gas jets, were +employed. On the other hand, in the multiple-arc system, current may be +considered as flowing in two parallel conductors like the vertical sides +of a ladder, the ends of which never come together. Each lamp is placed +in a separate circuit across these two conductors, like a rung in the +ladder, thus making a separate and independent path for the current in +each case. Hence, if a lamp goes out, only that individual subdivision, +or ladder step, is affected; just that one particular path for the +current is interrupted, but none of the other lamps is interfered with. +They remain lighted, each one independent of the other. The reader will +quite readily understand, therefore, that a multiple-arc system is the +only one practically commercial where electric light is to be used in +small units like those of gas or oil. + +Such was the nature of the problem that confronted Edison at the outset. +There was nothing in the whole world that in any way approximated a +solution, although the most brilliant minds in the electrical art had +been assiduously working on the subject for a quarter of a century +preceding. As already seen, he came early to the conclusion that the +only solution lay in the use of a lamp of high resistance and small +radiating surface, and, with characteristic fervor and energy, he +attacked the problem from this standpoint, having absolute faith in +a successful outcome. The mere fact that even with the successful +production of the electric lamp the assault on the complete problem +of commercial lighting would hardly be begun did not deter him in the +slightest. To one of Edison's enthusiastic self-confidence the long +vista of difficulties ahead--we say it in all sincerity--must have been +alluring. + +After having devoted several months to experimental trials of carbon, +at the end of 1878, as already detailed, he turned his attention to the +platinum group of metals and began a series of experiments in which he +used chiefly platinum wire and iridium wire, and alloys of refractory +metals in the form of wire burners for incandescent lamps. These metals +have very high fusing-points, and were found to last longer than the +carbon strips previously used when heated up to incandescence by the +electric current, although under such conditions as were then possible +they were melted by excess of current after they had been lighted a +comparatively short time, either in the open air or in such a vacuum as +could be obtained by means of the ordinary air-pump. + +Nevertheless, Edison continued along this line of experiment with +unremitting vigor, making improvement after improvement, until about +April, 1879, he devised a means whereby platinum wire of a given length, +which would melt in the open air when giving a light equal to four +candles, would emit a light of twenty-five candle-power without fusion. +This was accomplished by introducing the platinum wire into an all-glass +globe, completely sealed and highly exhausted of air, and passing a +current through the platinum wire while the vacuum was being made. +In this, which was a new and radical invention, we see the first step +toward the modern incandescent lamp. The knowledge thus obtained that +current passing through the platinum during exhaustion would drive out +occluded gases (i.e., gases mechanically held in or upon the metal), and +increase the infusibility of the platinum, led him to aim at securing +greater perfection in the vacuum, on the theory that the higher the +vacuum obtained, the higher would be the infusibility of the platinum +burner. And this fact also was of the greatest importance in making +successful the final use of carbon, because without the subjection of +the carbon to the heating effect of current during the formation of the +vacuum, the presence of occluded gases would have been a fatal obstacle. + +Continuing these experiments with most fervent zeal, taking no account +of the passage of time, with an utter disregard for meals, and but +scanty hours of sleep snatched reluctantly at odd periods of the day +or night, Edison kept his laboratory going without cessation. A great +variety of lamps was made of the platinum-iridium type, mostly with +thermal devices to regulate the temperature of the burner and prevent +its being melted by an excess of current. The study of apparatus for +obtaining more perfect vacua was unceasingly carried on, for Edison +realized that in this there lay a potent factor of ultimate success. +About August he had obtained a pump that would produce a vacuum up to +about the one-hundred-thousandth part of an atmosphere, and some time +during the next month, or beginning of October, had obtained one that +would produce a vacuum up to the one-millionth part of an atmosphere. +It must be remembered that the conditions necessary for MAINTAINING this +high vacuum were only made possible by his invention of the one-piece +all-glass globe, in which all the joints were hermetically sealed during +its manufacture into a lamp, whereby a high vacuum could be retained +continuously for any length of time. + +In obtaining this perfection of vacuum apparatus, Edison realized that +he was approaching much nearer to a solution of the problem. In his +experiments with the platinum-iridium lamps, he had been working all +the time toward the proposition of high resistance and small radiating +surface, until he had made a lamp having thirty feet of fine platinum +wire wound upon a small bobbin of infusible material; but the desired +economy, simplicity, and durability were not obtained in this manner, +although at all times the burner was maintained at a critically high +temperature. After attaining a high degree of perfection with these +lamps, he recognized their impracticable character, and his mind +reverted to the opinion he had formed in his early experiments two years +before--viz., that carbon had the requisite resistance to permit a very +simple conductor to accomplish the object if it could be used in the +form of a hair-like "filament," provided the filament itself could be +made sufficiently homogeneous. As we have already seen, he could not use +carbon successfully in his earlier experiments, for the strips of carbon +he then employed, although they were much larger than "filaments," +would not stand, but were consumed in a few minutes under the imperfect +conditions then at his command. + +Now, however, that he had found means for obtaining and maintaining high +vacua, Edison immediately went back to carbon, which from the first +he had conceived of as the ideal substance for a burner. His next step +proved conclusively the correctness of his old deductions. On October +21, 1879, after many patient trials, he carbonized a piece of cotton +sewing-thread bent into a loop or horseshoe form, and had it sealed +into a glass globe from which he exhausted the air until a vacuum up to +one-millionth of an atmosphere was produced. This lamp, when put on +the circuit, lighted up brightly to incandescence and maintained its +integrity for over forty hours, and lo! the practical incandescent lamp +was born. The impossible, so called, had been attained; subdivision +of the electric-light current was made practicable; the goal had +been reached; and one of the greatest inventions of the century +was completed. Up to this time Edison had spent over $40,000 in his +electric-light experiments, but the results far more than justified the +expenditure, for with this lamp he made the discovery that the FILAMENT +of carbon, under the conditions of high vacuum, was commercially +stable and would stand high temperatures without the disintegration and +oxidation that took place in all previous attempts that he knew of +for making an incandescent burner out of carbon. Besides, this lamp +possessed the characteristics of high resistance and small radiating +surface, permitting economy in the outlay for conductors, and requiring +only a small current for each unit of light--conditions that were +absolutely necessary of fulfilment in order to accomplish commercially +the subdivision of the electric-light current. + +This slender, fragile, tenuous thread of brittle carbon, glowing +steadily and continuously with a soft light agreeable to the eyes, +was the tiny key that opened the door to a world revolutionized in +its interior illumination. It was a triumphant vindication of Edison's +reasoning powers, his clear perceptions, his insight into possibilities, +and his inventive faculty, all of which had already been productive of +so many startling, practical, and epoch-making inventions. And now he +had stepped over the threshold of a new art which has since become so +world-wide in its application as to be an integral part of modern human +experience. [9] + + + [Footnote 9: The following extract from Walker on Patents + (4th edition) will probably be of interest to the reader: + + "Sec. 31a. A meritorious exception, to the rule of the last + section, is involved in the adjudicated validity of the + Edison incandescent-light patent. The carbon filament, which + constitutes the only new part of the combination of the + second claim of that patent, differs from the earlier carbon + burners of Sawyer and Man, only in having a diameter of one- + sixty-fourth of an inch or less, whereas the burners of + Sawyer and Man had a diameter of one-thirty-second of an + inch or more. But that reduction of one-half in diameter + increased the resistance of the burner FOURFOLD, and reduced + its radiating surface TWOFOLD, and thus increased eightfold, + its ratio of resistance to radiating surface. That eightfold + increase of proportion enabled the resistance of the + conductor of electricity from the generator to the burner to + be increased eightfold, without any increase of percentage + of loss of energy in that conductor, or decrease of + percentage of development of heat in the burner; and thus + enabled the area of the cross-section of that conductor to + be reduced eightfold, and thus to be made with one-eighth of + the amount of copper or other metal, which would be required + if the reduction of diameter of the burner from one-thirty- + second to one-sixty-fourth of an inch had not been made. And + that great reduction in the size and cost of conductors, + involved also a great difference in the composition of the + electric energy employed in the system; that difference + consisting in generating the necessary amount of electrical + energy with comparatively high electromotive force, and + comparatively low current, instead of contrariwise. For this + reason, the use of carbon filaments, one-sixty-fourth of an + inch in diameter or less, instead of carbon burners one- + thirty-second of an inch in diameter or more, not only + worked an enormous economy in conductors, but also + necessitated a great change in generators, and did both + according to a philosophy, which Edison was the first to + know, and which is stated in this paragraph in its simplest + form and aspect, and which lies at the foundation of the + incandescent electric lighting of the world."] + + +No sooner had the truth of this new principle been established than +the work to establish it firmly and commercially was carried on +more assiduously than ever. The next immediate step was a further +investigation of the possibilities of improving the quality of the +carbon filament. Edison had previously made a vast number of experiments +with carbonized paper for various electrical purposes, with such good +results that he once more turned to it and now made fine filament-like +loops of this material which were put into other lamps. These proved +even more successful (commercially considered) than the carbonized +thread--so much so that after a number of such lamps had been made and +put through severe tests, the manufacture of lamps from these paper +carbons was begun and carried on continuously. This necessitated first +the devising and making of a large number of special tools for cutting +the carbon filaments and for making and putting together the various +parts of the lamps. Meantime, great excitement had been caused in this +country and in Europe by the announcement of Edison's success. In the +Old World, scientists generally still declared the impossibility of +subdividing the electric-light current, and in the public press Mr. +Edison was denounced as a dreamer. Other names of a less complimentary +nature were applied to him, even though his lamp were actually in +use, and the principle of commercial incandescent lighting had been +established. + +Between October 21, 1879, and December 21, 1879, some hundreds of these +paper-carbon lamps had been made and put into actual use, not only in +the laboratory, but in the streets and several residences at Menlo Park, +New Jersey, causing great excitement and bringing many visitors from +far and near. On the latter date a full-page article appeared in the +New York Herald which so intensified the excited feeling that Mr. Edison +deemed it advisable to make a public exhibition. On New Year's Eve, +1879, special trains were run to Menlo Park by the Pennsylvania +Railroad, and over three thousand persons took advantage of the +opportunity to go out there and witness this demonstration for +themselves. In this great crowd were many public officials and men of +prominence in all walks of life, who were enthusiastic in their praises. + +In the mean time, the mind that conceived and made practical this +invention could not rest content with anything less than perfection, +so far as it could be realized. Edison was not satisfied with paper +carbons. They were not fully up to the ideal that he had in mind. What +he sought was a perfectly uniform and homogeneous carbon, one like the +"One-Hoss Shay," that had no weak spots to break down at inopportune +times. He began to carbonize everything in nature that he could lay +hands on. In his laboratory note-books are innumerable jottings of the +things that were carbonized and tried, such as tissue-paper, soft paper, +all kinds of cardboards, drawing-paper of all grades, paper saturated +with tar, all kinds of threads, fish-line, threads rubbed with tarred +lampblack, fine threads plaited together in strands, cotton soaked in +boiling tar, lamp-wick, twine, tar and lampblack mixed with a proportion +of lime, vulcanized fibre, celluloid, boxwood, cocoanut hair and shell, +spruce, hickory, baywood, cedar and maple shavings, rosewood, punk, +cork, bagging, flax, and a host of other things. He also extended his +searches far into the realms of nature in the line of grasses, plants, +canes, and similar products, and in these experiments at that time +and later he carbonized, made into lamps, and tested no fewer than six +thousand different species of vegetable growths. + +The reasons for such prodigious research are not apparent on the face of +the subject, nor is this the occasion to enter into an explanation, as +that alone would be sufficient to fill a fair-sized book. Suffice it +to say that Edison's omnivorous reading, keen observation, power of +assimilating facts and natural phenomena, and skill in applying the +knowledge thus attained to whatever was in hand, now came into full play +in determining that the results he desired could only be obtained in +certain directions. + +At this time he was investigating everything with a microscope, and one +day in the early part of 1880 he noticed upon a table in the laboratory +an ordinary palm-leaf fan. He picked it up and, looking it over, +observed that it had a binding rim made of bamboo, cut from the outer +edge of the cane; a very long strip. He examined this, and then gave it +to one of his assistants, telling him to cut it up and get out of it +all the filaments he could, carbonize them, put them into lamps, and try +them. The results of this trial were exceedingly successful, far better +than with anything else thus far used; indeed, so much so, that after +further experiments and microscopic examinations Edison was convinced +that he was now on the right track for making a thoroughly stable, +commercial lamp; and shortly afterward he sent a man to Japan to procure +further supplies of bamboo. The fascinating story of the bamboo hunt +will be told later; but even this bamboo lamp was only one item of +a complete system to be devised--a system that has since completely +revolutionized the art of interior illumination. + +Reference has been made in this chapter to the preliminary study that +Edison brought to bear on the development of the gas art and industry. +This study was so exhaustive that one can only compare it to the careful +investigation made in advance by any competent war staff of the elements +of strength and weakness, on both sides, in a possible campaign. A +popular idea of Edison that dies hard, pictures a breezy, slap-dash, +energetic inventor arriving at new results by luck and intuition, making +boastful assertions and then winning out by mere chance. The native +simplicity of the man, the absence of pose and ceremony, do much to +strengthen this notion; but the real truth is that while gifted with +unusual imagination, Edison's march to the goal of a new invention is +positively humdrum and monotonous in its steady progress. No one ever +saw Edison in a hurry; no one ever saw him lazy; and that which he did +with slow, careful scrutiny six months ago, he will be doing with just +as much calm deliberation of research six months hence--and six years +hence if necessary. If, for instance, he were asked to find the most +perfect pebble on the Atlantic shore of New Jersey, instead of hunting +here, there, and everywhere for the desired object, we would no doubt +find him patiently screening the entire beach, sifting out the most +perfect stones and eventually, by gradual exclusion, reaching the +long-sought-for pebble; and the mere fact that in this search years +might be taken, would not lessen his enthusiasm to the slightest extent. + +In the "prospectus book" among the series of famous note-books, all the +references and data apply to gas. The book is numbered 184, falls into +the period now dealt with, and runs along casually with items spread +out over two or three years. All these notes refer specifically to +"Electricity vs. Gas as General Illuminants," and cover an astounding +range of inquiry and comment. One of the very first notes tells the +whole story: "Object, Edison to effect exact imitation of all done by +gas, so as to replace lighting by gas by lighting by electricity. To +improve the illumination to such an extent as to meet all requirements +of natural, artificial, and commercial conditions." A large programme, +but fully executed! The notes, it will be understood, are all in +Edison's handwriting. They go on to observe that "a general system of +distribution is the only possible means of economical illumination," and +they dismiss isolated-plant lighting as in mills and factories as of so +little importance to the public--"we shall leave the consideration of +this out of this book." The shrewd prophecy is made that gas will be +manufactured less for lighting, as the result of electrical competition, +and more and more for heating, etc., thus enlarging its market and +increasing its income. Comment is made on kerosene and its cost, and all +kinds of general statistics are jotted down as desirable. Data are to be +obtained on lamp and dynamo efficiency, and "Another review of the whole +thing as worked out upon pure science principles by Rowland, Young, +Trowbridge; also Rowland on the possibilities and probabilities of +cheaper production by better manufacture--higher incandescence without +decrease of life of lamps." Notes are also made on meters and motors. +"It doesn't matter if electricity is used for light or for power"; +while small motors, it is observed, can be used night or day, and small +steam-engines are inconvenient. Again the shrewd comment: "Generally +poorest district for light, best for power, thus evening up whole +city--the effect of this on investment." + +It is pointed out that "Previous inventions failed--necessities +for commercial success and accomplishment by Edison. Edison's great +effort--not to make a large light or a blinding light, but a small light +having the mildness of gas." Curves are then called for of iron +and copper investment--also energy line--curves of candle-power and +electromotive force; curves on motors; graphic representation of +the consumption of gas January to December; tables and formulae; +representations graphically of what one dollar will buy in different +kinds of light; "table, weight of copper required different distance, +100-ohm lamp, 16 candles"; table with curves showing increased +economy by larger engine, higher power, etc. There is not much that is +dilettante about all this. Note is made of an article in April, 1879, +putting the total amount of gas investment in the whole world at that +time at $1,500,000,000; which is now (1910) about the amount of the +electric-lighting investment in the United States. Incidentally a note +remarks: "So unpleasant is the effect of the products of gas that in the +new Madison Square Theatre every gas jet is ventilated by special tubes +to carry away the products of combustion." In short, there is no aspect +of the new problem to which Edison failed to apply his acutest powers; +and the speed with which the new system was worked out and introduced +was simply due to his initial mastery of all the factors in the older +art. Luther Stieringer, an expert gas engineer and inventor, whose +services were early enlisted, once said that Edison knew more about gas +than any other man he had ever met. The remark is an evidence of the +kind of preparation Edison gave himself for his new task. + + + +CHAPTER XII + +MEMORIES OF MENLO PARK + +FROM the spring of 1876 to 1886 Edison lived and did his work at Menlo +Park; and at this stage of the narrative, midway in that interesting and +eventful period, it is appropriate to offer a few notes and jottings on +the place itself, around which tradition is already weaving its fancies, +just as at the time the outpouring of new inventions from it invested +the name with sudden prominence and with the glamour of romance. +"In 1876 I moved," says Edison, "to Menlo Park, New Jersey, on the +Pennsylvania Railroad, several miles below Elizabeth. The move was due +to trouble I had about rent. I had rented a small shop in Newark, on the +top floor of a padlock factory, by the month. I gave notice that I +would give it up at the end of the month, paid the rent, moved out, +and delivered the keys. Shortly afterward I was served with a paper, +probably a judgment, wherein I was to pay nine months' rent. There was +some law, it seems, that made a monthly renter liable for a year. This +seemed so unjust that I determined to get out of a place that permitted +such injustice." For several Sundays he walked through different parts +of New Jersey with two of his assistants before he decided on Menlo +Park. The change was a fortunate one, for the inventor had married Miss +Mary E. Stillwell, and was now able to establish himself comfortably +with his wife and family while enjoying immediate access to the new +laboratory. Every moment thus saved was valuable. + +To-day the place and region have gone back to the insignificance from +which Edison's genius lifted them so startlingly. A glance from the +car windows reveals only a gently rolling landscape dotted with modest +residences and unpretentious barns; and there is nothing in sight by way +of memorial to suggest that for nearly a decade this spot was the scene +of the most concentrated and fruitful inventive activity the world has +ever known. Close to the Menlo Park railway station is a group of +gaunt and deserted buildings, shelter of the casual tramp, and slowly +crumbling away when not destroyed by the carelessness of some ragged +smoker. This silent group of buildings comprises the famous old +laboratory and workshops of Mr. Edison, historic as being the birthplace +of the carbon transmitter, the phonograph, the incandescent lamp, +and the spot where Edison also worked out his systems of electrical +distribution, his commercial dynamo, his electric railway, his +megaphone, his tasimeter, and many other inventions of greater or lesser +degree. Here he continued, moreover, his earlier work on the quadruplex, +sextuplex, multiplex, and automatic telegraphs, and did his notable +pioneer work in wireless telegraphy. As the reader knows, it had been a +master passion with Edison from boyhood up to possess a laboratory, +in which with free use of his own time and powers, and with command of +abundant material resources, he could wrestle with Nature and probe her +closest secrets. Thus, from the little cellar at Port Huron, from the +scant shelves in a baggage car, from the nooks and corners of dingy +telegraph offices, and the grimy little shops in New York and Newark, +he had now come to the proud ownership of an establishment to which +his favorite word "laboratory" might justly be applied. Here he could +experiment to his heart's content and invent on a larger, bolder scale +than ever--and he did! + +Menlo Park was the merest hamlet. Omitting the laboratory structures, it +had only about seven houses, the best looking of which Edison lived in, +a place that had a windmill pumping water into a reservoir. One of the +stories of the day was that Edison had his front gate so connected with +the pumping plant that every visitor as he opened or closed the gate +added involuntarily to the supply in the reservoir. Two or three of the +houses were occupied by the families of members of the staff; in the +others boarders were taken, the laboratory, of course, furnishing all +the patrons. Near the railway station was a small saloon kept by an old +Scotchman named Davis, where billiards were played in idle moments, +and where in the long winter evenings the hot stove was a centre of +attraction to loungers and story-tellers. The truth is that there +was very little social life of any kind possible under the strenuous +conditions prevailing at the laboratory, where, if anywhere, relaxation +was enjoyed at odd intervals of fatigue and waiting. + +The main laboratory was a spacious wooden building of two floors. The +office was in this building at first, until removed to the brick library +when that was finished. There S. L. Griffin, an old telegraph friend +of Edison, acted as his secretary and had charge of a voluminous and +amazing correspondence. The office employees were the Carman brothers +and the late John F. Randolph, afterwards secretary. According to Mr. +Francis Jehl, of Budapest, then one of the staff, to whom the writers +are indebted for a great deal of valuable data on this period: "It +was on the upper story of this laboratory that the most important +experiments were executed, and where the incandescent lamp was born. +This floor consisted of a large hall containing several long tables, +upon which could be found all the various instruments, scientific and +chemical apparatus that the arts at that time could produce. Books +lay promiscuously about, while here and there long lines of +bichromate-of-potash cells could be seen, together with experimental +models of ideas that Edison or his assistants were engaged upon. The +side walls of this hall were lined with shelves filled with bottles, +phials, and other receptacles containing every imaginable chemical and +other material that could be obtained, while at the end of this hall, +and near the organ which stood in the rear, was a large glass case +containing the world's most precious metals in sheet and wire form, +together with very rare and costly chemicals. When evening came on, and +the last rays of the setting sun penetrated through the side windows, +this hall looked like a veritable Faust laboratory. + +"On the ground floor we had our testing-table, which stood on two large +pillars of brick built deep into the earth in order to get rid of all +vibrations on account of the sensitive instruments that were upon it. +There was the Thomson reflecting mirror galvanometer and electrometer, +while nearby were the standard cells by which the galvanometers were +adjusted and standardized. This testing-table was connected by means +of wires with all parts of the laboratory and machine-shop, so that +measurements could be conveniently made from a distance, as in those +days we had no portable and direct-reading instruments, such as now +exist. Opposite this table we installed, later on, our photometrical +chamber, which was constructed on the Bunsen principle. A little way +from this table, and separated by a partition, we had the chemical +laboratory with its furnaces and stink-chambers. Later on another +chemical laboratory was installed near the photometer-room, and this Dr. +A. Haid had charge of." + +Next to the laboratory in importance was the machine-shop, a large and +well-lighted building of brick, at one end of which there was the boiler +and engine-room. This shop contained light and heavy lathes, boring and +drilling machines, all kinds of planing machines; in fact, tools of all +descriptions, so that any apparatus, however delicate or heavy, could be +made and built as might be required by Edison in experimenting. Mr. John +Kruesi had charge of this shop, and was assisted by a number of skilled +mechanics, notably John Ott, whose deft fingers and quick intuitive +grasp of the master's ideas are still in demand under the more recent +conditions at the Llewellyn Park laboratory in Orange. + +Between the machine-shop and the laboratory was a small building of wood +used as a carpenter-shop, where Tom Logan plied his art. Nearby was the +gasoline plant. Before the incandescent lamp was perfected, the +only illumination was from gasoline gas; and that was used later +for incandescent-lamp glass-blowing, which was done in another small +building on one side of the laboratory. Apparently little or no lighting +service was obtained from the Wallace-Farmer arc lamps secured from +Ansonia, Connecticut. The dynamo was probably needed for Edison's own +experiments. + +On the outskirts of the property was a small building in which lampblack +was crudely but carefully manufactured and pressed into very small +cakes, for use in the Edison carbon transmitters of that time. The +night-watchman, Alfred Swanson, took care of this curious plant, which +consisted of a battery of petroleum lamps that were forced to burn to +the sooting point. During his rounds in the night Swanson would find +time to collect from the chimneys the soot that the lamps gave. It was +then weighed out into very small portions, which were pressed into cakes +or buttons by means of a hand-press. These little cakes were delicately +packed away between layers of cotton in small, light boxes and shipped +to Bergmann in New York, by whom the telephone transmitters were being +made. A little later the Edison electric railway was built on the +confines of the property out through the woods, at first only a third +of a mile in length, but reaching ultimately to Pumptown, almost three +miles away. + +Mr. Edison's own words may be quoted as to the men with whom he +surrounded himself here and upon whose services he depended principally +for help in the accomplishment of his aims. In an autobiographical +article in the Electrical World of March 5, 1904, he says: "It is +interesting to note that in addition to those mentioned above (Charles +Batchelor and Frank Upton), I had around me other men who ever since +have remained active in the field, such as Messrs. Francis Jehl, William +J. Hammer, Martin Force, Ludwig K. Boehm, not forgetting that good +friend and co-worker, the late John Kruesi. They found plenty to do in +the various developments of the art, and as I now look back I sometimes +wonder how we did so much in so short a time." Mr. Jehl in his +reminiscences adds another name to the above--namely, that of John W. +Lawson, and then goes on to say: "These are the names of the pioneers of +incandescent lighting, who were continuously at the side of Edison day +and night for some years, and who, under his guidance, worked upon the +carbon-filament lamp from its birth to ripe maturity. These men all had +complete faith in his ability and stood by him as on a rock, guarding +their work with the secretiveness of a burglar-proof safe. Whenever it +leaked out in the world that Edison was succeeding in his work on the +electric light, spies and others came to the Park; so it was of the +utmost importance that the experiments and their results should be kept +a secret until Edison had secured the protection of the Patent Office." +With this staff was associated from the first Mr. E. H. Johnson, whose +work with Mr. Edison lay chiefly, however, outside the laboratory, +taking him to all parts of the country and to Europe. There were also +to be regarded as detached members of it the Bergmann brothers, +manufacturing for Mr. Edison in New York, and incessantly experimenting +for him. In addition there must be included Mr. Samuel Insull, whose +activities for many years as private secretary and financial manager +were devoted solely to Mr. Edison's interests, with Menlo Park as a +centre and main source of anxiety as to pay-rolls and other constantly +recurring obligations. The names of yet other associates occur from +time to time in this narrative--"Edison men" who have been very proud +of their close relationship to the inventor and his work at old Menlo. +"There was also Mr. Charles L. Clarke, who devoted himself mainly to +engineering matters, and later on acted as chief engineer of the Edison +Electric Light Company for some years. Then there were William Holzer +and James Hipple, both of whom took an active part in the practical +development of the glass-blowing department of the laboratory, and, +subsequently, at the first Edison lamp factory at Menlo Park. Later on +Messrs. Jehl, Hipple, and Force assisted Mr. Batchelor to install the +lamp-works of the French Edison Company at Ivry-sur-Seine. Then there +were Messrs. Charles T. Hughes, Samuel D. Mott, and Charles T. Mott, who +devoted their time chiefly to commercial affairs. Mr. Hughes conducted +most of this work, and later on took a prominent part in Edison's +electric-railway experiments. His business ability was on a high level, +while his personal character endeared him to us all." + +Among other now well-known men who came to us and assisted in various +kinds of work were Messrs. Acheson, Worth, Crosby, Herrick, and Hill, +while Doctor Haid was placed by Mr. Edison in charge of a special +chemical laboratory. Dr. E. L. Nichols was also with us for a short time +conducting a special series of experiments. There was also Mr. Isaacs, +who did a great deal of photographic work, and to whom we must be +thankful for the pictures of Menlo Park in connection with Edison's +work. + +"Among others who were added to Mr. Kruesi's staff in the machine-shop +were Messrs. J. H. Vail and W. S. Andrews. Mr. Vail had charge of the +dynamo-room. He had a good general knowledge of machinery, and very +soon acquired such familiarity with the dynamos that he could skip about +among them with astonishing agility to regulate their brushes or to +throw rosin on the belts when they began to squeal. Later on he took +an active part in the affairs and installations of the Edison Light +Company. Mr. Andrews stayed on Mr. Kruesi's staff as long as the +laboratory machine-shop was kept open, after which he went into the +employ of the Edison Electric Light Company and became actively engaged +in the commercial and technical exploitation of the system. Another man +who was with us at Menlo Park was Mr. Herman Claudius, an Austrian, who +at one time was employed in connection with the State Telegraphs of his +country. To him Mr. Edison assigned the task of making a complete model +of the network of conductors for the contemplated first station in New +York." + +Mr. Francis R. Upton, who was early employed by Mr. Edison as his +mathematician, furnishes a pleasant, vivid picture of his chief +associates engaged on the memorable work at Menlo Park. He says: "Mr. +Charles Batchelor was Mr. Edison's principal assistant at that time. He +was an Englishman, and came to this country to set up the thread-weaving +machinery for the Clark thread-works. He was a most intelligent, +patient, competent, and loyal assistant to Mr. Edison. I remember +distinctly seeing him work many hours to mount a small filament; and +his hand would be as steady and his patience as unyielding at the end +of those many hours as it was at the beginning, in spite of repeated +failures. He was a wonderful mechanic; the control that he had of his +fingers was marvellous, and his eyesight was sharp. Mr. Batchelor's +judgment and good sense were always in evidence. + +"Mr. Kruesi was the superintendent, a Swiss trained in the best Swiss +ideas of accuracy. He was a splendid mechanic with a vigorous temper, +and wonderful ability to work continuously and to get work out of men. +It was an ideal combination, that of Edison, Batchelor, and Kruesi. Mr. +Edison with his wonderful flow of ideas which were sharply defined in +his mind, as can be seen by any of the sketches that he made, as he +evidently always thinks in three dimensions; Mr. Kruesi, willing to take +the ideas, and capable of comprehending them, would distribute the work +so as to get it done with marvellous quickness and great accuracy. +Mr. Batchelor was always ready for any special fine experimenting or +observation, and could hold to whatever he was at as long as Mr. Edison +wished; and always brought to bear on what he was at the greatest +skill." + +While Edison depended upon Upton for his mathematical work, he was wont +to check it up in a very practical manner, as evidenced by the following +incident described by Mr. Jehl: "I was once with Mr. Upton calculating +some tables which he had put me on, when Mr. Edison appeared with a +glass bulb having a pear-shaped appearance in his hand. It was the kind +that we were going to use for our lamp experiments; and Mr. Edison asked +Mr. Upton to please calculate for him its cubic contents in centimetres. +Now Mr. Upton was a very able mathematician, who, after he finished his +studies at Princeton, went to Germany and got his final gloss under that +great master, Helmholtz. Whatever he did and worked on was executed in +a pure mathematical manner, and any wrangler at Oxford would have been +delighted to see him juggle with integral and differential equations, +with a dexterity that was surprising. He drew the shape of the bulb +exactly on paper, and got the equation of its lines with which he was +going to calculate its contents, when Mr. Edison again appeared and +asked him what it was. He showed Edison the work he had already done on +the subject, and told him that he would very soon finish calculating +it. 'Why,' said Edison, 'I would simply take that bulb and fill it +with mercury and weigh it; and from the weight of the mercury and its +specific gravity I'll get it in five minutes, and use less mental energy +than is necessary in such a fatiguing operation.'" + +Menlo Park became ultimately the centre of Edison's business life as +it was of his inventing. After the short distasteful period during the +introduction of his lighting system, when he spent a large part of his +time at the offices at 65 Fifth Avenue, New York, or on the actual work +connected with the New York Edison installation, he settled back again +in Menlo Park altogether. Mr. Samuel Insull describes the business +methods which prevailed throughout the earlier Menlo Park days of "storm +and stress," and the curious conditions with which he had to deal as +private secretary: "I never attempted to systematize Edison's business +life. Edison's whole method of work would upset the system of any +office. He was just as likely to be at work in his laboratory at +midnight as midday. He cared not for the hours of the day or the days +of the week. If he was exhausted he might more likely be asleep in the +middle of the day than in the middle of the night, as most of his work +in the way of inventions was done at night. I used to run his office on +as close business methods as my experience admitted; and I would get at +him whenever it suited his convenience. Sometimes he would not go over +his mail for days at a time; but other times he would go regularly to +his office in the morning. At other times my engagements used to be with +him to go over his business affairs at Menlo Park at night, if I was +occupied in New York during the day. In fact, as a matter of convenience +I used more often to get at him at night, as it left my days free to +transact his affairs, and enabled me, probably at a midnight luncheon, +to get a few minutes of his time to look over his correspondence and get +his directions as to what I should do in some particular negotiation or +matter of finance. While it was a matter of suiting Edison's convenience +as to when I should transact business with him, it also suited my own +ideas, as it enabled me after getting through my business with him to +enjoy the privilege of watching him at his work, and to learn something +about the technical side of matters. Whatever knowledge I may have of +the electric light and power industry I feel I owe it to the tuition of +Edison. He was about the most willing tutor, and I must confess that he +had to be a patient one." + +Here again occurs the reference to the incessant night-work at Menlo +Park, a note that is struck in every reminiscence and in every record +of the time. But it is not to be inferred that the atmosphere of grim +determination and persistent pursuit of the new invention characteristic +of this period made life a burden to the small family of laborers +associated with Edison. Many a time during the long, weary nights of +experimenting Edison would call a halt for refreshments, which he had +ordered always to be sent in when night-work was in progress. Everything +would be dropped, all present would join in the meal, and the last good +story or joke would pass around. In his notes Mr. Jehl says: "Our lunch +always ended with a cigar, and I may mention here that although Edison +was never fastidious in eating, he always relished a good cigar, and +seemed to find in it consolation and solace.... It often happened that +while we were enjoying the cigars after our midnight repast, one of the +boys would start up a tune on the organ and we would all sing together, +or one of the others would give a solo. Another of the boys had a voice +that sounded like something between the ring of an old tomato can and +a pewter jug. He had one song that he would sing while we roared with +laughter. He was also great in imitating the tin-foil phonograph.... +When Boehm was in good-humor he would play his zither now and then, and +amuse us by singing pretty German songs. On many of these occasions the +laboratory was the rendezvous of jolly and convivial visitors, mostly +old friends and acquaintances of Mr. Edison. Some of the office +employees would also drop in once in a while, and as everybody present +was always welcome to partake of the midnight meal, we all enjoyed +these gatherings. After a while, when we were ready to resume work, our +visitors would intimate that they were going home to bed, but we fellows +could stay up and work, and they would depart, generally singing some +song like Good-night, ladies! . . . It often happened that when Edison +had been working up to three or four o'clock in the morning, he would +lie down on one of the laboratory tables, and with nothing but a couple +of books for a pillow, would fall into a sound sleep. He said it did +him more good than being in a soft bed, which spoils a man. Some of the +laboratory assistants could be seen now and then sleeping on a table in +the early morning hours. If their snoring became objectionable to those +still at work, the 'calmer' was applied. This machine consisted of +a Babbitt's soap box without a cover. Upon it was mounted a broad +ratchet-wheel with a crank, while into the teeth of the wheel there +played a stout, elastic slab of wood. The box would be placed on the +table where the snorer was sleeping and the crank turned rapidly. The +racket thus produced was something terrible, and the sleeper would jump +up as though a typhoon had struck the laboratory. The irrepressible +spirit of humor in the old days, although somewhat strenuous at times, +caused many a moment of hilarity which seemed to refresh the boys, and +enabled them to work with renewed vigor after its manifestation." Mr. +Upton remarks that often during the period of the invention of the +incandescent lamp, when under great strain and fatigue, Edison would go +to the organ and play tunes in a primitive way, and come back to crack +jokes with the staff. "But I have often felt that Mr. Edison never could +comprehend the limitations of the strength of other men, as his own +physical and mental strength have always seemed to be without limit. +He could work continuously as long as he wished, and had sleep at his +command. His sleep was always instant, profound, and restful. He +has told me that he never dreamed. I have known Mr. Edison now for +thirty-one years, and feel that he has always kept his mind direct and +simple, going straight to the root of troubles. One of the peculiarities +I have noticed is that I have never known him to break into a +conversation going on around him, and ask what people were talking +about. The nearest he would ever come to it was when there had evidently +been some story told, and his face would express a desire to join in the +laugh, which would immediately invite telling the story to him." + +Next to those who worked with Edison at the laboratory and were with +him constantly at Menlo Park were the visitors, some of whom were his +business associates, some of them scientific men, and some of them +hero-worshippers and curiosity-hunters. Foremost in the first category +was Mr. E. H. Johnson, who was in reality Edison's most intimate friend, +and was required for constant consultation; but whose intense activity, +remarkable grasp of electrical principles, and unusual powers of +exposition, led to his frequent detachment for long trips, including +those which resulted in the introduction of the telephone, phonograph, +and electric light in England and on the Continent. A less frequent +visitor was Mr. S. Bergmann, who had all he needed to occupy his time +in experimenting and manufacturing, and whose contemporaneous Wooster +Street letter-heads advertised Edison's inventions as being made there, +Among the scientists were Prof. George F. Barker, of Philadelphia, a +big, good-natured philosopher, whose valuable advice Edison esteemed +highly. In sharp contrast to him was the earnest, serious Rowland, of +Johns Hopkins University, afterward the leading American physicist of +his day. Profs. C. F. Brackett and C. F. Young, of Princeton University, +were often received, always interested in what Edison was doing, and +proud that one of their own students, Mr. Upton, was taking such a +prominent part in the development of the work. + +Soon after the success of the lighting experiments and the installation +at Menlo Park became known, Edison was besieged by persons from all +parts of the world anxious to secure rights and concessions for their +respective countries. Among these was Mr. Louis Rau, of Paris, who +organized the French Edison Company, the pioneer Edison lighting +corporation in Europe, and who, with the aid of Mr. Batchelor, +established lamp-works and a machine-shop at Ivry sur-Seine, near Paris, +in 1882. It was there that Mr. Nikola Tesla made his entree into the +field of light and power, and began his own career as an inventor; and +there also Mr. Etienne Fodor, general manager of the Hungarian General +Electric Company at Budapest, received his early training. It was he who +erected at Athens the first European Edison station on the now universal +three-wire system. Another visitor from Europe, a little later, was +Mr. Emil Rathenau, the present director of the great Allgemeine +Elektricitaets Gesellschaft of Germany. He secured the rights for the +empire, and organized the Berlin Edison system, now one of the largest +in the world. Through his extraordinary energy and enterprise the +business made enormous strides, and Mr. Rathenau has become one of the +most conspicuous industrial figures in his native country. From Italy +came Professor Colombo, later a cabinet minister, with his friend Signor +Buzzi, of Milan. The rights were secured for the peninsula; Colombo and +his friends organized the Italian Edison Company, and erected at Milan +the first central station in that country. Mr. John W. Lieb, Jr., now +a vice-president of the New York Edison Company, was sent over by Mr. +Edison to steer the enterprise technically, and spent ten years in +building it up, with such brilliant success that he was later decorated +as Commander of the Order of the Crown of Italy by King Victor. Another +young American enlisted into European service was Mr. E. G. Acheson, +the inventor of carborundum, who built a number of plants in Italy and +France before he returned home. Mr. Lieb has since become President of +the American Institute of Electrical Engineers and the Association of +Edison Illuminating Companies, while Doctor Acheson has been President +of the American Electrochemical Society. + +Switzerland sent Messrs. Turrettini, Biedermann, and Thury, all +distinguished engineers, to negotiate for rights in the republic; and +so it went with regard to all the other countries of Europe, as well as +those of South America. It was a question of keeping such visitors away +rather than of inviting them to take up the exploitation of the Edison +system; for what time was not spent in personal interviews was required +for the masses of letters from every country under the sun, all making +inquiries, offering suggestions, proposing terms. Nor were the +visitors merely those on business bent. There were the lion-hunters and +celebrities, of whom Sarah Bernhardt may serve as a type. One visit +of note was that paid by Lieut. G. W. De Long, who had an earnest and +protracted conversation with Edison over the Arctic expedition he was +undertaking with the aid of Mr. James Gordon Bennett, of the New York +Herald. The Jeannette was being fitted out, and Edison told De Long +that he would make and present him with a small dynamo machine, some +incandescent lamps, and an arc lamp. While the little dynamo was being +built all the men in the laboratory wrote their names on the paper +insulation that was wound upon the iron core of the armature. As the +Jeannette had no steam-engine on board that could be used for the +purpose, Edison designed the dynamo so that it could be worked by man +power and told Lieutenant De Long "it would keep the boys warm up in the +Arctic," when they generated current with it. The ill-fated ship never +returned from her voyage, but went down in the icy waters of the North, +there to remain until some future cataclysm of nature, ten thousand +years hence, shall reveal the ship and the first marine dynamo as +curious relics of a remote civilization. + +Edison also furnished De Long with a set of telephones provided with +extensible circuits, so that parties on the ice-floes could go long +distances from the ship and still keep in communication with her. So +far as the writers can ascertain this is the first example of "field +telephony." Another nautical experiment that he made at this time, +suggested probably by the requirements of the Arctic expedition, was a +buoy that was floated in New York harbor, and which contained a small +Edison dynamo and two or three incandescent lamps. The dynamo was driven +by the wave or tide motion through intermediate mechanism, and thus the +lamps were lit up from time to time, serving as signals. These were the +prototypes of the lighted buoys which have since become familiar, as in +the channel off Sandy Hook. + +One notable afternoon was that on which the New York board of aldermen +took a special train out to Menlo Park to see the lighting system +with its conductors underground in operation. The Edison Electric +Illuminating Company was applying for a franchise, and the aldermen, +for lack of scientific training and specific practical information, were +very sceptical on the subject--as indeed they might well be. "Mr. Edison +demonstrated personally the details and merits of the system to them. +The voltage was increased to a higher pressure than usual, and all the +incandescent lamps at Menlo Park did their best to win the approbation +of the New York City fathers. After Edison had finished exhibiting all +the good points of his system, he conducted his guests upstairs in the +laboratory, where a long table was spread with the best things that one +of the most prominent New York caterers could furnish. The laboratory +witnessed high times that night, for all were in the best of humor, +and many a bottle was drained in toasting the health of Edison and the +aldermen." This was one of the extremely rare occasions on which Edison +has addressed an audience; but the stake was worth the effort. The +representatives of New York could with justice drink the health of the +young inventor, whose system is one of the greatest boons the city has +ever had conferred upon it. + +Among other frequent visitors was Mr, Edison's father, "one of those +amiable, patriarchal characters with a Horace Greeley beard, typical +Americans of the old school," who would sometimes come into the +laboratory with his two grandchildren, a little boy and girl called +"Dash" and "Dot." He preferred to sit and watch his brilliant son at +work "with an expression of satisfaction on his face that indicated +a sense of happiness and content that his boy, born in that distant, +humble home in Ohio, had risen to fame and brought such honor upon the +name. It was, indeed, a pathetic sight to see a father venerate his son +as the elder Edison did." Not less at home was Mr. Mackenzie, the Mt. +Clemens station agent, the life of whose child Edison had saved when +a train newsboy. The old Scotchman was one of the innocent, chartered +libertines of the place, with an unlimited stock of good jokes and +stories, but seldom of any practical use. On one occasion, however, when +everything possible and impossible under the sun was being carbonized +for lamp filaments, he allowed a handful of his bushy red beard to +be taken for the purpose; and his laugh was the loudest when the +Edison-Mackenzie hair lamps were brought up to incandescence--their +richness in red rays being slyly attributed to the nature of the +filamentary material! Oddly enough, a few years later, some inventor +actually took out a patent for making incandescent lamps with carbonized +hair for filaments! + +Yet other visitors again haunted the place, and with the following +reminiscence of one of them, from Mr. Edison himself, this part of the +chapter must close: "At Menlo Park one cold winter night there came into +the laboratory a strange man in a most pitiful condition. He was nearly +frozen, and he asked if he might sit by the stove. In a few moments +he asked for the head man, and I was brought forward. He had a head of +abnormal size, with highly intellectual features and a very small and +emaciated body. He said he was suffering very much, and asked if I +had any morphine. As I had about everything in chemistry that could be +bought, I told him I had. He requested that I give him some, so I got +the morphine sulphate. He poured out enough to kill two men, when I told +him that we didn't keep a hotel for suicides, and he had better cut the +quantity down. He then bared his legs and arms, and they were literally +pitted with scars, due to the use of hypodermic syringes. He said he had +taken it for years, and it required a big dose to have any effect. I let +him go ahead. In a short while he seemed like another man and began to +tell stories, and there were about fifty of us who sat around listening +until morning. He was a man of great intelligence and education. He +said he was a Jew, but there was no distinctive feature to verify +this assertion. He continued to stay around until he finished every +combination of morphine with an acid that I had, probably ten ounces all +told. Then he asked if he could have strychnine. I had an ounce of the +sulphate. He took enough to kill a horse, and asserted it had as good an +effect as morphine. When this was gone, the only thing I had left was a +chunk of crude opium, perhaps two or three pounds. He chewed this up and +disappeared. I was greatly disappointed, because I would have laid in +another stock of morphine to keep him at the laboratory. About a week +afterward he was found dead in a barn at Perth Amboy." + +Returning to the work itself, note of which has already been made +in this and preceding chapters, we find an interesting and unique +reminiscence in Mr. Jehl's notes of the reversion to carbon as a +filament in the lamps, following an exhibition of metallic-filament +lamps given in the spring of 1879 to the men in the syndicate advancing +the funds for these experiments: "They came to Menlo Park on a late +afternoon train from New York. It was already dark when they were +conducted into the machine-shop, where we had several platinum lamps +installed in series. When Edison had finished explaining the principles +and details of the lamp, he asked Kruesi to let the dynamo machine run. +It was of the Gramme type, as our first dynamo of the Edison design +was not yet finished. Edison then ordered the 'juice' to be turned +on slowly. To-day I can see those lamps rising to a cherry red, like +glowbugs, and hear Mr. Edison saying 'a little more juice,' and the +lamps began to glow. 'A little more' is the command again, and then one +of the lamps emits for an instant a light like a star in the distance, +after which there is an eruption and a puff; and the machine-shop is in +total darkness. We knew instantly which lamp had failed, and Batchelor +replaced that by a good one, having a few in reserve near by. The +operation was repeated two or three times with about the same results, +after which the party went into the library until it was time to catch +the train for New York." + +Such an exhibition was decidedly discouraging, and it was not a jubilant +party that returned to New York, but: "That night Edison remained in the +laboratory meditating upon the results that the platinum lamp had given +so far. I was engaged reading a book near a table in the front, while +Edison was seated in a chair by a table near the organ. With his head +turned downward, and that conspicuous lock of hair hanging loosely on +one side, he looked like Napoleon in the celebrated picture, On the +Eve of a Great Battle. Those days were heroic ones, for he then +battled against mighty odds, and the prospects were dim and not very +encouraging. In cases of emergency Edison always possessed a keen +faculty of deciding immediately and correctly what to do; and the +decision he then arrived at was predestined to be the turning-point +that led him on to ultimate success.... After that exhibition we had a +house-cleaning at the laboratory, and the metallic-filament lamps were +stored away, while preparations were made for our experiments on carbon +lamps." + +Thus the work went on. Menlo Park has hitherto been associated in the +public thought with the telephone, phonograph, and incandescent +lamp; but it was there, equally, that the Edison dynamo and system of +distribution were created and applied to their specific purposes. While +all this study of a possible lamp was going on, Mr. Upton was busy +calculating the economy of the "multiple arc" system, and making a great +many tables to determine what resistance a lamp should have for the best +results, and at what point the proposed general system would fall off +in economy when the lamps were of the lower resistance that was then +generally assumed to be necessary. The world at that time had not the +shadow of an idea as to what the principles of a multiple arc system +should be, enabling millions of lamps to be lighted off distributing +circuits, each lamp independent of every other; but at Menlo Park at +that remote period in the seventies Mr. Edison's mathematician was +formulating the inventor's conception in clear, instructive figures; +"and the work then executed has held its own ever since." From the +beginning of his experiments on electric light, Mr. Edison had a +well-defined idea of producing not only a practicable lamp, but also +a SYSTEM of commercial electric lighting. Such a scheme involved the +creation of an entirely new art, for there was nothing on the face of +the earth from which to draw assistance or precedent, unless we except +the elementary forms of dynamos then in existence. It is true, there +were several types of machines in use for the then very limited field of +arc lighting, but they were regarded as valueless as a part of a great +comprehensive scheme which could supply everybody with light. Such +machines were confessedly inefficient, although representing the +farthest reach of a young art. A commission appointed at that time by +the Franklin Institute, and including Prof. Elihu Thomson, investigated +the merits of existing dynamos and reported as to the best of them: "The +Gramme machine is the most economical as a means of converting motive +force into electricity; it utilizes in the arc from 38 to 41 per cent. +of the motive work produced, after deduction is made for friction +and the resistance of the air." They reported also that the Brush arc +lighting machine "produces in the luminous arc useful work equivalent to +31 per cent. of the motive power employed, or to 38 1/2 per cent. after +the friction has been deducted." Commercial possibilities could not +exist in the face of such low economy as this, and Mr. Edison realized +that he would have to improve the dynamo himself if he wanted a better +machine. The scientific world at that time was engaged in a controversy +regarding the external and internal resistance of a circuit in which +a generator was situated. Discussing the subject Mr. Jehl, in his +biographical notes, says: "While this controversy raged in the +scientific papers, and criticism and confusion seemed at its height, +Edison and Upton discussed this question very thoroughly, and Edison +declared he did not intend to build up a system of distribution in which +the external resistance would be equal to the internal resistance. +He said he was just about going to do the opposite; he wanted a large +external resistance and a low internal one. He said he wanted to sell +the energy outside of the station and not waste it in the dynamo and +conductors, where it brought no profits.... In these later days, when +these ideas of Edison are used as common property, and are applied in +every modern system of distribution, it is astonishing to remember that +when they were propounded they met with most vehement antagonism from +the world at large." Edison, familiar with batteries in telegraphy, +could not bring himself to believe that any substitute generator of +electrical energy could be efficient that used up half its own possible +output before doing an equal amount of outside work. + +Undaunted by the dicta of contemporaneous science, Mr. Edison attacked +the dynamo problem with his accustomed vigor and thoroughness. He chose +the drum form for his armature, and experimented with different kinds +of iron. Cores were made of cast iron, others of forged iron; and still +others of sheets of iron of various thicknesses separated from each +other by paper or paint. These cores were then allowed to run in an +excited field, and after a given time their temperature was measured and +noted. By such practical methods Edison found that the thin, laminated +cores of sheet iron gave the least heat, and had the least amount of +wasteful eddy currents. His experiments and ideas on magnetism at that +period were far in advance of the time. His work and tests regarding +magnetism were repeated later on by Hopkinson and Kapp, who then +elucidated the whole theory mathematically by means of formulae and +constants. Before this, however, Edison had attained these results by +pioneer work, founded on his original reasoning, and utilized them in +the construction of his dynamo, thus revolutionizing the art of building +such machines. + +After thorough investigation of the magnetic qualities of different +kinds of iron, Edison began to make a study of winding the cores, +first determining the electromotive force generated per turn of wire at +various speeds in fields of different intensities. He also considered +various forms and shapes for the armature, and by methodical and +systematic research obtained the data and best conditions upon which +he could build his generator. In the field magnets of his dynamo he +constructed the cores and yoke of forged iron having a very large +cross-section, which was a new thing in those days. Great attention was +also paid to all the joints, which were smoothed down so as to make a +perfect magnetic contact. The Edison dynamo, with its large masses of +iron, was a vivid contrast to the then existing types with their meagre +quantities of the ferric element. Edison also made tests on his field +magnets by slowly raising the strength of the exciting current, so that +he obtained figures similar to those shown by a magnetic curve, and in +this way found where saturation commenced, and where it was useless to +expend more current on the field. If he had asked Upton at the time to +formulate the results of his work in this direction, for publication, he +would have anticipated the historic work on magnetism that was executed +by the two other investigators; Hopkinson and Kapp, later on. + +The laboratory note-books of the period bear abundant evidence of the +systematic and searching nature of these experiments and investigations, +in the hundreds of pages of notes, sketches, calculations, and tables +made at the time by Edison, Upton, Batchelor, Jehl, and by others who +from time to time were intrusted with special experiments to +elucidate some particular point. Mr. Jehl says: "The experiments on +armature-winding were also very interesting. Edison had a number of +small wooden cores made, at both ends of which we inserted little brass +nails, and we wound the wooden cores with twine as if it were wire on an +armature. In this way we studied armature-winding, and had matches where +each of us had a core, while bets were made as to who would be the first +to finish properly and correctly a certain kind of winding. Care had +to be taken that the wound core corresponded to the direction of the +current, supposing it were placed in a field and revolved. After Edison +had decided this question, Upton made drawings and tables from which the +real armatures were wound and connected to the commutator. To a +student of to-day all this seems simple, but in those days the art +of constructing dynamos was about as dark as air navigation is at +present.... Edison also improved the armature by dividing it and the +commutator into a far greater number of sections than up to that time +had been the practice. He was also the first to use mica in insulating +the commutator sections from each other." + +In the mean time, during the progress of the investigations on the +dynamo, word had gone out to the world that Edison expected to invent a +generator of greater efficiency than any that existed at the time. Again +he was assailed and ridiculed by the technical press, for had not the +foremost electricians and physicists of Europe and America worked for +years on the production of dynamos and arc lamps as they then existed? +Even though this young man at Menlo Park had done some wonderful things +for telegraphy and telephony; even if he had recorded and reproduced +human speech, he had his limitations, and could not upset the settled +dictum of science that the internal resistance must equal the external +resistance. + +Such was the trend of public opinion at the time, but "after Mr. Kruesi +had finished the first practical dynamo, and after Mr. Upton had tested +it thoroughly and verified his figures and results several times--for he +also was surprised--Edison was able to tell the world that he had made +a generator giving an efficiency of 90 per cent." Ninety per cent. as +against 40 per cent. was a mighty hit, and the world would not believe +it. Criticism and argument were again at their height, while Upton, +as Edison's duellist, was kept busy replying to private and public +challenges of the fact.... "The tremendous progress of the world in +the last quarter of a century, owing to the revolution caused by the +all-conquering march of 'Heavy Current Engineering,' is the outcome of +Edison's work at Menlo Park that raised the efficiency of the dynamo +from 40 per cent. to 90 per cent." + +Mr. Upton sums it all up very precisely in his remarks upon this period: +"What has now been made clear by accurate nomenclature was then very +foggy in the text-books. Mr. Edison had completely grasped the effect +of subdivision of circuits, and the influence of wires leading to such +subdivisions, when it was most difficult to express what he knew in +technical language. I remember distinctly when Mr. Edison gave me the +problem of placing a motor in circuit in multiple arc with a fixed +resistance; and I had to work out the problem entirely, as I could +find no prior solution. There was nothing I could find bearing upon +the counter electromotive force of the armature, and the effect of the +resistance of the armature on the work given out by the armature. It was +a wonderful experience to have problems given me out of the intuitions +of a great mind, based on enormous experience in practical work, and +applying to new lines of progress. One of the main impressions left upon +me after knowing Mr. Edison for many years is the marvellous accuracy of +his guesses. He will see the general nature of a result long before it +can be reached by mathematical calculation. His greatness was always to +be clearly seen when difficulties arose. They always made him cheerful, +and started him thinking; and very soon would come a line of suggestions +which would not end until the difficulty was met and overcome, or found +insurmountable. I have often felt that Mr. Edison got himself purposely +into trouble by premature publications and otherwise, so that he would +have a full incentive to get himself out of the trouble." + +This chapter may well end with a statement from Mr. Jehl, shrewd and +observant, as a participator in all the early work of the development of +the Edison lighting system: "Those who were gathered around him in the +old Menlo Park laboratory enjoyed his confidence, and he theirs. Nor was +this confidence ever abused. He was respected with a respect which only +great men can obtain, and he never showed by any word or act that he was +their employer in a sense that would hurt the feelings, as is often the +case in the ordinary course of business life. He conversed, argued, and +disputed with us all as if he were a colleague on the same footing. It +was his winning ways and manners that attached us all so loyally to his +side, and made us ever ready with a boundless devotion to execute any +request or desire." Thus does a great magnet, run through a heap of sand +and filings, exert its lines of force and attract irresistibly to itself +the iron and steel particles that are its affinity, and having sifted +them out, leaving the useless dust behind, hold them to itself with +responsive tenacity. + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +A WORLD-HUNT FOR FILAMENT MATERIAL + +IN writing about the old experimenting days at Menlo Park, Mr. F. R. +Upton says: "Edison's day is twenty-four hours long, for he has always +worked whenever there was anything to do, whether day or night, and +carried a force of night workers, so that his experiments could go on +continually. If he wanted material, he always made it a principle to +have it at once, and never hesitated to use special messengers to get +it. I remember in the early days of the electric light he wanted a +mercury pump for exhausting the lamps. He sent me to Princeton to get +it. I got back to Metuchen late in the day, and had to carry the pump +over to the laboratory on my back that evening, set it up, and work all +night and the next day getting results." + +This characteristic principle of obtaining desired material in the +quickest and most positive way manifested itself in the search that +Edison instituted for the best kind of bamboo for lamp filaments, +immediately after the discovery related in a preceding chapter. It is +doubtful whether, in the annals of scientific research and experiment, +there is anything quite analogous to the story of this search and the +various expeditions that went out from the Edison laboratory in 1880 and +subsequent years, to scour the earth for a material so apparently simple +as a homogeneous strip of bamboo, or other similar fibre. Prolonged +and exhaustive experiment, microscopic examination, and an intimate +knowledge of the nature of wood and plant fibres, however, had led +Edison to the conclusion that bamboo or similar fibrous filaments were +more suitable than anything else then known for commercial incandescent +lamps, and he wanted the most perfect for that purpose. Hence, the +quickest way was to search the tropics until the proper material was +found. + +The first emissary chosen for this purpose was the late William H. +Moore, of Rahway, New Jersey, who left New York in the summer of 1880, +bound for China and Japan, these being the countries preeminently noted +for the production of abundant species of bamboo. On arrival in the +East he quickly left the cities behind and proceeded into the interior, +extending his search far into the more remote country districts, +collecting specimens on his way, and devoting much time to the study of +the bamboo, and in roughly testing the relative value of its fibre in +canes of one, two, three, four, and five year growths. Great bales of +samples were sent to Edison, and after careful tests a certain variety +and growth of Japanese bamboo was determined to be the most satisfactory +material for filaments that had been found. Mr. Moore, who was +continuing his searches in that country, was instructed to arrange for +the cultivation and shipment of regular supplies of this particular +species. Arrangements to this end were accordingly made with a Japanese +farmer, who began to make immediate shipments, and who subsequently +displayed so much ingenuity in fertilizing and cross-fertilizing that +the homogeneity of the product was constantly improved. The use of this +bamboo for Edison lamp filaments was continued for many years. + +Although Mr. Moore did not meet with the exciting adventures of some +subsequent explorers, he encountered numerous difficulties and novel +experiences in his many months of travel through the hinterland of Japan +and China. The attitude toward foreigners thirty years ago was not as +friendly as it has since become, but Edison, as usual, had made a happy +choice of messengers, as Mr. Moore's good nature and diplomacy attested. +These qualities, together with his persistence and perseverance and +faculty of intelligent discrimination in the matter of fibres, helped to +make his mission successful, and gave to him the honor of being the +one who found the bamboo which was adopted for use as filaments in +commercial Edison lamps. + +Although Edison had satisfied himself that bamboo furnished the most +desirable material thus far discovered for incandescent-lamp filaments, +he felt that in some part of the world there might be found a natural +product of the same general character that would furnish a still more +perfect and homogeneous material. In his study of this subject, and +during the prosecution of vigorous and searching inquiries in various +directions, he learned that Mr. John C. Brauner, then residing in +Brooklyn, New York, had an expert knowledge of indigenous plants of the +particular kind desired. During the course of a geological survey which +he had made for the Brazilian Government, Mr. Brauner had examined +closely the various species of palms which grow plentifully in that +country, and of them there was one whose fibres he thought would be just +what Edison wanted. + +Accordingly, Mr. Brauner was sent for and dispatched to Brazil in +December, 1880, to search for and send samples of this and such other +palms, fibres, grasses, and canes as, in his judgment, would be suitable +for the experiments then being carried on at Menlo Park. Landing at +Para, he crossed over into the Amazonian province, and thence proceeded +through the heart of the country, making his way by canoe on the rivers +and their tributaries, and by foot into the forests and marshes of +a vast and almost untrodden wilderness. In this manner Mr. Brauner +traversed about two thousand miles of the comparatively unknown interior +of Southern Brazil, and procured a large variety of fibrous specimens, +which he shipped to Edison a few months later. When these fibres arrived +in the United States they were carefully tested and a few of them found +suitable but not superior to the Japanese bamboo, which was then being +exclusively used in the manufacture of commercial Edison lamps. + +Later on Edison sent out an expedition to explore the wilds of Cuba and +Jamaica. A two months' investigation of the latter island revealed a +variety of bamboo growths, of which a great number of specimens were +obtained and shipped to Menlo Park; but on careful test they were found +inferior to the Japanese bamboo, and hence rejected. The exploration of +the glades and swamps of Florida by three men extended over a period +of five months in a minute search for fibrous woods of the palmetto +species. A great variety was found, and over five hundred boxes of +specimens were shipped to the laboratory from time to time, but none of +them tested out with entirely satisfactory results. + +The use of Japanese bamboo for carbon filaments was therefore continued +in the manufacture of lamps, although an incessant search was maintained +for a still more perfect material. The spirit of progress, so pervasive +in Edison's character, led him, however, to renew his investigations +further afield by sending out two other men to examine the bamboo and +similar growths of those parts of South America not covered by Mr. +Brauner. These two men were Frank McGowan and C. F. Hanington, both +of whom had been for nearly seven years in the employ of the Edison +Electric Light Company in New York. The former was a stocky, rugged +Irishman, possessing the native shrewdness and buoyancy of his race, +coupled with undaunted courage and determination; and the latter was +a veteran of the Civil War, with some knowledge of forest and field, +acquired as a sportsman. They left New York in September, 1887, arriving +in due time at Para, proceeding thence twenty-three hundred miles up the +Amazon River to Iquitos. Nothing of an eventful nature occurred during +this trip, but on arrival at Iquitos the two men separated; Mr. McGowan +to explore on foot and by canoe in Peru, Ecuador, and Colombia, while +Mr. Hanington returned by the Amazon River to Para. Thence Hanington +went by steamer to Montevideo, and by similar conveyance up the River +de la Plata and through Uruguay, Argentine, and Paraguay to the +southernmost part of Brazil, collecting a large number of specimens of +palms and grasses. + +The adventures of Mr. McGowan, after leaving Iquitos, would fill a book +if related in detail. The object of the present narrative and the space +at the authors' disposal, however, do not permit of more than a brief +mention of his experiences. His first objective point was Quito, about +five hundred miles away, which he proposed to reach on foot and by means +of canoeing on the Napo River through a wild and comparatively unknown +country teeming with tribes of hostile natives. The dangers of the +expedition were pictured to him in glowing colors, but spurning +prophecies of dire disaster, he engaged some native Indians and a canoe +and started on his explorations, reaching Quito in eighty-seven days, +after a thorough search of the country on both sides of the Napo River. +From Quito he went to Guayaquil, from there by steamer to Buenaventura, +and thence by rail, twelve miles, to Cordova. From this point he set out +on foot to explore the Cauca Valley and the Cordilleras. + +Mr. McGowan found in these regions a great variety of bamboo, small and +large, some species growing seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, +and from six to nine inches in diameter. He collected a large number +of specimens, which were subsequently sent to Orange for Edison's +examination. After about fifteen months of exploration attended by much +hardship and privation, deserted sometimes by treacherous guides, twice +laid low by fevers, occasionally in peril from Indian attacks, wild +animals and poisonous serpents, tormented by insect pests, endangered +by floods, one hundred and nineteen days without meat, ninety-eight days +without taking off his clothes, Mr. McGowan returned to America, broken +in health but having faithfully fulfilled the commission intrusted to +him. The Evening Sun, New York, obtained an interview with him at that +time, and in its issue of May 2, 1889, gave more than a page to a brief +story of his interesting adventures, and then commented editorially upon +them, as follows: + + +"A ROMANCE OF SCIENCE" + + +"The narrative given elsewhere in the Evening Sun of the wanderings of +Edison's missionary of science, Mr. Frank McGowan, furnishes a new proof +that the romances of real life surpass any that the imagination can +frame. + +"In pursuit of a substance that should meet the requirements of the +Edison incandescent lamp, Mr. McGowan penetrated the wilderness of the +Amazon, and for a year defied its fevers, beasts, reptiles, and deadly +insects in his quest of a material so precious that jealous Nature has +hidden it in her most secret fastnesses. + +"No hero of mythology or fable ever dared such dragons to rescue some +captive goddess as did this dauntless champion of civilization. Theseus, +or Siegfried, or any knight of the fairy books might envy the victories +of Edison's irresistible lieutenant. + +"As a sample story of adventure, Mr. McGowan's narrative is a marvel fit +to be classed with the historic journeyings of the greatest travellers. +But it gains immensely in interest when we consider that it succeeded in +its scientific purpose. The mysterious bamboo was discovered, and large +quantities of it were procured and brought to the Wizard's laboratory, +there to suffer another wondrous change and then to light up our +pleasure-haunts and our homes with a gentle radiance." + + +A further, though rather sad, interest attaches to the McGowan story, +for only a short time had elapsed after his return to America when he +disappeared suddenly and mysteriously, and in spite of long-continued +and strenuous efforts to obtain some light on the subject, no clew +or trace of him was ever found. He was a favorite among the Edison +"oldtimers," and his memory is still cherished, for when some of the +"boys" happen to get together, as they occasionally do, some one is +almost sure to "wonder what became of poor 'Mac.'" He was last seen at +Mouquin's famous old French restaurant on Fulton Street, New York, where +he lunched with one of the authors of this book and the late Luther +Stieringer. He sat with them for two or three hours discussing his +wonderful trip, and telling some fascinating stories of adventure. Then +the party separated at the Ann Street door of the restaurant, after +making plans to secure the narrative in more detailed form for +subsequent use--and McGowan has not been seen from that hour to this. +The trail of the explorer was more instantly lost in New York than in +the vast recesses of the Amazon swamps. + +The next and last explorer whom Edison sent out in search of +natural fibres was Mr. James Ricalton, of Maplewood, New Jersey, a +school-principal, a well-known traveller, and an ardent student of +natural science. Mr. Ricalton's own story of his memorable expedition is +so interesting as to be worthy of repetition here: + +"A village schoolmaster is not unaccustomed to door-rappings; for the +steps of belligerent mothers are often thitherward bent seeking redress +for conjured wrongs to their darling boobies. + +"It was a bewildering moment, therefore, to the Maplewood teacher when, +in answering a rap at the door one afternoon, he found, instead of an +irate mother, a messenger from the laboratory of the world's greatest +inventor bearing a letter requesting an audience a few hours later. + +"Being the teacher to whom reference is made, I am now quite willing to +confess that for the remainder of that afternoon, less than a problem +in Euclid would have been sufficient to disqualify me for the remaining +scholastic duties of the hour. I felt it, of course, to be no small +honor for a humble teacher to be called to the sanctum of Thomas A. +Edison. The letter, however, gave no intimation of the nature of the +object for which I had been invited to appear before Mr. Edison.... + +"When I was presented to Mr. Edison his way of setting forth the +mission he had designated for me was characteristic of how a great mind +conceives vast undertakings and commands great things in few words. At +this time Mr. Edison had discovered that the fibre of a certain bamboo +afforded a very desirable carbon for the electric lamp, and the variety +of bamboo used was a product of Japan. It was his belief that in other +parts of the world other and superior varieties might be found, and to +that end he had dispatched explorers to bamboo regions in the valleys +of the great South American rivers, where specimens were found of +extraordinary quality; but the locality in which these specimens were +found was lost in the limitless reaches of those great river-bottoms. +The great necessity for more durable carbons became a desideratum so +urgent that the tireless inventor decided to commission another explorer +to search the tropical jungles of the Orient. + +"This brings me then to the first meeting of Edison, when he set forth +substantially as follows, as I remember it twenty years ago, the purpose +for which he had called me from my scholastic duties. With a quizzical +gleam in his eye, he said: 'I want a man to ransack all the tropical +jungles of the East to find a better fibre for my lamp; I expect it to +be found in the palm or bamboo family. How would you like that job?' +Suiting my reply to his love of brevity and dispatch, I said, 'That +would suit me.' 'Can you go to-morrow?' was his next question. 'Well, +Mr. Edison, I must first of all get a leave of absence from my Board of +Education, and assist the board to secure a substitute for the time of +my absence. How long will it take, Mr. Edison?' 'How can I tell? Maybe +six months, and maybe five years; no matter how long, find it.' He +continued: 'I sent a man to South America to find what I want; he found +it; but lost the place where he found it, so he might as well never have +found it at all.' Hereat I was enjoined to proceed forthwith to court +the Board of Education for a leave of absence, which I did successfully, +the board considering that a call so important and honorary was entitled +to their unqualified favor, which they generously granted. + +"I reported to Mr. Edison on the following day, when he instructed me to +come to the laboratory at once to learn all the details of drawing and +carbonizing fibres, which it would be necessary to do in the Oriental +jungles. This I did, and, in the mean time, a set of suitable tools for +this purpose had been ordered to be made in the laboratory. As soon as +I learned my new trade, which I accomplished in a few days, Mr. Edison +directed me to the library of the laboratory to occupy a few days in +studying the geography of the Orient and, particularly, in drawing maps +of the tributaries of the Ganges, the Irrawaddy, and the Brahmaputra +rivers, and other regions which I expected to explore. + +"It was while thus engaged that Mr. Edison came to me one day and said: +'If you will go up to the house' (his palatial home not far away) 'and +look behind the sofa in the library you will find a joint of bamboo, a +specimen of that found in South America; bring it down and make a study +of it; if you find something equal to that I will be satisfied.' At the +home I was guided to the library by an Irish servant-woman, to whom I +communicated my knowledge of the definite locality of the sample joint. +She plunged her arm, bare and herculean, behind the aforementioned sofa, +and holding aloft a section of wood, called out in a mood of discovery: +'Is that it?' Replying in the affirmative, she added, under an impulse +of innocent divination that whatever her wizard master laid hands upon +could result in nothing short of an invention, 'Sure, sor, and what's he +going to invint out o' that?' + +"My kit of tools made, my maps drawn, my Oriental geography reviewed, I +come to the point when matters of immediate departure are discussed; and +when I took occasion to mention to my chief that, on the subject of life +insurance, underwriters refuse to take any risks on an enterprise so +hazardous, Mr. Edison said that, if I did not place too high a valuation +on my person, he would take the risk himself. I replied that I was born +and bred in New York State, but now that I had become a Jersey man I did +not value myself at above fifteen hundred dollars. Edison laughed and +said that he would assume the risk, and another point was settled. The +next matter was the financing of the trip, about which Mr. Edison asked +in a tentative way about the rates to the East. I told him the expense +of such a trip could not be determined beforehand in detail, but that I +had established somewhat of a reputation for economic travel, and that +I did not believe any traveller could surpass me in that respect. He +desired no further assurance in that direction, and thereupon ordered a +letter of credit made out with authorization to order a second when the +first was exhausted. Herein then are set forth in briefest space the +preliminaries of a circuit of the globe in quest of fibre. + +"It so happened that the day on which I set out fell on Washington's +Birthday, and I suggested to my boys and girls at school that they make +a line across the station platform near the school at Maplewood, +and from this line I would start eastward around the world, and if +good-fortune should bring me back I would meet them from the westward at +the same line. As I had often made them 'toe the scratch,' for once they +were only too well pleased to have me toe the line for them. + +"This was done, and I sailed via England and the Suez Canal to Ceylon, +that fair isle to which Sindbad the Sailor made his sixth voyage, +picturesquely referred to in history as the 'brightest gem in the +British Colonial Crown.' I knew Ceylon to be eminently tropical; I knew +it to be rich in many varieties of the bamboo family, which has been +called the king of the grasses; and in this family had I most hope of +finding the desired fibre. Weeks were spent in this paradisiacal isle. +Every part was visited. Native wood craftsmen were offered a premium on +every new species brought in, and in this way nearly a hundred species +were tested, a greater number than was found in any other country. One +of the best specimens tested during the entire trip around the world was +found first in Ceylon, although later in Burmah, it being indigenous +to the latter country. It is a gigantic tree-grass or reed growing in +clumps of from one to two hundred, often twelve inches in diameter, and +one hundred and fifty feet high, and known as the giant bamboo (Bambusa +gigantia). This giant grass stood the highest test as a carbon, and on +account of its extraordinary size and qualities I extend it this special +mention. With others who have given much attention to this remarkable +reed, I believe that in its manifold uses the bamboo is the world's +greatest dendral benefactor. + +"From Ceylon I proceeded to India, touching the great peninsula first +at Cape Comorin, and continuing northward by way of Pondicherry, Madura, +and Madras; and thence to the tableland of Bangalore and the Western +Ghauts, testing many kinds of wood at every point, but particularly the +palm and bamboo families. From the range of the Western Ghauts I went to +Bombay and then north by the way of Delhi to Simla, the summer capital +of the Himalayas; thence again northward to the headwaters of the Sutlej +River, testing everywhere on my way everything likely to afford the +desired carbon. + +"On returning from the mountains I followed the valleys of the Jumna +and the Ganges to Calcutta, whence I again ascended the Sub-Himalayas to +Darjeeling, where the numerous river-bottoms were sprinkled plentifully +with many varieties of bamboo, from the larger sizes to dwarfed species +covering the mountain slopes, and not longer than the grass of meadows. +Again descending to the plains I passed eastward to the Brahmaputra +River, which I ascended to the foot-hills in Assam; but finding nothing +of superior quality in all this northern region I returned to Calcutta +and sailed thence to Rangoon, in Burmah; and there, finding no samples +giving more excellent tests in the lower reaches of the Irrawaddy, +I ascended that river to Mandalay, where, through Burmese bamboo +wiseacres, I gathered in from round about and tested all that the +unusually rich Burmese flora could furnish. In Burmah the giant bamboo, +as already mentioned, is found indigenous; but beside it no superior +varieties were found. Samples tested at several points on the Malay +Peninsula showed no new species, except at a point north of Singapore, +where I found a species large and heavy which gave a test nearly equal +to that of the giant bamboo in Ceylon. + +"After completing the Malay Peninsula I had planned to visit Java and +Borneo; but having found in the Malay Peninsula and in Ceylon a bamboo +fibre which averaged a test from one to two hundred per cent. better +than that in use at the lamp factory, I decided it was unnecessary to +visit these countries or New Guinea, as my 'Eureka' had already been +established, and that I would therefore set forth over the return +hemisphere, searching China and Japan on the way. The rivers in Southern +China brought down to Canton bamboos of many species, where this +wondrously utilitarian reed enters very largely into the industrial life +of that people, and not merely into the industrial life, but even into +the culinary arts, for bamboo sprouts are a universal vegetable +in China; but among all the bamboos of China I found none of +superexcellence in carbonizing qualities. Japan came next in the +succession of countries to be explored, but there the work was much +simplified, from the fact that the Tokio Museum contains a complete +classified collection of all the different species in the empire, and +there samples could be obtained and tested. + +"Now the last of the important bamboo-producing countries in the globe +circuit had been done, and the 'home-lap' was in order; the broad +Pacific was spanned in fourteen days; my natal continent in six; and +on the 22d of February, on the same day, at the same hour, at the +same minute, one year to a second, 'little Maude,' a sweet maid of the +school, led me across the line which completed the circuit of the globe, +and where I was greeted by the cheers of my boys and girls. I at once +reported to Mr. Edison, whose manner of greeting my return was as +characteristic of the man as his summary and matter-of-fact manner of my +dispatch. His little catechism of curious inquiry was embraced in four +small and intensely Anglo-Saxon words--with his usual pleasant smile he +extended his hand and said: 'Did you get it?' This was surely a summing +of a year's exploration not less laconic than Caesar's review of his +Gallic campaign. When I replied that I had, but that he must be the +final judge of what I had found, he said that during my absence he +had succeeded in making an artificial carbon which was meeting the +requirements satisfactorily; so well, indeed, that I believe no +practical use was ever made of the bamboo fibres thereafter. + +"I have herein given a very brief resume of my search for fibre through +the Orient; and during my connection with that mission I was at all +times not less astonished at Mr. Edison's quick perception of conditions +and his instant decision and his bigness of conceptions, than I had +always been with his prodigious industry and his inventive genius. + +"Thinking persons know that blatant men never accomplish much, and +Edison's marvellous brevity of speech along with his miraculous +achievements should do much to put bores and garrulity out of fashion." + +Although Edison had instituted such a costly and exhaustive search +throughout the world for the most perfect of natural fibres, he did not +necessarily feel committed for all time to the exclusive use of that +material for his lamp filaments. While these explorations were in +progress, as indeed long before, he had given much thought to the +production of some artificial compound that would embrace not only the +required homogeneity, but also many other qualifications necessary for +the manufacture of an improved type of lamp which had become desirable +by reason of the rapid adoption of his lighting system. + +At the very time Mr. McGowan was making his explorations deep in South +America, and Mr. Ricalton his swift trip around the world, Edison, +after much investigation and experiment, had produced a compound which +promised better results than bamboo fibres. After some changes dictated +by experience, this artificial filament was adopted in the manufacture +of lamps. No radical change was immediately made, however, but the +product of the lamp factory was gradually changed over, during the +course of a few years, from the use of bamboo to the "squirted" +filament, as the new material was called. An artificial compound of one +kind or another has indeed been universally adopted for the purpose +by all manufacturers; hence the incandescing conductors in all +carbon-filament lamps of the present day are made in that way. The fact +remains, however, that for nearly nine years all Edison lamps (many +millions in the aggregate) were made with bamboo filaments, and many of +them for several years after that, until bamboo was finally abandoned in +the early nineties, except for use in a few special types which were so +made until about the end of 1908. The last few years have witnessed +a remarkable advance in the manufacture of incandescent lamps in the +substitution of metallic filaments for those of carbon. It will be +remembered that many of the earlier experiments were based on the use of +strips of platinum; while other rare metals were the subject of casual +trial. No real success was attained in that direction, and for many +years the carbon-filament lamp reigned supreme. During the last four +or five years lamps with filaments made from tantalum and tungsten have +been produced and placed on the market with great success, and are now +largely used. Their price is still very high, however, as compared with +that of the carbon lamp, which has been vastly improved in methods of +construction, and whose average price of fifteen cents is only one-tenth +of what it was when Edison first brought it out. + +With the close of Mr. McGowan's and Mr. Ricalton's expeditions, there +ended the historic world-hunt for natural fibres. From start to finish +the investigations and searches made by Edison himself, and carried on +by others under his direction, are remarkable not only from the fact +that they entailed a total expenditure of about $100,000, (disbursed +under his supervision by Mr. Upton), but also because of their unique +inception and thoroughness they illustrate one of the strongest traits +of his character--an invincible determination to leave no stone unturned +to acquire that which he believes to be in existence, and which, when +found, will answer the purpose that he has in mind. + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +INVENTING A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF LIGHTING + +IN Berlin, on December 11, 1908, with notable eclat, the seventieth +birthday was celebrated of Emil Rathenau, the founder of the great +Allgemein Elektricitaets Gesellschaft. This distinguished German, +creator of a splendid industry, then received the congratulations of his +fellow-countrymen, headed by Emperor William, who spoke enthusiastically +of his services to electro-technics and to Germany. In his interesting +acknowledgment, Mr. Rathenau told how he went to Paris in 1881, and at +the electrical exhibition there saw the display of Edison's inventions +in electric lighting "which have met with as little proper appreciation +as his countless innovations in connection with telegraphy, telephony, +and the entire electrical industry." He saw the Edison dynamo, and he +saw the incandescent lamp, "of which millions have been manufactured +since that day without the great master being paid the tribute to his +invention." But what impressed the observant, thoroughgoing German was +the breadth with which the whole lighting art had been elaborated and +perfected, even at that early day. "The Edison system of lighting was as +beautifully conceived down to the very details, and as thoroughly worked +out as if it had been tested for decades in various towns. Neither +sockets, switches, fuses, lamp-holders, nor any of the other accessories +necessary to complete the installation were wanting; and the generating +of the current, the regulation, the wiring with distributing boxes, +house connections, meters, etc., all showed signs of astonishing skill +and incomparable genius." + +Such praise on such an occasion from the man who introduced incandescent +electric lighting into Germany is significant as to the continued +appreciation abroad of Mr. Edison's work. If there is one thing modern +Germany is proud and jealous of, it is her leadership in electrical +engineering and investigation. But with characteristic insight, Mr. +Rathenau here placed his finger on the great merit that has often been +forgotten. Edison was not simply the inventor of a new lamp and a +new dynamo. They were invaluable elements, but far from all that was +necessary. His was the mighty achievement of conceiving and executing +in all its details an art and an industry absolutely new to the world. +Within two years this man completed and made that art available in its +essential, fundamental facts, which remain unchanged after thirty years +of rapid improvement and widening application. + +Such a stupendous feat, whose equal is far to seek anywhere in the +history of invention, is worth studying, especially as the task will +take us over much new ground and over very little of the territory +already covered. Notwithstanding the enormous amount of thought and +labor expended on the incandescent lamp problem from the autumn of +1878 to the winter of 1879, it must not be supposed for one moment that +Edison's whole endeavor and entire inventive skill had been given to the +lamp alone, or the dynamo alone. We have sat through the long watches +of the night while Edison brooded on the real solution of the swarming +problems. We have gazed anxiously at the steady fingers of the deft and +cautious Batchelor, as one fragile filament after another refused to +stay intact until it could be sealed into its crystal prison and there +glow with light that never was before on land or sea. We have calculated +armatures and field coils for the new dynamo with Upton, and held the +stakes for Jehl and his fellows at their winding bees. We have seen the +mineral and vegetable kingdoms rifled and ransacked for substances that +would yield the best "filament." We have had the vague consciousness of +assisting at a great development whose evidences to-day on every hand +attest its magnitude. We have felt the fierce play of volcanic effort, +lifting new continents of opportunity from the infertile sea, without +any devastation of pre-existing fields of human toil and harvest. But +it still remains to elucidate the actual thing done; to reduce it to +concrete data, and in reducing, to unfold its colossal dimensions. + +The lighting system that Edison contemplated in this entirely new +departure from antecedent methods included the generation of electrical +energy, or current, on a very large scale; its distribution throughout +extended areas, and its division and subdivision into small units +converted into light at innumerable points in every direction from +the source of supply, each unit to be independent of every other and +susceptible to immediate control by the user. + +This was truly an altogether prodigious undertaking. We need not +wonder that Professor Tyndall, in words implying grave doubt as to the +possibility of any solution of the various problems, said publicly that +he would much rather have the matter in Edison's hands than in his own. +There were no precedents, nothing upon which to build or improve. The +problems could only be answered by the creation of new devices and +methods expressly worked out for their solution. An electric lamp +answering certain specific requirements would, indeed, be the key to the +situation, but its commercial adaptation required a multifarious variety +of apparatus and devices. The word "system" is much abused in invention, +and during the early days of electric lighting its use applied to a mere +freakish lamp or dynamo was often ludicrous. But, after all, nothing +short of a complete system could give real value to the lamp as an +invention; nothing short of a system could body forth the new art to +the public. Let us therefore set down briefly a few of the leading items +needed for perfect illumination by electricity, all of which were part +of the Edison programme: + +First--To conceive a broad and fundamentally correct method of +distributing the current, satisfactory in a scientific sense and +practical commercially in its efficiency and economy. This meant, ready +made, a comprehensive plan analogous to illumination by gas, with a +network of conductors all connected together, so that in any given city +area the lights could be fed with electricity from several directions, +thus eliminating any interruption due to the disturbance on any +particular section. + +Second--To devise an electric lamp that would give about the same amount +of light as a gas jet, which custom had proven to be a suitable and +useful unit. This lamp must possess the quality of requiring only a +small investment in the copper conductors reaching it. Each lamp must +be independent of every other lamp. Each and all the lights must be +produced and operated with sufficient economy to compete on a commercial +basis with gas. The lamp must be durable, capable of being easily and +safely handled by the public, and one that would remain capable of +burning at full incandescence and candle-power a great length of time. + +Third--To devise means whereby the amount of electrical energy furnished +to each and every customer could be determined, as in the case of gas, +and so that this could be done cheaply and reliably by a meter at the +customer's premises. + +Fourth--To elaborate a system or network of conductors capable of being +placed underground or overhead, which would allow of being tapped at any +intervals, so that service wires could be run from the main conductors +in the street into each building. Where these mains went below +the surface of the thoroughfare, as in large cities, there must be +protective conduit or pipe for the copper conductors, and these pipes +must allow of being tapped wherever necessary. With these conductors and +pipes must also be furnished manholes, junction-boxes, connections, and +a host of varied paraphernalia insuring perfect general distribution. + +Fifth--To devise means for maintaining at all points in an extended area +of distribution a practically even pressure of current, so that all +the lamps, wherever located, near or far away from the central station, +should give an equal light at all times, independent of the number that +might be turned on; and safeguarding the lamps against rupture by sudden +and violent fluctuations of current. There must also be means for thus +regulating at the point where the current was generated the quality or +pressure of the current throughout the whole lighting area, with devices +for indicating what such pressure might actually be at various points in +the area. + +Sixth--To design efficient dynamos, such not being in existence at the +time, that would convert economically the steam-power of high-speed +engines into electrical energy, together with means for connecting and +disconnecting them with the exterior consumption circuits; means for +regulating, equalizing their loads, and adjusting the number of dynamos +to be used according to the fluctuating demands on the central station. +Also the arrangement of complete stations with steam and electric +apparatus and auxiliary devices for insuring their efficient and +continuous operation. + +Seventh--To invent devices that would prevent the current from becoming +excessive upon any conductors, causing fire or other injury; also +switches for turning the current on and off; lamp-holders, fixtures, and +the like; also means and methods for establishing the interior circuits +that were to carry current to chandeliers and fixtures in buildings. + +Here was the outline of the programme laid down in the autumn of 1878, +and pursued through all its difficulties to definite accomplishment in +about eighteen months, some of the steps being made immediately, others +being taken as the art evolved. It is not to be imagined for one moment +that Edison performed all the experiments with his own hands. The method +of working at Menlo Park has already been described in these pages +by those who participated. It would not only have been physically +impossible for one man to have done all this work himself, in view of +the time and labor required, and the endless detail; but most of the +apparatus and devices invented or suggested by him as the art took shape +required the handiwork of skilled mechanics and artisans of a high order +of ability. Toward the end of 1879 the laboratory force thus numbered at +least one hundred earnest men. In this respect of collaboration, Edison +has always adopted a policy that must in part be taken to explain his +many successes. Some inventors of the greatest ability, dealing with +ideas and conceptions of importance, have found it impossible to +organize or even to tolerate a staff of co-workers, preferring solitary +and secret toil, incapable of team work, or jealous of any intrusion +that could possibly bar them from a full and complete claim to the +result when obtained. Edison always stood shoulder to shoulder with his +associates, but no one ever questioned the leadership, nor was it ever +in doubt where the inspiration originated. The real truth is that Edison +has always been so ceaselessly fertile of ideas himself, he has had more +than his whole staff could ever do to try them all out; he has sought +co-operation, but no exterior suggestion. As a matter of fact a great +many of the "Edison men" have made notable inventions of their own, with +which their names are imperishably associated; but while they were with +Edison it was with his work that they were and must be busied. + +It was during this period of "inventing a system" that so much +systematic and continuous work with good results was done by Edison in +the design and perfection of dynamos. The value of his contributions +to the art of lighting comprised in this work has never been fully +understood or appreciated, having been so greatly overshadowed by +his invention of the incandescent lamp, and of a complete system of +distribution. It is a fact, however, that the principal improvements he +made in dynamo-electric generators were of a radical nature and remain +in the art. Thirty years bring about great changes, especially in a +field so notably progressive as that of the generation of electricity; +but different as are the dynamos of to-day from those of the earlier +period, they embody essential principles and elements that Edison then +marked out and elaborated as the conditions of success. There was indeed +prompt appreciation in some well-informed quarters of what Edison was +doing, evidenced by the sensation caused in the summer of 1881, when +he designed, built, and shipped to Paris for the first Electrical +Exposition ever held, the largest dynamo that had been built up to that +time. It was capable of lighting twelve hundred incandescent lamps, and +weighed with its engine twenty-seven tons, the armature alone weighing +six tons. It was then, and for a long time after, the eighth wonder of +the scientific world, and its arrival and installation in Paris were +eagerly watched by the most famous physicists and electricians of +Europe. + +Edison's amusing description of his experience in shipping the dynamo to +Paris when built may appropriately be given here: "I built a very large +dynamo with the engine directly connected, which I intended for the +Paris Exposition of 1881. It was one or two sizes larger than those I +had previously built. I had only a very short period in which to get it +ready and put it on a steamer to reach the Exposition in time. After the +machine was completed we found the voltage was too low. I had to devise +a way of raising the voltage without changing the machine, which I did +by adding extra magnets. After this was done, we tested the machine, and +the crank-shaft of the engine broke and flew clear across the shop. +By working night and day a new crank-shaft was put in, and we only had +three days left from that time to get it on board the steamer; and had +also to run a test. So we made arrangements with the Tammany leader, and +through him with the police, to clear the street--one of the New York +crosstown streets--and line it with policemen, as we proposed to make a +quick passage, and didn't know how much time it would take. About four +hours before the steamer had to get it, the machine was shut down after +the test, and a schedule was made out in advance of what each man had +to do. Sixty men were put on top of the dynamo to get it ready, and each +man had written orders as to what he was to perform. We got it all taken +apart and put on trucks and started off. They drove the horses with a +fire-bell in front of them to the French pier, the policemen lining +the streets. Fifty men were ready to help the stevedores get it on the +steamer--and we were one hour ahead of time." + +This Exposition brings us, indeed, to a dramatic and rather pathetic +parting of the ways. The hour had come for the old laboratory force that +had done such brilliant and memorable work to disband, never again to +assemble under like conditions for like effort, although its members all +remained active in the field, and many have ever since been associated +prominently with some department of electrical enterprise. The fact +was they had done their work so well they must now disperse to show +the world what it was, and assist in its industrial exploitation. In +reality, they were too few for the demands that reached Edison from +all parts of the world for the introduction of his system; and in the +emergency the men nearest to him and most trusted were those upon whom +he could best depend for such missionary work as was now required. +The disciples full of fire and enthusiasm, as well as of knowledge and +experience, were soon scattered to the four winds, and the rapidity +with which the Edison system was everywhere successfully introduced is +testimony to the good judgment with which their leader had originally +selected them as his colleagues. No one can say exactly just how this +process of disintegration began, but Mr. E. H. Johnson had already been +sent to England in the Edison interests, and now the question arose as +to what should be done with the French demands and the Paris Electrical +Exposition, whose importance as a point of new departure in electrical +industry was speedily recognized on both sides of the Atlantic. It is +very interesting to note that as the earlier staff broke up, Edison +became the centre of another large body, equally devoted, but more +particularly concerned with the commercial development of his ideas. Mr. +E. G. Acheson mentions in his personal notes on work at the laboratory, +that in December of 1880, while on some experimental work, he was called +to the new lamp factory started recently at Menlo Park, and there +found Edison, Johnson, Batchelor, and Upton in conference, and "Edison +informed me that Mr. Batchelor, who was in charge of the construction, +development, and operation of the lamp factory, was soon to sail +for Europe to prepare for the exhibit to be made at the Electrical +Exposition to be held in Paris during the coming summer." These +preparations overlap the reinforcement of the staff with some notable +additions, chief among them being Mr. Samuel Insull, whose interesting +narrative of events fits admirably into the story at this stage, and +gives a vivid idea of the intense activity and excitement with which the +whole atmosphere around Edison was then surcharged: "I first met Edison +on March 1, 1881. I arrived in New York on the City of Chester about +five or six in the evening, and went direct to 65 Fifth Avenue. I had +come over to act as Edison's private secretary, the position having been +obtained for me through the good offices of Mr. E. H. Johnson, whom I +had known in London, and who wrote to Mr. U. H. Painter, of Washington, +about me in the fall of 1880. Mr. Painter sent the letter on to Mr. +Batchelor, who turned it over to Edison. Johnson returned to America +late in the fall of 1880, and in January, 1881, cabled to me to come +to this country. At the time he cabled for me Edison was still at Menlo +Park, but when I arrived in New York the famous offices of the Edison +Electric Light Company had been opened at '65' Fifth Avenue, and Edison +had moved into New York with the idea of assisting in the exploitation +of the Light Company's business. + +"I was taken by Johnson direct from the Inman Steamship pier to 65 Fifth +Avenue, and met Edison for the first time. There were three rooms on +the ground floor at that time. The front one was used as a kind of +reception-room; the room immediately behind it was used as the office of +the president of the Edison Electric Light Company, Major S. B. Eaton. +The rear room, which was directly back of the front entrance hall, was +Edison's office, and there I first saw him. There was very little in +the room except a couple of walnut roller-top desks--which were very +generally used in American offices at that time. Edison received me with +great cordiality. I think he was possibly disappointed at my being so +young a man; I had only just turned twenty-one, and had a very boyish +appearance. The picture of Edison is as vivid to me now as if the +incident occurred yesterday, although it is now more than twenty-nine +years since that first meeting. I had been connected with Edison's +affairs in England as private secretary to his London agent for about +two years; and had been taught by Johnson to look on Edison as the +greatest electrical inventor of the day--a view of him, by-the-way, +which has been greatly strengthened as the years have rolled by. Owing +to this, and to the fact that I felt highly flattered at the appointment +as his private secretary, I was naturally prepared to accept him as a +hero. With my strict English ideas as to the class of clothes to be worn +by a prominent man, there was nothing in Edison's dress to impress me. +He wore a rather seedy black diagonal Prince Albert coat and waistcoat, +with trousers of a dark material, and a white silk handkerchief around +his neck, tied in a careless knot falling over the stiff bosom of a +white shirt somewhat the worse for wear. He had a large wide-awake +hat of the sombrero pattern then generally used in this country, and a +rough, brown overcoat, cut somewhat similarly to his Prince Albert +coat. His hair was worn quite long, and hanging carelessly over his fine +forehead. His face was at that time, as it is now, clean shaven. He was +full in face and figure, although by no means as stout as he has grown +in recent years. What struck me above everything else was the wonderful +intelligence and magnetism of his expression, and the extreme brightness +of his eyes. He was far more modest than in my youthful picture of him. +I had expected to find a man of distinction. His appearance, as a whole, +was not what you would call 'slovenly,' it is best expressed by the word +'careless.'" + +Mr. Insull supplements this pen-picture by another, bearing upon the +hustle and bustle of the moment: "After a short conversation Johnson +hurried me off to meet his family, and later in the evening, about +eight o'clock, he and I returned to Edison's office; and I found myself +launched without further ceremony into Edison's business affairs. +Johnson had already explained to me that he was sailing the next +morning, March 2d, on the S.S. Arizona, and that Mr. Edison wanted to +spend the evening discussing matters in connection with his European +affairs. It was assumed, inasmuch as I had just arrived from London, +that I would be able to give more or less information on this subject. +As Johnson was to sail the next morning at five o'clock, Edison +explained that it would be necessary for him to have an understanding +of European matters. Edison started out by drawing from his desk a +check-book and stating how much money he had in the bank; and he wanted +to know what European telephone securities were most salable, as +he wished to raise the necessary funds to put on their feet the +incandescent lamp factory, the Electric Tube works, and the necessary +shops to build dynamos. All through the interview I was tremendously +impressed with Edison's wonderful resourcefulness and grasp, and his +immediate appreciation of any suggestion of consequence bearing on the +subject under discussion. + +"He spoke with very great enthusiasm of the work before him--namely, the +development of his electric-lighting system; and his one idea seemed to +be to raise all the money he could with the object of pouring it +into the manufacturing side of the lighting business. I remember how +extraordinarily I was impressed with him on this account, as I had +just come from a circle of people in London who not only questioned the +possibility of the success of Edison's invention, but often expressed +doubt as to whether the work he had done could be called an invention at +all. After discussing affairs with Johnson--who was receiving his final +instructions from Edison--far into the night, and going down to the +steamer to see Johnson aboard, I finished my first night's business +with Edison somewhere between four and five in the morning, feeling +thoroughly imbued with the idea that I had met one of the great master +minds of the world. You must allow for my youthful enthusiasm, but you +must also bear in mind Edison's peculiar gift of magnetism, which has +enabled him during his career to attach so many men to him. I fell a +victim to the spell at the first interview." + +Events moved rapidly in those days. The next morning, Tuesday, Edison +took his new fidus Achates with him to a conference with John Roach, the +famous old ship-builder, and at it agreed to take the AEtna Iron works, +where Roach had laid the foundations of his fame and fortune. These +works were not in use at the time. They were situated on Goerck Street, +New York, north of Grand Street, on the east side of the city, +and there, very soon after, was established the first Edison +dynamo-manufacturing establishment, known for many years as the Edison +Machine Works. The same night Insull made his first visit to Menlo Park. +Up to that time he had seen very little incandescent lighting, for the +simple reason that there was very little to see. Johnson had had a +few Edison lamps in London, lit up from primary batteries, as a +demonstration; and in the summer of 1880 Swan had had a few series +lamps burning in London. In New York a small gas-engine plant was being +started at the Edison offices on Fifth Avenue. But out at Menlo Park +there was the first actual electric-lighting central station, supplying +distributed incandescent lamps and some electric motors by means of +underground conductors imbedded in asphaltum and surrounded by a wooden +box. Mr. Insull says: "The system employed was naturally the two-wire, +as at that time the three-wire had not been thought of. The lamps +were partly of the horseshoe filament paper-carbon type, and partly +bamboo-filament lamps, and were of an efficiency of 95 to 100 watts per +16 c.p. I can never forget the impression that this first view of the +electric-lighting industry produced on me. Menlo Park must always be +looked upon as the birthplace of the electric light and power industry. +At that time it was the only place where could be seen an electric +light and power multiple arc distribution system, the operation of which +seemed as successful to my youthful mind as the operation of one of the +large metropolitan systems to-day. I well remember about ten o'clock +that night going down to the Menlo Park depot and getting the station +agent, who was also the telegraph operator, to send some cable messages +for me to my London friends, announcing that I had seen Edison's +incandescent lighting system in actual operation, and that so far as I +could tell it was an accomplished fact. A few weeks afterward I received +a letter from one of my London friends, who was a doubting Thomas, +upbraiding me for coming so soon under the spell of the 'Yankee +inventor.'" + +It was to confront and deal with just this element of doubt in London +and in Europe generally, that the dispatch of Johnson to England and of +Batchelor to France was intended. Throughout the Edison staff there +was a mingled feeling of pride in the work, resentment at the doubts +expressed about it, and keen desire to show how excellent it was. +Batchelor left for Paris in July, 1881--on his second trip to Europe +that year--and the exhibit was made which brought such an instantaneous +recognition of the incalculable value of Edison's lighting inventions, +as evidenced by the awards and rewards immediately bestowed upon him. He +was made an officer of the Legion of Honor, and Prof. George F. Barker +cabled as follows from Paris, announcing the decision of the expert jury +which passed upon the exhibits: "Accept my congratulations. You have +distanced all competitors and obtained a diploma of honor, the highest +award given in the Exposition. No person in any class in which you were +an exhibitor received a like reward." + +Nor was this all. Eminent men in science who had previously expressed +their disbelief in the statements made as to the Edison system were now +foremost in generous praise of his notable achievements, and accorded +him full credit for its completion. A typical instance was M. Du Moncel, +a distinguished electrician, who had written cynically about Edison's +work and denied its practicability. He now recanted publicly in this +language, which in itself shows the state of the art when Edison came +to the front: "All these experiments achieved but moderate success, and +when, in 1879, the new Edison incandescent carbon lamp was announced, +many of the scientists, and I, particularly, doubted the accuracy of +the reports which came from America. This horseshoe of carbonized +paper seemed incapable to resist mechanical shocks and to maintain +incandescence for any considerable length of time. Nevertheless, Mr. +Edison was not discouraged, and despite the active opposition made to +his lamp, despite the polemic acerbity of which he was the object, he +did not cease to perfect it; and he succeeded in producing the lamps +which we now behold exhibited at the Exposition, and are admired by all +for their perfect steadiness." + +The competitive lamps exhibited and tested at this time comprised those +of Edison, Maxim, Swan, and Lane-Fox. The demonstration of Edison's +success stimulated the faith of his French supporters, and rendered +easier the completion of plans for the Societe Edison Continental, of +Paris, formed to operate the Edison patents on the Continent of Europe. +Mr. Batchelor, with Messrs. Acheson and Hipple, and one or two other +assistants, at the close of the Exposition transferred their energies +to the construction and equipment of machine-shops and lamp factories +at Ivry-sur-Seine for the company, and in a very short time the +installation of plants began in various countries--France, Italy, +Holland, Belgium, etc. + +All through 1881 Johnson was very busy, for his part, in England. The +first "Jumbo" Edison dynamo had gone to Paris; the second and third +went to London, where they were installed in 1881 by Mr. Johnson and his +assistant, Mr. W. J. Hammer, in the three-thousand-light central station +on Holborn Viaduct, the plant going into operation on January 12, +1882. Outside of Menlo Park this was the first regular station for +incandescent lighting in the world, as the Pearl Street station in New +York did not go into operation until September of the same year. This +historic plant was hurriedly thrown together on Crown land, and would +doubtless have been the nucleus of a great system but for the passage of +the English electric lighting act of 1882, which at once throttled the +industry by its absurd restrictive provisions, and which, though +greatly modified, has left England ever since in a condition of serious +inferiority as to development in electric light and power. The streets +and bridges of Holborn Viaduct were lighted by lamps turned on and +off from the station, as well as the famous City Temple of Dr. Joseph +Parker, the first church in the world to be lighted by incandescent +lamps--indeed, so far as can be ascertained, the first church to be +illuminated by electricity in any form. Mr. W. J. Hammer, who supplies +some very interesting notes on the installation, says: "I well remember +the astonishment of Doctor Parker and his associates when they noted the +difference of temperature as compared with gas. I was informed that the +people would not go in the gallery in warm weather, owing to the great +heat caused by the many gas jets, whereas on the introduction of the +incandescent lamp there was no complaint." The telegraph operating-room +of the General Post-Office, at St. Martin's-Le Grand and Newgate Street +nearby, was supplied with four hundred lamps through the instrumentality +of Mr. (Sir) W. H. Preece, who, having been seriously sceptical as to +Mr. Edison's results, became one of his most ardent advocates, and did +much to facilitate the introduction of the light. This station supplied +its customers by a network of feeders and mains of the standard +underground two-wire Edison tubing-conductors in sections of iron +pipe--such as was used subsequently in New York, Milan, and other +cities. It also had a measuring system for the current, employing the +Edison electrolytic meter. Arc lamps were operated from its circuits, +and one of the first sets of practicable storage batteries was used +experimentally at the station. In connection with these batteries +Mr. Hammer tells a characteristic anecdote of Edison: "A careless boy +passing through the station whistling a tune and swinging carelessly a +hammer in his hand, rapped a carboy of sulphuric acid which happened to +be on the floor above a 'Jumbo' dynamo. The blow broke the glass carboy, +and the acid ran down upon the field magnets of the dynamo, destroying +the windings of one of the twelve magnets. This accident happened while +I was taking a vacation in Germany, and a prominent scientific man +connected with the company cabled Mr. Edison to know whether the machine +would work if the coil was cut out. Mr. Edison sent the laconic reply: +'Why doesn't he try it and see?' Mr. E. H. Johnson was kept busy not +only with the cares and responsibilities of this pioneer English +plant, but by negotiations as to company formations, hearings before +Parliamentary committees, and particularly by distinguished visitors, +including all the foremost scientific men in England, and a great +many well-known members of the peerage. Edison was fortunate in being +represented by a man with so much address, intimate knowledge of the +subject, and powers of explanation. As one of the leading English papers +said at the time, with equal humor and truth: 'There is but one Edison, +and Johnson is his prophet.'" + +As the plant continued in operation, various details and ideas of +improvement emerged, and Mr. Hammer says: "Up to the time of the +construction of this plant it had been customary to place a single-pole +switch on one wire and a safety fuse on the other; and the practice of +putting fuses on both sides of a lighting circuit was first used here. +Some of the first, if not the very first, of the insulated fixtures were +used in this plant, and many of the fixtures were equipped with ball +insulating joints, enabling the chandeliers--or 'electroliers'--to be +turned around, as was common with the gas chandeliers. This particular +device was invented by Mr. John B. Verity, whose firm built many of +the fixtures for the Edison Company, and constructed the notable +electroliers shown at the Crystal Palace Exposition of 1882." + +We have made a swift survey of developments from the time when the +system of lighting was ready for use, and when the staff scattered to +introduce it. It will be readily understood that Edison did not sit +with folded hands or drop into complacent satisfaction the moment he +had reached the practical stage of commercial exploitation. He was not +willing to say "Let us rest and be thankful," as was one of England's +great Liberal leaders after a long period of reform. On the contrary, he +was never more active than immediately after the work we have summed +up at the beginning of this chapter. While he had been pursuing his +investigations of the generator in conjunction with the experiments +on the incandescent lamp, he gave much thought to the question of +distribution of the current over large areas, revolving in his mind +various plans for the accomplishment of this purpose, and keeping his +mathematicians very busy working on the various schemes that suggested +themselves from time to time. The idea of a complete system had been in +his mind in broad outline for a long time, but did not crystallize into +commercial form until the incandescent lamp was an accomplished fact. +Thus in January, 1880, his first patent application for a "System of +Electrical Distribution" was signed. It was filed in the Patent Office a +few days later, but was not issued as a patent until August 30, 1887. It +covered, fundamentally, multiple arc distribution, how broadly will +be understood from the following extracts from the New York Electrical +Review of September 10, 1887: "It would appear as if the entire field +of multiple distribution were now in the hands of the owners of this +patent.... The patent is about as broad as a patent can be, being +regardless of specific devices, and laying a powerful grasp on the +fundamental idea of multiple distribution from a number of generators +throughout a metallic circuit." + +Mr. Edison made a number of other applications for patents on electrical +distribution during the year 1880. Among these was the one covering the +celebrated "Feeder" invention, which has been of very great commercial +importance in the art, its object being to obviate the "drop" in +pressure, rendering lights dim in those portions of an electric-light +system that were remote from the central station. [10] + + [Footnote 10: For further explanation of "Feeder" patent, + see Appendix.] + +From these two patents alone, which were absolutely basic and +fundamental in effect, and both of which were, and still are, put into +actual use wherever central-station lighting is practiced, the reader +will see that Mr. Edison's patient and thorough study, aided by his keen +foresight and unerring judgment, had enabled him to grasp in advance +with a master hand the chief and underlying principles of a true +system--that system which has since been put into practical use all over +the world, and whose elements do not need the touch or change of more +modern scientific knowledge. + +These patents were not by any means all that he applied for in the +year 1880, which it will be remembered was the year in which he was +perfecting the incandescent electric lamp and methods, to put into the +market for competition with gas. It was an extraordinarily busy year for +Mr. Edison and his whole force, which from time to time was increased +in number. Improvement upon improvement was the order of the day. That +which was considered good to-day was superseded by something better and +more serviceable to-morrow. Device after device, relating to some +part of the entire system, was designed, built, and tried, only to +be rejected ruthlessly as being unsuitable; but the pursuit was not +abandoned. It was renewed over and over again in innumerable ways until +success had been attained. + +During the year 1880 Edison had made application for sixty patents, of +which thirty-two were in relation to incandescent lamps; seven covered +inventions relating to distributing systems (including the two above +particularized); five had reference to inventions of parts, such +as motors, sockets, etc.; six covered inventions relating to +dynamo-electric machines; three related to electric railways, and seven +to miscellaneous apparatus, such as telegraph relays, magnetic ore +separators, magneto signalling apparatus, etc. + +The list of Mr. Edison's patents (see Appendices) is not only a monument +to his life's work, but serves to show what subjects he has worked on +from year to year since 1868. The reader will see from an examination +of this list that the years 1880, 1881, 1882, and 1883 were the most +prolific periods of invention. It is worth while to scrutinize this list +closely to appreciate the wide range of his activities. Not that his +patents cover his entire range of work by any means, for his note-books +reveal a great number of major and minor inventions for which he has +not seen fit to take out patents. Moreover, at the period now described +Edison was the victim of a dishonest patent solicitor, who deprived him +of a number of patents in the following manner: + +"Around 1881-82 I had several solicitors attending to different classes +of work. One of these did me a most serious injury. It was during +the time that I was developing my electric-lighting system, and I was +working and thinking very hard in order to cover all the numerous parts, +in order that it would be complete in every detail. I filed a great many +applications for patents at that time, but there were seventy-eight of +the inventions I made in that period that were entirely lost to me +and my company by reason of the dishonesty of this patent solicitor. +Specifications had been drawn, and I had signed and sworn to the +application for patents for these seventy-eight inventions, and +naturally I supposed they had been filed in the regular way. + +"As time passed I was looking for some action of the Patent Office, as +usual, but none came. I thought it very strange, but had no suspicions +until I began to see my inventions recorded in the Patent Office Gazette +as being patented by others. Of course I ordered an investigation, and +found that the patent solicitor had drawn from the company the fees for +filing all these applications, but had never filed them. All the papers +had disappeared, however, and what he had evidently done was to sell +them to others, who had signed new applications and proceeded to take +out patents themselves on my inventions. I afterward found that he +had been previously mixed up with a somewhat similar crooked job in +connection with telephone patents. + +"I am free to confess that the loss of these seventy-eight inventions +has left a sore spot in me that has never healed. They were important, +useful, and valuable, and represented a whole lot of tremendous work +and mental effort, and I had had a feeling of pride in having overcome +through them a great many serious obstacles, One of these inventions +covered the multipolar dynamo. It was an elaborated form of the type +covered by my patent No. 219,393 which had a ring armature. I modified +and improved on this form and had a number of pole pieces placed all +around the ring, with a modified form of armature winding. I built +one of these machines and ran it successfully in our early days at the +Goerck Street shop. + +"It is of no practical use to mention the man's name. I believe he is +dead, but he may have left a family. The occurrence is a matter of the +old Edison Company's records." + +It will be seen from an examination of the list of patents in the +Appendix that Mr. Edison has continued year after year adding to +his contributions to the art of electric lighting, and in the last +twenty-eight years--1880-1908--has taken out no fewer than three hundred +and seventy-five patents in this branch of industry alone. These patents +may be roughly tabulated as follows: + + Incandescent lamps and their manufacture....................149 + Distributing systems and their control and regulation....... 77 + Dynamo-electric machines and accessories....................106 + Minor parts, such as sockets, switches, safety catches, + meters, underground conductors and parts, etc............... 43 + +Quite naturally most of these patents cover inventions that are in +the nature of improvements or based upon devices which he had already +created; but there are a number that relate to inventions absolutely +fundamental and original in their nature. Some of these have already +been alluded to; but among the others there is one which is worthy +of special mention in connection with the present consideration of a +complete system. This is patent No. 274,290, applied for November 27, +1882, and is known as the "Three-wire" patent. It is described more +fully in the Appendix. + +The great importance of the "Feeder" and "Three-wire" inventions will be +apparent when it is realized that without them it is a question whether +electric light could be sold to compete with low-priced gas, on account +of the large investment in conductors that would be necessary. If a +large city area were to be lighted from a central station by means +of copper conductors running directly therefrom to all parts of the +district, it would be necessary to install large conductors, or suffer +such a drop of pressure at the ends most remote from the station as +to cause the lights there to burn with a noticeable diminution of +candle-power. The Feeder invention overcame this trouble, and made it +possible to use conductors ONLY ONE-EIGHTH THE SIZE that would otherwise +have been necessary to produce the same results. + +A still further economy in cost of conductors was effected by the +"Three-wire" invention, by the use of which the already diminished +conductors could be still further reduced TO ONE-THIRD of this smaller +size, and at the same time allow of the successful operation of the +station with far better results than if it were operated exactly as at +first conceived. The Feeder and Three-wire systems are at this day used +in all parts of the world, not only in central-station work, but in the +installation and operation of isolated electric-light plants in +large buildings. No sensible or efficient station manager or electric +contractor would ever think of an installation made upon any other plan. +Thus Mr. Edison's early conceptions of the necessities of a complete +system, one of them made even in advance of practice, have stood firm, +unimproved, and unchanged during the past twenty-eight years, a period +of time which has witnessed more wonderful and rapid progress in +electrical science and art than has been known during any similar art or +period of time since the world began. + +It must be remembered that the complete system in all its parts is not +comprised in the few of Mr. Edison's patents, of which specific mention +is here made. In order to comprehend the magnitude and extent of his +work and the quality of his genius, it is necessary to examine minutely +the list of patents issued for the various elements which go to make up +such a system. To attempt any relation in detail of the conception and +working-out of each part or element; to enter into any description of +the almost innumerable experiments and investigations that were +made would entail the writing of several volumes, for Mr. Edison's +close-written note-books covering these subjects number nearly two +hundred. + +It is believed that enough evidence has been given in this chapter +to lead to an appreciation of the assiduous work and practical skill +involved in "inventing a system" of lighting that would surpass, and to +a great extent, in one single quarter of a century, supersede all the +other methods of illumination developed during long centuries. But it +will be appropriate before passing on to note that on January 17, 1908, +while this biography was being written, Mr. Edison became the fourth +recipient of the John Fritz gold medal for achievement in industrial +progress. This medal was founded in 1902 by the professional friends +and associates of the veteran American ironmaster and metallurgical +inventor, in honor of his eightieth birthday. Awards are made by a board +of sixteen engineers appointed in equal numbers from the four great +national engineering societies--the American Society of Civil +Engineers, the American Institute of Mining Engineers, the American +Society of Mechanical Engineers, and the American Institute of +Electrical Engineers, whose membership embraces the very pick and flower +of professional engineering talent in America. Up to the time of the +Edison award, three others had been made. The first was to Lord Kelvin, +the Nestor of physics in Europe, for his work in submarine-cable +telegraphy and other scientific achievement. The second was to George +Westinghouse for the air-brake. The third was to Alexander Graham Bell +for the invention and introduction of the telephone. The award to Edison +was not only for his inventions in duplex and quadruplex telegraphy, and +for the phonograph, but for the development of a commercially practical +incandescent lamp, and the development of a complete system of electric +lighting, including dynamos, regulating devices, underground system, +protective devices, and meters. Great as has been the genius brought +to bear on electrical development, there is no other man to whom such a +comprehensive tribute could be paid. + + + +CHAPTER XV + +INTRODUCTION OF THE EDISON ELECTRIC LIGHT + +IN the previous chapter on the invention of a system, the narrative has +been carried along for several years of activity up to the verge of the +successful and commercial application of Edison's ideas and devices +for incandescent electric lighting. The story of any one year in this +period, if treated chronologically, would branch off in a great many +different directions, some going back to earlier work, others forward to +arts not yet within the general survey; and the effect of such treatment +would be confusing. In like manner the development of the Edison +lighting system followed several concurrent, simultaneous lines of +advance; and an effort was therefore made in the last chapter to give +a rapid glance over the whole movement, embracing a term of nearly five +years, and including in its scope both the Old World and the New. What +is necessary to the completeness of the story at this stage is not to +recapitulate, but to take up some of the loose ends of threads woven +in and follow them through until the clear and comprehensive picture of +events can be seen. + +Some things it would be difficult to reproduce in any picture of the art +and the times. One of the greatest delusions of the public in regard +to any notable invention is the belief that the world is waiting for it +with open arms and an eager welcome. The exact contrary is the truth. +There is not a single new art or device the world has ever enjoyed of +which it can be said that it was given an immediate and enthusiastic +reception. The way of the inventor is hard. He can sometimes raise +capital to help him in working out his crude conceptions, but even then +it is frequently done at a distressful cost of personal surrender. When +the result is achieved the invention makes its appeal on the score of +economy of material or of effort; and then "labor" often awaits with +crushing and tyrannical spirit to smash the apparatus or forbid its very +use. Where both capital and labor are agreed that the object is worthy +of encouragement, there is the supreme indifference of the public to +overcome, and the stubborn resistance of pre-existing devices to combat. +The years of hardship and struggle are thus prolonged, the chagrin +of poverty and neglect too frequently embitters the inventor's scanty +bread; and one great spirit after another has succumbed to the defeat +beyond which lay the procrastinated triumph so dearly earned. Even in +America, where the adoption of improvements and innovations is regarded +as so prompt and sure, and where the huge tolls of the Patent Office and +the courts bear witness to the ceaseless efforts of the inventor, it is +impossible to deny the sad truth that unconsciously society discourages +invention rather than invites it. Possibly our national optimism as +revealed in invention--the seeking a higher good--needs some check. +Possibly the leaders would travel too fast and too far on the road +to perfection if conservatism did not also play its salutary part in +insisting that the procession move forward as a whole. + +Edison and his electric light were happily more fortunate than other men +and inventions, in the relative cordiality of the reception given them. +The merit was too obvious to remain unrecognized. Nevertheless, it was +through intense hostility and opposition that the young art made its +way, pushed forward by Edison's own strong personality and by his +unbounded, unwavering faith in the ultimate success of his system. It +may seem strange that great effort was required to introduce a light so +manifestly convenient, safe, agreeable, and advantageous, but the +facts are matter of record; and to-day the recollection of some of the +episodes brings a fierce glitter into the eye and keen indignation into +the voice of the man who has come so victoriously through it all. + +It was not a fact at any time that the public was opposed to the idea of +the electric light. On the contrary, the conditions for its acceptance +had been ripening fast. Yet the very vogue of the electric arc light +made harder the arrival of the incandescent. As a new illuminant for the +streets, the arc had become familiar, either as a direct substitute +for the low gas lamp along the sidewalk curb, or as a novel form of +moonlight, raised in groups at the top of lofty towers often a hundred +and fifty feet high. Some of these lights were already in use for large +indoor spaces, although the size of the unit, the deadly pressure of +the current, and the sputtering sparks from the carbons made them +highly objectionable for such purposes. A number of parent arc-lighting +companies were in existence, and a great many local companies had +been called into being under franchises for commercial business and to +execute regular city contracts for street lighting. In this manner a +good deal of capital and the energies of many prominent men in politics +and business had been rallied distinctively to the support of arc +lighting. Under the inventive leadership of such brilliant men as Brush, +Thomson, Weston, and Van Depoele--there were scores of others--the +industry had made considerable progress and the art had been firmly +established. Here lurked, however, very vigorous elements of opposition, +for Edison predicted from the start the superiority of the small +electric unit of light, and devoted himself exclusively to its +perfection and introduction. It can be readily seen that this situation +made it all the more difficult for the Edison system to secure the large +sums of money needed for its exploitation, and to obtain new franchises +or city ordinances as a public utility. Thus in a curious manner the +modern art of electric lighting was in a very true sense divided against +itself, with intense rivalries and jealousies which were none the less +real because they were but temporary and occurred in a field where +ultimate union of forces was inevitable. For a long period the arc +was dominant and supreme in the lighting branch of the electrical +industries, in all respects, whether as to investment, employees, +income, and profits, or in respect to the manufacturing side. When +the great National Electric Light Association was formed in 1885, its +organizers were the captains of arc lighting, and not a single Edison +company or licensee could be found in its ranks, or dared to solicit +membership. The Edison companies, soon numbering about three hundred, +formed their own association--still maintained as a separate and useful +body--and the lines were tensely drawn in a way that made it none too +easy for the Edison service to advance, or for an impartial man +to remain friendly with both sides. But the growing popularity of +incandescent lighting, the flexibility and safety of the system, the +ease with which other electric devices for heat, power, etc., could be +put indiscriminately on the same circuits with the lamps, in due course +rendered the old attitude of opposition obviously foolish and untenable. +The United States Census Office statistics of 1902 show that the income +from incandescent lighting by central stations had by that time become +over 52 per cent. of the total, while that from arc lighting was less +than 29; and electric-power service due to the ease with which motors +could be introduced on incandescent circuits brought in 15 per +cent. more. Hence twenty years after the first Edison stations were +established the methods they involved could be fairly credited with no +less than 67 per cent. of all central-station income in the country, and +the proportion has grown since then. It will be readily understood +that under these conditions the modern lighting company supplies to its +customers both incandescent and arc lighting, frequently from the same +dynamo-electric machinery as a source of current; and that the old feud +as between the rival systems has died out. In fact, for some years past +the presidents of the National Electric Light Association have been +chosen almost exclusively from among the managers of the great Edison +lighting companies in the leading cities. + +The other strong opposition to the incandescent light came from the gas +industry. There also the most bitter feeling was shown. The gas manager +did not like the arc light, but it interfered only with his street +service, which was not his largest source of income by any means. What +did arouse his ire and indignation was to find this new opponent, the +little incandescent lamp, pushing boldly into the field of interior +lighting, claiming it on a great variety of grounds of superiority, and +calmly ignoring the question of price, because it was so much better. +Newspaper records and the pages of the technical papers of the day +show to what an extent prejudice and passion were stirred up and the +astounding degree to which the opposition to the new light was carried. + +Here again was given a most convincing demonstration of the truth that +such an addition to the resources of mankind always carries with it +unsuspected benefits even for its enemies. In two distinct directions +the gas art was immediately helped by Edison's work. The competition was +most salutary in the stimulus it gave to improvements in processes for +making, distributing, and using gas, so that while vast economies have +been effected at the gas works, the customer has had an infinitely +better light for less money. In the second place, the coming of the +incandescent light raised the standard of illumination in such a manner +that more gas than ever was wanted in order to satisfy the popular +demand for brightness and brilliancy both indoors and on the street. The +result of the operation of these two forces acting upon it wholly from +without, and from a rival it was desired to crush, has been to increase +enormously the production and use of gas in the last twenty-five +years. It is true that the income of the central stations is now over +$300,000,000 a year, and that isolated-plant lighting represents also a +large amount of diverted business; but as just shown, it would obviously +be unfair to regard all this as a loss from the standpoint of gas. It is +in great measure due to new sources of income developed by electricity +for itself. + +A retrospective survey shows that had the men in control of the American +gas-lighting art, in 1880, been sufficiently far-sighted, and had they +taken a broader view of the situation, they might easily have remained +dominant in the whole field of artificial lighting by securing the +ownership of the patents and devices of the new industry. Apparently not +a single step of that kind was undertaken, nor probably was there a gas +manager who would have agreed with Edison in the opinion written down +by him at the time in little note-book No. 184, that gas properties were +having conferred on them an enhanced earning capacity. It was doubtless +fortunate and providential for the electric-lighting art that in its +state of immature development it did not fall into the hands of men +who were opposed to its growth, and would not have sought its technical +perfection. It was allowed to carve out its own career, and thus escaped +the fate that is supposed to have attended other great inventions--of +being bought up merely for purposes of suppression. There is a vague +popular notion that this happens to the public loss; but the truth is +that no discovery of any real value is ever entirely lost. It may be +retarded; but that is all. In the case of the gas companies and the +incandescent light, many of them to whom it was in the early days as +great an irritant as a red flag to a bull, emulated the performance of +that animal and spent a great deal of money and energy in bellowing and +throwing up dirt in the effort to destroy the hated enemy. This was not +long nor universally the spirit shown; and to-day in hundreds of cities +the electric and gas properties are united under the one management, +which does not find it impossible to push in a friendly and progressive +way the use of both illuminants. The most conspicuous example of this +identity of interest is given in New York itself. + +So much for the early opposition, of which there was plenty. But it may +be questioned whether inertia is not equally to be dreaded with active +ill-will. Nothing is more difficult in the world than to get a good many +hundreds of thousands or millions of people to do something they have +never done before. A very real difficulty in the introduction of his +lamp and lighting system by Edison lay in the absolute ignorance of +the public at large, not only as to its merits, but as to the very +appearance of the light, Some few thousand people had gone out to Menlo +Park, and had there seen the lamps in operation at the laboratory or +on the hillsides, but they were an insignificant proportion of the +inhabitants of the United States. Of course, a great many accounts +were written and read, but while genuine interest was aroused it was +necessarily apathetic. A newspaper description or a magazine article +may be admirably complete in itself, with illustrations, but until some +personal experience is had of the thing described it does not convey +a perfect mental picture, nor can it always make the desire active and +insistent. Generally, people wait to have the new thing brought to them; +and hence, as in the case of the Edison light, an educational campaign +of a practical nature is a fundamental condition of success. + +Another serious difficulty confronting Edison and his associates +was that nowhere in the world were there to be purchased any of the +appliances necessary for the use of the lighting system. Edison had +resolved from the very first that the initial central station embodying +his various ideas should be installed in New York City, where he could +superintend the installation personally, and then watch the operation. +Plans to that end were now rapidly maturing; but there would be needed +among many other things--every one of them new and novel--dynamos, +switchboards, regulators, pressure and current indicators, fixtures +in great variety, incandescent lamps, meters, sockets, small switches, +underground conductors, junction-boxes, service-boxes, manhole-boxes, +connectors, and even specially made wire. Now, not one of these +miscellaneous things was in existence; not an outsider was sufficiently +informed about such devices to make them on order, except perhaps the +special wire. Edison therefore started first of all a lamp factory in +one of the buildings at Menlo Park, equipped it with novel machinery and +apparatus, and began to instruct men, boys, and girls, as they could be +enlisted, in the absolutely new art, putting Mr. Upton in charge. + +With regard to the conditions attendant upon the manufacture of the +lamps, Edison says: "When we first started the electric light we had to +have a factory for manufacturing lamps. As the Edison Light Company +did not seem disposed to go into manufacturing, we started a small +lamp factory at Menlo Park with what money I could raise from my other +inventions and royalties, and some assistance. The lamps at that time +were costing about $1.25 each to make, so I said to the company: 'If you +will give me a contract during the life of the patents, I will make all +the lamps required by the company and deliver them for forty cents.' The +company jumped at the chance of this offer, and a contract was drawn +up. We then bought at a receiver's sale at Harrison, New Jersey, a very +large brick factory building which had been used as an oil-cloth works. +We got it at a great bargain, and only paid a small sum down, and +the balance on mortgage. We moved the lamp works from Menlo Park to +Harrison. The first year the lamps cost us about $1.10 each. We sold +them for forty cents; but there were only about twenty or thirty +thousand of them. The next year they cost us about seventy cents, and we +sold them for forty. There were a good many, and we lost more money the +second year than the first. The third year I succeeded in getting up +machinery and in changing the processes, until it got down so that they +cost somewhere around fifty cents. I still sold them for forty cents, +and lost more money that year than any other, because the sales were +increasing rapidly. The fourth year I got it down to thirty-seven cents, +and I made all the money up in one year that I had lost previously. I +finally got it down to twenty-two cents, and sold them for forty cents; +and they were made by the million. Whereupon the Wall Street people +thought it was a very lucrative business, so they concluded they would +like to have it, and bought us out. + +"One of the incidents which caused a very great cheapening was that, +when we started, one of the important processes had to be done by +experts. This was the sealing on of the part carrying the filament into +the globe, which was rather a delicate operation in those days, and +required several months of training before any one could seal in a fair +number of parts in a day. When we got to the point where we employed +eighty of these experts they formed a union; and knowing it was +impossible to manufacture lamps without them, they became very insolent. +One instance was that the son of one of these experts was employed in +the office, and when he was told to do anything would not do it, or +would give an insolent reply. He was discharged, whereupon the union +notified us that unless the boy was taken back the whole body would go +out. It got so bad that the manager came to me and said he could not +stand it any longer; something had got to be done. They were not only +more surly; they were diminishing the output, and it became impossible +to manage the works. He got me enthused on the subject, so I started in +to see if it were not possible to do that operation by machinery. After +feeling around for some days I got a clew how to do it. I then put men +on it I could trust, and made the preliminary machinery. That seemed to +work pretty well. I then made another machine which did the work nicely. +I then made a third machine, and would bring in yard men, ordinary +laborers, etc., and when I could get these men to put the parts together +as well as the trained experts, in an hour, I considered the machine +complete. I then went secretly to work and made thirty of the machines. +Up in the top loft of the factory we stored those machines, and at night +we put up the benches and got everything all ready. Then we discharged +the office-boy. Then the union went out. It has been out ever since. + +"When we formed the works at Harrison we divided the interests into one +hundred shares or parts at $100 par. One of the boys was hard up after +a time, and sold two shares to Bob Cutting. Up to that time we had never +paid anything; but we got around to the point where the board declared +a dividend every Saturday night. We had never declared a dividend when +Cutting bought his shares, and after getting his dividends for three +weeks in succession, he called up on the telephone and wanted to know +what kind of a concern this was that paid a weekly dividend. The works +sold for $1,085,000." + +Incidentally it may be noted, as illustrative of the problems brought +to Edison, that while he had the factory at Harrison an importer in the +Chinese trade went to him and wanted a dynamo to be run by hand power. +The importer explained that in China human labor was cheaper than steam +power. Edison devised a machine to answer the purpose, and put long +spokes on it, fitted it up, and shipped it to China. He has not, +however, heard of it since. + +For making the dynamos Edison secured, as noted in the preceding +chapter, the Roach Iron Works on Goerck Street, New York, and this +was also equipped. A building was rented on Washington Street, where +machinery and tools were put in specially designed for making the +underground tube conductors and their various paraphernalia; and the +faithful John Kruesi was given charge of that branch of production. To +Sigmund Bergmann, who had worked previously with Edison on telephone +apparatus and phonographs, and was already making Edison specialties in +a small way in a loft on Wooster Street, New York, was assigned the task +of constructing sockets, fixtures, meters, safety fuses, and numerous +other details. + +Thus, broadly, the manufacturing end of the problem of introduction was +cared for. In the early part of 1881 the Edison Electric Light Company +leased the old Bishop mansion at 65 Fifth Avenue, close to Fourteenth +Street, for its headquarters and show-rooms. This was one of the finest +homes in the city of that period, and its acquisition was a premonitory +sign of the surrender of the famous residential avenue to commerce. The +company needed not only offices, but, even more, such an interior as +would display to advantage the new light in everyday use; and this house +with its liberal lines, spacious halls, lofty ceilings, wide parlors, +and graceful, winding stairway was ideal for the purpose. In fact, in +undergoing this violent change, it did not cease to be a home in the +real sense, for to this day many an Edison veteran's pulse is quickened +by some chance reference to "65," where through many years the work of +development by a loyal and devoted band of workers was centred. Here +Edison and a few of his assistants from Menlo Park installed immediately +in the basement a small generating plant, at first with a gas-engine +which was not successful, and then with a Hampson high-speed engine and +boiler, constituting a complete isolated plant. The building was wired +from top to bottom, and equipped with all the appliances of the art. The +experience with the little gas-engine was rather startling. "At an early +period at '65' we decided," says Edison, "to light it up with the Edison +system, and put a gas-engine in the cellar, using city gas. One day it +was not going very well, and I went down to the man in charge and got +exploring around. Finally I opened the pedestal--a storehouse for tools, +etc. We had an open lamp, and when we opened the pedestal, it blew the +doors off, and blew out the windows, and knocked me down, and the other +man." + +For the next four or five years "65" was a veritable beehive, day and +night. The routine was very much the same as that at the laboratory, in +its utter neglect of the clock. The evenings were not only devoted to +the continuance of regular business, but the house was thrown open to +the public until late at night, never closing before ten o'clock, so as +to give everybody who wished an opportunity to see that great novelty +of the time--the incandescent light--whose fame had meanwhile been +spreading all over the globe. The first year, 1881, was naturally that +which witnessed the greatest rush of visitors; and the building hardly +ever closed its doors till midnight. During the day business was carried +on under great stress, and Mr. Insull has described how Edison was to +be found there trying to lead the life of a man of affairs in the +conventional garb of polite society, instead of pursuing inventions and +researches in his laboratory. But the disagreeable ordeal could not be +dodged. After the experience Edison could never again be tempted to quit +his laboratory and work for any length of time; but in this instance +there were some advantages attached to the sacrifice, for the crowds of +lion-hunters and people seeking business arrangements would only have +gone out to Menlo Park; while, on the other hand, the great plans for +lighting New York demanded very close personal attention on the spot. + +As it was, not only Edison, but all the company's directors, officers, +and employees, were kept busy exhibiting and explaining the light. To +the public of that day, when the highest known form of house illuminant +was gas, the incandescent lamp, with its ability to burn in any +position, its lack of heat so that you could put your hand on the +brilliant glass globe; the absence of any vitiating effect on the +atmosphere, the obvious safety from fire; the curious fact that you +needed no matches to light it, and that it was under absolute control +from a distance--these and many other features came as a distinct +revelation and marvel, while promising so much additional comfort, +convenience, and beauty in the home, that inspection was almost +invariably followed by a request for installation. + +The camaraderie that existed at this time was very democratic, for all +were workers in a common cause; all were enthusiastic believers in the +doctrine they proclaimed, and hoped to profit by the opening up of +the new art. Often at night, in the small hours, all would adjourn for +refreshments to a famous resort nearby, to discuss the events of to-day +and to-morrow, full of incident and excitement. The easy relationship of +the time is neatly sketched by Edison in a humorous complaint as to his +inability to keep his own cigars: "When at '65' I used to have in my +desk a box of cigars. I would go to the box four or five times to get a +cigar, but after it got circulated about the building, everybody would +come to get my cigars, so that the box would only last about a day and +a half. I was telling a gentleman one day that I could not keep a +cigar. Even if I locked them up in my desk they would break it open. He +suggested to me that he had a friend over on Eighth Avenue who made a +superior grade of cigars, and who would show them a trick. He said he +would have some of them made up with hair and old paper, and I could put +them in without a word and see the result. I thought no more about the +matter. He came in two or three months after, and said: 'How did that +cigar business work?' I didn't remember anything about it. On coming to +investigate, it appeared that the box of cigars had been delivered and +had been put in my desk, and I had smoked them all! I was too busy on +other things to notice." + +It was no uncommon sight to see in the parlors in the evening John +Pierpont Morgan, Norvin Green, Grosvenor P. Lowrey, Henry Villard, +Robert L. Cutting, Edward D. Adams, J. Hood Wright, E. G. Fabbri, R. +M. Galloway, and other men prominent in city life, many of them +stock-holders and directors; all interested in doing this educational +work. Thousands of persons thus came--bankers, brokers, lawyers, +editors, and reporters, prominent business men, electricians, insurance +experts, under whose searching and intelligent inquiries the facts were +elicited, and general admiration was soon won for the system, which in +advance had solved so many new problems. Edison himself was in universal +request and the subject of much adulation, but altogether too busy and +modest to be spoiled by it. Once in a while he felt it his duty to go +over the ground with scientific visitors, many of whom were from abroad, +and discuss questions which were not simply those of technique, but +related to newer phenomena, such as the action of carbon, the nature +and effects of high vacua; the principles of electrical subdivision; the +value of insulation, and many others which, unfortunate to say, remain +as esoteric now as they were then, ever fruitful themes of controversy. + +Speaking of those days or nights, Edison says: "Years ago one of the +great violinists was Remenyi. After his performances were over he used +to come down to '65' and talk economics, philosophy, moral science, and +everything else. He was highly educated and had great mental capacity. +He would talk with me, but I never asked him to bring his violin. One +night he came with his violin, about twelve o'clock. I had a library +at the top of the house, and Remenyi came up there. He was in a genial +humor, and played the violin for me for about two hours--$2000 worth. +The front doors were closed, and he walked up and down the room as he +played. After that, every time he came to New York he used to call at +'65' late at night with his violin. If we were not there, he could come +down to the slums at Goerck Street, and would play for an hour or two +and talk philosophy. I would talk for the benefit of his music. Henry E. +Dixey, then at the height of his 'Adonis' popularity, would come in +in those days, after theatre hours, and would entertain us with +stories--1882-84. Another visitor who used to give us a good deal of +amusement and pleasure was Captain Shaw, the head of the London Fire +Brigade. He was good company. He would go out among the fire-laddies +and have a great time. One time Robert Lincoln and Anson Stager, of the +Western Union, interested in the electric light, came on to make some +arrangement with Major Eaton, President of the Edison Electric Light +Company. They came to '65' in the afternoon, and Lincoln commenced +telling stories--like his father. They told stories all the afternoon, +and that night they left for Chicago. When they got to Cleveland, it +dawned upon them that they had not done any business, so they had +to come back on the next train to New York to transact it. They were +interested in the Chicago Edison Company, now one of the largest of the +systems in the world. Speaking of telling stories, I once got telling +a man stories at the Harrison lamp factory, in the yard, as he was +leaving. It was winter, and he was all in furs. I had nothing on to +protect me against the cold. I told him one story after the other--six +of them. Then I got pleurisy, and had to be shipped to Florida for +cure." + +The organization of the Edison Electric Light Company went back to 1878; +but up to the time of leasing 65 Fifth Avenue it had not been engaged +in actual business. It had merely enjoyed the delights of anxious +anticipation, and the perilous pleasure of backing Edison's experiments. +Now active exploitation was required. Dr. Norvin Green, the well-known +President of the Western Union Telegraph Company, was president also of +the Edison Company, but the pressing nature of his regular duties +left him no leisure for such close responsible management as was now +required. Early in 1881 Mr. Grosvenor P. Lowrey, after consultation with +Mr. Edison, prevailed upon Major S. B. Eaton, the leading member of +a very prominent law firm in New York, to accept the position of +vice-president and general manager of the company, in which, as also in +some of the subsidiary Edison companies, and as president, he continued +actively and energetically for nearly four years, a critical, formative +period in which the solidity of the foundation laid is attested by the +magnitude and splendor of the superstructure. + +The fact that Edison conferred at this point with Mr. Lowrey should, +perhaps, be explained in justice to the distinguished lawyer, who for so +many years was the close friend of the inventor, and the chief counsel +in all the tremendous litigation that followed the effort to enforce and +validate the Edison patents. As in England Mr. Edison was fortunate in +securing the legal assistance of Sir Richard Webster, afterward Lord +Chief Justice of England, so in America it counted greatly in his favor +to enjoy the advocacy of such a man as Lowrey, prominent among the +famous leaders of the New York bar. Born in Massachusetts, Mr. Lowrey, +in his earlier days of straitened circumstances, was accustomed to +defray some portion of his educational expenses by teaching music in the +Berkshire villages, and by a curious coincidence one of his pupils +was F. L. Pope, later Edison's partner for a time. Lowrey went West to +"Bleeding Kansas" with the first Governor, Reeder, and both were active +participants in the exciting scenes of the "Free State" war until driven +away in 1856, like many other free-soilers, by the acts of the "Border +Ruffian" legislature. Returning East, Mr. Lowrey took up practice in New +York, soon becoming eminent in his profession, and upon the accession of +William Orton to the presidency of the Western Union Telegraph Company +in 1866, he was appointed its general counsel, the duties of which post +he discharged for fifteen years. One of the great cases in which he +thus took a leading and distinguished part was that of the quadruplex +telegraph; and later he acted as legal adviser to Henry Villard in his +numerous grandiose enterprises. Lowrey thus came to know Edison, to +conceive an intense admiration for him, and to believe in his ability +at a time when others could not detect the fire of genius smouldering +beneath the modest exterior of a gaunt young operator slowly +"finding himself." It will be seen that Mr Lowrey was in a peculiarly +advantageous position to make his convictions about Edison felt, so +that it was he and his friends who rallied quickly to the new banner +of discovery, and lent to the inventor the aid that came at a critical +period. In this connection it may be well to quote an article that +appeared at the time of Mr. Lowrey's death, in 1893: "One of the most +important services which Mr. Lowrey has ever performed was in furnishing +and procuring the necessary financial backing for Thomas A. Edison in +bringing out and perfecting his system of incandescent lighting. With +characteristic pertinacity, Mr. Lowrey stood by the inventor through +thick and thin, in spite of doubt, discouragement, and ridicule, until +at last success crowned his efforts. In all the litigation which has +resulted from the wide-spread infringements of the Edison patents, Mr. +Lowrey has ever borne the burden and heat of the day, and perhaps in +no other field has he so personally distinguished himself as in the +successful advocacy of the claims of Edison to the invention of the +incandescent lamp and everything 'hereunto pertaining.'" + +This was the man of whom Edison had necessarily to make a confidant and +adviser, and who supplied other things besides the legal direction and +financial alliance, by his knowledge of the world and of affairs. There +were many vital things to be done in the exploitation of the system that +Edison simply could not and would not do; but in Lowrey's savoir faire, +ready wit and humor, chivalry of devotion, graceful eloquence, and +admirable equipoise of judgment were all the qualities that the occasion +demanded and that met the exigencies. + +We are indebted to Mr. Insull for a graphic sketch of Edison at this +period, and of the conditions under which work was done and progress was +made: "I do not think I had any understanding with Edison when I first +went with him as to my duties. I did whatever he told me, and looked +after all kinds of affairs, from buying his clothes to financing his +business. I used to open the correspondence and answer it all, sometimes +signing Edison's name with my initial, and sometimes signing my own +name. If the latter course was pursued, and I was addressing a stranger, +I would sign as Edison's private secretary. I held his power of +attorney, and signed his checks. It was seldom that Edison signed +a letter or check at this time. If he wanted personally to send a +communication to anybody, if it was one of his close associates, it +would probably be a pencil memorandum signed 'Edison.' I was a shorthand +writer, but seldom took down from Edison's dictation, unless it was on +some technical subject that I did not understand. I would go over +the correspondence with Edison, sometimes making a marginal note in +shorthand, and sometimes Edison would make his own notes on letters, and +I would be expected to clean up the correspondence with Edison's laconic +comments as a guide as to the character of answer to make. It was a very +common thing for Edison to write the words 'Yes' or 'No,' and this would +be all I had on which to base my answer. Edison marginalized documents +extensively. He had a wonderful ability in pointing out the weak points +of an agreement or a balance-sheet, all the while protesting he was no +lawyer or accountant; and his views were expressed in very few words, +but in a characteristic and emphatic manner. + +"The first few months I was with Edison he spent most of the time in the +office at 65 Fifth Avenue. Then there was a great deal of trouble with +the life of the lamps there, and he disappeared from the office and +spent his time largely at Menlo Park. At another time there was a great +deal of trouble with some of the details of construction of the dynamos, +and Edison spent a lot of time at Goerck Street, which had been rapidly +equipped with the idea of turning out bi-polar dynamo-electric machines, +direct-connected to the engine, the first of which went to Paris and +London, while the next were installed in the old Pearl Street station +of the Edison Electric Illuminating Company of New York, just south of +Fulton Street, on the west side of the street. Edison devoted a great +deal of his time to the engineering work in connection with the laying +out of the first incandescent electric-lighting system in New York. +Apparently at that time--between the end of 1881 and spring of 1882--the +most serious work was the manufacture and installation of underground +conductors in this territory. These conductors were manufactured by +the Electric Tube Company, which Edison controlled in a shop at 65 +Washington Street, run by John Kruesi. Half-round copper conductors were +used, kept in place relatively to each other and in the tube, first of +all by a heavy piece of cardboard, and later on by a rope; and then put +in a twenty-foot iron pipe; and a combination of asphaltum and linseed +oil was forced into the pipe for the insulation. I remember as a +coincidence that the building was only twenty feet wide. These lengths +of conductors were twenty feet six inches long, as the half-round +coppers extended three inches beyond the drag-ends of the lengths of +pipe; and in one of the operations we used to take the length of tubing +out of the window in order to turn it around. I was elected secretary of +the Electric Tube Company, and was expected to look after its finance; +and it was in this position that my long intimacy with John Kruesi +started." + +At this juncture a large part of the correspondence referred very +naturally to electric lighting, embodying requests for all kinds of +information, catalogues, prices, terms, etc.; and all these letters were +turned over to the lighting company by Edison for attention. The company +was soon swamped with propositions for sale of territorial rights and +with other negotiations, and some of these were accompanied by the offer +of very large sums of money. It was the beginning of the electric-light +furor which soon rose to sensational heights. Had the company accepted +the cash offers from various localities, it could have gathered several +millions of dollars at once into its treasury; but this was not at +all in accord with Mr. Edison's idea, which was to prove by actual +experience the commercial value of the system, and then to license +central-station companies in large cities and towns, the parent company +taking a percentage of their capital for the license under the Edison +patents, and contracting also for the supply of apparatus, lamps, etc. +This left the remainder of the country open for the cash sale of plants +wherever requested. His counsels prevailed, and the wisdom of the policy +adopted was seen in the swift establishment of Edison companies in +centres of population both great and small, whose business has ever been +a constant and growing source of income for the parent manufacturing +interests. + +From first to last Edison has been an exponent and advocate of the +central-station idea of distribution now so familiar to the public mind, +but still very far from being carried out to its logical conclusion. +In this instance, demands for isolated plants for lighting factories, +mills, mines, hotels, etc., began to pour in, and something had to be +done with them. This was a class of plant which the inquirers desired to +purchase outright and operate themselves, usually because of remoteness +from any possible source of general supply of current. It had not been +Edison's intention to cater to this class of customer until his broad +central-station plan had been worked out, and he has always discouraged +the isolated plant within the limits of urban circuits; but this demand +was so insistent it could not be denied, and it was deemed desirable to +comply with it at once, especially as it was seen that the steady call +for supplies and renewals would benefit the new Edison manufacturing +plants. After a very short trial, it was found necessary to create +a separate organization for this branch of the industry, leaving the +Edison Electric Light Company to continue under the original plan of +operation as a parent, patent-holding and licensing company. Accordingly +a new and distinct corporation was formed called the Edison Company for +Isolated Lighting, to which was issued a special license to sell and +operate plants of a self-contained character. As a matter of fact such +work began in advance of almost every other kind. A small plant using +the paper-carbon filament lamps was furnished by Edison at the earnest +solicitation of Mr. Henry Villard for the steamship Columbia, in 1879, +and it is amusing to note that Mr. Upton carried the lamps himself +to the ship, very tenderly and jealously, like fresh eggs, in a +market-garden basket. The installation was most successful. Another +pioneer plant was that equipped and started in January, 1881, for Hinds +& Ketcham, a New York firm of lithographers and color printers, who +had previously been able to work only by day, owing to difficulties in +color-printing by artificial light. A year later they said: "It is the +best substitute for daylight we have ever known, and almost as cheap." + +Mr. Edison himself describes various instances in which the demand for +isolated plants had to be met: "One night at '65,'" he says, "James +Gordon Bennett came in. We were very anxious to get into a printing +establishment. I had caused a printer's composing case to be set up with +the idea that if we could get editors and publishers in to see it, we +should show them the advantages of the electric light. So ultimately +Mr. Bennett came, and after seeing the whole operation of everything, +he ordered Mr. Howland, general manager of the Herald, to light the +newspaper offices up at once with electricity." + +Another instance of the same kind deals with the introduction of the +light for purely social purposes: "While at 65 Fifth Avenue," remarks +Mr. Edison, "I got to know Christian Herter, then the largest decorator +in the United States. He was a highly intellectual man, and I loved to +talk to him. He was always railing against the rich people, for whom +he did work, for their poor taste. One day Mr. W. H. Vanderbilt came +to '65,' saw the light, and decided that he would have his new house +lighted with it. This was one of the big 'box houses' on upper Fifth +Avenue. He put the whole matter in the hands of his son-in-law, Mr. H. +McK. Twombly, who was then in charge of the telephone department of +the Western Union. Twombly closed the contract with us for a plant. Mr. +Herter was doing the decoration, and it was extraordinarily fine. After +a while we got the engines and boilers and wires all done, and the +lights in position, before the house was quite finished, and thought we +would have an exhibit of the light. About eight o'clock in the evening +we lit up, and it was very good. Mr. Vanderbilt and his wife and some +of his daughters came in, and were there a few minutes when a fire +occurred. The large picture-gallery was lined with silk cloth interwoven +with fine metallic thread. In some manner two wires had got crossed with +this tinsel, which became red-hot, and the whole mass was soon afire. I +knew what was the matter, and ordered them to run down and shut off. +It had not burst into flame, and died out immediately. Mrs. Vanderbilt +became hysterical, and wanted to know where it came from. We told her we +had the plant in the cellar, and when she learned we had a boiler there +she said she would not occupy the house. She would not live over a +boiler. We had to take the whole installation out. The houses afterward +went onto the New York Edison system." + +The art was, however, very crude and raw, and as there were no artisans +in existence as mechanics or electricians who had any knowledge of the +practice, there was inconceivable difficulty in getting such isolated +plants installed, as well as wiring the buildings in the district to be +covered by the first central station in New York. A night school was, +therefore, founded at Fifth Avenue, and was put in charge of Mr. E. H. +Johnson, fresh from his successes in England. The most available men for +the purpose were, of course, those who had been accustomed to wiring +for the simpler electrical systems then in vogue--telephones, +district-messenger calls, burglar alarms, house annunciators, etc., and +a number of these "wiremen" were engaged and instructed patiently in +the rudiments of the new art by means of a blackboard and oral lessons. +Students from the technical schools and colleges were also eager +recruits, for here was something that promised a career, and one that +was especially alluring to youth because of its novelty. These beginners +were also instructed in general engineering problems under the guidance +of Mr. C. L. Clarke, who was brought in from the Menlo Park laboratory +to assume charge of the engineering part of the company's affairs. +Many of these pioneer students and workmen became afterward large and +successful contractors, or have filled positions of distinction +as managers and superintendents of central stations. Possibly the +electrical industry may not now attract as much adventurous genius as it +did then, for automobiles, aeronautics, and other new arts have come +to the front in a quarter of a century to enlist the enthusiasm of a +younger generation of mercurial spirits; but it is certain that at the +period of which we write, Edison himself, still under thirty-five, was +the centre of an extraordinary group of men, full of effervescing and +aspiring talent, to which he gave glorious opportunity. + +A very novel literary feature of the work was the issuance of a bulletin +devoted entirely to the Edison lighting propaganda. Nowadays the +"house organ," as it is called, has become a very hackneyed feature +of industrial development, confusing in its variety and volume, and +a somewhat doubtful adjunct to a highly perfected, widely circulating +periodical technical press. But at that time, 1882, the Bulletin of +the Edison Electric Light Company, published in ordinary 12mo form, was +distinctly new in advertising and possibly unique, as it is difficult +to find anything that compared with it. The Bulletin was carried on for +some years, until its necessity was removed by the development of other +opportunities for reaching the public; and its pages serve now as a +vivid and lively picture of the period to which its record applies. The +first issue, of January 12, 1882, was only four pages, but it dealt +with the question of insurance; plants at Santiago, Chili, and Rio de +Janeiro; the European Company with 3,500,000 francs subscribed; the work +in Paris, London, Strasburg, and Moscow; the laying of over six miles of +street mains in New York; a patent decision in favor of Edison; and the +size of safety catch wire. By April of 1882, the Bulletin had attained +the respectable size of sixteen pages; and in December it was a portly +magazine of forty-eight. Every item bears testimony to the rapid +progress being made; and by the end of 1882 it is seen that no fewer +than 153 isolated Edison plants had been installed in the United States +alone, with a capacity of 29,192 lamps. Moreover, the New York central +station had gone into operation, starting at 3 P.M. on September 4, and +at the close of 1882 it was lighting 225 houses wired for about 5000 +lamps. This epochal story will be told in the next chapter. Most +interesting are the Bulletin notes from England, especially in regard +to the brilliant exhibition given by Mr. E. H. Johnson at the Crystal +Palace, Sydenham, visited by the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh, twice by +the Dukes of Westminster and Sutherland, by three hundred members of +the Gas Institute, and by innumerable delegations from cities, boroughs, +etc. Describing this before the Royal Society of Arts, Sir W. H. Preece, +F.R.S., remarked: "Many unkind things have been said of Mr. Edison and +his promises; perhaps no one has been severer in this direction than +myself. It is some gratification for me to announce my belief that he +has at last solved the problem he set himself to solve, and to be able +to describe to the Society the way in which he has solved it." Before +the exhibition closed it was visited by the Prince and Princess of +Wales--now the deceased Edward VII. and the Dowager Queen Alexandra--and +the Princess received from Mr. Johnson as a souvenir a tiny electric +chandelier fashioned like a bouquet of fern leaves and flowers, the buds +being some of the first miniature incandescent lamps ever made. + +The first item in the first Bulletin dealt with the "Fire Question," and +all through the successive issues runs a series of significant items on +the same subject. Many of them are aimed at gas, and there are several +grim summaries of death and fires due to gas-leaks or explosions. A +tendency existed at the time to assume that electricity was altogether +safe, while its opponents, predicating their attacks on arc-lighting +casualties, insisted it was most dangerous. Edison's problem in +educating the public was rather difficult, for while his low-pressure, +direct-current system has always been absolutely without danger to life, +there has also been the undeniable fact that escaping electricity might +cause a fire just as a leaky water-pipe can flood a house. The important +question had arisen, therefore, of satisfying the fire underwriters +as to the safety of the system. He had foreseen that there would be an +absolute necessity for special devices to prevent fires from occurring +by reason of any excess of current flowing in any circuit; and several +of his earliest detail lighting inventions deal with this subject. The +insurance underwriters of New York and other parts of the country gave +a great deal of time and study to the question through their most +expert representatives, with the aid of Edison and his associates, other +electric-light companies cooperating; and the knowledge thus gained +was embodied in insurance rules to govern wiring for electric lights, +formulated during the latter part of 1881, adopted by the New York Board +of Fire Underwriters, January 12, 1882, and subsequently endorsed +by other boards in the various insurance districts. Under temporary +rulings, however, a vast amount of work had already been done, but +it was obvious that as the industry grew there would be less and less +possibility of supervision except through such regulations, insisting +upon the use of the best devices and methods. Indeed, the direct +superintendence soon became unnecessary, owing to the increasing +knowledge and greater skill acquired by the installing staff; and this +system of education was notably improved by a manual written by Mr. +Edison himself. Copies of this brochure are as scarce to-day as First +Folio Shakespeares, and command prices equal to those of other American +first editions. The little book is the only known incursion of its +author into literature, if we except the brief articles he has written +for technical papers and for the magazines. It contained what was at +once a full, elaborate, and terse explanation of a complete isolated +plant, with diagrams of various methods of connection and operation, and +a carefully detailed description of every individual part, its functions +and its characteristics. The remarkable success of those early years was +indeed only achieved by following up with Chinese exactness the minute +and intimate methods insisted upon by Edison as to the use of the +apparatus and devices employed. It was a curious example of establishing +standard practice while changing with kaleidoscopic rapidity all the +elements involved. He was true to an ideal as to the pole-star, but was +incessantly making improvements in every direction. With an iconoclasm +that has often seemed ruthless and brutal he did not hesitate to +sacrifice older devices the moment a new one came in sight that embodied +a real advance in securing effective results. The process is heroic but +costly. Nobody ever had a bigger scrap-heap than Edison; but who dare +proclaim the process intrinsically wasteful if the losses occur in the +initial stages, and the economies in all the later ones? + +With Edison in this introduction of his lighting system the method +was ruthless, but not reckless. At an early stage of the commercial +development a standardizing committee was formed, consisting of the +heads of all the departments, and to this body was intrusted the task of +testing and criticising all existing and proposed devices, as well as of +considering the suggestions and complaints of workmen offered from +time to time. This procedure was fruitful in two principal results--the +education of the whole executive force in the technical details of +the system; and a constant improvement in the quality of the Edison +installations; both contributing to the rapid growth of the industry. + +For many years Goerck Street played an important part in Edison's +affairs, being the centre of all his manufacture of heavy machinery. But +it was not in a desirable neighborhood, and owing to the rapid growth of +the business soon became disadvantageous for other reasons. Edison tells +of his frequent visits to the shops at night, with the escort of "Jim" +Russell, a well-known detective, who knew all the denizens of the +place: "We used to go out at night to a little, low place, an all-night +house--eight feet wide and twenty-two feet long--where we got a lunch +at two or three o'clock in the morning. It was the toughest kind of +restaurant ever seen. For the clam chowder they used the same four clams +during the whole season, and the average number of flies per pie was +seven. This was by actual count." + +As to the shops and the locality: "The street was lined with rather old +buildings and poor tenements. We had not much frontage. As our business +increased enormously, our quarters became too small, so we saw the +district Tammany leader and asked him if we could not store castings +and other things on the sidewalk. He gave us permission--told us to go +ahead, and he would see it was all right. The only thing he required for +this was that when a man was sent with a note from him asking us to +give him a job, he was to be put on. We had a hand-laborer foreman--'Big +Jim'--a very powerful Irishman, who could lift above half a ton. When +one of the Tammany aspirants appeared, he was told to go right to work +at $1.50 per day. The next day he was told off to lift a certain piece, +and if the man could not lift it he was discharged. That made the +Tammany man all safe. Jim could pick the piece up easily. The other man +could not, and so we let him out. Finally the Tammany leader called a +halt, as we were running big engine lathes out on the sidewalk, and he +was afraid we were carrying it a little too far. The lathes were worked +right out in the street, and belted through the windows of the shop." + +At last it became necessary to move from Goerck Street, and Mr. Edison +gives a very interesting account of the incidents in connection with +the transfer of the plant to Schenectady, New York: "After our works at +Goerck Street got too small, we had labor troubles also. It seems I had +rather a socialistic strain in me, and I raised the pay of the workmen +twenty-five cents an hour above the prevailing rate of wages, whereupon +Hoe & Company, our near neighbors, complained at our doing this. I said +I thought it was all right. But the men, having got a little more +wages, thought they would try coercion and get a little more, as we +were considered soft marks. Whereupon they struck at a time that +was critical. However, we were short of money for pay-rolls; and we +concluded it might not be so bad after all, as it would give us a +couple of weeks to catch up. So when the men went out they appointed a +committee to meet us; but for two weeks they could not find us, so they +became somewhat more anxious than we were. Finally they said they would +like to go back. We said all right, and back they went. It was quite a +novelty to the men not to be able to find us when they wanted to; and +they didn't relish it at all. + +"What with these troubles and the lack of room, we decided to find +a factory elsewhere, and decided to try the locomotive works up at +Schenectady. It seems that the people there had had a falling out among +themselves, and one of the directors had started opposition works; but +before he had completed all the buildings and put in machinery some +compromise was made, and the works were for sale. We bought them very +reasonably and moved everything there. These works were owned by me and +my assistants until sold to the Edison General Electric Company. At one +time we employed several thousand men; and since then the works have +been greatly expanded. + +"At these new works our orders were far in excess of our capital to +handle the business, and both Mr. Insull and I were afraid we might get +into trouble for lack of money. Mr. Insull was then my business manager, +running the whole thing; and, therefore, when Mr. Henry Villard and his +syndicate offered to buy us out, we concluded it was better to be +sure than be sorry; so we sold out for a large sum. Villard was a very +aggressive man with big ideas, but I could never quite understand him. +He had no sense of humor. I remember one time we were going up on the +Hudson River boat to inspect the works, and with us was Mr. Henderson, +our chief engineer, who was certainly the best raconteur of funny +stories I ever knew. We sat at the tail-end of the boat, and he started +in to tell funny stories. Villard could not see a single point, and +scarcely laughed at all; and Henderson became so disconcerted he had to +give it up. It was the same way with Gould. In the early telegraph days +I remember going with him to see Mackay in 'The Impecunious Country +Editor.' It was very funny, full of amusing and absurd situations; but +Gould never smiled once." + +The formation of the Edison General Electric Company involved the +consolidation of the immediate Edison manufacturing interests in +electric light and power, with a capitalization of $12,000,000, now a +relatively modest sum; but in those days the amount was large, and +the combination caused a great deal of newspaper comment as to such +a coinage of brain power. The next step came with the creation of the +great General Electric Company of to-day, a combination of the Edison, +Thomson-Houston, and Brush lighting interests in manufacture, which +to this day maintains the ever-growing plants at Harrison, Lynn, and +Schenectady, and there employs from twenty to twenty-five thousand +people. + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +THE FIRST EDISON CENTRAL STATION + +A NOTED inventor once said at the end of a lifetime of fighting to +defend his rights, that he found there were three stages in all great +inventions: the first, in which people said the thing could not be done; +the second, in which they said anybody could do it; and the third, +in which they said it had always been done by everybody. In his +central-station work Edison has had very much this kind of experience; +for while many of his opponents came to acknowledge the novelty and +utility of his plans, and gave him unstinted praise, there are doubtless +others who to this day profess to look upon him merely as an adapter. +How different the view of so eminent a scientist as Lord Kelvin was, +may be appreciated from his remark when in later years, in reply to the +question why some one else did not invent so obvious and simple a thing +as the Feeder System, he said: "The only answer I can think of is that +no one else was Edison." + +Undaunted by the attitude of doubt and the predictions of impossibility, +Edison had pushed on until he was now able to realize all his ideas as +to the establishment of a central station in the work that culminated +in New York City in 1882. After he had conceived the broad plan, his +ambition was to create the initial plant on Manhattan Island, where it +would be convenient of access for watching its operation, and where the +demonstration of its practicability would have influence in financial +circles. The first intention was to cover a district extending from +Canal Street on the north to Wall Street on the south; but Edison +soon realized that this territory was too extensive for the initial +experiment, and he decided finally upon the district included between +Wall, Nassau, Spruce, and Ferry streets, Peck Slip and the East River, +an area nearly a square mile in extent. One of the preliminary steps +taken to enable him to figure on such a station and system was to have +men go through this district on various days and note the number of gas +jets burning at each hour up to two or three o'clock in the morning. The +next step was to divide the region into a number of sub-districts and +institute a house-to-house canvass to ascertain precisely the data and +conditions pertinent to the project. When the canvass was over, Edison +knew exactly how many gas jets there were in every building in the +entire district, the average hours of burning, and the cost of light; +also every consumer of power, and the quantity used; every hoistway to +which an electric motor could be applied; and other details too numerous +to mention, such as related to the gas itself, the satisfaction of +the customers, and the limitations of day and night demand. All this +information was embodied graphically in large maps of the district, by +annotations in colored inks; and Edison thus could study the question +with every detail before him. Such a reconnaissance, like that of a +coming field of battle, was invaluable, and may help give a further idea +of the man's inveterate care for the minutiae of things. + +The laboratory note-books of this period--1878-80, more +particularly--show an immense amount of calculation by Edison and his +chief mathematician, Mr. Upton, on conductors for the distribution of +current over large areas, and then later in the district described. +With the results of this canvass before them, the sizes of the main +conductors to be laid throughout the streets of this entire territory +were figured, block by block; and the results were then placed on the +map. These data revealed the fact that the quantity of copper required +for the main conductors would be exceedingly large and costly; and, +if ever, Edison was somewhat dismayed. But as usual this apparently +insurmountable difficulty only spurred him on to further effort. It +was but a short time thereafter that he solved the knotty problem by an +invention mentioned in a previous chapter. This is known as the "feeder +and main" system, for which he signed the application for a patent on +August 4, 1880. As this invention effected a saving of seven-eighths of +the cost of the chief conductors in a straight multiple arc system, the +mains for the first district were refigured, and enormous new maps were +made, which became the final basis of actual installation, as they were +subsequently enlarged by the addition of every proposed junction-box, +bridge safety-catch box, and street-intersection box in the whole area. + +When this patent, after protracted fighting, was sustained by Judge +Green in 1893, the Electrical Engineer remarked that the General +Electric Company "must certainly feel elated" because of its importance; +and the journal expressed its fear that although the specifications and +claims related only to the maintenance of uniform pressure of current on +lighting circuits, the owners might naturally seek to apply it also to +feeders used in the electric-railway work already so extensive. At this +time, however, the patent had only about a year of life left, owing +to the expiration of the corresponding English patent. The fact that +thirteen years had elapsed gives a vivid idea of the ordeal involved in +sustaining a patent and the injustice to the inventor, while there is +obviously hardship to those who cannot tell from any decision of the +court whether they are infringing or not. It is interesting to note that +the preparation for hearing this case in New Jersey was accompanied by +models to show the court exactly the method and its economy, as +worked out in comparison with what is known as the "tree system" +of circuits--the older alternative way of doing it. As a basis of +comparison, a district of thirty-six city blocks in the form of a square +was assumed. The power station was placed at the centre of the square; +each block had sixteen consumers using fifteen lights each. Conductors +were run from the station to supply each of the four quarters of the +district with light. In one example the "feeder" system was used; in +the other the "tree." With these models were shown two cubes which +represented one one-hundredth of the actual quantity of copper required +for each quarter of the district by the two-wire tree system as compared +with the feeder system under like conditions. The total weight of copper +for the four quarter districts by the tree system was 803,250 pounds, +but when the feeder system was used it was only 128,739 pounds! This +was a reduction from $23.24 per lamp for copper to $3.72 per lamp. Other +models emphasized this extraordinary contrast. At the time Edison was +doing this work on economizing in conductors, much of the criticism +against him was based on the assumed extravagant use of copper implied +in the obvious "tree" system, and it was very naturally said that there +was not enough copper in the world to supply his demands. It is true +that the modern electrical arts have been a great stimulator of copper +production, now taking a quarter of all made; yet evidently but for such +inventions as this such arts could not have come into existence at +all, or else in growing up they would have forced copper to starvation +prices. [11] + + [Footnote 11: For description of feeder patent see + Appendix.] + +It should be borne in mind that from the outset Edison had determined +upon installing underground conductors as the only permanent and +satisfactory method for the distribution of current from central +stations in cities; and that at Menlo Park he laid out and operated such +a system with about four hundred and twenty-five lamps. The underground +system there was limited to the immediate vicinity of the laboratory and +was somewhat crude, as well as much less complicated than would be the +network of over eighty thousand lineal feet, which he calculated to be +required for the underground circuits in the first district of New York +City. At Menlo Park no effort was made for permanency; no provision +was needed in regard to occasional openings of the street for various +purposes; no new customers were to be connected from time to time to +the mains, and no repairs were within contemplation. In New York the +question of permanency was of paramount importance, and the other +contingencies were sure to arise as well as conditions more easy +to imagine than to forestall. These problems were all attacked in a +resolute, thoroughgoing manner, and one by one solved by the invention +of new and unprecedented devices that were adequate for the purposes of +the time, and which are embodied in apparatus of slight modification in +use up to the present day. + +Just what all this means it is hard for the present generation to +imagine. New York and all the other great cities in 1882, and for +some years thereafter, were burdened and darkened by hideous masses +of overhead wires carried on ugly wooden poles along all the main +thoroughfares. One after another rival telegraph and telephone, stock +ticker, burglar-alarm, and other companies had strung their circuits +without any supervision or restriction; and these wires in all +conditions of sag or decay ramified and crisscrossed in every direction, +often hanging broken and loose-ended for months, there being no official +compulsion to remove any dead wire. None of these circuits carried +dangerous currents; but the introduction of the arc light brought an +entirely new menace in the use of pressures that were even worse than +the bully of the West who "kills on sight," because this kindred peril +was invisible, and might lurk anywhere. New poles were put up, and +the lighting circuits on them, with but a slight insulation of cotton +impregnated with some "weather-proof" compound, straggled all over the +city exposed to wind and rain and accidental contact with other wires, +or with the metal of buildings. So many fatalities occurred that the +insulated wire used, called "underwriters," because approved by the +insurance bodies, became jocularly known as "undertakers," and efforts +were made to improve its protective qualities. Then came the overhead +circuits for distributing electrical energy to motors for operating +elevators, driving machinery, etc., and these, while using a lower, +safer potential, were proportionately larger. There were no wires +underground. Morse had tried that at the very beginning of electrical +application, in telegraphy, and all agreed that renewals of the +experiment were at once costly and foolish. At last, in cities like +New York, what may be styled generically the "overhead system" of wires +broke down under its own weight; and various methods of underground +conductors were tried, hastened in many places by the chopping down of +poles and wires as the result of some accident that stirred the public +indignation. One typical tragic scene was that in New York, where, +within sight of the City Hall, a lineman was killed at his work on +the arc light pole, and his body slowly roasted before the gaze of the +excited populace, which for days afterward dropped its silver and copper +coin into the alms-box nailed to the fatal pole for the benefit of his +family. Out of all this in New York came a board of electrical +control, a conduit system, and in the final analysis the Public +Service Commission, that is credited to Governor Hughes as the furthest +development of utility corporation control. + +The "road to yesterday" back to Edison and his insistence on underground +wires is a long one, but the preceding paragraph traces it. Even +admitting that the size and weight of his low-tension conductors +necessitated putting them underground, this argues nothing against the +propriety and sanity of his methods. He believed deeply and firmly in +the analogy between electrical supply and that for water and gas, and +pointed to the trite fact that nobody hoisted the water and gas mains +into the air on stilts, and that none of the pressures were inimical +to human safety. The arc-lighting methods were unconsciously and +unwittingly prophetic of the latter-day long-distance transmissions at +high pressure that, electrically, have placed the energy of Niagara at +the command of Syracuse and Utica, and have put the power of the falling +waters of the Sierras at the disposal of San Francisco, two hundred +miles away. But within city limits overhead wires, with such +space-consuming potentials, are as fraught with mischievous peril to the +public as the dynamite stored by a nonchalant contractor in the cellar +of a schoolhouse. As an offset, then, to any tendency to depreciate the +intrinsic value of Edison's lighting work, let the claim be here set +forth modestly and subject to interference, that he was the father of +underground wires in America, and by his example outlined the policy now +dominant in every city of the first rank. Even the comment of a cynic +in regard to electrical development may be accepted: "Some electrical +companies wanted all the air; others apparently had use for all the +water; Edison only asked for the earth." + +The late Jacob Hess, a famous New York Republican politician, was a +member of the commission appointed to put the wires underground in New +York City, in the "eighties." He stated that when the commission was +struggling with the problem, and examining all kinds of devices and +plans, patented and unpatented, for which fabulous sums were often +asked, the body turned to Edison in its perplexity and asked for advice. +Edison said: "All you have to do, gentlemen, is to insulate your wires, +draw them through the cheapest thing on earth--iron pipe--run your pipes +through channels or galleries under the street, and you've got the whole +thing done." This was practically the system adopted and in use to +this day. What puzzled the old politician was that Edison would accept +nothing for his advice. + +Another story may also be interpolated here as to the underground work +done in New York for the first Edison station. It refers to the "man +higher up," although the phrase had not been coined in those days +of lower public morality. That a corporation should be "held up" was +accepted philosophically by the corporation as one of the unavoidable +incidents of its business; and if the corporation "got back" by securing +some privilege without paying for it, the public was ready to condone +if not applaud. Public utilities were in the making, and no one in +particular had a keen sense of what was right or what was wrong, in +the hard, practical details of their development. Edison tells this +illuminating story: "When I was laying tubes in the streets of New York, +the office received notice from the Commissioner of Public Works to +appear at his office at a certain hour. I went up there with a gentleman +to see the Commissioner, H. O. Thompson. On arrival he said to me: 'You +are putting down these tubes. The Department of Public Works requires +that you should have five inspectors to look after this work, and that +their salary shall be $5 per day, payable at the end of each week. +Good-morning.' I went out very much crestfallen, thinking I would be +delayed and harassed in the work which I was anxious to finish, and +was doing night and day. We watched patiently for those inspectors to +appear. The only appearance they made was to draw their pay Saturday +afternoon." + +Just before Christmas in 1880--December 17--as an item for the silk +stocking of Father Knickerbocker--the Edison Electric Illuminating +Company of New York was organized. In pursuance of the policy adhered +to by Edison, a license was issued to it for the exclusive use of +the system in that territory--Manhattan Island--in consideration of a +certain sum of money and a fixed percentage of its capital in stock for +the patent rights. Early in 1881 it was altogether a paper enterprise, +but events moved swiftly as narrated already, and on June 25, 1881, +the first "Jumbo" prototype of the dynamo-electric machines to generate +current at the Pearl Street station was put through its paces before +being shipped to Paris to furnish new sensations to the flaneur of the +boulevards. A number of the Edison officers and employees assembled at +Goerck Street to see this "gigantic" machine go into action, and watched +its performance with due reverence all through the night until five +o'clock on Sunday morning, when it respected the conventionalities by +breaking a shaft and suspending further tests. After this dynamo was +shipped to France, and its successors to England for the Holborn Viaduct +plant, Edison made still further improvements in design, increasing +capacity and economy, and then proceeded vigorously with six machines +for Pearl Street. + +An ideal location for any central station is at the very centre of the +district served. It may be questioned whether it often goes there. In +the New York first district the nearest property available was a double +building at Nos. 255 and 257 Pearl Street, occupying a lot so by 100 +feet. It was four stories high, with a fire-wall dividing it into +two equal parts. One of these parts was converted for the uses of the +station proper, and the other was used as a tube-shop by the underground +construction department, as well as for repair-shops, storage, etc. +Those were the days when no one built a new edifice for station +purposes; that would have been deemed a fantastic extravagance. One +early station in New York for arc lighting was an old soap-works whose +well-soaked floors did not need much additional grease to render them +choice fuel for the inevitable flames. In this Pearl Street instance, +the building, erected originally for commercial uses, was quite +incapable of sustaining the weight of the heavy dynamos and +steam-engines to be installed on the second floor; so the old flooring +was torn out and a new one of heavy girders supported by stiff columns +was substituted. This heavy construction, more familiar nowadays, and +not unlike the supporting metal structure of the Manhattan Elevated +road, was erected independent of the enclosing walls, and occupied the +full width of 257 Pearl Street, and about three-quarters of its depth. +This change in the internal arrangements did not at all affect the ugly +external appearance, which did little to suggest the stately and +ornate stations since put up by the New York Edison Company, the latest +occupying whole city blocks. + +Of this episode Edison gives the following account: "While planning +for my first New York station--Pearl Street--of course, I had no real +estate, and from lack of experience had very little knowledge of its +cost in New York; so I assumed a rather large, liberal amount of it to +plan my station on. It occurred to me one day that before I went too far +with my plans I had better find out what real estate was worth. In my +original plan I had 200 by 200 feet. I thought that by going down on a +slum street near the water-front I would get some pretty cheap property. +So I picked out the worst dilapidated street there was, and found I +could only get two buildings, each 25 feet front, one 100 feet deep and +the other 85 feet deep. I thought about $10,000 each would cover it; +but when I got the price I found that they wanted $75,000 for one and +$80,000 for the other. Then I was compelled to change my plans and +go upward in the air where real estate was cheap. I cleared out the +building entirely to the walls and built my station of structural +ironwork, running it up high." + +Into this converted structure was put the most complete steam plant +obtainable, together with all the mechanical and engineering adjuncts +bearing upon economical and successful operation. Being in a narrow +street and a congested district, the plant needed special facilities for +the handling of coal and ashes, as well as for ventilation and forced +draught. All of these details received Mr. Edison's personal care and +consideration on the spot, in addition to the multitude of other affairs +demanding his thought. Although not a steam or mechanical engineer, his +quick grasp of principles and omnivorous reading had soon supplied the +lack of training; nor had he forgotten the practical experience picked +up as a boy on the locomotives of the Grand Trunk road. It is to +be noticed as a feature of the plant, in common with many of later +construction, that it was placed well away from the water's edge, +and equipped with non-condensing engines; whereas the modern plant +invariably seeks the bank of a river or lake for the purpose of a +generous supply of water for its condensing engines or steam-turbines. +These are among the refinements of practice coincidental with the +advance of the art. + +At the award of the John Fritz gold medal in April, 1909, to Charles T. +Porter for his work in advancing the knowledge of steam-engineering, and +for improvements in engine construction, Mr. Frank J. Sprague spoke on +behalf of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers of the debt of +electricity to the high-speed steam-engine. He recalled the fact that +at the French Exposition of 1867 Mr. Porter installed two Porter-Allen +engines to drive electric alternating-current generators for supplying +current to primitive lighthouse apparatus. While the engines were not +directly coupled to the dynamos, it was a curious fact that the piston +speeds and number of revolutions were what is common to-day in isolated +direct-coupled plants. In the dozen years following Mr. Porter built +many engines with certain common characteristics--i.e., high piston +speed and revolutions, solid engine bed, and babbitt-metal bearings; but +there was no electric driving until 1880, when Mr. Porter installed a +high-speed engine for Edison at his laboratory in Menlo Park. Shortly +after this he was invited to construct for the Edison Pearl Street +station the first of a series of engines for so-called "steam-dynamos," +each independently driven by a direct-coupled engine. Mr. Sprague +compared the relations thus established between electricity and the +high-speed engine not to those of debtor and creditor, but rather to +those of partners--an industrial marriage--one of the most important +in the engineering world. Here were two machines destined to be joined +together, economizing space, enhancing economy, augmenting capacity, +reducing investment, and increasing dividends. + +While rapid progress was being made in this and other directions, the +wheels of industry were humming merrily at the Edison Tube Works, for +over fifteen miles of tube conductors were required for the district, +besides the boxes to connect the network at the street intersections, +and the hundreds of junction boxes for taking the service conductors +into each of the hundreds of buildings. In addition to the immense +amount of money involved, this specialized industry required an enormous +amount of experiment, as it called for the development of an entirely +new art. But with Edison's inventive fertility--if ever there was a +cross-fertilizer of mechanical ideas it is he--and with Mr. Kruesi's +never-failing patience and perseverance applied to experiment and +evolution, rapid progress was made. A franchise having been obtained +from the city, the work of laying the underground conductors began in +the late fall of 1881, and was pushed with almost frantic energy. It +is not to be supposed, however, that the Edison tube system had then +reached a finality of perfection in the eyes of its inventor. In his +correspondence with Kruesi, as late as 1887, we find Edison bewailing +the inadequacy of the insulation of the conductors under twelve hundred +volts pressure, as for example: "Dear Kruesi,--There is nothing wrong +with your present compound. It is splendid. The whole trouble is +air-bubbles. The hotter it is poured the greater the amount of +air-bubbles. At 212 it can be put on rods and there is no bubble. I have +a man experimenting and testing all the time. Until I get at the proper +method of pouring and getting rid of the air-bubbles, it will be waste +of time to experiment with other asphalts. Resin oil distils off easily. +It may answer, but paraffine or other similar substances must be put in +to prevent brittleness, One thing is certain, and that is, everything +must be poured in layers, not only the boxes, but the tubes. The tube +itself should have a thin coating. The rope should also have a coating. +The rods also. The whole lot, rods and rope, when ready for tube, should +have another coat, and then be placed in tube and filled. This will +do the business." Broad and large as a continent in his ideas, if ever +there was a man of finical fussiness in attention to detail, it +is Edison. A letter of seven pages of about the same date in 1887 +expatiates on the vicious troubles caused by the air-bubble, and remarks +with fine insight into the problems of insulation and the idea of layers +of it: "Thus you have three separate coatings, and it is impossible an +air-hole in one should match the other." + +To a man less thorough and empirical in method than Edison, it would +have been sufficient to have made his plans clear to associates or +subordinates and hold them responsible for accurate results. No such +vicarious treatment would suit him, ready as he has always been to share +the work where he could give his trust. In fact he realized, as no +one else did at this stage, the tremendous import of this novel and +comprehensive scheme for giving the world light; and he would not let +go, even if busy to the breaking-point. Though plunged in a veritable +maelstrom of new and important business interests, and though applying +for no fewer than eighty-nine patents in 1881, all of which were +granted, he superintended on the spot all this laying of underground +conductors for the first district. Nor did he merely stand around and +give orders. Day and night he actually worked in the trenches with the +laborers, amid the dirt and paving-stones and hurry-burly of traffic, +helping to lay the tubes, filling up junction-boxes, and taking part in +all the infinite detail. He wanted to know for himself how things +went, why for some occult reason a little change was necessary, what +improvement could be made in the material. His hours of work were not +regulated by the clock, but lasted until he felt the need of a little +rest. Then he would go off to the station building in Pearl Street, +throw an overcoat on a pile of tubes, lie down and sleep for a few +hours, rising to resume work with the first gang. There was a small +bedroom on the third floor of the station available for him, but +going to bed meant delay and consumed time. It is no wonder that such +impatience, such an enthusiasm, drove the work forward at a headlong +pace. + +Edison says of this period: "When we put down the tubes in the lower +part of New York, in the streets, we kept a big stock of them in the +cellar of the station at Pearl Street. As I was on all the time, I would +take a nap of an hour or so in the daytime--any time--and I used to +sleep on those tubes in the cellar. I had two Germans who were testing +there, and both of them died of diphtheria, caught in the cellar, which +was cold and damp. It never affected me." + +It is worth pausing just a moment to glance at this man taking a fitful +rest on a pile of iron pipe in a dingy building. His name is on the +tip of the world's tongue. Distinguished scientists from every part of +Europe seek him eagerly. He has just been decorated and awarded high +honors by the French Government. He is the inventor of wonderful new +apparatus, and the exploiter of novel and successful arts. The magic of +his achievements and the rumors of what is being done have caused a wild +drop in gas securities, and a sensational rise in his own electric-light +stock from $100 to $3500 a share. Yet these things do not at all affect +his slumber or his democratic simplicity, for in that, as in everything +else, he is attending strictly to business, "doing the thing that is +next to him." + +Part of the rush and feverish haste was due to the approach of frost, +which, as usual in New York, suspended operations in the earth; but the +laying of the conductors was resumed promptly in the spring of 1882; and +meantime other work had been advanced. During the fall and winter months +two more "Jumbo" dynamos were built and sent to London, after which the +construction of six for New York was swiftly taken in hand. In the month +of May three of these machines, each with a capacity of twelve hundred +incandescent lamps, were delivered at Pearl Street and assembled on the +second floor. On July 5th--owing to the better opportunity for ceaseless +toil given by a public holiday--the construction of the operative part +of the station was so far completed that the first of the dynamos +was operated under steam; so that three days later the satisfactory +experiment was made of throwing its flood of electrical energy into a +bank of one thousand lamps on an upper floor. Other tests followed in +due course. All was excitement. The field-regulating apparatus and the +electrical-pressure indicator--first of its kind--were also tested, +and in turn found satisfactory. Another vital test was made at this +time--namely, of the strength of the iron structure itself on which the +plant was erected. This was done by two structural experts; and not till +he got their report as to ample factors of safety was Edison reassured +as to this detail. + +A remark of Edison, familiar to all who have worked with him, when it +is reported to him that something new goes all right and is satisfactory +from all points of view, is: "Well, boys, now let's find the bugs," +and the hunt for the phylloxera begins with fiendish, remorseless zest. +Before starting the plant for regular commercial service, he began +personally a series of practical experiments and tests to ascertain in +advance what difficulties would actually arise in practice, so that he +could provide remedies or preventives. He had several cots placed in the +adjoining building, and he and a few of his most strenuous assistants +worked day and night, leaving the work only for hurried meals and a +snatch of sleep. These crucial tests, aiming virtually to break the +plant down if possible within predetermined conditions, lasted several +weeks, and while most valuable in the information they afforded, did +not hinder anything, for meantime customers' premises throughout the +district were being wired and supplied with lamps and meters. + +On Monday, September 4, 1882, at 3 o'clock, P.M., Edison realized the +consummation of his broad and original scheme. The Pearl Street station +was officially started by admitting steam to the engine of one of the +"Jumbos," current was generated, turned into the network of underground +conductors, and was transformed into light by the incandescent lamps +that had thus far been installed. This date and event may properly be +regarded as historical, for they mark the practical beginning of a new +art, which in the intervening years has grown prodigiously, and is still +increasing by leaps and bounds. + +Everything worked satisfactorily in the main. There were a few +mechanical and engineering annoyances that might naturally be expected +to arise in a new and unprecedented enterprise; but nothing of +sufficient moment to interfere with the steady and continuous supply +of current to customers at all hours of the day and night. Indeed, once +started, this station was operated uninterruptedly for eight years with +only insignificant stoppage. + +It will have been noted by the reader that there was nothing to indicate +rashness in starting up the station, as only one dynamo was put in +operation. Within a short time, however, it was deemed desirable to +supply the underground network with more current, as many additional +customers had been connected and the demand for the new light was +increasing very rapidly. Although Edison had successfully operated +several dynamos in multiple arc two years before--i.e., all feeding +current together into the same circuits--there was not, at this early +period of experience, any absolute certainty as to what particular +results might occur upon the throwing of the current from two or more +such massive dynamos into a great distributing system. The sequel +showed the value of Edison's cautious method in starting the station by +operating only a single unit at first. + +He decided that it would be wise to make the trial operation of a second +"Jumbo" on a Sunday, when business houses were closed in the district, +thus obviating any danger of false impressions in the public mind in the +event of any extraordinary manifestations. The circumstances attending +the adding of a second dynamo are thus humorously described by Edison: +"My heart was in my mouth at first, but everything worked all right.... +Then we started another engine and threw them in parallel. Of all the +circuses since Adam was born, we had the worst then! One engine would +stop, and the other would run up to about a thousand revolutions, and +then they would see-saw. The trouble was with the governors. When +the circus commenced, the gang that was standing around ran out +precipitately, and I guess some of them kept running for a block or two. +I grabbed the throttle of one engine, and E. H. Johnson, who was the +only one present to keep his wits, caught hold of the other, and we shut +them off." One of the "gang" that ran, but, in this case, only to +the end of the room, afterward said: "At the time it was a terrifying +experience, as I didn't know what was going to happen. The engines and +dynamos made a horrible racket, from loud and deep groans to a hideous +shriek, and the place seemed to be filled with sparks and flames of all +colors. It was as if the gates of the infernal regions had been suddenly +opened." + +This trouble was at once attacked by Edison in his characteristic and +strenuous way. The above experiment took place between three and four +o'clock on a Sunday afternoon, and within a few hours he had gathered +his superintendent and men of the machine-works and had them at work on +a shafting device that he thought would remedy the trouble. He says: "Of +course, I discovered that what had happened was that one set was running +the other as a motor. I then put up a long shaft, connecting all the +governors together, and thought this would certainly cure the trouble; +but it didn't. The torsion of the shaft was so great that one governor +still managed to get ahead of the others. Well, it was a serious state +of things, and I worried over it a lot. Finally I went down to Goerck +Street and got a piece of shafting and a tube in which it fitted. I +twisted the shafting one way and the tube the other as far as I could, +and pinned them together. In this way, by straining the whole outfit up +to its elastic limit in opposite directions, the torsion was practically +eliminated, and after that the governors ran together all right." + +Edison realized, however, that in commercial practice this was only a +temporary expedient, and that a satisfactory permanence of results could +only be attained with more perfect engines that could be depended upon +for close and simple regulation. The engines that were made part of the +first three "Jumbos" placed in the station were the very best that could +be obtained at the time, and even then had been specially designed and +built for the purpose. Once more quoting Edison on this subject: "About +that time" (when he was trying to run several dynamos in parallel in the +Pearl Street station) "I got hold of Gardiner C. Sims, and he undertook +to build an engine to run at three hundred and fifty revolutions +and give one hundred and seventy-five horse-power. He went back to +Providence and set to work, and brought the engine back with him to the +shop. It worked only a few minutes when it busted. That man sat around +that shop and slept in it for three weeks, until he got his engine right +and made it work the way he wanted it to. When he reached this period +I gave orders for the engine-works to run night and day until we got +enough engines, and when all was ready we started the engines. Then +everything worked all right.... One of these engines that Sims built ran +twenty-four hours a day, three hundred and sixty-five days in the year, +for over a year before it stopped." [12] + + [Footnote 12: We quote the following interesting notes of + Mr. Charles L. Clarke on the question of see-sawing, or + "hunting," as it was afterward termed: + +"In the Holborn Viaduct station the difficulty of 'hunting' was not +experienced. At the time the 'Jumbos' were first operated in multiple +arc, April 8, 1882, one machine was driven by a Porter-Allen engine, +and the other by an Armington & Sims engine, and both machines were on +a solid foundation. At the station at Milan, Italy, the first 'Jumbos' +operated in multiple arc were driven by Porter-Allen engines, and +dash-pots were applied to the governors. These machines were also upon a +solid foundation, and no trouble was experienced. + +"At the Pearl Street station, however, the machines were supported upon +long iron floor-beams, and at the high speed of 350 revolutions per +minute, considerable vertical vibration was given to the engines. And +the writer is inclined to the opinion that this vibration, acting in the +same direction as the action of gravitation, which was one of the two +controlling forces in the operation of the Porter-Allen governor, was +the primary cause of the 'hunting.' In the Armington & Sims engine the +controlling forces in the operation of the governor were the centrifugal +force of revolving weights, and the opposing force of compressed +springs, and neither the action of gravitation nor the vertical +vibrations of the engine could have any sensible effect upon the +governor."] + +The Pearl Street station, as this first large plant was called, made +rapid and continuous growth in its output of electric current. It +started, as we have said, on September 4, 1882, supplying about four +hundred lights to a comparatively small number of customers. Among those +first supplied was the banking firm of Drexel, Morgan & Company, corner +of Broad and Wall streets, at the outermost limits of the system. Before +the end of December of the same year the light had so grown in favor +that it was being supplied to over two hundred and forty customers whose +buildings were wired for over five thousand lamps. By this time three +more "Jumbos" had been added to the plant. The output from this time +forward increased steadily up to the spring of 1884, when the demands of +the station necessitated the installation of two additional "Jumbos" +in the adjoining building, which, with the venous improvements that had +been made in the mean time, gave the station a capacity of over eleven +thousand lamps actually in service at any one time. + +During the first three months of operating the Pearl Street station +light was supplied to customers without charge. Edison had perfect +confidence in his meters, and also in the ultimate judgment of the +public as to the superiority of the incandescent electric light as +against other illuminants. He realized, however, that in the beginning +of the operation of an entirely novel plant there was ample opportunity +for unexpected contingencies, although the greatest care had been +exercised to make everything as perfect as possible. Mechanical defects +or other unforeseen troubles in any part of the plant or underground +system might arise and cause temporary stoppages of operation, thus +giving grounds for uncertainty which would create a feeling of public +distrust in the permanence of the supply of light. + +As to the kind of mishap that was wont to occur, Edison tells the +following story: "One afternoon, after our Pearl Street station started, +a policeman rushed in and told us to send an electrician at once up to +the corner of Ann and Nassau streets--some trouble. Another man and +I went up. We found an immense crowd of men and boys there and in +the adjoining streets--a perfect jam. There was a leak in one of our +junction-boxes, and on account of the cellars extending under the +street, the top soil had become insulated. Hence, by means of this leak +powerful currents were passing through this thin layer of moist earth. +When a horse went to pass over it he would get a very severe shock. When +I arrived I saw coming along the street a ragman with a dilapidated old +horse, and one of the boys told him to go over on the other side of +the road--which was the place where the current leaked. When the ragman +heard this he took that side at once. The moment the horse struck the +electrified soil he stood straight up in the air, and then reared again; +and the crowd yelled, the policeman yelled; and the horse started to run +away. This continued until the crowd got so serious that the policeman +had to clear it out; and we were notified to cut the current off. We got +a gang of men, cut the current off for several junction-boxes, and fixed +the leak. One man who had seen it came to me next day and wanted me to +put in apparatus for him at a place where they sold horses. He said he +could make a fortune with it, because he could get old nags in there and +make them act like thoroughbreds." + +So well had the work been planned and executed, however, that nothing +happened to hinder the continuous working of the station and the supply +of light to customers. Hence it was decided in December, 1882, to begin +charging a price for the service, and, accordingly, Edison electrolytic +meters were installed on the premises of each customer then connected. +The first bill for lighting, based upon the reading of one of these +meters, amounted to $50.40, and was collected on January 18, 1883, from +the Ansonia Brass and Copper Company, 17 and 19 Cliff Street. Generally +speaking, customers found that their bills compared fairly with gas +bills for corresponding months where the same amount of light was used, +and they paid promptly and cheerfully, with emphatic encomiums of the +new light. During November, 1883, a little over one year after the +station was started, bills for lighting amounting to over $9000 were +collected. + +An interesting story of meter experience in the first few months of +operation of the Pearl Street station is told by one of the "boys" who +was then in position to know the facts; "Mr. J. P. Morgan, whose firm +was one of the first customers, expressed to Mr. Edison some doubt as +to the accuracy of the meter. The latter, firmly convinced of its +correctness, suggested a strict test by having some cards printed and +hung on each fixture at Mr. Morgan's place. On these cards was to be +noted the number of lamps in the fixture, and the time they were turned +on and off each day for a month. At the end of that time the lamp-hours +were to be added together by one of the clerks and figured on a basis of +a definite amount per lamp-hour, and compared with the bill that would +be rendered by the station for the corresponding period. The results +of the first month's test showed an apparent overcharge by the Edison +company. Mr. Morgan was exultant, while Mr. Edison was still confident +and suggested a continuation of the test. Another month's trial showed +somewhat similar results. Mr. Edison was a little disturbed, but +insisted that there was a mistake somewhere. He went down to Drexel, +Morgan & Company's office to investigate, and, after looking around, +asked when the office was cleaned out. He was told it was done at night +by the janitor, who was sent for, and upon being interrogated as to what +light he used, said that he turned on a central fixture containing about +ten lights. It came out that he had made no record of the time these +lights were in use. He was told to do so in future, and another month's +test was made. On comparison with the company's bill, rendered on the +meter-reading, the meter came within a few cents of the amount computed +from the card records, and Mr. Morgan was completely satisfied of the +accuracy of the meter." + +It is a strange but not extraordinary commentary on the perversity of +human nature and the lack of correct observation, to note that even +after the Pearl Street station had been in actual operation twenty-four +hours a day for nearly three months, there should still remain an +attitude of "can't be done." That such a scepticism still obtained is +evidenced by the public prints of the period. Edison's electric-light +system and his broad claims were freely discussed and animadverted upon +at the very time he was demonstrating their successful application. To +show some of the feeling at the time, we reproduce the following letter, +which appeared November 29, 1882: + +"To the Editor of the Sun: + +"SIR,--In reading the discussions relative to the Pearl Street station +of the Edison light, I have noted that while it is claimed that there +is scarcely any loss from leakage of current, nothing is said about the +loss due to the resistance of the long circuits. I am informed that this +is the secret of the failure to produce with the power in position a +sufficient amount of current to run all the lamps that have been put +up, and that while six, and even seven, lights to the horse-power may be +produced from an isolated plant, the resistance of the long underground +wires reduces this result in the above case to less than three lights to +the horse-power, thus making the cost of production greatly in excess of +gas. Can the Edison company explain this? 'INVESTIGATOR'." + +This was one of the many anonymous letters that had been written to the +newspapers on the subject, and the following reply by the Edison company +was printed December 3, 1882: + + +"To the Editor of the Sun: + +"SIR,--'Investigator' in Wednesday's Sun, says that the Edison company +is troubled at its Pearl Street station with a 'loss of current, due +to the resistance of the long circuits'; also that, whereas Edison gets +'six or even seven lights to the horse-power in isolated plants, the +resistance of the long underground wires reduces that result in the +Pearl Street station to less than three lights to the horse-power.' Both +of these statements are false. As regards loss due to resistance, there +is a well-known law for determining it, based on Ohm's law. By use of +that law we knew in advance, that is to say, when the original plans for +the station were drawn, just what this loss would be, precisely the same +as a mechanical engineer when constructing a mill with long lines of +shafting can forecast the loss of power due to friction. The practical +result in the Pearl Street station has fully demonstrated the +correctness of our estimate thus made in advance. As regards our getting +only three lights per horse-power, our station has now been running +three months, without stopping a moment, day or night, and we invariably +get over six lamps per horse-power, or substantially the same as we do +in our isolated plants. We are now lighting one hundred and ninety-three +buildings, wired for forty-four hundred lamps, of which about two-thirds +are in constant use, and we are adding additional houses and lamps +daily. These figures can be verified at the office of the Board of +Underwriters, where certificates with full details permitting the use of +our light are filed by their own inspector. To light these lamps we run +from one to three dynamos, according to the lamps in use at any given +time, and we shall start additional dynamos as fast as we can connect +more buildings. Neither as regards the loss due to resistance, nor as +regards the number of lamps per horse-power, is there the slightest +trouble or disappointment on the part of our company, and your +correspondent is entirely in error is assuming that there is. Let me +suggest that if 'Investigator' really wishes to investigate, and is +competent and willing to learn the exact facts, he can do so at this +office, where there is no mystery of concealment, but, on the contrary, +a strong desire to communicate facts to intelligent inquirers. Such +a method of investigating must certainly be more satisfactory to one +honestly seeking knowledge than that of first assuming an error as the +basis of a question, and then demanding an explanation. + +"Yours very truly, + +"S. B. EATON, President." + + +Viewed from the standpoint of over twenty-seven years later, the wisdom +and necessity of answering anonymous newspaper letters of this kind +might be deemed questionable, but it must be remembered that, although +the Pearl Street station was working successfully, and Edison's +comprehensive plans were abundantly vindicated, the enterprise +was absolutely new and only just stepping on the very threshold of +commercial exploitation. To enter in and possess the land required the +confidence of capital and the general public. Hence it was necessary to +maintain a constant vigilance to defeat the insidious attacks of carping +critics and others who would attempt to injure the Edison system by +misleading statements. + +It will be interesting to the modern electrician to note that when this +pioneer station was started, and in fact for some little time afterward, +there was not a single electrical instrument in the whole station--not +a voltmeter or an ammeter! Nor was there a central switchboard! Each +dynamo had its own individual control switch. The feeder connections +were all at the front of the building, and the general voltage control +apparatus was on the floor above. An automatic pressure indicator had +been devised and put in connection with the main circuits. It consisted, +generally speaking, of an electromagnet with relays connecting with a +red and a blue lamp. When the electrical pressure was normal, +neither lamp was lighted; but if the electromotive force rose above a +predetermined amount by one or two volts, the red lamp lighted up, +and the attendant at the hand-wheel of the field regulator inserted +resistance in the field circuit, whereas, if the blue lamp lighted, +resistance was cut out until the pressure was raised to normal. Later on +this primitive indicator was supplanted by the "Bradley Bridge," a crude +form of the "Howell" pressure indicators, which were subsequently used +for many years in the Edison stations. + +Much could be added to make a complete pictorial description of the +historic Pearl Street station, but it is not within the scope of this +narrative to enter into diffuse technical details, interesting as they +may be to many persons. We cannot close this chapter, however, without +mention of the fate of the Pearl Street station, which continued in +successful commercial operation until January 2, 1890, when it was +partially destroyed by fire. All the "Jumbos" were ruined, excepting No. +9, which is still a venerated relic in the possession of the New +York Edison Company. Luckily, the boilers were unharmed. Belt-driven +generators and engines were speedily installed, and the station was +again in operation in a few days. The uninjured "Jumbo," No. 9, again +continued to perform its duty. But in the words of Mr. Charles L. +Clarke, "the glory of the old Pearl Street station, unique in bearing +the impress of Mr. Edison's personality, and, as it were, constructed +with his own hands, disappeared in the flame and smoke of that Thursday +morning fire." + +The few days' interruption of the service was the only serious one +that has taken place in the history of the New York Edison Company from +September 4, 1882, to the present date. The Pearl Street station was +operated for some time subsequent to the fire, but increasing demands +in the mean time having led to the construction of other stations, the +mains of the First District were soon afterward connected to another +plant, the Pearl Street station was dismantled, and the building was +sold in 1895. + +The prophetic insight into the magnitude of central-station lighting +that Edison had when he was still experimenting on the incandescent lamp +over thirty years ago is a little less than astounding, when it is so +amply verified in the operations of the New York Edison Company (the +successor of the Edison Electric Illuminating Company of New York) and +many others. At the end of 1909 the New York Edison Company alone was +operating twenty-eight stations and substations, having a total capacity +of 159,500 kilowatts. Connected with its lines were approximately 85,000 +customers wired for 3,813,899 incandescent lamps and nearly 225,000 +horse-power through industrial electric motors connected with the +underground service. A large quantity of electrical energy is also +supplied for heating and cooking, charging automobiles, chemical and +plating work, and various other uses. + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +OTHER EARLY STATIONS--THE METER + +WE have now seen the Edison lighting system given a complete, convincing +demonstration in Paris, London, and New York; and have noted steps taken +for its introduction elsewhere on both sides of the Atlantic. The Paris +plant, like that at the Crystal Palace, was a temporary exhibit. The +London plant was less temporary, but not permanent, supplying before +it was torn out no fewer than three thousand lamps in hotels, churches, +stores, and dwellings in the vicinity of Holborn Viaduct. There Messrs. +Johnson and Hammer put into practice many of the ideas now standard in +the art, and secured much useful data for the work in New York, of which +the story has just been told. + +As a matter of fact the first Edison commercial station to be operated +in this country was that at Appleton, Wisconsin, but its only serious +claim to notice is that it was the initial one of the system driven by +water-power. It went into service August 15, 1882, about three weeks +before the Pearl Street station. It consisted of one small dynamo of +a capacity of two hundred and eighty lights of 10 c.p. each, and was +housed in an unpretentious wooden shed. The dynamo-electric machine, +though small, was robust, for under all the varying speeds of +water-power, and the vicissitudes of the plant to which it, belonged, it +continued in active use until 1899--seventeen years. + +Edison was from the first deeply impressed with the possibilities of +water-power, and, as this incident shows, was prompt to seize such a +very early opportunity. But his attention was in reality concentrated +closely on the supply of great centres of population, a task which +he then felt might well occupy his lifetime; and except in regard to +furnishing isolated plants he did not pursue further the development of +hydro-electric stations. That was left to others, and to the application +of the alternating current, which has enabled engineers to harness +remote powers, and, within thoroughly economical limits, transmit +thousands of horse-power as much as two hundred miles at pressures +of 80,000 and 100,000 volts. Owing to his insistence on low pressure, +direct current for use in densely populated districts, as the only safe +and truly universal, profitable way of delivering electrical energy to +the consumers, Edison has been frequently spoken of as an opponent +of the alternating current. This does him an injustice. At the time +a measure was before the Virginia legislature, in 1890, to limit the +permissible pressures of current so as to render it safe, he said: "You +want to allow high pressure wherever the conditions are such that by +no possible accident could that pressure get into the houses of +the consumers; you want to give them all the latitude you can." In +explaining this he added: "Suppose you want to take the falls down at +Richmond, and want to put up a water-power? Why, if we erect a station +at the falls, it is a great economy to get it up to the city. By digging +a cheap trench and putting in an insulated cable, and connecting such +station with the central part of Richmond, having the end of the cable +come up into the station from the earth and there connected with motors, +the power of the falls would be transmitted to these motors. If now the +motors were made to run dynamos conveying low-pressure currents to the +public, there is no possible way whereby this high-pressure current +could get to the public." In other words, Edison made the sharp +fundamental distinction between high pressure alternating current for +transmission and low pressure direct current for distribution; and this +is exactly the practice that has been adopted in all the great cities +of the country to-day. There seems no good reason for believing that it +will change. It might perhaps have been altogether better for Edison, +from the financial standpoint, if he had not identified himself so +completely with one kind of current, but that made no difference to him, +as it was a matter of conviction; and Edison's convictions are granitic. +Moreover, this controversy over the two currents, alternating and +direct, which has become historical in the field of electricity--and +is something like the "irrepressible conflict" we heard of years ago +in national affairs--illustrates another aspect of Edison's character. +Broad as the prairies and free in thought as the winds that sweep them, +he is idiosyncratically opposed to loose and wasteful methods, to plans +of empire that neglect the poor at the gate. Everything he has done has +been aimed at the conservation of energy, the contraction of space, +the intensification of culture. Burbank and his tribe represent in the +vegetable world, Edison in the mechanical. Not only has he developed +distinctly new species, but he has elucidated the intensive art of +getting $1200 out of an electrical acre instead of $12--a manured +market-garden inside London and a ten-bushel exhausted wheat farm +outside Lawrence, Kansas, being the antipodes of productivity--yet very +far short of exemplifying the difference of electrical yield between an +acre of territory in Edison's "first New York district" and an acre in +some small town. + +Edison's lighting work furnished an excellent basis--in fact, the only +one--for the development of the alternating current now so generally +employed in central-station work in America; and in the McGraw +Electrical Directory of April, 1909, no fewer than 4164 stations out of +5780 reported its use. When the alternating current was introduced for +practical purposes it was not needed for arc lighting, the circuit for +which, from a single dynamo, would often be twenty or thirty miles +in length, its current having a pressure of not less than five or six +thousand volts. For some years it was not found feasible to operate +motors on alternating-current circuits, and that reason was often +urged against it seriously. It could not be used for electroplating +or deposition, nor could it charge storage batteries, all of which are +easily within the ability of the direct current. But when it came to be +a question of lighting a scattered suburb, a group of dwellings on the +outskirts, a remote country residence or a farm-house, the alternating +current, in all elements save its danger, was and is ideal. Its thin +wires can be carried cheaply over vast areas, and at each local point +of consumption the transformer of size exactly proportioned to its +local task takes the high-voltage transmission current and lowers its +potential at a ratio of 20 or 40 to 1, for use in distribution and +consumption circuits. This evolution has been quite distinct, with its +own inventors like Gaulard and Gibbs and Stanley, but came subsequent +to the work of supplying small, dense areas of population; the art thus +growing from within, and using each new gain as a means for further +achievement. + +Nor was the effect of such great advances as those made by Edison +limited to the electrical field. Every department of mechanics was +stimulated and benefited to an extraordinary degree. Copper for the +circuits was more highly refined than ever before to secure the best +conductivity, and purity was insisted on in every kind of insulation. +Edison was intolerant of sham and shoddy, and nothing would satisfy him +that could not stand cross-examination by microscope, test-tube, and +galvanometer. It was, perhaps, the steam-engine on which the deepest +imprint for good was made, referred to already in the remarks of Mr. +F. J. Sprague in the preceding chapter, but best illustrated in the +perfection of the modern high-speed engine of the Armington & Sims type. +Unless he could secure an engine of smoother running and more exactly +governed and regulated than those available for his dynamo and lamp, +Edison realized that he would find it almost impossible to give a steady +light. He did not want his customers to count the heart-beats of the +engine in the flicker of the lamp. Not a single engine was even within +gunshot of the standard thus set up, but the emergency called forth its +man in Gardiner C. Sims, a talented draughtsman and designer who +had been engaged in locomotive construction and in the engineering +department of the United States Navy. He may be quoted as to what +happened: "The deep interest, financial and moral, and friendly backing +I received from Mr. Edison, together with valuable suggestions, enabled +me to bring out the engine; as I was quite alone in the world--poor--I +had found a friend who knew what he wanted and explained it clearly. Mr. +Edison was a leader far ahead of the time. He compelled the design of +the successful engine. + +"Our first engine compelled the inventing and making of a suitable +engine indicator to indicate it--the Tabor. He obtained the desired +speed and load with a friction brake; also regulator of speed; but +waited for an indicator to verify it. Then again there was no known way +to lubricate an engine for continuous running, and Mr. Edison informed +me that as a marine engine started before the ship left New York and +continued running until it reached its home port, so an engine for his +purposes must produce light at all times. That was a poser to me, for a +five-hours' run was about all that had been required up to that time. + +"A day or two later Mr. Edison inquired: 'How far is it from here to +Lawrence; it is a long walk, isn't it?' 'Yes, rather.' He said: 'Of +course you will understand I meant without oil.' To say I was deeply +perplexed does not express my feelings. We were at the machine works, +Goerck Street. I started for the oil-room, when, about entering, I saw a +small funnel lying on the floor. It had been stepped on and flattened. I +took it up, and it had solved the engine-oiling problem--and my walk to +Lawrence like a tramp actor's was off! The eccentric strap had a round +glass oil-cup with a brass base that screwed into the strap. I took it +off, and making a sketch, went to Dave Cunningham, having the funnel +in my hand to illustrate what I wanted made. I requested him to make a +sheet-brass oil-cup and solder it to the base I had. He did so. I then +had a standard made to hold another oil-cup, so as to see and regulate +the drop-feed. On this combination I obtained a patent which is now +universally used." + +It is needless to say that in due course the engine builders of +the United States developed a variety of excellent prime movers for +electric-light and power plants, and were grateful to the art from which +such a stimulus came to their industry; but for many years one never saw +an Edison installation without expecting to find one or more Armington +& Sims high-speed engines part of it. Though the type has gone out of +existence, like so many other things that are useful in their day and +generation, it was once a very vital part of the art, and one more +illustration of that intimate manner in which the advances in different +fields of progress interact and co-operate. + +Edison had installed his historic first great central-station system +in New York on the multiple arc system covered by his feeder and main +invention, which resulted in a notable saving in the cost of conductors +as against a straight two-wire system throughout of the "tree" kind. +He soon foresaw that still greater economy would be necessary for +commercial success not alone for the larger territory opening, but for +the compact districts of large cities. Being firmly convinced that there +was a way out, he pushed aside a mass of other work, and settled down to +this problem, with the result that on November 20, 1882, only two +months after current had been sent out from Pearl Street, he executed an +application for a patent covering what is now known as the "three-wire +system." It has been universally recognized as one of the most valuable +inventions in the history of the lighting art. [13] Its use resulted in a +saving of over 60 per cent. of copper in conductors, figured on the most +favorable basis previously known, inclusive of those calculated under +his own feeder and main system. Such economy of outlay being effected in +one of the heaviest items of expense in central-station construction, +it was now made possible to establish plants in towns where the large +investment would otherwise have been quite prohibitive. The invention +is in universal use today, alike for direct and for alternating current, +and as well in the equipment of large buildings as in the distribution +system of the most extensive central-station networks. One cannot +imagine the art without it. + + [Footnote 13: For technical description and illustration of + this invention, see Appendix.] + +The strong position held by the Edison system, under the strenuous +competition that was already springing up, was enormously improved by +the introduction of the three-wire system; and it gave an immediate +impetus to incandescent lighting. Desiring to put this new system into +practical use promptly, and receiving applications for licenses from all +over the country, Edison selected Brockton, Massachusetts, and Sunbury, +Pennsylvania, as the two towns for the trial. Of these two Brockton +required the larger plant, but with the conductors placed underground. +It was the first to complete its arrangements and close its contract. +Mr. Henry Villard, it will be remembered, had married the daughter of +Garrison, the famous abolitionist, and it was through his relationship +with the Garrison family that Brockton came to have the honor of +exemplifying so soon the principles of an entirely new art. Sunbury, +however, was a much smaller installation, employed overhead conductors, +and hence was the first to "cross the tape." It was specially suited for +a trial plant also, in the early days when a yield of six or eight lamps +to the horse-power was considered subject for congratulation. The town +being situated in the coal region of Pennsylvania, good coal could then +be obtained there at seventy-five cents a ton. + +The Sunbury generating plant consisted of an Armington & Sims engine +driving two small Edison dynamos having a total capacity of about four +hundred lamps of 16 c.p. The indicating instruments were of the crudest +construction, consisting of two voltmeters connected by "pressure wires" +to the centre of electrical distribution. One ammeter, for measuring +the quantity of current output, was interpolated in the "neutral bus" or +third-wire return circuit to indicate when the load on the two machines +was out of balance. The circuits were opened and closed by means of +about half a dozen roughly made plug-switches. [14] The "bus-bars" to +receive the current from the dynamos were made of No. 000 copper line +wire, straightened out and fastened to the wooden sheathing of the +station by iron staples without any presence to insulation. Commenting +upon this Mr. W. S. Andrews, detailed from the central staff, says: "The +interior winding of the Sunbury station, including the running of two +three-wire feeders the entire length of the building from back to +front, the wiring up of the dynamos and switchboard and all instruments, +together with bus-bars, etc.--in fact, all labor and material used +in the electrical wiring installation--amounted to the sum of $90. I +received a rather sharp letter from the New York office expostulating +for this EXTRAVAGANT EXPENDITURE, and stating that great economy must +be observed in future!" The street conductors were of the overhead +pole-line construction, and were installed by the construction company +that had been organized by Edison to build and equip central stations. +A special type of street pole had been devised by him for the three-wire +system. + + + [Footnote 14: By reason of the experience gained at this + station through the use of these crude plug-switches, Mr. + Edison started a competition among a few of his assistants + to devise something better. The result was the invention of + a "breakdown" switch by Mr. W. S. Andrews, which was + accepted by Mr. Edison as the best of the devices suggested, + and was developed and used for a great many years + afterward.] + + +Supplementing the story of Mr. Andrews is that of Lieut. F. J. Sprague, +who also gives a curious glimpse of the glorious uncertainties and +vicissitudes of that formative period. Mr. Sprague served on the jury +at the Crystal Palace Exhibition with Darwin's son--the present Sir +Horace--and after the tests were ended left the Navy and entered +Edison's service at the suggestion of Mr. E. H. Johnson, who was +Edison's shrewd recruiting sergeant in those days: "I resigned sooner +than Johnson expected, and he had me on his hands. Meanwhile he had +called upon me to make a report of the three-wire system, known in +England as the Hopkinson, both Dr. John Hopkinson and Mr. Edison being +independent inventors at practically the same time. I reported on that, +left London, and landed in New York on the day of the opening of the +Brooklyn Bridge in 1883--May 24--with a year's leave of absence. + +"I reported at the office of Mr. Edison on Fifth Avenue and told him I +had seen Johnson. He looked me over and said: 'What did he promise you?' +I replied: 'Twenty-five hundred dollars a year.' He did not say much, +but looked it. About that time Mr. Andrews and I came together. On July +2d of that year we were ordered to Sunbury, and to be ready to start the +station on the fourth. The electrical work had to be done in forty-eight +hours! Having travelled around the world, I had cultivated an +indifference to any special difficulties of that kind. Mr. Andrews and +I worked in collaboration until the night of the third. I think he was +perhaps more appreciative than I was of the discipline of the Edison +Construction Department, and thought it would be well for us to wait +until the morning of the fourth before we started up. I said we were +sent over to get going, and insisted on starting up on the night of the +third. We had an Armington & Sims engine with sight-feed oiler. I had +never seen one, and did not know how it worked, with the result that we +soon burned up the babbitt metal in the bearings and spent a good part +of the night getting them in order. The next day Mr. Edison, Mr. Insull, +and the chief engineer of the construction department appeared on +the scene and wanted to know what had happened. They found an engine +somewhat loose in the bearings, and there followed remarks which would +not look well in print. Andrews skipped from under; he obeyed orders; I +did not. But the plant ran, and it was the first three-wire station in +this country." + +Seen from yet another angle, the worries of this early work were not +merely those of the men on the "firing line." Mr. Insull, in speaking +of this period, says: "When it was found difficult to push the +central-station business owing to the lack of confidence in its +financial success, Edison decided to go into the business of promoting +and constructing central-station plants, and he formed what was known as +the Thomas A. Edison Construction Department, which he put me in charge +of. The organization was crude, the steam-engineering talent poor, +and owing to the impossibility of getting any considerable capital +subscribed, the plants were put in as cheaply as possible. I believe +that this construction department was unkindly named the 'Destruction +Department.' It served its purpose; never made any money; and I had the +unpleasant task of presiding at its obsequies." + +On July 4th the Sunbury plant was put into commercial operation by +Edison, and he remained a week studying its conditions and watching for +any unforeseen difficulty that might arise. Nothing happened, however, +to interfere with the successful running of the station, and for twenty +years thereafter the same two dynamos continued to furnish light in +Sunbury. They were later used as reserve machines, and finally, with the +engine, retired from service as part of the "Collection of Edisonia"; +but they remain in practically as good condition as when installed in +1883. + +Sunbury was also provided with the first electro-chemical meters used +in the United States outside New York City, so that it served also to +accentuate electrical practice in a most vital respect--namely, the +measurement of the electrical energy supplied to customers. At this time +and long after, all arc lighting was done on a "flat rate" basis. The +arc lamp installed outside a customer's premises, or in a circuit for +public street lighting, burned so many hours nightly, so many nights in +the month; and was paid for at that rate, subject to rebate for hours +when the lamp might be out through accident. The early arc lamps were +rated to require 9 to 10 amperes of current, at 45 volts pressure each, +receiving which they were estimated to give 2000 c.p., which was arrived +at by adding together the light found at four different positions, so +that in reality the actual light was about 500 c.p. Few of these data +were ever actually used, however; and it was all more or less a matter +of guesswork, although the central-station manager, aiming to give good +service, would naturally see that the dynamos were so operated as to +maintain as steadily as possible the normal potential and current. The +same loose methods applied to the early attempts to use electric motors +on arc-lighting circuits, and contracts were made based on the size of +the motor, the width of the connecting belt, or the amount of power the +customer thought he used--never on the measurement of the electrical +energy furnished him. + +Here again Edison laid the foundation of standard practice. It is true +that even down to the present time the flat rate is applied to a great +deal of incandescent lighting, each lamp being charged for individually +according to its probable consumption during each month. This may +answer, perhaps, in a small place where the manager can gauge pretty +closely from actual observation what each customer does; but even then +there are elements of risk and waste; and obviously in a large city such +a method would soon be likely to result in financial disaster to the +plant. Edison held that the electricity sold must be measured just like +gas or water, and he proceeded to develop a meter. There was infinite +scepticism around him on the subject, and while other inventors were +also giving the subject their thought, the public took it for granted +that anything so utterly intangible as electricity, that could not be +seen or weighed, and only gave secondary evidence of itself at the exact +point of use, could not be brought to accurate registration. The general +attitude of doubt was exemplified by the incident in Mr. J. P. Morgan's +office, noted in the last chapter. Edison, however, had satisfied +himself that there were various ways of accomplishing the task, and had +determined that the current should be measured on the premises of +every consumer. His electrolytic meter was very successful, and was +of widespread use in America and in Europe until the perfection of +mechanical meters by Elihu Thomson and others brought that type into +general acceptance. Hence the Edison electrolytic meter is no longer +used, despite its excellent qualities. Houston & Kennelly in their +Electricity in Everyday Life sum the matter up as follows: "The Edison +chemical meter is capable of giving fair measurements of the amount of +current passing. By reason, however, of dissatisfaction caused from the +inability of customers to read the indications of the meter, it has in +later years, to a great extent, been replaced by registering meters that +can be read by the customer." + +The principle employed in the Edison electrolytic meter is that which +exemplifies the power of electricity to decompose a chemical substance. +In other words it is a deposition bath, consisting of a glass cell in +which two plates of chemically pure zinc are dipped in a solution of +zinc sulphate. When the lights or motors in the circuit are turned on, +and a certain definite small portion of the current is diverted to flow +through the meter, from the positive plate to the negative plate, the +latter increases in weight by receiving a deposit of metallic zinc; the +positive plate meantime losing in weight by the metal thus carried +away from it. This difference in weight is a very exact measure of the +quantity of electricity, or number of ampere-hours, that have, so to +speak, passed through the cell, and hence of the whole consumption in +the circuit. The amount thus due from the customer is ascertained by +removing the cell, washing and drying the plates, and weighing them in +a chemical balance. Associated with this simple form of apparatus +were various ingenious details and refinements to secure regularity of +operation, freedom from inaccuracy, and immunity from such tampering +as would permit theft of current or damage. As the freezing of the zinc +sulphate solution in cold weather would check its operation, Edison +introduced, for example, into the meter an incandescent lamp and a +thermostat so arranged that when the temperature fell to a certain +point, or rose above another point, it was cut in or out; and in this +manner the meter could be kept from freezing. The standard Edison meter +practice was to remove the cells once a month to the meter-room of the +central-station company for examination, another set being substituted. +The meter was cheap to manufacture and install, and not at all liable to +get out of order. + +In December, 1888, Mr. W. J. Jenks read an interesting paper before the +American Institute of Electrical Engineers on the six years of practical +experience had up to that time with the meter, then more generally in +use than any other. It appears from the paper that twenty-three Edison +stations were then equipped with 5187 meters, which were relied upon for +billing the monthly current consumption of 87,856 lamps and 350 motors +of 1000 horse-power total. This represented about 75 per cent. of the +entire lamp capacity of the stations. There was an average cost per lamp +for meter operation of twenty-two cents a year, and each meter took +care of an average of seventeen lamps. It is worthy of note, as to the +promptness with which the Edison stations became paying properties, +that four of the metered stations were earning upward of 15 per cent. +on their capital stock; three others between 8 and 10 per cent.; eight +between 5 and 8 per cent.; the others having been in operation too short +a time to show definite results, although they also went quickly to +a dividend basis. Reports made in the discussion at the meeting by +engineers showed the simplicity and success of the meter. Mr. C. L. +Edgar, of the Boston Edison system, stated that he had 800 of the meters +in service cared for by two men and three boys, the latter employed in +collecting the meter cells; the total cost being perhaps $2500 a year. +Mr. J. W. Lieb wrote from Milan, Italy, that he had in use on the Edison +system there 360 meters ranging from 350 ampere-hours per month up to +30,000. + +In this connection it should be mentioned that the Association of Edison +Illuminating Companies in the same year adopted resolutions unanimously +to the effect that the Edison meter was accurate, and that its use was +not expensive for stations above one thousand lights; and that the best +financial results were invariably secured in a station selling current +by meter. Before the same association, at its meeting in September, +1898, at Sault Ste. Marie, Mr. C. S. Shepard read a paper on the meter +practice of the New York Edison Company, giving data as to the large +number of Edison meters in use and the transition to other types, of +which to-day the company has several on its circuits: "Until October, +1896, the New York Edison Company metered its current in consumer's +premises exclusively by the old-style chemical meters, of which there +were connected on that date 8109. It was then determined to purchase +no more." Mr. Shepard went on to state that the chemical meters were +gradually displaced, and that on September 1, 1898, there were on the +system 5619 mechanical and 4874 chemical. The meter continued in general +service during 1899, and probably up to the close of the century. + +Mr. Andrews relates a rather humorous meter story of those early days: +"The meter man at Sunbury was a firm and enthusiastic believer in the +correctness of the Edison meter, having personally verified its reading +many times by actual comparison of lamp-hours. One day, on making out a +customer's bill, his confidence received a severe shock, for the meter +reading showed a consumption calling for a charge of over $200, +whereas he knew that the light actually used should not cost more than +one-quarter of that amount. He weighed and reweighed the meter plates, +and pursued every line of investigation imaginable, but all in vain. He +felt he was up against it, and that perhaps another kind of a job would +suit him better. Once again he went to the customer's meter to look +around, when a small piece of thick wire on the floor caught his eye. +The problem was solved. He suddenly remembered that after weighing +the plates he went and put them in the customer's meter; but the wire +attached to one of the plates was too long to go in the meter, and he +had cut it off. He picked up the piece of wire, took it to the station, +weighed it carefully, and found that it accounted for about $150 worth +of electricity, which was the amount of the difference." + +Edison himself is, however, the best repertory of stories when it comes +to the difficulties of that early period, in connection with metering +the current and charging for it. He may be quoted at length as follows: +"When we started the station at Pearl Street, in September, 1882, we +were not very commercial. We put many customers on, but did not make out +many bills. We were more interested in the technical condition of the +station than in the commercial part. We had meters in which there were +two bottles of liquid. To prevent these electrolytes from freezing we +had in each meter a strip of metal. When it got very cold the metal +would contract and close a circuit, and throw a lamp into circuit +inside the meter. The heat from this lamp would prevent the liquid from +freezing, so that the meter could go on doing its duty. The first cold +day after starting the station, people began to come in from their +offices, especially down in Front Street and Water Street, saying the +meter was on fire. We received numerous telephone messages about it. +Some had poured water on it, and others said: 'Send a man right up to +put it out.' + +"After the station had been running several months and was technically +a success, we began to look after the financial part. We started to +collect some bills; but we found that our books were kept badly, and +that the person in charge, who was no business man, had neglected that +part of it. In fact, he did not know anything about the station, anyway. +So I got the directors to permit me to hire a man to run the station. +This was Mr. Chinnock, who was then superintendent of the Metropolitan +Telephone Company of New York. I knew Chinnock to be square and of +good business ability, and induced him to leave his job. I made him a +personal guarantee, that if he would take hold of the station and put it +on a commercial basis, and pay 5 per cent. on $600,000, I would give him +$10,000 out of my own pocket. He took hold, performed the feat, and +I paid him the $10,000. I might remark in this connection that years +afterward I applied to the Edison Electric Light Company asking them +if they would not like to pay me this money, as it was spent when I was +very hard up and made the company a success, and was the foundation of +their present prosperity. They said they 'were sorry'--that is, 'Wall +Street sorry'--and refused to pay it. This shows what a nice, genial, +generous lot of people they have over in Wall Street. + +"Chinnock had a great deal of trouble getting the customers straightened +out. I remember one man who had a saloon on Nassau Street. He had had +his lights burning for two or three months. It was in June, and Chinnock +put in a bill for $20; July for $20; August about $28; September about +$35. Of course the nights were getting longer. October about $40; +November about $45. Then the man called Chinnock up. He said: 'I want to +see you about my electric-light bill.' Chinnock went up to see him. He +said: 'Are you the manager of this electric-light plant?' Chinnock said: +'I have the honor.' 'Well,' he said, my bill has gone from $20 up to +$28, $35, $45. I want you to understand, young fellow, that my limit is +$60.' + +"After Chinnock had had all this trouble due to the incompetency of the +previous superintendent, a man came in and said to him: 'Did Mr. Blank +have charge of this station?' 'Yes.' 'Did he know anything about running +a station like this?' Chinnock said: 'Does he KNOW anything about +running a station like this? No, sir. He doesn't even suspect anything.' + +"One day Chinnock came to me and said: 'I have a new customer.' I said: +'What is it?' He said: 'I have a fellow who is going to take two hundred +and fifty lights.' I said: 'What for?' 'He has a place down here in a +top loft, and has got two hundred and fifty barrels of "rotgut" whiskey. +He puts a light down in the barrel and lights it up, and it ages the +whiskey.' I met Chinnock several weeks after, and said: 'How is the +whiskey man getting along?' 'It's all right; he is paying his bill. It +fixes the whiskey and takes the shudder right out of it.' Somebody went +and took out a patent on this idea later. + +"In the second year we put the Stock Exchange on the circuits of the +station, but were very fearful that there would be a combination of +heavy demand and a dark day, and that there would be an overloaded +station. We had an index like a steam-gauge, called an ampere-meter, to +indicate the amount of current going out. I was up at 65 Fifth Avenue +one afternoon. A sudden black cloud came up, and I telephoned to +Chinnock and asked him about the load. He said: 'We are up to the +muzzle, and everything is running all right.' By-and-by it became so +thick we could not see across the street. I telephoned again, and felt +something would happen, but fortunately it did not. I said to +Chinnock: 'How is it now?' He replied: 'Everything is red-hot, and the +ampere-meter has made seventeen revolutions.'" + +In 1883 no such fittings as "fixture insulators" were known. It was +the common practice to twine the electric wires around the disused +gas-fixtures, fasten them with tape or string, and connect them to +lamp-sockets screwed into attachments under the gas-burners--elaborated +later into what was known as the "combination fixture." As a result +it was no uncommon thing to see bright sparks snapping between the +chandelier and the lighting wires during a sharp thunder-storm. A +startling manifestation of this kind happened at Sunbury, when the vivid +display drove nervous guests of the hotel out into the street, and the +providential storm led Mr. Luther Stieringer to invent the "insulating +joint." This separated the two lighting systems thoroughly, went into +immediate service, and is universally used to-day. + +Returning to the more specific subject of pioneer plants of importance, +that at Brockton must be considered for a moment, chiefly for the reason +that the city was the first in the world to possess an Edison station +distributing current through an underground three-wire network of +conductors--the essentially modern contemporaneous practice, +standard twenty-five years later. It was proposed to employ pole-line +construction with overhead wires, and a party of Edison engineers drove +about the town in an open barouche with a blue-print of the circuits and +streets spread out on their knees, to determine how much tree-trimming +would be necessary. When they came to some heavily shaded spots, the +fine trees were marked "T" to indicate that the work in getting through +them would be "tough." Where the trees were sparse and the foliage was +thin, the same cheerful band of vandals marked the spots "E" to indicate +that there it would be "easy" to run the wires. In those days public +opinion was not so alive as now to the desirability of preserving +shade-trees, and of enhancing the beauty of a city instead of destroying +it. Brockton had a good deal of pride in its fine trees, and a strong +sentiment was very soon aroused against the mutilation proposed so +thoughtlessly. The investors in the enterprise were ready and anxious +to meet the extra cost of putting the wires underground. Edison's own +wishes were altogether for the use of the methods he had so carefully +devised; and hence that bustling home of shoe manufacture was spared +this infliction of more overhead wires. + +The station equipment at Brockton consisted at first of three dynamos, +one of which was so arranged as to supply both sides of the system +during light loads by a breakdown switch connection. This arrangement +interfered with correct meter registration, as the meters on one side of +the system registered backward during the hours in which the combination +was employed. Hence, after supplying an all-night customer whose lamps +were on one side of the circuits, the company might be found to owe him +some thing substantial in the morning. Soon after the station went into +operation this ingenious plan was changed, and the third dynamo was +replaced by two others. The Edison construction department took entire +charge of the installation of the plant, and the formal opening was +attended on October 1, 1883, by Mr. Edison, who then remained a week in +ceaseless study and consultation over the conditions developed by +this initial three-wire underground plant. Some idea of the confidence +inspired by the fame of Edison at this period is shown by the fact that +the first theatre ever lighted from a central station by incandescent +lamps was designed this year, and opened in 1884 at Brockton with an +equipment of three hundred lamps. The theatre was never piped for gas! +It was also from the Brockton central station that current was first +supplied to a fire-engine house--another display of remarkably early +belief in the trustworthiness of the service, under conditions where +continuity of lighting was vital. The building was equipped in such a +manner that the striking of the fire-alarm would light every lamp in +the house automatically and liberate the horses. It was at this central +station that Lieutenant Sprague began his historic work on the electric +motor; and here that another distinguished engineer and inventor, Mr. H. +Ward Leonard, installed the meters and became meter man, in order that +he might study in every intimate detail the improvements and refinements +necessary in that branch of the industry. + +The authors are indebted for these facts and some other data embodied in +this book to Mr. W. J. Jenks, who as manager of this plant here made his +debut in the Edison ranks. He had been connected with local telephone +interests, but resigned to take active charge of this plant, imbibing +quickly the traditional Edison spirit, working hard all day and sleeping +in the station at night on a cot brought there for that purpose. It +was a time of uninterrupted watchfulness. The difficulty of obtaining +engineers in those days to run the high-speed engines (three hundred and +fifty revolutions per minute) is well illustrated by an amusing incident +in the very early history of the station. A locomotive engineer had +been engaged, as it was supposed he would not be afraid of anything. One +evening there came a sudden flash of fire and a spluttering, sizzling +noise. There had been a short-circuit on the copper mains in the +station. The fireman hid behind the boiler and the engineer jumped out +of the window. Mr. Sprague realized the trouble, quickly threw off the +current and stopped the engine. + +Mr. Jenks relates another humorous incident in connection with this +plant: "One night I heard a knock at the office door, and on opening it +saw two well-dressed ladies, who asked if they might be shown through. +I invited them in, taking them first to the boiler-room, where I showed +them the coal-pile, explaining that this was used to generate steam in +the boiler. We then went to the dynamo-room, where I pointed out the +machines converting the steam-power into electricity, appearing later in +the form of light in the lamps. After that they were shown the meters +by which the consumption of current was measured. They appeared to be +interested, and I proceeded to enter upon a comparison of coal made +into gas or burned under a boiler to be converted into electricity. The +ladies thanked me effusively and brought their visit to a close. As they +were about to go through the door, one of them turned to me and said: +'We have enjoyed this visit very much, but there is one question we +would like to ask: What is it that you make here?'" + +The Brockton station was for a long time a show plant of the Edison +company, and had many distinguished visitors, among them being Prof. +Elihu Thomson, who was present at the opening, and Sir W. H. Preece, +of London. The engineering methods pursued formed the basis of similar +installations in Lawrence, Massachusetts, in November, 1883; in Fall +River, Massachusetts, in December, 1883; and in Newburgh, New York, the +following spring. + +Another important plant of this period deserves special mention, as it +was the pioneer in the lighting of large spaces by incandescent lamps. +This installation of five thousand lamps on the three-wire system was +made to illuminate the buildings at the Louisville, Kentucky, +Exposition in 1883, and, owing to the careful surveys, calculations, +and preparations of H. M. Byllesby and the late Luther Stieringer, was +completed and in operation within six weeks after the placing of the +order. The Jury of Awards, in presenting four medals to the Edison +company, took occasion to pay a high compliment to the efficiency of the +system. It has been thought by many that the magnificent success of +this plant did more to stimulate the growth of the incandescent lighting +business than any other event in the history of the Edison company. It +was literally the beginning of the electrical illumination of American +Expositions, carried later to such splendid displays as those of the +Chicago World's Fair in 1893, Buffalo in 1901, and St. Louis in 1904. + +Thus the art was set going in the United States under many difficulties, +but with every sign of coming triumph. Reference has already been made +to the work abroad in Paris and London. The first permanent Edison +station in Europe was that at Milan, Italy, for which the order was +given as early as May, 1882, by an enterprising syndicate. Less than +a year later, March 3, 1883, the installation was ready and was put in +operation, the Theatre Santa Radegonda having been pulled down and a +new central-station building erected in its place--probably the first +edifice constructed in Europe for the specific purpose of incandescent +lighting. Here "Jumbos" were installed from time to time, until at +last there were no fewer than ten of them; and current was furnished +to customers with a total of nearly ten thousand lamps connected to the +mains. This pioneer system was operated continuously until February +9, 1900, or for a period of about seventeen years, when the sturdy old +machines, still in excellent condition, were put out of service, so that +a larger plant could be installed to meet the demand. This new plant +takes high-tension polyphase current from a water-power thirty or forty +miles away at Paderno, on the river Adda, flowing from the Apennines; +but delivers low-tension direct current for distribution to the regular +Edison three-wire system throughout Milan. + +About the same time that southern Europe was thus opened up to the +new system, South America came into line, and the first Edison central +station there was installed at Santiago, Chile, in the summer of 1883, +under the supervision of Mr. W. N. Stewart. This was the result of the +success obtained with small isolated plants, leading to the formation of +an Edison company. It can readily be conceived that at such an extreme +distance from the source of supply of apparatus the plant was subject to +many peculiar difficulties from the outset, of which Mr. Stewart speaks +as follows: "I made an exhibition of the 'Jumbo' in the theatre +at Santiago, and on the first evening, when it was filled with the +aristocracy of the city, I discovered to my horror that the binding wire +around the armature was slowly stripping off and going to pieces. We had +no means of boring out the field magnets, and we cut grooves in them. +I think the machine is still running (1907). The station went into +operation soon after with an equipment of eight Edison 'K' dynamos with +certain conditions inimical to efficiency, but which have not hindered +the splendid expansion of the local system. With those eight dynamos we +had four belts between each engine and the dynamo. The steam pressure +was limited to seventy-five pounds per square inch. We had two-wire +underground feeders, sent without any plans or specifications for their +installation. The station had neither voltmeter nor ammeter. The current +pressure was regulated by a galvanometer. We were using coal costing $12 +a ton, and were paid for our light in currency worth fifty cents on the +dollar. The only thing I can be proud of in connection with the plant is +the fact that I did not design it, that once in a while we made out to +pay its operating expenses, and that occasionally we could run it for +three months without a total breakdown." + +It was not until 1885 that the first Edison station in Germany was +established; but the art was still very young, and the plant represented +pioneer lighting practice in the Empire. The station at Berlin comprised +five boilers, and six vertical steam-engines driving by belts twelve +Edison dynamos, each of about fifty-five horse-power capacity. A model +of this station is preserved in the Deutschen Museum at Munich. In the +bulletin of the Berlin Electricity Works for May, 1908, it is said with +regard to the events that led up to the creation of the system, as noted +already at the Rathenau celebration: "The year 1881 was a mile-stone +in the history of the Allgemeine Elektricitaets Gesellschaft. The +International Electrical Exposition at Paris was intended to place +before the eyes of the civilized world the achievements of the +century. Among the exhibits of that Exposition was the Edison system +of incandescent lighting. IT BECAME THE BASIS OF MODERN HEAVY +CURRENT TECHNICS." The last phrase is italicized as being a happy and +authoritative description, as well as a tribute. + +This chapter would not be complete if it failed to include some +reference to a few of the earlier isolated plants of a historic +character. Note has already been made of the first Edison plants afloat +on the Jeannette and Columbia, and the first commercial plant in the New +York lithographic establishment. The first mill plant was placed in the +woollen factory of James Harrison at Newburgh, New York, about September +15, 1881. A year later, Mr. Harrison wrote with some pride: "I believe +my mill was the first lighted with your electric light, and therefore +may be called No. 1. Besides being job No. 1 it is a No. 1 job, and a +No. 1 light, being better and cheaper than gas and absolutely safe as +to fire." The first steam-yacht lighted by incandescent lamps was James +Gordon Bennett's Namouna, equipped early in 1882 with a plant for one +hundred and twenty lamps of eight candlepower, which remained in use +there many years afterward. + +The first Edison plant in a hotel was started in October, 1881, at the +Blue Mountain House in the Adirondacks, and consisted of two "Z" dynamos +with a complement of eight and sixteen candle lamps. The hotel is +situated at an elevation of thirty-five hundred feet above the sea, and +was at that time forty miles from the railroad. The machinery was taken +up in pieces on the backs of mules from the foot of the mountain. The +boilers were fired by wood, as the economical transportation of coal was +a physical impossibility. For a six-hour run of the plant one-quarter of +a cord of wood was required, at a cost of twenty-five cents per cord. + +The first theatre in the United States to be lighted by an Edison +isolated plant was the Bijou Theatre, Boston. The installation of +boilers, engines, dynamos, wiring, switches, fixtures, three stage +regulators, and six hundred and fifty lamps, was completed in eleven +days after receipt of the order, and the plant was successfully operated +at the opening of the theatre, on December 12, 1882. + +The first plant to be placed on a United States steamship was the +one consisting of an Edison "Z" dynamo and one hundred and twenty +eight-candle lamps installed on the Fish Commission's steamer Albatross +in 1883. The most interesting feature of this installation was the +employment of special deep-sea lamps, supplied with current through a +cable nine hundred and forty feet in length, for the purpose of alluring +fish. By means of the brilliancy of the lamps marine animals in the +lower depths were attracted and then easily ensnared. + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY + +EDISON had no sooner designed his dynamo in 1879 than he adopted the +same form of machine for use as a motor. The two are shown in the +Scientific American of October 18, 1879, and are alike, except that +the dynamo is vertical and the motor lies in a horizontal position, +the article remarking: "Its construction differs but slightly from the +electric generator." This was but an evidence of his early appreciation +of the importance of electricity as a motive power; but it will probably +surprise many people to know that he was the inventor of an electric +motor before he perfected his incandescent lamp. His interest in the +subject went back to his connection with General Lefferts in the days of +the evolution of the stock ticker. While Edison was carrying on his shop +at Newark, New Jersey, there was considerable excitement in electrical +circles over the Payne motor, in regard to the alleged performance of +which Governor Cornell of New York and other wealthy capitalists were +quite enthusiastic. Payne had a shop in Newark, and in one small room +was the motor, weighing perhaps six hundred pounds. It was of circular +form, incased in iron, with the ends of several small magnets sticking +through the floor. A pulley and belt, connected to a circular saw larger +than the motor, permitted large logs of oak timber to be sawed with ease +with the use of two small cells of battery. Edison's friend, General +Lefferts, had become excited and was determined to invest a large sum +of money in the motor company, but knowing Edison's intimate familiarity +with all electrical subjects he was wise enough to ask his young expert +to go and see the motor with him. At an appointed hour Edison went to +the office of the motor company and found there the venerable Professor +Morse, Governor Cornell, General Lefferts, and many others who had been +invited to witness a performance of the motor. They all proceeded to the +room where the motor was at work. Payne put a wire in the binding-post +of the battery, the motor started, and an assistant began sawing a heavy +oak log. It worked beautifully, and so great was the power developed, +apparently, from the small battery, that Morse exclaimed: "I am thankful +that I have lived to see this day." But Edison kept a close watch on the +motor. The results were so foreign to his experience that he knew there +was a trick in it. He soon discovered it. While holding his hand on the +frame of the motor he noticed a tremble coincident with the exhaust of +an engine across the alleyway, and he then knew that the power came from +the engine by a belt under the floor, shifted on and off by a magnet, +the other magnets being a blind. He whispered to the General to put +his hand on the frame of the motor, watch the exhaust, and note the +coincident tremor. The General did so, and in about fifteen seconds he +said: "Well, Edison, I must go now. This thing is a fraud." And thus +he saved his money, although others not so shrewdly advised were easily +persuaded to invest by such a demonstration. + +A few years later, in 1878, Edison went to Wyoming with a group of +astronomers, to test his tasimeter during an eclipse of the sun, and +saw the land white to harvest. He noticed the long hauls to market or +elevator that the farmers had to make with their loads of grain at great +expense, and conceived the idea that as ordinary steam-railroad service +was too costly, light electric railways might be constructed that could +be operated automatically over simple tracks, the propelling motors +being controlled at various points. Cheap to build and cheap to +maintain, such roads would be a great boon to the newer farming regions +of the West, where the highways were still of the crudest character, and +where transportation was the gravest difficulty with which the settlers +had to contend. The plan seems to have haunted him, and he had no +sooner worked out a generator and motor that owing to their low internal +resistance could be operated efficiently, than he turned his hand to the +practical trial of such a railroad, applicable to both the haulage of +freight and the transportation of passengers. Early in 1880, when the +tremendous rush of work involved in the invention of the incandescent +lamp intermitted a little, he began the construction of a stretch of +track close to the Menlo Park laboratory, and at the same time built an +electric locomotive to operate over it. + +This is a fitting stage at which to review briefly what had been done +in electric traction up to that date. There was absolutely no art, but +there had been a number of sporadic and very interesting experiments +made. The honor of the first attempt of any kind appears to rest with +this country and with Thomas Davenport, a self-trained blacksmith, of +Brandon, Vermont, who made a small model of a circular electric railway +and cars in 1834, and exhibited it the following year in Springfield, +Boston, and other cities. Of course he depended upon batteries for +current, but the fundamental idea was embodied of using the track for +the circuit, one rail being positive and the other negative, and the +motor being placed across or between them in multiple arc to receive +the current. Such are also practically the methods of to-day. The little +model was in good preservation up to the year 1900, when, being shipped +to the Paris Exposition, it was lost, the steamer that carried it +foundering in mid-ocean. The very broad patent taken out by this simple +mechanic, so far ahead of his times, was the first one issued in +America for an electric motor. Davenport was also the first man to apply +electric power to the printing-press, in 1840. In his traction work he +had a close second in Robert Davidson, of Aberdeen, Scotland, who in +1839 operated both a lathe and a small locomotive with the motor he had +invented. His was the credit of first actually carrying passengers--two +at a time, over a rough plank road--while it is said that his was the +first motor to be tried on real tracks, those of the Edinburgh-Glasgow +road, making a speed of four miles an hour. + +The curse of this work and of all that succeeded it for a score of years +was the necessity of depending upon chemical batteries for current, the +machine usually being self-contained and hauling the batteries along +with itself, as in the case of the famous Page experiments in April, +1851, when a speed of nineteen miles an hour was attained on the line +of the Washington & Baltimore road. To this unfruitful period belonged, +however, the crude idea of taking the current from a stationary source +of power by means of an overhead contact, which has found its practical +evolution in the modern ubiquitous trolley; although the patent for +this, based on his caveat of 1879, was granted several years later +than that to Stephen D. Field, for the combination of an electric motor +operated by means of a current from a stationary dynamo or source of +electricity conducted through the rails. As a matter of fact, in 1856 +and again in 1875, George F. Green, a jobbing machinist, of Kalamazoo, +Michigan, built small cars and tracks to which current was fed from a +distant battery, enough energy being utilized to haul one hundred pounds +of freight or one passenger up and down a "road" two hundred feet long. +All the work prior to the development of the dynamo as a source of +current was sporadic and spasmodic, and cannot be said to have left any +trace on the art, though it offered many suggestions as to operative +methods. + +The close of the same decade of the nineteenth century that saw the +electric light brought to perfection, saw also the realization in +practice of all the hopes of fifty years as to electric traction. Both +utilizations depended upon the supply of current now cheaply obtainable +from the dynamo. These arts were indeed twins, feeding at inexhaustible +breasts. In 1879, at the Berlin Exhibition, the distinguished firm of +Siemens, to whose ingenuity and enterprise electrical development owes +so much, installed a road about one-third of a mile in length, over +which the locomotive hauled a train of three small cars at a speed of +about eight miles an hour, carrying some twenty persons every trip. +Current was fed from a dynamo to the motor through a central third rail, +the two outer rails being joined together as the negative or return +circuit. Primitive but essentially successful, this little road made a +profound impression on the minds of many inventors and engineers, and +marked the real beginning of the great new era, which has already seen +electricity applied to the operation of main lines of trunk railways. +But it is not to be supposed that on the part of the public there was +any great amount of faith then discernible; and for some years the +pioneers had great difficulty, especially in this country, in raising +money for their early modest experiments. Of the general conditions at +this moment Frank J. Sprague says in an article in the Century Magazine +of July, 1905, on the creation of the new art: "Edison was perhaps +nearer the verge of great electric-railway possibilities than any other +American. In the face of much adverse criticism he had developed the +essentials of the low-internal-resistance dynamo with high-resistance +field, and many of the essential features of multiple-arc distribution, +and in 1880 he built a small road at his laboratory at Menlo Park." + +On May 13th of the year named this interesting road went into operation +as the result of hard and hurried work of preparation during the spring +months. The first track was about a third of a mile in length, starting +from the shops, following a country road, passing around a hill at the +rear and curving home, in the general form of the letter "U." The rails +were very light. Charles T. Hughes, who went with Edison in 1879, +and was in charge of much of the work, states that they were "second" +street-car rails, insulated with tar canvas paper and things of that +sort--"asphalt." They were spiked down on ordinary sleepers laid upon +the natural grade, and the gauge was about three feet six inches. At one +point the grade dropped some sixty feet in a distance of three hundred, +and the curves were of recklessly short radius. The dynamos supplying +current to the road were originally two of the standard size "Z" +machines then being made at the laboratory, popularly known throughout +the Edison ranks as "Longwaisted Mary Anns," and the circuits from these +were carried out to the rails by underground conductors. They were not +large--about twelve horse-power each--generating seventy-five amperes +of current at one hundred and ten volts, so that not quite twenty-five +horse-power of electrical energy was available for propulsion. + +The locomotive built while the roadbed was getting ready was a +four-wheeled iron truck, an ordinary flat dump-car about six feet long +and four feet wide, upon which was mounted a "Z" dynamo used as a motor, +so that it had a capacity of about twelve horsepower. This machine was +laid on its side, with the armature end coming out at the front of the +locomotive, and the motive power was applied to the driving-axle by a +cumbersome series of friction pulleys. Each wheel of the locomotive had +a metal rim and a centre web of wood or papier-mache, and the current +picked up by one set of wheels was carried through contact brushes and +a brass hub to the motor; the circuit back to the track, or other rail, +being closed through the other wheels in a similar manner. The motor had +its field-magnet circuit in permanent connection as a shunt across the +rails, protected by a crude bare copper-wire safety-catch. A switch in +the armature circuit enabled the motorman to reverse the direction of +travel by reversing the current flow through the armature coils. + +Things went fairly well for a time on that memorable Thursday afternoon, +when all the laboratory force made high holiday and scrambled for +foothold on the locomotive for a trip; but the friction gearing was +not equal to the sudden strain put upon it during one run and went to +pieces. Some years later, also, Daft again tried friction gear in his +historical experiments on the Manhattan Elevated road, but the results +were attended with no greater success. The next resort of Edison was to +belts, the armature shafting belted to a countershaft on the locomotive +frame, and the countershaft belted to a pulley on the car-axle. The +lever which threw the former friction gear into adjustment was made to +operate an idler pulley for tightening the axle-belt. When the motor +was started, the armature was brought up to full revolution and then the +belt was tightened on the car-axle, compelling motion of the locomotive. +But the belts were liable to slip a great deal in the process, and the +chafing of the belts charred them badly. If that did not happen, and if +the belt was made taut suddenly, the armature burned out--which it +did with disconcerting frequency. The next step was to use a number of +resistance-boxes in series with the armature, so that the locomotive +could start with those in circuit, and then the motorman could bring it +up to speed gradually by cutting one box out after the other. To stop +the locomotive, the armature circuit was opened by the main switch, +stopping the flow of current, and then brakes were applied by long +levers. Matters generally and the motors in particular went much better, +even if the locomotive was so freely festooned with resistance-boxes +all of perceptible weight and occupying much of the limited space. These +details show forcibly and typically the painful steps of advance that +every inventor in this new field had to make in the effort to reach not +alone commercial practicability, but mechanical feasibility. It was all +empirical enough; but that was the only way open even to the highest +talent. + +Smugglers landing laces and silks have been known to wind them around +their bodies, as being less ostentatious than carrying them in a trunk. +Edison thought his resistance-boxes an equally superfluous display, and +therefore ingeniously wound some copper resistance wire around one of +the legs of the motor field magnet, where it was out of the way, served +as a useful extra field coil in starting up the motor, and dismissed +most of the boxes back to the laboratory--a few being retained under the +seat for chance emergencies. Like the boxes, this coil was in series +with the armature, and subject to plugging in and out at will by the +motorman. Thus equipped, the locomotive was found quite satisfactory, +and long did yeoman service. It was given three cars to pull, one an +open awning-car with two park benches placed back to back; one a flat +freight-car, and one box-car dubbed the "Pullman," with which Edison +illustrated a system of electric braking. Although work had been begun +so early in the year, and the road had been operating since May, it was +not until July that Edison executed any application for patents on his +"electromagnetic railway engine," or his ingenious braking system. Every +inventor knows how largely his fate lies in the hands of a competent and +alert patent attorney, in both the preparation and the prosecution +of his case; and Mr. Sprague is justified in observing in his Century +article: "The paucity of controlling claims obtained in these early +patents is remarkable." It is notorious that Edison did not then enjoy +the skilful aid in safeguarding his ideas that he commanded later. + +The daily newspapers and technical journals lost no time in bringing the +road to public attention, and the New York Herald of June 25th was swift +to suggest that here was the locomotive that would be "most pleasing to +the average New Yorker, whose head has ached with noise, whose eyes have +been filled with dust, or whose clothes have been ruined with oil." A +couple of days later, the Daily Graphic illustrated and described +the road and published a sketch of a one-hundred-horse-power electric +locomotive for the use of the Pennsylvania Railroad between Perth Amboy +and Rahway. Visitors, of course, were numerous, including many curious, +sceptical railroad managers, few if any of whom except Villard could +see the slightest use for the new motive power. There is, perhaps, +some excuse for such indifference. No men in the world have more new +inventions brought to them than railroad managers, and this was the +rankest kind of novelty. It was not, indeed, until a year later, in +May, 1881, that the first regular road collecting fares was put in +operation--a little stretch of one and a half miles from Berlin to +Lichterfelde, with one miniature motorcar. Edison was in reality doing +some heavy electric-railway engineering, his apparatus full of ideas, +suggestions, prophecies; but to the operators of long trunk lines it +must have seemed utterly insignificant and "excellent fooling." + +Speaking of this situation, Mr. Edison says: "One day Frank Thomson, +the President of the Pennsylvania Railroad, came out to see the electric +light and the electric railway in operation. The latter was then about +a mile long. He rode on it. At that time I was getting out plans to +make an electric locomotive of three hundred horse-power with six-foot +drivers, with the idea of showing people that they could dispense with +their steam locomotives. Mr. Thomson made the objection that it was +impracticable, and that it would be impossible to supplant steam. His +great experience and standing threw a wet blanket on my hopes. But +I thought he might perhaps be mistaken, as there had been many such +instances on record. I continued to work on the plans, and about three +years later I started to build the locomotive at the works at Goerck +Street, and had it about finished when I was switched off on some other +work. One of the reasons why I felt the electric railway to be eminently +practical was that Henry Villard, the President of the Northern Pacific, +said that one of the greatest things that could be done would be to +build right-angle feeders into the wheat-fields of Dakota and bring in +the wheat to the main lines, as the farmers then had to draw it from +forty to eighty miles. There was a point where it would not pay to +raise it at all; and large areas of the country were thus of no value. +I conceived the idea of building a very light railroad of narrow gauge, +and had got all the data as to the winds on the plains, and found that +it would be possible with very large windmills to supply enough power to +drive those wheat trains." + +Among others who visited the little road at this juncture were persons +interested in the Manhattan Elevated system of New York, on which +experiments were repeatedly tried later, but which was not destined +to adopt a method so obviously well suited to all the conditions until +after many successful demonstrations had been made on elevated roads +elsewhere. It must be admitted that Mr. Edison was not very profoundly +impressed with the desire entertained in that quarter to utilize any +improvement, for he remarks: "When the Elevated Railroad in New York, up +Sixth Avenue, was started there was a great clamor about the noise, and +injunctions were threatened. The management engaged me to make a report +on the cause of the noise. I constructed an instrument that would record +the sound, and set out to make a preliminary report, but I found that +they never intended to do anything but let the people complain." + +It was upon the co-operation of Villard that Edison fell back, and an +agreement was entered into between them on September 14, 1881, which +provided that the latter would "build two and a half miles of electric +railway at Menlo Park, equipped with three cars, two locomotives, one +for freight, and one for passengers, capacity of latter sixty miles an +hour. Capacity freight engine, ten tons net freight; cost of handling +a ton of freight per mile per horse-power to be less than ordinary +locomotive.... If experiments are successful, Villard to pay actual +outlay in experiments, and to treat with the Light Company for the +installation of at least fifty miles of electric railroad in the wheat +regions." Mr. Edison is authority for the statement that Mr. Villard +advanced between $35,000 and $40,000, and that the work done was very +satisfactory; but it did not end at that time in any practical results, +as the Northern Pacific went into the hands of a receiver, and Mr. +Villard's ability to help was hopelessly crippled. The directors of the +Edison Electric Light Company could not be induced to have anything +to do with the electric railway, and Mr. Insull states that the money +advanced was treated by Mr. Edison as a personal loan and repaid to +Mr. Villard, for whom he had a high admiration and a strong feeling +of attachment. Mr. Insull says: "Among the financial men whose close +personal friendship Edison enjoyed, I would mention Henry Villard, who, +I think, had a higher appreciation of the possibilities of the Edison +system than probably any other man of his time in Wall Street. He +dropped out of the business at the time of the consolidation of the +Thomson-Houston Company with the Edison General Electric Company; but +from the earliest days of the business, when it was in its experimental +period, when the Edison light and power system was but an idea, down +to the day of his death, Henry Villard continued a strong supporter not +only with his influence, but with his money. He was the first capitalist +to back individually Edison's experiments in electric railways." + +In speaking of his relationships with Mr. Villard at this time, Edison +says: "When Villard was all broken down, and in a stupor caused by his +disasters in connection with the Northern Pacific, Mrs. Villard sent for +me to come and cheer him up. It was very difficult to rouse him from his +despair and apathy, but I talked about the electric light to him, and +its development, and told him that it would help him win it all back and +put him in his former position. Villard made his great rally; he made +money out of the electric light; and he got back control of the Northern +Pacific. Under no circumstances can a hustler be kept down. If he is +only square, he is bound to get back on his feet. Villard has often been +blamed and severely criticised, but he was not the only one to blame. +His engineers had spent $20,000,000 too much in building the road, and +it was not his fault if he found himself short of money, and at that +time unable to raise any more." + +Villard maintained his intelligent interest in electric-railway +development, with regard to which Edison remarks: "At one time Mr. +Villard got the idea that he would run the mountain division of the +Northern Pacific Railroad by electricity. He asked me if it could be +done. I said: 'Certainly, it is too easy for me to undertake; let some +one else do it.' He said: 'I want you to tackle the problem,' and +he insisted on it. So I got up a scheme of a third rail and shoe and +erected it in my yard here in Orange. When I got it all ready, he had +all his division engineers come on to New York, and they came over here. +I showed them my plans, and the unanimous decision of the engineers was +that it was absolutely and utterly impracticable. That system is on the +New York Central now, and was also used on the New Haven road in its +first work with electricity." + +At this point it may be well to cite some other statements of Edison as +to kindred work, with which he has not usually been associated in the +public mind. "In the same manner I had worked out for the Manhattan +Elevated Railroad a system of electric trains, and had the control of +each car centred at one place--multiple control. This was afterward +worked out and made practical by Frank Sprague. I got up a slot contact +for street railways, and have a patent on it--a sliding contact in a +slot. Edward Lauterbach was connected with the Third Avenue Railroad in +New York--as counsel--and I told him he was making a horrible mistake +putting in the cable. I told him to let the cable stand still and send +electricity through it, and he would not have to move hundreds of tons +of metal all the time. He would rue the day when he put the cable in." +It cannot be denied that the prophecy was fulfilled, for the cable was +the beginning of the frightful financial collapse of the system, and was +torn out in a few years to make way for the triumphant "trolley in the +slot." + +Incidental glimpses of this work are both amusing and interesting. +Hughes, who was working on the experimental road with Mr. Edison, +tells the following story: "Villard sent J. C. Henderson, one of his +mechanical engineers, to see the road when it was in operation, and we +went down one day--Edison, Henderson, and I--and went on the locomotive. +Edison ran it, and just after we started there was a trestle sixty feet +long and seven feet deep, and Edison put on all the power. When we went +over it we must have been going forty miles an hour, and I could see the +perspiration come out on Henderson. After we got over the trestle and +started on down the track, Henderson said: 'When we go back I will walk. +If there is any more of that kind of running I won't be in it myself.'" +To the correspondence of Grosvenor P. Lowrey we are indebted for a +similar reminiscence, under date of June 5, 1880: "Goddard and I have +spent a part of the day at Menlo, and all is glorious. I have ridden at +forty miles an hour on Mr. Edison's electric railway--and we ran off the +track. I protested at the rate of speed over the sharp curves, designed +to show the power of the engine, but Edison said they had done it often. +Finally, when the last trip was to be taken, I said I did not like +it, but would go along. The train jumped the track on a short curve, +throwing Kruesi, who was driving the engine, with his face down in the +dirt, and another man in a comical somersault through some underbrush. +Edison was off in a minute, jumping and laughing, and declaring it a +most beautiful accident. Kruesi got up, his face bleeding and a good +deal shaken; and I shall never forget the expression of voice and face +in which he said, with some foreign accent: 'Oh! yes, pairfeckly safe.' +Fortunately no other hurts were suffered, and in a few minutes we had +the train on the track and running again." + +All this rough-and-ready dealing with grades and curves was not mere +horse-play, but had a serious purpose underlying it, every trip having +its record as to some feature of defect or improvement. One particular +set of experiments relating to such work was made on behalf of visitors +from South America, and were doubtless the first tests of the kind made +for that continent, where now many fine electric street and interurban +railway systems are in operation. Mr. Edison himself supplies the +following data: "During the electric-railway experiments at Menlo Park, +we had a short spur of track up one of the steep gullies. The experiment +came about in this way. Bogota, the capital of Columbia, is reached on +muleback--or was--from Honda on the headwaters of the Magdalena River. +There were parties who wanted to know if transportation over the mule +route could not be done by electricity. They said the grades were +excessive, and it would cost too much to do it with steam locomotives, +even if they could climb the grades. I said: 'Well, it can't be much +more than 45 per cent.; we will try that first. If it will do that it +will do anything else.' I started at 45 per cent. I got up an electric +locomotive with a grip on the rail by which it went up the 45 per cent. +grade. Then they said the curves were very short. I put the curves in. +We started the locomotive with nobody on it, and got up to twenty miles +an hour, taking those curves of very short radius; but it was weeks +before we could prevent it from running off. We had to bank the tracks +up to an angle of thirty degrees before we could turn the curve and stay +on. These Spanish parties were perfectly satisfied we could put in +an electric railway from Honda to Bogota successfully, and then they +disappeared. I have never seen them since. As usual, I paid for the +experiment." + +In the spring of 1883 the Electric Railway Company of America was +incorporated in the State of New York with a capital of $2,000,000 to +develop the patents and inventions of Edison and Stephen D. Field, +to the latter of whom the practical work of active development was +confided, and in June of the same year an exhibit was made at the +Chicago Railway Exposition, which attracted attention throughout +the country, and did much to stimulate the growing interest in +electric-railway work. With the aid of Messrs. F. B. Rae, C. L. Healy, +and C. O. Mailloux a track and locomotive were constructed for the +company by Mr. Field and put in service in the gallery of the main +exhibition building. The track curved sharply at either end on a radius +of fifty-six feet, and the length was about one-third of a mile. The +locomotive named "The Judge," after Justice Field, an uncle of Stephen +D. Field, took current from a central rail between the two outer rails, +that were the return circuit, the contact being a rubbing wire brush on +each side of the "third rail," answering the same purpose as the contact +shoe of later date. The locomotive weighed three tons, was twelve feet +long, five feet wide, and made a speed of nine miles an hour with a +trailer car for passengers. Starting on June 5th, when the exhibition +closed on June 23d this tiny but typical road had operated for over 118 +hours, had made over 446 miles, and had carried 26,805 passengers. After +the exposition closed the outfit was taken during the same year to +the exposition at Louisville, Kentucky, where it was also successful, +carrying a large number of passengers. It deserves note that at Chicago +regular railway tickets were issued to paying passengers, the first ever +employed on American electric railways. + +With this modest but brilliant demonstration, to which the illustrious +names of Edison and Field were attached, began the outburst of +excitement over electric railways, very much like the eras of +speculation and exploitation that attended only a few years earlier +the introduction of the telephone and the electric light, but with such +significant results that the capitalization of electric roads in America +is now over $4,000,000,000, or twice as much as that of the other two +arts combined. There was a tremendous rush into the electric-railway +field after 1883, and an outburst of inventive activity that has rarely, +if ever, been equalled. It is remarkable that, except Siemens, no +European achieved fame in this early work, while from America the ideas +and appliances of Edison, Van Depoele, Sprague, Field, Daft, and Short +have been carried and adopted all over the world. + +Mr. Edison was consulting electrician for the Electric Railway Company, +but neither a director nor an executive officer. Just what the trouble +was as to the internal management of the corporation it is hard to +determine a quarter of a century later; but it was equipped with all +essential elements to dominate an art in which after its first efforts +it remained practically supine and useless, while other interests +forged ahead and reaped both the profit and the glory. Dissensions arose +between the representatives of the Field and Edison interests, and +in April, 1890, the Railway Company assigned its rights to the Edison +patents to the Edison General Electric Company, recently formed by +the consolidation of all the branches of the Edison light, power, and +manufacturing industry under one management. The only patent rights +remaining to the Railway Company were those under three Field patents, +one of which, with controlling claims, was put in suit June, 1890, +against the Jamaica & Brooklyn Road Company, a customer of the Edison +General Electric Company. This was, to say the least, a curious and +anomalous situation. Voluminous records were made by both parties to +the suit, and in the spring of 1894 the case was argued before the +late Judge Townsend, who wrote a long opinion dismissing the bill of +complaint. [15] The student will find therein a very complete and +careful study of the early electric-railway art. After this decision was +rendered, the Electric Railway Company remained for several years in a +moribund condition, and on the last day of 1896 its property was placed +in the hands of a receiver. In February of 1897 the receiver sold the +three Field patents to their original owner, and he in turn sold them to +the Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company. The Railway Company +then went into voluntary dissolution, a sad example of failure to seize +the opportunity at the psychological moment, and on the part of the +inventor to secure any adequate return for years of effort and struggle +in founding one of the great arts. Neither of these men was squelched by +such a calamitous result, but if there were not something of bitterness +in their feelings as they survey what has come of their work, they would +not be human. + +As a matter of fact, Edison retained a very lively interest in +electric-railway progress long after the pregnant days at Menlo Park, +one of the best evidences of which is an article in the New York +Electrical Engineer of November 18, 1891, which describes some important +and original experiments in the direction of adapting electrical +conditions to the larger cities. The overhead trolley had by that time +begun its victorious career, but there was intense hostility displayed +toward it in many places because of the inevitable increase in the +number of overhead wires, which, carrying, as they did, a current of +high voltage and large quantity, were regarded as a menace to life and +property. Edison has always manifested a strong objection to overhead +wires in cities, and urged placing them underground; and the outcry +against the overhead "deadly" trolley met with his instant sympathy. +His study of the problem brought him to the development of the modern +"substation," although the twists that later evolutions have given the +idea have left it scarcely recognizable. + + [Footnote 15: See 61 Fed. Rep. 655.] + +Mr. Villard, as President of the Edison General Electric Company, +requested Mr. Edison, as electrician of the company, to devise a +street-railway system which should be applicable to the largest cities +where the use of the trolley would not be permitted, where the slot +conduit system would not be used, and where, in general, the details of +construction should be reduced to the simplest form. The limits imposed +practically were such as to require that the system should not cost more +than a cable road to install. Edison reverted to his ingenious lighting +plan of years earlier, and thus settled on a method by which +current should be conveyed from the power plant at high potential to +motor-generators placed below the ground in close proximity to the +rails. These substations would convert the current received at a +pressure of, say, one thousand volts to one of twenty volts available +between rail and rail, with a corresponding increase in the volume of +the current. With the utilization of heavy currents at low voltage it +became necessary, of course, to devise apparatus which should be able to +pick up with absolute certainty one thousand amperes of current at +this pressure through two inches of mud, if necessary. With his wonted +activity and fertility Edison set about devising such a contact, and +experimented with metal wheels under all conditions of speed and track +conditions. It was several months before he could convey one hundred +amperes by means of such contacts, but he worked out at last a +satisfactory device which was equal to the task. The next point was +to secure a joint between contiguous rails such as would permit of +the passage of several thousand amperes without introducing undue +resistance. This was also accomplished. + +Objections were naturally made to rails out in the open on the street +surface carrying large currents at a potential of twenty volts. It was +said that vehicles with iron wheels passing over the tracks and spanning +the two rails would short-circuit the current, "chew" themselves up, +and destroy the dynamos generating the current by choking all that +tremendous amount of energy back into them. Edison tackled the objection +squarely and short-circuited his track with such a vehicle, but +succeeded in getting only about two hundred amperes through the wheels, +the low voltage and the insulating properties of the axle-grease being +sufficient to account for such a result. An iron bar was also used, +polished, and with a man standing on it to insure solid contact; but +only one thousand amperes passed through it--i.e., the amount required +by a single car, and, of course, much less than the capacity of the +generators able to operate a system of several hundred cars. + +Further interesting experiments showed that the expected large leakage +of current from the rails in wet weather did not materialize. Edison +found that under the worst conditions with a wet and salted track, at a +potential difference of twenty volts between the two rails, the +extreme loss was only two and one-half horse-power. In this respect the +phenomenon followed the same rule as that to which telegraph wires are +subject--namely, that the loss of insulation is greater in damp, murky +weather when the insulators are covered with wet dust than during heavy +rains when the insulators are thoroughly washed by the action of the +water. In like manner a heavy rain-storm cleaned the tracks from +the accumulations due chiefly to the droppings of the horses, which +otherwise served largely to increase the conductivity. Of course, in dry +weather the loss of current was practically nothing, and, under ordinary +conditions, Edison held, his system was in respect to leakage and the +problems of electrolytic attack of the current on adjacent pipes, etc., +as fully insulated as the standard trolley network of the day. The cost +of his system Mr. Edison placed at from $30,000 to $100,000 per mile of +double track, in accordance with local conditions, and in this respect +comparing very favorably with the cable systems then so much in favor +for heavy traffic. All the arguments that could be urged in support of +this ingenious system are tenable and logical at the present moment; but +the trolley had its way except on a few lines where the conduit-and-shoe +method was adopted; and in the intervening years the volume of traffic +created and handled by electricity in centres of dense population has +brought into existence the modern subway. + +But down to the moment of the preparation of this biography, Edison has +retained an active interest in transportation problems, and his latest +work has been that of reviving the use of the storage battery for +street-car purposes. At one time there were a number of storage-battery +lines and cars in operation in such cities as Washington, New York, +Chicago, and Boston; but the costs of operation and maintenance +were found to be inordinately high as compared with those of the +direct-supply methods, and the battery cars all disappeared. The need +for them under many conditions remained, as, for example, in places +in Greater New York where the overhead trolley wires are forbidden as +objectionable, and where the ground is too wet or too often submerged +to permit of the conduit with the slot. Some of the roads in Greater +New York have been anxious to secure such cars, and, as usual, the most +resourceful electrical engineer and inventor of his times has made +the effort. A special experimental track has been laid at the Orange +laboratory, and a car equipped with the Edison storage battery and other +devices has been put under severe and extended trial there and in New +York. + +Menlo Park, in ruin and decay, affords no traces of the early Edison +electric-railway work, but the crude little locomotive built by Charles +T. Hughes was rescued from destruction, and has become the property +of the Pratt Institute, of Brooklyn, to whose thousands of technical +students it is a constant example and incentive. It was loaned in 1904 +to the Association of Edison Illuminating Companies, and by it exhibited +as part of the historical Edison collection at the St. Louis Exposition. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +MAGNETIC ORE MILLING WORK + +DURING the Hudson-Fulton celebration of October, 1909, Burgomaster Van +Leeuwen, of Amsterdam, member of the delegation sent officially from +Holland to escort the Half Moon and participate in the functions of the +anniversary, paid a visit to the Edison laboratory at Orange to see +the inventor, who may be regarded as pre-eminent among those of Dutch +descent in this country. Found, as usual, hard at work--this time on his +cement house, of which he showed the iron molds--Edison took occasion to +remark that if he had achieved anything worth while, it was due to the +obstinacy and pertinacity he had inherited from his forefathers. +To which it may be added that not less equally have the nature +of inheritance and the quality of atavism been exhibited in his +extraordinary predilection for the miller's art. While those Batavian +ancestors on the low shores of the Zuyder Zee devoted their energies to +grinding grain, he has been not less assiduous than they in reducing the +rocks of the earth itself to flour. + +Although this phase of Mr. Edison's diverse activities is not as +generally known to the world as many others of a more popular character, +the milling of low-grade auriferous ores and the magnetic separation of +iron ores have been subjects of engrossing interest and study to him for +many years. Indeed, his comparatively unknown enterprise of separating +magnetically and putting into commercial form low-grade iron ore, +as carried on at Edison, New Jersey, proved to be the most colossal +experiment that he has ever made. + +If a person qualified to judge were asked to answer categorically as to +whether or not that enterprise was a failure, he could truthfully answer +both yes and no. Yes, in that circumstances over which Mr. Edison had no +control compelled the shutting down of the plant at the very moment of +success; and no, in that the mechanically successful and commercially +practical results obtained, after the exercise of stupendous efforts +and the expenditure of a fortune, are so conclusive that they must +inevitably be the reliance of many future iron-masters. In other words, +Mr. Edison was at least a quarter of a century ahead of the times in the +work now to be considered. + +Before proceeding to a specific description of this remarkable +enterprise, however, let us glance at an early experiment in separating +magnetic iron sands on the Atlantic sea-shore: "Some years ago I heard +one day that down at Quogue, Long Island, there were immense deposits +of black magnetic sand. This would be very valuable if the iron could +be separated from the sand. So I went down to Quogue with one of my +assistants and saw there for miles large beds of black sand on the beach +in layers from one to six inches thick--hundreds of thousands of tons. +My first thought was that it would be a very easy matter to concentrate +this, and I found I could sell the stuff at a good price. I put up a +small plant, but just as I got it started a tremendous storm came +up, and every bit of that black sand went out to sea. During the +twenty-eight years that have intervened it has never come back." This +incident was really the prelude to the development set forth in this +chapter. + +In the early eighties Edison became familiar with the fact that the +Eastern steel trade was suffering a disastrous change, and that business +was slowly drifting westward, chiefly by reason of the discovery and +opening up of enormous deposits of high-grade iron ore in the upper +peninsula of Michigan. This ore could be excavated very cheaply by +means of improved mining facilities, and transported at low cost to lake +ports. Hence the iron and steel mills east of the Alleghanies--compelled +to rely on limited local deposits of Bessemer ore, and upon foreign +ores which were constantly rising in value--began to sustain a serious +competition with Western mills, even in Eastern markets. + +Long before this situation arose, it had been recognized by Eastern +iron-masters that sooner or later the deposits of high-grade ore would +be exhausted, and, in consequence, there would ensue a compelling +necessity to fall back on the low-grade magnetic ores. For many years it +had been a much-discussed question how to make these ores available +for transportation to distant furnaces. To pay railroad charges on +ores carrying perhaps 80 to 90 per cent. of useless material would +be prohibitive. Hence the elimination of the worthless "gangue" by +concentration of the iron particles associated with it, seemed to be the +only solution of the problem. + +Many attempts had been made in by-gone days to concentrate the iron in +such ores by water processes, but with only a partial degree of success. +The impossibility of obtaining a uniform concentrate was a most serious +objection, had there not indeed been other difficulties which rendered +this method commercially impracticable. It is quite natural, therefore, +that the idea of magnetic separation should have occurred to many +inventors. Thus we find numerous instances throughout the last century +of experiments along this line; and particularly in the last forty or +fifty years, during which various attempts have been made by others than +Edison to perfect magnetic separation and bring it up to something like +commercial practice. At the time he took up the matter, however, no +one seems to have realized the full meaning of the tremendous problems +involved. + +From 1880 to 1885, while still very busy in the development of his +electric-light system, Edison found opportunity to plan crushing and +separating machinery. His first patent on the subject was applied for +and issued early in 1880. He decided, after mature deliberation, that +the magnetic separation of low-grade ores on a colossal scale at a low +cost was the only practical way of supplying the furnace-man with a high +quality of iron ore. It was his opinion that it was cheaper to quarry +and concentrate lean ore in a big way than to attempt to mine, under +adverse circumstances, limited bodies of high-grade ore. He appreciated +fully the serious nature of the gigantic questions involved; and his +plans were laid with a view to exercising the utmost economy in the +design and operation of the plant in which he contemplated the automatic +handling of many thousands of tons of material daily. It may be stated +as broadly true that Edison engineered to handle immense masses of stuff +automatically, while his predecessors aimed chiefly at close separation. + +Reduced to its barest, crudest terms, the proposition of magnetic +separation is simplicity itself. A piece of the ore (magnetite) may be +reduced to powder and the ore particles separated therefrom by the help +of a simple hand magnet. To elucidate the basic principle of Edison's +method, let the crushed ore fall in a thin stream past such a magnet. +The magnetic particles are attracted out of the straight line of the +falling stream, and being heavy, gravitate inwardly and fall to one +side of a partition placed below. The non-magnetic gangue descends in +a straight line to the other side of the partition. Thus a complete +separation is effected. + +Simple though the principle appears, it was in its application to vast +masses of material and in the solving of great engineering problems +connected therewith that Edison's originality made itself manifest in +the concentrating works that he established in New Jersey, early in the +nineties. Not only did he develop thoroughly the refining of the crushed +ore, so that after it had passed the four hundred and eighty magnets +in the mill, the concentrates came out finally containing 91 to 93 per +cent. of iron oxide, but he also devised collateral machinery, methods +and processes all fundamental in their nature. These are too numerous to +specify in detail, as they extended throughout the various ramifications +of the plant, but the principal ones are worthy of mention, such as: + + The giant rolls (for crushing). + Intermediate rolls. + Three-high rolls. + Giant cranes (215 feet long span). + Vertical dryer. + Belt conveyors. + Air separation. + Mechanical separation of phosphorus. + Briquetting. + +That Mr. Edison's work was appreciated at the time is made evident +by the following extract from an article describing the Edison +plant, published in The Iron Age of October 28, 1897; in which, after +mentioning his struggle with adverse conditions, it says: "There is very +little that is showy, from the popular point of view, in the gigantic +work which Mr. Edison has done during these years, but to those who are +capable of grasping the difficulties encountered, Mr. Edison appears +in the new light of a brilliant constructing engineer grappling with +technical and commercial problems of the highest order. His genius as +an inventor is revealed in many details of the great concentrating +plant.... But to our mind, originality of the highest type as a +constructor and designer appears in the bold way in which he sweeps +aside accepted practice in this particular field and attains results not +hitherto approached. He pursues methods in ore-dressing at which +those who are trained in the usual practice may well stand aghast. +But considering the special features of the problems to be solved, his +methods will be accepted as those economically wise and expedient." + +A cursory glance at these problems will reveal their import. Mountains +must be reduced to dust; all this dust must be handled in detail, so +to speak, and from it must be separated the fine particles of iron +constituting only one-fourth or one-fifth of its mass; and then this +iron-ore dust must be put into such shape that it could be +commercially shipped and used. One of the most interesting and striking +investigations made by Edison in this connection is worthy of note, +and may be related in his own words: "I felt certain that there must be +large bodies of magnetite in the East, which if crushed and concentrated +would satisfy the wants of the Eastern furnaces for steel-making. +Having determined to investigate the mountain regions of New Jersey, I +constructed a very sensitive magnetic needle, which would dip toward the +earth if brought over any considerable body of magnetic iron ore. One +of my laboratory assistants went out with me and we visited many of the +mines of New Jersey, but did not find deposits of any magnitude. +One day, however, as we drove over a mountain range, not known as +iron-bearing land, I was astonished to find that the needle was strongly +attracted and remained so; thus indicating that the whole mountain was +underlaid with vast bodies of magnetic ore. + +"I knew it was a commercial problem to produce high-grade Bessemer ore +from these deposits, and took steps to acquire a large amount of the +property. I also planned a great magnetic survey of the East, and I +believe it remains the most comprehensive of its kind yet performed. I +had a number of men survey a strip reaching from Lower Canada to North +Carolina. The only instrument we used was the special magnetic needle. +We started in Lower Canada and travelled across the line of march +twenty-five miles; then advanced south one thousand feet; then back +across the line of march again twenty-five miles; then south another +thousand feet, across again, and so on. Thus we advanced all the way to +North Carolina, varying our cross-country march from two to twenty-five +miles, according to geological formation. Our magnetic needle indicated +the presence and richness of the invisible deposits of magnetic ore. +We kept minute records of these indications, and when the survey was +finished we had exact information of the deposits in every part of +each State we had passed through. We also knew the width, length, and +approximate depth of every one of these deposits, which were enormous. + +"The amount of ore disclosed by this survey was simply fabulous. How +much so may be judged from the fact that in the three thousand acres +immediately surrounding the mills that I afterward established at +Edison there were over 200,000,000 tons of low-grade ore. I also secured +sixteen thousand acres in which the deposit was proportionately as +large. These few acres alone contained sufficient ore to supply the +whole United States iron trade, including exports, for seventy years." + +Given a mountain of rock containing only one-fifth to one-fourth +magnetic iron, the broad problem confronting Edison resolved itself into +three distinct parts--first, to tear down the mountain bodily and grind +it to powder; second, to extract from this powder the particles of iron +mingled in its mass; and, third, to accomplish these results at a cost +sufficiently low to give the product a commercial value. + +Edison realized from the start that the true solution of this problem +lay in the continuous treatment of the material, with the maximum +employment of natural forces and the minimum of manual labor and +generated power. Hence, all his conceptions followed this general +principle so faithfully and completely that we find in the plant +embodying his ideas the forces of momentum and gravity steadily in +harness and keeping the traces taut; while there was no touch of the +human hand upon the material from the beginning of the treatment to its +finish--the staff being employed mainly to keep watch on the correct +working of the various processes. + +It is hardly necessary to devote space to the beginnings of the +enterprise, although they are full of interest. They served, however, to +convince Edison that if he ever expected to carry out his scheme on the +extensive scale planned, he could not depend upon the market to supply +suitable machinery for important operations, but would be obliged to +devise and build it himself. Thus, outside the steam-shovel and such +staple items as engines, boilers, dynamos, and motors, all of the +diverse and complex machinery of the entire concentrating plant, as +subsequently completed, was devised by him especially for the purpose. +The necessity for this was due to the many radical variations made from +accepted methods. + +No such departure was as radical as that of the method of crushing the +ore. Existing machinery for this purpose had been designed on the +basis of mining methods then in vogue, by which the rock was thoroughly +shattered by means of high explosives and reduced to pieces of one +hundred pounds or less. These pieces were then crushed by power directly +applied. If a concentrating mill, planned to treat five or six thousand +tons per day, were to be operated on this basis the investment in +crushers and the supply of power would be enormous, to say nothing of +the risk of frequent breakdowns by reason of multiplicity of machinery +and parts. From a consideration of these facts, and with his usual +tendency to upset traditional observances, Edison conceived the bold +idea of constructing gigantic rolls which, by the force of momentum, +would be capable of crushing individual rocks of vastly greater size +than ever before attempted. He reasoned that the advantages thus +obtained would be fourfold: a minimum of machinery and parts; greater +compactness; a saving of power; and greater economy in mining. As this +last-named operation precedes the crushing, let us first consider it as +it was projected and carried on by him. + +Perhaps quarrying would be a better term than mining in this case, as +Edison's plan was to approach the rock and tear it down bodily. The +faith that "moves mountains" had a new opportunity. In work of this +nature it had been customary, as above stated, to depend upon a high +explosive, such as dynamite, to shatter and break the ore to lumps +of one hundred pounds or less. This, however, he deemed to be a most +uneconomical process, for energy stored as heat units in dynamite at +$260 per ton was much more expensive than that of calories in a ton of +coal at $3 per ton. Hence, he believed that only the minimum of work +should be done with the costly explosive; and, therefore, planned to use +dynamite merely to dislodge great masses of rock, and depended upon the +steam-shovel, operated by coal under the boiler, to displace, handle, +and remove the rock in detail. This was the plan that was subsequently +put into practice in the great works at Edison, New Jersey. A series of +three-inch holes twenty feet deep were drilled eight feet apart, about +twelve feet back of the ore-bank, and into these were inserted dynamite +cartridges. The blast would dislodge thirty to thirty-five thousand tons +of rock, which was scooped up by great steam-shovels and loaded on to +skips carried by a line of cars on a narrow-gauge railroad running +to and from the crushing mill. Here the material was automatically +delivered to the giant rolls. The problem included handling and crushing +the "run of the mine," without selection. The steam-shovel did not +discriminate, but picked up handily single pieces weighing five or six +tons and loaded them on the skips with quantities of smaller lumps. +When the skips arrived at the giant rolls, their contents were dumped +automatically into a superimposed hopper. The rolls were well named, for +with ear-splitting noise they broke up in a few seconds the great pieces +of rock tossed in from the skips. + +It is not easy to appreciate to the full the daring exemplified in these +great crushing rolls, or rather "rock-crackers," without having watched +them in operation delivering their "solar-plexus" blows. It was only +as one might stand in their vicinity and hear the thunderous roar +accompanying the smashing and rending of the massive rocks as they +disappeared from view that the mind was overwhelmed with a sense of the +magnificent proportions of this operation. The enormous force exerted +during this process may be illustrated from the fact that during its +development, in running one of the early forms of rolls, pieces of rock +weighing more than half a ton would be shot up in the air to a height of +twenty or twenty-five feet. + +The giant rolls were two solid cylinders, six feet in diameter and five +feet long, made of cast iron. To the faces of these rolls were bolted a +series of heavy, chilled-iron plates containing a number of projecting +knobs two inches high. Each roll had also two rows of four-inch knobs, +intended to strike a series of hammer-like blows. The rolls were set +face to face fourteen inches apart, in a heavy frame, and the total +weight was one hundred and thirty tons, of which seventy tons were in +moving parts. The space between these two rolls allowed pieces of rock +measuring less than fourteen inches to descend to other smaller rolls +placed below. The giant rolls were belt-driven, in opposite directions, +through friction clutches, although the belt was not depended upon for +the actual crushing. Previous to the dumping of a skip, the rolls were +speeded up to a circumferential velocity of nearly a mile a minute, thus +imparting to them the terrific momentum that would break up easily in a +few seconds boulders weighing five or six tons each. It was as though a +rock of this size had got in the way of two express trains travelling +in opposite directions at nearly sixty miles an hour. In other words, +it was the kinetic energy of the rolls that crumbled up the rocks with +pile-driver effect. This sudden strain might have tended to stop the +engine driving the rolls; but by an ingenious clutch arrangement the +belt was released at the moment of resistance in the rolls by reason of +the rocks falling between them. The act of breaking and crushing would +naturally decrease the tremendous momentum, but after the rock was +reduced and the pieces had passed through, the belt would again come +into play, and once more speed up the rolls for a repetition of their +regular prize-fighter duty. + +On leaving the giant rolls the rocks, having been reduced to pieces not +larger than fourteen inches, passed into the series of "Intermediate +Rolls" of similar construction and operation, by which they were still +further reduced, and again passed on to three other sets of rolls +of smaller dimensions. These latter rolls were also face-lined with +chilled-iron plates; but, unlike the larger ones, were positively +driven, reducing the rock to pieces of about one-half-inch size, or +smaller. The whole crushing operation of reduction from massive boulders +to small pebbly pieces having been done in less time than the telling +has occupied, the product was conveyed to the "Dryer," a tower nine +feet square and fifty feet high, heated from below by great open furnace +fires. All down the inside walls of this tower were placed cast-iron +plates, nine feet long and seven inches wide, arranged alternately in +"fish-ladder" fashion. The crushed rock, being delivered at the top, +would fall down from plate to plate, constantly exposing different +surfaces to the heat, until it landed completely dried in the lower +portion of the tower, where it fell into conveyors which took it up to +the stock-house. + +This method of drying was original with Edison. At the time this adjunct +to the plant was required, the best dryer on the market was of a rotary +type, which had a capacity of only twenty tons per hour, with the +expenditure of considerable power. As Edison had determined upon +treating two hundred and fifty tons or more per hour, he decided to +devise an entirely new type of great capacity, requiring a minimum of +power (for elevating the material), and depending upon the force of +gravity for handling it during the drying process. A long series of +experiments resulted in the invention of the tower dryer with a capacity +of three hundred tons per hour. + +The rock, broken up into pieces about the size of marbles, having been +dried and conveyed to the stock-house, the surplusage was automatically +carried out from the other end of the stock-house by conveyors, to +pass through the next process, by which it was reduced to a powder. The +machinery for accomplishing this result represents another interesting +and radical departure of Edison from accepted usage. He had investigated +all the crushing-machines on the market, and tried all he could get. +He found them all greatly lacking in economy of operation; indeed, the +highest results obtainable from the best were 18 per cent. of actual +work, involving a loss of 82 per cent. by friction. His nature revolted +at such an immense loss of power, especially as he proposed the crushing +of vast quantities of ore. Thus, he was obliged to begin again at the +foundation, and he devised a crushing-machine which was subsequently +named the "Three-High Rolls," and which practically reversed the above +figures, as it developed 84 per cent. of work done with only 16 per +cent. loss in friction. + +A brief description of this remarkable machine will probably interest +the reader. In the two end pieces of a heavy iron frame were set three +rolls, or cylinders--one in the centre, another below, and the other +above--all three being in a vertical line. These rolls were of cast +iron three feet in diameter, having chilled-iron smooth face-plates of +considerable thickness. The lowest roll was set in a fixed bearing at +the bottom of the frame, and, therefore, could only turn around on its +axis. The middle and top rolls were free to move up or down from and +toward the lower roll, and the shafts of the middle and upper rolls were +set in a loose bearing which could slip up and down in the iron frame. +It will be apparent, therefore, that any material which passed in +between the top and the middle rolls, and the middle and bottom rolls, +could be ground as fine as might be desired, depending entirely upon the +amount of pressure applied to the loose rolls. In operation the material +passed first through the upper and middle rolls, and then between the +middle and lowest rolls. + +This pressure was applied in a most ingenious manner. On the ends of the +shafts of the bottom and top rolls there were cylindrical sleeves, or +bearings, having seven sheaves, in which was run a half-inch endless +wire rope. This rope was wound seven times over the sheaves as above, +and led upward and over a single-groove sheave which was operated by the +piston of an air cylinder, and in this manner the pressure was applied +to the rolls. It will be seen, therefore, that the system consisted in a +single rope passed over sheaves and so arranged that it could be varied +in length, thus providing for elasticity in exerting pressure and +regulating it as desired. The efficiency of this system was incomparably +greater than that of any other known crusher or grinder, for while a +pressure of one hundred and twenty-five thousand pounds could be exerted +by these rolls, friction was almost entirely eliminated because the +upper and lower roll bearings turned with the rolls and revolved in the +wire rope, which constituted the bearing proper. + +The same cautious foresight exercised by Edison in providing a safety +device--the fuse--to prevent fires in his electric-light system, was +again displayed in this concentrating plant, where, to save possible +injury to its expensive operating parts, he devised an analogous factor, +providing all the crushing machinery with closely calculated "safety +pins," which, on being overloaded, would shear off and thus stop the +machine at once. + +The rocks having thus been reduced to fine powder, the mass was ready +for screening on its way to the magnetic separators. Here again Edison +reversed prior practice by discarding rotary screens and devising a form +of tower screen, which, besides having a very large working capacity +by gravity, eliminated all power except that required to elevate the +material. The screening process allowed the finest part of the crushed +rock to pass on, by conveyor belts, to the magnetic separators, while +the coarser particles were in like manner automatically returned to the +rolls for further reduction. + +In a narrative not intended to be strictly technical, it would probably +tire the reader to follow this material in detail through the numerous +steps attending the magnetic separation. These may be seen in a +diagram reproduced from the above-named article in the Iron Age, and +supplemented by the following extract from the Electrical Engineer, +New York, October 28, 1897: "At the start the weakest magnet at the top +frees the purest particles, and the second takes care of others; but the +third catches those to which rock adheres, and will extract particles +of which only one-eighth is iron. This batch of material goes back for +another crushing, so that everything is subjected to an equality of +refining. We are now in sight of the real 'concentrates,' which are +conveyed to dryer No. 2 for drying again, and are then delivered to +the fifty-mesh screens. Whatever is fine enough goes through to the +eight-inch magnets, and the remainder goes back for recrushing. +Below the eight-inch magnets the dust is blown out of the particles +mechanically, and they then go to the four-inch magnets for final +cleansing and separation.... Obviously, at each step the percentage of +felspar and phosphorus is less and less until in the final concentrates +the percentage of iron oxide is 91 to 93 per cent. As intimated at the +outset, the tailings will be 75 per cent. of the rock taken from the +veins of ore, so that every four tons of crude, raw, low-grade ore will +have yielded roughly one ton of high-grade concentrate and three tons of +sand, the latter also having its value in various ways." + +This sand was transported automatically by belt conveyors to the rear of +the works to be stored and sold. Being sharp, crystalline, and even in +quality, it was a valuable by-product, finding a ready sale for +building purposes, railway sand-boxes, and various industrial uses. The +concentrate, in fine powdery form, was delivered in similar manner to a +stock-house. + +As to the next step in the process, we may now quote again from the +article in the Iron Age: "While Mr. Edison and his associates were +working on the problem of cheap concentration of iron ore, an added +difficulty faced them in the preparation of the concentrates for the +market. Furnacemen object to more than a very small proportion of fine +ore in their mixtures, particularly when the ore is magnetic, not easily +reduced. The problem to be solved was to market an agglomerated material +so as to avoid the drawbacks of fine ore. The agglomerated product must +be porous so as to afford access of the furnace-reducing gases to the +ore. It must be hard enough to bear transportation, and to carry the +furnace burden without crumbling to pieces. It must be waterproof, to a +certain extent, because considerations connected with securing low rates +of freight make it necessary to be able to ship the concentrates to +market in open coal cars, exposed to snow and rain. In many respects the +attainment of these somewhat conflicting ends was the most perplexing +of the problems which confronted Mr. Edison. The agglomeration of the +concentrates having been decided upon, two other considerations, not +mentioned above, were of primary importance--first, to find a suitable +cheap binding material; and, second, its nature must be such that +very little would be necessary per ton of concentrates. These severe +requirements were staggering, but Mr. Edison's courage did not falter. +Although it seemed a well-nigh hopeless task, he entered upon the +investigation with his usual optimism and vim. After many months +of unremitting toil and research, and the trial of thousands of +experiments, the goal was reached in the completion of a successful +formula for agglomerating the fine ore and pressing it into briquettes +by special machinery." + +This was the final process requisite for the making of a completed +commercial product. Its practice, of course, necessitated the addition +of an entirely new department of the works, which was carried into +effect by the construction and installation of the novel mixing and +briquetting machinery, together with extensions of the conveyors, with +which the plant had already been liberally provided. + +Briefly described, the process consisted in mixing the concentrates with +the special binding material in machines of an entirely new type, and in +passing the resultant pasty mass into the briquetting machines, where it +was pressed into cylindrical cakes three inches in diameter and one and +a half inches thick, under successive pressures of 7800, 14,000, and +60,000 pounds. Each machine made these briquettes at the rate of sixty +per minute, and dropped them into bucket conveyors by which they were +carried into drying furnaces, through which they made five loops, and +were then delivered to cross-conveyors which carried them into the +stock-house. At the end of this process the briquettes were so hard +that they would not break or crumble in loading on the cars or in +transportation by rail, while they were so porous as to be capable of +absorbing 26 per cent. of their own volume in alcohol, but repelling +water absolutely--perfect "old soaks." + +Thus, with never-failing persistence and patience, coupled with intense +thought and hard work, Edison met and conquered, one by one, the complex +difficulties that confronted him. He succeeded in what he had set out +to do, and it is now to be noted that the product he had striven so +sedulously to obtain was a highly commercial one, for not only did the +briquettes of concentrated ore fulfil the purpose of their creation, but +in use actually tended to increase the working capacity of the furnace, +as the following test, quoted from the Iron Age, October 28, 1897, +will attest: "The only trial of any magnitude of the briquettes in +the blast-furnace was carried through early this year at the Crane Iron +Works, Catasauqua, Pennsylvania, by Leonard Peckitt. + +"The furnace at which the test was made produces from one hundred to one +hundred and ten tons per day when running on the ordinary mixture. The +charging of briquettes was begun with a percentage of 25 per cent., +and was carried up to 100 per cent. The following is the record of the +results: + + RESULTS OF WORKING BRIQUETTES AT THE CRANE FURNACE + + + Quantity of Phos- ManDate + Briquette Tons Silica phorus Sulphur ganese + Working + Per Cent. + January 5th 25 104 2.770 0.830 0.018 0.500 + January 6th 37 1/2 4 1/2 2.620 0 740 0.018 0.350 + January 7th 50 138 1/2 2.572 0.580 0.015 0.200 + January 8th 75 119 1.844 0.264 0.022 0.200 + January 9th 100 138 1/2 1.712 0.147 0.038 0.185 + +"On the 9th, at 5 P.M., the briquettes having been nearly exhausted, +the percentage was dropped to 25 per cent., and on the 10th the output +dropped to 120 tons, and on the 11th the furnace had resumed the usual +work on the regular standard ores. + +"These figures prove that the yield of the furnace is considerably +increased. The Crane trial was too short to settle the question to what +extent the increase in product may be carried. This increase in output, +of course, means a reduction in the cost of labor and of general +expenses. + +"The richness of the ore and its purity of course affect the limestone +consumption. In the case of the Crane trial there was a reduction from +30 per cent. to 12 per cent. of the ore charge. + +"Finally, the fuel consumption is reduced, which in the case of the +Eastern plants, with their relatively costly coke, is a very important +consideration. It is regarded as possible that Eastern furnaces will +be able to use a smaller proportion of the costlier coke and +correspondingly increase in anthracite coal, which is a cheaper fuel +in that section. So far as foundry iron is concerned, the experience at +Catasauqua, Pennsylvania, brief as it has been, shows that a stronger +and tougher metal is made." + +Edison himself tells an interesting little story in this connection, +when he enjoyed the active help of that noble character, John Fritz, +the distinguished inventor and pioneer of the modern steel industry +in America. He says: "When I was struggling along with the iron-ore +concentration, I went to see several blast-furnace men to sell the ore +at the market price. They saw I was very anxious to sell it, and they +would take advantage of my necessity. But I happened to go to Mr. John +Fritz, of the Bethlehem Steel Company, and told him what I was doing. +'Well,' he said to me, 'Edison, you are doing a good thing for the +Eastern furnaces. They ought to help you, for it will help us out. I am +willing to help you. I mix a little sentiment with business, and I will +give you an order for one hundred thousand tons.' And he sat right down +and gave me the order." + +The Edison concentrating plant has been sketched in the briefest outline +with a view of affording merely a bare idea of the great work of its +projector. To tell the whole story in detail and show its logical +sequence, step by step, would take little less than a volume in itself, +for Edison's methods, always iconoclastic when progress is in sight, +were particularly so at the period in question. It has been said that +"Edison's scrap-heap contains the elements of a liberal education," +and this was essentially true of the "discard" during the ore-milling +experience. Interesting as it might be to follow at length the numerous +phases of ingenious and resourceful development that took place during +those busy years, the limit of present space forbids their relation. It +would, however, be denying the justice that is Edison's due to omit all +mention of two hitherto unnamed items in particular that have added +to the world's store of useful devices. We refer first to the great +travelling hoisting-crane having a span of two hundred and fifteen feet, +and used for hoisting loads equal to ten tons, this being the largest +of the kind made up to that time, and afterward used as a model by many +others. The second item was the ingenious and varied forms of conveyor +belt, devised and used by Edison at the concentrating works, and +subsequently developed into a separate and extensive business by an +engineer to whom he gave permission to use his plans and patterns. + +Edison's native shrewdness and knowledge of human nature was put to +practical use in the busy days of plant construction. It was found +impossible to keep mechanics on account of indifferent residential +accommodations afforded by the tiny village, remote from civilization, +among the central mountains of New Jersey. This puzzling question was +much discussed between him and his associate, Mr. W. S. Mallory, until +finally he said to the latter: "If we want to keep the men here we must +make it attractive for the women--so let us build some houses that will +have running water and electric lights, and rent at a low rate." He set +to work, and in a day finished a design for a type of house. Fifty were +quickly built and fully described in advertising for mechanics. Three +days' advertisements brought in over six hundred and fifty applications, +and afterward Edison had no trouble in obtaining all the first-class men +he required, as settlers in the artificial Yosemite he was creating. + +We owe to Mr. Mallory a characteristic story of this period as to +an incidental unbending from toil, which in itself illustrates the +ever-present determination to conquer what is undertaken: "Along in +the latter part of the nineties, when the work on the problem of +concentrating iron ore was in progress, it became necessary when leaving +the plant at Edison to wait over at Lake Hopatcong one hour for a +connecting train. During some of these waits Mr. Edison had seen me play +billiards. At the particular time this incident happened, Mrs. Edison +and her family were away for the summer, and I was staying at the +Glenmont home on the Orange Mountains. + +"One hot Saturday night, after Mr. Edison had looked over the evening +papers, he said to me: 'Do you want to play a game of billiards?' +Naturally this astonished me very much, as he is a man who cares +little or nothing for the ordinary games, with the single exception of +parcheesi, of which he is very fond. I said I would like to play, so we +went up into the billiard-room of the house. I took off the cloth, got +out the balls, picked out a cue for Mr. Edison, and when we banked for +the first shot I won and started the game. After making two or three +shots I missed, and a long carom shot was left for Mr. Edison, the cue +ball and object ball being within about twelve inches of each other, and +the other ball a distance of nearly the length of the table. Mr. Edison +attempted to make the shot, but missed it and said 'Put the balls back.' +So I put them back in the same position and he missed it the second +time. I continued at his request to put the balls back in the same +position for the next fifteen minutes, until he could make the shot +every time--then he said: 'I don't want to play any more.'" + +Having taken a somewhat superficial survey of the great enterprise under +consideration; having had a cursory glance at the technical development +of the plant up to the point of its successful culmination in the making +of a marketable, commercial product as exemplified in the test at the +Crane Furnace, let us revert to that demonstration and note the events +that followed. The facts of this actual test are far more eloquent than +volumes of argument would be as a justification of Edison's assiduous +labors for over eight years, and of the expenditure of a fortune in +bringing his broad conception to a concrete possibility. In the patient +solving of tremendous problems he had toiled up the mountain-side of +success--scaling its topmost peak and obtaining a view of the boundless +prospect. But, alas! "The best laid plans o' mice and men gang aft +agley." The discovery of great deposits of rich Bessemer ore in the +Mesaba range of mountains in Minnesota a year or two previous to the +completion of his work had been followed by the opening up of those +deposits and the marketing of the ore. It was of such rich character +that, being cheaply mined by greatly improved and inexpensive methods, +the market price of crude ore of like iron units fell from about +$6.50 to $3.50 per ton at the time when Edison was ready to supply his +concentrated product. At the former price he could have supplied the +market and earned a liberal profit on his investment, but at $3.50 per +ton he was left without a reasonable chance of competition. Thus was +swept away the possibility of reaping the reward so richly earned by +years of incessant thought, labor, and care. This great and notable +plant, representing a very large outlay of money, brought to completion, +ready for business, and embracing some of the most brilliant and +remarkable of Edison's inventions and methods, must be abandoned by +force of circumstances over which he had no control, and with it must +die the high hopes that his progressive, conquering march to success had +legitimately engendered. + +The financial aspect of these enterprises is often overlooked and +forgotten. In this instance it was of more than usual import and +seriousness, as Edison was virtually his own "backer," putting into the +company almost the whole of all the fortune his inventions had brought +him. There is a tendency to deny to the capital that thus takes +desperate chances its full reward if things go right, and to insist that +it shall have barely the legal rate of interest and far less than the +return of over-the-counter retail trade. It is an absolute fact that the +great electrical inventors and the men who stood behind them have had +little return for their foresight and courage. In this instance, when +the inventor was largely his own financier, the difficulties and perils +were redoubled. Let Mr. Mallory give an instance: "During the latter +part of the panic of 1893 there came a period when we were very hard +up for ready cash, due largely to the panicky conditions; and a large +pay-roll had been raised with considerable difficulty. A short time +before pay-day our treasurer called me up by telephone, and said: 'I +have just received the paid checks from the bank, and I am fearful +that my assistant, who has forged my name to some of the checks, has +absconded with about $3000.' I went immediately to Mr. Edison and +told him of the forgery and the amount of money taken, and in what an +embarrassing position we were for the next pay-roll. When I had finished +he said: 'It is too bad the money is gone, but I will tell you what to +do. Go and see the president of the bank which paid the forged checks. +Get him to admit the bank's liability, and then say to him that Mr. +Edison does not think the bank should suffer because he happened to have +a dishonest clerk in his employ. Also say to him that I shall not ask +them to make the amount good.' This was done; the bank admitting its +liability and being much pleased with this action. When I reported to +Mr. Edison he said: 'That's all right. We have made a friend of the +bank, and we may need friends later on.' And so it happened that some +time afterward, when we greatly needed help in the way of loans, the +bank willingly gave us the accommodations we required to tide us over a +critical period." + +This iron-ore concentrating project had lain close to Edison's heart and +ambition--indeed, it had permeated his whole being to the exclusion +of almost all other investigations or inventions for a while. For five +years he had lived and worked steadily at Edison, leaving there only on +Saturday night to spend Sunday at his home in Orange, and returning to +the plant by an early train on Monday morning. Life at Edison was of the +simple kind--work, meals, and a few hours' sleep--day by day. The little +village, called into existence by the concentrating works, was of the +most primitive nature and offered nothing in the way of frivolity or +amusement. Even the scenery is austere. Hence Edison was enabled +to follow his natural bent in being surrounded day and night by his +responsible chosen associates, with whom he worked uninterrupted by +outsiders from early morning away into the late hours of the evening. +Those who were laboring with him, inspired by his unflagging enthusiasm, +followed his example and devoted all their long waking hours to the +furtherance of his plans with a zeal that ultimately bore fruit in the +practical success here recorded. + +In view of its present status, this colossal enterprise at Edison may +well be likened to the prologue of a play that is to be subsequently +enacted for the benefit of future generations, but before ringing down +the curtain it is desirable to preserve the unities by quoting the +words of one of the principal actors, Mr. Mallory, who says: "The +Concentrating Works had been in operation, and we had produced a +considerable quantity of the briquettes, and had been able to sell +only a portion of them, the iron market being in such condition that +blast-furnaces were not making any new purchases of iron ore, and +were having difficulty to receive and consume the ores which had been +previously contracted for, so what sales we were able to make were at +extremely low prices, my recollection being that they were between $3.50 +and $3.80 per ton, whereas when the works had started we had hoped to +obtain $6.00 to $6.50 per ton for the briquettes. We had also thoroughly +investigated the wonderful deposit at Mesaba, and it was with the +greatest possible reluctance that Mr. Edison was able to come finally to +the conclusion that, under existing conditions, the concentrating plant +could not then be made a commercial success. This decision was reached +only after the most careful investigations and calculations, as Mr. +Edison was just as full of fight and ambition to make it a success as +when he first started. + +"When this decision was reached Mr. Edison and I took the Jersey Central +train from Edison, bound for Orange, and I did not look forward to the +immediate future with any degree of confidence, as the concentrating +plant was heavily in debt, without any early prospect of being able +to pay off its indebtedness. On the train the matter of the future was +discussed, and Mr. Edison said that, inasmuch as we had the knowledge +gained from our experience in the concentrating problem, we must, if +possible, apply it to some practical use, and at the same time we must +work out some other plans by which we could make enough money to pay +off the Concentrating Company's indebtedness, Mr. Edison stating most +positively that no company with which he had personally been actively +connected had ever failed to pay its debts, and he did not propose to +have the Concentrating Company any exception. + +"In the discussion that followed he suggested several kinds of work +which he had in his mind, and which might prove profitable. We +figured carefully over the probabilities of financial returns from the +Phonograph Works and other enterprises, and after discussing many plans, +it was finally decided that we would apply the knowledge we had gained +in the concentrating plant by building a plant for manufacturing +Portland cement, and that Mr. Edison would devote his attention to the +developing of a storage battery which did not use lead and sulphuric +acid. So these two lines of work were taken up by Mr. Edison with just +as much enthusiasm and energy as is usual with him, the commercial +failure of the concentrating plant seeming not to affect his spirits +in any way. In fact, I have often been impressed strongly with the fact +that, during the dark days of the concentrating problem, Mr. Edison's +desire was very strong that the creditors of the Concentrating Works +should be paid in full; and only once did I hear him make any reference +to the financial loss which he himself made, and he then said: 'As +far as I am concerned, I can any time get a job at $75 per month as +a telegrapher, and that will amply take care of all my personal +requirements.' As already stated, however, he started in with the +maximum amount of enthusiasm and ambition, and in the course of about +three years we succeeded in paying off all the indebtedness of the +Concentrating Works, which amounted to several hundred thousand dollars. + +"As to the state of Mr. Edison's mind when the final decision was +reached to close down, if he was specially disappointed, there was +nothing in his manner to indicate it, his every thought being for the +future, and as to what could be done to pull us out of the financial +situation in which we found ourselves, and to take advantage of the +knowledge which we had acquired at so great a cost." + +It will have been gathered that the funds for this great experiment +were furnished largely by Edison. In fact, over two million dollars were +spent in the attempt. Edison's philosophic view of affairs is given in +the following anecdote from Mr. Mallory: "During the boom times of 1902, +when the old General Electric stock sold at its high-water mark of about +$330, Mr. Edison and I were on our way from the cement plant at New +Village, New Jersey, to his home at Orange. When we arrived at Dover, +New Jersey, we got a New York newspaper, and I called his attention to +the quotation of that day on General Electric. Mr. Edison then asked: +'If I hadn't sold any of mine, what would it be worth to-day?' and after +some figuring I replied: 'Over four million dollars.' When Mr. Edison +is thinking seriously over a problem he is in the habit of pulling his +right eyebrow, which he did now for fifteen or twenty seconds. Then his +face lighted up, and he said: 'Well, it's all gone, but we had a hell of +a good time spending it.'" With which revelation of an attitude worthy +of Mark Tapley himself, this chapter may well conclude. + + + +CHAPTER XX + +EDISON PORTLAND CEMENT + +NEW developments in recent years have been more striking than the +general adoption of cement for structural purposes of all kinds in +the United States; or than the increase in its manufacture here. As +a material for the construction of office buildings, factories, and +dwellings, it has lately enjoyed an extraordinary vogue; yet every +indication is confirmatory of the belief that such use has barely begun. +Various reasons may be cited, such as the growing scarcity of wood, once +the favorite building material in many parts of the country, and the +increasing dearness of brick and stone. The fact remains, indisputable, +and demonstrated flatly by the statistics of production. In 1902 the +American output of cement was placed at about 21,000,000 barrels, +valued at over $17,000,000. In 1907 the production is given as nearly +49,000,000 barrels. Here then is an industry that doubled in five years. +The average rate of industrial growth in the United States is 10 per +cent. a year, or doubling every ten years. It is a singular fact that +electricity also so far exceeds the normal rate as to double in value +and quantity of output and investment every five years. There is perhaps +more than ordinary coincidence in the association of Edison with two +such active departments of progress. + +As a purely manufacturing business the general cement industry is one +of even remote antiquity, and if Edison had entered into it merely as +a commercial enterprise by following paths already so well trodden, the +fact would hardly have been worthy of even passing notice. It is not in +his nature, however, to follow a beaten track except in regard to the +recognition of basic principles; so that while the manufacture of Edison +Portland cement embraces the main essentials and familiar processes of +cement-making, such as crushing, drying, mixing, roasting, and grinding, +his versatility and originality, as exemplified in the conception and +introduction of some bold and revolutionary methods and devices, have +resulted in raising his plant from the position of an outsider to the +rank of the fifth largest producer in the United States, in the short +space of five years after starting to manufacture. + +Long before his advent in cement production, Edison had held very +pronounced views on the value of that material as the one which would +obtain largely for future building purposes on account of its stability. +More than twenty-five years ago one of the writers of this narrative +heard him remark during a discussion on ancient buildings: "Wood will +rot, stone will chip and crumble, bricks disintegrate, but a cement and +iron structure is apparently indestructible. Look at some of the old +Roman baths. They are as solid as when they were built." With such +convictions, and the vast fund of practical knowledge and experience he +had gained at Edison in the crushing and manipulation of large masses of +magnetic iron ore during the preceding nine years, it is not surprising +that on that homeward railway journey, mentioned at the close of the +preceding chapter, he should have decided to go into the manufacture +of cement, especially in view of the enormous growth of its use for +structural purposes during recent times. + +The field being a new one to him, Edison followed his usual course of +reading up every page of authoritative literature on the subject, and +seeking information from all quarters. In the mean time, while he was +busy also with his new storage battery, Mr. Mallory, who had been hard +at work on the cement plan, announced that he had completed arrangements +for organizing a company with sufficient financial backing to carry on +the business; concluding with the remark that it was now time to engage +engineers to lay out the plant. Edison replied that he intended to +do that himself, and invited Mr. Mallory to go with him to one of the +draughting-rooms on an upper floor of the laboratory. + +Here he placed a large sheet of paper on a draughting-table, and +immediately began to draw out a plan of the proposed works, continuing +all day and away into the evening, when he finished; thus completing +within the twenty-four hours the full lay-out of the entire plant as +it was subsequently installed, and as it has substantially remained +in practical use to this time. It will be granted that this was a +remarkable engineering feat, especially in view of the fact that Edison +was then a new-comer in the cement business, and also that if the +plant were to be rebuilt to-day, no vital change would be desirable +or necessary. In that one day's planning every part was considered and +provided for, from the crusher to the packing-house. From one end to the +other, the distance over which the plant stretches in length is about +half a mile, and through the various buildings spread over this space +there passes, automatically, in course of treatment, a vast quantity +of material resulting in the production of upward of two and a quarter +million pounds of finished cement every twenty-four hours, seven days in +the week. + +In that one day's designing provision was made not only for all +important parts, but minor details, such, for instance, as the carrying +of all steam, water, and air pipes, and electrical conductors in a large +subway running from one end of the plant to the other; and, an oiling +system for the entire works. This latter deserves special mention, not +only because of its arrangement for thorough lubrication, but also on +account of the resultant economy affecting the cost of manufacture. + +Edison has strong convictions on the liberal use of lubricants, but +argued that in the ordinary oiling of machinery there is great waste, +while much dirt is conveyed into the bearings. He therefore planned +a system by which the ten thousand bearings in the plant are oiled +automatically; requiring the services of only two men for the entire +work. This is accomplished by a central pumping and filtering plant +and the return of the oil from all parts of the works by gravity. Every +bearing is made dust-proof, and is provided with two interior pipes. One +is above and the other below the bearing. The oil flows in through the +upper pipe, and, after lubricating the shaft, flows out through the +lower pipe back to the pumping station, where any dirt is filtered out +and the oil returned to circulation. While this system of oiling is +not unique, it was the first instance of its adaptation on so large and +complete a scale, and illustrates the far-sightedness of his plans. + +In connection with the adoption of this lubricating system there +occurred another instance of his knowledge of materials and intuitive +insight into the nature of things. He thought that too frequent +circulation of a comparatively small quantity of oil would, to some +extent, impair its lubricating qualities, and requested his assistants +to verify this opinion by consultation with competent authorities. On +making inquiry of the engineers of the Standard Oil Company, his theory +was fully sustained. Hence, provision was made for carrying a large +stock of oil, and for giving a certain period of rest to that already +used. + +A keen appreciation of ultimate success in the production of a fine +quality of cement led Edison to provide very carefully in his original +scheme for those details that he foresaw would become requisite--such, +for instance, as ample stock capacity for raw materials and their +automatic delivery in the various stages of manufacture, as well +as mixing, weighing, and frequent sampling and analyzing during the +progress through the mills. This provision even included the details of +the packing-house, and his perspicacity in this case is well sustained +from the fact that nine years afterward, in anticipation of building an +additional packing-house, the company sent a representative to different +parts of the country to examine the systems used by manufacturers in +the packing of large quantities of various staple commodities involving +somewhat similar problems, and found that there was none better than +that devised before the cement plant was started. Hence, the order was +given to build the new packing-house on lines similar to those of the +old one. + +Among the many innovations appearing in this plant are two that stand +out in bold relief as indicating the large scale by which Edison +measures his ideas. One of these consists of the crushing and grinding +machinery, and the other of the long kilns. In the preceding chapter +there has been given a description of the giant rolls, by means of which +great masses of rock, of which individual pieces may weigh eight or more +tons, are broken and reduced to about a fourteen-inch size. The economy +of this is apparent when it is considered that in other cement plants +the limit of crushing ability is "one-man size"--that is, pieces not too +large for one man to lift. + +The story of the kiln, as told by Mr. Mallory, is illustrative of +Edison's tendency to upset tradition and make a radical departure from +generally accepted ideas. "When Mr. Edison first decided to go into +the cement business, it was on the basis of his crushing-rolls and air +separation, and he had every expectation of installing duplicates of the +kilns which were then in common use for burning cement. These kilns were +usually made of boiler iron, riveted, and were about sixty feet long and +six feet in diameter, and had a capacity of about two hundred barrels of +cement clinker in twenty-four hours. + +"When the detail plans for our plant were being drawn, Mr. Edison and I +figured over the coal capacity and coal economy of the sixty-foot kiln, +and each time thought that both could he materially bettered. After +having gone over this matter several times, he said: 'I believe I +can make a kiln which will give an output of one thousand barrels in +twenty-four hours.' Although I had then been closely associated with him +for ten years and was accustomed to see him accomplish great things, I +could not help feeling the improbability of his being able to jump into +an old-established industry--as a novice--and start by improving the +'heart' of the production so as to increase its capacity 400 per +cent. When I pressed him for an explanation, he was unable to give any +definite reasons, except that he felt positive it could be done. In this +connection let me say that very many times I have heard Mr. Edison make +predictions as to what a certain mechanical device ought to do in the +way of output and costs, when his statements did not seem to be even +among the possibilities. Subsequently, after more or less experience, +these predictions have been verified, and I cannot help coming to the +conclusion that he has a faculty, not possessed by the average mortal, +of intuitively and correctly sizing up mechanical and commercial +possibilities. + +"But, returning to the kiln, Mr. Edison went to work immediately and +very soon completed the design of a new type which was to be one hundred +and fifty feet long and nine feet in diameter, made up in ten-foot +sections of cast iron bolted together and arranged to be revolved +on fifteen bearings. He had a wooden model made and studied it +very carefully, through a series of experiments. These resulted so +satisfactorily that this form was finally decided upon, and ultimately +installed as part of the plant. + +"Well, for a year or so the kiln problem was a nightmare to me. When we +started up the plant experimentally, and the long kiln was first put in +operation, an output of about four hundred barrels in twenty-four hours +was obtained. Mr. Edison was more than disappointed at this result. His +terse comment on my report was: 'Rotten. Try it again.' When we became a +little more familiar with the operation of the kiln we were able to +get the output up to about five hundred and fifty barrels, and a little +later to six hundred and fifty barrels per day. I would go down to +Orange and report with a great deal of satisfaction the increase in +output, but Mr. Edison would apparently be very much disappointed, and +often said to me that the trouble was not with the kiln, but with our +method of operating it; and he would reiterate his first statement that +it would make one thousand barrels in twenty-four hours. + +"Each time I would return to the plant with the determination to +increase the output if possible, and we did increase it to seven +hundred and fifty, then to eight hundred and fifty barrels. Every time I +reported these increases Mr. Edison would still be disappointed. I said +to him several times that if he was so sure the kiln could turn out one +thousand barrels in twenty-four hours we would be very glad to have him +tell us how to do it, and that we would run it in any way he directed. +He replied that he did not know what it was that kept the output down, +but he was just as confident as ever that the kiln would make one +thousand barrels per day, and that if he had time to work with and watch +the kiln it would not take him long to find out the reasons why. He had +made a number of suggestions throughout these various trials, however, +and, as we continued to operate, we learned additional points in +handling, and were able to get the output up to nine hundred barrels, +then one thousand, and finally to over eleven hundred barrels per day, +thus more than realizing the prediction made by Mr. Edison before even +the plans were drawn. It is only fair to say, however, that prolonged +experience has led us to the conclusion that the maximum economy in +continuous operation of these kilns is obtained by working them at a +little less than their maximum capacity. + +"It is interesting to note, in connection with the Edison type of kiln, +that when the older cement manufacturers first learned of it, they +ridiculed the idea universally, and were not slow to predict our early +'finish' as cement manufacturers. The ultimate success of the kiln, +however, proved their criticisms to be unwarranted. Once aware of +its possibility, some of the cement manufacturers proceeded to avail +themselves of the innovation (at first without Mr. Edison's consent), +and to-day more than one-half of the Portland cement produced in this +country is made in kilns of the Edison type. Old plants are lengthening +their kilns wherever practicable, and no wide-awake manufacturer +building a modern plant could afford to install other than these long +kilns. This invention of Mr. Edison has been recognized by the larger +cement manufacturers, and there is every prospect now that the entire +trade will take licenses under his kiln patents." + +When he decided to go into the cement business, Edison was +thoroughly awake to the fact that he was proposing to "butt into" an +old-established industry, in which the principal manufacturers +were concerns of long standing. He appreciated fully its inherent +difficulties, not only in manufacture, but also in the marketing of the +product. These considerations, together with his long-settled principle +of striving always to make the best, induced him at the outset to study +methods of producing the highest quality of product. Thus he was led to +originate innovations in processes, some of which have been preserved +as trade secrets; but of the others there are two deserving special +notice--namely, the accuracy of mixing and the fineness of grinding. + +In cement-making, generally speaking, cement rock and limestone in +the rough are mixed together in such relative quantities as may be +determined upon in advance by chemical analysis. In many plants this +mixture is made by barrow or load units, and may be more or less +accurate. Rule-of-thumb methods are never acceptable to Edison, and he +devised therefore a system of weighing each part of the mixture, so +that it would be correct to a pound, and, even at that, made the device +"fool-proof," for as he observed to one of his associates: "The man at +the scales might get to thinking of the other fellow's best girl, so +fifty or a hundred pounds of rock, more or less, wouldn't make much +difference to him." The Edison checking plan embraces two hoppers +suspended above two platform scales whose beams are electrically +connected with a hopper-closing device by means of needles dipping into +mercury cups. The scales are set according to the chemist's weighing +orders, and the material is fed into the scales from the hoppers. The +instant the beam tips, the connection is broken and the feed stops +instantly, thus rendering it impossible to introduce any more material +until the charge has been unloaded. + +The fine grinding of cement clinker is distinctively Edisonian in +both origin and application. As has been already intimated, its author +followed a thorough course of reading on the subject long before +reaching the actual projection or installation of a plant, and he had +found all authorities to agree on one important point--namely, that the +value of cement depends upon the fineness to which it is ground. [16] He +also ascertained that in the trade the standard of fineness was that 75 +per cent. of the whole mass would pass through a 200-mesh screen. Having +made some improvements in his grinding and screening apparatus, and +believing that in the future engineers, builders, and contractors +would eventually require a higher degree of fineness, he determined, in +advance of manufacturing, to raise the standard ten points, so that at +least 85 per cent. of his product should pass through a 200-mesh screen. +This was a bold step to be taken by a new-comer, but his judgment, +backed by a full confidence in ability to live up to this standard, has +been fully justified in its continued maintenance, despite the early +incredulity of older manufacturers as to the possibility of attaining +such a high degree of fineness. + + [Footnote 16: For a proper understanding and full + appreciation of the importance of fine grinding, it may be + explained that Portland cement (as manufactured in the + Lehigh Valley) is made from what is commonly spoken of as + "cement rock," with the addition of sufficient limestone to + give the necessary amount of lime. The rock is broken down + and then ground to a fineness of 80 to 90 per cent. through + a 200-mesh screen. This ground material passes through kilns + and comes out in "clinker." This is ground and that part of + this finely ground clinker that will pass a 200-mesh screen + is cement; the residue is still clinker. These coarse + particles, or clinkers, absorb water very slowly, are + practically inert, and have very feeble cementing + properties. The residue on a 200-mesh screen is useless.] + +If Edison measured his happiness, as men often do, by merely commercial +or pecuniary rewards of success, it would seem almost redundant to state +that he has continued to manifest an intense interest in the cement +plant. Ordinarily, his interest as an inventor wanes in proportion to +the approach to mere commercialism--in other words, the keenness of his +pleasure is in overcoming difficulties rather than the mere piling up of +a bank account. He is entirely sensible of the advantages arising from +a good balance at the banker's, but that has not been the goal of his +ambition. Hence, although his cement enterprise reached the commercial +stage a long time ago, he has been firmly convinced of his own ability +to devise still further improvements and economical processes of greater +or less fundamental importance, and has, therefore, made a constant +study of the problem as a whole and in all its parts. By means of +frequent reports, aided by his remarkable memory, he keeps in as close +touch with the plant as if he were there in person every day, and +is thus enabled to suggest improvement in any particular detail. The +engineering force has a great respect for the accuracy of his knowledge +of every part of the plant, for he remembers the dimensions and details +of each item of machinery, sometimes to the discomfiture of those who +are around it every day. + +A noteworthy instance of Edison's memory occurred in connection with +this cement plant. Some years ago, as its installation was nearing +completion, he went up to look it over and satisfy himself as to what +needed to be done. On the arrival of the train at 10.40 in the morning, +he went to the mill, and, with Mr. Mason, the general superintendent, +started at the crusher at one end, and examined every detail all the way +through to the packing-house at the other end. He made neither notes nor +memoranda, but the examination required all the day, which happened to +be a Saturday. He took a train for home at 5.30 in the afternoon, and on +arriving at his residence at Orange, got out some note-books and began +to write entirely from memory each item consecutively. He continued +at this task all through Saturday night, and worked steadily on until +Sunday afternoon, when he completed a list of nearly six hundred items. +The nature of this feat is more appreciable from the fact that a large +number of changes included all the figures of new dimensions he had +decided upon for some of the machinery throughout the plant. + +As the reader may have a natural curiosity to learn whether or not the +list so made was practical, it may be stated that it was copied and +sent up to the general superintendent with instructions to make the +modifications suggested, and report by numbers as they were attended to. +This was faithfully done, all the changes being made before the plant +was put into operation. Subsequent experience has amply proven the value +of Edison's prescience at this time. + +Although Edison's achievements in the way of improved processes and +machinery have already made a deep impression in the cement industry, +it is probable that this impression will become still more profoundly +stamped upon it in the near future with the exploitation of his "Poured +Cement House." The broad problem which he set himself was to provide +handsome and practically indestructible detached houses, which could be +taken by wage-earners at very moderate monthly rentals. He turned +this question over in his mind for several years, and arrived at the +conclusion that a house cast in one piece would be the answer. To +produce such a house involved the overcoming of many engineering and +other technical difficulties. These he attacked vigorously and disposed +of patiently one by one. + +In this connection a short anecdote may be quoted from Edison as +indicative of one of the influences turning his thoughts in this +direction. In the story of the ore-milling work, it has been noted that +the plant was shut down owing to the competition of the cheap ore +from the Mesaba Range. Edison says: "When I shut down, the insurance +companies cancelled my insurance. I asked the reason why. 'Oh,' they +said, 'this thing is a failure. The moral risk is too great.' 'All +right; I am glad to hear it. I will now construct buildings that won't +have any moral risk.' I determined to go into the Portland cement +business. I organized a company and started cement-works which have +now been running successfully for several years. I had so perfected the +machinery in trying to get my ore costs down that the making of cheap +cement was an easy matter to me. I built these works entirely of +concrete and steel, so that there is not a wagon-load of lumber in them; +and so that the insurance companies would not have any possibility of +having any 'moral risk.' Since that time I have put up numerous factory +buildings all of steel and concrete, without any combustible whatever +about them--to avoid this 'moral risk.' I am carrying further the +application of this idea in building private houses for poor people, in +which there will be no 'moral risk' at all--nothing whatever to burn, +not even by lightning." + +As a casting necessitates a mold, together with a mixture sufficiently +fluid in its nature to fill all the interstices completely, Edison +devoted much attention to an extensive series of experiments for +producing a free-flowing combination of necessary materials. His +proposition was against all precedent. All expert testimony pointed to +the fact that a mixture of concrete (cement, sand, crushed stone, and +water) could not be made to flow freely to the smallest parts of an +intricate set of molds; that the heavy parts of the mixture could not +be held in suspension, but would separate out by gravity and make +an unevenly balanced structure; that the surface would be full of +imperfections, etc. + +Undeterred by the unanimity of adverse opinions, however, he pursued his +investigations with the thorough minuteness that characterizes all his +laboratory work, and in due time produced a mixture which on elaborate +test overcame all objections and answered the complex requirements +perfectly, including the making of a surface smooth, even, and entirely +waterproof. All the other engineering problems have received study in +like manner, and have been overcome, until at the present writing the +whole question is practically solved and has been reduced to actual +practice. The Edison poured or cast cement house may be reckoned as a +reality. + +The general scheme, briefly outlined, is to prepare a model and plans of +the house to be cast, and then to design a set of molds in sections of +convenient size. When all is ready, these molds, which are of cast iron +with smooth interior surfaces, are taken to the place where the house +is to be erected. Here there has been provided a solid concrete cellar +floor, technically called "footing." The molds are then locked together +so that they rest on this footing. Hundreds of pieces are necessary for +the complete set. When they have been completely assembled, there will +be a hollow space in the interior, representing the shape of the house. +Reinforcing rods are also placed in the molds, to be left behind in the +finished house. + +Next comes the pouring of the concrete mixture into this form. Large +mechanical mixers are used, and, as it is made, the mixture is dumped +into tanks, from which it is conveyed to a distributing tank on the top, +or roof, of the form. From this tank a large number of open troughs or +pipes lead the mixture to various openings in the roof, whence it flows +down and fills all parts of the mold from the footing in the basement +until it overflows at the tip of the roof. + +The pouring of the entire house is accomplished in about six hours, +and then the molds are left undisturbed for six days, in order that the +concrete may set and harden. After that time the work of taking away +the molds is begun. This requires three or four days. When the molds are +taken away an entire house is disclosed, cast in one piece, from cellar +to tip of roof, complete with floors, interior walls, stairways, bath +and laundry tubs, electric-wire conduits, gas, water, and heating pipes. +No plaster is used anywhere; but the exterior and interior walls +are smooth and may be painted or tinted, if desired. All that is +now necessary is to put in the windows, doors, heater, and lighting +fixtures, and to connect up the plumbing and heating arrangements, thus +making the house ready for occupancy. + +As these iron molds are not ephemeral like the wooden framing now used +in cement construction, but of practically illimitable life, it is +obvious that they can be used a great number of times. A complete set +of molds will cost approximately $25,000, while the necessary plant +will cost about $15,000 more. It is proposed to work as a unit plant for +successful operation at least six sets of molds, to keep the men busy +and the machinery going. Any one, with a sheet of paper, can ascertain +the yearly interest on the investment as a fixed charge to be assessed +against each house, on the basis that one hundred and forty-four houses +can be built in a year with the battery of six sets of molds. Putting +the sum at $175,000, and the interest at 6 per cent. on the cost of the +molds and 4 per cent. for breakage, together with 6 per cent. interest +and 15 per cent. depreciation on machinery, the plant charge is +approximately $140 per house. It does not require a particularly acute +prophetic vision to see "Flower Towns" of "Poured Houses" going up in +whole suburbs outside all our chief centres of population. + +Edison's conception of the workingman's ideal house has been a broad +one from the very start. He was not content merely to provide a roomy, +moderately priced house that should be fireproof, waterproof, and +vermin-proof, and practically indestructible, but has been solicitous +to get away from the idea of a plain "packing-box" type. He has also +provided for ornamentation of a high class in designing the details of +the structure. As he expressed it: "We will give the workingman and his +family ornamentation in their house. They deserve it, and besides, it +costs no more after the pattern is made to give decorative effects than +it would to make everything plain." The plans have provided for a type +of house that would cost not far from $30,000 if built of cut stone. He +gave to Messrs. Mann & McNaillie, architects, New York, his idea of +the type of house he wanted. On receiving these plans he changed them +considerably, and built a model. After making many more changes in this +while in the pattern shop, he produced a house satisfactory to himself. + +This one-family house has a floor plan twenty-five by thirty feet, and +is three stories high. The first floor is divided off into two large +rooms--parlor and living-room--and the upper floors contain four large +bedrooms, a roomy bath-room, and wide halls. The front porch extends +eight feet, and the back porch three feet. A cellar seven and a half +feet high extends under the whole house, and will contain the boiler, +wash-tubs, and coal-bunker. It is intended that the house shall be built +on lots forty by sixty feet, giving a lawn and a small garden. + +It is contemplated that these houses shall be built in industrial +communities, where they can be put up in groups of several hundred. If +erected in this manner, and by an operator buying his materials in large +quantities, Edison believes that these houses can be erected complete, +including heating apparatus and plumbing, for $1200 each. This figure +would also rest on the basis of using in the mixture the gravel +excavated on the site. Comment has been made by persons of artistic +taste on the monotony of a cluster of houses exactly alike in +appearance, but this criticism has been anticipated, and the molds are +so made as to be capable of permutations of arrangement. Thus it will +be possible to introduce almost endless changes in the style of house by +variation of the same set of molds. + +For more than forty years Edison was avowedly an inventor for purely +commercial purposes; but within the last two years he decided to retire +from that field so far as new inventions were concerned, and to devote +himself to scientific research and experiment in the leisure hours +that might remain after continuing to improve his existing devices. +But although the poured cement house was planned during the commercial +period, the spirit in which it was conceived arose out of an earnest +desire to place within the reach of the wage-earner an opportunity to +better his physical, pecuniary, and mental conditions in so far as that +could be done through the medium of hygienic and beautiful homes at +moderate rentals. From the first Edison has declared that it was not +his intention to benefit pecuniarily through the exploitation of this +project. Having actually demonstrated the practicability and feasibility +of his plans, he will allow responsible concerns to carry them into +practice under such limitations as may be necessary to sustain the basic +object, but without any payment to him except for the actual expense +incurred. The hypercritical may cavil and say that, as a manufacturer of +cement, Edison will be benefited. True, but as ANY good Portland cement +can be used, and no restrictions as to source of supply are enforced, +he, or rather his company, will be merely one of many possible +purveyors. + +This invention is practically a gift to the workingmen of the world +and their families. The net result will be that those who care to avail +themselves of the privilege may, sooner or later, forsake the +crowded apartment or tenement and be comfortably housed in sanitary, +substantial, and roomy homes fitted with modern conveniences, and +beautified by artistic decorations, with no outlay for insurance or +repairs; no dread of fire, and all at a rental which Edison believes +will be not more, but probably less than, $10 per month in any city +of the United States. While his achievement in its present status will +bring about substantial and immediate benefits to wage-earners, his +thoughts have already travelled some years ahead in the formulation of a +still further beneficial project looking toward the individual ownership +of these houses on a basis startling in its practical possibilities. + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +MOTION PICTURES + +THE preceding chapters have treated of Edison in various aspects as an +inventor, some of which are familiar to the public, others of which are +believed to be in the nature of a novel revelation, simply because no +one had taken the trouble before to put the facts together. To those +who have perhaps grown weary of seeing Edison's name in articles of +a sensational character, it may sound strange to say that, after all, +justice has not been done to his versatile and many-sided nature; and +that the mere prosaic facts of his actual achievement outrun the wildest +flights of irrelevant journalistic imagination. Edison hates nothing +more than to be dubbed a genius or played up as a "wizard"; but this +fate has dogged him until he has come at last to resign himself to it +with a resentful indignation only to be appreciated when watching +him read the latest full-page Sunday "spread" that develops a casual +conversation into oracular verbosity, and gives to his shrewd surmise +the cast of inspired prophecy. + +In other words, Edison's real work has seldom been seriously discussed. +Rather has it been taken as a point of departure into a realm of fancy +and romance, where as a relief from drudgery he is sometimes quite +willing to play the pipe if some one will dance to it. Indeed, the +stories woven around his casual suggestions are tame and vapid alongside +his own essays in fiction, probably never to be published, but which +show what a real inventor can do when he cuts loose to create a new +heaven and a new earth, unrestrained by any formal respect for existing +conditions of servitude to three dimensions and the standard elements. + +The present chapter, essentially technical in its subject-matter, is +perhaps as significant as any in this biography, because it presents +Edison as the Master Impresario of his age, and maybe of many following +ages also. His phonographs and his motion pictures have more audiences +in a week than all the theatres in America in a year. The "Nickelodeon" +is the central fact in modern amusement, and Edison founded it. All that +millions know of music and drama he furnishes; and the whole study of +the theatrical managers thus reaching the masses is not to ascertain the +limitations of the new art, but to discover its boundless possibilities. +None of the exuberant versions of things Edison has not done could +endure for a moment with the simple narrative of what he has really done +as the world's new Purveyor of Pleasure. And yet it all depends on +the toilful conquest of a subtle and intricate art. The story of the +invention of the phonograph has been told. That of the evolution of +motion pictures follows. It is all one piece of sober, careful analysis, +and stubborn, successful attack on the problem. + +The possibility of making a record of animate movement, and subsequently +reproducing it, was predicted long before the actual accomplishment. +This, as we have seen, was also the case with the phonograph, the +telephone, and the electric light. As to the phonograph, the prediction +went only so far as the RESULT; the apparent intricacy of the problem +being so great that the MEANS for accomplishing the desired end +were seemingly beyond the grasp of the imagination or the mastery of +invention. + +With the electric light and the telephone the prediction included not +only the result to be accomplished, but, in a rough and general way, +the mechanism itself; that is to say, long before a single sound was +intelligibly transmitted it was recognized that such a thing might be +done by causing a diaphragm, vibrated by original sounds, to communicate +its movements to a distant diaphragm by a suitably controlled electric +current. In the case of the electric light, the heating of a conductor +to incandescence in a highly rarefied atmosphere was suggested as a +scheme of illumination long before its actual accomplishment, and +in fact before the production of a suitable generator for delivering +electric current in a satisfactory and economical manner. + +It is a curious fact that while the modern art of motion pictures +depends essentially on the development of instantaneous photography, +the suggestion of the possibility of securing a reproduction of animate +motion, as well as, in a general way, of the mechanism for accomplishing +the result, was made many years before the instantaneous photograph +became possible. While the first motion picture was not actually +produced until the summer of 1889, its real birth was almost a century +earlier, when Plateau, in France, constructed an optical toy, to which +the impressive name of "Phenakistoscope" was applied, for producing an +illusion of motion. This toy in turn was the forerunner of the Zoetrope, +or so-called "Wheel of Life," which was introduced into this country +about the year 1845. These devices were essentially toys, depending for +their successful operation (as is the case with motion pictures) upon +a physiological phenomenon known as persistence of vision. If, for +instance, a bright light is moved rapidly in front of the eye in a dark +room, it appears not as an illuminated spark, but as a line of fire; +a so-called shooting star, or a flash of lightning produces the same +effect. This result is purely physiological, and is due to the fact +that the retina of the eye may be considered as practically a sensitized +plate of relatively slow speed, and an image impressed upon it remains, +before being effaced, for a period of from one-tenth to one-seventh of +a second, varying according to the idiosyncrasies of the individual and +the intensity of the light. When, therefore, it is said that we should +only believe things we actually see, we ought to remember that in almost +every instance we never see things as they are. + +Bearing in mind the fact that when an image is impressed on the human +retina it persists for an appreciable period, varying as stated, +with the individual, and depending also upon the intensity of the +illumination, it will be seen that, if a number of pictures or +photographs are successively presented to the eye, they will appear as +a single, continuous photograph, provided the periods between them are +short enough to prevent one of the photographs from being effaced before +its successor is presented. If, for instance, a series of identical +portraits were rapidly presented to the eye, a single picture would +apparently be viewed, or if we presented to the eye the series +of photographs of a moving object, each one representing a minute +successive phase of the movement, the movements themselves would +apparently again take place. + +With the Zoetrope and similar toys rough drawings were used for +depicting a few broadly outlined successive phases of movement, because +in their day instantaneous photography was unknown, and in addition +there were certain crudities of construction that seriously interfered +with the illumination of the pictures, rendering it necessary to make +them practically as silhouettes on a very conspicuous background. +Hence it will be obvious that these toys produced merely an ILLUSION of +THEORETICAL motion. + +But with the knowledge of even an illusion of motion, and with the +philosophy of persistence of vision fully understood, it would +seem that, upon the development of instantaneous photography, the +reproduction of ACTUAL motion by means of pictures would have followed, +almost as a necessary consequence. Yet such was not the case, and +success was ultimately accomplished by Edison only after persistent +experimenting along lines that could not have been predicted, including +the construction of apparatus for the purpose, which, if it had not been +made, would undoubtedly be considered impossible. In fact, if it were +not for Edison's peculiar mentality, that refuses to recognize anything +as impossible until indubitably demonstrated to be so, the production of +motion pictures would certainly have been delayed for years, if not for +all time. + +One of the earliest suggestions of the possibility of utilizing +photography for exhibiting the illusion of actual movement was made by +Ducos, who, as early as 1864, obtained a patent in France, in which +he said: "My invention consists in substituting rapidly and without +confusion to the eye not only of an individual, but when so desired of a +whole assemblage, the enlarged images of a great number of pictures when +taken instantaneously and successively at very short intervals.... +The observer will believe that he sees only one image, which changes +gradually by reason of the successive changes of form and position of +the objects which occur from one picture to the other. Even supposing +that there be a slight interval of time during which the same object was +not shown, the persistence of the luminous impression upon the eye +will fill this gap. There will be as it were a living representation of +nature and . . . the same scene will be reproduced upon the screen with +the same degree of animation.... By means of my apparatus I am enabled +especially to reproduce the passing of a procession, a review of +military manoeuvres, the movements of a battle, a public fete, a +theatrical scene, the evolution or the dances of one or of several +persons, the changing expression of countenance, or, if one desires, +the grimaces of a human face; a marine view, the motion of waves, +the passage of clouds in a stormy sky, particularly in a mountainous +country, the eruption of a volcano," etc. + +Other dreamers, contemporaries of Ducos, made similar suggestions; they +recognized the scientific possibility of the problem, but they were +irretrievably handicapped by the shortcomings of photography. Even when +substantially instantaneous photographs were evolved at a somewhat +later date they were limited to the use of wet plates, which have to be +prepared by the photographer and used immediately, and were therefore +quite out of the question for any practical commercial scheme. Besides +this, the use of plates would have been impracticable, because the +limitations of their weight and size would have prevented the taking +of a large number of pictures at a high rate of speed, even if the +sensitized surface had been sufficiently rapid. + +Nothing ever came of Ducos' suggestions and those of the early dreamers +in this essentially practical and commercial art, and their ideas +have made no greater impress upon the final result than Jules Verne's +Nautilus of our boyhood days has developed the modern submarine. From +time to time further suggestions were made, some in patents, and others +in photographic and scientific publications, all dealing with the +fascinating thought of preserving and representing actual scenes and +events. The first serious attempt to secure an illusion of motion by +photography was made in 1878 by Edward Muybridge as a result of a +wager with the late Senator Leland Stanford, the California pioneer +and horse-lover, who had asserted, contrary to the usual belief, that +a trotting-horse at one point in its gait left the ground entirely. At +this time wet plates of very great rapidity were known, and by arranging +a series of cameras along the line of a track and causing the horse +in trotting past them, by striking wires or strings attached to the +shutters, to actuate the cameras at the right instant, a series of very +clear instantaneous photographs was obtained. From these negatives, +when developed, positive prints were made, which were later mounted on a +modified form of Zoetrope and projected upon a screen. + +One of these early exhibitions is described in the Scientific American +of June 5, 1880: "While the separate photographs had shown the +successive positions of a trotting or running horse in making a single +stride, the Zoogyroscope threw upon the screen apparently the living +animal. Nothing was wanting but the clatter of hoofs upon the turf, and +an occasional breath of steam from the nostrils, to make the spectator +believe that he had before him genuine flesh-and-blood steeds. In the +views of hurdle-leaping, the simulation was still more admirable, even +to the motion of the tail as the animal gathered for the jump, the +raising of his head, all were there. Views of an ox trotting, a wild +bull on the charge, greyhounds and deer running and birds flying in +mid-air were shown, also athletes in various positions." It must not be +assumed from this statement that even as late as the work of Muybridge +anything like a true illusion of movement had been obtained, because +such was not the case. Muybridge secured only one cycle of movement, +because a separate camera had to be used for each photograph and +consequently each cycle was reproduced over and over again. To have made +photographs of a trotting-horse for one minute at the moderate rate of +twelve per second would have required, under the Muybridge scheme, seven +hundred and twenty separate cameras, whereas with the modern art only a +single camera is used. A further defect with the Muybridge pictures was +that since each photograph was secured when the moving object was in the +centre of the plate, the reproduction showed the object always centrally +on the screen with its arms or legs in violent movement, but not making +any progress, and with the scenery rushing wildly across the field of +view! + +In the early 80's the dry plate was first introduced into general +use, and from that time onward its rapidity and quality were gradually +improved; so much so that after 1882 Prof. E. J. Marey, of the French +Academy, who in 1874 had published a well-known treatise on "Animal +Movement," was able by the use of dry plates to carry forward the +experiments of Muybridge on a greatly refined scale. Marey was, however, +handicapped by reason of the fact that glass plates were still used, +although he was able with a single camera to obtain twelve photographs +on successive plates in the space of one second. Marey, like Muybridge, +photographed only one cycle of the movements of a single object, which +was subsequently reproduced over and over again, and the camera was in +the form of a gun, which could follow the object so that the successive +pictures would be always located in the centre of the plates. + +The review above given, as briefly as possible, comprises substantially +the sum of the world's knowledge at the time the problem of recording +and reproducing animate movement was first undertaken by Edison. The +most that could be said of the condition of the art when Edison +entered the field was that it had been recognized that if a series of +instantaneous photographs of a moving object could be secured at an +enormously high rate many times per second--they might be passed before +the eye either directly or by projection upon a screen, and thereby +result in a reproduction of the movements. Two very serious difficulties +lay in the way of actual accomplishment, however--first, the production +of a sensitive surface in such form and weight as to be capable of being +successively brought into position and exposed, at the necessarily high +rate; and, second, the production of a camera capable of so taking the +pictures. There were numerous other workers in the field, but they added +nothing to what had already been proposed. Edison himself knew nothing +of Ducos, or that the suggestions had advanced beyond the single +centrally located photographs of Muybridge and Marey. As a matter of +public policy, the law presumes that an inventor must be familiar with +all that has gone before in the field within which he is working, and +if a suggestion is limited to a patent granted in New South Wales, or +is described in a single publication in Brazil, an inventor in America, +engaged in the same field of thought, is by legal fiction presumed to +have knowledge not only of the existence of that patent or publication, +but of its contents. We say this not in the way of an apology for the +extent of Edison's contribution to the motion-picture art, because there +can be no question that he was as much the creator of that art as he +was of the phonographic art; but to show that in a practical sense the +suggestion of the art itself was original with him. He himself says: "In +the year 1887 the idea occurred to me that it was possible to devise an +instrument which should do for the eye what the phonograph does for the +ear, and that by a combination of the two, all motion and sound could +be recorded and reproduced simultaneously. This idea, the germ of which +came from the little toy called the Zoetrope and the work of Muybridge, +Marey, and others, has now been accomplished, so that every change +of facial expression can be recorded and reproduced life-size. The +kinetoscope is only a small model illustrating the present stage of the +progress, but with each succeeding month new possibilities are brought +into view. I believe that in coming years, by my own work and that +of Dickson, Muybridge, Marey, and others who will doubtless enter the +field, grand opera can be given at the Metropolitan Opera House at New +York without any material change from the original, and with artists and +musicians long since dead." + +In the earliest experiments attempts were made to secure the +photographs, reduced microscopically, arranged spirally on a cylinder +about the size of a phonograph record, and coated with a highly +sensitized surface, the cylinder being given an intermittent movement, +so as to be at rest during each exposure. Reproductions were obtained in +the same way, positive prints being observed through a magnifying glass. +Various forms of apparatus following this general type were made, +but they were all open to the serious objection that the very rapid +emulsions employed were relatively coarse-grained and prevented the +securing of sharp pictures of microscopic size. On the other hand, the +enlarging of the apparatus to permit larger pictures to be obtained +would present too much weight to be stopped and started with the +requisite rapidity. In these early experiments, however, it was +recognized that, to secure proper results, a single camera should be +used, so that the objects might move across its field just as they +move across the field of the human eye; and the important fact was +also observed that the rate at which persistence of vision took place +represented the minimum speed at which the pictures should be obtained. +If, for instance, five pictures per second were taken (half of the time +being occupied in exposure and the other half in moving the exposed +portion of the film out of the field of the lens and bringing a new +portion into its place), and the same ratio is observed in exhibiting +the pictures, the interval of time between successive pictures would +be one-tenth of a second; and for a normal eye such an exhibition would +present a substantially continuous photograph. If the angular movement +of the object across the field is very slow, as, for instance, a distant +vessel, the successive positions of the object are so nearly coincident +that when reproduced before the eye an impression of smooth, continuous +movement is secured. If, however, the object is moving rapidly across +the field of view, one picture will be separated from its successor to a +marked extent, and the resulting impression will be jerky and unnatural. +Recognizing this fact, Edison always sought for a very high speed, so as +to give smooth and natural reproductions, and even with his experimental +apparatus obtained upward of forty-eight pictures per second, whereas, +in practice, at the present time, the accepted rate varies between +twenty and thirty per second. In the efforts of the present day +to economize space by using a minimum length of film, pictures are +frequently taken at too slow a rate, and the reproductions are therefore +often objectionable, by reason of more or less jerkiness. + +During the experimental period and up to the early part of 1889, the +kodak film was being slowly developed by the Eastman Kodak Company. +Edison perceived in this product the solution of the problem on which he +had been working, because the film presented a very light body of tough +material on which relatively large photographs could be taken at rapid +intervals. The surface, however, was not at first sufficiently sensitive +to admit of sharply defined pictures being secured at the necessarily +high rates. It seemed apparent, therefore, that in order to obtain +the desired speed there would have to be sacrificed that fineness +of emulsion necessary for the securing of sharp pictures. But as was +subsequently seen, this sacrifice was in time rendered unnecessary. Much +credit is due the Eastman experts--stimulated and encouraged by Edison, +but independently of him--for the production at last of a highly +sensitized, fine-grained emulsion presenting the highly sensitized +surface that Edison sought. + +Having at last obtained apparently the proper material upon which to +secure the photographs, the problem then remained to devise an apparatus +by means of which from twenty to forty pictures per second could be +taken; the film being stationary during the exposure and, upon the +closing of the shutter, being moved to present a fresh surface. In +connection with this problem it is interesting to note that this +question of high speed was apparently regarded by all Edison's +predecessors as the crucial point. Ducos, for example, expended a great +deal of useless ingenuity in devising a camera by means of which a +tape-line film could receive the photographs while being in continuous +movement, necessitating the use of a series of moving lenses. Another +experimenter, Dumont, made use of a single large plate and a great +number of lenses which were successively exposed. Muybridge, as we have +seen, used a series of cameras, one for each plate. Marey was limited to +a very few photographs, because the entire surface had to be stopped and +started in connection with each exposure. + +After the accomplishment of the fact, it would seem to be the obvious +thing to use a single lens and move the sensitized film with respect to +it, intermittently bringing the surface to rest, then exposing it, then +cutting off the light and moving the surface to a fresh position; but +who, other than Edison, would assume that such a device could be made +to repeat these movements over and over again at the rate of twenty to +forty per second? Users of kodaks and other forms of film cameras will +appreciate perhaps better than others the difficulties of the problem, +because in their work, after an exposure, they have to advance the +film forward painfully to the extent of the next picture before another +exposure can take place, these operations permitting of speeds of but +a few pictures per minute at best. Edison's solution of the problem +involved the production of a kodak in which from twenty to forty +pictures should be taken IN EACH SECOND, and with such fineness of +adjustment that each should exactly coincide with its predecessors even +when subjected to the test of enlargement by projection. This, however, +was finally accomplished, and in the summer of 1889 the first modern +motion-picture camera was made. More than this, the mechanism for +operating the film was so constructed that the movement of the film took +place in one-tenth of the time required for the exposure, giving the +film an opportunity to come to rest prior to the opening of the shutter. +From that day to this the Edison camera has been the accepted standard +for securing pictures of objects in motion, and such changes as have +been made in it have been purely in the nature of detail mechanical +refinements. + +The earliest form of exhibiting apparatus, known as the Kinetoscope, was +a machine in which a positive print from the negative obtained in the +camera was exhibited directly to the eye through a peep-hole; but in +1895 the films were applied to modified forms of magic lanterns, by +which the images are projected upon a screen. Since that date the +industry has developed very rapidly, and at the present time (1910) all +of the principal American manufacturers of motion pictures are paying a +royalty to Edison under his basic patents. + +From the early days of pictures representing simple movements, such as +a man sneezing, or a skirt-dance, there has been a gradual evolution, +until now the pictures represent not only actual events in all their +palpitating instantaneity, but highly developed dramas and scenarios +enacted in large, well-equipped glass studios, and the result of +infinite pains and expense of production. These pictures are exhibited +in upward of eight thousand places of amusement in the United States, +and are witnessed by millions of people each year. They constitute a +cheap, clean form of amusement for many persons who cannot spare the +money to go to the ordinary theatres, or they may be exhibited in towns +that are too small to support a theatre. More than this, they offer +to the poor man an effective substitute for the saloon. Probably no +invention ever made has afforded more pleasure and entertainment than +the motion picture. + +Aside from the development of the motion picture as a spectacle, there +has gone on an evolution in its use for educational purposes of wide +range, which must not be overlooked. In fact, this form of utilization +has been carried further in Europe than in this country as a means of +demonstration in the arts and sciences. One may study animal life, watch +a surgical operation, follow the movement of machinery, take lessons +in facial expression or in calisthenics. It seems a pity that in motion +pictures should at last have been found the only competition that the +ancient marionettes cannot withstand. But aside from the disappearance +of those entertaining puppets, all else is gain in the creation of this +new art. + +The work at the Edison laboratory in the development of the motion +picture was as usual intense and concentrated, and, as might be +expected, many of the early experiments were quite primitive in +their character until command had been secured of relatively perfect +apparatus. The subjects registered jerkily by the films were crude and +amusing, such as of Fred Ott's sneeze, Carmencita dancing, Italians +and their performing bears, fencing, trapeze stunts, horsemanship, +blacksmithing--just simple movements without any attempt to portray the +silent drama. One curious incident of this early study occurred when +"Jim" Corbett was asked to box a few rounds in front of the camera, with +a "dark un" to be selected locally. This was agreed to, and a celebrated +bruiser was brought over from Newark. When this "sparring partner" came +to face Corbett in the imitation ring he was so paralyzed with terror +he could hardly move. It was just after Corbett had won one of his +big battles as a prize-fighter, and the dismay of his opponent was +excusable. The "boys" at the laboratory still laugh consumedly when they +tell about it. + +The first motion-picture studio was dubbed by the staff the "Black +Maria." It was an unpretentious oblong wooden structure erected in the +laboratory yard, and had a movable roof in the central part. This roof +could be raised or lowered at will. The building was covered with black +roofing paper, and was also painted black inside. There was no scenery +to render gay this lugubrious environment, but the black interior served +as the common background for the performers, throwing all their actions +into high relief. The whole structure was set on a pivot so that it +could be swung around with the sun; and the movable roof was opened +so that the accentuating sunlight could stream in upon the actor whose +gesticulations were being caught by the camera. These beginnings and +crudities are very remote from the elaborate and expensive paraphernalia +and machinery with which the art is furnished to-day. + +At the present time the studios in which motion pictures are taken are +expensive and pretentious affairs. An immense building of glass, with +all the properties and stage-settings of a regular theatre, is required. +The Bronx Park studio of the Edison company cost at least one hundred +thousand dollars, while the well-known house of Pathe Freres in +France--one of Edison's licensees--makes use of no fewer than seven of +these glass theatres. All of the larger producers of pictures in this +country and abroad employ regular stock companies of actors, men and +women selected especially for their skill in pantomime, although, as +most observers have perhaps suspected, in the actual taking of the +pictures the performers are required to carry on an animated and +prepared dialogue with the same spirit and animation as on the regular +stage. Before setting out on the preparation of a picture, the book is +first written--known in the business as a scenario--giving a complete +statement as to the scenery, drops and background, and the sequence of +events, divided into scenes as in an ordinary play. These are placed in +the hands of a "producer," corresponding to a stage-director, generally +an actor or theatrical man of experience, with a highly developed +dramatic instinct. The various actors are selected, parts are assigned, +and the scene-painters are set to work on the production of the +desired scenery. Before the photographing of a scene, a long series of +rehearsals takes place, the incidents being gone over and over again +until the actors are "letter perfect." So persistent are the producers +in the matter of rehearsals and the refining and elaboration of +details, that frequently a picture that may be actually photographed and +reproduced in fifteen minutes, may require two or three weeks for its +production. After the rehearsal of a scene has advanced sufficiently +to suit the critical requirements of the producer, the camera man is +in requisition, and he is consulted as to lighting so as to produce the +required photographic effect. Preferably, of course, sunlight is used +whenever possible, hence the glass studios; but on dark days, and when +night-work is necessary, artificial light of enormous candle-power +is used, either mercury arcs or ordinary arc lights of great size and +number. + +Under all conditions the light is properly screened and diffused to suit +the critical eye of the camera man. All being in readiness, the actual +picture is taken, the actors going through their rehearsed parts, the +producer standing out of the range of the camera, and with a megaphone +to his lips yelling out his instructions, imprecations, and approval, +and the camera man grinding at the crank of the camera and securing the +pictures at the rate of twenty or more per second, making a faithful +and permanent record of every movement and every change of facial +expression. At the end of the scene the negative is developed in the +ordinary way, and is then ready for use in the printing of the positives +for sale. When a further scene in the play takes place in the same +setting, and without regard to its position in the plot, it is taken +up, rehearsed, and photographed in the same way, and afterward all +the scenes are cemented together in the proper sequence, and form +the complete negative. Frequently, therefore, in the production of +a motion-picture play, the first and the last scene may be taken +successively, the only thing necessary being, of course, that after all +is done the various scenes should be arranged in their proper order. The +frames, having served their purpose, now go back to the scene-painter +for further use. All pictures are not taken in studios, because when +light and weather permit and proper surroundings can be secured outside, +scenes can best be obtained with natural scenery--city streets, woods, +and fields. The great drawback to the taking of pictures out-of-doors, +however, is the inevitable crowd, attracted by the novelty of the +proceedings, which makes the camera man's life a torment by getting into +the field of his instrument. The crowds are patient, however, and in one +Edison picture involving the blowing up of a bridge by the villain +of the piece and the substitution of a pontoon bridge by a company +of engineers just in time to allow the heroine to pass over in her +automobile, more than a thousand people stood around for almost an +entire day waiting for the tedious rehearsals to end and the actual +performance to begin. Frequently large bodies of men are used in +pictures, such as troops of soldiers, and it is an open secret that for +weeks during the Boer War regularly equipped British and Boer armies +confronted each other on the peaceful hills of Orange, New Jersey, ready +to enact before the camera the stirring events told by the cable from +the seat of hostilities. These conflicts were essentially harmless, +except in one case during the battle of Spion Kopje, when "General +Cronje," in his efforts to fire a wooden cannon, inadvertently dropped +his fuse into a large glass bottle containing gunpowder. The effect was +certainly most dramatic, and created great enthusiasm among the many +audiences which viewed the completed production; but the unfortunate +general, who is still an employee, was taken to the hospital, and even +now, twelve years afterward, he says with a grin that whenever he has a +moment of leisure he takes the time to pick a few pieces of glass from +his person! + +Edison's great contribution to the regular stage was the incandescent +electric lamp, which enabled the production of scenic effects +never before even dreamed of, but which we accept now with so much +complacency. Yet with the motion picture, effects are secured that +could not be reproduced to the slightest extent on the real stage. The +villain, overcome by a remorseful conscience, sees on the wall of the +room the very crime which he committed, with HIMSELF as the principal +actor; one of the easy effects of double exposure. The substantial and +ofttimes corpulent ghost or spirit of the real stage has been succeeded +by an intangible wraith, as transparent and unsubstantial as may be +demanded in the best book of fairy tales--more double exposure. A man +emerges from the water with a splash, ascends feet foremost ten yards or +more, makes a graceful curve and lands on a spring-board, runs down it +to the bank, and his clothes fly gently up from the ground and enclose +his person--all unthinkable in real life, but readily possible by +running the motion-picture film backward! The fairy prince commands the +princess to appear, consigns the bad brothers to instant annihilation, +turns the witch into a cat, confers life on inanimate things; and many +more startling and apparently incomprehensible effects are carried out +with actual reality, by stop-work photography. In one case, when the +command for the heroine to come forth is given, the camera is stopped, +the young woman walks to the desired spot, and the camera is again +started; the effect to the eye--not knowing of this little by-play--is +as if she had instantly appeared from space. The other effects are +perhaps obvious, and the field and opportunities are absolutely +unlimited. Other curious effects are secured by taking the pictures at a +different speed from that at which they are exhibited. If, for example, +a scene occupying thirty seconds is reproduced in ten seconds, the +movements will be three times as fast, and vice versa. Many scenes +familiar to the reader, showing automobiles tearing along the road and +rounding corners at an apparently reckless speed, are really pictures of +slow and dignified movements reproduced at a high speed. + +Brief reference has been made to motion pictures of educational +subjects, and in this field there are very great opportunities for +development. The study of geography, scenes and incidents in foreign +countries, showing the lives and customs and surroundings of other +peoples, is obviously more entertaining to the child when actively +depicted on the screen than when merely described in words. The lives of +great men, the enacting of important historical events, the reproduction +of great works of literature, if visually presented to the child must +necessarily impress his mind with greater force than if shown by mere +words. We predict that the time is not far distant when, in many of +our public schools, two or three hours a week will be devoted to this +rational and effective form of education. + +By applying microphotography to motion pictures an additional field +is opened up, one phase of which may be the study of germ life and +bacteria, so that our future medical students may become as familiar +with the habits and customs of the Anthrax bacillus, for example, as of +the domestic cat. + +From whatever point of view the subject is approached, the fact remains +that in the motion picture, perhaps more than with any other invention, +Edison has created an art that must always make a special appeal to the +mind and emotions of men, and although so far it has not advanced much +beyond the field of amusement, it contains enormous possibilities for +serious development in the future. Let us not think too lightly of the +humble five-cent theatre with its gaping crowd following with breathless +interest the vicissitudes of the beautiful heroine. Before us lies an +undeveloped land of opportunity which is destined to play an important +part in the growth and welfare of the human race. + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EDISON STORAGE BATTERY + +IT is more than a hundred years since the elementary principle of the +storage battery or "accumulator" was detected by a Frenchman named +Gautherot; it is just fifty years since another Frenchman, named Plante, +discovered that on taking two thin plates of sheet lead, immersing them +in dilute sulphuric acid, and passing an electric current through the +cell, the combination exhibited the ability to give back part of the +original charging current, owing to the chemical changes and reactions +set up. Plante coiled up his sheets into a very handy cell like a little +roll of carpet or pastry; but the trouble was that the battery took a +long time to "form." One sheet becoming coated with lead peroxide +and the other with finely divided or spongy metallic lead, they would +receive current, and then, even after a long period of inaction, furnish +or return an electromotive force of from 1.85 to 2.2 volts. This ability +to store up electrical energy produced by dynamos in hours otherwise +idle, whether driven by steam, wind, or water, was a distinct advance +in the art; but the sensational step was taken about 1880, when Faure in +France and Brush in America broke away from the slow and weary process +of "forming" the plates, and hit on clever methods of furnishing them +"ready made," so to speak, by dabbing red lead onto lead-grid plates, +just as butter is spread on a slice of home-made bread. This brought the +storage battery at once into use as a practical, manufactured piece of +apparatus; and the world was captivated with the idea. The great English +scientist, Sir William Thomson, went wild with enthusiasm when a +Faure "box of electricity" was brought over from Paris to him in 1881 +containing a million foot-pounds of stored energy. His biographer, Dr. +Sylvanus P. Thompson, describes him as lying ill in bed with a wounded +leg, and watching results with an incandescent lamp fastened to his bed +curtain by a safety-pin, and lit up by current from the little Faure +cell. Said Sir William: "It is going to be a most valuable, practical +affair--as valuable as water-cisterns to people whether they had or had +not systems of water-pipes and water-supply." Indeed, in one outburst of +panegyric the shrewd physicist remarked that he saw in it "a realization +of the most ardently and increasingly felt scientific aspiration of his +life--an aspiration which he hardly dared to expect or to see realized." +A little later, however, Sir William, always cautious and canny, +began to discover the inherent defects of the primitive battery, as +to disintegration, inefficiency, costliness, etc., and though offered +tempting inducements, declined to lend his name to its financial +introduction. Nevertheless, he accepted the principle as valuable, and +put the battery to actual use. + +For many years after this episode, the modern lead-lead type of battery +thus brought forward with so great a flourish of trumpets had a hard +time of it. Edison's attitude toward it, even as a useful supplement +to his lighting system, was always one of scepticism, and he remarked +contemptuously that the best storage battery he knew was a ton of coal. +The financial fortunes of the battery, on both sides of the Atlantic, +were as varied and as disastrous as its industrial; but it did at last +emerge, and "made good." By 1905, the production of lead-lead storage +batteries in the United States alone had reached a value for the year +of nearly $3,000,000, and it has increased greatly since that time. +The storage battery is now regarded as an important and indispensable +adjunct in nearly all modern electric-lighting and electric-railway +systems of any magnitude; and in 1909, in spite of its weight, it had +found adoption in over ten thousand automobiles of the truck, delivery +wagon, pleasure carriage, and runabout types in America. + +Edison watched closely all this earlier development for about fifteen +years, not changing his mind as to what he regarded as the incurable +defects of the lead-lead type, but coming gradually to the conclusion +that if a storage battery of some other and better type could be brought +forward, it would fulfil all the early hopes, however extravagant, of +such men as Kelvin (Sir William Thomson), and would become as necessary +and as universal as the incandescent lamp or the electric motor. +The beginning of the present century found him at his point of new +departure. + +Generally speaking, non-technical and uninitiated persons have a +tendency to regard an invention as being more or less the ultimate +result of some happy inspiration. And, indeed, there is no doubt that +such may be the fact in some instances; but in most cases the inventor +has intentionally set out to accomplish a definite and desired +result--mostly through the application of the known laws of the art in +which he happens to be working. It is rarely, however, that a man will +start out deliberately, as Edison did, to evolve a radically new type of +such an intricate device as the storage battery, with only a meagre clew +and a vague starting-point. + +In view of the successful outcome of the problem which, in 1900, he +undertook to solve, it will be interesting to review his mental attitude +at that period. It has already been noted at the end of a previous +chapter that on closing the magnetic iron-ore concentrating plant +at Edison, New Jersey, he resolved to work on a new type of storage +battery. It was about this time that, in the course of a conversation +with Mr. R. H. Beach, then of the street-railway department of the +General Electric Company, he said: "Beach, I don't think Nature would be +so unkind as to withhold the secret of a GOOD storage battery if a real +earnest hunt for it is made. I'm going to hunt." + +Frequently Edison has been asked what he considers the secret of +achievement. To this query he has invariably replied: "Hard work, based +on hard thinking." The laboratory records bear the fullest witness that +he has consistently followed out this prescription to the utmost. The +perfection of all his great inventions has been signalized by patient, +persistent, and incessant effort which, recognizing nothing short of +success, has resulted in the ultimate accomplishment of his ideas. +Optimistic and hopeful to a high degree, Edison has the happy faculty of +beginning the day as open-minded as a child--yesterday's disappointments +and failures discarded and discounted by the alluring possibilities of +to-morrow. + +Of all his inventions, it is doubtful whether any one of them has +called forth more original thought, work, perseverance, ingenuity, and +monumental patience than the one we are now dealing with. One of his +associates who has been through the many years of the storage-battery +drudgery with him said: "If Edison's experiments, investigations, and +work on this storage battery were all that he had ever done, I should +say that he was not only a notable inventor, but also a great man. It is +almost impossible to appreciate the enormous difficulties that have been +overcome." + +From a beginning which was made practically in the dark, it was not +until he had completed more than ten thousand experiments that he +obtained any positive preliminary results whatever. Through all +this vast amount of research there had been no previous signs of the +electrical action he was looking for. These experiments had extended +over many months of constant work by day and night, but there was no +breakdown of Edison's faith in ultimate success--no diminution of his +sanguine and confident expectations. The failure of an experiment simply +meant to him that he had found something else that would not work, thus +bringing the possible goal a little nearer by a process of painstaking +elimination. + +Now, however, after these many months of arduous toil, in which he +had examined and tested practically all the known elements in numerous +chemical combinations, the electric action he sought for had been +obtained, thus affording him the first inkling of the secret that he +had industriously tried to wrest from Nature. It should be borne in +mind that from the very outset Edison had disdained any intention of +following in the only tracks then known by employing lead and sulphuric +acid as the components of a successful storage battery. Impressed with +what he considered the serious inherent defects of batteries made of +these materials, and the tremendously complex nature of the chemical +reactions taking place in all types of such cells, he determined boldly +at the start that he would devise a battery without lead, and one in +which an alkaline solution could be used--a form which would, he firmly +believed, be inherently less subject to decay and dissolution than the +standard type, which after many setbacks had finally won its way to an +annual production of many thousands of cells, worth millions of dollars. + +Two or three thousand of the first experiments followed the line of his +well-known primary battery in the attempted employment of copper oxide +as an element in a new type of storage cell; but its use offered no +advantages, and the hunt was continued in other directions and pursued +until Edison satisfied himself by a vast number of experiments that +nickel and iron possessed the desirable qualifications he was in search +of. + +This immense amount of investigation which had consumed so many months +of time, and which had culminated in the discovery of a series of +reactions between nickel and iron that bore great promise, brought +Edison merely within sight of a strange and hitherto unexplored +country. Slowly but surely the results of the last few thousands of his +preliminary experiments had pointed inevitably to a new and fruitful +region ahead. He had discovered the hidden passage and held the clew +which he had so industriously sought. And now, having outlined a +definite path, Edison was all afire to push ahead vigorously in order +that he might enter in and possess the land. + +It is a trite saying that "history repeats itself," and certainly no +axiom carries more truth than this when applied to the history of each +of Edison's important inventions. The development of the storage battery +has been no exception; indeed, far from otherwise, for in the ten years +that have elapsed since the time he set himself and his mechanics, +chemists, machinists, and experimenters at work to develop a practical +commercial cell, the old story of incessant and persistent efforts so +manifest in the working out of other inventions was fully repeated. + +Very soon after he had decided upon the use of nickel and iron as the +elemental metals for his storage battery, Edison established a +chemical plant at Silver Lake, New Jersey, a few miles from the Orange +laboratory, on land purchased some time previously. This place was the +scene of the further experiments to develop the various chemical forms +of nickel and iron, and to determine by tests what would be best adapted +for use in cells manufactured on a commercial scale. With a little +handful of selected experimenters gathered about him, Edison settled +down to one of his characteristic struggles for supremacy. To some +extent it was a revival of the old Menlo Park days (or, rather, nights). +Some of these who had worked on the preliminary experiments, with the +addition of a few new-comers, toiled together regardless of passing +time and often under most discouraging circumstances, but with that +remarkable esprit de corps that has ever marked Edison's relations with +his co-workers, and that has contributed so largely to the successful +carrying out of his ideas. + +The group that took part in these early years of Edison's arduous labors +included his old-time assistant, Fred Ott, together with his chemist, +J. W. Aylsworth, as well as E. J. Ross, Jr., W. E. Holland, and Ralph +Arbogast, and a little later W. G. Bee, all of whom have grown up +with the battery and still devote their energies to its commercial +development. One of these workers, relating the strenuous experiences of +these few years, says: "It was hard work and long hours, but still +there were some things that made life pleasant. One of them was the +supper-hour we enjoyed when we worked nights. Mr. Edison would have +supper sent in about midnight, and we all sat down together, including +himself. Work was forgotten for the time, and all hands were ready for +fun. I have very pleasant recollections of Mr. Edison at these times. He +would always relax and help to make a good time, and on some occasions +I have seen him fairly overflow with animal spirits, just like a boy +let out from school. After the supper-hour was over, however, he again +became the serious, energetic inventor, deeply immersed in the work at +hand. + +"He was very fond of telling and hearing stories, and always appreciated +a joke. I remember one that he liked to get off on us once in a while. +Our lighting plant was in duplicate, and about 12.30 or 1 o'clock in the +morning, at the close of the supper-hour, a change would be made from +one plant to the other, involving the gradual extinction of the electric +lights and their slowly coming up to candle-power again, the whole +change requiring probably about thirty seconds. Sometimes, as this was +taking place, Edison would fold his hands, compose himself as if he were +in sound sleep, and when the lights were full again would apparently +wake up, with the remark, 'Well, boys, we've had a fine rest; now let's +pitch into work again.'" + +Another interesting and amusing reminiscence of this period of +activity has been gathered from another of the family of experimenters: +"Sometimes, when Mr. Edison had been working long hours, he would +want to have a short sleep. It was one of the funniest things I ever +witnessed to see him crawl into an ordinary roll-top desk and curl up +and take a nap. If there was a sight that was still more funny, it was +to see him turn over on his other side, all the time remaining in the +desk. He would use several volumes of Watts's Dictionary of Chemistry +for a pillow, and we fellows used to say that he absorbed the contents +during his sleep, judging from the flow of new ideas he had on waking." + +Such incidents as these serve merely to illustrate the lighter moments +that stand out in relief against the more sombre background of the +strenuous years, for, of all the absorbingly busy periods of Edison's +inventive life, the first five years of the storage-battery era was +one of the very busiest of them all. It was not that there remained any +basic principle to be discovered or simplified, for that had already +been done; but it was in the effort to carry these principles into +practice that there arose the numerous difficulties that at times seemed +insurmountable. But, according to another co-worker, "Edison seemed +pleased when he used to run up against a serious difficulty. It would +seem to stiffen his backbone and make him more prolific of new ideas. +For a time I thought I was foolish to imagine such a thing, but I could +never get away from the impression that he really appeared happy when +he ran up against a serious snag. That was in my green days, and I soon +learned that the failure of an experiment never discourages him unless +it is by reason of the carelessness of the man making it. Then Edison +gets disgusted. If it fails on its merits, he doesn't worry or fret +about it, but, on the contrary, regards it as a useful fact learned; +remains cheerful and tries something else. I have known him to reverse +an unsuccessful experiment and come out all right." + +To follow Edison's trail in detail through the innumerable twists and +turns of his experimentation and research on the storage battery, during +the past ten years, would not be in keeping with the scope of this +narrative, nor would it serve any useful purpose. Besides, such details +would fill a big volume. The narrative, however, would not be complete +without some mention of the general outline of his work, and reference +may be made briefly to a few of the chief items. And lest the reader +think that the word "innumerable" may have been carelessly or hastily +used above, we would quote the reply of one of the laboratory assistants +when asked how many experiments had been made on the Edison storage +battery since the year 1900: "Goodness only knows! We used to number our +experiments consecutively from 1 to 10,000, and when we got up to +10,000 we turned back to 1 and ran up to 10,000 again, and so on. We ran +through several series--I don't know how many, and have lost track of +them now, but it was not far from fifty thousand." + +From the very first, Edison's broad idea of his storage battery was to +make perforated metallic containers having the active materials packed +therein; nickel hydrate for the positive and iron oxide for the negative +plate. This plan has been adhered to throughout, and has found its +consummation in the present form of the completed commercial cell, but +in the middle ground which stands between the early crude beginnings +and the perfected type of to-day there lies a world of original thought, +patient plodding, and achievement. + +The first necessity was naturally to obtain the best and purest +compounds for active materials. Edison found that comparatively little +was known by manufacturing chemists about nickel and iron oxides of the +high grade and purity he required. Hence it became necessary for him to +establish his own chemical works and put them in charge of men specially +trained by himself, with whom he worked. This was the plant at Silver +Lake, above referred to. Here, for several years, there was ceaseless +activity in the preparation of these chemical compounds by every +imaginable process and subsequent testing. Edison's chief chemist says: +"We left no stone unturned to find a way of making those chemicals so +that they would give the highest results. We carried on the experiments +with the two chemicals together. Sometimes the nickel would be ahead +in the tests, and then again it would fall behind. To stimulate us to +greater improvement, Edison hung up a card which showed the results +of tests in milliampere-hours given by the experimental elements as we +tried them with the various grades of nickel and iron we had made. This +stirred up a great deal of ambition among the boys to push the figures +up. Some of our earliest tests showed around 300, but as we improved +the material, they gradually crept up to over 500. Just about that time +Edison made a trip to Canada, and when he came back we had made such +good progress that the figures had crept up to about 1000. I well +remember how greatly he was pleased." + +In speaking of the development of the negative element of the battery, +Mr. Aylsworth said: "In like manner the iron element had to be developed +and improved; and finally the iron, which had generally enjoyed +superiority in capacity over its companion, the nickel element, had to +go in training in order to retain its lead, which was imperative, in +order to produce a uniform and constant voltage curve. In talking +with me one day about the difficulties under which we were working and +contrasting them with the phonograph experimentation, Edison said: 'In +phonographic work we can use our ears and our eyes, aided with powerful +microscopes; but in the battery our difficulties cannot be seen or +heard, but must be observed by our mind's eye!' And by reason of the +employment of such vision in the past, Edison is now able to see quite +clearly through the forest of difficulties after eliminating them one by +one." + +The size and shape of the containing pockets in the battery plates or +elements and the degree of their perforation were matters that received +many years of close study and experiment; indeed, there is still to-day +constant work expended on their perfection, although their present +general form was decided upon several years ago. The mechanical +construction of the battery, as a whole, in its present form, compels +instant admiration on account of its beauty and completeness. Mr. Edison +has spared neither thought, ingenuity, labor, nor money in the effort to +make it the most complete and efficient storage cell obtainable, and the +results show that his skill, judgment, and foresight have lost nothing +of the power that laid the foundation of, and built up, other great arts +at each earlier stage of his career. + +Among the complex and numerous problems that presented themselves in +the evolution of the battery was the one concerning the internal +conductivity of the positive unit. The nickel hydrate was a poor +electrical conductor, and although a metallic nickel pocket might be +filled with it, there would not be the desired electrical action unless +a conducting substance were mixed with it, and so incorporated and +packed that there would be good electrical contact throughout. +This proved to be a most knotty and intricate puzzle--tricky and +evasive--always leading on and promising something, and at the last +slipping away leaving the work undone. Edison's remarkable patience and +persistence in dealing with this trying problem and in finally solving +it successfully won for him more than ordinary admiration from his +associates. One of them, in speaking of the seemingly interminable +experiments to overcome this trouble, said: "I guess that question of +conductivity of the positive pocket brought lots of gray hairs to his +head. I never dreamed a man could have such patience and perseverance. +Any other man than Edison would have given the whole thing up a thousand +times, but not he! Things looked awfully blue to the whole bunch of +us many a time, but he was always hopeful. I remember one time things +looked so dark to me that I had just about made up my mind to throw up +my job, but some good turn came just then and I didn't. Now I'm glad I +held on, for we've got a great future." + +The difficulty of obtaining good electrical contact in the positive +element was indeed Edison's chief trouble for many years. After a great +amount of work and experimentation he decided upon a certain form +of graphite, which seemed to be suitable for the purpose, and then +proceeded to the commercial manufacture of the battery at a special +factory in Glen Ridge, New Jersey, installed for the purpose. There was +no lack of buyers, but, on the contrary, the factory was unable to turn +out batteries enough. The newspapers had previously published articles +showing the unusual capacity and performance of the battery, and public +interest had thus been greatly awakened. + +Notwithstanding the establishment of a regular routine of manufacture +and sale, Edison did not cease to experiment for improvement. Although +the graphite apparently did the work desired of it, he was not +altogether satisfied with its performance and made extended trials +of other substances, but at that time found nothing that on the whole +served the purpose better. Continuous tests of the commercial cells were +carried on at the laboratory, as well as more practical and heavy tests +in automobiles, which were constantly kept running around the adjoining +country over all kinds of roads. All these tests were very closely +watched by Edison, who demanded rigorously that the various trials of +the battery should be carried on with all strenuousness so as to get the +utmost results and develop any possible weakness. So insistent was he on +this, that if any automobile should run several days without bursting a +tire or breaking some part of the machine, he would accuse the chauffeur +of picking out easy roads. + +After these tests had been going on for some time, and some thousands +of cells had been sold and were giving satisfactory results to the +purchasers, the test sheets and experience gathered from various sources +pointed to the fact that occasionally a cell here and there would show +up as being short in capacity. Inasmuch as the factory processes were +very exact and carefully guarded, and every cell was made as uniform as +human skill and care could provide, there thus arose a serious problem. +Edison concentrated his powers on the investigation of this trouble, and +found that the chief cause lay in the graphite. Some other minor matters +also attracted his attention. What to do, was the important question +that confronted him. To shut down the factory meant great loss and +apparent failure. He realized this fully, but he also knew that to go +on would simply be to increase the number of defective batteries in +circulation, which would ultimately result in a permanent closure +and real failure. Hence he took the course which one would expect of +Edison's common sense and directness of action. He was not satisfied +that the battery was a complete success, so he shut down and went to +experimenting once more. + +"And then," says one of the laboratory men, "we started on another +series of record-breaking experiments that lasted over five years. +I might almost say heart-breaking, too, for of all the elusive, +disappointing things one ever hunted for that was the worst. But secrets +have to be long-winded and roost high if they want to get away when the +'Old Man' goes hunting for them. He doesn't get mad when he misses them, +but just keeps on smiling and firing, and usually brings them into camp. +That's what he did on the battery, for after a whole lot of work he +perfected the nickel-flake idea and process, besides making the great +improvement of using tubes instead of flat pockets for the positive. He +also added a minor improvement here and there, and now we have a finer +battery than we ever expected." + +In the interim, while the experimentation of these last five years was +in progress, many customers who had purchased batteries of the original +type came knocking at the door with orders in their hands for additional +outfits wherewith to equip more wagons and trucks. Edison expressed +his regrets, but said he was not satisfied with the old cells and was +engaged in improving them. To which the customers replied that THEY were +entirely satisfied and ready and willing to pay for more batteries of +the same kind; but Edison could not be moved from his determination, +although considerable pressure was at times brought to bear to sway his +decision. + +Experiment was continued beyond the point of peradventure, and after +some new machinery had been built, the manufacture of the new type of +cell was begun in the early summer of 1909, and at the present writing +is being extended as fast as the necessary additional machinery can be +made. The product is shipped out as soon as it is completed. + +The nickel flake, which is Edison's ingenious solution of the +conductivity problem, is of itself a most interesting product, intensely +practical in its application and fascinating in its manufacture. The +flake of nickel is obtained by electroplating upon a metallic cylinder +alternate layers of copper and nickel, one hundred of each, after which +the combined sheet is stripped from the cylinder. So thin are the layers +that this sheet is only about the thickness of a visiting-card, and yet +it is composed of two hundred layers of metal. The sheet is cut into +tiny squares, each about one-sixteenth of an inch, and these squares +are put into a bath where the copper is dissolved out. This releases +the layers of nickel, so that each of these small squares becomes one +hundred tiny sheets, or flakes, of pure metallic nickel, so thin that +when they are dried they will float in the air, like thistle-down. + +In their application to the manufacture of batteries, the flakes are +used through the medium of a special machine, so arranged that small +charges of nickel hydrate and nickel flake are alternately fed into the +pockets intended for positives, and tamped down with a pressure equal +to about four tons per square inch. This insures complete and perfect +contact and consequent electrical conductivity throughout the entire +unit. + +The development of the nickel flake contains in itself a history of +patient investigation, labor, and achievement, but we have not space for +it, nor for tracing the great work that has been done in developing +and perfecting the numerous other parts and adjuncts of this remarkable +battery. Suffice it to say that when Edison went boldly out into new +territory, after something entirely unknown, he was quite prepared for +hard work and exploration. He encountered both in unstinted measure, but +kept on going forward until, after long travel, he had found all that he +expected and accomplished something more beside. Nature DID respond to +his whole-hearted appeal, and, by the time the hunt was ended, revealed +a good storage battery of entirely new type. Edison not only recognized +and took advantage of the principles he had discovered, but in +adapting them for commercial use developed most ingenious processes +and mechanical appliances for carrying his discoveries into practical +effect. Indeed, it may be said that the invention of an enormous variety +of new machines and mechanical appliances rendered necessary by each +change during the various stages of development of the battery, from +first to last, stands as a lasting tribute to the range and versatility +of his powers. + +It is not within the scope of this narrative to enter into any +description of the relative merits of the Edison storage battery, that +being the province of a commercial catalogue. It does, however, seem +entirely allowable to say that while at the present writing the tests +that have been made extend over a few years only, their results and the +intrinsic value of this characteristic Edison invention are of such a +substantial nature as to point to the inevitable growth of another +great industry arising from its manufacture, and to its wide-spread +application to many uses. + +The principal use that Edison has had in mind for his battery is +transportation of freight and passengers by truck, automobile, and +street-car. The greatly increased capacity in proportion to weight of +the Edison cell makes it particularly adaptable for this class of work +on account of the much greater radius of travel that is possible by its +use. The latter point of advantage is the one that appeals most to the +automobilist, as he is thus enabled to travel, it is asserted, more than +three times farther than ever before on a single charge of the battery. + +Edison believes that there are important advantages possible in the +employment of his storage battery for street-car propulsion. Under the +present system of operation, a plant furnishing the electric power for +street railways must be large enough to supply current for the maximum +load during "rush hours," although much of the machinery may be lying +idle and unproductive in the hours of minimum load. By the use of +storage-battery cars, this immense and uneconomical maximum investment +in plant can be cut down to proportions of true commercial economy, as +the charging of the batteries can be conducted at a uniform rate with a +reasonable expenditure for generating machinery. Not only this, but each +car becomes an independently moving unit, not subject to delay by reason +of a general breakdown of the power plant or of the line. In addition +to these advantages, the streets would be freed from their burden of +trolley wires or conduits. To put his ideas into practice, Edison built +a short railway line at the Orange works in the winter of 1909-10, and, +in co-operation with Mr. R. H. Beach, constructed a special type of +street-car, and equipped it with motor, storage battery, and other +necessary operating devices. This car was subsequently put upon the +street-car lines in New York City, and demonstrated its efficiency so +completely that it was purchased by one of the street-car companies, +which has since ordered additional cars for its lines. The demonstration +of this initial car has been watched with interest by many railroad +officials, and its performance has been of so successful a nature that +at the present writing (the summer of 1910) it has been necessary to +organize and equip a preliminary factory in which to construct +many other cars of a similar type that have been ordered by other +street-railway companies. This enterprise will be conducted by a +corporation which has been specially organized for the purpose. Thus, +there has been initiated the development of a new and important industry +whose possible ultimate proportions are beyond the range of present +calculation. Extensive as this industry may become, however, Edison is +firmly convinced that the greatest field for his storage battery lies +in its adaptation to commercial trucking and hauling, and to pleasure +vehicles, in comparison with which the street-car business even with its +great possibilities--will not amount to more than 1 per cent. + +Edison has pithily summed up his work and his views in an article on +"The To-Morrows of Electricity and Invention" in Popular Electricity +for June, 1910, in which he says: "For years past I have been trying to +perfect a storage battery, and have now rendered it entirely suitable +to automobile and other work. There is absolutely no reason why horses +should be allowed within city limits; for between the gasoline and the +electric car, no room is left for them. They are not needed. The cow +and the pig have gone, and the horse is still more undesirable. A higher +public ideal of health and cleanliness is working toward such banishment +very swiftly; and then we shall have decent streets, instead of stables +made out of strips of cobblestones bordered by sidewalks. The worst +use of money is to make a fine thoroughfare, and then turn it over to +horses. Besides that, the change will put the humane societies out of +business. Many people now charge their own batteries because of lack of +facilities; but I believe central stations will find in this work very +soon the largest part of their load. The New York Edison Company, or +the Chicago Edison Company, should have as much current going out for +storage batteries as for power motors; and it will be so some near day." + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +MISCELLANEOUS INVENTIONS + +IT has been the endeavor in this narrative to group Edison's inventions +and patents so that his work in the different fields can be studied +independently and separately. The history of his career has therefore +fallen naturally into a series of chapters, each aiming to describe some +particular development or art; and, in a way, the plan has been helpful +to the writers while probably useful to the readers. It happens, +however, that the process has left a vast mass of discovery and +invention wholly untouched, and relegates to a concluding brief chapter +some of the most interesting episodes of a fruitful life. Any one who +will turn to the list of Edison patents at the end of the book will find +a large number of things of which not even casual mention has been made, +but which at the time occupied no small amount of the inventor's time +and attention, and many of which are now part and parcel of modern +civilization. Edison has, indeed, touched nothing that he did not in +some way improve. As Thoreau said: "The laws of the Universe are not +indifferent, but are forever on the side of the most sensitive," and +there never was any one more sensitive to the defects of every art and +appliance, nor any one more active in applying the law of evolution. +It is perhaps this many-sidedness of Edison that has impressed the +multitude, and that in the "popular vote" taken a couple of years ago +by the New York Herald placed his name at the head of the list of ten +greatest living Americans. It is curious and pertinent to note that a +similar plebiscite taken by a technical journal among its expert readers +had exactly the same result. Evidently the public does not agree with +the opinion expressed by the eccentric artist Blake in his "Marriage of +Heaven and Hell," when he said: "Improvement makes strange roads; but +the crooked roads without improvements are roads of Genius." + +The product of Edison's brain may be divided into three classes. The +first embraces such arts and industries, or such apparatus, as have +already been treated. The second includes devices like the tasimeter, +phonomotor, odoroscope, etc., and others now to be noted. The third +embraces a number of projected inventions, partially completed +investigations, inventions in use but not patented, and a great many +caveats filed in the Patent Office at various times during the last +forty years for the purpose of protecting his ideas pending their +contemplated realization in practice. These caveats served their purpose +thoroughly in many instances, but there have remained a great variety of +projects upon which no definite action was ever taken. One ought to +add the contents of an unfinished piece of extraordinary fiction based +wholly on new inventions and devices utterly unknown to mankind. Some +day the novel may be finished, but Edison has no inclination to go +back to it, and says he cannot understand how any man is able to make a +speech or write a book, for he simply can't do it. + +After what has been said in previous chapters, it will not seem so +strange that Edison should have hundreds of dormant inventions on his +hands. There are human limitations even for such a tireless worker as he +is. While the preparation of data for this chapter was going on, one of +the writers in discussing with him the vast array of unexploited things +said: "Don't you feel a sense of regret in being obliged to leave so +many things uncompleted?" To which he replied: "What's the use? One +lifetime is too short, and I am busy every day improving essential parts +of my established industries." It must suffice to speak briefly of a few +leading inventions that have been worked out, and to dismiss with +scant mention all the rest, taking just a few items, as typical and +suggestive, especially when Edison can himself be quoted as to them. +Incidentally it may be noted that things, not words, are referred to; +for Edison, in addition to inventing the apparatus, has often had to +coin the word to describe it. A large number of the words and phrases in +modern electrical parlance owe their origin to him. Even the "call-word" +of the telephone, "Hello!" sent tingling over the wire a few million +times daily was taken from Menlo Park by men installing telephones +in different parts of the world, men who had just learned it at +the laboratory, and thus made it a universal sesame for telephonic +conversation. + +It is hard to determine where to begin with Edison's miscellaneous +inventions, but perhaps telegraphy has the "right of line," and Edison's +work in that field puts him abreast of the latest wireless developments +that fill the world with wonder. "I perfected a system of train +telegraphy between stations and trains in motion whereby messages could +be sent from the moving train to the central office; and this was the +forerunner of wireless telegraphy. This system was used for a number of +years on the Lehigh Valley Railroad on their construction trains. The +electric wave passed from a piece of metal on top of the car across +the air to the telegraph wires; and then proceeded to the despatcher's +office. In my first experiments with this system I tried it on the +Staten Island Railroad, and employed an operator named King to do the +experimenting. He reported results every day, and received instructions +by mail; but for some reason he could send messages all right when the +train went in one direction, but could not make it go in the contrary +direction. I made suggestions of every kind to get around this +phenomenon. Finally I telegraphed King to find out if he had any +suggestions himself; and I received a reply that the only way he could +propose to get around the difficulty was to put the island on a pivot +so it could be turned around! I found the trouble finally, and the +practical introduction on the Lehigh Valley road was the result. The +system was sold to a very wealthy man, and he would never sell any +rights or answer letters. He became a spiritualist subsequently, which +probably explains it." It is interesting to note that Edison became +greatly interested in the later developments by Marconi, and is an +admiring friend and adviser of that well-known inventor. + +The earlier experiments with wireless telegraphy at Menlo Park were +made at a time when Edison was greatly occupied with his electric-light +interests, and it was not until the beginning of 1886 that he was +able to spare the time to make a public demonstration of the system +as applied to moving trains. Ezra T. Gilliland, of Boston, had become +associated with him in his experiments, and they took out several joint +patents subsequently. The first practical use of the system took place +on a thirteen-mile stretch of the Staten Island Railroad with the +results mentioned by Edison above. + +A little later, Edison and Gilliland joined forces with Lucius J. +Phelps, another investigator, who had been experimenting along the same +lines and had taken out several patents. The various interests were +combined in a corporation under whose auspices the system was installed +on the Lehigh Valley Railroad, where it was used for several years. The +official demonstration trip on this road took place on October 6, +1887, on a six-car train running to Easton, Pennsylvania, a distance of +fifty-four miles. A great many telegrams were sent and received while +the train was at full speed, including a despatch to the "cable king," +John Pender. London, England, and a reply from him. [17] + + [Footnote 17: Broadly described in outline, the system + consisted of an induction circuit obtained by laying strips + of tin along the top or roof of a railway car, and the + installation of a special telegraph line running parallel + with the track and strung on poles of only medium height. + The train and also each signalling station were equipped + with regulation telegraphic apparatus, such as battery, key, + relay, and sounder, together with induction-coil and + condenser. In addition, there was a transmitting device in + the shape of a musical reed, or buzzer. In practice, this + buzzer was continuously operated at high speed by a battery. + Its vibrations were broken by means of a key into long and + short periods, representing Morse characters, which were + transmitted inductively from the train circuit to the pole + line, or vice versa, and received by the operator at the + other end through a high-resistance telephone receiver + inserted in the secondary circuit of the induction-coil.] + +Although the space between the cars and the pole line was probably not +more than about fifty feet, it is interesting to note that in Edison's +early experiments at Menlo Park he succeeded in transmitting messages +through the air at a distance of 580 feet. Speaking of this and of +his other experiments with induction telegraphy by means of kites, +communicating from one to the other and thus from the kites to +instruments on the earth, Edison said recently: "We only transmitted +about two and one-half miles through the kites. What has always puzzled +me since is that I did not think of using the results of my experiments +on 'etheric force' that I made in 1875. I have never been able to +understand how I came to overlook them. If I had made use of my own work +I should have had long-distance wireless telegraphy." + +In one of the appendices to this book is given a brief technical account +of Edison's investigations of the phenomena which lie at the root of +modern wireless or "space" telegraphy, and the attention of the reader +is directed particularly to the description and quotations there from +the famous note-books of Edison's experiments in regard to what he +called "etheric force." It will be seen that as early as 1875 Edison +detected and studied certain phenomena--i.e., the production of +electrical effects in non-closed circuits, which for a time made him +think he was on the trail of a new force, as there was no plausible +explanation for them by the then known laws of electricity and +magnetism. Later came the magnificent work of Hertz identifying the +phenomena as "electromagnetic waves" in the ether, and developing a +new world of theory and science based upon them and their production by +disruptive discharges. + +Edison's assertions were treated with scepticism by the scientific +world, which was not then ready for the discovery and not sufficiently +furnished with corroborative data. It is singular, to say the least, +to note how Edison's experiments paralleled and proved in advance those +that came later; and even his apparatus such as the "dark box" for +making the tiny sparks visible (as the waves impinged on the receiver) +bears close analogy with similar apparatus employed by Hertz. Indeed, as +Edison sent the dark-box apparatus to the Paris Exposition in 1881, +and let Batchelor repeat there the puzzling experiments, it seems by no +means unlikely that, either directly or on the report of some friend, +Hertz may thus have received from Edison a most valuable suggestion, the +inventor aiding the physicist in opening up a wonderful new realm. +In this connection, indeed, it is very interesting to quote two great +authorities. In May, 1889, at a meeting of the Institution of Electrical +Engineers in London, Dr. (now Sir) Oliver Lodge remarked in a discussion +on a paper of his own on lightning conductors, embracing the Hertzian +waves in its treatment: "Many of the effects I have shown--sparks in +unsuspected places and other things--have been observed before. Henry +observed things of the kind and Edison noticed some curious phenomena, +and said it was not electricity but 'etheric force' that caused these +sparks; and the matter was rather pooh-poohed. It was a small part of +THIS VERY THING; only the time was not ripe; theoretical knowledge was +not ready for it." Again in his "Signalling without Wires," in giving +the history of the coherer principle, Lodge remarks: "Sparks identical +in all respects with those discovered by Hertz had been seen in recent +times both by Edison and by Sylvanus Thompson, being styled 'etheric +force' by the former; but their theoretic significance had not been +perceived, and they were somewhat sceptically regarded." During the same +discussion in London, in 1889, Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), after +citing some experiments by Faraday with his insulated cage at the Royal +Institution, said: "His (Faraday's) attention was not directed to look +for Hertz sparks, or probably he might have found them in the interior. +Edison seems to have noticed something of the kind in what he called +'etheric force.' His name 'etheric' may thirteen years ago have seemed +to many people absurd. But now we are all beginning to call these +inductive phenomena 'etheric.'" With which testimony from the great +Kelvin as to his priority in determining the vital fact, and with the +evidence that as early as 1875 he built apparatus that demonstrated the +fact, Edison is probably quite content. + +It should perhaps be noted at this point that a curious effect observed +at the laboratory was shown in connection with Edison lamps at the +Philadelphia Exhibition of 1884. It became known in scientific parlance +as the "Edison effect," showing a curious current condition or discharge +in the vacuum of the bulb. It has since been employed by Fleming in +England and De Forest in this country, and others, as the basis for +wireless-telegraph apparatus. It is in reality a minute rectifier of +alternating current, and analogous to those which have since been made +on a large scale. + +When Roentgen came forward with his discovery of the new "X"-ray in +1895, Edison was ready for it, and took up experimentation with it on +a large scale; some of his work being recorded in an article in the +Century Magazine of May, 1896, where a great deal of data may be found. +Edison says with regard to this work: "When the X-ray came up, I made +the first fluoroscope, using tungstate of calcium. I also found that +this tungstate could be put into a vacuum chamber of glass and fused +to the inner walls of the chamber; and if the X-ray electrodes were let +into the glass chamber and a proper vacuum was attained, you could get a +fluorescent lamp of several candle-power. I started in to make a number +of these lamps, but I soon found that the X-ray had affected poisonously +my assistant, Mr. Dally, so that his hair came out and his flesh +commenced to ulcerate. I then concluded it would not do, and that it +would not be a very popular kind of light; so I dropped it. + +"At the time I selected tungstate of calcium because it was +so fluorescent, I set four men to making all kinds of chemical +combinations, and thus collected upward of 8000 different crystals of +various chemical combinations, discovering several hundred different +substances which would fluoresce to the X-ray. So far little had come +of X-ray work, but it added another letter to the scientific alphabet. +I don't know any thing about radium, and I have lots of company." The +Electrical Engineer of June 3, 1896, contains a photograph of Mr. Edison +taken by the light of one of his fluorescent lamps. The same journal +in its issue of April 1, 1896, shows an Edison fluoroscope in use by +an observer, in the now familiar and universal form somewhat like a +stereoscope. This apparatus as invented by Edison consists of a flaring +box, curved at one end to fit closely over the forehead and eyes, while +the other end of the box is closed by a paste-board cover. On the inside +of this is spread a layer of tungstate of calcium. By placing the +object to be observed, such as the hand, between the vacuum-tube and +the fluorescent screen, the "shadow" is formed on the screen and can be +observed at leisure. The apparatus has proved invaluable in surgery and +has become an accepted part of the equipment of modern surgery. In 1896, +at the Electrical Exhibition in the Grand Central Palace, New York City, +given under the auspices of the National Electric Light Association, +thousands and thousands of persons with the use of this apparatus in +Edison's personal exhibit were enabled to see their own bones; and the +resultant public sensation was great. Mr. Mallory tells a characteristic +story of Edison's own share in the memorable exhibit: "The exhibit +was announced for opening on Monday. On the preceding Friday all the +apparatus, which included a large induction-coil, was shipped from +Orange to New York, and on Saturday afternoon Edison, accompanied by +Fred Ott, one of his assistants, and myself, went over to install it so +as to have it ready for Monday morning. Had everything been normal, a +few hours would have sufficed for completion of the work, but on coming +to test the big coil, it was found to be absolutely out of commission, +having been so seriously injured as to necessitate its entire rewinding. +It being summer-time, all the machine shops were closed until Monday +morning, and there were several miles of wire to be wound on the coil. +Edison would not consider a postponement of the exhibition, so there was +nothing to do but go to work and wind it by hand. We managed to find +a lathe, but there was no power; so each of us, including Edison, took +turns revolving the lathe by pulling on the belt, while the other two +attended to the winding of the wire. We worked continuously all through +that Saturday night and all day Sunday until evening, when we finished +the job. I don't remember ever being conscious of more muscles in +my life. I guess Edison was tired also, but he took it very +philosophically." This was apparently the first public demonstration of +the X-ray to the American public. + +Edison's ore-separation work has been already fully described, but the +story would hardly be complete without a reference to similar work +in gold extraction, dating back to the Menlo Park days: "I got up a +method," says Edison, "of separating placer gold by a dry process, in +which I could work economically ore as lean as five cents of gold to the +cubic yard. I had several car-loads of different placer sands sent to me +and proved I could do it. Some parties hearing I had succeeded in doing +such a thing went to work and got hold of what was known as the Ortiz +mine grant, twelve miles from Santa Fe, New Mexico. This mine, according +to the reports of several mining engineers made in the last forty years, +was considered one of the richest placer deposits in the United States, +and various schemes had been put forward to bring water from the +mountains forty miles away to work those immense beds. The reports +stated that the Mexicans had been panning gold for a hundred years out +of these deposits. + +"These parties now made arrangements with the stockholders or owners of +the grant, and with me, to work the deposits by my process. As I had had +some previous experience with the statements of mining men, I concluded +I would just send down a small plant and prospect the field before +putting up a large one. This I did, and I sent two of my assistants, +whom I could trust, down to this place to erect the plant; and started +to sink shafts fifty feet deep all over the area. We soon learned that +the rich gravel, instead of being spread over an area of three by seven +miles, and rich from the grass roots down, was spread over a space of +about twenty-five acres, and that even this did not average more than +ten cents to the cubic yard. The whole placer would not give more than +one and one-quarter cents per cubic yard. As my business arrangements +had not been very perfectly made, I lost the usual amount." + +Going to another extreme, we find Edison grappling with one of the +biggest problems known to the authorities of New York--the disposal of +its heavy snows. It is needless to say that witnessing the ordinary slow +and costly procedure would put Edison on his mettle. "One time when +they had a snow blockade in New York I started to build a machine with +Batchelor--a big truck with a steam-engine and compressor on it. We +would run along the street, gather all the snow up in front of us, pass +it into the compressor, and deliver little blocks of ice behind us +in the gutter, taking one-tenth the room of the snow, and not +inconveniencing anybody. We could thus take care of a snow-storm +by diminishing the bulk of material to be handled. The preliminary +experiment we made was dropped because we went into other things. The +machine would go as fast as a horse could walk." + +Edison has always taken a keen interest in aerial flight, and has also +experimented with aeroplanes, his preference inclining to the helicopter +type, as noted in the newspapers and periodicals from time to time. +The following statement from him refers to a type of aeroplane of great +novelty and ingenuity: "James Gordon Bennett came to me and asked that +I try some primary experiments to see if aerial navigation was feasible +with 'heavier-than-air' machines. I got up a motor and put it on the +scales and tried a large number of different things and contrivances +connected to the motor, to see how it would lighten itself on the +scales. I got some data and made up my mind that what was needed was a +very powerful engine for its weight, in small compass. So I conceived of +an engine employing guncotton. I took a lot of ticker paper tape, turned +it into guncotton and got up an engine with an arrangement whereby I +could feed this gun-cotton strip into the cylinder and explode it inside +electrically. The feed took place between two copper rolls. The copper +kept the temperature down, so that it could only explode up to the point +where it was in contact with the feed rolls. It worked pretty well; +but once the feed roll didn't save it, and the flame went through and +exploded the whole roll and kicked up such a bad explosion I abandoned +it. But the idea might be made to work." + +Turning from the air to the earth, it is interesting to note that the +introduction of the underground Edison system in New York made an appeal +to inventive ingenuity and that one of the difficulties was met as +follows: "When we first put the Pearl Street station in operation, in +New York, we had cast-iron junction-boxes at the intersections of all +the streets. One night, or about two o'clock in the morning, a policeman +came in and said that something had exploded at the corner of William +and Nassau streets. I happened to be in the station, and went out to see +what it was. I found that the cover of the manhole, weighing about 200 +pounds, had entirely disappeared, but everything inside was intact. It +had even stripped some of the threads of the bolts, and we could never +find that cover. I concluded it was either leakage of gas into the +manhole, or else the acid used in pickling the casting had given off +hydrogen, and air had leaked in, making an explosive mixture. As this +was a pretty serious problem, and as we had a good many of the manholes, +it worried me very much for fear that it would be repeated and the +company might have to pay a lot of damages, especially in districts +like that around William and Nassau, where there are a good many people +about. If an explosion took place in the daytime it might lift a few of +them up. However, I got around the difficulty by putting a little bottle +of chloroform in each box, corked up, with a slight hole in the cork. +The chloroform being volatile and very heavy, settled in the box and +displaced all the air. I have never heard of an explosion in a manhole +where this chloroform had been used. Carbon tetrachloride, now made +electrically at Niagara Falls, is very cheap and would be ideal for the +purpose." + +Edison has never paid much attention to warfare, and has in general +disdained to develop inventions for the destruction of life and +property. Some years ago, however, he became the joint inventor of +the Edison-Sims torpedo, with Mr. W. Scott Sims, who sought his +co-operation. This is a dirigible submarine torpedo operated by +electricity. In the torpedo proper, which is suspended from a long +float so as to be submerged a few feet under water, are placed the small +electric motor for propulsion and steering, and the explosive charge. +The torpedo is controlled from the shore or ship through an electric +cable which it pays out as it goes along, and all operations of varying +the speed, reversing, and steering are performed at the will of the +distant operator by means of currents sent through the cable. During the +Spanish-American War of 1898 Edison suggested to the Navy Department the +adoption of a compound of calcium carbide and calcium phosphite, which +when placed in a shell and fired from a gun would explode as soon as it +struck water and ignite, producing a blaze that would continue several +minutes and make the ships of the enemy visible for four or five miles +at sea. Moreover, the blaze could not be extinguished. + +Edison has always been deeply interested in "conservation," and much +of his work has been directed toward the economy of fuel in obtaining +electrical energy directly from the consumption of coal. Indeed, it +will be noted that the example of his handwriting shown in these volumes +deals with the importance of obtaining available energy direct from the +combustible without the enormous loss in the intervening stages that +makes our best modern methods of steam generation and utilization so +barbarously extravagant and wasteful. Several years ago, experimenting +in this field, Edison devised and operated some ingenious pyromagnetic +motors and generators, based, as the name implies, on the direct +application of heat to the machines. The motor is founded upon the +principle discovered by the famous Dr. William Gilbert--court physician +to Queen Elizabeth, and the Father of modern electricity--that the +magnetic properties of iron diminish with heat. At a light-red heat, +iron becomes non-magnetic, so that a strong magnet exerts no influence +over it. Edison employed this peculiar property by constructing a small +machine in which a pivoted bar is alternately heated and cooled. It +is thus attracted toward an adjacent electromagnet when cold and is +uninfluenced when hot, and as the result motion is produced. + +The pyromagnetic generator is based on the same phenomenon; its aim +being of course to generate electrical energy directly from the heat of +the combustible. The armature, or moving part of the machine, consists +in reality of eight separate armatures all constructed of corrugated +sheet iron covered with asbestos and wound with wire. These armatures +are held in place by two circular iron plates, through the centre of +which runs a shaft, carrying at its lower extremity a semicircular +shield of fire-clay, which covers the ends of four of the armatures. +The heat, of whatever origin, is applied from below, and the shaft being +revolved, four of the armatures lose their magnetism constantly, while +the other four gain it, so to speak. As the moving part revolves, +therefore, currents of electricity are set up in the wires of the +armatures and are collected by a commutator, as in an ordinary dynamo, +placed on the upper end of the central shaft. + +A great variety of electrical instruments are included in Edison's +inventions, many of these in fundamental or earlier forms being devised +for his systems of light and power, as noted already. There are numerous +others, and it might be said with truth that Edison is hardly ever +without some new device of this kind in hand, as he is by no means +satisfied with the present status of electrical measurements. He holds +in general that the meters of to-day, whether for heavy or for feeble +currents, are too expensive, and that cheaper instruments are a +necessity of the times. These remarks apply more particularly to what +may be termed, in general, circuit meters. In other classes Edison +has devised an excellent form of magnetic bridge, being an ingenious +application of the principles of the familiar Wheatstone bridge, used +so extensively for measuring the electrical resistance of wires; the +testing of iron for magnetic qualities being determined by it in the +same way. Another special instrument is a "dead beat" galvanometer which +differs from the ordinary form of galvanometer in having no coils or +magnetic needle. It depends for its action upon the heating effect of +the current, which causes a fine platinum-iridium wire enclosed in a +glass tube to expand; thus allowing a coiled spring to act on a pivoted +shaft carrying a tiny mirror. The mirror as it moves throws a beam of +light upon a scale and the indications are read by the spot of +light. Most novel of all the apparatus of this measuring kind is the +odoroscope, which is like the tasimeter described in an earlier chapter, +except that a strip of gelatine takes the place of hard rubber, as +the sensitive member. Besides being affected by heat, this device is +exceedingly sensitive to moisture. A few drops of water or perfume +thrown on the floor of a room are sufficient to give a very decided +indication on the galvanometer in circuit with the instrument. +Barometers, hygrometers, and similar instruments of great delicacy can +be constructed on the principle of the odoroscope; and it may also be +used in determining the character or pressure of gases and vapors in +which it has been placed. + +In the list of Edison's patents at the end of this work may be noted +many other of his miscellaneous inventions, covering items such as +preserving fruit in vacuo, making plate-glass, drawing wire, and +metallurgical processes for treatment of nickel, gold, and copper ores; +but to mention these inventions separately would trespass too much on +our limited space here. Hence, we shall leave the interested reader to +examine that list for himself. + +From first to last Edison has filed in the United States Patent +Office--in addition to more than 1400 applications for patents--some +120 caveats embracing not less than 1500 inventions. A "caveat" is +essentially a notice filed by an inventor, entitling him to receive +warning from the Office of any application for a patent for an invention +that would "interfere" with his own, during the year, while he is +supposed to be perfecting his device. The old caveat system has now been +abolished, but it served to elicit from Edison a most astounding record +of ideas and possible inventions upon which he was working, and many +of which he of course reduced to practice. As an example of Edison's +fertility and the endless variety of subjects engaging his thoughts, the +following list of matters covered by ONE caveat is given. It is needless +to say that all the caveats are not quite so full of "plums," but this +is certainly a wonder. + +Forty-one distinct inventions relating to the phonograph, covering +various forms of recorders, arrangement of parts, making of records, +shaving tool, adjustments, etc. + +Eight forms of electric lamps using infusible earthy oxides and brought +to high incandescence in vacuo by high potential current of several +thousand volts; same character as impingement of X-rays on object in +bulb. + +A loud-speaking telephone with quartz cylinder and beam of ultra-violet +light. + +Four forms of arc light with special carbons. + +A thermostatic motor. + +A device for sealing together the inside part and bulb of an +incandescent lamp mechanically. + +Regulators for dynamos and motors. + +Three devices for utilizing vibrations beyond the ultra violet. + +A great variety of methods for coating incandescent lamp filaments with +silicon, titanium, chromium, osmium, boron, etc. + +Several methods of making porous filaments. + +Several methods of making squirted filaments of a variety of materials, +of which about thirty are specified. + +Seventeen different methods and devices for separating magnetic ores. + +A continuously operative primary battery. + +A musical instrument operating one of Helmholtz's artificial larynxes. + +A siren worked by explosion of small quantities of oxygen and hydrogen +mixed. + +Three other sirens made to give vocal sounds or articulate speech. + +A device for projecting sound-waves to a distance without spreading and +in a straight line, on the principle of smoke rings. + +A device for continuously indicating on a galvanometer the depths of the +ocean. + +A method of preventing in a great measure friction of water against the +hull of a ship and incidentally preventing fouling by barnacles. + +A telephone receiver whereby the vibrations of the diaphragm are +considerably amplified. + +Two methods of "space" telegraphy at sea. + +An improved and extended string telephone. + +Devices and method of talking through water for considerable distances. + +An audiphone for deaf people. + +Sound-bridge for measuring resistance of tubes and other materials for +conveying sound. + +A method of testing a magnet to ascertain the existence of flaws in the +iron or steel composing the same. + +Method of distilling liquids by incandescent conductor immersed in the +liquid. + +Method of obtaining electricity direct from coal. + +An engine operated by steam produced by the hydration and dehydration of +metallic salts. + +Device and method for telegraphing photographically. + +Carbon crucible kept brilliantly incandescent by current in vacuo, for +obtaining reaction with refractory metals. + +Device for examining combinations of odors and their changes by rotation +at different speeds. + +From one of the preceding items it will be noted that even in the +eighties Edison perceived much advantage to be gained in the line of +economy by the use of lamp filaments employing refractory metals in +their construction. From another caveat, filed in 1889, we extract the +following, which shows that he realized the value of tungsten also for +this purpose. "Filaments of carbon placed in a combustion tube with a +little chloride ammonium. Chloride tungsten or titanium passed through +hot tube, depositing a film of metal on the carbon; or filaments of +zirconia oxide, or alumina or magnesia, thoria or other infusible oxides +mixed or separate, and obtained by moistening and squirting through a +die, are thus coated with above metals and used for incandescent lamps. +Osmium from a volatile compound of same thus deposited makes a filament +as good as carbon when in vacuo." + +In 1888, long before there arose the actual necessity of duplicating +phonograph records so as to produce replicas in great numbers, Edison +described in one of his caveats a method and process much similar to +the one which was put into practice by him in later years. In the +same caveat he describes an invention whereby the power to indent on +a phonograph cylinder, instead of coming directly from the voice, is +caused by power derived from the rotation or movement of the phonogram +surface itself. He did not, however, follow up this invention and put it +into practice. Some twenty years later it was independently invented +and patented by another inventor. A further instance of this kind is +a method of telegraphy at sea by means of a diaphragm in a closed +port-hole flush with the side of the vessel, and actuated by a +steam-whistle which is controlled by a lever, similarly to a Morse key. +A receiving diaphragm is placed in another and near-by chamber, which is +provided with very sensitive stethoscopic ear-pieces, by which the +Morse characters sent from another vessel may be received. This was +also invented later by another inventor, and is in use to-day, but will +naturally be rivalled by wireless telegraphy. Still another instance +is seen in one of Edison's caveats, where he describes a method of +distilling liquids by means of internally applied heat through electric +conductors. Although Edison did not follow up the idea and take out a +patent, this system of distillation was later hit upon by others and is +in use at the present time. + +In the foregoing pages of this chapter the authors have endeavored +to present very briefly a sketchy notion of the astounding range of +Edison's practical ideas, but they feel a sense of impotence in being +unable to deal adequately with the subject in the space that can be +devoted to it. To those who, like the authors, have had the privilege +of examining the voluminous records which show the flights of his +imagination, there comes a feeling of utter inadequacy to convey to +others the full extent of the story they reveal. + +The few specific instances above related, although not representing a +tithe of Edison's work, will probably be sufficient to enable the reader +to appreciate to some extent his great wealth of ideas and fertility +of imagination, and also to realize that this imagination is not only +intensely practical, but that it works prophetically along lines of +natural progress. + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +EDISON'S METHOD IN INVENTING + +WHILE the world's progress depends largely upon their ingenuity, +inventors are not usually persons who have adopted invention as a +distinct profession, but, generally speaking, are otherwise engaged in +various walks of life. By reason of more or less inherent native genius +they either make improvements along lines of present occupation, or +else evolve new methods and means of accomplishing results in fields for +which they may have personal predilections. + +Now and then, however, there arises a man so greatly endowed with +natural powers and originality that the creative faculty within him +is too strong to endure the humdrum routine of affairs, and manifests +itself in a life devoted entirely to the evolution of methods and +devices calculated to further the world's welfare. In other words, he +becomes an inventor by profession. Such a man is Edison. Notwithstanding +the fact that nearly forty years ago (not a great while after he had +emerged from the ranks of peripatetic telegraph operators) he was +the owner of a large and profitable business as a manufacturer of the +telegraphic apparatus invented by him, the call of his nature was too +strong to allow of profits being laid away in the bank to accumulate. As +he himself has said, he has "too sanguine a temperament to allow money +to stay in solitary confinement." Hence, all superfluous cash was +devoted to experimentation. In the course of years he grew more and +more impatient of the shackles that bound him to business routine, and, +realizing the powers within him, he drew away gradually from purely +manufacturing occupations, determining deliberately to devote his +life to inventive work, and to depend upon its results as a means of +subsistence. + +All persons who make inventions will necessarily be more or less +original in character, but to the man who chooses to become an inventor +by profession must be conceded a mind more than ordinarily replete +with virility and originality. That these qualities in Edison are +superabundant is well known to all who have worked with him, and, +indeed, are apparent to every one from his multiplied achievements +within the period of one generation. + +If one were allowed only two words with which to describe Edison, it +is doubtful whether a close examination of the entire dictionary would +disclose any others more suitable than "experimenter--inventor." These +would express the overruling characteristics of his eventful career. It +is as an "inventor" that he sets himself down in the membership list of +the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. To attempt the strict +placing of these words in relation to each other (except alphabetically) +would be equal to an endeavor to solve the old problem as to which came +first, the egg or the chicken; for although all his inventions have been +evolved through experiment, many of his notable experiments have +called forth the exercise of highly inventive faculties in their very +inception. Investigation and experiment have been a consuming passion, +an impelling force from within, as it were, from his petticoat days when +he collected goose-eggs and tried to hatch them out by sitting over +them himself. One might be inclined to dismiss this trivial incident +smilingly, as a mere childish, thoughtless prank, had not subsequent +development as a child, boy, and man revealed a born investigator with +original reasoning powers that, disdaining crooks and bends, always +aimed at the centre, and, like the flight of the bee, were accurate and +direct. + +It is not surprising, therefore, that a man of this kind should +exhibit a ceaseless, absorbing desire for knowledge, and an apparently +uncontrollable tendency to experiment on every possible occasion, +even though his last cent were spent in thus satisfying the insatiate +cravings of an inquiring mind. + +During Edison's immature years, when he was flitting about from place to +place as a telegraph operator, his experimentation was of a desultory, +hand-to-mouth character, although it was always notable for originality, +as expressed in a number of minor useful devices produced during this +period. Small wonder, then, that at the end of these wanderings, when +he had found a place to "rest the sole of his foot," he established a +laboratory in which to carry on his researches in a more methodical and +practical manner. In this was the beginning of the work which has since +made such a profound impression on contemporary life. + +There is nothing of the helter-skelter, slap-dash style in Edison's +experiments. Although all the laboratory experimenters agree in the +opinion that he "tries everything," it is not merely the mixing of a +little of this, some of that, and a few drops of the other, in the HOPE +that SOMETHING will come of it. Nor is the spirit of the laboratory +work represented in the following dialogue overheard between two alleged +carpenters picked up at random to help on a hurry job. + +"How near does she fit, Mike?" + +"About an inch." + +"Nail her!" + +A most casual examination of any of the laboratory records will reveal +evidence of the minutest exactitude insisted on in the conduct of +experiments, irrespective of the length of time they occupied. Edison's +instructions, always clear cut and direct, followed by his keen +oversight, admit of nothing less than implicit observance in all +details, no matter where they may lead, and impel to the utmost +minuteness and accuracy. + +To some extent there has been a popular notion that many of Edison's +successes have been due to mere dumb fool luck--to blind, fortuitous +"happenings." Nothing could be further from the truth, for, on the +contrary, it is owing almost entirely to the comprehensive scope of his +knowledge, the breadth of his conception, the daring originality of +his methods, and minuteness and extent of experiment, combined with +unwavering pertinacity, that new arts have been created and additions +made to others already in existence. Indeed, without this tireless +minutiae, and methodical, searching spirit, it would have been +practically impossible to have produced many of the most important of +these inventions. + +Needless to say, mastery of its literature is regarded by him as a +most important preliminary in taking up any line of investigation. What +others may have done, bearing directly or collaterally on the subject, +in print, is carefully considered and sifted to the point of exhaustion. +Not that he takes it for granted that the conclusions are correct, for +he frequently obtains vastly different results by repeating in his own +way experiments made by others as detailed in books. + +"Edison can travel along a well-used road and still find virgin soil," +remarked recently one of his most practical experimenters, who had been +working along a certain line without attaining the desired result. "He +wanted to get a particular compound having definite qualities, and I had +tried in all sorts of ways to produce it but with only partial success. +He was confident that it could be done, and said he would try it +himself. In doing so he followed the same path in which I had travelled, +but, by making an undreamed-of change in one of the operations, +succeeded in producing a compound that virtually came up to his +specifications. It is not the only time I have known this sort of thing +to happen." + +In speaking of Edison's method of experimenting, another of his +laboratory staff says: "He is never hindered by theory, but resorts to +actual experiment for proof. For instance, when he conceived the idea of +pouring a complete concrete house it was universally held that it would +be impossible because the pieces of stone in the mixture would not rise +to the level of the pouring-point, but would gravitate to a lower plane +in the soft cement. This, however, did not hinder him from making +a series of experiments which resulted in an invention that proved +conclusively the contrary." + +Having conceived some new idea and read everything obtainable +relating to the subject in general, Edison's fertility of resource and +originality come into play. Taking one of the laboratory note-books, +he will write in it a memorandum of the experiments to be tried, +illustrated, if necessary, by sketches. This book is then passed on +to that member of the experimental staff whose special training and +experience are best adapted to the work. Here strenuousness is expected; +and an immediate commencement of investigation and prompt report are +required. Sometimes the subject may be such as to call for a long line +of frequent tests which necessitate patient and accurate attention to +minute details. Results must be reported often--daily, or possibly with +still greater frequency. Edison does not forget what is going on; but in +his daily tours through the laboratory keeps in touch with all the work +that is under the hands of his various assistants, showing by an instant +grasp of the present conditions of any experiment that he has a +full consciousness of its meaning and its reference to his original +conception. + +The year 1869 saw the beginning of Edison's career as an acknowledged +inventor of commercial devices. From the outset, an innate recognition +of system dictated the desirability and wisdom of preserving records +of his experiments and inventions. The primitive records, covering the +earliest years, were mainly jotted down on loose sheets of paper covered +with sketches, notes, and data, pasted into large scrap-books, or +preserved in packages; but with the passing of years and enlargement of +his interests, it became the practice to make all original laboratory +notes in large, uniform books. This course was pursued until the Menlo +Park period, when he instituted a new regime that has been continued +down to the present day. A standard form of note-book, about eight and +a half by six inches, containing about two hundred pages, was adopted. +A number of these books were (and are now) always to be found scattered +around in the different sections of the laboratory, and in them have +been noted by Edison all his ideas, sketches, and memoranda. Details +of the various experiments concerning them have been set down by his +assistants from time to time. + +These later laboratory note-books, of which there are now over one +thousand in the series, are eloquent in the history they reveal of the +strenuous labors of Edison and his assistants and the vast fields +of research he has covered during the last thirty years. They are +overwhelmingly rich in biographic material, but analysis would be +a prohibitive task for one person, and perhaps interesting only to +technical readers. Their pages cover practically every department +of science. The countless thousands of separate experiments recorded +exhibit the operations of a master mind seeking to surprise Nature into +a betrayal of her secrets by asking her the same question in a hundred +different ways. For instance, when Edison was investigating a certain +problem of importance many years ago, the note-books show that on this +point alone about fifteen thousand experiments and tests were made by +one of his assistants. + +A most casual glance over these note-books will illustrate the following +remark, which was made to one of the writers not long ago by a member of +the laboratory staff who has been experimenting there for twenty years: +"Edison can think of more ways of doing a thing than any man I ever saw +or heard of. He tries everything and never lets up, even though failure +is apparently staring him in the face. He only stops when he simply +can't go any further on that particular line. When he decides on any +mode of procedure he gives his notes to the experimenter and lets him +alone, only stepping in from time to time to look at the operations and +receive reports of progress." + +The history of the development of the telephone transmitter, phonograph, +incandescent lamp, dynamo, electrical distributing systems from central +stations, electric railway, ore-milling, cement, motion pictures, and +a host of minor inventions may be found embedded in the laboratory +note-books. A passing glance at a few pages of these written records +will serve to illustrate, though only to a limited extent, the +thoroughness of Edison's method. It is to be observed that these +references can be but of the most meagre kind, and must be regarded as +merely throwing a side-light on the subject itself. For instance, the +complex problem of a practical telephone transmitter gave rise to a +series of most exhaustive experiments. Combinations in almost infinite +variety, including gums, chemical compounds, oils, minerals, and metals +were suggested by Edison; and his assistants were given long lists +of materials to try with reference to predetermined standards of +articulation, degrees of loudness, and perfection of hissing sounds. The +note-books contain hundreds of pages showing that a great many thousands +of experiments were tried and passed upon. Such remarks as "N. G."; +"Pretty good"; "Whistling good, but no articulation"; "Rattly"; +"Articulation, whispering, and whistling good"; "Best to-night so far"; +and others are noted opposite the various combinations as they were +tried. Thus, one may follow the investigation through a maze of +experiments which led up to the successful invention of the carbon +button transmitter, the vital device to give the telephone its needed +articulation and perfection. + +The two hundred and odd note-books, covering the strenuous period during +which Edison was carrying on his electric-light experiments, tell on +their forty thousand pages or more a fascinating story of the evolution +of a new art in its entirety. From the crude beginnings, through all +the varied phases of this evolution, the operations of a master mind +are apparent from the contents of these pages, in which are recorded the +innumerable experiments, calculations, and tests that ultimately brought +light out of darkness. + +The early work on a metallic conductor for lamps gave rise to some very +thorough research on melting and alloying metals, the preparation of +metallic oxides, the coating of fine wires by immersing them in a great +variety of chemical solutions. Following his usual custom, Edison would +indicate the lines of experiment to be followed, which were carried +out and recorded in the note-books. He himself, in January, 1879, made +personally a most minute and searching investigation into the properties +and behavior of plating-iridium, boron, rutile, zircon, chromium, +molybdenum, and nickel, under varying degrees of current strength, on +which there may be found in the notes about forty pages of detailed +experiments and deductions in his own handwriting, concluding with the +remark (about nickel): "This is a great discovery for electric light in +the way of economy." + +This period of research on nickel, etc., was evidently a trying one, for +after nearly a month's close application he writes, on January 27, 1879: +"Owing to the enormous power of the light my eyes commenced to pain +after seven hours' work, and I had to quit." On the next day appears +the following entry: "Suffered the pains of hell with my eyes last night +from 10 P.M. till 4 A.M., when got to sleep with a big dose of morphine. +Eyes getting better, and do not pain much at 4 P.M.; but I lose to-day." + +The "try everything" spirit of Edison's method is well illustrated in +this early period by a series of about sixteen hundred resistance tests +of various ores, minerals, earths, etc., occupying over fifty pages of +one of the note-books relating to the metallic filament for his lamps. + +But, as the reader has already learned, the metallic filament was soon +laid aside in favor of carbon, and we find in the laboratory notes an +amazing record of research and experiment conducted in the minute +and searching manner peculiar to Edison's method. His inquiries were +directed along all the various roads leading to the desired goal, +for long before he had completed the invention of a practical lamp he +realized broadly the fundamental requirements of a successful system of +electrical distribution, and had given instructions for the making of +a great variety of calculations which, although far in advance of +the time, were clearly foreseen by him to be vitally important in the +ultimate solution of the complicated problem. Thus we find many hundreds +of pages of the note-books covered with computations and calculations +by Mr. Upton, not only on the numerous ramifications of the projected +system and comparisons with gas, but also on proposed forms of dynamos +and the proposed station in New York. A mere recital by titles of +the vast number of experiments and tests on carbons, lamps, dynamos, +armatures, commutators, windings, systems, regulators, sockets, +vacuum-pumps, and the thousand and one details relating to the subject +in general, originated by Edison, and methodically and systematically +carried on under his general direction, would fill a great many pages +here, and even then would serve only to convey a confused impression of +ceaseless probing. + +It is possible only to a broad, comprehensive mind well stored with +knowledge, and backed with resistless, boundless energy, that such a +diversified series of experiments and investigations could be carried +on simultaneously and assimilated, even though they should relate to a +class of phenomena already understood and well defined. But if we pause +to consider that the commercial subdivision of the electric current +(which was virtually an invention made to order) involved the solution +of problems so unprecedented that even they themselves had to be +created, we cannot but conclude that the afflatus of innate genius +played an important part in the unique methods of investigation +instituted by Edison at that and other times. + +The idea of attributing great successes to "genius" has always been +repudiated by Edison, as evidenced by his historic remark that "Genius +is 1 per cent. inspiration and 99 per cent. perspiration." Again, in a +conversation many years ago at the laboratory between Edison, Batchelor, +and E. H. Johnson, the latter made allusion to Edison's genius as +evidenced by some of his achievements, when Edison replied: + +"Stuff! I tell you genius is hard work, stick-to-it-iveness, and common +sense." + +"Yes," said Johnson, "I admit there is all that to it, but there's still +more. Batch and I have those qualifications, but although we knew quite +a lot about telephones, and worked hard, we couldn't invent a brand-new +non-infringing telephone receiver as you did when Gouraud cabled for +one. Then, how about the subdivision of the electric light?" + +"Electric current," corrected Edison. + +"True," continued Johnson; "you were the one to make that very +distinction. The scientific world had been working hard on subdivision +for years, using what appeared to be common sense. Results worse than +nil. Then you come along, and about the first thing you do, after +looking the ground over, is to start off in the opposite direction, +which subsequently proves to be the only possible way to reach the goal. +It seems to me that this is pretty close to the dictionary definition of +genius." + +It is said that Edison replied rather incoherently and changed the topic +of conversation. + +This innate modesty, however, does not prevent Edison from recognizing +and classifying his own methods of investigation. In a conversation with +two old associates recently (April, 1909), he remarked: "It has been +said of me that my methods are empirical. That is true only so far +as chemistry is concerned. Did you ever realize that practically all +industrial chemistry is colloidal in its nature? Hard rubber, celluloid, +glass, soap, paper, and lots of others, all have to deal with amorphous +substances, as to which comparatively little has been really settled. +My methods are similar to those followed by Luther Burbank. He plants an +acre, and when this is in bloom he inspects it. He has a sharp eye, and +can pick out of thousands a single plant that has promise of what he +wants. From this he gets the seed, and uses his skill and knowledge in +producing from it a number of new plants which, on development, furnish +the means of propagating an improved variety in large quantity. So, when +I am after a chemical result that I have in mind, I may make hundreds +or thousands of experiments out of which there may be one that promises +results in the right direction. This I follow up to its legitimate +conclusion, discarding the others, and usually get what I am after. +There is no doubt about this being empirical; but when it comes to +problems of a mechanical nature, I want to tell you that all I've +ever tackled and solved have been done by hard, logical thinking." The +intense earnestness and emphasis with which this was said were very +impressive to the auditors. This empirical method may perhaps be better +illustrated by a specific example. During the latter part of the storage +battery investigations, after the form of positive element had been +determined upon, it became necessary to ascertain what definite +proportions and what quality of nickel hydrate and nickel flake would +give the best results. A series of positive tubes were filled with the +two materials in different proportions--say, nine parts hydrate to one +of flake; eight parts hydrate to two of flake; seven parts hydrate to +three of flake, and so on through varying proportions. Three sets of +each of these positives were made, and all put into separate test tubes +with a uniform type of negative element. These were carried through a +long series of charges and discharges under strict test conditions. From +the tabulated results of hundreds of tests there were selected +three that showed the best results. These, however, showed only the +superiority of certain PROPORTIONS of the materials. The next step +would be to find out the best QUALITY. Now, as there are several hundred +variations in the quality of nickel flake, and perhaps a thousand ways +to make the hydrate, it will be realized that Edison's methods led to +stupendous detail, for these tests embraced a trial of all the qualities +of both materials in the three proportions found to be most suitable. +Among these many thousands of experiments any that showed extraordinary +results were again elaborated by still further series of tests, until +Edison was satisfied that he had obtained the best result in that +particular line. + +The laboratory note-books do not always tell the whole story or meaning +of an experiment that may be briefly outlined on one of their pages. For +example, the early filament made of a mixture of lampblack and tar is +merely a suggestion in the notes, but its making afforded an example +of Edison's pertinacity. These materials, when mixed, became a friable +mass, which he had found could be brought into such a cohesive, +putty-like state by manipulation, as to be capable of being rolled out +into filaments as fine as seven-thousandths of an inch in cross-section. +One of the laboratory assistants was told to make some of this mixture, +knead it, and roll some filaments. After a time he brought the mass to +Edison, and said: + +"There's something wrong about this, for it crumbles even after +manipulating it with my fingers." + +"How long did you knead it?" said Edison. + +"Oh! more than an hour," replied the assistant. + +"Well, just keep on for a few hours more and it will come out all +right," was the rejoinder. And this proved to be correct, for, after +a prolonged kneading and rolling, the mass changed into a cohesive, +stringy, homogeneous putty. It was from a mixture of this kind that +spiral filaments were made and used in some of the earliest forms +of successful incandescent lamps; indeed, they are described and +illustrated in Edison's fundamental lamp patent (No. 223,898). + +The present narrative would assume the proportions of a history of +the incandescent lamp, should the authors attempt to follow Edison's +investigations through the thousands of pages of note-books away back in +the eighties and early nineties. Improvement of the lamp was constantly +in his mind all those years, and besides the vast amount of detail +experimental work he laid out for his assistants, he carried on a great +deal of research personally. Sometimes whole books are filled in his +own handwriting with records of experiments showing every conceivable +variation of some particular line of inquiry; each trial bearing some +terse comment expressive of results. In one book appear the details of +one of these experiments on September 3, 1891, at 4.30 A.M., with the +comment: "Brought up lamp higher than a 16-c.p. 240 was ever brought +before--Hurrah!" Notwithstanding the late hour, he turns over to the +next page and goes on to write his deductions from this result as +compared with those previously obtained. Proceeding day by day, as +appears by this same book, he follows up another line of investigation +on lamps, apparently full of difficulty, for after one hundred and +thirty-two other recorded experiments we find this note: "Saturday 3.30 +went home disgusted with incandescent lamps." This feeling was evidently +evanescent, for on the succeeding Monday the work was continued and +carried on by him as keenly as before, as shown by the next batch of +notes. + +This is the only instance showing any indication of impatience that the +authors have found in looking through the enormous mass of laboratory +notes. All his assistants agree that Edison is the most patient, +tireless experimenter that could be conceived of. Failures do not +distress him; indeed, he regards them as always useful, as may be +gathered from the following, related by Dr. E. G. Acheson, formerly one +of his staff: "I once made an experiment in Edison's laboratory at Menlo +Park during the latter part of 1880, and the results were not as looked +for. I considered the experiment a perfect failure, and while bemoaning +the results of this apparent failure Mr. Edison entered, and, after +learning the facts of the case, cheerfully remarked that I should not +look upon it as a failure, for he considered every experiment a success, +as in all cases it cleared up the atmosphere, and even though it failed +to accomplish the results sought for, it should prove a valuable lesson +for guidance in future work. I believe that Mr. Edison's success as +an experimenter was, to a large extent, due to this happy view of all +experiments." + +Edison has frequently remarked that out of a hundred experiments he +does not expect more than one to be successful, and as to that one he +is always suspicious until frequent repetition has verified the original +results. + +This patient, optimistic view of the outcome of experiments has remained +part of his character down to this day, just as his painstaking, minute, +incisive methods are still unchanged. But to the careless, stupid, or +lazy person he is a terror for the short time they remain around him. +Honest mistakes may be tolerated, but not carelessness, incompetence, +or lack of attention to business. In such cases Edison is apt to express +himself freely and forcibly, as when he was asked why he had parted with +a certain man, he said: "Oh, he was so slow that it would take him half +an hour to get out of the field of a microscope." Another instance will +be illustrative. Soon after the Brockton (Massachusetts) central station +was started in operation many years ago, he wrote a note to Mr. W. S. +Andrews, containing suggestions as to future stations, part of which +related to the various employees and their duties. After outlining the +duties of the meter man, Edison says: "I should not take too young a man +for this, say, a man from twenty-three to thirty years old, bright and +businesslike. Don't want any one who yearns to enter a laboratory and +experiment. We have a bad case of that at Brockton; he neglects business +to potter. What we want is a good lamp average and no unprofitable +customer. You should have these men on probation and subject to passing +an examination by me. This will wake them up." + +Edison's examinations are no joke, according to Mr. J. H. Vail, formerly +one of the Menlo Park staff. "I wanted a job," he said, "and was +ambitious to take charge of the dynamo-room. Mr. Edison led me to a heap +of junk in a corner and said: 'Put that together and let me know +when it's running.' I didn't know what it was, but received a liberal +education in finding out. It proved to be a dynamo, which I finally +succeeded in assembling and running. I got the job." Another man who +succeeded in winning a place as assistant was Mr. John F. Ott, who has +remained in his employ for over forty years. In 1869, when Edison was +occupying his first manufacturing shop (the third floor of a small +building in Newark), he wanted a first-class mechanician, and Mr. Ott +was sent to him. "He was then an ordinary-looking young fellow," says +Mr. Ott, "dirty as any of the other workmen, unkempt, and not much +better dressed than a tramp, but I immediately felt that there was a +great deal in him." This is the conversation that ensued, led by Mr. +Edison's question: + +"What do you want?" + +"Work." + +"Can you make this machine work?" (exhibiting it and explaining its +details). + +"Yes." + +"Are you sure?" + +"Well, you needn't pay me if I don't." + +And thus Mr. Ott went to work and succeeded in accomplishing the results +desired. Two weeks afterward Mr. Edison put him in charge of the shop. + +Edison's life fairly teems with instances of unruffled patience in the +pursuit of experiments. When he feels thoroughly impressed with the +possibility of accomplishing a certain thing, he will settle down +composedly to investigate it to the end. + +This is well illustrated in a story relating to his invention of the +type of storage battery bearing his name. Mr. W. S. Mallory, one of his +closest associates for many years, is the authority for the following: +"When Mr. Edison decided to shut down the ore-milling plant at Edison, +New Jersey, in which I had been associated with him, it became a +problem as to what he could profitably take up next, and we had several +discussions about it. He finally thought that a good storage battery +was a great requisite, and decided to try and devise a new type, for he +declared emphatically he would make no battery requiring sulphuric acid. +After a little thought he conceived the nickel-iron idea, and started to +work at once with characteristic energy. About 7 or 7.30 A.M. he would +go down to the laboratory and experiment, only stopping for a short time +at noon to eat a lunch sent down from the house. About 6 o'clock the +carriage would call to take him to dinner, from which he would return by +7.30 or 8 o'clock to resume work. The carriage came again at midnight +to take him home, but frequently had to wait until 2 or 3 o'clock, and +sometimes return without him, as he had decided to continue all night. + +"This had been going on more than five months, seven days a week, when +I was called down to the laboratory to see him. I found him at a bench +about three feet wide and twelve to fifteen feet long, on which there +were hundreds of little test cells that had been made up by his corps +of chemists and experimenters. He was seated at this bench testing, +figuring, and planning. I then learned that he had thus made over +nine thousand experiments in trying to devise this new type of storage +battery, but had not produced a single thing that promised to solve +the question. In view of this immense amount of thought and labor, my +sympathy got the better of my judgment, and I said: 'Isn't it a shame +that with the tremendous amount of work you have done you haven't been +able to get any results?' Edison turned on me like a flash, and with +a smile replied: 'Results! Why, man, I have gotten a lot of results! I +know several thousand things that won't work.' + +"At that time he sent me out West on a special mission. On my return, a +few weeks later, his experiments had run up to over ten thousand, but +he had discovered the missing link in the combination sought for. Of +course, we all remember how the battery was completed and put on the +market. Then, because he was dissatisfied with it, he stopped the sales +and commenced a new line of investigation, which has recently culminated +successfully. I shouldn't wonder if his experiments on the battery ran +up pretty near to fifty thousand, for they fill more than one hundred +and fifty of the note-books, to say nothing of some thousands of tests +in curve sheets." + +Although Edison has an absolute disregard for the total outlay of money +in investigation, he is particular to keep down the cost of individual +experiments to a minimum, for, as he observed to one of his assistants: +"A good many inventors try to develop things life-size, and thus spend +all their money, instead of first experimenting more freely on a small +scale." To Edison life is not only a grand opportunity to find out +things by experiment, but, when found, to improve them by further +experiment. One night, after receiving a satisfactory report of progress +from Mr. Mason, superintendent of the cement plant, he said: "The only +way to keep ahead of the procession is to experiment. If you don't, the +other fellow will. When there's no experimenting there's no progress. +Stop experimenting and you go backward. If anything goes wrong, +experiment until you get to the very bottom of the trouble." + +It is easy to realize, therefore, that a character so thoroughly +permeated with these ideas is not apt to stop and figure out expense +when in hot pursuit of some desired object. When that object has been +attained, however, and it passes from the experimental to the commercial +stage, Edison's monetary views again come into strong play, but they +take a diametrically opposite position, for he then begins immediately +to plan the extreme of economy in the production of the article. A +thousand and one instances could be quoted in illustration; but as +they would tend to change the form of this narrative into a history of +economy in manufacture, it will suffice to mention but one, and that a +recent occurrence, which serves to illustrate how closely he keeps in +touch with everything, and also how the inventive faculty and instinct +of commercial economy run close together. It was during Edison's winter +stay in Florida, in March, 1909. He had reports sent to him daily +from various places, and studied them carefully, for he would write +frequently with comments, instructions, and suggestions; and in one +case, commenting on the oiling system at the cement plant, he wrote: +"Your oil losses are now getting lower, I see." Then, after suggesting +some changes to reduce them still further, he went on to say: "Here is a +chance to save a mill per barrel based on your regular daily output." + +This thorough consideration of the smallest detail is essentially +characteristic of Edison, not only in economy of manufacture, but in +all his work, no matter of what kind, whether it be experimenting, +investigating, testing, or engineering. To follow him through the +labyrinthine paths of investigation contained in the great array of +laboratory note-books is to become involved in a mass of minutely +detailed searches which seek to penetrate the inmost recesses of nature +by an ultimate analysis of an infinite variety of parts. As the reader +will obtain a fuller comprehension of this idea, and of Edison's +methods, by concrete illustration rather than by generalization, the +authors have thought it well to select at random two typical instances +of specific investigations out of the thousands that are scattered +through the notebooks. These will be found in the following extracts +from one of the note-books, and consist of Edison's instructions to be +carried out in detail by his experimenters: + + +"Take, say, 25 lbs. hard Cuban asphalt and separate all the different +hydrocarbons, etc., as far as possible by means of solvents. It will be +necessary first to dissolve everything out by, say, hot turpentine, then +successively treat the residue with bisulphide carbon, benzol, ether, +chloroform, naphtha, toluol, alcohol, and other probable solvents. +After you can go no further, distil off all the solvents so the asphalt +material has a tar-like consistency. Be sure all the ash is out of the +turpentine portion; now, after distilling the turpentine off, act on the +residue with all the solvents that were used on the residue, using for +the first the solvent which is least likely to dissolve a great part +of it. By thus manipulating the various solvents you will be +enabled probably to separate the crude asphalt into several distinct +hydrocarbons. Put each in a bottle after it has been dried, and label +the bottle with the process, etc., so we may be able to duplicate it; +also give bottle a number and describe everything fully in note-book." + +"Destructively distil the following substances down to a point just +short of carbonization, so that the residuum can be taken out of the +retort, powdered, and acted on by all the solvents just as the asphalt +in previous page. The distillation should be carried to, say, 600 +degrees or 700 degrees Fahr., but not continued long enough to wholly +reduce mass to charcoal, but always run to blackness. Separate the +residuum in as many definite parts as possible, bottle and label, and +keep accurate records as to process, weights, etc., so a reproduction of +the experiment can at any time be made: Gelatine, 4 lbs.; asphalt, hard +Cuban, 10 lbs.; coal-tar or pitch, 10 lbs.; wood-pitch, 10 lbs.; +Syrian asphalt, 10 lbs.; bituminous coal, 10 lbs.; cane-sugar, 10 lbs.; +glucose, 10 lbs.; dextrine, 10 lbs.; glycerine, 10 lbs.; tartaric acid, +5 lbs.; gum guiac, 5 lbs.; gum amber, 3 lbs.; gum tragacanth, 3 Lbs.; +aniline red, 1 lb.; aniline oil, 1 lb.; crude anthracene, 5 lbs.; +petroleum pitch, 10 lbs.; albumen from eggs, 2 lbs.; tar from passing +chlorine through aniline oil, 2 lbs.; citric acid, 5 lbs.; sawdust of +boxwood, 3 lbs.; starch, 5 lbs.; shellac, 3 lbs.; gum Arabic, 5 lbs.; +castor oil, 5 lbs." + +The empirical nature of his method will be apparent from an examination +of the above items; but in pursuing it he leaves all uncertainty +behind and, trusting nothing to theory, he acquires absolute knowledge. +Whatever may be the mental processes by which he arrives at the +starting-point of any specific line of research, the final results +almost invariably prove that he does not plunge in at random; indeed, +as an old associate remarked: "When Edison takes up any proposition +in natural science, his perceptions seem to be elementally broad and +analytical, that is to say, in addition to the knowledge he has acquired +from books and observation, he appears to have an intuitive apprehension +of the general order of things, as they might be supposed to exist in +natural relation to each other. It has always seemed to me that he goes +to the core of things at once." + +Although nothing less than results from actual experiments are +acceptable to him as established facts, this view of Edison may +also account for his peculiar and somewhat weird ability to "guess" +correctly, a faculty which has frequently enabled him to take short +cuts to lines of investigation whose outcome has verified in a most +remarkable degree statements apparently made offhand and without +calculation. Mr. Upton says: "One of the main impressions left upon me, +after knowing Mr. Edison for many years, is the marvellous accuracy of +his guesses. He will see the general nature of a result long before it +can be reached by mathematical calculation." This was supplemented by +one of his engineering staff, who remarked: "Mr. Edison can guess better +than a good many men can figure, and so far as my experience goes, I +have found that he is almost invariably correct. His guess is more than +a mere starting-point, and often turns out to be the final solution of +a problem. I can only account for it by his remarkable insight and +wonderful natural sense of the proportion of things, in addition to +which he seems to carry in his head determining factors of all +kinds, and has the ability to apply them instantly in considering any +mechanical problem." + +While this mysterious intuitive power has been of the greatest advantage +in connection with the vast number of technical problems that have +entered into his life-work, there have been many remarkable instances +in which it has seemed little less than prophecy, and it is deemed worth +while to digress to the extent of relating two of them. One day in +the summer of 1881, when the incandescent lamp-industry was still +in swaddling clothes, Edison was seated in the room of Major Eaton, +vice-president of the Edison Electric Light Company, talking over +business matters, when Mr. Upton came in from the lamp factory at +Menlo Park, and said: "Well, Mr. Edison, we completed a thousand +lamps to-day." Edison looked up and said "Good," then relapsed into +a thoughtful mood. In about two minutes he raised his head, and said: +"Upton, in fifteen years you will be making forty thousand lamps a day." +None of those present ventured to make any remark on this assertion, +although all felt that it was merely a random guess, based on the +sanguine dream of an inventor. The business had not then really made a +start, and being entirely new was without precedent upon which to base +any such statement, but, as a matter of fact, the records of the lamp +factory show that in 1896 its daily output of lamps was actually about +forty thousand. + +The other instance referred to occurred shortly after the Edison Machine +Works was moved up to Schenectady, in 1886. One day, when he was at the +works, Edison sat down and wrote on a sheet of paper fifteen separate +predictions of the growth and future of the electrical business. +Notwithstanding the fact that the industry was then in an immature +state, and that the great boom did not set in until a few years +afterward, twelve of these predictions have been fully verified by the +enormous growth and development in all branches of the art. + +What the explanation of this gift, power, or intuition may be, is +perhaps better left to the psychologist to speculate upon. If one were +to ask Edison, he would probably say, "Hard work, not too much sleep, +and free use of the imagination." Whether or not it would be possible +for the average mortal to arrive at such perfection of "guessing" by +faithfully following this formula, even reinforced by the Edison +recipe for stimulating a slow imagination with pastry, is open for +demonstration. + +Somewhat allied to this curious faculty is another no less remarkable, +and that is, the ability to point out instantly an error in a mass of +reported experimental results. While many instances could be definitely +named, a typical one, related by Mr. J. D. Flack, formerly master +mechanic at the lamp factory, may be quoted: "During the many years +of lamp experimentation, batches of lamps were sent to the photometer +department for test, and Edison would examine the tabulated test sheets. +He ran over every item of the tabulations rapidly, and, apparently +without any calculation whatever, would check off errors as fast as he +came to them, saying: 'You have made a mistake; try this one over.' +In every case the second test proved that he was right. This wonderful +aptitude for infallibly locating an error without an instant's +hesitation for mental calculation, has always appealed to me very +forcibly." + +The ability to detect errors quickly in a series of experiments is one +of the things that has enabled Edison to accomplish such a vast amount +of work as the records show. Examples of the minuteness of detail into +which his researches extend have already been mentioned, and as +there are always a number of such investigations in progress at the +laboratory, this ability stands Edison in good stead, for he is thus +enabled to follow, and, if necessary, correct each one step by step. +In this he is aided by the great powers of a mind that is able to free +itself from absorbed concentration on the details of one problem, and +instantly to shift over and become deeply and intelligently concentrated +in another and entirely different one. For instance, he may have been +busy for hours on chemical experiments, and be called upon suddenly to +determine some mechanical questions. The complete and easy transition +is the constant wonder of his associates, for there is no confusion +of ideas resulting from these quick changes, no hesitation or apparent +effort, but a plunge into the midst of the new subject, and an instant +acquaintance with all its details, as if he had been studying it for +hours. + +A good stiff difficulty--one which may, perhaps, appear to be an +unsurmountable obstacle--only serves to make Edison cheerful, and brings +out variations of his methods in experimenting. Such an occurrence will +start him thinking, which soon gives rise to a line of suggestions for +approaching the trouble from various sides; or he will sit down and +write out a series of eliminations, additions, or changes to be worked +out and reported upon, with such variations as may suggest themselves +during their progress. It is at such times as these that his unfailing +patience and tremendous resourcefulness are in evidence. Ideas and +expedients are poured forth in a torrent, and although some of them have +temporarily appeared to the staff to be ridiculous or irrelevant, they +have frequently turned out to be the ones leading to a correct solution +of the trouble. + +Edison's inexhaustible resourcefulness and fertility of ideas have +contributed largely to his great success, and have ever been a cause of +amazement to those around him. Frequently, when it would seem to others +that the extreme end of an apparently blind alley had been reached, and +that it was impossible to proceed further, he has shown that there were +several ways out of it. Examples without number could be quoted, but +one must suffice by way of illustration. During the progress of the +ore-milling work at Edison, it became desirable to carry on a certain +operation by some special machinery. He requested the proper person on +his engineering staff to think this matter up and submit a few sketches +of what he would propose to do. He brought three drawings to Edison, who +examined them and said none of them would answer. The engineer remarked +that it was too bad, for there was no other way to do it. Mr. Edison +turned to him quickly, and said: "Do you mean to say that these drawings +represent the only way to do this work?" To which he received the reply: +"I certainly do." Edison said nothing. This happened on a Saturday. He +followed his usual custom of spending Sunday at home in Orange. When he +returned to the works on Monday morning, he took with him sketches he +had made, showing FORTY-EIGHT other ways of accomplishing the desired +operation, and laid them on the engineer's desk without a word. +Subsequently one of these ideas, with modifications suggested by some of +the others, was put into successful practice. + +Difficulties seem to have a peculiar charm for Edison, whether they +relate to large or small things; and although the larger matters have +contributed most to the history of the arts, the same carefulness of +thought has often been the means of leading to improvements of permanent +advantage even in minor details. For instance, in the very earliest days +of electric lighting, the safe insulation of two bare wires fastened +together was a serious problem that was solved by him. An iron pot over +a fire, some insulating material melted therein, and narrow strips of +linen drawn through it by means of a wooden clamp, furnished a readily +applied and adhesive insulation, which was just as perfect for the +purpose as the regular and now well-known insulating tape, of which it +was the forerunner. + +Dubious results are not tolerated for a moment in Edison's experimental +work. Rather than pass upon an uncertainty, the experiment will be +dissected and checked minutely in order to obtain absolute knowledge, +pro and con. This searching method is followed not only in chemical or +other investigations, into which complexities might naturally enter, +but also in more mechanical questions, where simplicity of construction +might naturally seem to preclude possibilities of uncertainty. For +instance, at the time when he was making strenuous endeavors to obtain +copper wire of high conductivity, strict laboratory tests were made of +samples sent by manufacturers. One of these samples tested out poorer +than a previous lot furnished from the same factory. A report of this to +Edison brought the following note: "Perhaps the ---- wire had a bad spot +in it. Please cut it up into lengths and test each one and send results +to me immediately." Possibly the electrical fraternity does not realize +that this earnest work of Edison, twenty-eight years ago, resulted in +the establishment of the high quality of copper wire that has been +the recognized standard since that time. Says Edison on this point: +"I furnished the expert and apparatus to the Ansonia Brass and Copper +Company in 1883, and he is there yet. It was this expert and this +company who pioneered high-conductivity copper for the electrical +trade." + +Nor is it generally appreciated in the industry that the adoption of +what is now regarded as a most obvious proposition--the high-economy +incandescent lamp--was the result of that characteristic foresight which +there has been occasion to mention frequently in the course of this +narrative, together with the courage and "horse-sense" which have +always been displayed by the inventor in his persistent pushing out +with far-reaching ideas, in the face of pessimistic opinions. As is +well known, the lamps of the first ten or twelve years of incandescent +lighting were of low economy, but had long life. Edison's study of the +subject had led him to the conviction that the greatest growth of +the electric-lighting industry would be favored by a lamp taking less +current, but having shorter, though commercially economical life; +and after gradually making improvements along this line he developed, +finally, a type of high-economy lamp which would introduce a most +radical change in existing conditions, and lead ultimately to highly +advantageous results. His start on this lamp, and an expressed desire to +have it manufactured for regular use, filled even some of his business +associates with dismay, for they could see nothing but disaster ahead +in forcing such a lamp on the market. His persistence and profound +conviction of the ultimate results were so strong and his arguments so +sound, however, that the campaign was entered upon. Although it took two +or three years to convince the public of the correctness of his views, +the idea gradually took strong root, and has now become an integral +principle of the business. + +In this connection it may be noted that with remarkable prescience +Edison saw the coming of the modern lamps of to-day, which, by reason of +their small consumption of energy to produce a given candle-power, have +dismayed central-station managers. A few years ago a consumption of 3.1 +watts per candle-power might safely be assumed as an excellent average, +and many stations fixed their rates and business on such a basis. The +results on income when the consumption, as in the new metallic-filament +lamps, drops to 1.25 watts per candle can readily be imagined. Edison +has insisted that central stations are selling light and not current; +and he points to the predicament now confronting them as truth of his +assertion that when selling light they share in all the benefits of +improvement, but that when they sell current the consumer gets all +those benefits without division. The dilemma is encountered by central +stations in a bewildered way, as a novel and unexpected experience; but +Edison foresaw the situation and warned against it long ago. It is one +of the greatest gifts of statesmanship to see new social problems years +before they arise and solve them in advance. It is one of the greatest +attributes of invention to foresee and meet its own problems in exactly +the same way. + + + +CHAPTER XXV + +THE LABORATORY AT ORANGE AND THE STAFF + +A LIVING interrogation-point and a born investigator from childhood, +Edison has never been without a laboratory of some kind for upward of +half a century. + +In youthful years, as already described in this book, he became ardently +interested in chemistry, and even at the early age of twelve felt the +necessity for a special nook of his own, where he could satisfy his +unconvinced mind of the correctness or inaccuracy of statements and +experiments contained in the few technical books then at his command. + +Ordinarily he was like other normal lads of his age--full of boyish, +hearty enjoyments--but withal possessed of an unquenchable spirit of +inquiry and an insatiable desire for knowledge. Being blessed with a +wise and discerning mother, his aspirations were encouraged; and he was +allowed a corner in her cellar. It is fair to offer tribute here to her +bravery as well as to her wisdom, for at times she was in mortal terror +lest the precocious experimenter below should, in his inexperience, make +some awful combination that would explode and bring down the house in +ruins on himself and the rest of the family. + +Fortunately no such catastrophe happened, but young Edison worked +away in his embryonic laboratory, satisfying his soul and incidentally +depleting his limited pocket-money to the vanishing-point. It was, +indeed, owing to this latter circumstance that in a year or two his +aspirations necessitated an increase of revenue; and a consequent +determination to earn some money for himself led to his first real +commercial enterprise as "candy butcher" on the Grand Trunk Railroad, +already mentioned in a previous chapter. It has also been related how +his precious laboratory was transferred to the train; how he and it were +subsequently expelled; and how it was re-established in his home, where +he continued studies and experiments until the beginning of his career +as a telegraph operator. + +The nomadic life of the next few years did not lessen his devotion to +study; but it stood seriously in the way of satisfying the ever-present +craving for a laboratory. The lack of such a place never prevented +experimentation, however, as long as he had a dollar in his pocket +and some available "hole in the wall." With the turning of the tide of +fortune that suddenly carried him, in New York in 1869, from poverty +to the opulence of $300 a month, he drew nearer to a realization of his +cherished ambition in having money, place, and some time (stolen from +sleep) for more serious experimenting. Thus matters continued until, +at about the age of twenty-two, Edison's inventions had brought him a +relatively large sum of money, and he became a very busy manufacturer, +and lessee of a large shop in Newark, New Jersey. + +Now, for the first time since leaving that boyish laboratory in the old +home at Port Huron, Edison had a place of his own to work in, to think +in; but no one in any way acquainted with Newark as a swarming centre +of miscellaneous and multitudinous industries would recommend it as a +cloistered retreat for brooding reverie and introspection, favorable to +creative effort. Some people revel in surroundings of hustle and bustle, +and find therein no hindrance to great accomplishment. The electrical +genius of Newark is Edward Weston, who has thriven amid its turmoil +and there has developed his beautiful instruments of precision; just +as Brush worked out his arc-lighting system in Cleveland; or even as +Faraday, surrounded by the din and roar of London, laid the intellectual +foundations of the whole modern science of dynamic electricity. But +Edison, though deaf, could not make too hurried a retreat from Newark to +Menlo Park, where, as if to justify his change of base, vital inventions +soon came thick and fast, year after year. The story of Menlo has been +told in another chapter, but the point was not emphasized that Edison +then, as later, tried hard to drop manufacturing. He would infinitely +rather be philosopher than producer; but somehow the necessity of +manufacturing is constantly thrust back upon him by a profound--perhaps +finical--sense of dissatisfaction with what other people make for him. +The world never saw a man more deeply and desperately convinced that +nothing in it approaches perfection. Edison is the doctrine of evolution +incarnate, applied to mechanics. As to the removal from Newark, he may +be allowed to tell his own story: "I had a shop at Newark in which I +manufactured stock tickers and such things. When I moved to Menlo Park +I took out only the machinery that would be necessary for experimental +purposes and left the manufacturing machinery in the place. It consisted +of many milling machines and other tools for duplicating. I rented this +to a man who had formerly been my bookkeeper, and who thought he could +make money out of manufacturing. There was about $10,000 worth of +machinery. He was to pay me $2000 a year for the rent of the machinery +and keep it in good order. After I moved to Menlo Park, I was very +busy with the telephone and phonograph, and I paid no attention to this +little arrangement. About three years afterward, it occurred to me that +I had not heard at all from the man who had rented this machinery, so I +thought I would go over to Newark and see how things were going. When I +got there, I found that instead of being a machine shop it was a hotel! +I have since been utterly unable to find out what became of the man +or the machinery." Such incidents tend to justify Edison in his rather +cynical remark that he has always been able to improve machinery much +quicker than men. All the way up he has had discouraging experiences. +"One day while I was carrying on my work in Newark, a Wall Street broker +came from the city and said he was tired of the 'Street,' and wanted to +go into something real. He said he had plenty of money. He wanted some +kind of a job to keep his mind off Wall Street. So we gave him a job +as a 'mucker' in chemical experiments. The second night he was there +he could not stand the long hours and fell asleep on a sofa. One of the +boys took a bottle of bromine and opened it under the sofa. It floated +up and produced a violent effect on the mucous membrane. The broker was +taken with such a fit of coughing he burst a blood-vessel, and the +man who let the bromine out got away and never came back. I suppose he +thought there was going to be a death. But the broker lived, and left +the next day; and I have never seen him since, either." Edison tells +also of another foolhardy laboratory trick of the same kind: "Some of my +assistants in those days were very green in the business, as I did not +care whether they had had any experience or not. I generally tried to +turn them loose. One day I got a new man, and told him to conduct a +certain experiment. He got a quart of ether and started to boil it over +a naked flame. Of course it caught fire. The flame was about four +feet in diameter and eleven feet high. We had to call out the fire +department; and they came down and put a stream through the window. That +let all the fumes and chemicals out and overcame the firemen; and there +was the devil to pay. Another time we experimented with a tub full of +soapy water, and put hydrogen into it to make large bubbles. One of the +boys, who was washing bottles in the place, had read in some book that +hydrogen was explosive, so he proceeded to blow the tub up. There was +about four inches of soap in the bottom of the tub, fourteen inches +high; and he filled it with soap bubbles up to the brim. Then he took a +bamboo fish-pole, put a piece of paper at the end, and touched it off. +It blew every window out of the place." + +Always a shrewd, observant, and kindly critic of character, Edison tells +many anecdotes of the men who gathered around him in various capacities +at that quiet corner of New Jersey--Menlo Park--and later at Orange, in +the Llewellyn Park laboratory; and these serve to supplement the main +narrative by throwing vivid side-lights on the whole scene. Here, for +example, is a picture drawn by Edison of a laboratory interlude--just +a bit Rabelaisian: "When experimenting at Menlo Park we had all the way +from forty to fifty men. They worked all the time. Each man was allowed +from four to six hours' sleep. We had a man who kept tally, and when the +time came for one to sleep, he was notified. At midnight we had lunch +brought in and served at a long table at which the experimenters +sat down. I also had an organ which I procured from Hilbourne +Roosevelt--uncle of the ex-President--and we had a man play this +organ while we ate our lunch. During the summertime, after we had made +something which was successful, I used to engage a brick-sloop at Perth +Amboy and take the whole crowd down to the fishing-banks on the Atlantic +for two days. On one occasion we got outside Sandy Hook on the banks and +anchored. A breeze came up, the sea became rough, and a large number of +the men were sick. There was straw in the bottom of the boat, which we +all slept on. Most of the men adjourned to this straw very sick. Those +who were not got a piece of rancid salt pork from the skipper, and cut a +large, thick slice out of it. This was put on the end of a fish-hook +and drawn across the men's faces. The smell was terrific, and the effect +added to the hilarity of the excursion. + +"I went down once with my father and two assistants for a little fishing +inside Sandy Hook. For some reason or other the fishing was very poor. +We anchored, and I started in to fish. After fishing for several hours +there was not a single bite. The others wanted to pull up anchor, but +I fished two days and two nights without a bite, until they pulled up +anchor and went away. I would not give up. I was going to catch that +fish if it took a week." + +This is general. Let us quote one or two piquant personal observations +of a more specific nature as to the odd characters Edison drew around +him in his experimenting. "Down at Menlo Park a man came in one day and +wanted a job. He was a sailor. I hadn't any particular work to give him, +but I had a number of small induction coils, and to give him something +to do I told him to fix them up and sell them among his sailor friends. +They were fixed up, and he went over to New York and sold them all. He +was an extraordinary fellow. His name was Adams. One day I asked him how +long it was since he had been to sea, and he replied two or three years. +I asked him how he had made a living in the mean time, before he came +to Menlo Park. He said he made a pretty good living by going around to +different clinics and getting $10 at each clinic, because of having the +worst case of heart-disease on record. I told him if that was the case +he would have to be very careful around the laboratory. I had him there +to help in experimenting, and the heart-disease did not seem to bother +him at all. + +"It appeared that he had once been a slaver; and altogether he was a +tough character. Having no other man I could spare at that time, I sent +him over with my carbon transmitter telephone to exhibit it in England. +It was exhibited before the Post-Office authorities. Professor Hughes +spent an afternoon in examining the apparatus, and in about a month came +out with his microphone, which was absolutely nothing more nor less +than my exact invention. But no mention was made of the fact that, just +previously, he had seen the whole of my apparatus. Adams stayed over in +Europe connected with the telephone for several years, and finally died +of too much whiskey--but not of heart-disease. This shows how whiskey +is the more dangerous of the two. + +"Adams said that at one time he was aboard a coffee-ship in the harbor +of Santos, Brazil. He fell down a hatchway and broke his arm. They took +him up to the hospital--a Portuguese one--where he could not speak the +language, and they did not understand English. They treated him for two +weeks for yellow fever! He was certainly the most profane man we ever +had around the laboratory. He stood high in his class." + +And there were others of a different stripe. "We had a man with us at +Menlo called Segredor. He was a queer kind of fellow. The men got in the +habit of plaguing him; and, finally, one day he said to the assembled +experimenters in the top room of the laboratory: 'The next man that does +it, I will kill him.' They paid no attention to this, and next day one +of them made some sarcastic remark to him. Segredor made a start for +his boarding-house, and when they saw him coming back up the hill with +a gun, they knew there would be trouble, so they all made for the woods. +One of the men went back and mollified him. He returned to his work; +but he was not teased any more. At last, when I sent men out hunting for +bamboo, I dispatched Segredor to Cuba. He arrived in Havana on Tuesday, +and on the Friday following he was buried, having died of the black +vomit. On the receipt of the news of his death, half a dozen of the men +wanted his job, but my searcher in the Astor Library reported that the +chances of finding the right kind of bamboo for lamps in Cuba were very +small; so I did not send a substitute." + +Another thumb-nail sketch made of one of his associates is this: "When +experimenting with vacuum-pumps to exhaust the incandescent lamps, I +required some very delicate and close manipulation of glass, and hired +a German glass-blower who was said to be the most expert man of his +kind in the United States. He was the only one who could make clinical +thermometers. He was the most extraordinarily conceited man I have ever +come across. His conceit was so enormous, life was made a burden to him +by all the boys around the laboratory. He once said that he was educated +in a university where all the students belonged to families of the +aristocracy; and the highest class in the university all wore little red +caps. He said HE wore one." + +Of somewhat different caliber was "honest" John Kruesi, who first made +his mark at Menlo Park, and of whom Edison says: "One of the workmen +I had at Menlo Park was John Kruesi, who afterward became, from his +experience, engineer of the lighting station, and subsequently engineer +of the Edison General Electric Works at Schenectady. Kruesi was very +exact in his expressions. At the time we were promoting and putting +up electric-light stations in Pennsylvania, New York, and New England, +there would be delegations of different people who proposed to pay for +these stations. They would come to our office in New York, at '65,' to +talk over the specifications, the cost, and other things. At first, Mr. +Kruesi was brought in, but whenever a statement was made which he could +not understand or did not believe could be substantiated, he would blurt +right out among these prospects that he didn't believe it. Finally it +disturbed these committees so much, and raised so many doubts in their +minds, that one of my chief associates said: 'Here, Kruesi, we don't +want you to come to these meetings any longer. You are too painfully +honest.' I said to him: 'We always tell the truth. It may be deferred +truth, but it is the truth.' He could not understand that." + +Various reasons conspired to cause the departure from Menlo Park midway +in the eighties. For Edison, in spite of the achievement with which its +name will forever be connected, it had lost all its attractions and all +its possibilities. It had been outgrown in many ways, and strange as the +remark may seem, it was not until he had left it behind and had settled +in Orange, New Jersey, that he can be said to have given definite shape +to his life. He was only forty in 1887, and all that he had done up to +that time, tremendous as much of it was, had worn a haphazard, Bohemian +air, with all the inconsequential freedom and crudeness somehow +attaching to pioneer life. The development of the new laboratory in West +Orange, just at the foot of Llewellyn Park, on the Orange Mountains, +not only marked the happy beginning of a period of perfect domestic and +family life, but saw in the planning and equipment of a model laboratory +plant the consummation of youthful dreams, and of the keen desire to +enjoy resources adequate at any moment to whatever strain the fierce +fervor of research might put upon them. Curiously enough, while +hitherto Edison had sought to dissociate his experimenting from his +manufacturing, here he determined to develop a large industry to which +a thoroughly practical laboratory would be a central feature, and ever a +source of suggestion and inspiration. Edison's standpoint to-day is that +an evil to be dreaded in manufacture is that of over-standardization, +and that as soon as an article is perfect that is the time to begin +improving it. But he who would improve must experiment. + +The Orange laboratory, as originally planned, consisted of a main +building two hundred and fifty feet long and three stories in height, +together with four other structures, each one hundred by twenty-five +feet, and only one story in height. All these were substantially built +of brick. The main building was divided into five chief divisions--the +library, office, machine shops, experimental and chemical rooms, +and stock-room. The use of the smaller buildings will be presently +indicated. + +Surrounding the whole was erected a high picket fence with a gate placed +on Valley Road. At this point a gate-house was provided and put in +charge of a keeper, for then, as at the present time, Edison was greatly +sought after; and, in order to accomplish any work at all, he was +obliged to deny himself to all but the most important callers. The +keeper of the gate was usually chosen with reference to his capacity +for stony-hearted implacability and adherence to instructions; and this +choice was admirably made in one instance when a new gateman, not yet +thoroughly initiated, refused admittance to Edison himself. It was of no +use to try and explain. To the gateman EVERY ONE was persona non grata +without proper credentials, and Edison had to wait outside until he +could get some one to identify him. + +On entering the main building the first doorway from the ample passage +leads the visitor into a handsome library finished throughout in yellow +pine, occupying the entire width of the building, and almost as broad +as long. The centre of this spacious room is an open rectangular space +about forty by twenty-five feet, rising clear about forty feet from the +main floor to a panelled ceiling. Around the sides of the room, bounding +this open space, run two tiers of gallery, divided, as is the main floor +beneath them; into alcoves of liberal dimensions. These alcoves are +formed by racks extending from floor to ceiling, fitted with shelves, +except on two sides of both galleries, where they are formed by a series +of glass-fronted cabinets containing extensive collections of curious +and beautiful mineralogical and geological specimens, among which is +the notable Tiffany-Kunz collection of minerals acquired by Edison some +years ago. Here and there in these cabinets may also be found a +few models which he has used at times in his studies of anatomy and +physiology. + +The shelves on the remainder of the upper gallery and part of those on +the first gallery are filled with countless thousands of specimens of +ores and minerals of every conceivable kind gathered from all parts of +the world, and all tagged and numbered. The remaining shelves of the +first gallery are filled with current numbers (and some back numbers) of +the numerous periodicals to which Edison subscribes. Here may be +found the popular magazines, together with those of a technical nature +relating to electricity, chemistry, engineering, mechanics, building, +cement, building materials, drugs, water and gas, power, automobiles, +railroads, aeronautics, philosophy, hygiene, physics, telegraphy, +mining, metallurgy, metals, music, and others; also theatrical weeklies, +as well as the proceedings and transactions of various learned and +technical societies. + +The first impression received as one enters on the main floor of the +library and looks around is that of noble proportions and symmetry as a +whole. The open central space of liberal dimensions and height, flanked +by the galleries and relieved by four handsome electric-lighting +fixtures suspended from the ceiling by long chains, conveys an idea of +lofty spaciousness; while the huge open fireplace, surmounted by a great +clock built into the wall, at one end of the room, the large rugs, the +arm-chairs scattered around, the tables and chairs in the alcoves, give +a general air of comfort combined with utility. In one of the larger +alcoves, at the sunny end of the main hall, is Edison's own desk, where +he may usually be seen for a while in the early morning hours looking +over his mail or otherwise busily working on matters requiring his +attention. + +At the opposite end of the room, not far from the open fireplace, is a +long table surrounded by swivel desk-chairs. It is here that directors' +meetings are sometimes held, and also where weighty matters are often +discussed by Edison at conference with his closer associates. It +has been the privilege of the writers to be present at some of these +conferences, not only as participants, but in some cases as lookers-on +while awaiting their turn. On such occasions an interesting opportunity +is offered to study Edison in his intense and constructive moods. +Apparently oblivious to everything else, he will listen with +concentrated mind and close attention, and then pour forth a perfect +torrent of ideas and plans, and, if the occasion calls for it, will turn +around to the table, seize a writing-pad and make sketch after sketch +with lightning-like rapidity, tearing off each sheet as filled and +tossing it aside to the floor. It is an ordinary indication that +there has been an interesting meeting when the caretaker about fills a +waste-basket with these discarded sketches. + +Directly opposite the main door is a beautiful marble statue purchased +by Edison at the Paris Exposition in 1889, on the occasion of his visit +there. The statue, mounted on a base three feet high, is an allegorical +representation of the supremacy of electric light over all other forms +of illumination, carried out by the life-size figure of a youth with +half-spread wings seated upon the ruins of a street gas-lamp, holding +triumphantly high above his head an electric incandescent lamp. Grouped +about his feet are a gear-wheel, voltaic pile, telegraph key, and +telephone. This work of art was executed by A. Bordiga, of Rome, held +a prominent place in the department devoted to Italian art at the Paris +Exposition, and naturally appealed to Edison as soon as he saw it. + +In the middle distance, between the entrance door and this statue, has +long stood a magnificent palm, but at the present writing it has been +set aside to give place to a fine model of the first type of the Edison +poured cement house, which stands in a miniature artificial lawn upon +a special table prepared for it; while on the floor at the foot of the +table are specimens of the full-size molds in which the house will be +cast. + +The balustrades of the galleries and all other available places are +filled with portraits of great scientists and men of achievement, as +well as with pictures of historic and scientific interest. Over the +fireplace hangs a large photograph showing the Edison cement plant +in its entire length, flanked on one end of the mantel by a bust of +Humboldt, and on the other by a statuette of Sandow, the latter having +been presented to Edison by the celebrated athlete after the visit he +made to Orange to pose for the motion pictures in the earliest days of +their development. On looking up under the second gallery at this end +is seen a great roll resting in sockets placed on each side of the room. +This is a huge screen or curtain which may be drawn down to the floor to +provide a means of projection for lantern slides or motion pictures, for +the entertainment or instruction of Edison and his guests. In one of +the larger alcoves is a large terrestrial globe pivoted in its special +stand, together with a relief map of the United States; and here and +there are handsomely mounted specimens of underground conductors and +electric welds that were made at the Edison Machine Works at Schenectady +before it was merged into the General Electric Company. On two +pedestals stand, respectively, two other mementoes of the works, one +a fifteen-light dynamo of the Edison type, and the other an elaborate +electric fan--both of them gifts from associates or employees. + +In noting these various objects of interest one must not lose sight +of the fact that this part of the building is primarily a library, +if indeed that fact did not at once impress itself by a glance at the +well-filled unglazed book-shelves in the alcoves of the main floor. Here +Edison's catholic taste in reading becomes apparent as one scans the +titles of thousands of volumes ranged upon the shelves, for they include +astronomy, botany, chemistry, dynamics, electricity, engineering, +forestry, geology, geography, mechanics, mining, medicine, metallurgy, +magnetism, philosophy, psychology, physics, steam, steam-engines, +telegraphy, telephony, and many others. Besides these there are the +journals and proceedings of numerous technical societies; encyclopaedias +of various kinds; bound series of important technical magazines; a +collection of United States and foreign patents, embracing some hundreds +of volumes, together with an extensive assortment of miscellaneous books +of special and general interest. There is another big library up in +the house on the hill--in fact, there are books upon books all over the +home. And wherever they are, those books are read. + +As one is about to pass out of the library attention is arrested by an +incongruity in the form of a cot, which stands in an alcove near the +door. Here Edison, throwing himself down, sometimes seeks a short rest +during specially long working tours. Sleep is practically instantaneous +and profound, and he awakes in immediate and full possession of his +faculties, arising from the cot and going directly "back to the job" +without a moment's hesitation, just as a person wide awake would arise +from a chair and proceed to attend to something previously determined +upon. + +Immediately outside the library is the famous stock-room, about which +much has been written and invented. Its fame arose from the fact that +Edison planned it to be a repository of some quantity, great or small, +of every known and possibly useful substance not readily perishable, +together with the most complete assortment of chemicals and drugs +that experience and knowledge could suggest. Always strenuous in his +experimentation, and the living embodiment of the spirit of the song, I +Want What I Want When I Want It, Edison had known for years what it +was to be obliged to wait, and sometimes lack, for some substance or +chemical that he thought necessary to the success of an experiment. +Naturally impatient at any delay which interposed in his insistent +and searching methods, and realizing the necessity of maintaining the +inspiration attending his work at any time, he determined to have within +his immediate reach the natural resources of the world. + +Hence it is not surprising to find the stock-room not only a museum, +but a sample-room of nature, as well as a supply department. To a +casual visitor the first view of this heterogeneous collection is quite +bewildering, but on more mature examination it resolves itself into a +natural classification--as, for instance, objects pertaining to various +animals, birds, and fishes, such as skins, hides, hair, fur, feathers, +wool, quills, down, bristles, teeth, bones, hoofs, horns, tusks, shells; +natural products, such as woods, barks, roots, leaves, nuts, seeds, +herbs, gums, grains, flours, meals, bran; also minerals in great +assortment; mineral and vegetable oils, clay, mica, ozokerite, etc. In +the line of textiles, cotton and silk threads in great variety, with +woven goods of all kinds from cheese-cloth to silk plush. As for paper, +there is everything in white and colored, from thinnest tissue up to the +heaviest asbestos, even a few newspapers being always on hand. Twines +of all sizes, inks, waxes, cork, tar, resin, pitch, turpentine, asphalt, +plumbago, glass in sheets and tubes; and a host of miscellaneous +articles revealed on looking around the shelves, as well as an +interminable collection of chemicals, including acids, alkalies, +salts, reagents, every conceivable essential oil and all the thinkable +extracts. It may be remarked that this collection includes the eighteen +hundred or more fluorescent salts made by Edison during his experimental +search for the best material for a fluoroscope in the initial X-ray +period. All known metals in form of sheet, rod and tube, and of great +variety in thickness, are here found also, together with a most complete +assortment of tools and accessories for machine shop and laboratory +work. + +The list is confined to the merest general mention of the scope of this +remarkable and interesting collection, as specific details would +stretch out into a catalogue of no small proportions. When it is stated, +however, that a stock clerk is kept exceedingly busy all day answering +the numerous and various demands upon him, the reader will appreciate +that this comprehensive assortment is not merely a fad of Edison's, +but stands rather as a substantial tribute to his wide-angled view of +possible requirements as his various investigations take him far afield. +It has no counterpart in the world! + +Beyond the stock-room, and occupying about half the building on the same +floor, lie a machine shop, engine-room, and boiler-room. This machine +shop is well equipped, and in it is constantly employed a large force +of mechanics whose time is occupied in constructing the heavier class of +models and mechanical devices called for by the varied experiments and +inventions always going on. + +Immediately above, on the second floor, is found another machine shop in +which is maintained a corps of expert mechanics who are called upon to +do work of greater precision and fineness, in the construction of tools +and experimental models. This is the realm presided over lovingly by +John F. Ott, who has been Edison's designer of mechanical devices for +over forty years. He still continues to ply his craft with unabated +skill and oversees the work of the mechanics as his productions are +wrought into concrete shape. + +In one of the many experimental-rooms lining the sides of the second +floor may usually be seen his younger brother, Fred Ott, whose skill as +a dexterous manipulator and ingenious mechanic has found ample scope +for exercise during the thirty-two years of his service with Edison, not +only at the regular laboratories, but also at that connected with the +inventor's winter home in Florida. Still another of the Ott family, the +son of John F., for some years past has been on the experimental staff +of the Orange laboratory. Although possessing in no small degree the +mechanical and manipulative skill of the family, he has chosen chemistry +as his special domain, and may be found with the other chemists in one +of the chemical-rooms. + +On this same floor is the vacuum-pump room with a glass-blowers' room +adjoining, both of them historic by reason of the strenuous work done +on incandescent lamps and X-ray tubes within their walls. The tools and +appliances are kept intact, for Edison calls occasionally for their use +in some of his later experiments, and there is a suspicion among the +laboratory staff that some day he may resume work on incandescent lamps. +Adjacent to these rooms are several others devoted to physical and +mechanical experiments, together with a draughting-room. + +Last to be mentioned, but the first in order as one leaves the head of +the stairs leading up to this floor, is No. 12, Edison's favorite room, +where he will frequently be found. Plain of aspect, being merely a space +boarded off with tongued-and-grooved planks--as all the other rooms +are--without ornament or floor covering, and containing only a few +articles of cheap furniture, this room seems to exercise a nameless +charm for him. The door is always open, and often he can be seen seated +at a plain table in the centre of the room, deeply intent on some of the +numerous problems in which he is interested. The table is usually pretty +well filled with specimens or data of experimental results which have +been put there for his examination. At the time of this writing these +specimens consist largely of sections of positive elements of the +storage battery, together with many samples of nickel hydrate, to which +Edison devotes deep study. Close at hand is a microscope which is +in frequent use by him in these investigations. Around the room, on +shelves, are hundreds of bottles each containing a small quantity +of nickel hydrate made in as many different ways, each labelled +correspondingly. Always at hand will be found one or two of the +laboratory note-books, with frequent entries or comments in the +handwriting which once seen is never forgotten. + +No. 12 is at times a chemical, a physical, or a mechanical +room--occasionally a combination of all, while sometimes it might be +called a consultation-room or clinic--for often Edison may be seen there +in animated conference with a group of his assistants; but its chief +distinction lies in its being one of his favorite haunts, and in the +fact that within its walls have been settled many of the perplexing +problems and momentous questions that have brought about great changes +in electrical and engineering arts during the twenty-odd years that have +elapsed since the Orange laboratory was built. + +Passing now to the top floor the visitor finds himself at the head of a +broad hall running almost the entire length of the building, and +lined mostly with glass-fronted cabinets containing a multitude of +experimental incandescent lamps and an immense variety of models of +phonographs, motors, telegraph and telephone apparatus, meters, and a +host of other inventions upon which Edison's energies have at one time +and another been bent. Here also are other cabinets containing old +papers and records, while further along the wall are piled up boxes +of historical models and instruments. In fact, this hallway, with its +conglomerate contents, may well be considered a scientific attic. It is +to be hoped that at no distant day these Edisoniana will be assembled +and arranged in a fireproof museum for the benefit of posterity. + +In the front end of the building, and extending over the library, is +a large room intended originally and used for a time as the phonograph +music-hall for record-making, but now used only as an experimental-room +for phonograph work, as the growth of the industry has necessitated a +very much larger and more central place where records can be made on a +commercial scale. Even the experimental work imposes no slight burden on +it. On each side of the hallway above mentioned, rooms are partitioned +off and used for experimental work of various kinds, mostly +phonographic, although on this floor are also located the +storage-battery testing-room, a chemical and physical room and Edison's +private office, where all his personal correspondence and business +affairs are conducted by his personal secretary, Mr. H. F. Miller. A +visitor to this upper floor of the laboratory building cannot but be +impressed with a consciousness of the incessant efforts that are being +made to improve the reproducing qualities of the phonograph, as he hears +from all sides the sounds of vocal and instrumental music constantly +varying in volume and timbre, due to changes in the experimental devices +under trial. + +The traditions of the laboratory include cots placed in many of the +rooms of these upper floors, but that was in the earlier years when the +strenuous scenes of Menlo Park were repeated in the new quarters. Edison +and his closest associates were accustomed to carry their labors far +into the wee sma' hours, and when physical nature demanded a respite +from work, a short rest would be obtained by going to bed on a cot. +One would naturally think that the wear and tear of this intense +application, day after day and night after night, would have tended to +induce a heaviness and gravity of demeanor in these busy men; but on +the contrary, the old spirit of good-humor and prankishness was ever +present, as its frequent outbursts manifested from time to time. One +instance will serve as an illustration. One morning, about 2.30, the +late Charles Batchelor announced that he was tired and would go to bed. +Leaving Edison and the others busily working, he went out and returned +quietly in slippered feet, with his nightgown on, the handle of a +feather duster stuck down his back with the feathers waving over his +head, and his face marked. With unearthly howls and shrieks, a l'Indien, +he pranced about the room, incidentally giving Edison a scare that made +him jump up from his work. He saw the joke quickly, however, and joined +in the general merriment caused by this prank. + +Leaving the main building with its corps of busy experimenters, and +coming out into the spacious yard, one notes the four long single-story +brick structures mentioned above. The one nearest the Valley Road is +called the galvanometer-room, and was originally intended by Edison to +be used for the most delicate and minute electrical measurements. In +order to provide rigid resting-places for the numerous and elaborate +instruments he had purchased for this purpose, the building was equipped +along three-quarters of its length with solid pillars, or tables, of +brick set deep in the earth. These were built up to a height of about +two and a half feet, and each was surmounted with a single heavy slab of +black marble. A cement floor was laid, and every precaution was taken to +render the building free from all magnetic influences, so that it would +be suitable for electrical work of the utmost accuracy and precision. +Hence, iron and steel were entirely eliminated in its construction, +copper being used for fixtures for steam and water piping, and, indeed, +for all other purposes where metal was employed. + +This room was for many years the headquarters of Edison's able +assistant, Dr. A. E. Kennelly, now professor of electrical engineering +in Harvard University to whose energetic and capable management were +intrusted many scientific investigations during his long sojourn at +the laboratory. Unfortunately, however, for the continued success of +Edison's elaborate plans, he had not been many years established in the +laboratory before a trolley road through West Orange was projected and +built, the line passing in front of the plant and within seventy-five +feet of the galvanometer-room, thus making it practically impossible to +use it for the delicate purposes for which it was originally intended. + +For some time past it has been used for photography and some special +experiments on motion pictures as well as for demonstrations connected +with physical research; but some reminders of its old-time glory still +remain in evidence. In lofty and capacious glass-enclosed cabinets, in +company with numerous models of Edison's inventions, repose many of +the costly and elaborate instruments rendered useless by the ubiquitous +trolley. Instruments are all about, on walls, tables, and shelves, the +photometer is covered up; induction coils of various capacities, +with other electrical paraphernalia, lie around, almost as if the +experimenter were absent for a few days but would soon return and resume +his work. + +In numbering the group of buildings, the galvanometer-room is No. 1, +while the other single-story structures are numbered respectively 2, 3, +and 4. On passing out of No. 1 and proceeding to the succeeding building +is noticed, between the two, a garage of ample dimensions and a smaller +structure, at the door of which stands a concrete-mixer. In this small +building Edison has made some of his most important experiments in the +process of working out his plans for the poured house. It is in this +little place that there was developed the remarkable mixture which is to +play so vital a part in the successful construction of these everlasting +homes for living millions. + +Drawing near to building No. 2, olfactory evidence presents itself of +the immediate vicinity of a chemical laboratory. This is confirmed as +one enters the door and finds that the entire building is devoted to +chemistry. Long rows of shelves and cabinets filled with chemicals line +the room; a profusion of retorts, alembics, filters, and other chemical +apparatus on numerous tables and stands, greet the eye, while a corps +of experimenters may be seen busy in the preparation of various +combinations, some of which are boiling or otherwise cooking under their +dexterous manipulation. + +It would not require many visits to discover that in this room, also, +Edison has a favorite nook. Down at the far end in a corner are a plain +little table and chair, and here he is often to be found deeply immersed +in a study of the many experiments that are being conducted. Not +infrequently he is actively engaged in the manipulation of some compound +of special intricacy, whose results might be illuminative of obscure +facts not patent to others than himself. Here, too, is a select little +library of chemical literature. + +The next building, No. 3, has a double mission--the farther half being +partitioned off for a pattern-making shop, while the other half is used +as a store-room for chemicals in quantity and for chemical apparatus +and utensils. A grimly humorous incident, as related by one of the +laboratory staff, attaches to No. 3. It seems that some time ago one of +the helpers in the chemical department, an excitable foreigner, +became dissatisfied with his wages, and after making an unsuccessful +application for an increase, rushed in desperation to Edison, and said +"Eef I not get more money I go to take ze cyanide potassia." Edison gave +him one quick, searching glance and, detecting a bluff, replied in an +offhand manner: "There's a five-pound bottle in No. 3," and turned to +his work again. The foreigner did not go to get the cyanide, but gave up +his job. + +The last of these original buildings, No. 4, was used for many years +in Edison's ore-concentrating experiments, and also for rough-and-ready +operations of other kinds, such as furnace work and the like. At the +present writing it is used as a general stock-room. + +In the foregoing details, the reader has been afforded but a passing +glance at the great practical working equipment which constitutes the +theatre of Edison's activities, for, in taking a general view of such a +unique and comprehensive laboratory plant, its salient features only can +be touched upon to advantage. It would be but repetition to enumerate +here the practical results of the laboratory work during the past two +decades, as they appear on other pages of this work. Nor can one assume +for a moment that the history of Edison's laboratory is a closed book. +On the contrary, its territorial boundaries have been increasing step by +step with the enlargement of its labors, until now it has been obliged +to go outside its own proper domains to occupy some space in and about +the great Edison industrial buildings and space immediately adjacent. It +must be borne in mind that the laboratory is only the core of a group of +buildings devoted to production on a huge scale by hundreds of artisans. + +Incidental mention has already been made of the laboratory at Edison's +winter residence in Florida, where he goes annually to spend a month or +six weeks. This is a miniature copy of the Orange laboratory, with its +machine shop, chemical-room, and general experimental department. While +it is only in use during his sojourn there, and carries no extensive +corps of assistants, the work done in it is not of a perfunctory nature, +but is a continuation of his regular activities, and serves to keep him +in touch with the progress of experiments at Orange, and enables him to +give instructions for their variation and continuance as their scope +is expanded by his own investigations made while enjoying what he calls +"vacation." What Edison in Florida speaks of as "loafing" would be for +most of us extreme and healthy activity in the cooler Far North. + +A word or two may be devoted to the visitors received at the laboratory, +and to the correspondence. It might be injudicious to gauge the +greatness of a man by the number of his callers or his letters; but +they are at least an indication of the degree to which he interests +the world. In both respects, for these forty years, Edison has been a +striking example of the manner in which the sentiment of hero-worship +can manifest itself, and of the deep desire of curiosity to get +satisfaction by personal observation or contact. Edison's mail, like +that of most well-known men, is extremely large, but composed in no +small degree of letters--thousands of them yearly--that concern only the +writers, and might well go to the waste-paper basket without prolonged +consideration. The serious and important part of the mail, some personal +and some business, occupies the attention of several men; all such +letters finding their way promptly into the proper channels, often with +a pithy endorsement by Edison scribbled on the margin. What to do with +a host of others it is often difficult to decide, even when written by +"cranks," who imagine themselves subject to strange electrical ailments +from which Edison alone can relieve them. Many people write asking his +opinion as to a certain invention, or offering him an interest in it +if he will work it out. Other people abroad ask help in locating lost +relatives; and many want advice as to what they shall do with their +sons, frequently budding geniuses whose ability to wire a bell has +demonstrated unusual qualities. A great many persons want autographs, +and some would like photographs. The amazing thing about it all is +that this flood of miscellaneous letters flows on in one steady, +uninterrupted stream, year in and year out; always a curious +psychological study in its variety and volume; and ever a proof of the +fact that once a man has become established as a personality in the +public eye and mind, nothing can stop the tide of correspondence that +will deluge him. + +It is generally, in the nature of things, easier to write a letter than +to make a call; and the semi-retirement of Edison at a distance of +an hour by train from New York stands as a means of protection to him +against those who would certainly present their respects in person, if +he could be got at without trouble. But it may be seriously questioned +whether in the aggregate Edison's visitors are less numerous or +less time-consuming than his epistolary besiegers. It is the common +experience of any visitor to the laboratory that there are usually +several persons ahead of him, no matter what the hour of the day, and +some whose business has been sufficiently vital to get them inside +the porter's gate, or even into the big library and lounging-room. +Celebrities of all kinds and distinguished foreigners are +numerous--princes, noblemen, ambassadors, artists, litterateurs, +scientists, financiers, women. A very large part of the visiting is done +by scientific bodies and societies; and then the whole place will be +turned over to hundreds of eager, well-dressed men and women, anxious +to see everything and to be photographed in the big courtyard around +the central hero. Nor are these groups and delegations limited to this +country, for even large parties of English, Dutch, Italian, or Japanese +visitors come from time to time, and are greeted with the same ready +hospitality, although Edison, it is easy to see, is torn between the +conflicting emotions of a desire to be courteous, and an anxiety to +guard the precious hours of work, or watch the critical stage of a new +experiment. + +One distinct group of visitors has always been constituted by the +"newspaper men." Hardly a day goes by that the journals do not contain +some reference to Edison's work or remarks; and the items are generally +based on an interview. The reporters are never away from the laboratory +very long; for if they have no actual mission of inquiry, there is +always the chance of a good story being secured offhand; and the easy, +inveterate good-nature of Edison toward reporters is proverbial in +the craft. Indeed, it must be stated here that once in a while this +confidence has been abused; that stories have been published utterly +without foundation; that interviews have been printed which never took +place; that articles with Edison's name as author have been widely +circulated, although he never saw them; and that in such ways he has +suffered directly. But such occasional incidents tend in no wise to +lessen Edison's warm admiration of the press or his readiness to avail +himself of it whenever a representative goes over to Orange to get the +truth or the real facts in regard to any matter of public importance. As +for the newspaper clippings containing such articles, or others in which +Edison's name appears--they are literally like sands of the sea-shore +for number; and the archives of the laboratory that preserve only a very +minute percentage of them are a further demonstration of what publicity +means, where a figure like Edison is concerned. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +EDISON IN COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURE + +AN applicant for membership in the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia is +required to give a brief statement of the professional work he has +done. Some years ago a certain application was made, and contained the +following terse and modest sentence: + + +"I have designed a concentrating plant and built a machine shop, etc., +etc. THOMAS A. EDISON." + + +Although in the foregoing pages the reader has been made acquainted +with the tremendous import of the actualities lying behind those "etc., +etc.," the narrative up to this point has revealed Edison chiefly in the +light of inventor, experimenter, and investigator. There have been +some side glimpses of the industries he has set on foot, and of their +financial aspects, and a later chapter will endeavor to sum up the +intrinsic value of Edison's work to the world. But there are some other +interesting points that may be touched on now in regard to a few of +Edison's financial and commercial ventures not generally known or +appreciated. + +It is a popular idea founded on experience that an inventor is not +usually a business man. One of the exceptions proving the rule may +perhaps be met in Edison, though all depends on the point of view. All +his life he has had a great deal to do with finance and commerce, and +as one looks at the magnitude of the vast industries he has helped to +create, it would not be at all unreasonable to expect him to be among +the multi-millionaires. That he is not is due to the absence of certain +qualities, the lack of which Edison is himself the first to admit. +Those qualities may not be amiable, but great wealth is hardly ever +accumulated without them. If he had not been so intent on inventing he +would have made more of his great opportunities for getting rich. If +this utter detachment from any love of money for its own sake has not +already been illustrated in some of the incidents narrated, one or two +stories are available to emphasize the point. They do not involve any +want of the higher business acumen that goes to the proper conduct of +affairs. It was said of Gladstone that he was the greatest Chancellor of +the Exchequer England ever saw, but that as a retail merchant he would +soon have ruined himself by his bookkeeping. + +Edison confesses that he has never made a cent out of his patents in +electric light and power--in fact, that they have been an expense +to him, and thus a free gift to the world. [18] This was true of the +European patents as well as the American. "I endeavored to sell my +lighting patents in different countries of Europe, and made a contract +with a couple of men. On account of their poor business capacity and +lack of practicality, they conveyed under the patents all rights to +different corporations but in such a way and with such confused wording +of the contracts that I never got a cent. One of the companies +started was the German Edison, now the great Allgemeine Elektricitaets +Gesellschaft. The English company I never got anything for, because a +lawyer had originally advised Drexel, Morgan & Co. as to the signing of +a certain document, and said it was all right for me to sign. I signed, +and I never got a cent because there was a clause in it which prevented +me from ever getting anything." A certain easy-going belief in human +nature, and even a certain carelessness of attitude toward business +affairs, are here revealed. We have already pointed out two instances +where in his dealings with the Western Union Company he stipulated that +payments of $6000 per year for seventeen years were to be made instead +of $100,000 in cash, evidently forgetful of the fact that the annual sum +so received was nothing more than legal interest, which could have been +earned indefinitely if the capital had been only insisted upon. In later +life Edison has been more circumspect, but throughout his early career +he was constantly getting into some kind of scrape. Of one experience he +says: + + [Footnote 18: Edison received some stock from the parent + lighting company, but as the capital stock of that company + was increased from time to time, his proportion grew + smaller, and he ultimately used it to obtain ready money + with which to create and finance the various "shops" in + which were manufactured the various items of electric- + lighting apparatus necessary to exploit his system. Besides, + he was obliged to raise additional large sums of money from + other sources for this purpose. He thus became a + manufacturer with capital raised by himself, and the stock + that he received later, on the formation of the General + Electric Company, was not for his electric-light patents, + but was in payment for his manufacturing establishments, + which had then grown to be of great commercial importance.] + +"In the early days I was experimenting with metallic filaments for the +incandescent light, and sent a certain man out to California in search +of platinum. He found a considerable quantity in the sluice-boxes of +the Cherokee Valley Mining Company; but just then he found also that +fruit-gardening was the thing, and dropped the subject. He then came to +me and said that if he could raise $4000 he could go into some kind of +orchard arrangement out there, and would give me half the profits. I +was unwilling to do it, not having very much money just then, but his +persistence was such that I raised the money and gave it to him. He went +back to California, and got into mining claims and into fruit-growing, +and became one of the politicians of the Coast, and, I believe, was on +the staff of the Governor of the State. A couple of years ago he wounded +his daughter and shot himself because he had become ruined financially. +I never heard from him after he got the money." + +Edison tells of another similar episode. "I had two men working for +me--one a German, the other a Jew. They wanted me to put up a little +money and start them in a shop in New York to make repairs, etc. I +put up $800, and was to get half of the profits, and each of them +one-quarter. I never got anything for it. A few years afterward I went +to see them, and asked what they were doing, and said I would like +to sell my interest. They said: 'Sell out what?' 'Why,' I said, 'my +interest in the machinery.' They said: 'You don't own this machinery. +This is our machinery. You have no papers to show anything. You had +better get out.' I am inclined to think that the percentage of crooked +people was smaller when I was young. It has been steadily rising, and +has got up to a very respectable figure now. I hope it will never reach +par." To which lugubrious episode so provocative of cynicism, Edison +adds: "When I was a young fellow the first thing I did when I went to +a town was to put something into the savings-bank and start an account. +When I came to New York I put $30 into a savings-bank under the New York +Sun office. After the money had been in about two weeks the bank busted. +That was in 1870. In 1909 I got back $6.40, with a charge for $1.75 for +law expenses. That shows the beauty of New York receiverships." + +It is hardly to be wondered at that Edison is rather frank and unsparing +in some of his criticisms of shady modern business methods, and the +mention of the following incident always provokes him to a fine scorn. +"I had an interview with one of the wealthiest men in New York. He +wanted me to sell out my associates in the electric lighting business, +and offered me all I was going to get and $100,000 besides. Of course I +would not do it. I found out that the reason for this offer was that he +had had trouble with Mr. Morgan, and wanted to get even with him." Wall +Street is, in fact, a frequent object of rather sarcastic reference, +applying even to its regular and probably correct methods of banking. +"When I was running my ore-mine," he says, "and got up to the point of +making shipments to John Fritz, I didn't have capital enough to carry +the ore, so I went to J. P. Morgan & Co. and said I wanted them to give +me a letter to the City Bank. I wanted to raise some money. I got a +letter to Mr. Stillman; and went over and told him I wanted to open an +account and get some loans and discounts. He turned me down, and would +not do it. 'Well,' I said, 'isn't it banking to help a man in this way?' +He said: 'What you want is a partner.' I felt very much crestfallen. +I went over to a bank in Newark--the Merchants'--and told them what +I wanted. They said: 'Certainly, you can have the money.' I made my +deposit, and they pulled me through all right. My idea of Wall Street +banking has been very poor since that time. Merchant banking seems to be +different." + +As a general thing, Edison has had no trouble in raising money when he +needed it, the reason being that people have faith in him as soon +as they come to know him. A little incident bears on this point. "In +operating the Schenectady works Mr. Insull and I had a terrible burden. +We had enormous orders and little money, and had great difficulty to +meet our payrolls and buy supplies. At one time we had so many orders on +hand we wanted $200,000 worth of copper, and didn't have a cent to buy +it. We went down to the Ansonia Brass and Copper Company, and told Mr. +Cowles just how we stood. He said: 'I will see what I can do. Will you +let my bookkeeper look at your books?' We said: 'Come right up and look +them over.' He sent his man up and found we had the orders and were all +right, although we didn't have the money. He said: 'I will let you have +the copper.' And for years he trusted us for all the copper we wanted, +even if we didn't have the money to pay for it." + +It is not generally known that Edison, in addition to being a newsboy +and a contributor to the technical press, has also been a backer and +an "angel" for various publications. This is perhaps the right place at +which to refer to the matter, as it belongs in the list of his financial +or commercial enterprises. Edison sums up this chapter of his life very +pithily. "I was interested, as a telegrapher, in journalism, and started +the Telegraph Journal, and got out about a dozen numbers when it was +taken over by W. J. Johnston, who afterward founded the Electrical World +on it as an offshoot from the Operator. I also started Science, and ran +it for a year and a half. It cost me too much money to maintain, and I +sold it to Gardiner Hubbard, the father-in-law of Alexander Graham +Bell. He carried it along for years." Both these papers are still +in prosperous existence, particularly the Electrical World, as the +recognized exponent of electrical development in America, where now +the public spends as much annually for electricity as it does for daily +bread. + +From all that has been said above it will be understood that Edison's +real and remarkable capacity for business does not lie in ability to +"take care of himself," nor in the direction of routine office practice, +nor even in ordinary administrative affairs. In short, he would and does +regard it as a foolish waste of his time to give attention to the mere +occupancy of a desk. + +His commercial strength manifests itself rather in the outlining of +matters relating to organization and broad policy with a sagacity +arising from a shrewd perception and appreciation of general business +requirements and conditions, to which should be added his intensely +comprehensive grasp of manufacturing possibilities and details, and +an unceasing vigilance in devising means of improving the quality of +products and increasing the economy of their manufacture. + +Like other successful commanders, Edison also possesses the happy +faculty of choosing suitable lieutenants to carry out his policies and +to manage the industries he has created, such, for instance, as those +with which this chapter has to deal--namely, the phonograph, motion +picture, primary battery, and storage battery enterprises. + +The Portland cement business has already been dealt with separately, and +although the above remarks are appropriate to it also, Edison being +its head and informing spirit, the following pages are intended to be +devoted to those industries that are grouped around the laboratory at +Orange, and that may be taken as typical of Edison's methods on the +manufacturing side. + +Within a few months after establishing himself at the present +laboratory, in 1887, Edison entered upon one of those intensely active +periods of work that have been so characteristic of his methods in +commercializing his other inventions. In this case his labors were +directed toward improving the phonograph so as to put it into thoroughly +practicable form, capable of ordinary use by the public at large. The +net result of this work was the general type of machine of which the +well-known phonograph of today is a refinement evolved through many +years of sustained experiment and improvement. + +After a considerable period of strenuous activity in the eighties, the +phonograph and its wax records were developed to a sufficient degree of +perfection to warrant him in making arrangements for their manufacture +and commercial introduction. At this time the surroundings of the Orange +laboratory were distinctly rural in character. Immediately adjacent +to the main building and the four smaller structures, constituting +the laboratory plant, were grass meadows that stretched away for some +considerable distance in all directions, and at its back door, so to +speak, ducks paddled around and quacked in a pond undisturbed. Being now +ready for manufacturing, but requiring more facilities, Edison increased +his real-estate holdings by purchasing a large tract of land lying +contiguous to what he already owned. At one end of the newly acquired +land two unpretentious brick structures were erected, equipped +with first-class machinery, and put into commission as shops for +manufacturing phonographs and their record blanks; while the capacious +hall forming the third story of the laboratory, over the library, was +fitted up and used as a music-room where records were made. + +Thus the modern Edison phonograph made its modest debut in 1888, in what +was then called the "Improved" form to distinguish it from the original +style of machine he invented in 1877, in which the record was made on a +sheet of tin-foil held in place upon a metallic cylinder. The "Improved" +form is the general type so well known for many years and sold at the +present day--viz., the spring or electric motor-driven machine with the +cylindrical wax record--in fact, the regulation Edison phonograph. + +It did not take a long time to find a market for the products of the +newly established factory, for a world-wide public interest in the +machine had been created by the appearance of newspaper articles from +time to time, announcing the approaching completion by Edison of his +improved phonograph. The original (tin-foil) machine had been sufficient +to illustrate the fact that the human voice and other sounds could +be recorded and reproduced, but such a type of machine had sharp +limitations in general use; hence the coming into being of a type that +any ordinary person could handle was sufficient of itself to insure a +market. Thus the demand for the new machines and wax records grew apace +as the corporations organized to handle the business extended their +lines. An examination of the newspaper files of the years 1888, 1889, +and 1890 will reveal the great excitement caused by the bringing out of +the new phonograph, and how frequently and successfully it was employed +in public entertainments, either for the whole or part of an evening. +In this and other ways it became popularized to a still further extent. +This led to the demand for a nickel-in-the-slot machine, which, when +established, became immensely popular over the whole country. In its +earlier forms the "Improved" phonograph was not capable of such +general non-expert handling as is the machine of the present day, and +consequently there was a constant endeavor on Edison's part to +simplify the construction of the machine and its manner of operation. +Experimentation was incessantly going on with this in view, and in the +processes of evolution changes were made here and there that resulted in +a still greater measure of perfection. + +In various ways there was a continual slow and steady growth of the +industry thus created, necessitating the erection of many additional +buildings as the years passed by. During part of the last decade there +was a lull, caused mostly from the failure of corporate interests to +carry out their contract relations with Edison, and he was thereby +compelled to resort to legal proceedings, at the end of which he +bought in the outstanding contracts and assumed command of the business +personally. + +Being thus freed from many irksome restrictions that had hung heavily +upon him, Edison now proceeded to push the phonograph business under a +broader policy than that which obtained under his previous contractual +relations. With the ever-increasing simplification and efficiency of the +machine and a broadening of its application, the results of this policy +were manifested in a still more rapid growth of the business that +necessitated further additions to the manufacturing plant. And thus +matters went on until the early part of the present decade, when the +factory facilities were becoming so rapidly outgrown as to render +radical changes necessary. It was in these circumstances that Edison's +sagacity and breadth of business capacity came to the front. With +characteristic boldness and foresight he planned the erection of the +series of magnificent concrete buildings that now stand adjacent to +and around the laboratory, and in which the manufacturing plant is at +present housed. + +There was no narrowness in his views in designing these buildings, but, +on the contrary, great faith in the future, for his plans included +not only the phonograph industry, but provided also for the coming +development of motion pictures and of the primary and storage battery +enterprises. + +In the aggregate there are twelve structures (including the +administration building), of which six are of imposing dimensions, +running from 200 feet long by 50 feet wide to 440 feet in length by +115 feet in width, all these larger buildings, except one, being five +stories in height. They are constructed entirely of reinforced concrete +with Edison cement, including walls, floors, and stairways, thus +eliminating fire hazard to the utmost extent, and insuring a high degree +of protection, cleanliness, and sanitation. As fully three-fourths of +the area of their exterior framework consists of windows, an abundance +of daylight is secured. These many advantages, combined with lofty +ceilings on every floor, provide ideal conditions for the thousands of +working people engaged in this immense plant. + +In addition to these twelve concrete structures there are a few smaller +brick and wooden buildings on the grounds, in which some special +operations are conducted. These, however, are few in number, and at +some future time will be concentrated in one or more additional concrete +buildings. It will afford a clearer idea of the extent of the industries +clustered immediately around the laboratory when it is stated that the +combined floor space which is occupied by them in all these buildings is +equivalent in the aggregate to over fourteen acres. + +It would be instructive, but scarcely within the scope of the narrative, +to conduct the reader through this extensive plant and see its many +interesting operations in detail. It must suffice, however, to note +its complete and ample equipment with modern machinery of every kind +applicable to the work; its numerous (and some of them wonderfully +ingenious) methods, processes, machines, and tools specially designed +or invented for the manufacture of special parts and supplemental +appliances for the phonograph or other Edison products; and also to +note the interesting variety of trades represented in the different +departments, in which are included chemists, electricians, electrical +mechanicians, machinists, mechanics, pattern-makers, carpenters, +cabinet-makers, varnishers, japanners, tool-makers, lapidaries, +wax experts, photographic developers and printers, opticians, +electroplaters, furnacemen, and others, together with factory +experimenters and a host of general employees, who by careful training +have become specialists and experts in numerous branches of these +industries. + +Edison's plans for this manufacturing plant were sufficiently well +outlined to provide ample capacity for the natural growth of the +business; and although that capacity (so far as phonographs is +concerned) has actually reached an output of over 6000 complete +phonographs PER WEEK, and upward of 130,000 molded records PER DAY--with +a pay-roll embracing over 3500 employees, including office force--and +amounting to about $45,000 per week--the limits of production have not +yet been reached. + +The constant outpouring of products in such large quantities bespeaks +the unremitting activities of an extensive and busy selling organization +to provide for their marketing and distribution. This important +department (the National Phonograph Company), in all its branches, from +president to office-boy, includes about two hundred employees on its +office pay-roll, and makes its headquarters in the administration +building, which is one of the large concrete structures above referred +to. The policy of the company is to dispose of its wares through regular +trade channels rather than to deal direct with the public, trusting +to local activity as stimulated by a liberal policy of national +advertising. Thus, there has been gradually built up a very extensive +business until at the present time an enormous output of phonographs +and records is distributed to retail customers in the United States and +Canada through the medium of about one hundred and fifty jobbers and +over thirteen thousand dealers. The Edison phonograph industry thus +organized is helped by frequent conventions of this large commercial +force. + +Besides this, the National Phonograph Company maintains a special staff +for carrying on the business with foreign countries. While the aggregate +transactions of this department are not as extensive as those for +the United States and Canada, they are of considerable volume, as the +foreign office distributes in bulk a very large number of phonographs +and records to selling companies and agencies in Europe, Asia, +Australia, Japan, and, indeed, to all the countries of the civilized +world. [19] Like England's drumbeat, the voice of the Edison phonograph +is heard around the world in undying strains throughout the twenty-four +hours. + + [Footnote 19: It may be of interest to the reader to note + some parts of the globe to which shipments of phonographs + and records are made: + + Samoan Islands Falkland Islands Siam Corea Crete Island + Paraguay Chile Canary Islands Egypt British East Africa Cape + Colony Portuguese East Africa Liberia Java Straits + Settlements Madagascar Fanning Islands New Zealand French + Indo-China Morocco Ecuador Brazil Madeira South Africa + Azores Manchuria Ceylon Sierra Leone] + +In addition to the main manufacturing plant at Orange, another important +adjunct must not be forgotten, and that is, the Recording Department +in New York City, where the master records are made under the +superintendence of experts who have studied the intricacies of the art +with Edison himself. This department occupies an upper story in a lofty +building, and in its various rooms may be seen and heard many prominent +musicians, vocalists, speakers, and vaudeville artists studiously and +busily engaged in making the original records, which are afterward sent +to Orange, and which, if approved by the expert committee, are passed on +to the proper department for reproduction in large quantities. + +When we consider the subject of motion pictures we find a similarity in +general business methods, for while the projecting machines and copies +of picture films are made in quantity at the Orange works (just as +phonographs and duplicate records are so made), the original picture, +or film, like the master record, is made elsewhere. There is this +difference, however: that, from the particular nature of the work, +practically ALL master records are made at one convenient place, while +the essential interest in SOME motion pictures lies in the fact that +they are taken in various parts of the world, often under exceptional +circumstances. The "silent drama," however, calls also for many +representations which employ conventional acting, staging, and the +varied appliances of stagecraft. Hence, Edison saw early the necessity +of providing a place especially devised and arranged for the production +of dramatic performances in pantomime. + +It is a far cry from the crude structure of early days--the "Black +Maria" of 1891, swung around on its pivot in the Orange laboratory +yard--to the well-appointed Edison theatres, or pantomime studios, in +New York City. The largest of these is located in the suburban Borough +of the Bronx, and consists of a three-story-and-basement building of +reinforced concrete, in which are the offices, dressing-rooms, wardrobe +and property-rooms, library and developing department. Contiguous to +this building, and connected with it, is the theatre proper, a large and +lofty structure whose sides and roof are of glass, and whose floor space +is sufficiently ample for six different sets of scenery at one time, +with plenty of room left for a profusion of accessories, such as tables, +chairs, pianos, bunch-lights, search-lights, cameras, and a host of +varied paraphernalia pertaining to stage effects. + +The second Edison theatre, or studio, is located not far from the +shopping district in New York City. In all essential features, except +size and capacity, it is a duplicate of the one in the Bronx, of which +it is a supplement. + +To a visitor coming on the floor of such a theatre for the first time +there is a sense of confusion in beholding the heterogeneous "sets" +of scenery and the motley assemblage of characters represented in the +various plays in the process of "taking," or rehearsal. While each set +constitutes virtually a separate stage, they are all on the same floor, +without wings or proscenium-arches, and separated only by a few feet. +Thus, for instance, a Japanese house interior may be seen cheek by jowl +with an ordinary prison cell, flanked by a mining-camp, which in turn +stands next to a drawing-room set, and in each a set of appropriate +characters in pantomimic motion. The action is incessant, for in any +dramatic representation intended for the motion-picture film every +second counts. + +The production of several completed plays per week necessitates the +employment of a considerable staff of people of miscellaneous trades and +abilities. At each of these two studios there is employed a number +of stage-directors, scene-painters, carpenters, property-men, +photographers, costumers, electricians, clerks, and general assistants, +besides a capable stock company of actors and actresses, whose generous +numbers are frequently augmented by the addition of a special star, +or by a number of extra performers, such as Rough Riders or other +specialists. It may be, occasionally, that the exigencies of the +occasion require the work of a performing horse, dog, or other animal. +No matter what the object required may be, whether animate or inanimate, +if it is necessary for the play it is found and pressed into service. + +These two studios, while separated from the main plant, are under the +same general management, and their original negative films are forwarded +as made to the Orange works, where the large copying department is +located in one of the concrete buildings. Here, after the film has been +passed upon by a committee, a considerable number of positive copies are +made by ingenious processes, and after each one is separately tested, or +"run off," in one or other of the three motion-picture theatres in the +building, they are shipped out to film exchanges in every part of the +country. How extensive this business has become may be appreciated when +it is stated that at the Orange plant there are produced at this time +over eight million feet of motion-picture film per year. And Edison's +company is only one of many producers. + +Another of the industries at the Orange works is the manufacture of +projecting kinetoscopes, by means of which the motion pictures are +shown. While this of itself is also a business of considerable magnitude +in its aggregate yearly transactions, it calls for no special comment +in regard to commercial production, except to note that a corps of +experimenters is constantly employed refining and perfecting details +of the machine. Its basic features of operation as conceived by Edison +remain unchanged. + +On coming to consider the Edison battery enterprises, we must perforce +extend the territorial view to include a special chemical-manufacturing +plant, which is in reality a branch of the laboratory and the Orange +works, although actually situated about three miles away. + +Both the primary and the storage battery employ certain chemical +products as essential parts of their elements, and indeed owe their very +existence to the peculiar preparation and quality of such products, as +exemplified by Edison's years of experimentation and research. Hence the +establishment of his own chemical works at Silver Lake, where, under his +personal supervision, the manufacture of these products is carried on +in charge of specially trained experts. At the present writing the +plant covers about seven acres of ground; but there is ample room for +expansion, as Edison, with wise forethought, secured over forty acres of +land, so as to be prepared for developments. + +Not only is the Silver Lake works used for the manufacture of the +chemical substances employed in the batteries, but it is the plant at +which the Edison primary battery is wholly assembled and made up for +distribution to customers. This in itself is a business of no small +magnitude, having grown steadily on its merits year by year until it +has now arrived at a point where its sales run into the hundreds of +thousands of cells per annum, furnished largely to the steam railroads +of the country for their signal service. + +As to the storage battery, the plant at Silver Lake is responsible only +for the production of the chemical compounds, nickel-hydrate and iron +oxide, which enter into its construction. All the mechanical parts, +the nickel plating, the manufacture of nickel flake, the assembling and +testing, are carried on at the Orange works in two of the large concrete +buildings above referred to. A visit to this part of the plant reveals +an amazing fertility of resourcefulness and ingenuity in the devising +of the special machines and appliances employed in constructing the +mechanical parts of these cells, for it is practically impossible to +fashion them by means of machinery and tools to be found in the open +market, notwithstanding the immense variety that may be there obtained. + +Since Edison completed his final series of investigations on his +storage battery and brought it to its present state of perfection, the +commercial values have increased by leaps and bounds. The battery, as +it was originally put out some years ago, made for itself an enviable +reputation; but with its improved form there has come a vast increase +of business. Although the largest of the concrete buildings where +its manufacture is carried on is over four hundred feet long and four +stories in height, it has already become necessary to plan extensions +and enlargements of the plant in order to provide for the production of +batteries to fill the present demands. It was not until the summer +of 1909 that Edison was willing to pronounce the final verdict of +satisfaction with regard to this improved form of storage battery; but +subsequent commercial results have justified his judgment, and it is +not too much to predict that in all probability the business will assume +gigantic proportions within a very few years. At the present time (1910) +the Edison storage-battery enterprise is in its early stages of growth, +and its status may be compared with that of the electric-light system +about the year 1881. + +There is one more industry, though of comparatively small extent, +that is included in the activities of the Orange works, namely, +the manufacture and sale of the Bates numbering machine. This is a +well-known article of commerce, used in mercantile establishments for +the stamping of consecutive, duplicate, and manifold numbers on +checks and other documents. It is not an invention of Edison, but the +organization owning it, together with the patent rights, were acquired +by him some years ago, and he has since continued and enlarged the +business both in scope and volume, besides, of course, improving and +perfecting the apparatus itself. These machines are known everywhere +throughout the country, and while the annual sales are of comparatively +moderate amount in comparison with the totals of the other Edison +industries at Orange, they represent in the aggregate a comfortable and +encouraging business. + +In this brief outline review of the flourishing and extensive commercial +enterprises centred around the Orange laboratory, the facts, it is +believed, contain a complete refutation of the idea that an inventor +cannot be a business man. They also bear abundant evidence of the +compatibility of these two widely divergent gifts existing, even to a +high degree, in the same person. A striking example of the correctness +of this proposition is afforded in the present case, when it is borne in +mind that these various industries above described (whose annual sales +run into many millions of dollars) owe not only their very creation +(except the Bates machine) and existence to Edison's inventive +originality and commercial initiative, but also their continued growth +and prosperity to his incessant activities in dealing with their +multifarious business problems. In publishing a portrait of Edison this +year, one of the popular magazines placed under it this caption: "Were +the Age called upon to pay Thomas A. Edison all it owes to him, the Age +would have to make an assignment." The present chapter will have +thrown some light on the idiosyncrasies of Edison as financier and as +manufacturer, and will have shown that while the claim thus suggested +may be quite good, it will certainly never be pressed or collected. + + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +THE VALUE OF EDISON'S INVENTIONS TO THE WORLD + +IF the world were to take an account of stock, so to speak, and proceed +in orderly fashion to marshal its tangible assets in relation to +dollars and cents, the natural resources of our globe, from centre to +circumference, would head the list. Next would come inventors, whose +value to the world as an asset could be readily estimated from an +increase of its wealth resulting from the actual transformations of +these resources into items of convenience and comfort through the +exercise of their inventive ingenuity. + +Inventors of practical devices may be broadly divided into two +classes--first, those who may be said to have made two blades of grass +grow where only one grew before; and, second, great inventors, who have +made grass grow plentifully on hitherto unproductive ground. The vast +majority of practical inventors belong to and remain in the first of +these divisions, but there have been, and probably always will be, a +less number who, by reason of their greater achievements, are entitled +to be included in both classes. Of these latter, Thomas Alva Edison is +one, but in the pages of history he stands conspicuously pre-eminent--a +commanding towering figure, even among giants. + +The activities of Edison have been of such great range, and his +conquests in the domains of practical arts so extensive and varied, that +it is somewhat difficult to estimate with any satisfactory degree of +accuracy the money value of his inventions to the world of to-day, even +after making due allowance for the work of other great inventors and +the propulsive effect of large amounts of capital thrown into the +enterprises which took root, wholly or in part, through the productions +of his genius and energies. This difficulty will be apparent, for +instance, when we consider his telegraph and telephone inventions. These +were absorbed in enterprises already existing, and were the means of +assisting their rapid growth and expansion, particularly the telephone +industry. Again, in considering the fact that Edison was one of the +first in the field to design and perfect a practical and operative +electric railway, the main features of which are used in all electric +roads of to-day, we are confronted with the problem as to what +proportion of their colossal investment and earnings should be ascribed +to him. + +Difficulties are multiplied when we pause for a moment to think of +Edison's influence on collateral branches of business. In the public +mind he is credited with the invention of the incandescent electric +light, the phonograph, and other widely known devices; but how few +realize his actual influence on other trades that are not generally +thought of in connection with these things. For instance, let us note +what a prominent engine builder, the late Gardiner C. Sims, has said: +"Watt, Corliss, and Porter brought forward steam-engines to a high +state of proficiency, yet it remained for Mr. Edison to force better +proportions, workmanship, designs, use of metals, regulation, the +solving of the complex problems of high speed and endurance, and the +successful development of the shaft governor. Mr. Edison is preeminent +in the realm of engineering." + +The phenomenal growth of the copper industry was due to a rapid and +ever-increasing demand, owing to the exploitation of the telephone, +electric light, electric motor, and electric railway industries. Without +these there might never have been the romance of "Coppers" and the rise +and fall of countless fortunes. And although one cannot estimate in +definite figures the extent of Edison's influence in the enormous +increase of copper production, it is to be remembered that his basic +inventions constitute a most important factor in the demand for the +metal. Besides, one must also give him the credit, as already noted, +for having recognized the necessity for a pure quality of copper for +electric conductors, and for his persistence in having compelled the +manufacturers of that period to introduce new and additional methods +of refinement so as to bring about that result, which is now a sine qua +non. + +Still considering his influence on other staples and collateral trades, +let us enumerate briefly and in a general manner some of the more +important and additional ones that have been not merely stimulated, but +in many cases the business and sales have been directly increased and +new arts established through the inventions of this one man--namely, +iron, steel, brass, zinc, nickel, platinum ($5 per ounce in 1878, now +$26 an ounce), rubber, oils, wax, bitumen, various chemical compounds, +belting, boilers, injectors, structural steel, iron tubing, glass, +silk, cotton, porcelain, fine woods, slate, marble, electrical measuring +instruments, miscellaneous machinery, coal, wire, paper, building +materials, sapphires, and many others. + +The question before us is, To what extent has Edison added to the wealth +of the world by his inventions and his energy and perseverance? It will +be noted from the foregoing that no categorical answer can be offered +to such a question, but sufficient material can be gathered from a +statistical review of the commercial arts directly influenced to afford +an approximate idea of the increase in national wealth that has been +affected by or has come into being through the practical application of +his ideas. + +First of all, as to inventions capable of fairly definite estimate, let +us mention the incandescent electric light and systems of distribution +of electric light, heat, and power, which may justly be considered as +the crowning inventions of Edison's life. Until October 21, 1879, there +was nothing in existence resembling our modern incandescent lamp. +On that date, as we have seen in a previous chapter, Edison's labors +culminated in his invention of a practical incandescent electric lamp +embodying absolutely all the essentials of the lamp of to-day, thus +opening to the world the doors of a new art and industry. To-day there +are in the United States more than 41,000,000 of these lamps, connected +to existing central-station circuits in active operation. + +Such circuits necessarily imply the existence of central stations with +their equipment. Until the beginning of 1882 there were only a few +arc-lighting stations in existence for the limited distribution of +current. At the present time there are over 6000 central stations in +this country for the distribution of electric current for light, +heat, and power, with capital obligations amounting to not less than +$1,000,000,000. Besides the above-named 41,000,000 incandescent lamps +connected to their mains, there are about 500,000 arc lamps and 150,000 +motors, using 750,000 horse-power, besides countless fan motors and +electric heating and cooking appliances. + +When it is stated that the gross earnings of these central stations +approximate the sum of $225,000,000 yearly, the significant import of +these statistics of an art that came so largely from Edison's laboratory +about thirty years ago will undoubtedly be apparent. + +But the above are not by any means all the facts relating to +incandescent electric lighting in the United States, for in addition to +central stations there are upward of 100,000 isolated or private plants +in mills, factories, steamships, hotels, theatres, etc., owned by +the persons or concerns who operate them. These plants represent an +approximate investment of $500,000,000, and the connection of not less +than 25,000,000 incandescent lamps or their equivalent. + +Then there are the factories where these incandescent lamps are made, +about forty in number, representing a total investment that may be +approximated at $25,000,000. It is true that many of these factories +are operated by other than the interests which came into control of +the Edison patents (General Electric Company), but the 150,000,000 +incandescent electric lamps now annually made are broadly covered in +principle by Edison's fundamental ideas and patents. + +It will be noted that these figures are all in round numbers, but they +are believed to be well within the mark, being primarily founded upon +the special reports of the Census Bureau issued in 1902 and 1907, with +the natural increase from that time computed by experts who are in +position to obtain the facts. It would be manifestly impossible to give +exact figures of such a gigantic and swiftly moving industry, whose +totals increase from week to week. + +The reader will naturally be disposed to ask whether it is intended to +claim that Edison has brought about all this magnificent growth of the +electric-lighting art. The answer to this is decidedly in the negative, +for the fact is that he laid some of the foundation and erected a +building thereon, and in the natural progressive order of things other +inventors of more or less fame have laid substructures or added a wing +here and a story there until the resultant great structure has attained +such proportions as to evoke the admiration of the beholder; but the old +foundation and the fundamental building still remain to support other +parts. In other words, Edison created the incandescent electric lamp, +and invented certain broad and fundamental systems of distribution +of current, with all the essential devices of detail necessary for +successful operation. These formed a foundation. He also spent great +sums of money and devoted several years of patient labor in the early +practical exploitation of the dynamo and central station and isolated +plants, often under, adverse and depressing circumstances, with a dogged +determination that outlived an opposition steadily threatening defeat. +These efforts resulted in the firm commercial establishment of modern +electric lighting. It is true that many important inventions of others +have a distinguished place in the art as it is exploited today, but the +fact remains that the broad essentials, such as the incandescent lamp, +systems of distribution, and some important details, are not only +universally used, but are as necessary to-day for successful commercial +practice as they were when Edison invented them many years ago. + +The electric railway next claims our consideration, but we are +immediately confronted by a difficulty which seems insurmountable when +we attempt to formulate any definite estimate of the value and influence +of Edison's pioneer work and inventions. There is one incontrovertible +fact--namely, that he was the first man to devise, construct, and +operate from a central station a practicable, life-size electric +railroad, which was capable of transporting and did transport passengers +and freight at variable speeds over varying grades, and under complete +control of the operator. These are the essential elements in all +electric railroading of the present day; but while Edison's original +broad ideas are embodied in present practice, the perfection of the +modern electric railway is greatly due to the labors and inventions of +a large number of other well-known inventors. There was no reason +why Edison could not have continued the commercial development of the +electric railway after he had helped to show its practicability in 1880, +1881, and 1882, just as he had completed his lighting system, had it +not been that his financial allies of the period lacked faith in the +possibilities of electric railroads, and therefore declined to furnish +the money necessary for the purpose of carrying on the work. + +With these facts in mind, we shall ask the reader to assign to Edison a +due proportion of credit for his pioneer and basic work in relation to +the prodigious development of electric railroading that has since taken +place. The statistics of 1908 for American street and elevated railways +show that within twenty-five years the electric-railway industry has +grown to embrace 38,812 miles of track on streets and for elevated +railways, operated under the ownership of 1238 separate companies, whose +total capitalization amounted to the enormous sum of $4,123,834,598. +In the equipments owned by such companies there are included 68,636 +electric cars and 17,568 trailers and others, making a total of 86,204 +of such vehicles. These cars and equipments earned over $425,000,000 +in 1907, in giving the public transportation, at a cost, including +transfers, of a little over three cents per passenger, for whom a +fifteen-mile ride would be possible. It is the cheapest transportation +in the world. + +Some mention should also be made of the great electrical works of the +country, in which the dynamos, motors, and other varied paraphernalia +are made for electric lighting, electric railway, and other purposes. +The largest of these works is undoubtedly that of the General +Electric Company at Schenectady, New York, a continuation and enormous +enlargement of the shops which Edison established there in 1886. This +plant at the present time embraces over 275 acres, of which sixty acres +are covered by fifty large and over one hundred small buildings; besides +which the company also owns other large plants elsewhere, representing +a total investment approximating the sum of $34,850,000 up to 1908. The +productions of the General Electric Company alone average annual +sales of nearly $75,000,000, but they do not comprise the total of the +country's manufactures in these lines. + +Turning our attention now to the telephone, we again meet a condition +that calls for thoughtful consideration before we can properly +appreciate how much the growth of this industry owes to Edison's +inventive genius. In another place there has already been told the story +of the telephone, from which we have seen that to Alexander Graham +Bell is due the broad idea of transmission of speech by means of an +electrical circuit; also that he invented appropriate instruments and +devices through which he accomplished this result, although not to that +extent which gave promise of any great commercial practicability for +the telephone as it then existed. While the art was in this inefficient +condition, Edison went to work on the subject, and in due time, as we +have already learned, invented and brought out the carbon transmitter, +which is universally acknowledged to have been the needed device that +gave to the telephone the element of commercial practicability, and +has since led to its phenomenally rapid adoption and world-wide use. It +matters not that others were working in the same direction, Edison was +legally adjudicated to have been the first to succeed in point of +time, and his inventions were put into actual use, and may be found in +principle in every one of the 7,000,000 telephones which are estimated +to be employed in the country at the present day. Basing the statements +upon facts shown by the Census reports of 1902 and 1907, and adding +thereto the growth of the industry since that time, we find on a +conservative estimate that at this writing the investment has been not +less than $800,000,000 in now existing telephone systems, while no fewer +than 10,500,000,000 talks went over the lines during the year 1908. +These figures relate only to telephone systems, and do not include any +details regarding the great manufacturing establishments engaged in +the construction of telephone apparatus, of which there is a production +amounting to at least $15,000,000 per annum. + +Leaving the telephone, let us now turn our attention to the telegraph, +and endeavor to show as best we can some idea of the measure to which it +has been affected by Edison's inventions. Although, as we have seen in +a previous part of this book, his earliest fame arose from his great +practical work in telegraphic inventions and improvements, there is no +way in which any definite computation can be made of the value of his +contributions in the art except, perhaps, in the case of his quadruplex, +through which alone it is estimated that there has been saved from +$15,000,000 to $20,000,000 in the cost of line construction in this +country. If this were the only thing that he had ever accomplished, +it would entitle him to consideration as an inventor of note. The +quadruplex, however, has other material advantages, but how far they and +the natural growth of the business have contributed to the investment +and earnings of the telegraph companies, is beyond practicable +computation. + +It would, perhaps, be interesting to speculate upon what might have been +the growth of the telegraph and the resultant benefit to the community +had Edison's automatic telegraph inventions been allowed to take their +legitimate place in the art, but we shall not allow ourselves to +indulge in flights of fancy, as the value of this chapter rests not upon +conjecture, but only upon actual fact. Nor shall we attempt to offer any +statistics regarding Edison's numerous inventions relating to telegraphs +and kindred devices, such as stock tickers, relays, magnets, rheotomes, +repeaters, printing telegraphs, messenger calls, etc., on which he was +so busily occupied as an inventor and manufacturer during the ten years +that began with January, 1869. The principles of many of these devices +are still used in the arts, but have become so incorporated in other +devices as to be inseparable, and cannot now be dealt with separately. +To show what they mean, however, it might be noted that New York City +alone has 3000 stock "tickers," consuming 50,000 miles of record tape +every year. + +Turning now to other important arts and industries which have been +created by Edison's inventions, and in which he is at this time taking +an active personal interest, let us visit Orange, New Jersey. When his +present laboratory was nearing completion in 1887, he wrote to Mr. J. +Hood Wright, a partner in the firm of Drexel, Morgan & Co.: "My ambition +is to build up a great industrial works in the Orange Valley, starting +in a small way and gradually working up." + +In this plant, which represents an investment approximating the sum +of $4,000,000, are grouped a number of industrial enterprises of which +Edison is either the sole or controlling owner and the guiding spirit. +These enterprises are the National Phonograph Company, the Edison +Business Phonograph Company, the Edison Phonograph Works, the Edison +Manufacturing Company, the Edison Storage Battery Company, and the +Bates Manufacturing Company. The importance of these industries will be +apparent when it is stated that at this plant the maximum pay-roll shows +the employment of over 4200 persons, with annual earnings in salaries +and wages of more than $2,750,000. + +In considering the phonograph in its commercial aspect, and endeavoring +to arrive at some idea of the world's estimate of the value of this +invention, we feel the ground more firm under our feet, for Edison +has in later years controlled its manufacture and sale. It will be +remembered that the phonograph lay dormant, commercially speaking, +for about ten years after it came into being, and then later invention +reduced it to a device capable of more popular utility. A few years +of rather unsatisfactory commercial experience brought about a +reorganization, through which Edison resumed possession of the business. +It has since been continued under his general direction and ownership, +and he has made a great many additional inventions tending to improve +the machine in all its parts. + +The uses made of the phonograph up to this time have been of four kinds, +generally speaking--first, and principally, for amusement; second, +for instruction in languages; third, for business, in the dictation of +correspondence; and fourth, for sentimental reasons in preserving the +voices of friends. No separate figures are available to show the extent +of its employment in the second and fourth classes, as they are probably +included in machines coming under the first subdivision. Under this head +we find that there have been upward of 1,310,000 phonographs sold during +the last twenty years, with and for which there have been made and +sold no fewer than 97,845,000 records of a musical or other character. +Phonographic records are now being manufactured at Orange at the rate +of 75,000 a day, the annual sale of phonographs and records being +approximately $7,000,000, including business phonographs. This does not +include blank records, of which large numbers have also been supplied to +the public. + +The adoption of the business phonograph has not been characterized +by the unanimity that obtained in the case of the one used merely for +amusement, as its use involves some changes in methods that business +men are slow to adopt until they realize the resulting convenience and +economy. Although it is only a few years since the business phonograph +has begun to make some headway, it is not difficult to appreciate that +Edison's prediction in 1878 as to the value of such an appliance is +being realized, when we find that up to this time the sales run up to +12,695 in number. At the present time the annual sales of the business +phonographs and supplies, cylinders, etc., are not less than $350,000. + +We must not forget that the basic patent of Edison on the phonograph has +long since expired, thus throwing open to the world the wonderful art +of reproducing human speech and other sounds. The world was not slow to +take advantage of the fact, hence there are in the field numerous other +concerns in the same business. It is conservatively estimated by those +who know the trade and are in position to form an opinion, that the +figures above given represent only about one-half of the entire business +of the country in phonographs, records, cylinders, and supplies. + +Taking next his inventions that pertain to a more recently established +but rapidly expanding branch of business that provides for the amusement +of the public, popularly known as "motion pictures," we also find a +general recognition of value created. Referring the reader to a previous +chapter for a discussion of Edison's standing as a pioneer inventor in +this art, let us glance at the commercial proportions of this young but +lusty business, whose ramifications extend to all but the most remote +and primitive hamlets of our country. + +The manufacture of the projecting machines and accessories, together +with the reproduction of films, is carried on at the Orange Valley +plant, and from the inception of the motion-picture business to the +present time there have been made upward of 16,000 projecting machines +and many million feet of films carrying small photographs of moving +objects. Although the motion-picture business, as a commercial +enterprise, is still in its youth, it is of sufficient moment to call +for the annual production of thousands of machines and many million +feet of films in Edison's shops, having a sale value of not less than +$750,000. To produce the originals from which these Edison films are +made, there have been established two "studios," the largest of which is +in the Bronx, New York City. + +In this, as well as in the phonograph business, there are many other +manufacturers in the field. Indeed, the annual product of the Edison +Manufacturing Company in this line is only a fractional part of the +total that is absorbed by the 8000 or more motion-picture theatres and +exhibitions that are in operation in the United States at the present +time, and which represent an investment of some $45,000,000. Licensees +under Edison patents in this country alone produce upward of 60,000,000 +feet of films annually, containing more than a billion and a half +separate photographs. To what extent the motion-picture business may +grow in the not remote future it is impossible to conjecture, for it has +taken a place in the front rank of rapidly increasing enterprises. + +The manufacture and sale of the Edison-Lalande primary battery, +conducted by the Edison Manufacturing Company at the Orange Valley +plant, is a business of no mean importance. Beginning about twenty +years ago with a battery that, without polarizing, would furnish large +currents specially adapted for gas-engine ignition and other important +purposes, the business has steadily grown in magnitude until the present +output amounts to about 125,000 cells annually; the total number of +cells put into the hands of the public up to date being approximately +1,500,000. It will be readily conceded that to most men this alone would +be an enterprise of a lifetime, and sufficient in itself to satisfy a +moderate ambition. But, although it has yielded a considerable profit to +Edison and gives employment to many people, it is only one of the many +smaller enterprises that owe an existence to his inventive ability and +commercial activity. + +So it also is in regard to the mimeograph, whose forerunner, the +electric pen, was born of Edison's brain in 1877. He had been long +impressed by the desirability of the rapid production of copies of +written documents, and, as we have seen by a previous chapter, he +invented the electric pen for this purpose, only to improve upon it +later with a more desirable device which he called the mimeograph, that +is in use, in various forms, at this time. Although the electric pen had +a large sale and use in its time, the statistics relating to it are not +available. The mimeograph, however, is, and has been for many years, +a standard office appliance, and is entitled to consideration, as the +total number put into use up to this time is approximately 180,000, +valued at $3,500,000, while the annual output is in the neighborhood +of 9000 machines, sold for about $150,000, besides the vast quantity of +special paper and supplies which its use entails in the production of +the many millions of facsimile letters and documents. The extent of +production and sale of supplies for the mimeograph may be appreciated +when it is stated that they bring annually an equivalent of three times +the amount realized from sales of machines. The manufacture and sale +of the mimeograph does not come within the enterprises conducted under +Edison's personal direction, as he sold out the whole thing some years +ago to Mr. A. B. Dick, of Chicago. + +In making a somewhat radical change of subject, from duplicating +machines to cement, we find ourselves in a field in which Edison has +made a most decided impression. The reader has already learned that his +entry into this field was, in a manner, accidental, although logically +in line with pronounced convictions of many years' standing, and +following up the fund of knowledge gained in the magnetic ore-milling +business. From being a new-comer in the cement business, his corporation +in five years has grown to be the fifth largest producer in the United +States, with a still increasing capacity. From the inception of this +business there has been a steady and rapid development, resulting in the +production of a grand total of over 7,300,000 barrels of cement up +to the present date, having a value of about $6,000,000, exclusive of +package. At the time of this writing, the rate of production is over +8000 barrels of cement per day, or, say, 2,500,000 barrels per year, +having an approximate selling value of a little less than $2,000,000, +with prospects of increasing in the near future to a daily output of +10,000 barrels. This enterprise is carried on by a corporation called +the Edison Portland Cement Company, in which he is very largely +interested, and of which he is the active head and guiding spirit. + +Had not Edison suspended the manufacture and sale of his storage battery +a few years ago because he was not satisfied with it, there might have +been given here some noteworthy figures of an extensive business, for +the company's books show an astonishing number of orders that were +received during the time of the shut-down. He was implored for +batteries, but in spite of the fact that good results had been obtained +from the 18,000 or 20,000 cells sold some years ago, he adhered firmly +to his determination to perfect them to a still higher standard before +resuming and continuing their manufacture as a regular commodity. As we +have noted in a previous chapter, however, deliveries of the perfected +type were begun in the summer of 1909, and since that time the +business has continued to grow in the measure indicated by the earlier +experience. + +Thus far we have concerned ourselves chiefly with those figures which +exhibit the extent of investment and production, but there is another +and humanly important side that presents itself for consideration +namely, the employment of a vast industrial army of men and women, +who earn a living through their connection with some of the arts and +industries to which our narrative has direct reference. To this the +reader's attention will now be drawn. + +The following figures are based upon the Special Reports of the Census +Bureau, 1902 and 1907, with additions computed upon the increase that +has subsequently taken place. In the totals following is included the +compensation paid to salaried officials and clerks. Details relating to +telegraph systems are omitted. + +Taking the electric light into consideration first, we find that in the +central stations of the United States there are not less than an average +of 50,000 persons employed, requiring an aggregate yearly payroll of +over $40,000,000. This does not include the 100,000 or more isolated +electric-light plants scattered throughout the land. Many of these +are quite large, and at least one-third of them require one additional +helper, thus adding, say, 33,000 employees to the number already +mentioned. If we assume as low a wage as $10 per week for each of +these helpers, we must add to the foregoing an additional sum of over +$17,000,000 paid annually for wages, almost entirely in the isolated +incandescent electric lighting field. + +Central stations and isolated plants consume over 100,000,000 +incandescent electric lamps annually, and in the production of these +there are engaged about forty factories, on whose pay-rolls appear +an average of 14,000 employees, earning an aggregate yearly sum of +$8,000,000. + +Following the incandescent lamp we must not forget an industry +exclusively arising from it and absolutely dependent upon it--namely, +that of making fixtures for such lamps, the manufacture of which gives +employment to upward of 6000 persons, who annually receive at least +$3,750,000 in compensation. + +The detail devices of the incandescent electric lighting system also +contribute a large quota to the country's wealth in the millions of +dollars paid out in salaries and wages to many thousands of persons who +are engaged in their manufacture. + +The electric railways of our country show even larger figures than the +lighting stations and plants, as they employ on the average over +250,000 persons, whose annual compensation amounts to not less than +$155,000,000. + +In the manufacture of about $50,000,000 worth of dynamos and motors +annually, for central-station equipment, isolated plants, electric +railways, and other purposes, the manufacturers of the country employ an +average of not less than 30,000 people, whose yearly pay-roll amounts to +no less a sum than $20,000,000. + +The growth of the telephone systems of the United States also furnishes +us with statistics of an analogous nature, for we find that the average +number of employees engaged in this industry is at least 140,000, whose +annual earnings aggregate a minimum of $75,000,000; besides which the +manufacturers of telephone apparatus employ over 12,000 persons, to whom +is paid annually about $5,500,000. + +No attempt is made to include figures of collateral industries, +such, for instance, as copper, which is very closely allied with the +electrical arts, and the great bulk of which is refined electrically. + +The 8000 or so motion-picture theatres of the country employ no fewer +than 40,000 people, whose aggregate annual income amounts to not less +than $37,000,000. + +Coming now to the Orange Valley plant, we take a drop from these figures +to the comparatively modest ones which give us an average of 3600 +employees and calling for an annual pay-roll of about $2,250,000. It +must be remembered, however, that the sums mentioned above represent +industries operated by great aggregations of capital, while the Orange +Valley plant, as well as the Edison Portland Cement Company, with an +average daily number of 530 employees and over $400,000 annual pay-roll, +represent in a large measure industries that are more in the nature +of closely held enterprises and practically under the direction of one +mind. + +The table herewith given summarizes the figures that have just been +presented, and affords an idea of the totals affected by the genius +of this one man. It is well known that many other men and many other +inventions have been needed for the perfection of these arts; but it +is equally true that, as already noted, some of these industries are +directly the creation of Edison, while in every one of the rest his +impress has been deep and significant. Before he began inventing, only +two of them were known at all as arts--telegraphy and the manufacture +of cement. Moreover, these figures deal only with the United States, and +take no account of the development of many of the Edison inventions +in Europe or of their adoption throughout the world at large. Let it +suffice + + STATISTICAL RESUME (APPROXIMATE) OF SOME OF THE INDUSTRIES + IN THE UNITED STATES DIRECTLY FOUNDED UPON OR + AFFECTED BY INVENTIONS OF THOMAS A. EDISON + + + Annual + Gross Rev- Number Annual + Class of Industry Investment enue or of Em- Pay-Rolls + sales + Central station lighting + and power $1,000,000,000 $125,000,000 50,000 $40,000,000 + Isolated incandescent + lighting 500,000,000 -- 33,000 17,000 000 + Incandescent lamps 25,000,000 20,000,000 14,000 8,000 000 + Electric fixtures 8,000,000 5,000,000 6,000 3,750,000 + Dynamos and motors 60,000,000 50,000,000 30,000 20,000,000 + Electric railways 4,000,000,000 430,000,000 250,000 155,000,000 + Telephone systems 800,000,000 175,000,000 140,000 75,000,000 + Telephone apparatus 30,000,000 15,000,000 12,000 5,500,000 + Phonograph and motion + pictures 10,000,000 15,000,000 5,000 6,000,000 + Motion picture theatres 40,000,000 80,000,000 40,000 37,000,000 + Edison Portland cement 4,000,000 2,000,000 530 400,000 + Telegraphy 250,000,000 60,000,000 100,000 30,000,000 + --------------------------------------------------------------------------Totals + 6,727,000,000 1,077,000,000 680,530 397,650,000 + +that in America alone the work of Edison has been one of the most potent +factors in bringing into existence new industries now capitalized at +nearly $ 7,000,000,000, earning annually over $1,000,000,000, and giving +employment to an army of more than six hundred thousand people. + +A single diamond, prismatically flashing from its many facets +the beauties of reflected light, comes well within the limits of +comprehension of the human mind and appeals to appreciation by the +finer sensibilities; but in viewing an exhibition of thousands of +these beautiful gems, the eye and brain are simply bewildered with the +richness of a display which tends to confuse the intellect until +the function of analysis comes into play and leads to more adequate +apprehension. + +So, in presenting the mass of statistics contained in this chapter, we +fear that the result may have been the bewilderment of the reader to +some extent. Nevertheless, in writing a biography of Edison, the +main object is to present the facts as they are, and leave it to the +intelligent reader to classify, apply, and analyze them in such manner +as appeals most forcibly to his intellectual processes. If in the +foregoing pages there has appeared to be a tendency to attribute to +Edison the entire credit for the growth to which many of the above-named +great enterprises have in these latter days attained, we must especially +disclaim any intention of giving rise to such a deduction. No one who +has carefully followed the course of this narrative can deny, however, +that Edison is the father of some of the arts and industries that have +been mentioned, and that as to some of the others it was the magic of +his touch that helped make them practicable. Not only to his work and +ingenuity is due the present magnitude of these arts and industries, but +it is attributable also to the splendid work and numerous contributions +of other great inventors, such as Brush, Bell, Elihu Thomson, Weston, +Sprague, and many others, as well as to the financiers and investors who +in the past thirty years have furnished the vast sums of money that were +necessary to exploit and push forward these enterprises. + +The reader may have noticed in a perusal of this chapter the lack of +autobiographical quotations, such as have appeared in other parts of +this narrative. Edison's modesty has allowed us but one remark on the +subject. This was made by him to one of the writers a short time ago, +when, after an interesting indulgence in reminiscences of old times and +early inventions, he leaned back in his chair, and with a broad smile on +his face, said, reflectively: "Say, I HAVE been mixed up in a whole lot +of things, haven't I?" + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII + +THE BLACK FLAG + +THROUGHOUT the forty-odd years of his creative life, Edison has realized +by costly experience the truth of the cynical proverb that "A patent +is merely a title to a lawsuit." It is not intended, however, by this +statement to lead to any inference on the part of the reader that HE +stands peculiarly alone in any such experience, for it has been and +still is the common lot of every successful inventor, sooner or later. + +To attribute dishonesty or cupidity as the root of the defence in all +patent litigation would be aiming very wide of the mark, for in no +class of suits that come before the courts are there any that present +a greater variety of complex, finely shaded questions, or that +require more delicacy of interpretation, than those that involve the +construction of patents, particularly those relating to electrical +devices. Indeed, a careful study of legal procedure of this character +could not be carried far without discovery of the fact that in numerous +instances the differences of opinion between litigants were marked by +the utmost bona fides. + +On the other hand, such study would reveal many cases of undoubted +fraudulent intent, as well as many bold attempts to deprive the inventor +of the fruits of his endeavors by those who have sought to evade, +through subtle technicalities of the law, the penalty justly due them +for trickery, evasion, or open contempt of the rights of others. + +In the history of science and of the arts to which the world has +owed its continued progress from year to year there is disclosed one +remarkable fact, and that is, that whenever any important discovery or +invention has been made and announced by one man, it has almost always +been disclosed later that other men--possibly widely separated and +knowing nothing of the other's work--have been following up the same +general lines of investigation, independently, with the same object in +mind. Their respective methods might be dissimilar while tending to the +same end, but it does not necessarily follow that any one of these other +experimenters might ever have achieved the result aimed at, although, +after the proclamation of success by one, it is easy to believe that +each of the other independent investigators might readily persuade +himself that he would ultimately have reached the goal in just that same +way. + +This peculiar coincidence of simultaneous but separate work not only +comes to light on the bringing out of great and important discoveries +or inventions, but becomes more apparent if a new art is disclosed, for +then the imagination of previous experimenters is stimulated through +wide dissemination of the tidings, sometimes resulting in more or less +effort to enter the newly opened field with devices or methods that +resemble closely the original and fundamental ones in principle and +application. In this and other ways there arises constantly in the +United States Patent Office a large number of contested cases, called +"Interferences," where applications for patents covering the invention +of a similar device have been independently filed by two or even more +persons. In such cases only one patent can be issued, and that to +the inventor who on the taking of testimony shows priority in date of +invention. [20] + + [Footnote 20: A most remarkable instance of contemporaneous + invention and without a parallel in the annals of the United + States Patent Office, occurred when, on the same day, + February 15, 1876, two separate descriptions were filed in + that office, one a complete application and the other a + caveat, but each covering an invention for "transmitting + vocal sounds telegraphically." The application was made by + Alexander Graham Bell, of Salem, Massachusetts, and the + caveat by Elisha Gray, of Chicago, Illinois. On examination + of the two papers it was found that both of them covered + practically the same ground, hence, as only one patent could + be granted, it became necessary to ascertain the precise + hour at which the documents were respectively filed, and put + the parties in interference. This was done, with the result + that the patent was ultimately awarded to Bell.] + +In the opening up and development of any new art based upon a +fundamental discovery or invention, there ensues naturally an era of +supplemental or collateral inventive activity--the legitimate outcome +of the basic original ideas. Part of this development may be due to +the inventive skill and knowledge of the original inventor and his +associates, who, by reason of prior investigation, would be in better +position to follow up the art in its earliest details than others, +who might be regarded as mere outsiders. Thus a new enterprise may be +presented before the world by its promoters in the belief that they are +strongly fortified by patent rights which will protect them in a degree +commensurate with the risks they have assumed. + +Supplemental inventions, however, in any art, new or old, are not +limited to those which emanate from the original workers, for the +ingenuity of man, influenced by the spirit of the times, seizes upon any +novel line of action and seeks to improve or enlarge upon it, or, at +any rate, to produce more or less variation of its phases. Consequently, +there is a constant endeavor on the part of a countless host of men +possessing some degree of technical skill and inventive ability, to win +fame and money by entering into the already opened fields of endeavor +with devices and methods of their own, for which subsidiary patents may +be obtainable. Some of such patents may prove to be valuable, while +it is quite certain that in the natural order of things others will +be commercially worthless, but none may be entirely disregarded in the +history and development of the art. + +It will be quite obvious, therefore, that the advent of any useful +invention or discovery, great or small, is followed by a clashing of +many interests which become complex in their interpretation by reason of +the many conflicting claims that cluster around the main principle. Nor +is the confusion less confounded through efforts made on the part of +dishonest persons, who, like vultures, follow closely on the trail +of successful inventors and (sometimes through information derived +by underhand methods) obtain patents on alleged inventions, closely +approximating the real ones, solely for the purpose of harassing the +original patentee until they are bought up, or else, with the intent +of competing boldly in the new business, trust in the delays of legal +proceedings to obtain a sure foothold in their questionable enterprise. + +Then again there are still others who, having no patent rights, but +waving aside all compunction and in downright fraud, simply enter the +commercial field against the whole world, using ruthlessly whatever +inventive skill and knowledge the original patentee may have disclosed, +and trusting to the power of money, rapid movement, and mendacious +advertising to build up a business which shall presently assume such +formidable proportions as to force a compromise, or stave off an +injunction until the patent has expired. In nine cases out of ten such +a course can be followed with relative impunity; and guided by skilful +experts who may suggest really trivial changes here and there over the +patented structure, and with the aid of keen and able counsel, hardly a +patent exists that could not be invaded by such infringers. Such is +the condition of our laws and practice that the patentee in seeking to +enforce his rights labors under a terrible handicap. + +And, finally, in this recital of perplexing conditions confronting the +inventor, there must not be forgotten the commercial "shark," whose +predatory instincts are ever keenly alert for tender victims. In the +wake of every newly developed art of world-wide importance there is +sure to follow a number of unscrupulous adventurers, who hasten to take +advantage of general public ignorance of the true inwardness of affairs. +Basing their operations on this lack of knowledge, and upon the tendency +of human nature to give credence to widely advertised and high-sounding +descriptions and specious promises of vast profits, these men find +little difficulty in conjuring money out of the pockets of the +unsophisticated and gullible, who rush to become stockholders in +concerns that have "airy nothings" for a foundation, and that collapse +quickly when the bubble is pricked. [21] + + [Footnote 21: A notable instance of the fleecing of + unsuspecting and credulous persons occurred in the early + eighties, during the furor occasioned by the introduction of + Mr. Edison's electric-light system. A corporation claiming + to have a self-generating dynamo (practically perpetual + motion) advertised its preposterous claims extensively, and + actually succeeded in selling a large amount of stock, + which, of course, proved to be absolutely worthless.] + +To one who is unacquainted with the trying circumstances attending +the introduction and marketing of patented devices, it might seem +unnecessary that an inventor and his business associates should be +obliged to take into account the unlawful or ostensible competition of +pirates or schemers, who, in the absence of legal decision, may run a +free course for a long time. Nevertheless, as public patronage is the +element vitally requisite for commercial success, and as the public is +not usually in full possession of all the facts and therefore cannot +discriminate between the genuine and the false, the legitimate inventor +must avail himself of every possible means of proclaiming and asserting +his rights if he desires to derive any benefit from the results of his +skill and labor. Not only must he be prepared to fight in the Patent +Office and pursue a regular course of patent litigation against those +who may honestly deem themselves to be protected by other inventions +or patents of similar character, and also proceed against more palpable +infringers who are openly, defiantly, and illegitimately engaged in +competitive business operations, but he must, as well, endeavor to +protect himself against the assaults of impudent fraud by educating the +public mind to a point of intelligent apprehension of the true status of +his invention and the conflicting claims involved. + +When the nature of a patent right is considered it is difficult to see +why this should be so. The inventor creates a new thing--an invention of +utility--and the people, represented by the Federal Government, say to +him in effect: "Disclose your invention to us in a patent so that we may +know how to practice it, and we will agree to give you a monopoly for +seventeen years, after which we shall be free to use it. If the right +thus granted is invaded, apply to a Federal Court and the infringer will +be enjoined and required to settle in damages." Fair and false promise! +Is it generally realized that no matter how flagrant the infringement +nor how barefaced and impudent the infringer, no Federal Court will +grant an injunction UNTIL THE PATENT SHALL HAVE BEEN FIRST LITIGATED TO +FINAL HEARING AND SUSTAINED? A procedure, it may be stated, requiring +years of time and thousands of dollars, during which other infringers +have generally entered the field, and all have grown fat. + +Thus Edison and his business associates have been forced into a +veritable maelstrom of litigation during the major part of the last +forty years, in the effort to procure for themselves a small measure +of protection for their interests under the numerous inventions of note +that he has made at various times in that period. The earlier years of +his inventive activity, while productive of many important contributions +to electrical industries, such as stock tickers and printers, duplex, +quadruplex, and automatic telegraphs, were not marked by the turmoil +of interminable legal conflicts that arose after the beginning of the +telephone and electric-light epochs. In fact, his inventions; up to +and including his telephone improvements (which entered into already +existing arts), had been mostly purchased by the Western Union and other +companies, and while there was more or less contesting of his claims +(especially in respect of the telephone), the extent of such litigation +was not so conspicuously great as that which centred subsequently around +his patents covering incandescent electric lighting and power systems. + +Through these inventions there came into being an entirely new art, +complete in its practicability evolved by Edison after protracted +experiments founded upon most patient, thorough, and original methods +of investigation extending over several years. Long before attaining +the goal, he had realized with characteristic insight the underlying +principles of the great and comprehensive problem he had started out +to solve, and plodded steadily along the path that he had marked out, +ignoring the almost universal scientific disbelief in his ultimate +success. "Dreamer," "fool," "boaster" were among the appellations +bestowed upon him by unbelieving critics. Ridicule was heaped upon +him in the public prints, and mathematics were called into service +by learned men to settle the point forever that he was attempting the +utterly impossible. + +But, presto! no sooner had he accomplished the task and shown concrete +results to the world than he found himself in the anomalous position +of being at once surrounded by the conditions which inevitably confront +every inventor. The path through the trackless forest had been blazed, +and now every one could find the way. At the end of the road was a rich +prize belonging rightfully to the man who had opened a way to it, but +the struggles of others to reach it by more or less honest methods now +began and continued for many years. If, as a former commissioner once +said, "Edison was the man who kept the path to the Patent Office +hot with his footsteps," there were other great inventors abreast or +immediately on his heels, some, to be sure, with legitimate, original +methods and vital improvements representing independent work; while +there were also those who did not trouble to invent, but simply helped +themselves to whatever ideas were available, and coming from any source. + +Possibly events might have happened differently had Edison been able to +prevent the announcement of his electric-light inventions until he +was entirely prepared to bring out the system as a whole, ready for +commercial exploitation, but the news of his production of a practical +and successful incandescent lamp became known and spread like wild-fire +to all corners of the globe. It took more than a year after the +evolution of the lamp for Edison to get into position to do actual +business, and during that time his laboratory was the natural Mecca of +every inquiring person. Small wonder, then, that when he was prepared to +market his invention he should find others entering that market, at +home and abroad, at the same time, and with substantially similar +merchandise. + +Edison narrates two incidents that may be taken as characteristic of +a good deal that had to be contended with, coming in the shape of +nefarious attack. "In the early days of my electric light," he says, +"curiosity and interest brought a great many people to Menlo Park to see +it. Some of them did not come with the best of intentions. I remember +the visit of one expert, a well-known electrician, a graduate of Johns +Hopkins University, and who then represented a Baltimore gas company. We +had the lamps exhibited in a large room, and so arranged on a table as +to illustrate the regular layout of circuits for houses and streets. +Sixty of the men employed at the laboratory were used as watchers, each +to keep an eye on a certain section of the exhibit, and see there was +no monkeying with it. This man had a length of insulated No. 10 wire +passing through his sleeves and around his back, so that his hands would +conceal the ends and no one would know he had it. His idea, of course, +was to put this wire across the ends of the supplying circuits, and +short-circuit the whole thing--put it all out of business without being +detected. Then he could report how easily the electric light went out, +and a false impression would be conveyed to the public. He did not know +that we had already worked out the safety-fuse, and that every group +of lights was thus protected independently. He put this jumper slyly in +contact with the wires--and just four lamps went out on the section he +tampered with. The watchers saw him do it, however, and got hold of him +and just led him out of the place with language that made the recording +angels jump for their typewriters." + +The other incident is as follows: "Soon after I had got out the +incandescent light I had an interference in the Patent Office with a man +from Wisconsin. He filed an application for a patent and entered into a +conspiracy to 'swear back' of the date of my invention, so as to +deprive me of it. Detectives were put on the case, and we found he was a +'faker,' and we took means to break the thing up. Eugene Lewis, of Eaton +& Lewis, had this in hand for me. Several years later this same man +attempted to defraud a leading firm of manufacturing chemists in New +York, and was sent to State prison. A short time after that a syndicate +took up a man named Goebel and tried to do the same thing, but again our +detective-work was too much for them. This was along the same line as +the attempt of Drawbaugh to deprive Bell of his telephone. Whenever +an invention of large prospective value comes out, these cases always +occur. The lamp patent was sustained in the New York Federal Court. I +thought that was final and would end the matter, but another Federal +judge out in St. Louis did not sustain it. The result is I have never +enjoyed any benefits from my lamp patents, although I fought for many +years." The Goebel case will be referred to later in this chapter. + +The original owner of the patents and inventions covering his +electric-lighting system, the Edison Electric Light Company (in which +Edison was largely interested as a stockholder), thus found at the +outset that its commercial position was imperilled by the activity of +competitors who had sprung up like mushrooms. It became necessary to +take proper preliminary legal steps to protect the interests which had +been acquired at the cost of so much money and such incessant toil and +experiment. During the first few years in which the business of the +introduction of the light was carried on with such strenuous and +concentrated effort, the attention of Edison and his original associates +was constantly focused upon the commercial exploitation and the +further development of the system at home and abroad. The difficult +and perplexing situation at that time is thus described by Major S. B. +Eaton: + +"The reason for the delay in beginning and pushing suits for +infringements of the lamp patent has never been generally understood. In +my official position as president of the Edison Electric Light Company +I became the target, along with Mr. Edison, for censure from the +stockholders and others on account of this delay, and I well remember +how deep the feeling was. In view of the facts that a final injunction +on the lamp patent was not obtained until the life of the patent was +near its end, and, next, that no damages in money were ever paid by +the guilty infringers, it has been generally believed that Mr. Edison +sacrificed the interest of his stockholders selfishly when he delayed +the prosecution of patent suits and gave all his time and energies to +manufacturing. This belief was the stronger because the manufacturing +enterprises belonged personally to Mr. Edison and not to his company. +But the facts render it easy to dispel this false belief. The Edison +inventions were not only a lamp; they comprised also an entire system of +central stations. Such a thing was new to the world, and the apparatus, +as well as the manufacture thereof, was equally new. Boilers, +engines, dynamos, motors, distribution mains, meters, house-wiring, +safety-devices, lamps, and lamp-fixtures--all were vital parts of the +whole system. Most of them were utterly novel and unknown to the arts, +and all of them required quick, and, I may say, revolutionary thought +and invention. The firm of Babcock & Wilcox gave aid on the boilers, +Armington & Sims undertook the engines, but everything else was +abnormal. No factories in the land would take up the manufacture. I +remember, for instance, our interviews with Messrs. Mitchell, Vance & +Co., the leading manufacturers of house gas-lighting fixtures, such as +brackets and chandeliers. They had no faith in electric lighting, and +rejected all our overtures to induce them to take up the new business +of making electric-light fixtures. As regards other parts of the Edison +system, notably the Edison dynamo, no such machines had ever existed; +there was no factory in the world equipped to make them, and, +most discouraging of all, the very scientific principles of their +construction were still vague and experimental. + +"What was to be done? Mr. Edison has never been greater than when he met +and solved this crisis. 'If there are no factories,' he said, 'to make +my inventions, I will build the factories myself. Since capital is +timid, I will raise and supply it. The issue is factories or death.' Mr. +Edison invited the cooperation of his leading stockholders. They lacked +confidence or did not care to increase their investments. He was forced +to go on alone. The chain of Edison shops was then created. By far the +most perplexing of these new manufacturing problems was the lamp. Not +only was it a new industry, one without shadow of prototype, but the +mechanical devices for making the lamps, and to some extent the very +machines to make those devices, were to be invented. All of this was +done by the courage, capital, and invincible energy and genius of the +great inventor. But Mr. Edison could not create these great and diverse +industries and at the same time give requisite attention to litigation. +He could not start and develop the new and hard business of electric +lighting and yet spare one hour to pursue infringers. One thing or the +other must wait. All agreed that it must be the litigation. And right +there a lasting blow was given to the prestige of the Edison patents. +The delay was translated as meaning lack of confidence; and the alert +infringer grew strong in courage and capital. Moreover, and what was the +heaviest blow of all, he had time, thus unmolested, to get a good start. + +"In looking back on those days and scrutinizing them through the years, +I am impressed by the greatness, the solitary greatness I may say, of +Mr. Edison. We all felt then that we were of importance, and that our +contribution of effort and zeal were vital. I can see now, however, that +the best of us was nothing but the fly on the wheel. Suppose anything +had happened to Edison? All would have been chaos and ruin.. To him, +therefore, be the glory, if not the profit." + +The foregoing remarks of Major Eaton show authoritatively how the +much-discussed delay in litigating the Edison patents was so greatly +misunderstood at the time, and also how imperatively necessary it was +for Edison and his associates to devote their entire time and energies +to the commercial development of the art. As the lighting business +increased, however, and a great number of additional men were initiated +into its mysteries, Edison and his experts were able to spare some +time to legal matters, and an era of active patent litigation against +infringers was opened about the year 1885 by the Edison company, and +thereafter continued for many years. + +While the history of this vast array of legal proceedings possesses a +fascinating interest for those involved, as well as for professional +men, legal and scientific, it could not be expected that it would +excite any such feeling on the part of a casual reader. Hence, it is +not proposed to encumber this narrative with any detailed record of the +numerous suits that were brought and conducted through their complicated +ramifications by eminent counsel. Suffice it to say that within about +sixteen years after the commencement of active patent litigation, there +had been spent by the owners of the Edison lighting patents upward +of two million dollars in prosecuting more than two hundred lawsuits +brought against persons who were infringing many of the patents of +Edison on the incandescent electric lamp and component parts of his +system. Over fifty separate patents were involved in these suits, +including the basic one on the lamp (ordinarily called the "Filament" +patent), other detail lamp patents, as well as those on sockets, +switches, dynamos, motors, and distributing systems. + +The principal, or "test," suit on the "Filament" patent was that brought +against "The United States Electric Lighting Company," which became a +cause celebre in the annals of American jurisprudence. Edison's claims +were strenuously and stubbornly contested throughout a series of intense +legal conflicts that raged in the courts for a great many years. Both +sides of the controversy were represented by legal talent of the +highest order, under whose examination and cross-examination volumes +of testimony were taken, until the printed record (including exhibits) +amounted to more than six thousand pages. Scientific and technical +literature and records in all parts of the civilized world were +subjected to the most minute scrutiny of opposing experts in the +endeavor to prove Edison to be merely an adapter of methods and devices +already projected or suggested by others. The world was ransacked for +anything that might be claimed as an anticipation of what he had done. +Every conceivable phase of ingenuity that could be devised by +technical experts was exercised in the attempt to show that Edison +had accomplished nothing new. Everything that legal acumen could +suggest--every subtle technicality of the law--all the complicated +variations of phraseology that the novel nomenclature of a young +art would allow--all were pressed into service and availed of by the +contestors of the Edison invention in their desperate effort to defeat +his claims. It was all in vain, however, for the decision of the court +was in favor of Edison, and his lamp patent was sustained not only by +the tribunal of the first resort, but also by the Appellate Court some +time afterward. + +The first trial was had before Judge Wallace in the United States +Circuit Court for the Southern District of New York, and the appeal was +heard by Judges Lacombe and Shipman, of the United States Circuit Court +of Appeals. Before both tribunals the cause had been fully represented +by counsel chosen from among the most eminent representatives of the +bar at that time, those representing the Edison interests being the +late Clarence A. Seward and Grosvenor P. Lowrey, together with Sherburne +Blake Eaton, Albert H. Walker, and Richard N. Dyer. The presentation of +the case to the courts had in both instances been marked by masterly and +able arguments, elucidated by experiments and demonstrations to educate +the judges on technical points. Some appreciation of the magnitude of +this case may be gained from the fact that the argument on its first +trial employed a great many days, and the minutes covered hundreds +of pages of closely typewritten matter, while the argument on appeal +required eight days, and was set forth in eight hundred and fifty pages +of typewriting. Eliminating all purely forensic eloquence and exparte +statements, the addresses of counsel in this celebrated suit are worthy +of deep study by an earnest student, for, taken together, they comprise +the most concise, authentic, and complete history of the prior state of +the art and the development of the incandescent lamp that had been made +up to that time. [22] + + [22] The argument on appeal was conducted with the dignity + and decorum that characterize such a proceeding in that + court. There is usually little that savors of humor in the + ordinary conduct of a case of this kind, but in the present + instance a pertinent story was related by Mr. Lowrey, and it + is now reproduced. In the course of his address to the + court, Mr. Lowrey said: + + "I have to mention the name of one expert whose testimony + will, I believe, be found as accurate, as sincere, as + straightforward as if it were the preaching of the gospel. I + do it with great pleasure, and I ask you to read the + testimony of Charles L. Clarke along with that of Thomas A. + Edison. He had rather a hard row to hoe. He is a young + gentleman; he is a very well-instructed man in his + profession; he is not what I have called in the argument + below an expert in the art of testifying, like some of the + others, he has not yet become expert; what he may descend to + later cannot be known; he entered upon his first experience, + I think, with my brother Duncan, who is no trifler when he + comes to deal with these questions, and for several months + Mr. Clarke was pursued up and down, over a range of + suggestions of what he would have thought if he had thought + something else had been said at some time when something + else was not said." + + Mr. Duncan--"I got three pages a day out of him, too." + + Mr. Lowrey--"Well, it was a good result. It always recalled + to me what I venture now, since my friend breaks in upon me + in this rude manner, to tell the court as well illustrative + of what happened there. It is the story of the pickerel and + the roach. My friend, Professor Von Reisenberg, of the + University of Ghent, pursued a series of investigations into + the capacity of various animals to receive ideas. Among the + rest he put a pickerel into a tank containing water, and + separated across its middle by a transparent glass plate, + and on the other side he put a red roach. Now your Honors + both know how a pickerel loves a red roach, and I have no + doubt you will remember that he is a fish of a very low + forehead and an unlimited appetite. When this pickerel saw + the red roach through the glass, he made one of those awful + dashes which is usually the ruin of whatever stands in its + way; but he didn't reach the red roach. He received an + impression, doubtless. It was not sufficient, however, to + discourage him, and he immediately tried again, and he + continued to try for three-quarters of an hour. At the end + of three-quarters of an hour he seemed a little shaken and + discouraged, and stopped, and the red roach was taken out + for that day and the pickerel left. On the succeeding day + the red roach was restored, and the pickerel had forgotten + the impressions of the first day, and he repeated this + again. At the end of the second day the roach was taken out. + This was continued, not through so long a period as the + effort to take my friend Clarke and devour him, but for a + period of about three weeks. At the end of the three weeks, + the time during which the pickerel persisted each day had + been shortened and shortened, until it was at last + discovered that he didn't try at all. The plate glass was + then removed, and the pickerel and the red roach sailed + around together in perfect peace ever afterward. The + pickerel doubtless attributed to the roach all this shaking, + the rebuff which he had received. And that is about the + condition in which my brother Duncan and my friend Clarke + were at the end of this examination." + + Mr. Duncan--"I notice on the redirect that Mr. Clarke + changed his color." + + Mr. Lowrey--"Well, perhaps he was a different kind of a + roach then; but you didn't succeed in taking him. + + "I beg your Honors to read the testimony of Mr. Clarke in + the light of the anecdote of the pickerel and the roach." + +Owing to long-protracted delays incident to the taking of testimony and +preparation for trial, the argument before the United States Circuit +Court of Appeals was not had until the late spring of 1892, and its +decision in favor of the Edison Lamp patent was filed on October 4, +1892, MORE THAN TWELVE YEARS AFTER THE ISSUANCE OF THE PATENT ITSELF. + +As the term of the patent had been limited under the law, because +certain foreign patents had been issued to Edison before that in this +country, there was now but a short time left for enjoyment of the +exclusive rights contemplated by the statute and granted to Edison and +his assigns by the terms of the patent itself. A vigorous and aggressive +legal campaign was therefore inaugurated by the Edison Electric Light +Company against the numerous infringing companies and individuals that +had sprung up while the main suit was pending. Old suits were revived +and new ones instituted. Injunctions were obtained against many old +offenders, and it seemed as though the Edison interests were about to +come into their own for the brief unexpired term of the fundamental +patent, when a new bombshell was dropped into the Edison camp in the +shape of an alleged anticipation of the invention forty years previously +by one Henry Goebel. Thus, in 1893, the litigation was reopened, and a +protracted series of stubbornly contested conflicts was fought in the +courts. + +Goebel's claims were not unknown to the Edison Company, for as far back +as 1882 they had been officially brought to its notice coupled with an +offer of sale for a few thousand dollars. A very brief examination into +their merits, however, sufficed to demonstrate most emphatically that +Goebel had never made a practical incandescent lamp, nor had he ever +contributed a single idea or device bearing, remotely or directly, on +the development of the art. Edison and his company, therefore, rejected +the offer unconditionally and declined to enter into any arrangements +whatever with Goebel. During the prosecution of the suits in 1893 it +transpired that the Goebel claims had also been investigated by the +counsel of the defendant company in the principal litigation already +related, but although every conceivable defence and anticipation had +been dragged into the case during the many years of its progress, the +alleged Goebel anticipation was not even touched upon therein. From +this fact it is quite apparent that they placed no credence on its bona +fides. + +But desperate cases call for desperate remedies. Some of the infringing +lamp-manufacturing concerns, which during the long litigation had grown +strong and lusty, and thus far had not been enjoined by the court, now +saw injunctions staring them in the face, and in desperation set up the +Goebel so-called anticipation as a defence in the suits brought against +them. + +This German watchmaker, Goebel, located in the East Side of New York +City, had undoubtedly been interested, in a desultory kind of way, in +simple physical phenomena, and a few trifling experiments made by him +some forty or forty-five years previously were magnified and distorted +into brilliant and all-comprehensive discoveries and inventions. +Avalanches of affidavits of himself, "his sisters and his cousins and +his aunts," practically all persons in ordinary walks of life, and of +old friends, contributed a host of recollections that seemed little +short of miraculous in their detailed accounts of events of a scientific +nature that were said to have occurred so many years before. According +to affidavits of Goebel himself and some of his family, nothing that +would anticipate Edison's claim had been omitted from his work, for he +(Goebel) claimed to have employed the all-glass globe, into which were +sealed platinum wires carrying a tenuous carbon filament, from which the +occluded gases had been liberated during the process of high exhaustion. +He had even determined upon bamboo as the best material for filaments. +On the face of it he was seemingly gifted with more than human +prescience, for in at least one of his exhibit lamps, said to have been +made twenty years previously, he claimed to have employed processes +which Edison and his associates had only developed by several years of +experience in making thousands of lamps! + +The Goebel story was told by the affidavits in an ingenuous manner, with +a wealth of simple homely detail that carried on its face an appearance +of truth calculated to deceive the elect, had not the elect been +somewhat prepared by their investigation made some eleven years before. + +The story was met by the Edison interests with counter-affidavits, +showing its utter improbabilities and absurdities from the standpoint of +men of science and others versed in the history and practice of the art; +also affidavits of other acquaintances and neighbors of Goebel flatly +denying the exhibitions he claimed to have made. The issue thus being +joined, the legal battle raged over different sections of the country. A +number of contumeliously defiant infringers in various cities based fond +hopes of immunity upon the success of this Goebel evidence, but were +defeated. The attitude of the courts is well represented in the opinion +of Judge Colt, rendered in a motion for injunction against the Beacon +Vacuum Pump and Electrical Company. The defence alleged the Goebel +anticipation, in support of which it offered in evidence four lamps, +Nos. 1, 2, and 3 purporting to have been made before 1854, and No. 4 +before 1872. After a very full review of the facts in the case, and +a fair consideration of the defendants' affidavits, Judge Colt in his +opinion goes on to say: + + +"It is extremely improbable that Henry Goebel constructed a practical +incandescent lamp in 1854. This is manifest from the history of the art +for the past fifty years, the electrical laws which since that time have +been discovered as applicable to the incandescent lamp, the imperfect +means which then existed for obtaining a vacuum, the high degree of +skill necessary in the construction of all its parts, and the crude +instruments with which Goebel worked. + +"Whether Goebel made the fiddle-bow lamps, 1, 2, and 3, is not necessary +to determine. The weight of evidence on this motion is in the direction +that he made these lamp or lamps similar in general appearance, though +it is manifest that few, if any, of the many witnesses who saw the +Goebel lamp could form an accurate judgment of the size of the filament +or burner. But assuming they were made, they do not anticipate the +invention of Edison. At most they were experimental toys used to +advertise his telescope, or to flash a light upon his clock, or to +attract customers to his shop. They were crudely constructed, and their +life was brief. They could not be used for domestic purposes. They +were in no proper sense the practical commercial lamp of Edison. The +literature of the art is full of better lamps, all of which are held not +to anticipate the Edison patent. + +"As for Lamp No. 4, I cannot but view it with suspicion. It presents +a new appearance. The reason given for not introducing it before the +hearing is unsatisfactory. This lamp, to my mind, envelops with a cloud +of distrust the whole Goebel story. It is simply impossible under the +circumstances to believe that a lamp so constructed could have been +made by Goebel before 1872. Nothing in the evidence warrants such a +supposition, and other things show it to be untrue. This lamp has a +carbon filament, platinum leading-in wires, a good vacuum, and is well +sealed and highly finished. It is said that this lamp shows no traces of +mercury in the bulb because the mercury was distilled, but Goebel says +nothing about distilled mercury in his first affidavit, and twice +he speaks of the particles of mercury clinging to the inside of the +chamber, and for that reason he constructed a Geissler pump after he +moved to 468 Grand Street, which was in 1877. Again, if this lamp has +been in his possession since before 1872, as he and his son swear, why +was it not shown to Mr. Crosby, of the American Company, when he visited +his shop in 1881 and was much interested in his lamps? Why was it not +shown to Mr. Curtis, the leading counsel for the defendants in the New +York cases, when he was asked to produce a lamp and promised to do so? +Why did not his son take this lamp to Mr. Bull's office in 1892, when +he took the old fiddle-bow lamps, 1, 2, and 3? Why did not his son take +this lamp to Mr. Eaton's office in 1882, when he tried to negotiate +the sale of his father's inventions to the Edison Company? A lamp so +constructed and made before 1872 was worth a large sum of money to those +interested in defeating the Edison patent like the American Company, and +Goebel was not a rich man. Both he and one of his sons were employed in +1881 by the American Company. Why did he not show this lamp to McMahon +when he called in the interest of the American Company and talked over +the electrical matters? When Mr. Dreyer tried to organize a company in +1882, and procured an option from him of all his inventions relating to +electric lighting for which $925 was paid, and when an old lamp of this +kind was of vital consequence and would have insured a fortune, why was +it not forthcoming? Mr. Dreyer asked Goebel to produce an old lamp, and +was especially anxious to find one pending his negotiations with the +Edison Company for the sale of Goebel's inventions. Why did he not +produce this lamp in his interviews with Bohm, of the American Company, +or Moses, of the Edison Company, when it was for his interest to do so? +The value of such an anticipation of the Edison lamp was made known to +him. He was desirous of realizing upon his inventions. He was proud of +his incandescent lamps, and was pleased to talk about them with anybody +who would listen. Is it conceivable under all these circumstances, that +he should have had this all-important lamp in his possession from 1872 +to 1893, and yet no one have heard of it or seen it except his son? It +cannot be said that ignorance of the English language offers an excuse. +He knew English very well although Bohm and Dreyer conversed with him +in German. His children spoke English. Neither his ignorance nor his +simplicity prevented him from taking out three patents: the first +in 1865 for a sewing-machine hemmer, and the last in 1882 for an +improvement in incandescent lamps. If he made Lamp No. 4 previous to +1872, why was it not also patented? + +"There are other circumstances which throw doubt on this alleged Goebel +anticipation. The suit against the United States Electric Lighting +Company was brought in the Southern District of New York in 1885. Large +interests were at stake, and the main defence to the Edison patent was +based on prior inventions. This Goebel claim was then investigated by +the leading counsel for the defence, Mr. Curtis. It was further inquired +into in 1892, in the case against the Sawyer-Man Company. It was brought +to the attention and considered by the Edison Company in 1882. It was +at that time known to the American Company, who hoped by this means to +defeat the monopoly under the Edison patent. Dreyer tried to organize +a company for its purchase. Young Goebel tried to sell it. It must have +been known to hundreds of people. And now when the Edison Company after +years of litigation, leaving but a short time for the patent to run, +have obtained a final adjudication establishing its validity, this +claim is again resurrected to defeat the operation of the judgment +so obtained. A court in equity should not look with favor on such +a defence. Upon the evidence here presented, I agree with the first +impression of Mr. Curtis and with the opinion of Mr. Dickerson that +whatever Goebel did must be considered as an abandoned experiment. + +"It has often been laid down that a meritorious invention is not to be +defeated by something which rests in speculation or experiment, or which +is rudimentary or incomplete. + +"The law requires not conjecture, but certainty. It is easy after an +important invention has gone into public use for persons to come forward +with claims that they invented the same thing years before, and to +endeavor to establish this by the recollection of witnesses as to events +long past. Such evidence is to be received with great caution, and the +presumption of novelty arising from the grant of the patent is not to be +overcome except upon clear and convincing proof. + +"When the defendant company entered upon the manufacture of incandescent +lamps in May, 1891, it well knew the consequences which must follow a +favorable decision for the Edison Company in the New York case." + + +The injunction was granted. + +Other courts took practically the same view of the Goebel story as was +taken by Judge Colt, and the injunctions asked in behalf of the Edison +interests were granted on all applications except one in St. Louis, +Missouri, in proceedings instituted against a strong local concern of +that city. + +Thus, at the eleventh hour in the life of this important patent, after +a long period of costly litigation, Edison and his associates were +compelled to assume the defensive against a claimant whose utterly +baseless pretensions had already been thoroughly investigated and +rejected years before by every interested party, and ultimately, on +examination by the courts, pronounced legally untenable, if not indeed +actually fraudulent. Irritating as it was to be forced into the +position of combating a proposition so well known to be preposterous and +insincere, there was nothing else to do but to fight this fabrication +with all the strenuous and deadly earnestness that would have been +brought to bear on a really meritorious defence. Not only did this +Goebel episode divert for a long time the energies of the Edison +interests from activities in other directions, but the cost of +overcoming the extravagantly absurd claims ran up into hundreds of +thousands of dollars. + +Another quotation from Major Eaton is of interest in this connection: + +"Now a word about the Goebel case. I took personal charge of running +down this man and his pretensions in the section of the city where +he lived and among his old neighbors. They were a typical East Side +lot--ignorant, generally stupid, incapable of long memory, but ready to +oblige a neighbor and to turn an easy dollar by putting a cross-mark at +the bottom of a forthcoming friendly affidavit. I can say in all truth +and justice that their testimony was utterly false, and that the lawyers +who took it must have known it. + +"The Goebel case emphasizes two defects in the court procedure in patent +cases. One is that they may be spun out almost interminably, even, +possibly, to the end of the life of the patent; the other is that the +judge who decides the case does not see the witnesses. That adverse +decision at St. Louis would never have been made if the court could +have seen the men who swore for Goebel. When I met Mr. F. P. Fish on +his return from St. Louis, after he had argued the Edison side, he felt +keenly that disadvantage, to say nothing of the hopeless difficulty of +educating the court." + +In the earliest days of the art, when it was apparent that incandescent +lighting had come to stay, the Edison Company was a shining mark at +which the shafts of the dishonest were aimed. Many there were who +stood ready to furnish affidavits that they or some one else whom they +controlled had really invented the lamp, but would obligingly withdraw +and leave Edison in possession of the field on payment of money. +Investigation of these cases, however, revealed invariably the purely +fraudulent nature of all such offers, which were uniformly declined. + +As the incandescent light began to advance rapidly in public favor, the +immense proportions of the future market became sufficiently obvious to +tempt unauthorized persons to enter the field and become manufacturers. +When the lamp became a thoroughly established article it was not a +difficult matter to copy it, especially when there were employees to be +hired away at increased pay, and their knowledge utilized by the more +unscrupulous of these new competitors. This is not conjecture but known +to be a fact, and the practice continued many years, during which new +lamp companies sprang up on every side. Hence, it is not surprising +that, on the whole, the Edison lamp litigation was not less remarkable +for quantity than quality. Between eighty and ninety separate suits upon +Edison's fundamental lamp and detail patents were brought in the courts +of the United States and prosecuted to completion. + +In passing it may be mentioned that in England France, and Germany also +the Edison fundamental lamp patent was stubbornly fought in the judicial +arena, and his claim to be the first inventor of practical incandescent +lighting was uniformly sustained in all those countries. + +Infringement was not, however, confined to the lamp alone, but, in +America, extended all along the line of Edison's patents relating to +the production and distribution of electric light, including those on +dynamos, motors, distributing systems, sockets, switches, and other +details which he had from time to time invented. Consequently, in order +to protect its interests at all points, the Edison Company had found it +necessary to pursue a vigorous policy of instituting legal proceedings +against the infringers of these various patents, and, in addition to the +large number of suits on the lamp alone, not less than one hundred and +twenty-five other separate actions, involving some fifty or more of +Edison's principal electric-lighting patents, were brought against +concerns which were wrongfully appropriating his ideas and actively +competing with his companies in the market. + +The ramifications of this litigation became so extensive and complex +as to render it necessary to institute a special bureau, or department, +through which the immense detail could be systematically sifted, +analyzed, and arranged in collaboration with the numerous experts +and counsel responsible for the conduct of the various cases. This +department was organized in 1889 by Major Eaton, who was at this time +and for some years afterward its general counsel. + +In the selection of the head of this department a man of methodical and +analytical habit of mind was necessary, capable of clear reasoning, and +at the same time one who had gained a thoroughly practical experience +in electric light and power fields, and the choice fell upon Mr. W. +J. Jenks, the manager of the Edison central station at Brockton, +Massachusetts. He had resigned that position in 1885, and had spent +the intervening period in exploiting the Edison municipal system of +lighting, as well as taking an active part in various other branches of +the Edison enterprises. + +Thus, throughout the life of Edison's patents on electric light, power, +and distribution, the interminable legal strife has continued from +day to day, from year to year. Other inventors, some of them great and +notable, have been coming into the field since the foundation of the +art, patents have multiplied exceedingly, improvement has succeeded +improvement, great companies have grown greater, new concerns have come +into existence, coalitions and mergers have taken place, all tending +to produce changes in methods, but not much in diminution of patent +litigation. While Edison has not for a long time past interested himself +particularly in electric light and power inventions, the bureau which +was initiated under the old regime in 1889 still continues, enlarged +in scope, directed by its original chief, but now conducted under the +auspices of several allied companies whose great volumes of combined +patents (including those of Edison) cover a very wide range of the +electrical field. + +As the general conception and theory of a lawsuit is the recovery of +some material benefit, the lay mind is apt to conceive of great sums of +money being awarded to a complainant by way of damages upon a favorable +decision in an important patent case. It might, therefore, be natural to +ask how far Edison or his companies have benefited pecuniarily by reason +of the many belated victories they have scored in the courts. To this +question a strict regard for truth compels the answer that they have not +been benefited at all, not to the extent of a single dollar, so far as +cash damages are concerned. + +It is not to be denied, however, that substantial advantages have +accrued to them more or less directly through the numerous favorable +decisions obtained by them as a result of the enormous amount of +litigation, in the prosecution of which so great a sum of money has been +spent and so concentrated an amount of effort and time lavished. Indeed, +it would be strange and unaccountable were the results otherwise. While +the benefits derived were not directly pecuniary in their nature, they +were such as tended to strengthen commercially the position of the +rightful owners of the patents. Many irresponsible and purely piratical +concerns were closed altogether; others were compelled to take out +royalty licenses; consolidations of large interests were brought about; +the public was gradually educated to a more correct view of the true +merits of conflicting claims, and, generally speaking, the business has +been greatly unified and brought within well-defined and controllable +lines. + +Not only in relation to his electric light and power inventions has the +progress of Edison and his associates been attended by legal controversy +all through the years of their exploitation, but also in respect to +other inventions, notably those relating to the phonograph and to motion +pictures. + +The increasing endeavors of infringers to divert into their own pockets +some of the proceeds arising from the marketing of the devices +covered by Edison's inventions on these latter lines, necessitated the +institution by him, some years ago, of a legal department which, as in +the case of the light inventions, was designed to consolidate all law +and expert work and place it under the management of a general counsel. +The department is of considerable extent, including a number of resident +and other associate counsel, and a general office staff, all of whom are +constantly engaged from day to day in patent litigation and other legal +work necessary to protect the Edison interests. Through their labors the +old story is reiterated in the contesting of approximate but conflicting +claims, the never-ending effort to suppress infringement, and the +destruction as far as possible of the commercial pirates who set sail +upon the seas of all successful enterprises. The details, circumstances, +and technical questions are, of course, different from those relating +to other classes of inventions, and although there has been no cause +celebre concerning the phonograph and motion-picture patents, the +contention is as sharp and strenuous as it was in the cases relating to +electric lighting and heavy current technics. + +Mr. Edison's storage battery and the poured cement house have not yet +reached the stage of great commercial enterprises, and therefore have +not yet risen to the dignity of patent litigation. If, however, the +experience of past years is any criterion, there will probably come a +time in the future when, despite present widely expressed incredulity +and contemptuous sniffs of unbelief in the practicability of his ideas +in these directions, ultimate success will give rise to a series of +hotly contested legal conflicts such as have signalized the practical +outcome of his past efforts in other lines. + +When it is considered what Edison has done, what the sum and substance +of his contributions to human comfort and happiness have been, the +results, as measured by legal success, have been pitiable. With the +exception of the favorable decision on the incandescent lamp filament +patent, coming so late, however, that but little practical good was +accomplished, the reader may search the law-books in vain for a single +decision squarely and fairly sustaining a single patent of first order. +There never was a monopoly in incandescent electric lighting, and even +from the earliest days competitors and infringers were in the field +reaping the benefits, and though defeated in the end, paying not a cent +of tribute. The market was practically as free and open as if no patent +existed. There never was a monopoly in the phonograph; practically all +of the vital inventions were deliberately appropriated by others, and +the inventor was laughed at for his pains. Even so beautiful a process +as that for the duplication of phonograph records was solemnly held by +a Federal judge as lacking invention--as being obvious to any one. The +mere fact that Edison spent years of his life in developing that process +counted for nothing. + +The invention of the three-wire system, which, when it was first +announced as saving over 60 per cent. of copper in the circuits, was +regarded as an utter impossibility--this patent was likewise held by +a Federal judge to be lacking in invention. In the motion-picture art, +infringements began with its very birth, and before the inevitable +litigation could be terminated no less than ten competitors were in the +field, with whom compromises had to be made. + +In a foreign country, Edison would have undoubtedly received signal +honors; in his own country he has won the respect and admiration of +millions; but in his chosen field as an inventor and as a patentee his +reward has been empty. The courts abroad have considered his patents in +a liberal spirit and given him his due; the decisions in this country +have fallen wide of the mark. We make no criticism of our Federal +judges; as a body they are fair, able, and hard-working; but they +operate under a system of procedure that stifles absolutely the +development of inventive genius. + +Until that system is changed and an opportunity offered for a final, +swift, and economical adjudication of patent rights, American inventors +may well hesitate before openly disclosing their inventions to the +public, and may seriously consider the advisability of retaining them as +"trade secrets." + + + +CHAPTER XXIX + +THE SOCIAL SIDE OF EDISON + +THE title of this chapter might imply that there is an unsocial side +to Edison. In a sense this is true, for no one is more impatient +or intolerant of interruption when deeply engaged in some line of +experiment. Then the caller, no matter how important or what his +mission, is likely to realize his utter insignificance and be sent away +without accomplishing his object. But, generally speaking, Edison is +easy tolerance itself, with a peculiar weakness toward those who have +the least right to make any demands on his time. Man is a social animal, +and that describes Edison; but it does not describe accurately the +inventor asking to be let alone. + +Edison never sought Society; but "Society" has never ceased to seek +him, and to-day, as ever, the pressure upon him to give up his work and +receive honors, meet distinguished people, or attend public functions, +is intense. Only two or three years ago, a flattering invitation came +from one of the great English universities to receive a degree, but at +that moment he was deep in experiments on his new storage battery, and +nothing could budge him. He would not drop the work, and while highly +appreciative of the proposed honor, let it go by rather than quit for +a week or two the stern drudgery of probing for the fact and the truth. +Whether one approves or not, it is at least admirable stoicism, of which +the world has too little. A similar instance is that of a visit paid to +the laboratory by some one bringing a gold medal from a foreign society. +It was a very hot day in summer, the visitor was in full social regalia +of silk hat and frock-coat, and insisted that he could deliver the medal +only into Edison's hands. At that moment Edison, stripped pretty nearly +down to the buff, was at the very crisis of an important experiment, and +refused absolutely to be interrupted. He had neither sought nor expected +the medal; and if the delegate didn't care to leave it he could take it +away. At last Edison was overpersuaded, and, all dirty and perspiring as +he was, received the medal rather than cause the visitor to come again. +On one occasion, receiving a medal in New York, Edison forgot it on +the ferry-boat and left it behind him. A few years ago, when Edison +had received the Albert medal of the Royal Society of Arts, one of the +present authors called at the laboratory to see it. Nobody knew where +it was; hours passed before it could be found; and when at last the +accompanying letter was produced, it had an office date stamp right over +the signature of the royal president. A visitor to the laboratory with +one of these medallic awards asked Edison if he had any others. "Oh +yes," he said, "I have a couple of quarts more up at the house!" All +this sounds like lack of appreciation, but it is anything else than +that. While in Paris, in 1889, he wore the decoration of the Legion +of Honor whenever occasion required, but at all other times turned the +badge under his lapel "because he hated to have fellow-Americans think +he was showing off." And any one who knows Edison will bear testimony to +his utter absence of ostentation. It may be added that, in addition +to the two quarts of medals up at the house, there will be found at +Glenmont many other signal tokens of esteem and good-will--a beautiful +cigar-case from the late Tsar of Russia, bronzes from the Government of +Japan, steel trophies from Krupp, and a host of other mementos, to one +of which he thus refers: "When the experiments with the light were going +on at Menlo Park, Sarah Bernhardt came to America. One evening, Robert +L. Cutting, of New York, brought her out to see the light. She was a +terrific 'rubberneck.' She jumped all over the machinery, and I had one +man especially to guard her dress. She wanted to know everything. She +would speak in French, and Cutting would translate into English. She +stayed there about an hour and a half. Bernhardt gave me two pictures, +painted by herself, which she sent me from Paris." + +Reference has already been made to the callers upon Edison; and to give +simply the names of persons of distinction would fill many pages of this +record. Some were mere consumers of time; others were gladly welcomed, +like Lord Kelvin, the greatest physicist of the last century, with whom +Edison was always in friendly communication. "The first time I saw Lord +Kelvin, he came to my laboratory at Menlo Park in 1876." (He +reported most favorably on Edison's automatic telegraph system at the +Philadelphia Exposition of 1876.) "I was then experimenting with sending +eight messages simultaneously over a wire by means of synchronizing +tuning-forks. I would take a wire with similar apparatus at both ends, +and would throw it over on one set of instruments, take it away, and get +it back so quickly that you would not miss it, thereby taking advantage +of the rapidity of electricity to perform operations. On my local wire +I got it to work very nicely. When Sir William Thomson (Kelvin) came in +the room, he was introduced to me, and had a number of friends with him. +He said: 'What have you here?' I told him briefly what it was. He then +turned around, and to my great surprise explained the whole thing to +his friends. Quite a different exhibition was given two weeks later by +another well-known Englishman, also an electrician, who came in with +his friends, and I was trying for two hours to explain it to him and +failed." + +After the introduction of the electric light, Edison was more than ever +in demand socially, but he shunned functions like the plague, not +only because of the serious interference with work, but because of his +deafness. Some dinners he had to attend, but a man who ate little and +heard less could derive practically no pleasure from them. "George +Washington Childs was very anxious I should go down to Philadelphia to +dine with him. I seldom went to dinners. He insisted I should go--that +a special car would leave New York. It was for me to meet Mr. Joseph +Chamberlain. We had the private car of Mr. Roberts, President of the +Pennsylvania Railroad. We had one of those celebrated dinners that only +Mr. Childs could give, and I heard speeches from Charles Francis Adams +and different people. When I came back to the depot, Mr. Roberts +was there, and insisted on carrying my satchel for me. I never could +understand that." + +Among the more distinguished visitors of the electric-lighting period +was President Diaz, with whom Edison became quite intimate. "President +Diaz, of Mexico, visited this country with Mrs. Diaz, a highly educated +and beautiful woman. She spoke very good English. They both took a deep +interest in all they saw. I don't know how it ever came about, as it is +not in my line, but I seemed to be delegated to show them around. I took +them to railroad buildings, electric-light plants, fire departments, and +showed them a great variety of things. It lasted two days." Of another +visit Edison says: "Sitting Bull and fifteen Sioux Indians came to +Washington to see the Great Father, and then to New York, and went +to the Goerck Street works. We could make some very good pyrotechnics +there, so we determined to give the Indians a scare. But it didn't work. +We had an arc there of a most terrifying character, but they never moved +a muscle." Another episode at Goerck Street did not find the visitors +quite so stoical. "In testing dynamos at Goerck Street we had a long +flat belt running parallel with the floor, about four inches above it, +and travelling four thousand feet a minute. One day one of the +directors brought in three or four ladies to the works to see the new +electric-light system. One of the ladies had a little poodle led by a +string. The belt was running so smoothly and evenly, the poodle did not +notice the difference between it and the floor, and got into the belt +before we could do anything. The dog was whirled around forty or fifty +times, and a little flat piece of leather came out--and the ladies +fainted." + +A very interesting period, on the social side, was the visit paid by +Edison and his family to Europe in 1889, when he had made a splendid +exhibit of his inventions and apparatus at the great Paris Centennial +Exposition of that year, to the extreme delight of the French, +who welcomed him with open arms. The political sentiments that the +Exposition celebrated were not such as to find general sympathy in +monarchical Europe, so that the "crowned heads" were conspicuous by +their absence. It was not, of course, by way of theatrical antithesis +that Edison appeared in Paris at such a time. But the contrast was none +the less striking and effective. It was felt that, after all, that which +the great exposition exemplified at its best--the triumph of genius +over matter, over ignorance, over superstition--met with its due +recognition when Edison came to participate, and to felicitate a noble +nation that could show so much in the victories of civilization and the +arts, despite its long trials and its long struggle for liberty. It is +no exaggeration to say that Edison was greeted with the enthusiastic +homage of the whole French people. They could find no praise warm enough +for the man who had "organized the echoes" and "tamed the lightning," +and whose career was so picturesque with eventful and romantic +development. In fact, for weeks together it seemed as though no Parisian +paper was considered complete and up to date without an article on +Edison. The exuberant wit and fancy of the feuilletonists seized +upon his various inventions evolving from them others of the most +extraordinary nature with which to bedazzle and bewilder the reader. At +the close of the Exposition Edison was created a Commander of the Legion +of Honor. His own exhibit, made at a personal expense of over $100,000, +covered several thousand square feet in the vast Machinery Hall, and was +centred around a huge Edison lamp built of myriads of smaller lamps of +the ordinary size. The great attraction, however, was the display of the +perfected phonograph. Several instruments were provided, and every day, +all day long, while the Exposition lasted, queues of eager visitors from +every quarter of the globe were waiting to hear the little machine +talk and sing and reproduce their own voices. Never before was such +a collection of the languages of the world made. It was the first +linguistic concourse since Babel times. We must let Edison tell the +story of some of his experiences: + +"At the Universal Exposition at Paris, in 1889, I made a personal +exhibit covering about an acre. As I had no intention of offering to +sell anything I was showing, and was pushing no companies, the whole +exhibition was made for honor, and without any hope of profit. But the +Paris newspapers came around and wanted pay for notices of it, which we +promptly refused; whereupon there was rather a stormy time for a while, +but nothing was published about it. + +"While at the Exposition I visited the Opera-House. The President of +France lent me his private box. The Opera-House was one of the first +to be lighted by the incandescent lamp, and the managers took great +pleasure in showing me down through the labyrinth containing the +wiring, dynamos, etc. When I came into the box, the orchestra played the +'Star-Spangled Banner,' and all the people in the house arose; whereupon +I was very much embarrassed. After I had been an hour at the play, the +manager came around and asked me to go underneath the stage, as they +were putting on a ballet of 300 girls, the finest ballet in Europe. It +seems there is a little hole on the stage with a hood over it, in which +the prompter sits when opera is given. In this instance it was not +occupied, and I was given the position in the prompter's seat, and saw +the whole ballet at close range. + +"The city of Paris gave me a dinner at the new Hotel de Ville, which was +also lighted with the Edison system. They had a very fine installation +of machinery. As I could not understand or speak a word of French, +I went to see our minister, Mr. Whitelaw Reid, and got him to send a +deputy to answer for me, which he did, with my grateful thanks. Then the +telephone company gave me a dinner, and the engineers of France; and +I attended the dinner celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of the +discovery of photography. Then they sent to Reid my decoration, and they +tried to put a sash on me, but I could not stand for that. My wife had +me wear the little red button, but when I saw Americans coming I would +slip it out of my lapel, as I thought they would jolly me for wearing +it." + +Nor was this all. Edison naturally met many of the celebrities of +France: "I visited the Eiffel Tower at the invitation of Eiffel. We went +to the top, where there was an extension and a small place in which was +Eiffel's private office. In this was a piano. When my wife and I arrived +at the top, we found that Gounod, the composer, was there. We stayed a +couple of hours, and Gounod sang and played for us. We spent a day at +Meudon, an old palace given by the government to Jansen, the astronomer. +He occupied three rooms, and there were 300. He had the grand +dining-room for his laboratory. He showed me a gyroscope he had got +up which made the incredible number of 4000 revolutions in a second. A +modification of this was afterward used on the French Atlantic lines for +making an artificial horizon to take observations for position at +sea. In connection with this a gentleman came to me a number of years +afterward, and I got out a part of some plans for him. He wanted to make +a gigantic gyroscope weighing several tons, to be run by an electric +motor and put on a sailing ship. He wanted this gyroscope to keep a +platform perfectly horizontal, no matter how rough the sea was. Upon +this platform he was going to mount a telescope to observe an eclipse +off the Gold Coast of Africa. But for some reason it was never +completed. + +"Pasteur invited me to come down to the Institute, and I went and had +quite a chat with him. I saw a large number of persons being inoculated, +and also the whole modus operandi, which was very interesting. I saw one +beautiful boy about ten, the son of an English lord. His father was with +him. He had been bitten in the face, and was taking the treatment. I +said to Pasteur, 'Will he live?' 'No,' said he, 'the boy will be dead in +six days. He was bitten too near the top of the spinal column, and came +too late!'" + +Edison has no opinion to offer as an expert on art, but has his own +standard of taste: "Of course I visited the Louvre and saw the Old +Masters, which I could not enjoy. And I attended the Luxembourg, with +modern masters, which I enjoyed greatly. To my mind, the Old Masters +are not art, and I suspect that many others are of the same opinion; +and that their value is in their scarcity and in the variety of men with +lots of money." Somewhat akin to this is a shrewd comment on one feature +of the Exposition: "I spent several days in the Exposition at Paris. I +remember going to the exhibit of the Kimberley diamond mines, and they +kindly permitted me to take diamonds from some of the blue earth which +they were washing by machinery to exhibit the mine operations. I found +several beautiful diamonds, but they seemed a little light weight to me +when I was picking them out. They were diamonds for exhibition purposes +--probably glass." + +This did not altogether complete the European trip of 1889, for Edison +wished to see Helmholtz. "After leaving Paris we went to Berlin. The +French papers then came out and attacked me because I went to Germany; +and said I was now going over to the enemy. I visited all the things of +interest in Berlin; and then on my way home I went with Helmholtz +and Siemens in a private compartment to the meeting of the German +Association of Science at Heidelberg, and spent two days there. When +I started from Berlin on the trip, I began to tell American stories. +Siemens was very fond of these stories and would laugh immensely at +them, and could see the points and the humor, by his imagination; but +Helmholtz could not see one of them. Siemens would quickly, in +German, explain the point, but Helmholtz could not see it, although he +understood English, which Siemens could speak. Still the explanations +were made in German. I always wished I could have understood Siemens's +explanations of the points of those stories. At Heidelberg, my +assistant, Mr. Wangemann, an accomplished German-American, showed the +phonograph before the Association." + +Then came the trip from the Continent to England, of which this will +certainly pass as a graphic picture: "When I crossed over to England +I had heard a good deal about the terrors of the English Channel as +regards seasickness. I had been over the ocean three times and did not +know what seasickness was, so far as I was concerned myself. I was told +that while a man might not get seasick on the ocean, if he met a good +storm on the Channel it would do for him. When we arrived at Calais +to cross over, everybody made for the restaurant. I did not care about +eating, and did not go to the restaurant, but my family did. I walked +out and tried to find the boat. Going along the dock I saw two small +smokestacks sticking up, and looking down saw a little boat. 'Where is +the steamer that goes across the Channel?' 'This is the boat.' There had +been a storm in the North Sea that had carried away some of the boats on +the German steamer, and it certainly looked awful tough outside. I said +to the man: 'Will that boat live in that sea?' 'Oh yes,' he said, 'but +we've had a bad storm.' So I made up my mind that perhaps I would get +sick this time. The managing director of the English railroad owning +this line was Forbes, who heard I was coming over, and placed the +private saloon at my disposal. The moment my family got in the room with +the French lady's maid and the rest, they commenced to get sick, so I +felt pretty sure I was in for it. We started out of the little inlet +and got into the Channel, and that boat went in seventeen directions +simultaneously. I waited awhile to see what was going to occur, and then +went into the smoking-compartment. Nobody was there. By-and-by the fun +began. Sounds of all kinds and varieties were heard in every direction. +They were all sick. There must have been 100 people aboard. I didn't +see a single exception except the waiters and myself. I asked one of the +waiters concerning the boat itself, and was taken to see the engineer, +and went down to look at the engines, and saw the captain. But I kept +mostly in the smoking-room. I was smoking a big cigar, and when a man +looked in I would give a big puff, and every time they saw that they +would go away and begin again. The English Channel is a holy terror, all +right, but it didn't affect me. I must be out of balance." + +While in Paris, Edison had met Sir John Pender, the English "cable +king," and had received an invitation from him to make a visit to his +country residence: "Sir John Pender, the master of the cable system of +the world at that time, I met in Paris. I think he must have lived among +a lot of people who were very solemn, because I went out riding with +him in the Bois de Boulogne and started in to tell him American stories. +Although he was a Scotchman he laughed immoderately. He had the faculty +of understanding and quickly seeing the point of the stories; and +for three days after I could not get rid of him. Finally I made him +a promise that I would go to his country house at Foot's Cray, near +London. So I went there, and spent two or three days telling him +stories. + +"While at Foot's Cray, I met some of the backers of Ferranti, then +putting up a gigantic alternating-current dynamo near London to send +ten or fifteen thousand volts up into the main district of the city for +electric lighting. I think Pender was interested. At any rate the people +invited to dinner were very much interested, and they questioned me as +to what I thought of the proposition. I said I hadn't any thought about +it, and could not give any opinion until I saw it. So I was taken up +to London to see the dynamo in course of construction and the methods +employed; and they insisted I should give them some expression of my +views. While I gave them my opinion, it was reluctantly; I did not want +to do so. I thought that commercially the thing was too ambitious, that +Ferranti's ideas were too big, just then; that he ought to have started +a little smaller until he was sure. I understand that this installation +was not commercially successful, as there were a great many troubles. +But Ferranti had good ideas, and he was no small man." + +Incidentally it may be noted here that during the same year (1889) the +various manufacturing Edison lighting interests in America were brought +together, under the leadership of Mr. Henry Villard, and consolidated +in the Edison General Electric Company with a capital of no less than +$12,000,000 on an eight-per-cent.-dividend basis. The numerous Edison +central stations all over the country represented much more than that +sum, and made a splendid outlet for the product of the factories. A few +years later came the consolidation with the Thomson-Houston interests +in the General Electric Company, which under the brilliant and vigorous +management of President C. A. Coffin has become one of the greatest +manufacturing institutions of the country, with an output of apparatus +reaching toward $75,000,000 annually. The net result of both financial +operations was, however, to detach Edison from the special field of +invention to which he had given so many of his most fruitful years; and +to close very definitely that chapter of his life, leaving him free to +develop other ideas and interests as set forth in these volumes. + +It might appear strange on the surface, but one of the reasons that most +influenced Edison to regrets in connection with the "big trade" of 1889 +was that it separated him from his old friend and ally, Bergmann, who, +on selling out, saw a great future for himself in Germany, went +there, and realized it. Edison has always had an amused admiration for +Bergmann, and his "social side" is often made evident by his love of +telling stories about those days of struggle. Some of the stories were +told for this volume. "Bergmann came to work for me as a boy," says +Edison. "He started in on stock-quotation printers. As he was a rapid +workman and paid no attention to the clock, I took a fancy to him, and +gave him piece-work. He contrived so many little tools to cheapen the +work that he made lots of money. I even helped him get up tools until +it occurred to me that this was too rapid a process of getting rid of +my money, as I hadn't the heart to cut the price when it was originally +fair. After a year or so, Bergmann got enough money to start a small +shop in Wooster Street, New York, and it was at this shop that the +first phonographs were made for sale. Then came the carbon telephone +transmitter, a large number of which were made by Bergmann for the +Western Union. Finally came the electric light. A dynamo was installed +in Bergmann's shop to permit him to test the various small devices which +he was then making for the system. He rented power from a Jew who owned +the building. Power was supplied from a fifty-horse-power engine to +other tenants on the several floors. Soon after the introduction of the +big dynamo machine, the landlord appeared in the shop and insisted that +Bergmann was using more power than he was paying for, and said that +lately the belt on the engine was slipping and squealing. Bergmann +maintained that he must be mistaken. The landlord kept going among his +tenants and finally discovered the dynamo. 'Oh! Mr. Bergmann, now I know +where my power goes to,' pointing to the dynamo. Bergmann gave him a +withering look of scorn, and said, 'Come here and I will show you.' +Throwing off the belt and disconnecting the wires, he spun the armature +around by hand. 'There,' said Bergmann, 'you see it's not here that you +must look for your loss.' This satisfied the landlord, and he started +off to his other tenants. He did not know that that machine, when the +wires were connected, could stop his engine. + +"Soon after, the business had grown so large that E. H. Johnson and I +went in as partners, and Bergmann rented an immense factory building +at the corner of Avenue B and East Seventeenth Street, New York, six +stories high and covering a quarter of a block. Here were made all the +small things used on the electric-lighting system, such as sockets, +chandeliers, switches, meters, etc. In addition, stock tickers, +telephones, telephone switchboards, and typewriters were made the +Hammond typewriters were perfected and made there. Over 1500 men were +finally employed. This shop was very successful both scientifically and +financially. Bergmann was a man of great executive ability and carried +economy of manufacture to the limit. Among all the men I have had +associated with me, he had the commercial instinct most highly +developed." + +One need not wonder at Edison's reminiscent remark that, "In any trade +any of my 'boys' made with Bergmann he always got the best of them, +no matter what it was. One time there was to be a convention of the +managers of Edison illuminating companies at Chicago. There were a lot +of representatives from the East, and a private car was hired. At Jersey +City a poker game was started by one of the delegates. Bergmann was +induced to enter the game. This was played right through to Chicago +without any sleep, but the boys didn't mind that. I had gotten them +immune to it. Bergmann had won all the money, and when the porter came +in and said 'Chicago,' Bergmann jumped up and said: 'What! Chicago! I +thought it was only Philadelphia!'" + +But perhaps this further story is a better indication of developed humor +and shrewdness: "A man by the name of Epstein had been in the habit +of buying brass chips and trimmings from the lathes, and in some way +Bergmann found out that he had been cheated. This hurt his pride, and +he determined to get even. One day Epstein appeared and said: +'Good-morning, Mr. Bergmann, have you any chips to-day?' 'No,' said +Bergmann, 'I have none.' 'That's strange, Mr. Bergmann; won't you +look?' No, he wouldn't look; he knew he had none. Finally Epstein was so +persistent that Bergmann called an assistant and told him to go and +see if he had any chips. He returned and said they had the largest and +finest lot they ever had. Epstein went up to several boxes piled full of +chips, and so heavy that he could not lift even one end of a box. 'Now, +Mr. Bergmann,' said Epstein, 'how much for the lot?' 'Epstein,' said +Bergmann, 'you have cheated me, and I will no longer sell by the lot, +but will sell only by the pound.' No amount of argument would apparently +change Bergmann's determination to sell by the pound, but finally +Epstein got up to $250 for the lot, and Bergmann, appearing as if +disgusted, accepted and made him count out the money. Then he said: +'Well, Epstein, good-bye, I've got to go down to Wall Street.' Epstein +and his assistant then attempted to lift the boxes to carry them out, +but couldn't; and then discovered that calculations as to quantity had +been thrown out because the boxes had all been screwed down to the floor +and mostly filled with boards with a veneer of brass chips. He made such +a scene that he had to be removed by the police. I met him several days +afterward and he said he had forgiven Mr. Bergmann, as he was such a +smart business man, and the scheme was so ingenious. + +"One day as a joke I filled three or four sheets of foolscap paper with +a jumble of figures and told Bergmann they were calculations showing the +great loss of power from blowing the factory whistle. Bergmann thought +it real, and never after that would he permit the whistle to blow." + +Another glimpse of the "social side" is afforded in the following little +series of pen-pictures of the same place and time: "I had my laboratory +at the top of the Bergmann works, after moving from Menlo Park. The +building was six stories high. My father came there when he was eighty +years of age. The old man had powerful lungs. In fact, when I was +examined by the Mutual Life Insurance Company, in 1873, my lung +expansion was taken by the doctor, and the old gentleman was there +at the time. He said to the doctor: 'I wish you would take my lung +expansion, too.' The doctor took it, and his surprise was very great, +as it was one of the largest on record. I think it was five and one-half +inches. There were only three or four could beat it. Little Bergmann +hadn't much lung power. The old man said to him, one day: 'Let's run +up-stairs.' Bergmann agreed and ran up. When they got there Bergmann +was all done up, but my father never showed a sign of it. There was an +elevator there, and each day while it was travelling up I held the stem +of my Waterbury watch up against the column in the elevator shaft and +it finished the winding by the time I got up the six stories." This +original method of reducing the amount of physical labor involved in +watch-winding brings to mind another instance of shrewdness mentioned by +Edison, with regard to his newsboy days. Being asked whether he did not +get imposed upon with bad bank-bills, he replied that he subscribed to a +bank-note detector and consulted it closely whenever a note of any size +fell into his hands. He was then less than fourteen years old. + +The conversations with Edison that elicited these stories brought out +some details as to peril that attends experimentation. He has confronted +many a serious physical risk, and counts himself lucky to have come +through without a scratch or scar. Four instances of personal danger +may be noted in his own language: "When I started at Menlo, I had an +electric furnace for welding rare metals that I did not know about +very clearly. I was in the dark-room, where I had a lot of chloride of +sulphur, a very corrosive liquid. I did not know that it would decompose +by water. I poured in a beakerful of water, and the whole thing exploded +and threw a lot of it into my eyes. I ran to the hydrant, leaned over +backward, opened my eyes, and ran the hydrant water right into them. But +it was two weeks before I could see. + +"The next time we just saved ourselves. I was making some stuff to +squirt into filaments for the incandescent lamp. I made about a pound of +it. I had used ammonia and bromine. I did not know it at the time, but +I had made bromide of nitrogen. I put the large bulk of it in three +filters, and after it had been washed and all the water had come through +the filter, I opened the three filters and laid them on a hot steam +plate to dry with the stuff. While I and Mr. Sadler, one of my +assistants, were working near it, there was a sudden flash of light, +and a very smart explosion. I said to Sadler: 'What is that?' 'I don't +know,' he said, and we paid no attention. In about half a minute there +was a sharp concussion, and Sadler said: 'See, it is that stuff on the +steam plate.' I grabbed the whole thing and threw it in the sink, and +poured water on it. I saved a little of it and found it was a terrific +explosive. The reason why those little preliminary explosions took place +was that a little had spattered out on the edge of the filter paper, +and had dried first and exploded. Had the main body exploded there would +have been nothing left of the laboratory I was working in. + +"At another time, I had a briquetting machine for briquetting iron ore. +I had a lever held down by a powerful spring, and a rod one inch in +diameter and four feet long. While I was experimenting with it, and +standing beside it, a washer broke, and that spring threw the rod right +up to the ceiling with a blast; and it came down again just within +an inch of my nose, and went clear through a two-inch plank. That was +'within an inch of your life,' as they say. + +"In my experimental plant for concentrating iron ore in the northern +part of New Jersey, we had a vertical drier, a column about nine feet +square and eighty feet high. At the bottom there was a space where two +men could go through a hole; and then all the rest of the column was +filled with baffle plates. One day this drier got blocked, and the ore +would not run down. So I and the vice-president of the company, Mr. +Mallory, crowded through the manhole to see why the ore would not come +down. After we got in, the ore did come down and there were fourteen +tons of it above us. The men outside knew we were in there, and they had +a great time digging us out and getting air to us." + +Such incidents brought out in narration the fact that many of the men +working with him had been less fortunate, particularly those who had +experimented with the Roentgen X-ray, whose ravages, like those of +leprosy, were responsible for the mutilation and death of at least one +expert assistant. In the early days of work on the incandescent lamp, +also, there was considerable trouble with mercury. "I had a series of +vacuum-pumps worked by mercury and used for exhausting experimental +incandescent lamps. The main pipe, which was full of mercury, was about +seven and one-half feet from the floor. Along the length of the pipe +were outlets to which thick rubber tubing was connected, each tube to a +pump. One day, while experimenting with the mercury pump, my assistant, +an awkward country lad from a farm on Staten Island, who had adenoids in +his nose and breathed through his mouth, which was always wide open, +was looking up at this pipe, at a small leak of mercury, when the rubber +tube came off and probably two pounds of mercury went into his mouth and +down his throat, and got through his system somehow. In a short time he +became salivated, and his teeth got loose. He went home, and shortly his +mother appeared at the laboratory with a horsewhip, which she proposed +to use on the proprietor. I was fortunately absent, and she was +mollified somehow by my other assistants. I had given the boy +considerable iodide of potassium to prevent salivation, but it did no +good in this case. + +"When the first lamp-works were started at Menlo Park, one of my +experiments seemed to show that hot mercury gave a better vacuum in the +lamp than cold mercury. I thereupon started to heat it. Soon all the men +got salivated, and things looked serious; but I found that in the mirror +factories, where mercury was used extensively, the French Government +made the giving of iodide of potassium compulsory to prevent salivation. +I carried out this idea, and made every man take a dose every day, but +there was great opposition, and hot mercury was finally abandoned." + +It will have been gathered that Edison has owed his special immunity +from "occupational diseases" not only to luck but to unusual powers of +endurance, and a strong physique, inherited, no doubt, from his father. +Mr. Mallory mentions a little fact that bears on this exceptional +quality of bodily powers. "I have often been surprised at Edison's +wonderful capacity for the instant visual perception of differences in +materials that were invisible to others until he would patiently point +them out. This had puzzled me for years, but one day I was unexpectedly +let into part of the secret. For some little time past Mr. Edison had +noticed that he was bothered somewhat in reading print, and I asked him +to have an oculist give him reading-glasses. He partially promised, but +never took time to attend to it. One day he and I were in the city, and +as Mrs. Edison had spoken to me about it, and as we happened to have +an hour to spare, I persuaded him to go to an oculist with me. Using +no names, I asked the latter to examine the gentleman's eyes. He did so +very conscientiously, and it was an interesting experience, for he was +kept busy answering Mr. Edison's numerous questions. When the oculist +finished, he turned to me and said: 'I have been many years in +the business, but have never seen an optic nerve like that of this +gentleman. An ordinary optic nerve is about the thickness of a thread, +but his is like a cord. He must be a remarkable man in some walk of +life. Who is he?'" + +It has certainly required great bodily vigor and physical capacity to +sustain such fatigue as Edison has all his life imposed upon himself, +to the extent on one occasion of going five days without sleep. In a +conversation during 1909, he remarked, as though it were nothing out of +the way, that up to seven years previously his average of daily working +hours was nineteen and one-half, but that since then he figured it +at eighteen. He said he stood it easily, because he was interested in +everything, and was reading and studying all the time. For instance, +he had gone to bed the night before exactly at twelve and had arisen at +4.30 A. M. to read some New York law reports. It was suggested that the +secret of it might be that he did not live in the past, but was always +looking forward to a greater future, to which he replied: "Yes, that's +it. I don't live with the past; I am living for to-day and to-morrow. I +am interested in every department of science, arts, and manufacture. +I read all the time on astronomy, chemistry, biology, physics, +music, metaphysics, mechanics, and other branches--political economy, +electricity, and, in fact, all things that are making for progress in +the world. I get all the proceedings of the scientific societies, the +principal scientific and trade journals, and read them. I also read The +Clipper, The Police Gazette, The Billboard, The Dramatic Mirror, and +a lot of similar publications, for I like to know what is going on. In +this way I keep up to date, and live in a great moving world of my own, +and, what's more, I enjoy every minute of it." Referring to some event +of the past, he said: "Spilt milk doesn't interest me. I have spilt lots +of it, and while I have always felt it for a few days, it is quickly +forgotten, and I turn again to the future." During another talk on +kindred affairs it was suggested to Edison that, as he had worked so +hard all his life, it was about time for him to think somewhat of the +pleasures of travel and the social side of life. To which he replied +laughingly: "I already have a schedule worked out. From now until I am +seventy-five years of age, I expect to keep more or less busy with my +regular work, not, however, working as many hours or as hard as I have +in the past. At seventy five I expect to wear loud waistcoats with +fancy buttons; also gaiter tops; at eighty I expect to learn how to play +bridge whist and talk foolishly to the ladies. At eighty-five I expect +to wear a full-dress suit every evening at dinner, and at ninety--well, +I never plan more than thirty years ahead." + +The reference to clothes is interesting, as it is one of the few +subjects in which Edison has no interest. It rather bores him. His dress +is always of the plainest; in fact, so plain that, at the Bergmann shops +in New York, the children attending a parochial Catholic school were +wont to salute him with the finger to the head, every time he went by. +Upon inquiring, he found that they took him for a priest, with his dark +garb, smooth-shaven face, and serious expression. Edison says: "I get +a suit that fits me; then I compel the tailors to use that as a jig or +pattern or blue-print to make others by. For many years a suit was used +as a measurement; once or twice they took fresh measurements, but these +didn't fit and they had to go back. I eat to keep my weight constant, +hence I need never change measurements." In regard to this, Mr. Mallory +furnishes a bit of chat as follows: "In a lawsuit in which I was a +witness, I went out to lunch with the lawyers on both sides, and the +lawyer who had been cross-examining me stated that he had for a client +a Fifth Avenue tailor, who had told him that he had made all of Mr. +Edison's clothes for the last twenty years, and that he had never seen +him. He said that some twenty years ago a suit was sent to him from +Orange, and measurements were made from it, and that every suit since +had been made from these measurements. I may add, from my own personal +observation, that in Mr. Edison's clothes there is no evidence but that +every new suit that he has worn in that time looks as if he had been +specially measured for it, which shows how very little he has changed +physically in the last twenty years." + +Edison has never had any taste for amusements, although he will indulge +in the game of "Parchesi" and has a billiard-table in his house. The +coming of the automobile was a great boon to him, because it gave him +a form of outdoor sport in which he could indulge in a spirit of +observation, without the guilty feeling that he was wasting valuable +time. In his automobile he has made long tours, and with his family has +particularly indulged his taste for botany. That he has had the usual +experience in running machines will be evidenced by the following little +story from Mr. Mallory: "About three years ago I had a motor-car of +a make of which Mr. Edison had already two cars; and when the car was +received I made inquiry as to whether any repair parts were carried +by any of the various garages in Easton, Pennsylvania, near our cement +works. I learned that this particular car was the only one in Easton. +Knowing that Mr. Edison had had an experience lasting two or three +years with this particular make of car, I determined to ask him for +information relative to repair parts; so the next time I was at the +laboratory I told him I was unable to get any repair parts in Easton, +and that I wished to order some of the most necessary, so that, in case +of breakdowns, I would not be compelled to lose the use of the car for +several days until the parts came from the automobile factory. I asked +his advice as to what I should order, to which he replied: 'I don't +think it will be necessary to order an extra top.'" Since that episode, +which will probably be appreciated by most automobilists, Edison +has taken up the electric automobile, and is now using it as well as +developing it. One of the cars equipped with his battery is the Bailey, +and Mr. Bee tells the following story in regard to it: "One day Colonel +Bailey, of Amesbury, Massachusetts, who was visiting the Automobile Show +in New York, came out to the laboratory to see Mr. Edison, as the +latter had expressed a desire to talk with him on his next visit to the +metropolis. When he arrived at the laboratory, Mr. Edison, who had been +up all night experimenting, was asleep on the cot in the library. As +a rule we never wake Mr. Edison from sleep, but as he wanted to see +Colonel Bailey, who had to go, I felt that an exception should be made, +so I went and tapped him on the shoulder. He awoke at once, smiling, +jumped up, was instantly himself as usual, and advanced and greeted the +visitor. His very first question was: 'Well, Colonel, how did you come +out on that experiment?'--referring to some suggestions he had made at +their last meeting a year before. For a minute Colonel Bailey did not +recall what was referred to; but a few words from Mr. Edison brought it +back to his remembrance, and he reported that the results had justified +Mr. Edison's expectations." + +It might be expected that Edison would have extreme and even radical +ideas on the subject of education--and he has, as well as a perfect +readiness to express them, because he considers that time is wasted on +things that are not essential: "What we need," he has said, "are men +capable of doing work. I wouldn't give a penny for the ordinary college +graduate, except those from the institutes of technology. Those coming +up from the ranks are a darned sight better than the others. They aren't +filled up with Latin, philosophy, and the rest of that ninny stuff." A +further remark of his is: "What the country needs now is the practical +skilled engineer, who is capable of doing everything. In three or four +centuries, when the country is settled, and commercialism is diminished, +there will be time for the literary men. At present we want engineers, +industrial men, good business-like managers, and railroad men." It is +hardly to be marvelled at that such views should elicit warm protest, +summed up in the comment: "Mr. Edison and many like him see in reverse +the course of human progress. Invention does not smooth the way for the +practical men and make them possible. There is always too much danger +of neglecting thoughts for things, ideas for machinery. No theory +of education that aggravates this danger is consistent with national +well-being." + +Edison is slow to discuss the great mysteries of life, but is of +reverential attitude of mind, and ever tolerant of others' beliefs. He +is not a religious man in the sense of turning to forms and creeds, but, +as might be expected, is inclined as an inventor and creator to argue +from the basis of "design" and thence to infer a designer. "After years +of watching the processes of nature," he says, "I can no more doubt the +existence of an Intelligence that is running things than I do of the +existence of myself. Take, for example, the substance water that forms +the crystals known as ice. Now, there are hundreds of combinations that +form crystals, and every one of them, save ice, sinks in water. Ice, I +say, doesn't, and it is rather lucky for us mortals, for if it had done +so, we would all be dead. Why? Simply because if ice sank to the bottoms +of rivers, lakes, and oceans as fast as it froze, those places would be +frozen up and there would be no water left. That is only one example +out of thousands that to me prove beyond the possibility of a doubt that +some vast Intelligence is governing this and other planets." + +A few words as to the domestic and personal side of Edison's life, to +which many incidental references have already been made in these pages. +He was married in 1873 to Miss Mary Stillwell, who died in 1884, leaving +three children--Thomas Alva, William Leslie, and Marion Estelle. + +Mr. Edison was married again in 1886 to Miss Mina Miller, daughter of +Mr. Lewis Miller, a distinguished pioneer inventor and manufacturer in +the field of agricultural machinery, and equally entitled to fame as the +father of the "Chautauqua idea," and the founder with Bishop Vincent +of the original Chautauqua, which now has so many replicas all over the +country, and which started in motion one of the great modern educational +and moral forces in America. By this marriage there are three +children--Charles, Madeline, and Theodore. + +For over a score of years, dating from his marriage to Miss Miller, +Edison's happy and perfect domestic life has been spent at Glenmont, +a beautiful property acquired at that time in Llewellyn Park, on the +higher slopes of Orange Mountain, New Jersey, within easy walking +distance of the laboratory at the foot of the hill in West Orange. As +noted already, the latter part of each winter is spent at Fort Myers, +Florida, where Edison has, on the banks of the Calahoutchie River, a +plantation home that is in many ways a miniature copy of the home and +laboratory up North. Glenmont is a rather elaborate and florid building +in Queen Anne English style, of brick, stone, and wooden beams showing +on the exterior, with an abundance of gables and balconies. It is set in +an environment of woods and sweeps of lawn, flanked by unusually large +conservatories, and always bright in summer with glowing flower beds. It +would be difficult to imagine Edison in a stiffly formal house, and this +big, cozy, three-story, rambling mansion has an easy freedom about it, +without and within, quite in keeping with the genius of the inventor, +but revealing at every turn traces of feminine taste and culture. The +ground floor, consisting chiefly of broad drawing-rooms, parlors, and +dining-hall, is chiefly noteworthy for the "den," or lounging-room, at +the end of the main axis, where the family and friends are likely to +be found in the evening hours, unless the party has withdrawn for more +intimate social intercourse to the interesting and fascinating private +library on the floor above. The lounging-room on the ground floor is +more or less of an Edison museum, for it is littered with souvenirs from +great people, and with mementos of travel, all related to some event +or episode. A large cabinet contains awards, decorations, and medals +presented to Edison, accumulating in the course of a long career, +some of which may be seen in the illustration opposite. Near by may be +noticed a bronze replica of the Edison gold medal which was founded in +the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the first award of which +was made to Elihu Thomson during the present year (1910). There are +statues of serpentine marble, gifts of the late Tsar of Russia, whose +admiration is also represented by a gorgeous inlaid and enamelled +cigar-case. + +There are typical bronze vases from the Society of Engineers of Japan, +and a striking desk-set of writing apparatus from Krupp, all the pieces +being made out of tiny but massive guns and shells of Krupp steel. In +addition to such bric-a-brac and bibelots of all kinds are many pictures +and photographs, including the original sketches of the reception given +to Edison in 1889 by the Paris Figaro, and a letter from Madame Carnot, +placing the Presidential opera-box at the disposal of Mr. and Mrs. +Edison. One of the most conspicuous features of the room is a phonograph +equipment on which the latest and best productions by the greatest +singers and musicians can always be heard, but which Edison himself is +everlastingly experimenting with, under the incurable delusion that this +domestic retreat is but an extension of his laboratory. + +The big library--semi-boudoir--up-stairs is also very expressive of the +home life of Edison, but again typical of his nature and disposition, +for it is difficult to overlay his many technical books and scientific +periodicals with a sufficiently thick crust of popular magazines or +current literature to prevent their outcropping into evidence. In like +manner the chat and conversation here, however lightly it may begin, +turns invariably to large questions and deep problems, especially in the +fields of discovery and invention; and Edison, in an easy-chair, will +sit through the long evenings till one or two in the morning, pulling +meditatively at his eyebrows, quoting something he has just read +pertinent to the discussion, hearing and telling new stories with gusto, +offering all kinds of ingenious suggestions, and without fail getting +hold of pads and sheets of paper on which to make illustrative sketches. +He is wonderfully handy with the pencil, and will sometimes amuse +himself, while chatting, with making all kinds of fancy bits of +penmanship, twisting his signature into circles and squares, but always +writing straight lines--so straight they could not be ruled truer. Many +a night it is a question of getting Edison to bed, for he would much +rather probe a problem than eat or sleep; but at whatever hour the +visitor retires or gets up, he is sure to find the master of the house +on hand, serene and reposeful, and just as brisk at dawn as when he +allowed the conversation to break up at midnight. The ordinary routine +of daily family life is of course often interrupted by receptions and +parties, visits to the billiard-room, the entertainment of visitors, the +departure to and return from college, at vacation periods, of the young +people, and matters relating to the many social and philanthropic causes +in which Mrs. Edison is actively interested; but, as a matter of fact, +Edison's round of toil and relaxation is singularly uniform and free +from agitation, and that is the way he would rather have it. + +Edison at sixty-three has a fine physique, and being free from serious +ailments of any kind, should carry on the traditions of his long-lived +ancestors as to a vigorous old age. His hair has whitened, but is still +thick and abundant, and though he uses glasses for certain work, his +gray-blue eyes are as keen and bright and deeply lustrous as ever, with +the direct, searching look in them that they have ever worn. He +stands five feet nine and one-half inches high, weighs one hundred and +seventy-five pounds, and has not varied as to weight in a quarter of a +century, although as a young man he was slim to gauntness. He is very +abstemious, hardly ever touching alcohol, caring little for meat, but +fond of fruit, and never averse to a strong cup of coffee or a good +cigar. He takes extremely little exercise, although his good color and +quickness of step would suggest to those who do not know better that he +is in the best of training, and one who lives in the open air. + +His simplicity as to clothes has already been described. One would be +startled to see him with a bright tie, a loud checked suit, or a fancy +waistcoat, and yet there is a curious sense of fastidiousness about +the plain things he delights in. Perhaps he is not wholly responsible +personally for this state of affairs. In conversation Edison is direct, +courteous, ready to discuss a topic with anybody worth talking to, and, +in spite of his sore deafness, an excellent listener. No one ever goes +away from Edison in doubt as to what he thinks or means, but he is ever +shy and diffident to a degree if the talk turns on himself rather than +on his work. + +If the authors were asked, after having written the foregoing pages, +to explain here the reason for Edison's success, based upon their +observations so far made, they would first answer that he combines with +a vigorous and normal physical structure a mind capable of clear and +logical thinking, and an imagination of unusual activity. But this would +by no means offer a complete explanation. There are many men of +equal bodily and mental vigor who have not achieved a tithe of +his accomplishment. What other factors are there to be taken into +consideration to explain this phenomenon? First, a stolid, almost +phlegmatic, nervous system which takes absolutely no notice of ennui--a +system like that of a Chinese ivory-carver who works day after day and +month after month on a piece of material no larger than your hand. No +better illustration of this characteristic can be found than in the +development of the nickel pocket for the storage battery, an element the +size of a short lead-pencil, on which upward of five years were spent +in experiments, costing over a million dollars, day after day, always +apparently with the same tubes but with small variations carefully +tabulated in the note-books. To an ordinary person the mere sight of +such a tube would have been as distasteful, certainly after a week or +so, as the smell of a quail to a man striving to eat one every day for a +month, near the end of his gastronomic ordeal. But to Edison these small +perforated steel tubes held out as much of a fascination at the end of +five years as when the search was first begun, and every morning found +him as eager to begin the investigation anew as if the battery was an +absolutely novel problem to which his thoughts had just been directed. + +Another and second characteristic of Edison's personality contributing +so strongly to his achievements is an intense, not to say courageous, +optimism in which no thought of failure can enter, an optimism born of +self-confidence, and becoming--after forty or fifty years of experience +more and more a sense of certainty in the accomplishment of success. In +the overcoming of difficulties he has the same intellectual pleasure +as the chess-master when confronted with a problem requiring all the +efforts of his skill and experience to solve. To advance along smooth +and pleasant paths, to encounter no obstacles, to wrestle with no +difficulties and hardships--such has absolutely no fascination to him. +He meets obstruction with the keen delight of a strong man battling with +the waves and opposing them in sheer enjoyment, and the greater and more +apparently overwhelming the forces that may tend to sweep him back, the +more vigorous his own efforts to forge through them. At the conclusion +of the ore-milling experiments, when practically his entire fortune was +sunk in an enterprise that had to be considered an impossibility, when +at the age of fifty he looked back upon five or six years of intense +activity expended apparently for naught, when everything seemed most +black and the financial clouds were quickly gathering on the horizon, +not the slightest idea of repining entered his mind. The main experiment +had succeeded--he had accomplished what he sought for. Nature at another +point had outstripped him, yet he had broadened his own sum of knowledge +to a prodigious extent. It was only during the past summer (1910) that +one of the writers spent a Sunday with him riding over the beautiful +New Jersey roads in an automobile, Edison in the highest spirits and +pointing out with the keenest enjoyment the many beautiful views of +valley and wood. The wanderings led to the old ore-milling plant at +Edison, now practically a mass of deserted buildings all going to decay. +It was a depressing sight, marking such titanic but futile struggles +with nature. To Edison, however, no trace of sentiment or regret +occurred, and the whole ruins were apparently as much a matter of +unconcern as if he were viewing the remains of Pompeii. Sitting on the +porch of the White House, where he lived during that period, in the +light of the setting sun, his fine face in repose, he looked as placidly +over the scene as a happy farmer over a field of ripening corn. All that +he said was: "I never felt better in my life than during the five years +I worked here. Hard work, nothing to divert my thought, clear air and +simple food made my life very pleasant. We learned a great deal. It will +be of benefit to some one some time." Similarly, in connection with the +storage battery, after having experimented continuously for three years, +it was found to fall below his expectations, and its manufacture had +to be stopped. Hundreds of thousands of dollars had been spent on the +experiments, and, largely without Edison's consent, the battery had been +very generally exploited in the press. To stop meant not only to pocket +a great loss already incurred, facing a dark and uncertain future, but +to most men animated by ordinary human feelings, it meant more than +anything else, an injury to personal pride. Pride? Pooh! that had +nothing to do with the really serious practical problem, and the writers +can testify that at the moment when his decision was reached, work +stopped and the long vista ahead was peered into, Edison was as little +concerned as if he had concluded that, after all, perhaps peach-pie +might be better for present diet than apple-pie. He has often said that +time meant very little to him, that he had but a small realization +of its passage, and that ten or twenty years were as nothing when +considering the development of a vital invention. + +These references to personal pride recall another characteristic of +Edison wherein he differs from most men. There are many individuals +who derive an intense and not improper pleasure in regalia or military +garments, with plenty of gold braid and brass buttons, and thus arrayed, +in appearing before their friends and neighbors. Putting at the head of +the procession the man who makes his appeal to public attention solely +because of the brilliancy of his plumage, and passing down the ranks +through the multitudes having a gradually decreasing sense of vanity in +their personal accomplishment, Edison would be placed at the very end. +Reference herein has been made to the fact that one of the two great +English universities wished to confer a degree upon him, but that he +was unable to leave his work for the brief time necessary to accept the +honor. At that occasion it was pointed out to him that he should make +every possible sacrifice to go, that the compliment was great, and that +but few Americans had been so recognized. It was hopeless--an +appeal based on sentiment. Before him was something real--work to be +accomplished--a problem to be solved. Beyond, was a prize as intangible +as the button of the Legion of Honor, which he concealed from his +friends that they might not feel he was "showing off." The fact is that +Edison cares little for the approval of the world, but that he cares +everything for the approval of himself. Difficult as it may be--perhaps +impossible--to trace its origin, Edison possesses what he would probably +call a well-developed case of New England conscience, for whose approval +he is incessantly occupied. + +These, then, may be taken as the characteristics of Edison that have +enabled him to accomplish more than most men--a strong body, a clear +and active mind, a developed imagination, a capacity of great mental and +physical concentration, an iron-clad nervous system that knows no ennui, +intense optimism, and courageous self-confidence. Any one having these +capacities developed to the same extent, with the same opportunities for +use, would probably accomplish as much. And yet there is a peculiarity +about him that so far as is known has never been referred to before in +print. He seems to be conscientiously afraid of appearing indolent, +and in consequence subjects himself regularly to unnecessary hardship. +Working all night is seldom necessary, or until two or three o'clock in +the morning, yet even now he persists in such tests upon his strength. +Recently one of the writers had occasion to present to him a long +typewritten document of upward of thirty pages for his approval. It +was taken home to Glenmont. Edison had a few minor corrections to make, +probably not more than a dozen all told. They could have been embodied +by interlineations and marginal notes in the ordinary way, and certainly +would not have required more than ten or fifteen minutes of his time. +Yet what did he do? HE COPIED OUT PAINSTAKINGLY THE ENTIRE PAPER IN +LONG HAND, embodying the corrections as he went along, and presented the +result of his work the following morning. At the very least such a task +must have occupied several hours. How can such a trait--and scores of +similar experiences could be given--be explained except by the fact +that, evidently, he felt the need of special schooling in industry--that +under no circumstances must he allow a thought of indolence to enter his +mind? + +Undoubtedly in the days to come Edison will not only be recognized as an +intellectual prodigy, but as a prodigy of industry--of hard work. In his +field as inventor and man of science he stands as clear-cut and secure +as the lighthouse on a rock, and as indifferent to the tumult around. +But as the "old man"--and before he was thirty years old he was +affectionately so called by his laboratory associates--he is a normal, +fun-loving, typical American. His sense of humor is intense, but not +of the hothouse, overdeveloped variety. One of his favorite jokes is to +enter the legal department with an air of great humility and apply for a +job as an inventor! Never is he so preoccupied or fretted with cares as +not to drop all thought of his work for a few moments to listen to a new +story, with a ready smile all the while, and a hearty, boyish laugh at +the end. His laugh, in fact, is sometimes almost aboriginal; slapping +his hands delightedly on his knees, he rocks back and forth and fairly +shouts his pleasure. Recently a daily report of one of his companies +that had just been started contained a large order amounting to several +thousand dollars, and was returned by him with a miniature sketch of a +small individual viewing that particular item through a telescope! His +facility in making hasty but intensely graphic sketches is proverbial. +He takes great delight in imitating the lingo of the New York street +gamin. A dignified person named James may be greeted with: "Hully Gee! +Chimmy, when did youse blow in?" He likes to mimic and imitate types, +generally, that are distasteful to him. The sanctimonious hypocrite, the +sleek speculator, and others whom he has probably encountered in life +are done "to the queen's taste." + +One very cold winter's day he entered the laboratory library in fine +spirits, "doing" the decayed dandy, with imaginary cane under his +arm, struggling to put on a pair of tattered imaginary gloves, with +a self-satisfied smirk and leer that would have done credit to a real +comedian. This particular bit of acting was heightened by the fact that +even in the coldest weather he wears thin summer clothes, generally +acid-worn and more or less disreputable. For protection he varies the +number of his suits of underclothing, sometimes wearing three or four +sets, according to the thermometer. + +If one could divorce Edison from the idea of work, and could regard +him separate and apart from his embodiment as an inventor and man of +science, it might truly be asserted that his temperament is essentially +mercurial. Often he is in the highest spirits, with all the spontaneity +of youth, and again he is depressed, moody, and violently angry. Anger +with him, however, is a good deal like the story attributed to Napoleon: + +"Sire, how is it that your judgment is not affected by your great rage?" +asked one of his courtiers. + +"Because," said the Emperor, "I never allow it to rise above this line," +drawing his hand across his throat. Edison has been seen sometimes +almost beside himself with anger at a stupid mistake or inexcusable +oversight on the part of an assistant, his voice raised to a high pitch, +sneeringly expressing his feelings of contempt for the offender; and yet +when the culprit, like a bad school-boy, has left the room, Edison has +immediately returned to his normal poise, and the incident is a thing +of the past. At other times the unsettled condition persists, and his +spleen is vented not only on the original instigator but upon others who +may have occasion to see him, sometimes hours afterward. When such a +fit is on him the word is quickly passed around, and but few of his +associates find it necessary to consult with him at the time. The +genuine anger can generally be distinguished from the imitation article +by those who know him intimately by the fact that when really enraged +his forehead between the eyes partakes of a curious rotary movement that +cannot be adequately described in words. It is as if the storm-clouds +within are moving like a whirling cyclone. As a general rule, Edison +does not get genuinely angry at mistakes and other human weaknesses of +his subordinates; at best he merely simulates anger. But woe betide the +one who has committed an act of bad faith, treachery, dishonesty, or +ingratitude; THEN Edison can show what it is for a strong man to get +downright mad. But in this respect he is singularly free, and his +spells of anger are really few. In fact, those who know him best are +continually surprised at his moderation and patience, often when there +has been great provocation. People who come in contact with him and who +may have occasion to oppose his views, may leave with the impression +that he is hot-tempered; nothing could be further from the truth. He +argues his point with great vehemence, pounds on the table to emphasize +his views, and illustrates his theme with a wealth of apt similes; but, +on account of his deafness, it is difficult to make the argument really +two-sided. Before the visitor can fully explain his side of the matter +some point is brought up that starts Edison off again, and new arguments +from his viewpoint are poured forth. This constant interruption is taken +by many to mean that Edison has a small opinion of any arguments that +oppose him; but he is only intensely in earnest in presenting his own +side. If the visitor persists until Edison has seen both sides of the +controversy, he is always willing to frankly admit that his own views +may be unsound and that his opponent is right. In fact, after such a +controversy, both parties going after each other hammer and tongs, the +arguments TO HIM being carried on at the very top of one's voice to +enable him to hear, and FROM HIM being equally loud in the excitement +of the discussion, he has often said: "I see now that my position was +absolutely rotten." + +Obviously, however, all of these personal characteristics have nothing +to do with Edison's position in the world of affairs. They show him +to be a plain, easy-going, placid American, with no sense of +self-importance, and ready at all times to have his mind turned into a +lighter channel. In private life they show him to be a good citizen, a +good family man, absolutely moral, temperate in all things, and of great +charitableness to all mankind. But what of his position in the age +in which he lives? Where does he rank in the mountain range of great +Americans? + +It is believed that from the other chapters of this book the reader can +formulate his own answer to the question. + + + + +INTRODUCTION TO THE APPENDIX + +THE reader who has followed the foregoing narrative may feel that +inasmuch as it is intended to be an historical document, an appropriate +addendum thereto would be a digest of all the inventions of Edison. The +desirability of such a digest is not to be denied, but as there are some +twenty-five hundred or more inventions to be considered (including those +covered by caveats), the task of its preparation would be stupendous. +Besides, the resultant data would extend this book into several +additional volumes, thereby rendering it of value chiefly to the +technical student, but taking it beyond the bounds of biography. + +We should, however, deem our presentation of Mr. Edison's work to +be imperfectly executed if we neglected to include an intelligible +exposition of the broader theoretical principles of his more important +inventions. In the following Appendix we have therefore endeavored +to present a few brief statements regarding Mr. Edison's principal +inventions, classified as to subject-matter and explained in language +as free from technicalities as is possible. No attempt has been made to +conform with strictly scientific terminology, but, for the benefit of +the general reader, well-understood conventional expressions, such as +"flow of current," etc., have been employed. It should be borne in mind +that each of the following items has been treated as a whole or class, +generally speaking, and not as a digest of all the individual patents +relating to it. Any one who is sufficiently interested can obtain copies +of any of the patents referred to for five cents each by addressing the +Commissioner of Patents, Washington, D. C. + + + + +APPENDIX + + + + +I. THE STOCK PRINTER + +IN these modern days, when the Stock Ticker is in universal use, one +seldom, if ever, hears the name of Edison coupled with the little +instrument whose chatterings have such tremendous import to the whole +world. It is of much interest, however, to remember the fact that it +was by reason of his notable work in connection with this device that he +first became known as an inventor. Indeed, it was through the intrinsic +merits of his improvements in stock tickers that he made his real entree +into commercial life. + +The idea of the ticker did not originate with Edison, as we have already +seen in Chapter VII of the preceding narrative, but at the time of his +employment with the Western Union, in Boston, in 1868, the crudities of +the earlier forms made an impression on his practical mind, and he got +out an improved instrument of his own, which he introduced in +Boston through the aid of a professional promoter. Edison, then only +twenty-one, had less business experience than the promoter, through +whose manipulation he soon lost his financial interest in this early +ticker enterprise. The narrative tells of his coming to New York in +1869, and immediately plunging into the business of gold and stock +reporting. It was at this period that his real work on stock printers +commenced, first individually, and later as a co-worker with F. L. Pope. +This inventive period extended over a number of years, during which time +he took out forty-six patents on stock-printing instruments and devices, +two of such patents being issued to Edison and Pope as joint inventors. +These various inventions were mostly in the line of development of the +art as it progressed during those early years, but out of it all came +the Edison universal printer, which entered into very extensive use, +and which is still used throughout the United States and in some foreign +countries to a considerable extent at this very day. + +Edison's inventive work on stock printers has left its mark upon the art +as it exists at the present time. In his earlier work he directed his +attention to the employment of a single-circuit system, in which only +one wire was required, the two operations of setting the type-wheels +and of printing being controlled by separate electromagnets which were +actuated through polarized relays, as occasion required, one polarity +energizing the electromagnet controlling the type-wheels, and the +opposite polarity energizing the electromagnet controlling the printing. +Later on, however, he changed over to a two-wire circuit, such as +shown in Fig. 2 of this article in connection with the universal stock +printer. In the earliest days of the stock printer, Edison realized +the vital commercial importance of having all instruments recording +precisely alike at the same moment, and it was he who first devised (in +1869) the "unison stop," by means of which all connected instruments +could at any moment be brought to zero from the central transmitting +station, and thus be made to work in correspondence with the central +instrument and with one another. He also originated the idea of using +only one inking-pad and shifting it from side to side to ink the +type-wheels. It was also in Edison's stock printer that the principle of +shifting type-wheels was first employed. Hence it will be seen that, +as in many other arts, he made a lasting impression in this one by the +intrinsic merits of the improvements resulting from his work therein. + +We shall not attempt to digest the forty-six patents above named, nor to +follow Edison through the progressive steps which led to the completion +of his universal printer, but shall simply present a sketch of the +instrument itself, and follow with a very brief and general explanation +of its theory. The Edison universal printer, as it virtually appears +in practice, is illustrated in Fig. 1 below, from which it will be seen +that the most prominent parts are the two type-wheels, the inking-pad, +and the paper tape feeding from the reel, all appropriately placed in a +substantial framework. + +The electromagnets and other actuating mechanism cannot be seen plainly +in this figure, but are produced diagrammatically in Fig. 2, and +somewhat enlarged for convenience of explanation. + +It will be seen that there are two electromagnets, one of which, TM, is +known as the "type-magnet," and the other, PM, as the "press-magnet," +the former having to do with the operation of the type-wheels, and the +latter with the pressing of the paper tape against them. As will be seen +from the diagram, the armature, A, of the type-magnet has an extension +arm, on the end of which is an escapement engaging with a toothed wheel +placed at the extremity of the shaft carrying the type-wheels. This +extension arm is pivoted at B. Hence, as the armature is alternately +attracted when current passes around its electromagnet, and drawn up by +the spring on cessation of current, it moves up and down, thus actuating +the escapement and causing a rotation of the toothed wheel in the +direction of the arrow. This, in turn, brings any desired letters +or figures on the type-wheels to a central point, where they may be +impressed upon the paper tape. One type-wheel carries letters, and the +other one figures. These two wheels are mounted rigidly on a sleeve +carried by the wheel-shaft. As it is desired to print from only one +type-wheel at a time, it becomes necessary to shift them back and forth +from time to time, in order to bring the desired characters in line +with the paper tape. This is accomplished through the movements of a +three-arm rocking-lever attached to the wheel-sleeve at the end of +the shaft. This lever is actuated through the agency of two small pins +carried by an arm projecting from the press-lever, PL. As the latter +moves up and down the pins play upon the under side of the lower arm of +the rocking-lever, thus canting it and pushing the type-wheels to +the right or left, as the case may be. The operation of shifting the +type-wheels will be given further on. + +The press-lever is actuated by the press-magnet. From the diagram +it will be seen that the armature of the latter has a long, pivoted +extension arm, or platen, trough-like in shape, in which the paper tape +runs. It has already been noted that the object of the press-lever is +to press this tape against that character of the type-wheel centrally +located above it at the moment. It will at once be perceived that this +action takes place when current flows through the electromagnet and its +armature is attracted downward, the platen again dropping away from the +type-wheel as the armature is released upon cessation of current. The +paper "feed" is shown at the end of the press-lever, and consists of +a push "dog," or pawl, which operates to urge the paper forward as the +press-lever descends. + +The worm-gear which appears in the diagram on the shaft, near the +toothed wheel, forms part of the unison stop above referred to, but this +device is not shown in full, in order to avoid unnecessary complications +of the drawing. + +At the right-hand side of the diagram (Fig. 2) is shown a portion of +the transmitting apparatus at a central office. Generally speaking, +this consists of a motor-driven cylinder having metallic pins placed +at intervals, and arranged spirally, around its periphery. These pins +correspond in number to the characters on the type-wheels. A keyboard +(not shown) is arranged above the cylinder, having keys lettered and +numbered corresponding to the letters and figures on the type-wheels. +Upon depressing any one of these keys the motion of the cylinder is +arrested when one of its pins is caught and held by the depressed key. +When the key is released the cylinder continues in motion. Hence, it is +evident that the revolution of the cylinder may be interrupted as often +as desired by manipulation of the various keys in transmitting the +letters and figures which are to be recorded by the printing instrument. +The method of transmission will presently appear. + +In the sketch (Fig. 2) there will be seen, mounted upon the cylinder +shaft, two wheels made up of metallic segments insulated from each +other, and upon the hubs of these wheels are two brushes which connect +with the main battery. Resting upon the periphery of these two segmental +wheels there are two brushes to which are connected the wires which +carry the battery current to the type-magnet and press-magnet, +respectively, as the brushes make circuit by coming in contact with the +metallic segments. It will be remembered that upon the cylinder there +are as many pins as there are characters on the type-wheels of the +ticker, and one of the segmental wheels, W, has a like number of +metallic segments, while upon the other wheel, W', there are only +one-half that number. The wheel W controls the supply of current to +the press-magnet, and the wheel W' to the type-magnet. The type-magnet +advances the letter and figure wheels one step when the magnet is +energized, and a succeeding step when the circuit is broken. Hence, the +metallic contact surfaces on wheel W' are, as stated, only half as many +as on the wheel W, which controls the press-magnet. + +It should be borne in mind, however, that the contact surfaces and +insulated surfaces on wheel W' are together equal in number to the +characters on the type-wheels, but the retractile spring of TM does half +the work of operating the escapement. On the other hand, the wheel W +has the full number of contact surfaces, because it must provide for the +operative closure of the press-magnet circuit whether the brush B' is in +engagement with a metallic segment or an insulated segment of the wheel +W'. As the cylinder revolves, the wheels are carried around with its +shaft and current impulses flow through the wires to the magnets as the +brushes make contact with the metallic segments of these wheels. + +One example will be sufficient to convey to the reader an idea of the +operation of the apparatus. Assuming, for instance, that it is desired +to send out the letters AM to the printer, let us suppose that the pin +corresponding to the letter A is at one end of the cylinder and near the +upper part of its periphery, and that the letter M is about the centre +of the cylinder and near the lower part of its periphery. The operator +at the keyboard would depress the letter A, whereupon the cylinder would +in its revolution bring the first-named pin against the key. During +the rotation of the cylinder a current would pass through wheel W' and +actuate TM, drawing down the armature and operating the escapement, +which would bring the type-wheel to a point where the letter A would +be central as regards the paper tape When the cylinder came to rest, +current would flow through the brush of wheel W to PM, and its armature +would be attracted, causing the platen to be lifted and thus bringing +the paper tape in contact with the type-wheel and printing the letter A. +The operator next sends the letter M by depressing the appropriate key. +On account of the position of the corresponding pin, the cylinder would +make nearly half a revolution before bringing the pin to the key. During +this half revolution the segmental wheels have also been turning, and +the brushes have transmitted a number of current impulses to TM, which +have caused it to operate the escapement a corresponding number of +times, thus turning the type-wheels around to the letter M. When the +cylinder stops, current once more goes to the press-magnet, and the +operation of lifting and printing is repeated. As a matter of fact, +current flows over both circuits as the cylinder is rotated, but the +press-magnet is purposely made to be comparatively "sluggish" and the +narrowness of the segments on wheel W tends to diminish the flow of +current in the press circuit until the cylinder comes to rest, when the +current continuously flows over that circuit without interruption and +fully energizes the press-magnet. The shifting of the type-wheels is +brought about as follows: On the keyboard of the transmitter there are +two characters known as "dots"--namely, the letter dot and the figure +dot. If the operator presses one of these dot keys, it is engaged by an +appropriate pin on the revolving cylinder. Meanwhile the type-wheels are +rotating, carrying with them the rocking-lever, and current is pulsating +over both circuits. When the type-wheels have arrived at the proper +point the rocking-lever has been carried to a position where its lower +arm is directly over one of the pins on the arm extending from the +platen of the press-lever. The cylinder stops, and current operates +the sluggish press-magnet, causing its armature to be attracted, thus +lifting the platen and its projecting arm. As the arm lifts upward, the +pin moves along the under side of the lower arm of the rocking-lever, +thus causing it to cant and shift the type-wheels to the right or left, +as desired. The principles of operation of this apparatus have been +confined to a very brief and general description, but it is believed to +be sufficient for the scope of this article. + +NOTE.--The illustrations in this article are reproduced from American +Telegraphy and Encyclopedia of the Telegraph, by William Maver, Jr., by +permission of Maver Publishing Company, New York. + + + + +II. THE QUADRUPLEX AND PHONOPLEX + +EDISON'S work in stock printers and telegraphy had marked him as a +rising man in the electrical art of the period but his invention of +quadruplex telegraphy in 1874 was what brought him very prominently +before the notice of the public. Duplex telegraphy, or the sending of +two separate messages in opposite directions at the same time over +one line was known and practiced previous to this time, but quadruplex +telegraphy, or the simultaneous sending of four separate messages, +two in each direction, over a single line had not been successfully +accomplished, although it had been the subject of many an inventor's +dream and the object of anxious efforts for many long years. + +In the early part of 1873, and for some time afterward, the system +invented by Joseph Stearns was the duplex in practical use. In April of +that year, however, Edison took up the study of the subject and filed +two applications for patents. One of these applications [23] embraced +an invention by which two messages could be sent not only duplex, or +in opposite directions as above explained, but could also be sent +"diplex"--that is to say, in one direction, simultaneously, as separate +and distinct messages, over the one line. Thus there was introduced a +new feature into the art of multiplex telegraphy, for, whereas duplexing +(accomplished by varying the strength of the current) permitted messages +to be sent simultaneously from opposite stations, diplexing (achieved +by also varying the direction of the current) permitted the simultaneous +transmission of two messages from the same station and their separate +reception at the distant station. + + [Footnote 23: Afterward issued as Patent No. 162,633, April + 27, 1875.] + +The quadruplex was the tempting goal toward which Edison now constantly +turned, and after more than a year's strenuous work he filed a number of +applications for patents in the late summer of 1874. Among them was one +which was issued some years afterward as Patent No. 480,567, covering +his well-known quadruplex. He had improved his own diplex, combined it +with the Stearns duplex and thereby produced a system by means of which +four messages could be sent over a single line at the same time, two in +each direction. + +As the reader will probably be interested to learn something of the +theoretical principles of this fascinating invention, we shall endeavor +to offer a brief and condensed explanation thereof with as little +technicality as the subject will permit. This explanation will +necessarily be of somewhat elementary character for the benefit of the +lay reader, whose indulgence is asked for an occasional reiteration +introduced for the sake of clearness of comprehension. While the +apparatus and the circuits are seemingly very intricate, the principles +are really quite simple, and the difficulty of comprehension is more +apparent than real if the underlying phenomena are studied attentively. + +At the root of all systems of telegraphy, including multiplex systems, +there lies the single basic principle upon which their performance +depends--namely, the obtaining of a slight mechanical movement at the +more or less distant end of a telegraph line. This is accomplished +through the utilization of the phenomena of electromagnetism. These +phenomena are easy of comprehension and demonstration. If a rod of soft +iron be wound around with a number of turns of insulated wire, and +a current of electricity be sent through the wire, the rod will be +instantly magnetized and will remain a magnet as long as the current +flows; but when the current is cut off the magnetic effect instantly +ceases. This device is known as an electromagnet, and the charging and +discharging of such a magnet may, of course, be repeated indefinitely. +Inasmuch as a magnet has the power of attracting to itself pieces of +iron or steel, the basic importance of an electromagnet in telegraphy +will be at once apparent when we consider the sounder, whose clicks +are familiar to every ear. This instrument consists essentially of an +electro-magnet of horseshoe form with its two poles close together, and +with its armature, a bar of iron, maintained in close proximity to the +poles, but kept normally in a retracted position by a spring. When +the distant operator presses down his key the circuit is closed and a +current passes along the line and through the (generally two) coils of +the electromagnet, thus magnetizing the iron core. Its attractive power +draws the armature toward the poles. When the operator releases the +pressure on his key the circuit is broken, current does not flow, the +magnetic effect ceases, and the armature is drawn back by its spring. +These movements give rise to the clicking sounds which represent the +dots and dashes of the Morse or other alphabet as transmitted by the +operator. Similar movements, produced in like manner, are availed of +in another instrument known as the relay, whose office is to act +practically as an automatic transmitter key, repeating the messages +received in its coils, and sending them on to the next section of the +line, equipped with its own battery; or, when the message is intended +for its own station, sending the message to an adjacent sounder included +in a local battery circuit. With a simple circuit, therefore, between +two stations and where an intermediate battery is not necessary, a relay +is not used. + +Passing on to the consideration of another phase of the phenomena of +electromagnetism, the reader's attention is called to Fig. 1, in which +will be seen on the left a simple form of electromagnet consisting of +a bar of soft iron wound around with insulated wire, through which a +current is flowing from a battery. The arrows indicate the direction of +flow. + +All magnets have two poles, north and south. A permanent magnet (made of +steel, which, as distinguished from soft iron, retains its magnetism for +long periods) is so called because it is permanently magnetized and its +polarity remains fixed. In an electromagnet the magnetism exists only +as long as current is flowing through the wire, and the polarity of the +soft-iron bar is determined by the DIRECTION of flow of current around +it for the time being. If the direction is reversed, the polarity will +also be reversed. Assuming, for instance, the bar to be end-on toward +the observer, that end will be a south pole if the current is flowing +from left to right, clockwise, around the bar; or a north pole if +flowing in the other direction, as illustrated at the right of the +figure. It is immaterial which way the wire is wound around the bar, the +determining factor of polarity being the DIRECTION of the current. It +will be clear, therefore, that if two EQUAL currents be passed around +a bar in opposite directions (Fig. 3) they will tend to produce exactly +opposite polarities and thus neutralize each other. Hence, the bar would +remain non-magnetic. + +As the path to the quadruplex passes through the duplex, let us consider +the Stearns system, after noting one other principle--namely, that +if more than one path is presented in which an electric current may +complete its circuit, it divides in proportion to the resistance of each +path. Hence, if we connect one pole of a battery with the earth, and +from the other pole run to the earth two wires of equal resistance as +illustrated in Fig. 2, equal currents will traverse the wires. + +The above principles were employed in the Stearns differential duplex +system in the following manner: Referring to Fig. 3, suppose a wire, A, +is led from a battery around a bar of soft iron from left to right, and +another wire of equal resistance and equal number of turns, B, around +from right to left. The flow of current will cause two equal opposing +actions to be set up in the bar; one will exactly offset the other, and +no magnetic effect will be produced. A relay thus wound is known as a +differential relay--more generally called a neutral relay. + +The non-technical reader may wonder what use can possibly be made of an +apparently non-operative piece of apparatus. It must be borne in mind, +however, in considering a duplex system, that a differential relay is +used AT EACH END of the line and forms part of the circuit; and that +while each relay must be absolutely unresponsive to the signals SENT +OUT FROM ITS HOME OFFICE, it must respond to signals transmitted by +a DISTANT OFFICE. Hence, the next figure (4), with its accompanying +explanation, will probably make the matter clear. If another battery, +D, be introduced at the distant end of the wire A the differential or +neutral relay becomes actively operative as follows: Battery C supplies +wires A and B with an equal current, but battery D doubles the strength +of the current traversing wire A. This is sufficient to not only +neutralize the magnetism which the current in wire B would tend to set +up, but also--by reason of the excess of current in wire A--to make the +bar a magnet whose polarity would be determined by the direction of the +flow of current around it. + +In the arrangement shown in Fig. 4 the batteries are so connected that +current flow is in the same direction, thus doubling the amount of +current flowing through wire A. But suppose the batteries were +so connected that the current from each set flowed in an opposite +direction? The result would be that these currents would oppose and +neutralize each other, and, therefore, none would flow in wire A. +Inasmuch, however, as there is nothing to hinder, current would +flow from battery C through wire B, and the bar would therefore be +magnetized. Hence, assuming that the relay is to be actuated from +the distant end, D, it is in a sense immaterial whether the batteries +connected with wire A assist or oppose each other, as, in either case, +the bar would be magnetized only through the operation of the distant +key. + +A slight elaboration of Fig. 4 will further illustrate the principle of +the differential duplex. In Fig. 5 are two stations, A the home end, +and B the distant station to which a message is to be sent. The relay at +each end has two coils, 1 and 2, No. 1 in each case being known as the +"main-line coil" and 2 as the "artificial-line coil." The latter, in +each case, has in its circuit a resistance, R, to compensate for the +resistance of the main line, so that there shall be no inequalities +in the circuits. The artificial line, as well as that to which the two +coils are joined, are connected to earth. There is a battery, C, and a +key, K. When the key is depressed, current flows through the relay +coils at A, but no magnetism is produced, as they oppose each other. The +current, however, flows out through the main-line coil over the line and +through the main-line coil 1 at B, completing its circuit to earth +and magnetizing the bar of the relay, thus causing its armature to be +attracted. On releasing the key the circuit is broken and magnetism +instantly ceases. + +It will be evident, therefore, that the operator at A may cause the +relay at B to act without affecting his own relay. Similar effects would +be produced from B to A if the battery and key were placed at the B end. + +If, therefore, like instruments are placed at each end of the line, as +in Fig. 6, we have a differential duplex arrangement by means of which +two operators may actuate relays at the ends distant from them, without +causing the operation of the relays at their home ends. In practice +this is done by means of a special instrument known as a continuity +preserving transmitter, or, usually, as a transmitter. This consists +of an electromagnet, T, operated by a key, K, and separate battery. The +armature lever, L, is long, pivoted in the centre, and is bent over +at the end. At a point a little beyond its centre is a small piece of +insulating material to which is screwed a strip of spring metal, S. +Conveniently placed with reference to the end of the lever is a bent +metallic piece, P, having a contact screw in its upper horizontal arm, +and attached to the lower end of this bent piece is a post, or standard, +to which the main battery is electrically connected. The relay coils +are connected by wire to the spring piece, S, and the armature lever is +connected to earth. If the key is depressed, the armature is attracted +and its bent end is moved upward, depressing the spring which makes +contact with the upper screw, which places the battery to the line, and +simultaneously breaks the ground connection between the spring and +the upturned end of the lever, as shown at the left. When the key is +released the battery is again connected to earth. The compensating +resistances and condensers necessary for a duplex arrangement are shown +in the diagram. + +In Fig. 6 one transmitter is shown as closed, at A, while the other one +is open. From our previous illustrations and explanations it will be +readily seen that, with the transmitter closed at station A, current +flows via post P, through S, and to both relay coils at A, thence over +the main line to main-line coil at B, and down to earth through S and +the armature lever with its grounded wire. The relay at A would be +unresponsive, but the core of the relay at B would be magnetized and its +armature respond to signals from A. In like manner, if the transmitter +at B be closed, current would flow through similar parts and thus +cause the relay at A to respond. If both transmitters be closed +simultaneously, both batteries will be placed to the line, which would +practically result in doubling the current in each of the main-line +coils, in consequence of which both relays are energized and their +armatures attracted through the operation of the keys at the distant +ends. Hence, two messages can be sent in opposite directions over the +same line simultaneously. + +The reader will undoubtedly see quite clearly from the above system, +which rests upon varying the STRENGTH of the current, that two messages +could not be sent in the same direction over the one line at the same +time. To accomplish this object Edison introduced another and distinct +feature--namely, the using of the same current, but ALSO varying its +DIRECTION of flow; that is to say, alternately reversing the POLARITY +of the batteries as applied to the line and thus producing corresponding +changes in the polarity of another specially constructed type of relay, +called a polarized relay. To afford the reader a clear conception of +such a relay we would refer again to Fig. 1 and its explanation, from +which it appears that the polarity of a soft-iron bar is determined not +by the strength of the current flowing around it but by the direction +thereof. + +With this idea clearly in mind, the theory of the polarized relay, +generally called "polar" relay, as presented in the diagram (Fig. 7), +will be readily understood. + +A is a bar of soft iron, bent as shown, and wound around with insulated +copper wire, the ends of which are connected with a battery, B, thus +forming an electromagnet. An essential part of this relay consists of +a swinging PERMANENT magnet, C, whose polarity remains fixed, that end +between the terminals of the electromagnet being a north pole. Inasmuch +as unlike poles of magnets are attracted to each other and like poles +repelled, it follows that this north pole will be repelled by the north +pole of the electromagnet, but will swing over and be attracted by +its south pole. If the direction of flow of current be reversed, by +reversing the battery, the electromagnetic polarity also reverses and +the end of the permanent magnet swings over to the other side. This +is shown in the two figures of Fig. 7. This device being a relay, its +purpose is to repeat transmitted signals into a local circuit, as before +explained. For this purpose there are provided at D and E a contact and +a back stop, the former of which is opened and closed by the swinging +permanent magnet, thus opening and closing the local circuit. + +Manifestly there must be provided some convenient way for rapidly +transposing the direction of the current flow if such a device as the +polar relay is to be used for the reception of telegraph messages, and +this is accomplished by means of an instrument called a pole-changer, +which consists essentially of a movable contact piece connected +permanently to the earth, or grounded, and arranged to connect one or +the other pole of a battery to the line and simultaneously ground the +other pole. This action of the pole-changer is effected by movements of +the armature of an electromagnet through the manipulation of an ordinary +telegraph key by an operator at the home station, as in the operation of +the "transmitter," above referred to. + +By a combination of the neutral relay and the polar relay two +operators, by manipulating two telegraph keys in the ordinary way, can +simultaneously send two messages over one line in the SAME direction +with the SAME current, one operator varying its strength and the other +operator varying its polarity or direction of flow. This principle was +covered by Edison's Patent No. 162,633, and was known as the "diplex" +system, although, in the patent referred to, Edison showed and claimed +the adaptation of the principle to duplex telegraphy. Indeed, as +a matter of fact, it was found that by winding the polar relay +differentially and arranging the circuits and collateral appliances +appropriately, the polar duplex system was more highly efficient than +the neutral system, and it is extensively used to the present day. + +Thus far we have referred to two systems, one the neutral or +differential duplex, and the other the combination of the neutral and +polar relays, making a diplex system. By one of these two systems +a single wire could be used for sending two messages in opposite +directions, and by the other in the same direction or in opposite +directions. Edison followed up his work on the diplex and combined the +two systems into the quadruplex, by means of which FOUR messages could +be sent and received simultaneously over the one wire, two in each +direction, thus employing eight operators--four at each end--two sending +and two receiving. The general principles of quadruplex telegraphy are +based upon the phenomena which we have briefly outlined in connection +with the neutral relay and the polar relay. The equipment of such +a system at each end of the line consists of these two instruments, +together with the special form of transmitter and the pole-changer and +their keys for actuating the neutral and polar relays at the other, or +distant, end. Besides these there are the compensating resistances and +condensers. All of these will be seen in the diagram (Fig. 8). It +will be understood, of course, that the polar relay, as used in the +quadruplex system, is wound differentially, and therefore its operation +is somewhat similar in principle to that of the differentially wound +neutral relay, in that it does not respond to the operation of the key +at the home office, but only operates in response to the movements of +the distant key. + +Our explanation has merely aimed to show the underlying phenomena and +principles in broad outline without entering into more detail than was +deemed absolutely necessary. It should be stated, however, that between +the outline and the filling in of the details there was an enormous +amount of hard work, study, patient plodding, and endless experiments +before Edison finally perfected his quadruplex system in the year 1874. + +If it were attempted to offer here a detailed explanation of the varied +and numerous operations of the quadruplex, this article would assume the +proportions of a treatise. An idea of their complexity may be gathered +from the following, which is quoted from American Telegraphy and +Encyclopedia of the Telegraph, by William Maver, Jr.: + + +"It may well be doubted whether in the whole range of applied +electricity there occur such beautiful combinations, so quickly made, +broken up, and others reformed, as in the operation of the Edison +quadruplex. For example, it is quite demonstrable that during the making +of a simple dash of the Morse alphabet by the neutral relay at the home +station the distant pole-changer may reverse its battery several times; +the home pole-changer may do likewise, and the home transmitter may +increase and decrease the electromotive force of the home battery +repeatedly. Simultaneously, and, of course, as a consequence of the +foregoing actions, the home neutral relay itself may have had its +magnetism reversed several times, and the SIGNAL, that is, the dash, +will have been made, partly by the home battery, partly by the distant +and home batteries combined, partly by current on the main line, partly +by current on the artificial line, partly by the main-line 'static' +current, partly by the condenser static current, and yet, on a +well-adjusted circuit the dash will have been produced on the quadruplex +sounder as clearly as any dash on an ordinary single-wire sounder." + +We present a diagrammatic illustration of the Edison quadruplex, battery +key system, in Fig. 8, and refer the reader to the above or other +text-books if he desires to make a close study of its intricate +operations. Before finally dismissing the quadruplex, and for the +benefit of the inquiring reader who may vainly puzzle over the +intricacies of the circuits shown in Fig. 8, a hint as to an essential +difference between the neutral relay, as used in the duplex and as used +in the quadruplex, may be given. With the duplex, as we have seen, the +current on the main line is changed in strength only when both keys at +OPPOSITE stations are closed together, so that a current due to both +batteries flows over the main line. When a single message is sent from +one station to the other, or when both stations are sending messages +that do not conflict, only one battery or the other is connected to the +main line; but with the quadruplex, suppose one of the operators, in New +York for instance, is sending reversals of current to Chicago; we can +readily see how these changes in polarity will operate the polar relay +at the distant station, but why will they not also operate the neutral +relay at the distant station as well? This difficulty was solved by +dividing the battery at each station into two unequal parts, the smaller +battery being always in circuit with the pole-changer ready to have its +polarity reversed on the main line to operate the distant polar relay, +but the spring retracting the armature of the neutral relay is made so +stiff as to resist these weak currents. If, however, the transmitter is +operated at the same end, the entire battery is connected to the main +line, and the strength of this current is sufficient to operate the +neutral relay. Whether the part or all the battery is alternately +connected to or disconnected from the main line by the transmitter, the +current so varied in strength is subject to reversal of polarity by the +pole-changer; but the variations in strength have no effect upon the +distant polar relay, because that relay being responsive to changes +in polarity of a weak current is obviously responsive to corresponding +changes in polarity of a powerful current. With this distinction before +him, the reader will have no difficulty in following the circuits +of Fig. 8, bearing always in mind that by reason of the differential +winding of the polar and neutral relays, neither of the relays at one +station will respond to the home battery, and can only respond to the +distant battery--the polar relay responding when the polarity of the +current is reversed, whether the current be strong or weak, and the +neutral relay responding when the line-current is increased, regardless +of its polarity. It should be added that besides the system illustrated +in Fig. 8, which is known as the differential principle, the quadruplex +was also arranged to operate on the Wheatstone bridge principle; but +it is not deemed necessary to enter into its details. The underlying +phenomena were similar, the difference consisting largely in the +arrangement of the circuits and apparatus. [24] + + [Footnote 24: Many of the illustrations in this article are + reproduced from American Telegraphy and Encyclopedia of the + Telegraph, by William Maver, Jr., by permission of Maver + Publishing Company, New York.] + +Edison made another notable contribution to multiplex telegraphy +some years later in the Phonoplex. The name suggests the use of the +telephone, and such indeed is the case. The necessity for this invention +arose out of the problem of increasing the capacity of telegraph lines +employed in "through" and "way" service, such as upon railroads. In a +railroad system there are usually two terminal stations and a number of +way stations. There is naturally much intercommunication, which would +be greatly curtailed by a system having the capacity of only a single +message at a time. The duplexes above described could not be used on +a railroad telegraph system, because of the necessity of electrically +balancing the line, which, while entirely feasible on a through line, +would not be practicable between a number of intercommunicating points. +Edison's phonoplex normally doubled the capacity of telegraph lines, +whether employed on way business or through traffic, but in actual +practice made it possible to obtain more than double service. It has +been in practical use for many years on some of the leading railroads of +the United States. + +The system is a combination of telegraphic apparatus and telephone +receiver, although in this case the latter instrument is not used in the +generally understood manner. It is well known that the diaphragm of a +telephone vibrates with the fluctuations of the current energizing the +magnet beneath it. If the make and break of the magnetizing current +be rapid, the vibrations being within the limits of the human ear, the +diaphragm will produce an audible sound; but if the make and break be as +slow as with ordinary Morse transmission, the diaphragm will be merely +flexed and return to its original form without producing a sound. If, +therefore, there be placed in the same circuit a regular telegraph relay +and a special telephone, an operator may, by manipulating a key, operate +the relay (and its sounder) without producing a sound in the telephone, +as the makes and breaks of the key are far below the limit of +audibility. But if through the same circuit, by means of another key +suitably connected there is sent the rapid changes in current from an +induction-coil, it will cause a series of loud clicks in the telephone, +corresponding to the signals transmitted; but this current is too weak +to affect the telegraph relay. It will be seen, therefore, that this +method of duplexing is practiced, not by varying the strength or +polarity, but by sending TWO KINDS OF CURRENT over the wire. Thus, two +sets of Morse signals can be transmitted by two operators over one +line at the same time without interfering with each other, and not only +between terminal offices, but also between a terminal office and any +intermediate office, or between two intermediate offices alone. + + + + +III + +AUTOMATIC TELEGRAPHY + +FROM the year 1848, when a Scotchman, Alexander Bain, first devised a +scheme for rapid telegraphy by automatic methods, down to the beginning +of the seventies, many other inventors had also applied themselves to +the solution of this difficult problem, with only indifferent success. +"Cheap telegraphy" being the slogan of the time, Edison became arduously +interested in the subject, and at the end of three years of hard work +produced an entirely successful system, a public test of which was made +on December 11, 1873 when about twelve thousand (12,000) words +were transmitted over a single wire from Washington to New York. in +twenty-two and one-half minutes. Edison's system was commercially +exploited for several years by the Automatic Telegraph Company, as +related in the preceding narrative. + +As a premise to an explanation of the principles involved it should be +noted that the transmission of telegraph messages by hand at a rate of +fifty words per minute is considered a good average speed; hence, the +availability of a telegraph line, as thus operated, is limited to this +capacity except as it may be multiplied by two with the use of +the duplex, or by four, with the quadruplex. Increased rapidity of +transmission may, however, be accomplished by automatic methods, by +means of which, through the employment of suitable devices, messages may +be stamped in or upon a paper tape, transmitted through automatically +acting instruments, and be received at distant points in visible +characters, upon a similar tape, at a rate twenty or more times +greater--a speed far beyond the possibilities of the human hand to +transmit or the ear to receive. + +In Edison's system of automatic telegraphy a paper tape was perforated +with a series of round holes, so arranged and spaced as to represent +Morse characters, forming the words of the message to be transmitted. +This was done in a special machine of Edison's invention, called a +perforator, consisting of a series of punches operated by a bank of +keys--typewriter fashion. The paper tape passed over a cylinder, and +was kept in regular motion so as to receive the perforations in proper +sequence. + +The perforated tape was then placed in the transmitting instrument, +the essential parts of which were a metallic drum and a projecting arm +carrying two small wheels, which, by means of a spring, were maintained +in constant pressure on the drum. The wheels and drum were electrically +connected in the line over which the message was to be sent. current +being supplied by batteries in the ordinary manner. + +When the transmitting instrument was in operation, the perforated tape +was passed over the drum in continuous, progressive motion. Thus, the +paper passed between the drum and the two small wheels, and, as dry +paper is a non-conductor, current was prevented from passing until a +perforation was reached. As the paper passed along, the wheels dropped +into the perforations, making momentary contacts with the drum beneath +and causing momentary impulses of current to be transmitted over the +line in the same way that they would be produced by the manipulation +of the telegraph key, but with much greater rapidity. The perforations +being so arranged as to regulate the length of the contact, the result +would be the transmission of long and short impulses corresponding with +the dots and dashes of the Morse alphabet. + +The receiving instrument at the other end of the line was constructed +upon much the same general lines as the transmitter, consisting of a +metallic drum and reels for the paper tape. Instead of the two small +contact wheels, however, a projecting arm carried an iron pin or stylus, +so arranged that its point would normally impinge upon the periphery of +the drum. The iron pin and the drum were respectively connected so as to +be in circuit with the transmission line and batteries. As the principle +involved in the receiving operation was electrochemical decomposition, +the paper tape upon which the incoming message was to be received was +moistened with a chemical solution readily decomposable by the electric +current. This paper, while still in a damp condition, was passed +between the drum and stylus in continuous, progressive motion. When an +electrical impulse came over the line from the transmitting end, current +passed through the moistened paper from the iron pin, causing chemical +decomposition, by reason of which the iron would be attacked and would +mark a line on the paper. Such a line would be long or short, according +to the duration of the electric impulse. Inasmuch as a succession of +such impulses coming over the line owed their origin to the perforations +in the transmitting tape, it followed that the resulting marks upon the +receiving tape would correspond thereto in their respective lengths. +Hence, the transmitted message was received on the tape in visible dots +and dashes representing characters of the Morse alphabet. + +The system will, perhaps, be better understood by reference to the +following diagrammatic sketch of its general principles: + +Some idea of the rapidity of automatic telegraphy may be obtained when +we consider the fact that with the use of Edison's system in the early +seventies it was common practice to transmit and receive from three to +four thousand words a minute over a single line between New York and +Philadelphia. This system was exploited through the use of a moderately +paid clerical force. + +In practice, there was employed such a number of perforating machines +as the exigencies of business demanded. Each machine was operated by +a clerk, who translated the message into telegraphic characters and +prepared the transmitting tape by punching the necessary perforations +therein. An expert clerk could perforate such a tape at the rate of +fifty to sixty words per minute. At the receiving end the tape was taken +by other clerks who translated the Morse characters into ordinary words, +which were written on message blanks for delivery to persons for whom +the messages were intended. + +This latter operation--"copying." as it was called--was not consistent +with truly economical business practice. Edison therefore undertook the +task of devising an improved system whereby the message when received +would not require translation and rewriting, but would automatically +appear on the tape in plain letters and words, ready for instant +delivery. + +The result was his automatic Roman letter system, the basis for which +included the above-named general principles of perforated transmission +tape and electrochemical decomposition. Instead of punching Morse +characters in the transmission tape however, it was perforated with +a series of small round holes forming Roman letters. The verticals +of these letters were originally five holes high. The transmitting +instrument had five small wheels or rollers, instead of two, for making +contacts through the perforations and causing short electric impulses +to pass over the lines. At first five lines were used to carry these +impulses to the receiving instrument, where there were five iron pins +impinging on the drum. By means of these pins the chemically prepared +tape was marked with dots corresponding to the impulses as received, +leaving upon it a legible record of the letters and words transmitted. + +For purposes of economy in investment and maintenance, Edison devised +subsequently a plan by which the number of conducting lines was reduced +to two, instead of five. The verticals of the letters were perforated +only four holes high, and the four rollers were arranged in pairs, one +pair being slightly in advance of the other. There were, of course, +only four pins at the receiving instrument. Two were of iron and two of +tellurium, it being the gist of Edison's plan to effect the marking +of the chemical paper by one metal with a positive current, and by the +other metal with a negative current. In the following diagram, which +shows the theory of this arrangement, it will be seen that both the +transmitting rollers and the receiving pins are arranged in pairs, +one pair in each case being slightly in advance of the other. Of these +receiving pins, one pair--1 and 3--are of iron, and the other pair--2 +and 4--of tellurium. Pins 1-2 and 3-4 are electrically connected +together in other pairs, and then each of these pairs is connected with +one of the main lines that run respectively to the middle of two groups +of batteries at the transmitting end. The terminals of these groups of +batteries are connected respectively to the four rollers which impinge +upon the transmitting drum, the negatives being connected to 5 and 7, +and the positives to 6 and 8, as denoted by the letters N and P. The +transmitting and receiving drums are respectively connected to earth. + +In operation the perforated tape is placed on the transmission drum, and +the chemically prepared tape on the receiving drum. As the perforated +tape passes over the transmission drum the advanced rollers 6 or 8 +first close the circuit through the perforations, and a positive current +passes from the batteries through the drum and down to the ground; +thence through the earth at the receiving end up to the other drum and +back to the batteries via the tellurium pins 2 or 4 and the line wire. +With this positive current the tellurium pins make marks upon the +paper tape, but the iron pins make no mark. In the merest fraction of a +second, as the perforated paper continues to pass over the transmission +drum, the rollers 5 or 7 close the circuit through other perforations +and t e current passes in the opposite direction, over the line wire, +through pins 1 or 3, and returns through the earth. In this case the +iron pins mark the paper tape, but the tellurium pins make no mark. It +will be obvious, therefore, that as the rollers are set so as to allow +of currents of opposite polarity to be alternately and rapidly sent +by means of the perforations, the marks upon the tape at the receiving +station will occupy their proper relative positions, and the aggregate +result will be letters corresponding to those perforated in the +transmission tape. + +Edison subsequently made still further improvements in this direction, +by which he reduced the number of conducting wires to one, but the +principles involved were analogous to the one just described. + +This Roman letter system was in use for several years on lines between +New York, Philadelphia, and Washington, and was so efficient that a +speed of three thousand words a minute was attained on the line between +the two first-named cities. + +Inasmuch as there were several proposed systems of rapid automatic +telegraphy in existence at the time Edison entered the field, but none +of them in practical commercial use, it becomes a matter of interest to +inquire wherein they were deficient, and what constituted the elements +of Edison's success. + +The chief difficulties in the transmission of Morse characters had been +two in number, the most serious of which was that on the receiving tape +the characters would be prolonged and run into one another, forming a +draggled line and thus rendering the message unintelligible. This arose +from the fact that, on account of the rapid succession of the electric +impulses, there was not sufficient time between them for the electric +action to cease entirely. Consequently the line could not clear itself, +and became surcharged, as it were; the effect being an attenuated +prolongation of each impulse as manifested in a weaker continuation of +the mark on the tape, thus making the whole message indistinct. These +secondary marks were called "tailings." + +For many years electricians had tried in vain to overcome this +difficulty. Edison devoted a great deal of thought and energy to the +question, in the course of which he experimented through one hundred +and twenty consecutive nights, in the year 1873, on the line between +New York and Washington. His solution of the problem was simple but +effectual. It involved the principle of inductive compensation. In +a shunt circuit with the receiving instrument he introduced +electromagnets. The pulsations of current passed through the helices of +these magnets, producing an augmented marking effect upon the receiving +tape, but upon the breaking of the current, the magnet, in discharging +itself of the induced magnetism, would set up momentarily a +counter-current of opposite polarity. This neutralized the "tailing" +effect by clearing the line between pulsations, thus allowing the +telegraphic characters to be clearly and distinctly outlined upon the +tape. Further elaboration of this method was made later by the addition +of rheostats, condensers, and local opposition batteries on long lines. + +The other difficulty above referred to was one that had also occupied +considerable thought and attention of many workers in the field, and +related to the perforating of the dash in the transmission tape. It +involved mechanical complications that seemed to be insurmountable, and +up to the time Edison invented his perforating machine no really good +method was available. He abandoned the attempt to cut dashes as such, in +the paper tape, but instead punched three round holes so arranged as +to form a triangle. A concrete example is presented in the illustration +below, which shows a piece of tape with perforations representing the +word "same." + +The philosophy of this will be at once perceived when it is remembered +that the two little wheels running upon the drum of the transmitting +instrument were situated side by side, corresponding in distance to the +two rows of holes. When a triangle of three holes, intended to form the +dash, reached the wheels, one of them dropped into a lower hole. Before +it could get out, the other wheel dropped into the hole at the apex of +the triangle, thus continuing the connection, which was still further +prolonged by the first wheel dropping into the third hole. Thus, an +extended contact was made, which, by transmitting a long impulse, +resulted in the marking of a dash upon the receiving tape. + +This method was in successful commercial use for some time in the early +seventies, giving a speed of from three to four thousand words a minute +over a single line, but later on was superseded by Edison's Roman letter +system, above referred to. + +The subject of automatic telegraphy received a vast amount of attention +from inventors at the time it was in vogue. None was more earnest +or indefatigable than Edison, who, during the progress of his +investigations, took out thirty-eight patents on various inventions +relating thereto, some of them covering chemical solutions for the +receiving paper. This of itself was a subject of much importance and +a vast amount of research and labor was expended upon it. In the +laboratory note-books there are recorded thousands of experiments +showing that Edison's investigations not only included an enormous +number of chemical salts and compounds, but also an exhaustive variety +of plants, flowers, roots, herbs, and barks. + +It seems inexplicable at first view that a system of telegraphy +sufficiently rapid and economical to be practically available for +important business correspondence should have fallen into disuse. This, +however, is made clear--so far as concerns Edison's invention at any +rate--in Chapter VIII of the preceding narrative. + + + + +IV. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY + + +ALTHOUGH Mr. Edison has taken no active part in the development of +the more modern wireless telegraphy, and his name has not occurred in +connection therewith, the underlying phenomena had been noted by him +many years in advance of the art, as will presently be explained. The +authors believe that this explanation will reveal a status of Edison in +relation to the subject that has thus far been unknown to the public. + +While the term "wireless telegraphy," as now applied to the modern +method of electrical communication between distant points without +intervening conductors, is self-explanatory, it was also applicable, +strictly speaking, to the previous art of telegraphing to and from +moving trains, and between points not greatly remote from each other, +and not connected together with wires. + +The latter system (described in Chapter XXIII and in a succeeding +article of this Appendix) was based upon the phenomena of +electromagnetic or electrostatic induction between conductors separated +by more or less space, whereby electric impulses of relatively low +potential and low frequency set up in. one conductor were transmitted +inductively across the air to another conductor, and there received +through the medium of appropriate instruments connected therewith. + +As distinguished from this system, however, modern wireless +telegraphy--so called--has its basis in the utilization of electric +or ether waves in free space, such waves being set up by electric +oscillations, or surgings, of comparatively high potential and high +frequency, produced by the operation of suitable electrical apparatus. +Broadly speaking, these oscillations arise from disruptive discharges of +an induction coil, or other form of oscillator, across an air-gap, and +their character is controlled by the manipulation of a special type of +circuit-breaking key, by means of which long and short discharges are +produced. The electric or etheric waves thereby set up are detected +and received by another special form of apparatus more or less distant, +without any intervening wires or conductors. + +In November, 1875, Edison, while experimenting in his Newark laboratory, +discovered a new manifestation of electricity through mysterious sparks +which could be produced under conditions unknown up to that time. +Recognizing at once the absolutely unique character of the phenomena, he +continued his investigations enthusiastically over two mouths, finally +arriving at a correct conclusion as to the oscillatory nature of the +hitherto unknown manifestations. Strange to say, however, the true +import and practical applicability of these phenomena did not occur to +his mind. Indeed, it was not until more than TWELVE YEARS AFTERWARD, in +1887, upon the publication of the notable work of Prof. H. Hertz proving +the existence of electric waves in free space, that Edison realized the +fact that the fundamental principle of aerial telegraphy had been within +his grasp in the winter of 1875; for although the work of Hertz was more +profound and mathematical than that of Edison, the principle involved +and the phenomena observed were practically identical--in fact, it may +be remarked that some of the methods and experimental apparatus were +quite similar, especially the "dark box" with micrometer adjustment, +used by both in observing the spark. [25] + + [Footnote 25: During the period in which Edison exhibited + his lighting system at the Paris Exposition in 1881, his + representative, Mr. Charles Batchelor, repeated Edison's + remarkable experiments of the winter of 1875 for the benefit + of a great number of European savants, using with other + apparatus the original "dark box" with micrometer + adjustment.] + +There is not the slightest intention on the part of the authors to +detract in the least degree from the brilliant work of Hertz, but, on +the contrary, to ascribe to him the honor that is his due in having +given mathematical direction and certainty to so important a discovery. +The adaptation of the principles thus elucidated and the subsequent +development of the present wonderful art by Marconi, Branly, Lodge, +Slaby, and others are now too well known to call for further remark at +this place. + +Strange to say, that although Edison's early experiments in "etheric +force" called forth extensive comment and discussion in the public +prints of the period, they seemed to have been generally overlooked +when the work of Hertz was published. At a meeting of the Institution of +Electrical Engineers, held in London on May 16, 1889, at which there +was a discussion on the celebrated paper of Prof. (Sir) Oliver Lodge on +"Lightning Conductors," however; the chairman, Sir William Thomson (Lord +Kelvin), made the following remarks: + +"We all know how Faraday made himself a cage six feet in diameter, hung +it up in mid-air in the theatre of the Royal Institution, went into it, +and, as he said, lived in it and made experiments. It was a cage with +tin-foil hanging all round it; it was not a complete metallic enclosing +shell. Faraday had a powerful machine working in the neighborhood, +giving all varieties of gradual working-up and discharges by 'impulsive +rush'; and whether it was a sudden discharge of ordinary insulated +conductors, or of Leyden jars in the neighborhood outside the cage, or +electrification and discharge of the cage itself, he saw no effects on +his most delicate gold-leaf electroscopes in the interior. His attention +was not directed to look for Hertz sparks, or probably he might have +found them in the interior. Edison seems to have noticed something of +the kind in what he called the etheric force. His name 'etheric' may, +thirteen years ago, have seemed to many people absurd. But now we are +all beginning to call these inductive phenomena 'etheric.'" + +With these preliminary observations, let us now glance briefly at +Edison's laboratory experiments, of which mention has been made. + +Oh the first manifestation of the unusual phenomena in November, 1875, +Edison's keenness of perception led him at once to believe that he had +discovered a new force. Indeed, the earliest entry of this discovery in +the laboratory note-book bore that caption. After a few days of further +experiment and observation, however, he changed it to "Etheric Force," +and the further records thereof (all in Mr. Batchelor's handwriting) +were under that heading. + +The publication of Edison's discovery created considerable attention at +the time, calling forth a storm of general ridicule and incredulity. +But a few scientific men of the period, whose experimental methods were +careful and exact, corroborated his deductions after obtaining similar +phenomena by repeating his experiments with intelligent precision. Among +these was the late Dr. George M. Beard, a noted physicist, who entered +enthusiastically into the investigation, and, in addition to a great +deal of independent experiment, spent much time with Edison at his +laboratory. Doctor Beard wrote a treatise of some length on the subject, +in which he concurred with Edison's deduction that the phenomena +were the manifestation of oscillations, or rapidly reversing waves +of electricity, which did not respond to the usual tests. Edison +had observed the tendency of this force to diffuse itself in various +directions through the air and through matter, hence the name "Etheric" +that he had provisionally applied to it. + +Edison's laboratory notes on this striking investigation are fascinating +and voluminous, but cannot be reproduced in full for lack of space. +In view of the later practical application of the principles involved, +however, the reader will probably be interested in perusing a few +extracts therefrom as illustrated by facsimiles of the original sketches +from the laboratory note-book. + +As the full significance of the experiments shown by these extracts +may not be apparent to a lay reader, it may be stated by way of premise +that, ordinarily, a current only follows a closed circuit. An electric +bell or electric light is a familiar instance of this rule. There is in +each case an open (wire) circuit which is closed by pressing the button +or turning the switch, thus making a complete and uninterrupted path in +which the current may travel and do its work. Until the time of Edison's +investigations of 1875, now under consideration, electricity had never +been known to manifest itself except through a closed circuit. But, as +the reader will see from the following excerpts, Edison discovered a +hitherto unknown phenomenon--namely, that under certain conditions the +rule would be reversed and electricity would pass through space and +through matter entirely unconnected with its point of origin. In other +words, he had found the forerunner of wireless telegraphy. Had he then +realized the full import of his discovery, all he needed was to increase +the strength of the waves and to provide a very sensitive detector, like +the coherer, in order to have anticipated the principal developments +that came many years afterward. With these explanatory observations, we +will now turn to the excerpts referred to, which are as follows: + +"November 22, 1875. New Force.--In experimenting with a vibrator magnet +consisting of a bar of Stubb's steel fastened at one end and made to +vibrate by means of a magnet, we noticed a spark coming from the cores +of the magnet. This we have noticed often in relays, in stock-printers, +when there were a little iron filings between the armature and core, +and more often in our new electric pen, and we have always come to the +conclusion that it was caused by strong induction. But when we noticed +it on this vibrator it seemed so strong that it struck us forcibly there +might be something more than induction. We now found that if we touched +any metallic part of the vibrator or magnet we got the spark. The larger +the body of iron touched to the vibrator the larger the spark. We now +connected a wire to X, the end of the vibrating rod, and we found we +could get a spark from it by touching a piece of iron to it, and one of +the most curious phenomena is that if you turn the wire around on itself +and let the point of the wire touch any other portion of itself you +get a spark. By connecting X to the gas-pipe we drew sparks from the +gas-pipes in any part of the room by drawing an iron wire over the brass +jet of the cock. This is simply wonderful, and a good proof that the +cause of the spark is a TRUE UNKNOWN FORCE." + +"November 23, 1815. New Force.--The following very curious result was +obtained with it. The vibrator shown in Fig. 1 and battery were placed +on insulated stands; and a wire connected to X (tried both copper and +iron) carried over to the stove about twenty feet distant. When the end +of the wire was rubbed on the stove it gave out splendid sparks. When +permanently connected to the stove, sparks could be drawn from the stove +by a piece of wire held in the hand. The point X of vibrator was now +connected to the gas-pipe and still the sparks could be drawn from the +stove." + +. . . . . . . . . + + +"Put a coil of wire over the end of rod X and passed the ends of spool +through galvanometer without affecting it in any way. Tried a 6-ohm +spool add a 200-ohm. We now tried all the metals, touching each one in +turn to the point X." [Here follows a list of metals and the character +of spark obtained with each.] + +. . . . . . . . . + + +"By increasing the battery from eight to twelve cells we get a spark +when the vibrating magnet is shunted with 3 ohms. Cannot taste the least +shock at B, yet between carbon points the spark is very vivid. As will +be seen, X has no connection with anything. With a glass rod four feet +long, well rubbed with a piece of silk over a hot stove, with a piece +of battery carbon secured to one end, we received vivid sparks into the +carbon when the other end was held in the hand with the handkerchief, +yet the galvanometer, chemical paper, the sense of shock in the tongue, +and a gold-leaf electroscope which would diverge at two feet from a +half-inch spark plate-glass machine were not affected in the least by +it. + +"A piece of coal held to the wire showed faint sparks. + +"We had a box made thus: whereby two points could be brought together +within a dark box provided with an eyepiece. The points were iron, and +we found the sparks were very irregular. After testing some time two +lead-pencils found more regular and very much more vivid. We then +substituted the graphite points instead of iron." [26] + + + [Footnote 26: The dark box had micrometer screws for + delicate adjustment of the carbon points, and was thereafter + largely used in this series of investigations for better + study of the spark. When Mr. Edison's experiments were + repeated by Mr. Batchelor, who represented him at the Paris + Exposition of 1881, the dark box was employed for a similar + purpose.] + + +. . . . . . . . . + + +After recording a considerable number of other experiments, the +laboratory notes go on to state: + + +"November 30, 1875. Etheric Force.--We found the addition of battery to +the Stubb's wire vibrator greatly increased the volume of spark. Several +persons could obtain sparks from the gas-pipes at once, each spark being +equal in volume and brilliancy to the spark drawn by a single person.... +Edison now grasped the (gas) pipe, and with the other hand holding a +piece of metal, he touched several other metallic substances, obtained +sparks, showing that the force passed through his body." + +. . . . . . . . . + + +"December 3, 1875. Etheric Force.--Charley Edison hung to the gas-pipe +with feet above the floor, and with a knife got a spark from the pipe he +was hanging on. We now took the wire from the vibrator in one hand +and stood on a block of paraffin eighteen inches square and six inches +thick; holding a knife in the other hand, we drew sparks from the +stove-pipe. We now tried the crucial test of passing the etheric current +through the sciatic nerve of a frog just killed. Previous to trying, we +tested its sensibility by the current from a single Bunsen cell. We +put in resistance up to 500,000 ohms, and the twitching was still +perceptible. We tried the induced current from our induction coil having +one cell on primary,, the spark jumping about one-fiftieth of an inch, +the terminal of the secondary connected to the frog and it straightened +out with violence. We arranged frog's legs to pass etheric force +through. We placed legs on an inverted beaker, and held the two ends +of the wires on glass rods eight inches long. On connecting one to the +sciatic nerve and the other to the fleshy part of the leg no movement +could be discerned, although brilliant sparks could be obtained on the +graphite points when the frog was in circuit. Doctor Beard was present +when this was tried." + +. . . . . . . . . + + +"December 5, 1875. Etheric Force.--Three persons grasping hands and +standing upon blocks of paraffin twelve inches square and six thick drew +sparks from the adjoining stove when another person touched the sounder +with any piece of metal.... A galvanoscopic frog giving contractions +with one cell through two water rheostats was then placed in circuit. +When the wires from the vibrator and the gas-pipe were connected, slight +contractions were noted, sometimes very plain and marked, showing the +apparent presence of electricity, which from the high insulation seemed +improbable. Doctor Beard, who was present, inferred from the way the +leg contracted that it moved on both opening and closing the circuit. +To test this we disconnected the wire between the frog and battery, and +placed, instead of a vibrating sounder, a simple Morse key and a sounder +taking the 'etheric' from armature. The spark was now tested in dark box +and found to be very strong. It was then connected to the nerves of the +frog, BUT NO MOVEMENT OF ANY KIND COULD BE DETECTED UPON WORKING THE +KEY, although the brilliancy and power of the spark were undiminished. +The thought then occurred to Edison that the movement of the frog was +due to mechanical vibrations from the vibrator (which gives probably two +hundred and fifty vibrations per second), passing through the wires +and irritating the sensitive nerves of the frog. Upon disconnecting +the battery wires and holding a tuning-fork giving three hundred +and twenty-six vibrations per second to the base of the sounder, the +vibrations over the wire made the frog contract nearly every time.... +The contraction of the frog's legs may with considerable safety be said +to be caused by these mechanical vibrations being transmitted through +the conducting wires." + +Edison thought that the longitudinal vibrations caused by the sounder +produced a more marked effect, and proceeded to try out his theory. The +very next entry in the laboratory note-book bears the same date as the +above (December 5, 1875), and is entitled "Longitudinal Vibrations," and +reads as follows: + + +"We took a long iron wire one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter and +rubbed it lengthways with a piece of leather with resin on for about +three feet, backward and forward. About ten feet away we applied the +wire to the back of the neck and it gives a horrible sensation, showing +the vibrations conducted through the wire." + +. . . . . . . . . + +The following experiment illustrates notably the movement of the +electric waves through free space: + + +"December 26, 1875. Etheric Force.--An experiment tried to-night gives a +curious result. A is a vibrator, B, C, D, E are sheets of tin-foil hung +on insulating stands. The sheets are about twelve by eight inches. B and +C are twenty-six inches apart, C and D forty-eight inches and D and E +twenty-six inches. B is connected to the vibrator and E to point in +dark box, the other point to ground. We received sparks at intervals, +although insulated by such space." + + +With the above our extracts must close, although we have given but a few +of the interesting experiments tried at the time. It will be noticed, +however, that these records show much progression in a little over a +month. Just after the item last above extracted, the Edison shop became +greatly rushed on telegraphic inventions, and not many months afterward +came the removal to Menlo Park; hence the etheric-force investigations +were side-tracked for other matters deemed to be more important at that +time. + +Doctor Beard in his previously mentioned treatise refers, on page 27, to +the views of others who have repeated Edison's experiments and observed +the phenomena, and in a foot-note says: + + +"Professor Houston, of Philadelphia, among others, has repeated some of +these physical experiments, has adopted in full and after but a partial +study of the subject, the hypothesis of rapidly reversed electricity +as suggested in my letter to the Tribune of December 8th, and further +claims priority of discovery, because he observed the spark of this when +experimenting with a Ruhmkorff coil four years ago. To this claim, if +it be seriously entertained, the obvious reply is that thousands of +persons, probably, had seen this spark before it was DISCOVERED by Mr. +Edison; it had been seen by Professor Nipher, who supposed, and still +supposes, it is the spark of the extra current; it has been seen by +my friend, Prof. J. E. Smith, who assumed, as he tells me, without +examination, that it was inductive electricity breaking through bad +insulation; it had been seen, as has been stated, by Mr. Edison many +times before he thought it worthy of study, it was undoubtedly seen by +Professor Houston, who, like so many others, failed to even suspect +its meaning and thus missed an important discovery. The honor of a +scientific discovery belongs, not to him who first sees a thing, but +to him who first sees it with expert eyes; not to him even who drops +an original suggestion, but to him who first makes, that suggestion +fruitful of results. If to see with the eyes a phenomenon is to discover +the law of which that phenomenon is a part, then every schoolboy who, +before the time of Newton, ever saw an apple fall, was a discoverer of +the law of gravitation...." + + +Edison took out only one patent on long-distance telegraphy without +wires. While the principle involved therein (induction) was not +precisely analogous to the above, or to the present system of wireless +telegraphy, it was a step forward in the progress of the art. The +application was filed May 23, 1885, at the time he was working on +induction telegraphy (two years before the publication of the work of +Hertz), but the patent (No. 465,971) was not issued until December +29, 1891. In 1903 it was purchased from him by the Marconi Wireless +Telegraph Company. Edison has always had a great admiration for Marconi +and his work, and a warm friendship exists between the two men. During +the formative period of the Marconi Company attempts were made to +influence Edison to sell this patent to an opposing concern, but his +regard for Marconi and belief in the fundamental nature of his work were +so strong that he refused flatly, because in the hands of an enemy the +patent might be used inimically to Marconi's interests. + +Edison's ideas, as expressed in the specifications of this patent, show +very clearly the close analogy of his system to that now in vogue. +As they were filed in the Patent Office several years before the +possibility of wireless telegraphy was suspected, it will undoubtedly be +of interest to give the following extract therefrom: + + +"I have discovered that if sufficient elevation be obtained to overcome +the curvature of the earth's surface and to reduce to the minimum the +earth's absorption, electric telegraphing or signalling between +distant points can be carried on by induction without the use of wires +connecting such distant points. This discovery is especially applicable +to telegraphing across bodies of water, thus avoiding the use of +submarine cables, or for communicating between vessels at sea, or +between vessels at sea and points on land, but it is also applicable +to electric communication between distant points on land, it being +necessary, however, on land (with the exception of communication over +open prairie) to increase the elevation in order to reduce to the +minimum the induction-absorbing effect of houses, trees, and elevations +in the land itself. At sea from an elevation of one hundred feet I can +communicate electrically a great distance, and since this elevation +or one sufficiently high can be had by utilizing the masts of ships, +signals can be sent and received between ships separated a considerable +distance, and by repeating the signals from ship to ship communication +can be established between points at any distance apart or across the +largest seas and even oceans. The collision of ships in fogs can be +prevented by this character of signalling, by the use of which, also, +the safety of a ship in approaching a dangerous coast in foggy weather +can be assured. In communicating between points on land, poles of great +height can be used, or captive balloons. At these elevated points, +whether upon the masts of ships, upon poles or balloons, condensing +surfaces of metal or other conductor of electricity are located. Each +condensing surface is connected with earth by an electrical conducting +wire. On land this earth connection would be one of usual character in +telegraphy. At sea the wire would run to one or more metal plates on the +bottom of the vessel, where the earth connection would be made with the +water. The high-resistance secondary circuit of an induction coil is +located in circuit between the condensing surface and the ground. The +primary circuit of the induction coil includes a battery and a device +for transmitting signals, which may be a revolving circuit-breaker +operated continually by a motor of any suitable kind, either electrical +or mechanical, and a key normally short-circuiting the circuit-breaker +or secondary coil. For receiving signals I locate in said circuit +between the condensing surface and the ground a diaphragm sounder, which +is preferably one of my electromotograph telephone receivers. The key +normally short-circuiting the revolving circuit-breaker, no impulses are +produced in the induction coil until the key is depressed, when a large +number of impulses are produced in the primary, and by means of the +secondary corresponding impulses or variations in tension are produced +at the elevated condensing surface, producing thereat electrostatic +impulses. These electrostatic impulses are transmitted inductively +to the elevated condensing surface at the distant point, and are made +audible by the electromotograph connected in the ground circuit with +such distant condensing surface." + + +The accompanying illustrations are reduced facsimiles of the drawings +attached to the above patent, No. 465,971. + + + + +V. THE ELECTROMOTOGRAPH + +IN solving a problem that at the time was thought to be insurmountable, +and in the adaptability of its principles to the successful overcoming +of apparently insuperable difficulties subsequently arising in other +lines of work, this invention is one of the most remarkable of the many +that Edison has made in his long career as an inventor. + +The object primarily sought to be accomplished was the repeating of +telegraphic signals from a distance without the aid of a galvanometer +or an electromagnetic relay, to overcome the claims of the Page patent +referred to in the preceding narrative. This object was achieved in the +device described in Edison's basic patent No. 158,787, issued January +19, 1875, by the substitution of friction and anti-friction for the +presence and absence of magnetism in a regulation relay. + +It may be observed, parenthetically, for the benefit of the lay +reader, that in telegraphy the device known as the relay is a receiving +instrument containing an electromagnet adapted to respond to the weak +line-current. Its armature moves in accordance with electrical impulses, +or signals, transmitted from a distance, and, in so responding, operates +mechanically to alternately close and open a separate local circuit +in which there is a sounder and a powerful battery. When used for true +relaying purposes the signals received from a distance are in turn +repeated over the next section of the line, the powerful local battery +furnishing current for this purpose. As this causes a loud repetition +of the original signals, it will be seen that relaying is an economic +method of extending a telegraph circuit beyond the natural limits of its +battery power. + +At the time of Edison's invention, as related in Chapter IX of the +preceding narrative, there existed no other known method than the one +just described for the repetition of transmitted signals, thus limiting +the application of telegraphy to the pleasure of those who might own any +patent controlling the relay, except on simple circuits where a single +battery was sufficient. Edison's previous discovery of differential +friction of surfaces through electrochemical decomposition was now +adapted by him to produce motion at the end of a circuit without +the intervention of an electromagnet. In other words, he invented a +telegraph instrument having a vibrator controlled by electrochemical +decomposition, to take the place of a vibrating armature operated by an +electromagnet, and thus opened an entirely new and unsuspected avenue in +the art. + +Edison's electromotograph comprised an ingeniously arranged apparatus in +which two surfaces, normally in contact with each other, were caused +to alternately adhere by friction or slip by reason of electrochemical +decomposition. One of these surfaces consisted of a small drum or +cylinder of chalk, which was kept in a moistened condition with a +suitable chemical solution, and adapted to revolve continuously by +clockwork. The other surface consisted of a small pad which rested with +frictional pressure on the periphery of the drum. This pad was carried +on the end of a vibrating arm whose lateral movement was limited between +two adjustable points. Normally, the frictional pressure between the +drum and pad would carry the latter with the former as it revolved, but +if the friction were removed a spring on the end of the vibrator arm +would draw it back to its starting-place. + +In practice, the chalk drum was electrically connected with one pole of +an incoming telegraph circuit, and the vibrating arm and pad with the +other pole. When the drum rotated, the friction of the pad carried the +vibrating arm forward, but an electrical impulse coming over the line +would decompose the chemical solution with which the drum was moistened, +causing an effect similar to lubrication, and thus allowing the pad to +slip backward freely in response to the pull of its retractile spring. +The frictional movements of the pad with the drum were comparatively +long or short, and corresponded with the length of the impulses sent in +over the line. Thus, the transmission of Morse dots and dashes by the +distant operator resulted in movements of corresponding length by the +frictional pad and vibrating arm. + +This brings us to the gist of the ingenious way in which Edison +substituted the action of electrochemical decomposition for that of the +electromagnet to operate a relay. The actual relaying was accomplished +through the medium of two contacts making connection with the local +or relay circuit. One of these contacts was fixed, while the other was +carried by the vibrating arm; and, as the latter made its forward and +backward movements, these contacts were alternately brought together or +separated, thus throwing in and out of circuit the battery and sounder +in the local circuit and causing a repetition of the incoming signals. +The other side of the local circuit was permanently connected to an +insulated block on the vibrator. This device not only worked with great +rapidity, but was extremely sensitive, and would respond to currents +too weak to affect the most delicate electromagnetic relay. It should +be stated that Edison did not confine himself to the working of the +electromotograph by the slipping of surfaces through the action of +incoming current, but by varying the character of the surfaces in +contact the frictional effect might be intensified by the electrical +current. In such a case the movements would be the reverse of +those above indicated, but the end sought--namely, the relaying of +messages--would be attained with the same certainty. + +While the principal object of this invention was to accomplish the +repetition of signals without the aid of an electromagnetic relay, the +instrument devised by Edison was capable of use as a recorder also, by +employing a small wheel inked by a fountain wheel and attached to the +vibrating arm through suitable mechanism. By means of this adjunct the +dashes and dots of the transmitted impulses could be recorded upon a +paper ribbon passing continuously over the drum. + +The electromotograph is shown diagrammatically in Figs. 1 and 2, in plan +and vertical section respectively. The reference letters in each case +indicate identical parts: A being the chalk drum, B the paper tape, C +the auxiliary cylinder, D the vibrating arm, E the frictional pad, F the +spring, G and H the two contacts, I and J the two wires leading to local +circuit, K a battery, and L an ordinary telegraph key. The two last +named, K and L, are shown to make the sketch complete but in practice +would be at the transmitting end, which might be hundreds of miles +away. It will be understood, of course, that the electromotograph is a +receiving and relaying instrument. + +Another notable use of the electromotograph principle was in its +adaptation to the receiver in Edison's loud-speaking telephone, on which +United States Patent No. 221,957 was issued November 25, 1879. A chalk +cylinder moistened with a chemical solution was revolved by hand or +a small motor. Resting on the cylinder was a palladium-faced pen or +spring, which was attached to a mica diaphragm in a resonator. The +current passed from the main line through the pen to the chalk and to +the battery. The sound-waves impinging upon the distant transmitter +varied the resistance of the carbon button therein, thus causing +corresponding variations in the strength of the battery current. These +variations, passing through the chalk cylinder produced more or less +electrochemical decomposition, which in turn caused differences of +adhesion between the pen and cylinder and hence gave rise to mechanical +vibrations of the diaphragm by reason of which the speaker's words were +reproduced. Telephones so operated repeated speaking and singing in +very loud tones. In one instance, spoken words and the singing of songs +originating at a distance were heard perfectly by an audience of over +five thousand people. + +The loud-speaking telephone is shown in section, diagrammatically, +in the sketch (Fig. 3), in which A is the chalk cylinder mounted on +a shaft, B. The palladium-faced pen or spring, C, is connected to +diaphragm D. The instrument in its commercial form is shown in Fig. 4. + + + + +VI. THE TELEPHONE + +ON April 27, 1877, Edison filed in the United States Patent Office an +application for a patent on a telephone, and on May 3, 1892, more +than fifteen years afterward, Patent No. 474,230 was granted thereon. +Numerous other patents have been issued to him for improvements in +telephones, but the one above specified may be considered as the +most important of them, since it is the one that first discloses the +principle of the carbon transmitter. + +This patent embodies but two claims, which are as follows: + + +"1. In a speaking-telegraph transmitter, the combination of a metallic +diaphragm and disk of plumbago or equivalent material, the contiguous +faces of said disk and diaphragm being in contact, substantially as +described. + +"2. As a means for effecting a varying surface contact in the circuit of +a speaking-telegraph transmitter, the combination of two electrodes, +one of plumbago or similar material, and both having broad surfaces in +vibratory contact with each other, substantially as described." + + +The advance that was brought about by Edison's carbon transmitter will +be more apparent if we glance first at the state of the art of telephony +prior to his invention. + +Bell was undoubtedly the first inventor of the art of transmitting +speech over an electric circuit, but, with his particular form of +telephone, the field was circumscribed. Bell's telephone is shown in the +diagrammatic sectional sketch (Fig. 1). + +In the drawing M is a bar magnet contained in the rubber case, L. A +bobbin, or coil of wire, B, surrounds one end of the magnet. A diaphragm +of soft iron is shown at D, and E is the mouthpiece. The wire terminals +of the coil, B, connect with the binding screws, C C. + +The next illustration shows a pair of such telephones connected for use, +the working parts only being designated by the above reference letters. + +It will be noted that the wire terminals are here put to their proper +uses, two being joined together to form a line of communication, and the +other two being respectively connected to "ground." + +Now, if we imagine a person at each one of the instruments (Fig. 2) we +shall find that when one of them speaks the sound vibrations impinge +upon the diaphragm and cause it to act as a vibrating armature. By +reason of its vibrations, this diaphragm induces very weak electric +impulses in the magnetic coil. These impulses, according to Bell's +theory, correspond in form to the sound-waves, and, passing over the +line, energize the magnet coil at the receiving end, thus giving rise to +corresponding variations in magnetism by reason of which the receiving +diaphragm is similarly vibrated so as to reproduce the sounds. A single +apparatus at each end is therefore sufficient, performing the double +function of transmitter and receiver. It will be noticed that in this +arrangement no battery is used The strength of the impulses transmitted +is therefore limited to that of the necessarily weak induction currents +generated by the original sounds minus any loss arising by reason of +resistance in the line. + +Edison's carbon transmitter overcame this vital or limiting weakness +by providing for independent power on the transmission circuit, and by +introducing the principle of varying the resistance of that circuit with +changes in the pressure. With Edison's telephone there is used a closed +circuit on which a battery current constantly flows, and in that +circuit is a pair of electrodes, one or both of which is carbon. These +electrodes are always in contact with a certain initial pressure, +so that current will be always flowing over the circuit. One of the +electrodes is connected with the diaphragm on which the sound-waves +impinge, and the vibrations of this diaphragm cause corresponding +variations in pressure between the electrodes, and thereby effect +similar variations in the current which is passing over the line to the +receiving end. This current, flowing around the receiving magnet, causes +corresponding impulses therein, which, acting upon its diaphragm, effect +a reproduction of the original vibrations and hence of the original +sounds. + +In other words, the essential difference is that with Bell's telephone +the sound-waves themselves generate the electric impulses, which are +therefore extremely faint. With Edison's telephone the sound-waves +simply actuate an electric valve, so to speak, and permit variations in +a current of any desired strength. + +A second distinction between the two telephones is this: With the Bell +apparatus the very weak electric impulses generated by the vibration of +the transmitting diaphragm pass over the entire line to the receiving +end, and, in consequence, the possible length of line is limited to +a few miles, even under ideal conditions. With Edison's telephone the +battery current does not flow on the main line, but passes through +the primary circuit of an induction-coil, from the secondary of which +corresponding impulses of enormously higher potential are sent out on +the main line to the receiving end. In consequence, the line may be +hundreds of miles in length. No modern telephone system is in use to-day +that does not use these characteristic features: the varying resistance +and the induction-coil. The system inaugurated by Edison is shown by the +diagram (Fig. 3), in which the carbon transmitter, the induction-coil, +the line, and the distant receiver are respectively indicated. + +In Fig. 4 an early form of the Edison carbon transmitter is represented +in sectional view. + +The carbon disk is represented by the black portion, E, near the +diaphragm, A, placed between two platinum plates D and G, which are +connected in the battery circuit, as shown by the lines. A small +piece of rubber tubing, B, is attached to the centre of the metallic +diaphragm, and presses lightly against an ivory piece, F, which is +placed directly over one of the platinum plates. Whenever, therefore, +any motion is given to the diaphragm, it is immediately followed by a +corresponding pressure upon the carbon, and by a change of resistance in +the latter, as described above. + +It is interesting to note the position which Edison occupies in +the telephone art from a legal standpoint. To this end the reader's +attention is called to a few extracts from a decision of Judge Brown +in two suits brought in the United States Circuit Court, District +of Massachusetts, by the American Bell Telephone Company against the +National Telephone Manufacturing Company, et al., and Century Telephone +Company, et al., reported in Federal Reporter, 109, page 976, et seq. +These suits were brought on the Berliner patent, which, it was claimed, +covered broadly the electrical transmission of speech by variations of +pressure between opposing electrodes in constant contact. The Berliner +patent was declared invalid, and in the course of a long and exhaustive +opinion, in which the state of art and the work of Bell, Edison, +Berliner, and others was fully discussed, the learned Judge made the +following remarks: "The carbon electrode was the invention of Edison.... +Edison preceded Berliner in the transmission of speech.... The carbon +transmitter was an experimental invention of a very high order of +merit.... Edison, by countless experiments, succeeded in advancing the +art. . . . That Edison did produce speech with solid electrodes before +Berliner is clearly proven.... The use of carbon in a transmitter is, +beyond controversy, the invention of Edison. Edison was the first to +make apparatus in which carbon was used as one of the electrodes.... +The carbon transmitter displaced Bell's magnetic transmitter, and, +under several forms of construction, remains the only commercial +instrument.... The advance in the art was due to the carbon electrode of +Edison.... It is conceded that the Edison transmitter as apparatus is a +very important invention.... An immense amount of painstaking and highly +ingenious experiment preceded Edison's successful result. The discovery +of the availability of carbon was unquestionably invention, and it +resulted in the 'first practical success in the art.'" + + + + +VII. EDISON'S TASIMETER + +THIS interesting and remarkable device is one of Edison's many +inventions not generally known to the public at large, chiefly because +the range of its application has been limited to the higher branches of +science. He never applied for a patent on the instrument, but dedicated +it to the public. + +The device was primarily intended for use in detecting and measuring +infinitesimal degrees of temperature, however remote, and its conception +followed Edison's researches on the carbon telephone transmitter. Its +principle depends upon the variable resistance of carbon in accordance +with the degree of pressure to which it is subjected. By means of +this instrument, pressures that are otherwise inappreciable and +undiscoverable may be observed and indicated. + +The detection of small variations of temperatures is brought about +through the changes which heat or cold will produce in a sensitive +material placed in contact with a carbon button, which is put in circuit +with a battery and delicate galvanometer. In the sketch (Fig. 1) there +is illustrated, partly in section, the form of tasimeter which Edison +took with him to Rawlins, Wyoming, in July, 1878, on the expedition to +observe the total eclipse of the sun. + +The substance on whose expansion the working of the instrument depends +is a strip of some material extremely sensitive to heat, such as +vulcanite. shown at A, and firmly clamped at B. Its lower end fits into +a slot in a metal plate, C, which in turn rests upon a carbon button. +This latter and the metal plate are connected in an electric circuit +which includes a battery and a sensitive galvanometer. A vulcanite or +other strip is easily affected by differences of temperature, +expanding and contracting by reason of the minutest changes. Thus, an +infinitesimal variation in its length through expansion or contraction +changes the pressure on the carbon and affects the resistance of the +circuit to a corresponding degree, thereby causing a deflection of +the galvanometer; a movement of the needle in one direction denoting +expansion, and in the other contraction. The strip, A, is first put +under a slight pressure, deflecting the needle a few degrees from zero. +Any subsequent expansion or contraction of the strip may readily +be noted by further movements of the needle. In practice, and for +measurements of a very delicate nature, the tasimeter is inserted in one +arm of a Wheatstone bridge, as shown at A in the diagram (Fig. 2). The +galvanometer is shown at B in the bridge wire, and at C, D, and E there +are shown the resistances in the other arms of the bridge, which are +adjusted to equal the resistance of the tasimeter circuit. The battery +is shown at F. This arrangement tends to obviate any misleading +deflections that might arise through changes in the battery. + +The dial on the front of the instrument is intended to indicate the +exact amount of physical expansion or contraction of the strip. This is +ascertained by means of a micrometer screw, S, which moves a needle, T, +in front of the dial. This screw engages with a second and similar screw +which is so arranged as to move the strip of vulcanite up or down. After +a galvanometer deflection has been obtained through the expansion or +contraction of the strip by reason of a change of temperature, a similar +deflection is obtained mechanically by turning the screw, S, one way or +the other. This causes the vulcanite strip to press more or less +upon the carbon button, and thus produces the desired change in the +resistance of the circuit. When the galvanometer shows the desired +deflection, the needle, T, will indicate upon the dial, in decimal +fractions of an inch, the exact distance through which the strip has +been moved. + +With such an instrument as the above, Edison demonstrated the existence +of heat in the corona at the above-mentioned total eclipse of the sun, +but exact determinations could not be made at that time, because the +tasimeter adjustment was too delicate, and at the best the galvanometer +deflections were so marked that they could not be kept within the +limits of the scale. The sensitiveness of the instrument may be easily +comprehended when it is stated that the heat of the hand thirty feet +away from the cone-like funnel of the tasimeter will so affect the +galvanometer as to cause the spot of light to leave the scale. + +This instrument can also be used to indicate minute changes of +moisture in the air by substituting a strip of gelatine in place of the +vulcanite. When so arranged a moistened piece of paper held several feet +away will cause a minute expansion of the gelatine strip, which +effects a pressure on the carbon, and causes a variation in the circuit +sufficient to throw the spot of light from the galvanometer mirror off +the scale. + +The tasimeter has been used to demonstrate heat from remote stars +(suns), such as Arcturus. + + + + +VIII. THE EDISON PHONOGRAPH + +THE first patent that was ever granted on a device for permanently +recording the human voice and other sounds, and for reproducing the same +audibly at any future time, was United States Patent No. 200,251, issued +to Thomas A. Edison on February 19, 1878, the application having +been filed December 24, 1877. It is worthy of note that no references +whatever were cited against the application while under examination in +the Patent Office. This invention therefore, marked the very beginning +of an entirely new art, which, with the new industries attendant upon +its development, has since grown to occupy a position of worldwide +reputation. + +That the invention was of a truly fundamental character is also evident +from the fact that although all "talking-machines" of to-day differ very +widely in refinement from the first crude but successful phonograph of +Edison, their performance is absolutely dependent upon the employment of +the principles stated by him in his Patent No. 200,251. Quoting from the +specification attached to this patent, we find that Edison said: + +"The invention consists in arranging a plate, diaphragm or other +flexible body capable of being vibrated by the human voice or other +sounds, in conjunction with a material capable of registering the +movements of such vibrating body by embossing or indenting or altering +such material, in such a manner that such register marks will be +sufficient to cause a second vibrating plate or body to be set in motion +by them, and thus reproduce the motions of the first vibrating body." + +It will be at once obvious that these words describe perfectly the +basic principle of every modern phonograph or other talking-machine, +irrespective of its manufacture or trade name. + +Edison's first model of the phonograph is shown in the following +illustration. + +It consisted of a metallic cylinder having a helical indenting groove +cut upon it from end to end. This cylinder was mounted on a shaft +supported on two standards. This shaft at one end was fitted with a +handle, by means of which the cylinder was rotated. There were two +diaphragms, one on each side of the cylinder, one being for recording +and the other for reproducing speech or other sounds. Each diaphragm +had attached to it a needle. By means of the needle attached to the +recording diaphragm, indentations were made in a sheet of tin-foil +stretched over the peripheral surface of the cylinder when the diaphragm +was vibrated by reason of speech or other sounds. The needle on +the other diaphragm subsequently followed these indentations, thus +reproducing the original sounds. + +Crude as this first model appears in comparison with machines of later +development and refinement, it embodied their fundamental essentials, +and was in fact a complete, practical phonograph from the first moment +of its operation. + +The next step toward the evolution of the improved phonograph of to-day +was another form of tin-foil machine, as seen in the illustration. + +It will be noted that this was merely an elaborated form of the first +model, and embodied several mechanical modifications, among which was +the employment of only one diaphragm for recording and reproducing. +Such was the general type of phonograph used for exhibition purposes +in America and other countries in the three or four years immediately +succeeding the date of this invention. + +In operating the machine the recording diaphragm was advanced nearly +to the cylinder, so that as the diaphragm was vibrated by the voice the +needle would prick or indent a wave-like record in the tin-foil that +was on the cylinder. The cylinder was constantly turned during the +recording, and in turning, was simultaneously moved forward. Thus the +record would be formed on the tin-foil in a continuous spiral line. +To reproduce this record it was only necessary to again start at the +beginning and cause the needle to retrace its path in the spiral line. +The needle, in passing rapidly in contact with the recorded waves, was +vibrated up and down, causing corresponding vibrations of the diaphragm. +In this way sound-waves similar to those caused by the original sounds +would be set up in the air, thus reproducing the original speech. + +The modern phonograph operates in a precisely similar way, the only +difference being in details of refinement. Instead of tin-foil, a wax +cylinder is employed, the record being cut thereon by a cutting-tool +attached to a diaphragm, while the reproduction is effected by means of +a blunt stylus similarly attached. + +The cutting-tool and stylus are devices made of sapphire, a gem next in +hardness to a diamond, and they have to be cut and formed to an exact +nicety by means of diamond dust, most of the work being performed under +high-powered microscopes. The minute proportions of these devices will +be apparent by a glance at the accompanying illustrations, in which the +object on the left represents a common pin, and the objects on the right +the cutting-tool and reproducing stylus, all actual sizes. + +In the next illustration (Fig. 4) there is shown in the upper sketch, +greatly magnified, the cutting or recording tool in the act of forming +the record, being vibrated rapidly by the diaphragm; and in the lower +sketch, similarly enlarged, a representation of the stylus travelling +over the record thus made, in the act of effecting a reproduction. + +From the late summer of 1878 and to the fall of 1887 Edison was +intensely busy on the electric light, electric railway, and other +problems, and virtually gave no attention to the phonograph. Hence, +just prior to the latter-named period the instrument was still in its +tin-foil age; but he then began to devote serious attention to the +development of an improved type that should be of greater commercial +importance. The practical results are too well known to call for further +comment. That his efforts were not limited in extent may be inferred +from the fact that since the fall of 1887 to the present writing he has +been granted in the United States one hundred and four patents relating +to the phonograph and its accessories. + +Interesting as the numerous inventions are, it would be a work of +supererogation to digest all these patents in the present pages, as they +represent not only the inception but also the gradual development and +growth of the wax-record type of phonograph from its infancy to the +present perfected machine and records now so widely known all over the +world. From among these many inventions, however, we will select two +or three as examples of ingenuity and importance in their bearing upon +present perfection of results. + +One of the difficulties of reproduction for many years was the trouble +experienced in keeping the stylus in perfect engagement with the +wave-like record, so that every minute vibration would be reproduced. It +should be remembered that the deepest cut of the recording tool is only +about one-third the thickness of tissue-paper. Hence, it will be quite +apparent that the slightest inequality in the surface of the wax would +be sufficient to cause false vibration, and thus give rise to distorted +effects in such music or other sounds as were being reproduced. To +remedy this, Edison added an attachment which is called a "floating +weight," and is shown at A in the illustration above. + +The function of the floating weight is to automatically keep the +stylus in close engagement with the record, thus insuring accuracy of +reproduction. The weight presses the stylus to its work, but because +of its mass it cannot respond to the extremely rapid vibrations of the +stylus. They are therefore communicated to the diaphragm. + +Some of Edison's most remarkable inventions are revealed in a number of +interesting patents relating to the duplication of phonograph records. +It would be obviously impossible, from a commercial standpoint, to +obtain a musical record from a high-class artist and sell such an +original to the public, as its cost might be from one hundred to several +thousand dollars. Consequently, it is necessary to provide some way by +which duplicates may be made cheaply enough to permit their purchase by +the public at a reasonable price. + +The making of a perfect original musical or other record is a matter +of no small difficulty, as it requires special technical knowledge and +skill gathered from many years of actual experience; but in the exact +copying, or duplication, of such a record, with its many millions +of microscopic waves and sub-waves, the difficulties are enormously +increased. The duplicates must be microscopically identical with the +original, they must be free from false vibrations or other defects, +although both original and duplicates are of such easily defacable +material as wax; and the process must be cheap and commercial not a +scientific laboratory possibility. + +For making duplicates it was obviously necessary to first secure a mold +carrying the record in negative or reversed form. From this could be +molded, or cast, positive copies which would be identical with the +original. While the art of electroplating would naturally suggest +itself as the means of making such a mold, an apparently insurmountable +obstacle appeared on the very threshold. Wax, being a non-conductor, +cannot be electroplated unless a conducting surface be first applied. +The coatings ordinarily used in electro-deposition were entirely out of +the question on account of coarseness, the deepest waves of the record +being less than one-thousandth of an inch in depth, and many of them +probably ten to one hundred times as shallow. Edison finally decided +to apply a preliminary metallic coating of infinitesimal thinness, and +accomplished this object by a remarkable process known as the vacuous +deposit. With this he applied to the original record a film of gold +probably no thicker than one three-hundred-thousandth of an inch, or +several hundred times less than the depth of an average wave. Three +hundred such layers placed one on top of the other would make a sheet no +thicker than tissue-paper. + +The process consists in placing in a vacuum two leaves, or electrodes, +of gold, and between them the original record. A constant discharge of +electricity of high tension between the electrodes is effected by means +of an induction-coil. The metal is vaporized by this discharge, and is +carried by it directly toward and deposited upon the original record, +thus forming the minute film of gold above mentioned. The record is +constantly rotated until its entire surface is coated. A sectional +diagram of the apparatus (Fig. 6.) will aid to a clearer understanding +of this ingenious process. + +After the gold film is formed in the manner described above, a heavy +backing of baser metal is electroplated upon it, thus forming a +substantial mold, from which the original record is extracted by +breakage or shrinkage. + +Duplicate records in any quantity may now be made from this mold by +surrounding it with a cold-water jacket and dipping it in a molten +wax-like material. This congeals on the record surface just as melted +butter would collect on a cold knife, and when the mold is removed the +surplus wax falls out, leaving a heavy deposit of the material which +forms the duplicate record. Numerous ingenious inventions have been made +by Edison providing for a variety of rapid and economical methods +of duplication, including methods of shrinking a newly made copy to +facilitate its quick removal from the mold; methods of reaming, of +forming ribs on the interior, and for many other important and essential +details, which limits of space will not permit of elaboration. Those +mentioned above are but fair examples of the persistent and effective +work he has done to bring the phonograph to its present state of +perfection. + +In perusing Chapter X of the foregoing narrative, the reader undoubtedly +noted Edison's clear apprehension of the practical uses of the +phonograph, as evidenced by his prophetic utterances in the article +written by him for the North American Review in June, 1878. In view of +the crudity of the instrument at that time, it must be acknowledged that +Edison's foresight, as vindicated by later events was most remarkable. +No less remarkable was his intensely practical grasp of mechanical +possibilities of future types of the machine, for we find in one of his +early English patents (No. 1644 of 1878) the disk form of phonograph +which, some ten to fifteen years later, was supposed to be a new +development in the art. This disk form was also covered by Edison's +application for a United States patent, filed in 1879. This application +met with some merely minor technical objections in the Patent Office, +and seems to have passed into the "abandoned" class for want of +prosecution, probably because of being overlooked in the tremendous +pressure arising from his development of his electric-lighting system. + + + + +IX. THE INCANDESCENT LAMP + + +ALTHOUGH Edison's contributions to human comfort and progress are +extensive in number and extraordinarily vast and comprehensive in +scope and variety, the universal verdict of the world points to his +incandescent lamp and system of distribution of electrical current as +the central and crowning achievements of his life up to this time. This +view would seem entirely justifiable when we consider the wonderful +changes in the conditions of modern life that have been brought about +by the wide-spread employment of these inventions, and the gigantic +industries that have grown up and been nourished by their world-wide +application. That he was in this instance a true pioneer and creator +is evident as we consider the subject, for the United States Patent No. +223,898, issued to Edison on January 27, 1880, for an incandescent lamp, +was of such fundamental character that it opened up an entirely new and +tremendously important art--the art of incandescent electric lighting. +This statement cannot be successfully controverted, for it has been +abundantly verified after many years of costly litigation. If further +proof were desired, it is only necessary to point to the fact that, +after thirty years of most strenuous and practical application in the +art by the keenest intellects of the world, every incandescent lamp +that has ever since been made, including those of modern days, is +still dependent upon the employment of the essentials disclosed in the +above-named patent--namely, a filament of high resistance enclosed in +a sealed glass globe exhausted of air, with conducting wires passing +through the glass. + +An incandescent lamp is such a simple-appearing article--merely a +filament sealed into a glass globe--that its intrinsic relation to the +art of electric lighting is far from being apparent at sight. To the lay +mind it would seem that this must have been THE obvious device to make +in order to obtain electric light by incandescence of carbon or +other material. But the reader has already learned from the preceding +narrative that prior to its invention by Edison such a device was NOT +obvious, even to the most highly trained experts of the world at that +period; indeed, it was so far from being obvious that, for some time +after he had completed practical lamps and was actually lighting them up +twenty-four hours a day, such a device and such a result were declared +by these same experts to be an utter impossibility. For a short while +the world outside of Menlo Park held Edison's claims in derision. +His lamp was pronounced a fake, a myth, possibly a momentary success +magnified to the dignity of a permanent device by an overenthusiastic +inventor. + +Such criticism, however, did not disturb Edison. He KNEW that he had +reached the goal. Long ago, by a close process of reasoning, he had +clearly seen that the only road to it was through the path he had +travelled, and which was now embodied in the philosophy of his +incandescent lamp--namely, a filament, or carbon, of high resistance and +small radiating surface, sealed into a glass globe exhausted of air to a +high degree of vacuum. In originally committing himself to this line +of investigation he was well aware that he was going in a direction +diametrically opposite to that followed by previous investigators. Their +efforts had been confined to low-resistance burners of large radiating +surface for their lamps, but he realized the utter futility of such +devices. The tremendous problems of heat and the prohibitive quantities +of copper that would be required for conductors for such lamps would be +absolutely out of the question in commercial practice. + +He was convinced from the first that the true solution of the +problem lay in a lamp which should have as its illuminating body +a strip of material which would offer such a resistance to +the flow of electric current that it could be raised to a high +temperature--incandescence--and be of such small cross-section that it +would radiate but little heat. At the same time such a lamp must require +a relatively small amount of current, in order that comparatively small +conductors could be used, and its burner must be capable of withstanding +the necessarily high temperatures without disintegration. + +It is interesting to note that these conceptions were in Edison's mind +at an early period of his investigations, when the best expert opinion +was that the subdivision of the electric current was an ignis fatuus. +Hence we quote the following notes he made, November 15, 1878, in one of +the laboratory note-books: + + +"A given straight wire having 1 ohm resistance and certain length is +brought to a given degree of temperature by given battery. If the same +wire be coiled in such a manner that but one-quarter of its surface +radiates, its temperature will be increased four times with the +same battery, or, one-quarter of this battery will bring it to the +temperature of straight wire. Or the same given battery will bring +a wire whose total resistance is 4 ohms to the same temperature as +straight wire. + +"This was actually determined by trial. + +"The amount of heat lost by a body is in proportion to the radiating +surface of that body. If one square inch of platina be heated to 100 +degrees it will fall to, say, zero in one second, whereas, if it was at +200 degrees it would require two seconds. + +"Hence, in the case of incandescent conductors, if the radiating surface +be twelve inches and the temperature on each inch be 100, or 1200 for +all, if it is so coiled or arranged that there is but one-quarter, or +three inches, of radiating surface, then the temperature on each inch +will be 400. If reduced to three-quarters of an inch it will have on +that three-quarters of an inch 1600 degrees Fahr., notwithstanding +the original total amount was but 1200, because the radiation has +been reduced to three-quarters, or 75 units; hence, the effect of the +lessening of the radiation is to raise the temperature of each remaining +inch not radiating to 125 degrees. If the radiating surface should be +reduced to three-thirty-seconds of an inch, the temperature would reach +6400 degrees Fahr. To carry out this law to the best advantage in regard +to platina, etc., then with a given length of wire to quadruple the heat +we must lessen the radiating surface to one-quarter, and to do this in a +spiral, three-quarters must be within the spiral and one-quarter outside +for radiating; hence, a square wire or other means, such as a spiral +within a spiral, must be used. These results account for the enormous +temperature of the Electric Arc with one horse-power; as, for instance, +if one horse-power will heat twelve inches of wire to 1000 degrees +Fahr., and this is concentrated to have one-quarter of the radiating +surface, it would reach a temperature of 4000 degrees or sufficient +to melt it; but, supposing it infusible, the further concentration to +one-eighth its surface, it would reach a temperature of 16,000 degrees, +and to one-thirty-second its surface, which would be about the radiating +surface of the Electric Arc, it would reach 64,000 degrees Fahr. Of +course, when Light is radiated in great quantities not quite these +temperatures would be reached. + +"Another curious law is this: It will require a greater initial battery +to bring an iron wire of the same size and resistance to a given +temperature than it will a platina wire in proportion to their specific +heats, and in the case of Carbon, a piece of Carbon three inches long +and one-eighth diameter, with a resistance of 1 ohm, will require a +greater battery power to bring it to a given temperature than a cylinder +of thin platina foil of the same length, diameter, and resistance, +because the specific heat of Carbon is many times greater; besides, if +I am not mistaken, the radiation of a roughened body for heat is greater +than a polished one like platina." + +Proceeding logically upon these lines of thought and following them +out through many ramifications, we have seen how he at length made a +filament of carbon of high resistance and small radiating surface, and +through a concurrent investigation of the phenomena of high vacua and +occluded gases was able to produce a true incandescent lamp. Not only +was it a lamp as a mere article--a device to give light--but it was also +an integral part of his great and complete system of lighting, to every +part of which it bore a fixed and definite ratio, and in relation to +which it was the keystone that held the structure firmly in place. + +The work of Edison on incandescent lamps did not stop at this +fundamental invention, but extended through more than eighteen years +of a most intense portion of his busy life. During that period he was +granted one hundred and forty-nine other patents on the lamp and its +manufacture. Although very many of these inventions were of the utmost +importance and value, we cannot attempt to offer a detailed exposition +of them in this necessarily brief article, but must refer the reader, +if interested, to the patents themselves, a full list being given at +the end of this Appendix. The outline sketch will indicate the principal +patents covering the basic features of the lamp. + +The litigation on the Edison lamp patents was one of the most determined +and stubbornly fought contests in the history of modern jurisprudence. +Vast interests were at stake. All of the technical, expert, and +professional skill and knowledge that money could procure or experience +devise were availed of in the bitter fights that raged in the courts for +many years. And although the Edison interests had spent from first to +last nearly $2,000,000, and had only about three years left in the +life of the fundamental patent, Edison was thoroughly sustained as to +priority by the decisions in the various suits. We shall offer a few +brief extracts from some of these decisions. + +In a suit against the United States Electric Lighting Company, United +States Circuit Court for the Southern District of New York, July 14, +1891, Judge Wallace said, in his opinion: "The futility of hoping to +maintain a burner in vacuo with any permanency had discouraged prior +inventors, and Mr. Edison is entitled to the credit of obviating the +mechanical difficulties which disheartened them.... He was the first +to make a carbon of materials, and by a process which was especially +designed to impart high specific resistance to it; the first to make a +carbon in the special form for the special purpose of imparting to it +high total resistance; and the first to combine such a burner with the +necessary adjuncts of lamp construction to prevent its disintegration +and give it sufficiently long life. By doing these things he made a lamp +which was practically operative and successful, the embryo of the best +lamps now in commercial use, and but for which the subdivision of the +electric light by incandescence would still be nothing but the ignis +fatuus which it was proclaimed to be in 1879 by some of the reamed +experts who are now witnesses to belittle his achievement and show that +it did not rise to the dignity of an invention.... It is impossible to +resist the conclusion that the invention of the slender thread of carbon +as a substitute for the burners previously employed opened the path to +the practical subdivision of the electric light." + +An appeal was taken in the above suit to the United States Circuit Court +of Appeals, and on October 4, 1892, the decree of the lower court was +affirmed. The judges (Lacombe and Shipman), in a long opinion reviewed +the facts and the art, and said, inter alia: "Edison's invention was +practically made when he ascertained the theretofore unknown fact that +carbon would stand high temperature, even when very attenuated, if +operated in a high vacuum, without the phenomenon of disintegration. +This fact he utilized by the means which he has described, a lamp having +a filamentary carbon burner in a nearly perfect vacuum." + +In a suit against the Boston Incandescent Lamp Company et al., in the +United States Circuit Court for the District of Massachusetts, decided +in favor of Edison on June 11, 1894, Judge Colt, in his opinion, said, +among other things: "Edison made an important invention; he produced the +first practical incandescent electric lamp; the patent is a pioneer in +the sense of the patent law; it may be said that his invention created +the art of incandescent electric lighting." + +Opinions of other courts, similar in tenor to the foregoing, might be +cited, but it would be merely in the nature of reiteration. The above +are sufficient to illustrate the direct clearness of judicial decision +on Edison's position as the founder of the art of electric lighting by +incandescence. + + + + +X. EDISON'S DYNAMO WORK + +AT the present writing, when, after the phenomenally rapid electrical +development of thirty years, we find on the market a great variety of +modern forms of efficient current generators advertised under the names +of different inventors (none, however, bearing the name of Edison), a +young electrical engineer of the present generation might well inquire +whether the great inventor had ever contributed anything to the art +beyond a mere TYPE of machine formerly made and bearing his name, but +not now marketed except second hand. + +For adequate information he might search in vain the books usually +regarded as authorities on the subject of dynamo-electric machinery, +for with slight exceptions there has been a singular unanimity in +the omission of writers to give Edison credit for his great and basic +contributions to heavy-current technics, although they have been +universally acknowledged by scientific and practical men to have laid +the foundation for the efficiency of, and to be embodied in all modern +generators of current. + +It might naturally be expected that the essential facts of Edison's +work would appear on the face of his numerous patents on dynamo-electric +machinery, but such is not necessarily the case, unless they are +carefully studied in the light of the state of the art as it existed +at the time. While some of these patents (especially the earlier ones) +cover specific devices embodying fundamental principles that not only +survive to the present day, but actually lie at the foundation of +the art as it now exists, there is no revelation therein of Edison's +preceding studies of magnets, which extended over many years, nor of his +later systematic investigations and deductions. + +Dynamo-electric machines of a primitive kind had been invented and were +in use to a very limited extent for arc lighting and electroplating for +some years prior to the summer of 1819, when Edison, with an embryonic +lighting SYSTEM in mind, cast about for a type of machine technically +and commercially suitable for the successful carrying out of his plans. +He found absolutely none. On the contrary, all of the few types then +obtainable were uneconomical, indeed wasteful, in regard to efficiency. +The art, if indeed there can be said to have been an art at that time, +was in chaotic confusion, and only because of Edison's many years' study +of the magnet was he enabled to conclude that insufficiency in quantity +of iron in the magnets of such machines, together with poor surface +contacts, rendered the cost of magnetization abnormally high. The +heating of solid armatures, the only kind then known, and poor +insulation in the commutators, also gave rise to serious losses. But +perhaps the most serious drawback lay in the high-resistance armature, +based upon the highest scientific dictum of the time that in order +to obtain the maximum amount of work from a machine, the internal +resistance of the armature must equal the resistance of the exterior +circuit, although the application of this principle entailed the useless +expenditure of at least 50 per cent. of the applied energy. + +It seems almost incredible that only a little over thirty years ago the +sum of scientific knowledge in regard to dynamo-electric machines was so +meagre that the experts of the period should settle upon such a dictum +as this, but such was the fact, as will presently appear. Mechanical +generators of electricity were comparatively new at that time; their +theory and practice were very imperfectly understood; indeed, it is +quite within the bounds of truth to say that the correct principles were +befogged by reason of the lack of practical knowledge of their actual +use. Electricians and scientists of the period had been accustomed for +many years past to look to the chemical battery as the source from which +to obtain electrical energy; and in the practical application of such +energy to telegraphy and kindred uses, much thought and ingenuity had +been expended in studying combinations of connecting such cells so as to +get the best results. In the text-books of the period it was stated as a +settled principle that, in order to obtain the maximum work out of a +set of batteries, the internal resistance must approximately equal the +resistance of the exterior circuit. This principle and its application +in practice were quite correct as regards chemical batteries, but not as +regards dynamo machines. Both were generators of electrical current, but +so different in construction and operation, that rules applicable to the +practical use of the one did not apply with proper commercial efficiency +to the other. At the period under consideration, which may be said to +have been just before dawn of the day of electric light, the philosophy +of the dynamo was seen only in mysterious, hazy outlines--just emerging +from the darkness of departing night. Perhaps it is not surprising, +then, that the dynamo was loosely regarded by electricians as +the practical equivalent of a chemical battery; that many of the +characteristics of performance of the chemical cell were also attributed +to it, and that if the maximum work could be gotten out of a set of +batteries when the internal and external resistances were equal (and +this was commercially the best thing to do), so must it be also with a +dynamo. + +It was by no miracle that Edison was far and away ahead of his time +when he undertook to improve the dynamo. He was possessed of absolute +KNOWLEDGE far beyond that of his contemporaries. This he ad acquired by +the hardest kind of work and incessant experiment with magnets of all +kinds during several years preceding, particularly in connection +with his study of automatic telegraphy. His knowledge of magnets was +tremendous. He had studied and experimented with electromagnets in +enormous variety, and knew their peculiarities in charge and discharge, +lag, self-induction, static effects, condenser effects, and the various +other phenomena connected therewith. He had also made collateral studies +of iron, steel, and copper, insulation, winding, etc. Hence, by reason +of this extensive work and knowledge, Edison was naturally in a position +to realize the utter commercial impossibility of the then best dynamo +machine in existence, which had an efficiency of only about 40 per +cent., and was constructed on the "cut-and-try" principle. + +He was also naturally in a position to assume the task he set out to +accomplish, of undertaking to plan and-build an improved type of machine +that should be commercial in having an efficiency of at least 90 per +cent. Truly a prodigious undertaking in those dark days, when from the +standpoint of Edison's large experience the most practical and correct +electrical treatise was contained in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and +in a German publication which Mr. Upton had brought with him after he +had finished his studies with the illustrious Helmholtz. It was at this +period that Mr. Upton commenced his association with Edison, bringing +to the great work the very latest scientific views and the assistance +of the higher mathematics, to which he had devoted his attention for +several years previously. + +As some account of Edison's investigations in this connection has +already been given in Chapter XII of the narrative, we shall not enlarge +upon them here, but quote from An Historical Review, by Charles L. +Clarke, Laboratory Assistant at Menlo Park, 1880-81; Chief Engineer of +the Edison Electric Light Company, 1881-84: + + +"In June, 1879, was published the account of the Edison dynamo-electric +machine that survived in the art. This machine went into extensive +commercial use, and was notable for its very massive and powerful +field-magnets and armature of extremely low resistance as compared with +the combined external resistance of the supply-mains and lamps. By means +of the large masses of iron in the field-magnets, and closely fitted +joints between the several parts thereof, the magnetic resistance +(reluctance) of the iron parts of the magnetic circuit was reduced to +a minimum, and the required magnetization effected with the maximum +economy. At the same time Mr. Edison announced the commercial necessity +of having the armature of the dynamo of low resistance, as compared +with the external resistance, in order that a large percentage of the +electrical energy developed should be utilized in the lamps, and only a +small percentage lost in the armature, albeit this procedure reduced the +total generating capacity of the machine. He also proposed to make the +resistance of the supply-mains small, as compared with the combined +resistance of the lamps in multiple arc, in order to still further +increase the percentage of energy utilized in the lamps. And likewise to +this end the combined resistance of the generator armatures in multiple +arc was kept relatively small by adjusting the number of generators +operating in multiple at any time to the number of lamps then in use. +The field-magnet circuits of the dynamos were connected in multiple with +a separate energizing source; and the field-current; and strength of +field, were regulated to maintain the required amount of electromotive +force upon the supply-mains under all conditions of load from the +maximum to the minimum number of lamps in use, and to keep the +electromotive force of all machines alike." + + +Among the earliest of Edison's dynamo experiments were those relating to +the core of the armature. He realized at once that the heat generated in +a solid core was a prolific source of loss. He experimented with +bundles of iron wires variously insulated, also with sheet-iron rolled +cylindrically and covered with iron wire wound concentrically. These +experiments and many others were tried in a great variety of ways, +until, as the result of all this work, Edison arrived at the principle +which has remained in the art to this day. He split up the iron core of +the armature into thin laminations, separated by paper, thus practically +suppressing Foucault currents therein and resulting heating effect. +It was in his machine also that mica was used for the first time as an +insulating medium in a commutator. [27] + + [Footnote 27: The commercial manufacture of built-up sheets + of mica for electrical purposes was first established at the + Edison Machine Works, Goerck Street, New York, in 1881.] + +Elementary as these principles will appear to the modern student or +engineer, they were denounced as nothing short of absurdity at the time +of their promulgation--especially so with regard to Edison's proposal +to upset the then settled dictum that the armature resistance should +be equal to the external resistance. His proposition was derided in +the technical press of the period, both at home and abroad. As public +opinion can be best illustrated by actual quotation, we shall present a +characteristic instance. + + +In the Scientific American of October 18, 1879, there appeared an +illustrated article by Mr. Upton on Edison's dynamo machine, in which +Edison's views and claims were set forth. A subsequent issue contained a +somewhat acrimonious letter of criticism by a well-known maker of dynamo +machines. At the risk of being lengthy, we must quote nearly all this +letter: "I can scarcely conceive it as possible that the article on the +above subject '(Edison's Electric Generator)' in last week's Scientific +American could have been written from statements derived from Mr. Edison +himself, inasmuch as so many of the advantages claimed for the machine +described and statements of the results obtained are so manifestly +absurd as to indicate on the part of both writer and prompter a positive +want of knowledge of the electric circuit and the principles governing +the construction and operation of electric machines. + +"It is not my intention to criticise the design or construction of the +machine (not because they are not open to criticism), as I am now +and have been for many years engaged in the manufacture of electric +machines, but rather to call attention to the impossibility of +obtaining the described results without destroying the doctrine of the +conservation and correlation of forces. + +. . . . . + +"It is stated that 'the internal resistance of the armature' of this +machine 'is only 1/2 ohm.' On this fact and the disproportion between +this resistance and that of the external circuit, the theory of the +alleged efficiency of the machine is stated to be based, for we are +informed that, 'while this generator in general principle is the same +as in the best well-known forms, still there is an all-important +difference, which is that it will convert and deliver for useful work +nearly double the number of foot-pounds that any other machine will +under like conditions.'" The writer of this critical letter then +proceeds to quote Mr. Upton's statement of this efficiency: "'Now the +energy converted is distributed over the whole resistance, hence if the +resistance of the machine be represented by 1 and the exterior circuit +by 9, then of the total energy converted nine-tenths will be useful, as +it is outside of the machine, and one-tenth is lost in the resistance of +the machine.'" + +After this the critic goes on to say: + +"How any one acquainted with the laws of the electric circuit can make +such statements is what I cannot understand. The statement last quoted +is mathematically absurd. It implies either that the machine is +CAPABLE OF INCREASING ITS OWN ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE NINE TIMES WITHOUT +AN INCREASED EXPENDITURE OF POWER, or that external resistance is NOT +resistance to the current induced in the Edison machine. + +"Does Mr. Edison, or any one for him, mean to say that r/n enables him +to obtain nE, and that C IS NOT = E / (r/n + R)? If so Mr. Edison has +discovered something MORE than perpetual motion, and Mr. Keely had +better retire from the field. + +"Further on the writer (Mr. Upton) gives us another example of this mode +of reasoning when, emboldened and satisfied with the absurd theory above +exposed, he endeavors to prove the cause of the inefficiency of the +Siemens and other machines. Couldn't the writer of the article see that +since C = E/(r + R) that by R/n or by making R = r, the machine would, +according to his theory, have returned more useful current to the +circuit than could be due to the power employed (and in the ratio +indicated), so that there would actually be a creation of force! . . . . + +"In conclusion allow me to say that if Mr Edison thinks he has +accomplished so much by the REDUCTION OF THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE of +his machine, that he has much more to do in this direction before his +machine will equal IN THIS RESPECT others already in the market." + +Another participant in the controversy on Edison's generator was a +scientific gentleman, who in a long article published in the Scientific +American, in November, 1879, gravely undertook to instruct Edison in +the A B C of electrical principles, and then proceeded to demonstrate +mathematically the IMPOSSIBILITY of doing WHAT EDISON HAD ACTUALLY DONE. +This critic concludes with a gentle rebuke to the inventor for ill-timed +jesting, and a suggestion to furnish AUTHENTIC information! + +In the light of facts, as they were and are, this article is so full of +humor that we shall indulge in a few quotations It commences in A B +C fashion as follows: "Electric machines convert mechanical into +electrical energy.... The ratio of yield to consumption is the +expression of the efficiency of the machine.... How many foot-pounds +of electricity can be got out of 100 foot-pounds of mechanical energy? +Certainly not more than 100: certainly less.... The facts and laws +of physics, with the assistance of mathematical logic, never fail to +furnish precious answers to such questions." + +The would-be critic then goes on to tabulate tests of certain other +dynamo machines by a committee of the Franklin Institute in 1879, the +results of which showed that these machines returned about 50 per cent. +of the applied mechanical energy, ingenuously remarking: "Why is it that +when we have produced the electricity, half of it must slip away? Some +persons will be content if they are told simply that it is a way which +electricity has of behaving. But there is a satisfactory rational +explanation which I believe can be made plain to persons of ordinary +intelligence. It ought to be known to all those who are making or using +machines. I am grieved to observe that many persons who talk and write +glibly about electricity do not understand it; some even ignore or deny +the fact to be explained." + +Here follows HIS explanation, after which he goes on to say: "At this +point plausibly comes in a suggestion that the internal part of the +circuit be made very small and the external part very large. Why +not (say) make the internal part 1 and the external 9, thus saving +nine-tenths and losing only one-tenth? Unfortunately, the suggestion is +not practical; a fallacy is concealed in it." + +He then goes on to prove his case mathematically, to his own +satisfaction, following it sadly by condoling with and a warning to +Edison: "But about Edison's electric generator! . . . No one capable of +making the improvements in the telegraph and telephone, for which we are +indebted to Mr. Edison, could be other than an accomplished electrician. +His reputation as a scientist, indeed, is smirched by the newspaper +exaggerations, and no doubt he will be more careful in future. But there +is a danger nearer home, indeed, among his own friends and in his very +household. + +". . . The writer of page 242" (the original article) "is probably a +friend of Mr. Edison, but possibly, alas! a wicked partner. Why does +he say such things as these? 'Mr. Edison claims that he realizes 90 +per cent. of the power applied to this machine in external work.' . . . +Perhaps the writer is a humorist, and had in his mind Colonel Sellers, +etc., which he could not keep out of a serious discussion; but such +jests are not good. + +"Mr. Edison has built a very interesting machine, and he has the +opportunity of making a valuable contribution to the electrical arts by +furnishing authentic accounts of its capabilities." + +The foregoing extracts are unavoidably lengthy, but, viewed in the light +of facts, serve to illustrate most clearly that Edison's conceptions and +work were far and away ahead of the comprehension of his contemporaries +in the art, and that his achievements in the line of efficient dynamo +design and construction were indeed truly fundamental and revolutionary +in character. Much more of similar nature to the above could be quoted +from other articles published elsewhere, but the foregoing will serve as +instances generally representing all. In the controversy which +appeared in the columns of the Scientific American, Mr. Upton, Edison's +mathematician, took up the question on his side, and answered the +critics by further elucidations of the principles on which Edison had +founded such remarkable and radical improvements in the art. The type +of Edison's first dynamo-electric machine, the description of which gave +rise to the above controversy, is shown in Fig. 1. + +Any account of Edison's work on the dynamo would be incomplete did +it omit to relate his conception and construction of the great +direct-connected steam-driven generator that was the prototype of the +colossal units which are used throughout the world to-day. + +In the demonstrating plant installed and operated by him at Menlo +Park in 1880 ten dynamos of eight horse-power each were driven by a +slow-speed engine through a complicated system of counter-shafting, +and, to quote from Mr. Clarke's Historical Review, "it was found that +a considerable percentage of the power of the engine was necessarily +wasted in friction by this method of driving, and to prevent this waste +and thus increase the economy of his system, Mr. Edison conceived +the idea of substituting a single large dynamo for the several small +dynamos, and directly coupling it with the driving engine, and at the +same time preserve the requisite high armature speed by using an engine +of the high-speed type. He also expected to realize still further gains +in economy from the use of a large dynamo in place of several small +machines by a more than correspondingly lower armature resistance, less +energy for magnetizing the field, and for other minor reasons. To the +same end, he intended to supply steam to the engine under a much higher +boiler pressure than was customary in stationary-engine driving at that +time." + +The construction of the first one of these large machines was commenced +late in the year 1880. Early in 1881 it was completed and tested, but +some radical defects in armature construction were developed, and it was +also demonstrated that a rate of engine speed too high for continuously +safe and economical operation had been chosen. The machine was laid +aside. An accurate illustration of this machine, as it stood in the +engine-room at Menlo Park, is given in Van Nostrand's Engineering +Magazine, Vol. XXV, opposite page 439, and a brief description is given +on page 450. + +With the experience thus gained, Edison began, in the spring of 1881, at +the Edison Machine Works, Goerck Street, New York City, the construction +of the first successful machine of this type. This was the great machine +known as "Jumbo No. 1," which is referred to in the narrative as having +been exhibited at the Paris International Electrical Exposition, where +it was regarded as the wonder of the electrical world. An intimation of +some of the tremendous difficulties encountered in the construction of +this machine has already been given in preceding pages, hence we shall +not now enlarge on the subject, except to note in passing that the +terribly destructive effects of the spark of self-induction and the +arcing following it were first manifested in this powerful machine, but +were finally overcome by Edison after a strenuous application of his +powers to the solution of the problem. + +It may be of interest, however, to mention some of its dimensions +and electrical characteristics, quoting again from Mr. Clarke: "The +field-magnet had eight solid cylindrical cores, 8 inches in diameter +and 57 inches long, upon each of which was wound an exciting-coil of 3.2 +ohms resistance, consisting of 2184 turns of No. 10 B. W. G. insulated +copper wire, disposed in six layers. The laminated iron core of the +armature, formed of thin iron disks, was 33 3/4 inches long, and had an +internal diameter of 12 1/2 inches, and an external diameter of 26 7/16 +inches. It was mounted on a 6-inch shaft. The field-poles were 33 3/4 +inches long, and 27 1/2 inches inside diameter The armature winding +consisted of 146 copper bars on the face of the core, connected into a +closed-coil winding by means of 73 copper disks at each end of the core. +The cross-sectional area of each bar was 0.2 square inch their average +length was 42.7 inches, and the copper end-disks were 0.065 inch thick. +The commutator had 73 sections. The armature resistance was 0.0092 +ohm, [28] of which 0.0055 ohm was in the armature bars and 0.0037 ohm in +the end-disks." An illustration of the next latest type of this machine +is presented in Fig. 2. + + [Footnote 28: Had Edison in Upton's Scientific American + article in 1879 proposed such an exceedingly low armature + resistance for this immense generator (although its ratio + was proportionate to the original machine), his critics + might probably have been sufficiently indignant as to be + unable to express themselves coherently.] + +The student may find it interesting to look up Edison's United States +Patents Nos. 242,898, 263,133, 263,146, and 246,647, bearing upon the +construction of the "Jumbo"; also illustrated articles in the technical +journals of the time, among which may be mentioned: Scientific American, +Vol. XLV, page 367; Engineering, London, Vol. XXXII, pages 409 and 419, +The Telegraphic Journal and Electrical Review, London, Vol. IX, pages +431-433, 436-446; La Nature, Paris, 9th year, Part II, pages 408-409; +Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Elektricitaatslehre, Munich and Leipsic, Vol. +IV, pages 4-14; and Dredge's Electric Illumination, 1882, Vol. I, page +261. + +The further development of these great machines later on, and their +extensive practical use, are well known and need no further comment, +except in passing it may be noted that subsequent machines had each +a capacity of 1200 lamps of 16 candle-power, and that the armature +resistance was still further reduced to 0.0039 ohm. + +Edison's clear insight into the future, as illustrated by his persistent +advocacy of large direct-connected generating units, is abundantly +vindicated by present-day practice. His Jumbo machines, of 175 +horse-power, so enormous for their time, have served as prototypes, and +have been succeeded by generators which have constantly grown in size +and capacity until at this time (1910) it is not uncommon to employ +such generating units of a capacity of 14,000 kilowatts, or about 18,666 +horse-power. + +We have not entered into specific descriptions of the many other forms +of dynamo machines invented by Edison, such as the multipolar, the +disk dynamo, and the armature with two windings, for sub-station +distribution; indeed, it is not possible within our limited space to +present even a brief digest of Edison's great and comprehensive work on +the dynamo-electric machine, as embodied in his extensive experiments +and in over one hundred patents granted to him. We have, therefore, +confined ourselves to the indication of a few salient and basic +features, leaving it to the interested student to examine the patents +and the technical literature of the long period of time over which +Edison's labors were extended. + +Although he has not given any attention to the subject of generators for +many years, an interesting instance of his incisive method of overcoming +minor difficulties occurred while the present volumes were under +preparation (1909). Carbon for commutator brushes has been superseded +by graphite in some cases, the latter material being found much more +advantageous, electrically. Trouble developed, however, for the reason +that while carbon was hard and would wear away the mica insulation +simultaneously with the copper, graphite, being softer, would wear +away only the copper, leaving ridges of mica and thus causing sparking +through unequal contact. At this point Edison was asked to diagnose the +trouble and provide a remedy. He suggested the cutting out of the mica +pieces almost to the bottom, leaving the commutator bars separated by +air-spaces. This scheme was objected to on the ground that particles +of graphite would fill these air-spaces and cause a short-circuit. His +answer was that the air-spaces constituted the value of his plan, as +the particles of graphite falling into them would be thrown out by the +action of centrifugal force as the commutator revolved. And thus it +occurred as a matter of fact, and the trouble was remedied. This idea +was subsequently adopted by a great manufacturer of generators. + + + + +XI. THE EDISON FEEDER SYSTEM + +TO quote from the preamble of the specifications of United States +Patent No. 264,642, issued to Thomas A. Edison September 19, 1882: "This +invention relates to a method of equalizing the tension or 'pressure' +of the current through an entire system of electric lighting or other +translation of electric force, preventing what is ordinarily known as a +'drop' in those portions of the system the more remote from the central +station...." + +The problem which was solved by the Edison feeder system was that +relating to the equal distribution of current on a large scale over +extended areas, in order that a constant and uniform electrical pressure +could be maintained in every part of the distribution area without +prohibitory expenditure for copper for mains and conductors. + +This problem had a twofold aspect, although each side was inseparably +bound up in the other. On the one hand it was obviously necessary in a +lighting system that each lamp should be of standard candle-power, and +capable of interchangeable use on any part of the system, giving the +same degree of illumination at every point, whether near to or remote +from the source of electrical energy. On the other hand, this must be +accomplished by means of a system of conductors so devised and arranged +that while they would insure the equal pressure thus demanded, their +mass and consequent cost would not exceed the bounds of practical and +commercially economical investment. + +The great importance of this invention can be better understood and +appreciated by a brief glance at the state of the art in 1878-79, +when Edison was conducting the final series of investigations which +culminated in his invention of the incandescent lamp and SYSTEM of +lighting. At this time, and for some years previously, the scientific +world had been working on the "subdivision of the electric light," as +it was then termed. Some leading authorities pronounced it absolutely +impossible of achievement on any extended scale, while a very few +others, of more optimistic mind, could see no gleam of light through the +darkness, but confidently hoped for future developments by such workers +as Edison. + +The earlier investigators, including those up to the period above named, +thought of the problem as involving the subdivision of a FIXED UNIT +of current, which, being sufficient to cause illumination by one large +lamp, might be divided into a number of small units whose aggregate +light would equal the candle-power of this large lamp. It was found, +however, in their experiments that the contrary effect was produced, +for with every additional lamp introduced in the circuit the total +candle-power decreased instead of increasing. If they were placed in +series the light varied inversely as the SQUARE of the number of lamps +in circuit; while if they were inserted in multiple arc, the light +diminished as the CUBE of the number in circuit. [29] The idea of +maintaining a constant potential and of PROPORTIONING THE CURRENT to +the number of lamps in circuit did not occur to most of these +early investigators as a feasible method of overcoming the supposed +difficulty. + + [Footnote 29: M. Fontaine, in his book on Electric Lighting + (1877), showed that with the current of a battery composed + of sixteen elements, one lamp gave an illumination equal to + 54 burners; whereas two similar lamps, if introduced in + parallel or multiple arc, gave the light of only 6 1/2 + burners in all; three lamps of only 2 burners in all; four + lamps of only 3/4 of one burner, and five lamps of 1/4 of a + burner.] + +It would also seem that although the general method of placing +experimental lamps in multiple arc was known at this period, the idea +of "drop" of electrical pressure was imperfectly understood, if, indeed, +realized at all, as a most important item to be considered in attempting +the solution of the problem. As a matter of fact, the investigators +preceding Edison do not seem to have conceived the idea of a "system" at +all; hence it is not surprising to find them far astray from the correct +theory of subdivision of the electric current. It may easily be +believed that the term "subdivision" was a misleading one to these early +experimenters. For a very short time Edison also was thus misled, but +as soon as he perceived that the problem was one involving the +MULTIPLICATION OF CURRENT UNITS, his broad conception of a "system" was +born. + +Generally speaking, all conductors of electricity offer more or less +resistance to the passage of current through them and in the technical +terminology of electrical science the word "drop" (when used in +reference to a system of distribution) is used to indicate a fall or +loss of initial electrical pressure arising from the resistance offered +by the copper conductors leading from the source of energy to the lamps. +The result of this resistance is to convert or translate a portion of +the electrical energy into another form--namely, heat, which in the +conductors is USELESS and wasteful and to some extent inevitable in +practice, but is to be avoided and remedied as far as possible. + +It is true that in an electric-lighting system there is also a fall or +loss of electrical pressure which occurs in overcoming the much greater +resistance of the filament in an incandescent lamp. In this case there +is also a translation of the energy, but here it accomplishes a USEFUL +purpose, as the energy is converted into the form of light through the +incandescence of the filament. Such a conversion is called "work" +as distinguished from "drop," although a fall of initial electrical +pressure is involved in each case. + +The percentage of "drop" varies according to the quantity of copper +used in conductors, both as to cross-section and length. The smaller the +cross-sectional area, the greater the percentage of drop. The practical +effect of this drop would be a loss of illumination in the lamps as we +go farther away from the source of energy. This may be illustrated by +a simple diagram in which G is a generator, or source of energy, +furnishing current at a potential or electrical pressure of 110 volts; +1 and 2 are main conductors, from which 110-volt lamps, L, are taken in +derived circuits. It will be understood that the circuits represented in +Fig. 1 are theoretically supposed to extend over a large area. The main +conductors are sufficiently large in cross-section to offer but little +resistance in those parts which are comparatively near the generator, +but as the current traverses their extended length there is a gradual +increase of resistance to overcome, and consequently the drop increases, +as shown by the figures. The result of the drop in such a case would +be that while the two lamps, or groups, nearest the generator would be +burning at their proper degree of illumination, those beyond would give +lower and lower candle-power, successively, until the last lamp, or +group, would be giving only about two-thirds the light of the first two. +In other words, a very slight drop in voltage means a disproportionately +great loss in illumination. Hence, by using a primitive system of +distribution, such as that shown by Fig. 1, the initial voltage would +have to be so high, in order to obtain the proper candle-power at +the end of the circuit, that the lamps nearest the generator would be +dangerously overheated. It might be suggested as a solution of this +problem that lamps of different voltages could be used. But, as we are +considering systems of extended distribution employing vast numbers of +lamps (as in New York City, where millions are in use), it will be seen +that such a method would lead to inextricable confusion, and therefore +be absolutely out of the question. Inasmuch as the percentage of +drop decreases in proportion to the increased cross-section of the +conductors, the only feasible plan would seem to be to increase their +size to such dimensions as to eliminate the drop altogether, beginning +with conductors of large cross-section and tapering off as necessary. +This would, indeed, obviate the trouble, but, on the other hand, would +give rise to a much more serious difficulty--namely, the enormous +outlay for copper; an outlay so great as to be absolutely prohibitory in +considering the electric lighting of large districts, as now practiced. + +Another diagram will probably make this more clear. The reference +figures are used as before, except that the horizontal lines extending +from square marked G represent the main conductors. As each lamp +requires and takes its own proportion of the total current generated, +it is obvious that the size of the conductors to carry the current for +a number of lamps must be as large as the sum of ALL the separate +conductors which would be required to carry the necessary amount of +current to each lamp separately. Hence, in a primitive multiple-arc +system, it was found that the system must have conductors of a size +equal to the aggregate of the individual conductors necessary for every +lamp. Such conductors might either be separate, as shown above (Fig. +2), or be bunched together, or made into a solid tapering conductor, as +shown in the following figure: + +The enormous mass of copper needed in such a system can be better +appreciated by a concrete example. Some years ago Mr. W. J. Jenks made +a comparative calculation which showed that such a system of conductors +(known as the "Tree" system), to supply 8640 lamps in a territory +extending over so small an area as nine city blocks, would require +803,250 pounds of copper, which at the then price of 25 cents per pound +would cost $200,812.50! + +Such, in brief, was the state of the art, generally speaking, at the +period above named (1878-79). As early in the art as the latter end of +the year 1878, Edison had developed his ideas sufficiently to determine +that the problem of electric illumination by small units could be solved +by using incandescent lamps of high resistance and small radiating +surface, and by distributing currents of constant potential thereto in +multiple arc by means of a ramification of conductors, starting from a +central source and branching therefrom in every direction. This was +an equivalent of the method illustrated in Fig. 3, known as the "Tree" +system, and was, in fact, the system used by Edison in the first +and famous exhibition of his electric light at Menlo Park around the +Christmas period of 1879. He realized, however, that the enormous +investment for copper would militate against the commercial adoption of +electric lighting on an extended scale. His next inventive step +covered the division of a large city district into a number of small +sub-stations supplying current through an interconnected network of +conductors, thus reducing expenditure for copper to some extent, because +each distribution unit was small and limited the drop. + +His next development was the radical advancement of the state of the art +to the feeder system, covered by the patent now under discussion. +This invention swept away the tree and other systems, and at one bound +brought into being the possibility of effectively distributing large +currents over extended areas with a commercially reasonable investment +for copper. + +The fundamental principles of this invention were, first, to sever +entirely any direct connection of the main conductors with the source of +energy; and, second, to feed current at a constant potential to central +points in such main conductors by means of other conductors, called +"feeders," which were to be connected directly with the source of energy +at the central station. This idea will be made more clear by reference +to the following simple diagram, in which the same letters are used as +before, with additions: + +In further elucidation of the diagram, it may be considered that the +mains are laid in the street along a city block, more or less distant +from the station, while the feeders are connected at one end with the +source of energy at the station, their other extremities being connected +to the mains at central points of distribution. Of course, this system +was intended to be applied in every part of a district to be supplied +with current, separate sets of feeders running out from the station to +the various centres. The distribution mains were to be of sufficiently +large size that between their most extreme points the loss would not +be more than 3 volts. Such a slight difference would not make an +appreciable variation in the candle-power of the lamps. + +By the application of these principles, the inevitable but useless loss, +or "drop," required by economy might be incurred, but was LOCALIZED IN +THE FEEDERS, where it would not affect the uniformity of illumination +of the lamps in any of the circuits, whether near to or remote from the +station, because any variations of loss in the feeders would not give +rise to similar fluctuations in any lamp circuit. The feeders might be +operated at any desired percentage of loss that would realize economy in +copper, so long as they delivered current to the main conductors at the +potential represented by the average voltage of the lamps. + +Thus the feeders could be made comparatively small in cross-section. It +will be at once appreciated that, inasmuch as the mains required to be +laid ONLY along the blocks to be lighted, and were not required to be +run all the way to the central station (which might be half a mile or +more away), the saving of copper by Edison's feeder system was enormous. +Indeed, the comparative calculation of Mr. Jenks, above referred to, +shows that to operate the same number of lights in the same extended +area of territory, the feeder system would require only 128,739 pounds +of copper, which, at the then price of 25 cents per pound, would cost +only $39,185, or A SAVING of $168,627.50 for copper in this very small +district of only nine blocks. + +An additional illustration, appealing to the eye, is presented in the +following sketch, in which the comparative masses of copper of the tree +and feeder systems for carrying the same current are shown side by side: + + + + +XII. THE THREE-WIRE SYSTEM + +THIS invention is covered by United States Patent No. 274,290, issued to +Edison on March 20, 1883. The object of the invention was to provide +for increased economy in the quantity of copper employed for the main +conductors in electric light and power installations of considerable +extent at the same time preserving separate and independent control +of each lamp, motor, or other translating device, upon any one of the +various distribution circuits. + +Immediately prior to this invention the highest state of the art of +electrical distribution was represented by Edison's feeder system, which +has already been described as a straight parallel or multiple-arc +system wherein economy of copper was obtained by using separate sets +of conductors--minus load--feeding current at standard potential or +electrical pressure into the mains at centres of distribution. + +It should be borne in mind that the incandescent lamp which was accepted +at the time as a standard (and has so remained to the present day) was +a lamp of 110 volts or thereabouts. In using the word "standard," +therefore, it is intended that the same shall apply to lamps of about +that voltage, as well as to electrical circuits of the approximate +potential to operate them. + +Briefly stated, the principle involved in the three-wire system is to +provide main circuits of double the standard potential, so as to operate +standard lamps, or other translating devices, in multiple series of two +to each series; and for the purpose of securing independent, individual +control of each unit, to divide each main circuit into any desired +number of derived circuits of standard potential (properly balanced) +by means of a central compensating conductor which would be normally +neutral, but designed to carry any minor excess of current that might +flow by reason of any temporary unbalancing of either side of the main +circuit. + +Reference to the following diagrams will elucidate this principle more +clearly than words alone can do. For the purpose of increased lucidity +we will first show a plain multiple-series system. + +In this diagram G<1S> and G<2S> represent two generators, each producing +current at a potential of 110 volts. By connecting them in series this +potential is doubled, thus providing a main circuit (P and N) of 220 +volts. The figures marked L represent eight lamps of 110 volts each, in +multiple series of two, in four derived circuits. The arrows indicate +the flow of current. By this method each pair of lamps takes, together, +only the same quantity or volume of current required by a single lamp in +a simple multiple-arc system; and, as the cross-section of a conductor +depends upon the quantity of current carried, such an arrangement as +the above would allow the use of conductors of only one-fourth the +cross-section that would be otherwise required. From the standpoint of +economy of investment such an arrangement would be highly desirable, +but considered commercially it is impracticable because the principle of +independent control of each unit would be lost, as the turning out of a +lamp in any series would mean the extinguishment of its companion also. +By referring to the diagram it will be seen that each series of two +forms one continuous path between the main conductors, and if this path +be broken at any one point current will immediately cease to flow in +that particular series. + +Edison, by his invention of the three-wire system, overcame this +difficulty entirely, and at the same time conserved approximately, the +saving of copper, as will be apparent from the following illustration of +that system, in its simplest form. + +The reference figures are similar to those in the preceding diagram, +and all conditions are also alike except that a central compensating, or +balancing, conductor, PN, is here introduced. This is technically termed +the "neutral" wire, and in the discharge of its functions lies the +solution of the problem of economical distribution. Theoretically, a +three-wire installation is evenly balanced by wiring for an equal number +of lamps on both sides. If all these lamps were always lighted, burned, +and extinguished simultaneously the central conductor would, in fact, +remain neutral, as there would be no current passing through it, except +from lamp to lamp. In practice, however, no such perfect conditions can +obtain, hence the necessity of the provision for balancing in order to +maintain the principle of independent control of each unit. + +It will be apparent that the arrangement shown in Fig. 2 comprises +practically two circuits combined in one system, in which the central +conductor, PN, in case of emergency, serves in two capacities--namely, +as negative to generator G<1S> or as positive to generator G<2S>, +although normally neutral. There are two sides to the system, the +positive side being represented by the conductors P and PN, and the +negative side by the conductors PN and N. Each side, if considered +separately, has a potential of about 110 volts, yet the potential of the +two outside conductors, P and N, is 220 volts. The lamps are 110 volts. + +In practical use the operation of the system is as follows: If all the +lamps were lighted the current would flow along P and through each pair +of lamps to N, and so back to the source of energy. In this case the +balance is preserved and the central wire remains neutral, as no return +current flows through it to the source of energy. But let us suppose +that one lamp on the positive side is extinguished. None of the other +lamps is affected thereby, but the system is immediately thrown out of +balance, and on the positive side there is an excess of current to this +extent which flows along or through the central conductor and returns to +the generator, the central conductor thus becoming the negative of that +side of the system for the time being. If the lamp extinguished had been +one of those on the negative side of the system results of a similar +nature would obtain, except that the central conductor would for the +time being become the positive of that side, and the excess of current +would flow through the negative, N, back to the source of energy. Thus +it will be seen that a three-wire system, considered as a whole, is +elastic in that it may operate as one when in balance and as two when +unbalanced, but in either event giving independent control of each unit. + +For simplicity of illustration a limited number of circuits, shown in +Fig. 2, has been employed. In practice, however, where great numbers +of lamps are in use (as, for instance, in New York City, where about +7,000,000 lamps are operated from various central stations), there is +constantly occurring more or less change in the balance of many circuits +extending over considerable distances, but of course there is a net +result which is always on one side of the system or the other for the +time being, and this is met by proper adjustment at the appropriate +generator in the station. + +In order to make the explanation complete, there is presented another +diagram showing a three-wire system unbalanced: + +The reference figures are used as before, but in this case the vertical +lines represent branches taken from the main conductors into buildings +or other spaces to be lighted, and the loops between these branch wires +represent lamps in operation. It will be seen from this sketch that +there are ten lamps on the positive side and twelve on the negative +side. Hence, the net result is an excess of current equal to that +required by two lamps flowing through the central or compensating +conductor, which is now acting as positive to generator G<2S> The arrows +show the assumed direction of flow of current throughout the system, +and the small figures at the arrow-heads the volume of that current +expressed in the number of lamps which it supplies. + +The commercial value of this invention may be appreciated from the fact +that by the application of its principles there is effected a saving +of 62 1/2 per cent. of the amount of copper over that which would +be required for conductors in any previously devised two-wire system +carrying the same load. This arises from the fact that by the doubling +of potential the two outside mains are reduced to one-quarter the +cross-section otherwise necessary. A saving of 75 per cent. would thus +be assured, but the addition of a third, or compensating, conductor of +the same cross-section as one of the outside mains reduces the total +saving to 62 1/2 per cent. + +The three-wire system is in universal use throughout the world at the +present day. + + + + +XIII. EDISON'S ELECTRIC RAILWAY + +AS narrated in Chapter XVIII, there were two electric railroads +installed by Edison at Menlo Park--one in 1880, originally a third of a +mile long, but subsequently increased to about a mile in length, and the +other in 1882, about three miles long. As the 1880 road was built very +soon after Edison's notable improvements in dynamo machines, and as the +art of operating them to the best advantage was then being developed, +this early road was somewhat crude as compared with the railroad of +1882; but both were practicable and serviceable for the purpose of +hauling passengers and freight. The scope of the present article will +be confined to a description of the technical details of these two +installations. + +The illustration opposite page 454 of the preceding narrative shows the +first Edison locomotive and train of 1880 at Menlo Park. + +For the locomotive a four-wheel iron truck was used, and upon it +was mounted one of the long "Z" type 110-volt Edison dynamos, with a +capacity of 75 amperes, which was to be used as a motor. This machine +was laid on its side, its armature being horizontal and located toward +the front of the locomotive. + +We now quote from an article by Mr. E. W. Hammer, published in the +Electrical World, New York, June 10, 1899, and afterward elaborated and +reprinted in a volume entitled Edisonia, compiled and published under +the auspices of a committee of the Association of Edison Illuminating +Companies, in 1904: "The gearing originally employed consisted of a +friction-pulley upon the armature shaft, another friction-pulley upon +the driven axle, and a third friction-pulley which could be brought +in contact with the other two by a suitable lever. Each wheel of the +locomotive was made with metallic rim and a centre portion made of wood +or papier-mache. A three-legged spider connected the metal rim of each +front wheel to a brass hub, upon which rested a collecting brush. +The other wheels were subsequently so equipped. It was the intention, +therefore, that the current should enter the locomotive wheels at one +side, and after passing through the metal spiders, collecting brushes +and motor, would pass out through the corresponding brushes, spiders, +and wheels to the other rail." + +As to the road: "The rails were light and were spiked to ordinary +sleepers, with a gauge of about three and one-half feet. The sleepers +were laid upon the natural grade, and there was comparatively no effort +made to ballast the road. . . . No special precautions were taken to +insulate the rails from the earth or from each other." + +The road started about fifty feet away from the generating station, +which in this case was the machine shop. Two of the "Z" type dynamos +were used for generating the current, which was conveyed to the two +rails of the road by underground conductors. + +On Thursday, May 13, 1880, at 4 o'clock in the afternoon, this historic +locomotive made its first trip, packed with as many of the "boys" as +could possibly find a place to hang on. "Everything worked to a charm, +until, in starting up at one end of the road, the friction gearing +was brought into action too suddenly and it was wrecked. This accident +demonstrated that some other method of connecting the armature with the +driven axle should be arranged. + +"As thus originally operated, the motor had its field circuit in +permanent connection as a shunt across the rails, and this field circuit +was protected by a safety-catch made by turning up two bare ends of the +wire in its circuit and winding a piece of fine copper wire across from +one bare end to the other. The armature circuit had a switch in it which +permitted the locomotive to be reversed by reversing the direction of +current flow through the armature. + +"After some consideration of the gearing question, it was decided to +employ belts instead of the friction-pulleys." Accordingly, Edison +installed on the locomotive a system of belting, including an +idler-pulley which was used by means of a lever to tighten the main +driving-belt, and thus power was applied to the driven axle. This +involved some slipping and consequent burning of belts; also, if the +belt were prematurely tightened, the burning-out of the armature. +This latter event happened a number of times, "and proved to be such +a serious annoyance that resistance-boxes were brought out from the +laboratory and placed upon the locomotive in series with the armature. +This solved the difficulty. The locomotive would be started with these +resistance-boxes in circuit, and after reaching full speed the operator +could plug the various boxes out of circuit, and in that way increase +the speed." To stop, the armature circuit was opened by the main switch +and the brake applied. + +This arrangement was generally satisfactory, but the resistance-boxes +scattered about the platform and foot-rests being in the way, Edison +directed that some No. 8 B. & S. copper wire be wound on the lower leg +of the motor field-magnet. "By doing this the resistance was put +where it would take up the least room, and where it would serve as an +additional field-coil when starting the motor, and it replaced all the +resistance-boxes which had heretofore been in plain sight. The boxes +under the seat were still retained in service. The coil of coarse wire +was in series with the armature, just as the resistance-boxes had been, +and could be plugged in or out of circuit at the will of the locomotive +driver. The general arrangement thus secured was operated as long as +this road was in commission." + +On this short stretch of road there were many sharp curves and steep +grades, and in consequence of the high speed attained (as high as +forty-two miles an hour) several derailments took place, but fortunately +without serious results. Three cars were in service during the entire +time of operating this 1880 railroad: one a flat-car for freight; one an +open car with two benches placed back to back; and the third a box-car, +familiarly known as the "Pullman." This latter car had an interesting +adjunct in an electric braking system (covered by Edison's Patent No. +248,430). "Each car axle had a large iron disk mounted on and revolving +with it between the poles of a powerful horseshoe electromagnet. The +pole-pieces of the magnet were movable, and would be attracted to the +revolving disk when the magnet was energized, grasping the same and +acting to retard the revolution of the car axle." + +Interesting articles on Edison's first electric railroad were published +in the technical and other papers, among which may be mentioned the New +York Herald, May 15 and July 23, 1880; the New York Graphic, July 27, +1880; and the Scientific American, June 6, 1880. + +Edison's second electric railroad of 1882 was more pretentious as +regards length, construction, and equipment. It was about three miles +long, of nearly standard gauge, and substantially constructed. Curves +were modified, and grades eliminated where possible by the erection +of numerous trestles. This road also had some features of conventional +railroads, such as sidings, turn-tables, freight platform, and +car-house. "Current was supplied to the road by underground feeder +cables from the dynamo-room of the laboratory. The rails were insulated +from the ties by giving them two coats of japan, baking them in the +oven, and then placing them on pads of tar-impregnated muslin laid +on the ties. The ends of the rails were not japanned, but were +electroplated, to give good contact surfaces for fish-plates and copper +bonds." + +The following notes of Mr. Frederick A. Scheffler, who designed the +passenger locomotive for the 1882 road, throw an interesting light on +its technical details: + + +"In May, 1881, I was engaged by Mr. M. F. Moore, who was the first +General Manager of the Edison Company for Isolated Lighting, as a +draftsman to undertake the work of designing and building Edison's +electric locomotive No. 2. + +"Previous to that time I had been employed in the engineering department +of Grant Locomotive Works, Paterson, New Jersey, and the Rhode Island +Locomotive Works, Providence, Rhode Island.... + +"It was Mr. Edison's idea, as I understood it at that time, to build a +locomotive along the general lines of steam locomotives (at least, +in outward appearance), and to combine in that respect the framework, +truck, and other parts known to be satisfactory in steam locomotives at +the same time. + +"This naturally required the services of a draftsman accustomed to +steam-locomotive practice.... Mr. Moore was a man of great railroad and +locomotive experience, and his knowledge in that direction was of great +assistance in the designing and building of this locomotive. + +"At that time I had no knowledge of electricity.... One could count +so-called electrical engineers on his fingers then, and have some +fingers left over. + +"Consequently, the ELECTRICAL equipment was designed by Mr. Edison and +his assistants. The data and parts, such as motor, rheostat, switches, +etc., were given to me, and my work was to design the supporting frame, +axles, countershafts, driving mechanism, speed control, wheels and +boxes, cab, running board, pilot (or 'cow-catcher'), buffers, and +even supports for the headlight. I believe I also designed a bell and +supports. From this it will be seen that the locomotive had all the +essential paraphernalia to make it LOOK like a steam locomotive. + +"The principal part of the outfit was the electric motor. At that +time motors were curiosities. There were no electric motors even for +stationary purposes, except freaks built for experimental uses. This +motor was made from the parts--such as fields, armature, commutator, +shaft and bearings, etc., of an Edison 'Z,' or 60-light dynamo. It was +the only size of dynamo that the Edison Company had marketed at that +time.... As a motor, it was wound to run at maximum speed to develop +a torque equal to about fifteen horse-power with 220 volts. At the +generating station at Menlo Park four Z dynamos of 110 volts were used, +connected two in series, in multiple arc, giving a line voltage of 220. + +"The motor was located in the front part of the locomotive, on its side, +with the armature shaft across the frames, or parallel with the driving +axles. + +"On account of the high speed of the armature shaft it was not possible +to connect with driving-axles direct, but this was an advantage in one +way, as by introducing an intermediate counter-shaft (corresponding to +the well-known type of double-reduction motor used on trolley-cars since +1885), a fairly good arrangement was obtained to regulate the speed of +the locomotive, exclusive of resistance in the electric circuit. + +"Endless leather belting was used to transmit the power from the motor +to the counter-shaft, and from the latter to the driving-wheels, which +were the front pair. A vertical idler-pulley was mounted in a frame over +the belt from motor to counter-shaft, terminating in a vertical screw +and hand-wheel for tightening the belt to increase speed, or the reverse +to lower speed. This hand-wheel was located in the cab, where it was +easily accessible.... + +"The rough outline sketched below shows the location of motor in +relation to counter-shaft, belting, driving-wheels, idler, etc.: + +"On account of both rails being used for circuits, . . . the +driving-wheels had to be split circumferentially and completely +insulated from the axles. This was accomplished by means of heavy wood +blocks well shellacked or otherwise treated to make them water and +weather proof, placed radially on the inside of the wheels, and then +substantially bolted to the hubs and rims of the latter. + +"The weight of the locomotive was distributed over the driving-wheels in +the usual locomotive practice by means of springs and equalizers. + +"The current was taken from the rims of the driving-wheels by a +three-pronged collector of brass, against which flexible copper brushes +were pressed--a simple manner of overcoming any inequalities of the +road-bed. + +"The late Mr. Charles T. Hughes was in charge of the track construction +at Menlo Park.... His work was excellent throughout, and the results +were highly satisfactory so far as they could possibly be with the +arrangement originally planned by Mr. Edison and his assistants. + +"Mr. Charles L. Clarke, one of the earliest electrical engineers +employed by Mr. Edison, made a number of tests on this 1882 railroad. I +believe that the engine driving the four Z generators at the power-house +indicated as high as seventy horse-power at the time the locomotive was +actually in service." + + +The electrical features of the 1882 locomotive were very similar +to those of the earlier one, already described. Shunt and series +field-windings were added to the motor, and the series windings could +be plugged in and out of circuit as desired. The series winding was +supplemented by resistance-boxes, also capable of being plugged in or +out of circuit. These various electrical features are diagrammatically +shown in Fig. 2, which also illustrates the connection with the +generating plant. + +We quote again from Mr. Hammer, who says: "The freight-locomotive had +single reduction gears, as is the modern practice, but the power was +applied through a friction-clutch The passenger-locomotive was very +speedy, and ninety passengers have been carried at a time by it; the +freight-locomotive was not so fast, but could pull heavy trains at a +good speed. Many thousand people were carried on this road during 1882." +The general appearance of Edison's electric locomotive of 1882 is shown +in the illustration opposite page 462 of the preceding narrative. In the +picture Mr. Edison may be seen in the cab, and Mr. Insull on the front +platform of the passenger-car. + + + + +XIV. TRAIN TELEGRAPHY + +WHILE the one-time art of telegraphing to and from moving trains was +essentially a wireless system, and allied in some of its principles to +the art of modern wireless telegraphy through space, the two systems +cannot, strictly speaking be regarded as identical, as the practice of +the former was based entirely on the phenomenon of induction. + +Briefly described in outline, the train telegraph system consisted of +an induction circuit obtained by laying strips of metal along the top or +roof of a railway-car, and the installation of a special telegraph +line running parallel with the track and strung on poles of only medium +height. The train, and also each signalling station, was equipped +with regulation telegraph apparatus, such as battery, key, relay, and +sounder, together with induction-coil and condenser. In addition, there +was a special transmitting device in the shape of a musical reed, or +"buzzer." In practice, this buzzer was continuously operated at a speed +of about five hundred vibrations per second by an auxiliary battery. Its +vibrations were broken by means of a telegraph key into long and +short periods, representing Morse characters, which were transmitted +inductively from the train circuit to the pole line or vice versa, and +received by the operator at the other end through a high-resistance +telephone receiver inserted in the secondary circuit of the +induction-coil. + +The accompanying diagrammatic sketch of a simple form of the system, as +installed on a car, will probably serve to make this more clear. + +An insulated wire runs from the metallic layers on the roof of the car +to switch S, which is shown open in the sketch. When a message is to be +received on the car from a station more or less remote, the switch +is thrown to the left to connect with a wire running to the telephone +receiver, T. The other wire from this receiver is run down to one of +the axles and there permanently connected, thus making a ground. The +operator puts the receiver to his ear and listens for the message, which +the telephone renders audible in the Morse characters. + +If a message is to be transmitted from the car to a receiving station, +near or distant, the switch, S, is thrown to the other side, thus +connecting with a wire leading to one end of the secondary of +induction-coil C. The other end of the secondary is connected with the +grounding wire. The primary of the induction-coil is connected as shown, +one end going to key K and the other to the buzzer circuit. The other +side of the key is connected to the transmitting battery, while the +opposite pole of this battery is connected in the buzzer circuit. The +buzzer, R, is maintained in rapid vibration by its independent auxiliary +battery, B<1S>. + +When the key is pressed down the circuit is closed, and current from +the transmitting battery, B, passes through primary of the coil, C, and +induces a current of greatly increased potential in the secondary. +The current as it passes into the primary, being broken up into short +impulses by the tremendously rapid vibrations of the buzzer, induces +similarly rapid waves of high potential in the secondary, and these +in turn pass to the roof and thence through the intervening air by +induction to the telegraph wire. By a continued lifting and depression +of the key in the regular manner, these waves are broken up into long +and short periods, and are thus transmitted to the station, via the +wire, in Morse characters, dots and dashes. + +The receiving stations along the line of the railway were similarly +equipped as to apparatus, and, generally speaking the operations of +sending and receiving messages were substantially the same as above +described. + +The equipment of an operator on a car was quite simple consisting merely +of a small lap-board, on which were mounted the key, coil, and buzzer, +leaving room for telegraph blanks. To this board were also attached +flexible conductors having spring clips, by means of which connections +could be made quickly with conveniently placed terminals of the ground, +roof, and battery wires. The telephone receiver was held on the head +with a spring, the flexible connecting wire being attached to the lap +board, thus leaving the operator with both hands free. + +The system, as shown in the sketch and elucidated by the text, +represents the operation of train telegraphy in a simple form, but +combining the main essentials of the art as it was successfully and +commercially practiced for a number of years after Edison and Gilliland +entered the field. They elaborated the system in various ways, making it +more complete; but it has not been deemed necessary to enlarge further +upon the technical minutiae of the art for the purpose of this work. + + + + +XV. KINETOGRAPH AND PROJECTING KINETOSCOPE + + +ALTHOUGH many of the arts in which Edison has been a pioneer have been +enriched by his numerous inventions and patents, which were subsequent +to those of a fundamental nature, the (so-called) motion-picture art +is an exception, as the following, together with three other additional +patents [30] comprise all that he has taken out on this subject: United +States Patent No. 589,168, issued August 31, 1897, reissued in two +parts--namely, No. 12,037, under date of September 30,1902, and No. +12,192, under date of January 12, 1904. Application filed August 24, +1891. + + [Footnote 30: Not 491,993, issued February 21, 1893; No. + 493,426, issued March 14, 1893; No. 772,647, issued October + 18, 1904.] + +There is nothing surprising in this, however, as the possibility of +photographing and reproducing actual scenes of animate life are so +thoroughly exemplified and rendered practicable by the apparatus +and methods disclosed in the patents above cited, that these basic +inventions in themselves practically constitute the art--its development +proceeding mainly along the line of manufacturing details. That such +a view of his work is correct, the highest criterion--commercial +expediency--bears witness; for in spite of the fact that the courts have +somewhat narrowed the broad claims of Edison's patents by reason of the +investigations of earlier experimenters, practically all the immense +amount of commercial work that is done in the motion-picture field +to-day is accomplished through the use of apparatus and methods licensed +under the Edison patents. + +The philosophy of this invention having already been described in +Chapter XXI, it will be unnecessary to repeat it here. Suffice it to say +by way of reminder that it is founded upon the physiological phenomenon +known as the persistence of vision, through which a series of sequential +photographic pictures of animate motion projected upon a screen in rapid +succession will reproduce to the eye all the appearance of the original +movements. + +Edison's work in this direction comprised the invention not only of a +special form of camera for making original photographic exposures from a +single point of view with very great rapidity, and of a machine adapted +to effect the reproduction of such pictures in somewhat similar manner +but also of the conception and invention of a continuous uniform, and +evenly spaced tape-like film, so absolutely essential for both the above +objects. + +The mechanism of such a camera, as now used, consists of many +parts assembled in such contiguous proximity to each other that an +illustration from an actual machine would not help to clearness of +explanation to the general reader. Hence a diagram showing a sectional +view of a simple form of such a camera is presented below. + +In this diagram, A represents an outer light-tight box containing a +lens, C, and the other necessary mechanism for making the photographic +exposures, H<1S> and H<2S> being cases for holding reels of film before +and after exposure, F the long, tape-like film, G a sprocket whose teeth +engage in perforations on the edges of the film, such sprocket being +adapted to be revolved with an intermittent or step-by-step movement +by hand or by motor, and B a revolving shutter having an opening and +connected by gears with G, and arranged to expose the film during the +periods of rest. A full view of this shutter is also represented, with +its opening, D, in the small illustration to the right. + +In practice, the operation would be somewhat as follows, generally +speaking: The lens would first be focussed on the animate scene to be +photographed. On turning the main shaft of the camera the sprocket, G, +is moved intermittently, and its teeth, catching in the holes in the +sensitized film, draws it downward, bringing a new portion of its length +in front of the lens, the film then remaining stationary for an instant. +In the mean time, through gearing connecting the main shaft with the +shutter, the latter is rotated, bringing its opening, D, coincident with +the lens, and therefore exposing the film while it is stationary, after +which the film again moves forward. So long as the action is continued +these movements are repeated, resulting in a succession of enormously +rapid exposures upon the film during its progress from reel H<1S> to its +automatic rewinding on reel H<2S>. While the film is passing through the +various parts of the machine it is guided and kept straight by various +sets of rollers between which it runs, as indicated in the diagram. + +By an ingenious arrangement of the mechanism, the film moves +intermittently so that it may have a much longer period of rest than +of motion. As in practice the pictures are taken at a rate of twenty or +more per second, it will be quite obvious that each period of rest is +infinitesimally brief, being generally one-thirtieth of a second or +less. Still it is sufficient to bring the film to a momentary condition +of complete rest, and to allow for a maximum time of exposure, +comparatively speaking, thus providing means for taking clearly defined +pictures. The negatives so obtained are developed in the regular +way, and the positive prints subsequently made from them are used for +reproduction. + +The reproducing machine, or, as it is called in practice, the Projecting +Kinetoscope, is quite similar so far as its general operations in +handling the film are concerned. In appearance it is somewhat different; +indeed, it is in two parts, the one containing the lighting arrangements +and condensing lens, and the other embracing the mechanism and objective +lens. The "taking" camera must have its parts enclosed in a light-tight +box, because of the undeveloped, sensitized film, but the projecting +kinetoscope, using only a fully developed positive film, may, and, +for purposes of convenient operation, must be accessibly open. The +illustration (Fig. 2) will show the projecting apparatus as used in +practice. + +The philosophy of reproduction is very simple, and is illustrated +diagrammatically in Fig. 3, reference letters being the same as in Fig. +1. As to the additional reference letters, I is a condenser J the source +of light, and K a reflector. + +The positive film is moved intermittently but swiftly throughout its +length between the objective lens and a beam of light coming through the +condenser, being exposed by the shutter during the periods of rest. This +results in a projection of the photographs upon a screen in such rapid +succession as to present an apparently continuous photograph of the +successive positions of the moving objects, which, therefore, appear to +the human eye to be in motion. + +The first claim of Reissue Patent No. 12,192 describes the film. It +reads as follows: + + +"An unbroken transparent or translucent tape-like photographic film +having thereon uniform, sharply defined, equidistant photographs of +successive positions of an object in motion as observed from a single +point of view at rapidly recurring intervals of time, such photographs +being arranged in a continuous straight-line sequence, unlimited in +number save by the length of the film, and sufficient in number to +represent the movements of the object throughout an extended period of +time." + + + + +XVI. EDISON'S ORE-MILLING INVENTIONS + +THE wide range of Edison's activities in this department of the arts is +well represented in the diversity of the numerous patents that have been +issued to him from time to time. These patents are between fifty and +sixty in number, and include magnetic ore separators of ten distinct +types; also breaking, crushing, and grinding rolls, conveyors, +dust-proof bearings, screens, driers, mixers, bricking apparatus and +machines, ovens, and processes of various kinds. + +A description of the many devices in each of these divisions would +require more space than is available; hence, we shall confine ourselves +to a few items of predominating importance, already referred to in the +narrative, commencing with the fundamental magnetic ore separator, which +was covered by United States Patent No. 228,329, issued June 1, 1880. + +The illustration here presented is copied from the drawing forming part +of this patent. A hopper with adjustable feed is supported several feet +above a bin having a central partition. Almost midway between the hopper +and the bin is placed an electromagnet whose polar extension is so +arranged as to be a little to one side of a stream of material falling +from the hopper. Normally, a stream of finely divided ore falling from +the hopper would fall into that portion of the bin lying to the left +of the partition. If, however, the magnet is energized from a source of +current, the magnetic particles in the falling stream are attracted +by and move toward the magnet, which is so placed with relation to +the falling material that the magnetic particles cannot be attracted +entirely to the magnet before gravity has carried them past. Hence, +their trajectory is altered, and they fall on the right-hand side of +the partition in the bin, while the non-magnetic portion of the stream +continues in a straight line and falls on the other side, thus effecting +a complete separation. + +This simple but effective principle was the one employed by Edison +in his great concentrating plant already described. In practice, the +numerous hoppers, magnets, and bins were many feet in length; and they +were arranged in batteries of varied magnetic strength, in order +that the intermingled mass of crushed rock and iron ore might be +more thoroughly separated by being passed through magnetic fields of +successively increasing degrees of attracting power. Altogether there +were about four hundred and eighty of these immense magnets in the +plant, distributed in various buildings in batteries as above mentioned, +the crushed rock containing the iron ore being delivered to them by +conveyors, and the gangue and ore being taken away after separation by +two other conveyors and delivered elsewhere. The magnetic separators at +first used by Edison at this plant were of the same generality as the +ones employed some years previously in the separation of sea-shore sand, +but greatly enlarged and improved. The varied experiences gained in +the concentration of vast quantities of ore led naturally to a greater +development, and several new types and arrangements of magnetic +separators were evolved and elaborated by him from first to last, during +the progress of the work at the concentrating plant. + +The magnetic separation of iron from its ore being the foundation idea +of the inventions now under discussion, a consideration of the separator +has naturally taken precedence over those of collateral but inseparable +interest. The ore-bearing rock, however, must first be ground to powder +before it can be separated; hence, we will now begin at the root of +this operation and consider the "giant rolls," which Edison devised +for breaking huge masses of rock. In his application for United States +Patent No. 672,616, issued April 23, 1901, applied for on July 16, 1897, +he says: "The object of my invention is to produce a method for the +breaking of rock which will be simple and effective, will not require +the hand-sledging or blasting of the rock down to pieces of moderate +size, and will involve the consumption of a small amount of power." + +While this quotation refers to the method as "simple," the patent under +consideration covers one of the most bold and daring projects that +Edison has ever evolved. He proposed to eliminate the slow and expensive +method of breaking large boulders manually, and to substitute therefor +momentum and kinetic energy applied through the medium of massive +machinery, which, in a few seconds, would break into small pieces a rock +as big as an ordinary upright cottage piano, and weighing as much as six +tons. Engineers to whom Edison communicated his ideas were unanimous +in declaring the thing an impossibility; it was like driving two +express-trains into each other at full speed to crack a great rock +placed between them; that no practical machinery could be built to +stand the terrific impact and strains. Edison's convictions were +strong, however, and he persisted. The experiments were of heroic size, +physically and financially, but after a struggle of several years and +an expenditure of about $100,000, he realized the correctness and +practicability of his plans in the success of the giant rolls, which +were the outcome of his labors. + +The giant rolls consist of a pair of iron cylinders of massive size and +weight, with removable wearing plates having irregular surfaces formed +by projecting knobs. These rolls are mounted side by side in a very +heavy frame (leaving a gap of about fourteen inches between them), and +are so belted up with the source of power that they run in opposite +directions. The giant rolls described by Edison in the above-named +patent as having been built and operated by him had a combined weight of +167,000 pounds, including all moving parts, which of themselves weighed +about seventy tons, each roll being six feet in diameter and five feet +long. A top view of the rolls is shown in the sketch, one roll and one +of its bearings being shown in section. + +In Fig. 2 the rolls are illustrated diagrammatically. As a sketch of +this nature, even if given with a definite scale, does not always carry +an adequate idea of relative dimensions to a non-technical reader, +we present in Fig. 3 a perspective illustration of the giant rolls as +installed in the concentrating plant. + +In practice, a small amount of power is applied to run the giant rolls +gradually up to a surface speed of several thousand feet a minute. When +this high speed is attained, masses of rock weighing several tons in one +or more pieces are dumped into a hopper which guides them into the gap +between the rapidly revolving rolls. The effect is to partially arrest +the swift motion of the rolls instantaneously, and thereby develop and +expend an enormous amount of kinetic energy, which with pile-driver +effect cracks the rocks and breaks them into pieces small enough to +pass through the fourteen-inch gap. As the power is applied to the rolls +through slipping friction-clutches, the speed of the driving-pulleys is +not materially reduced; hence the rolls may again be quickly speeded up +to their highest velocity while another load of rock is being hoisted +in position to be dumped into the hopper. It will be obvious from the +foregoing that if it were attempted to supply the great energy necessary +for this operation by direct application of steam-power, an engine of +enormous horse-power would be required, and even then it is doubtful +if one could be constructed of sufficient strength to withstand the +terrific strains that would ensue. But the work is done by the great +momentum and kinetic energy obtained by speeding up these tremendous +masses of metal, and then suddenly opposing their progress, the +engine being relieved of all strain through the medium of the slipping +friction-clutches. Thus, this cyclopean operation may be continuously +conducted with an amount of power prodigiously inferior, in proportion, +to the results accomplished. + +The sketch (Fig. 4) showing a large boulder being dumped into the +hopper, or roll-pit, will serve to illustrate the method of feeding +these great masses of rock to the rolls, and will also enable the reader +to form an idea of the rapidity of the breaking operation, when it is +stated that a boulder of the size represented would be reduced by +the giant rolls to pieces a trifle larger than a man's head in a few +seconds. + +After leaving the giant rolls the broken rock passed on through other +crushing-rolls of somewhat similar construction. These also were +invented by Edison, but antedated those previously described; being +covered by Patent No. 567,187, issued September 8, 1896. These rolls +were intended for the reducing of "one-man-size" rocks to small pieces, +which at the time of their original inception was about the standard +size of similar machines. At the Edison concentrating plant the broken +rock, after passing through these rolls, was further reduced in size by +other rolls, and was then ready to be crushed to a fine powder through +the medium of another remarkable machine devised by Edison to meet his +ever-recurring and well-defined ideas of the utmost economy and +efficiency. + +NOTE.--Figs. 3 and 4 are reproduced from similar sketches on pages 84 +and 85 of McClure's Magazine for November, 1897, by permission of S. S. +McClure Co. + +The best fine grinding-machines that it was then possible to obtain were +so inefficient as to involve a loss of 82 per cent. of the power +applied. The thought of such an enormous loss was unbearable, and he did +not rest until he had invented and put into use an entirely new +grinding-machine, which was called the "three-high" rolls. The device +was covered by a patent issued to him on November 21, 1899, No. 637,327. +It was a most noteworthy invention, for it brought into the art not only +a greater efficiency of grinding than had ever been dreamed of before, +but also a tremendous economy by the saving of power; for whereas the +previous efficiency had been 18 per cent. and the loss 82 per cent., +Edison reversed these figures, and in his three-high rolls produced a +working efficiency of 84 per cent., thus reducing the loss of power by +friction to 16 per cent. A diagrammatic sketch of this remarkable +machine is shown in Fig. 5, which shows a front elevation with the +casings, hopper, etc., removed, and also shows above the rolls the rope +and pulleys, the supports for which are also removed for the sake of +clearness in the illustration. + +For the convenience of the reader, in referring to Fig. 5, we will +repeat the description of the three-high rolls, which is given on pages +487 and 488 of the preceding narrative. + +In the two end-pieces of a heavy iron frame were set three rolls, or +cylinders--one in the centre, another below, and the other above--all +three being in a vertical line. These rolls were about three feet in +diameter, made of cast-iron, and had face-plates of chilled-iron. [31] +The lowest roll was set in a fixed bearing at the bottom of the frame, +and, therefore, could only turn around on its axis. The middle and top +rolls were free to move up or down from and toward the lower roll, and +the shafts of the middle and upper rolls were set in a loose bearing +which could slip up and down in the iron frame. It will be apparent, +therefore, that any material which passed in between the top and the +middle rolls, and the middle and bottom rolls, could be ground as fine +as might be desired, depending entirely upon the amount of pressure +applied to the loose rolls. In operation the material passed first +through the upper and middle rolls, and then between the middle and +lowest rolls. + + + [Footnote 31: The faces of these rolls were smooth, but as + three-high rolls came into use later in Edison's Portland + cement operations the faces were corrugated so as to fit + into each other, gear-fashion, to provide for a high rate of + feed] + + +This pressure was applied in a most ingenious manner. On the ends of the +shafts of the bottom and top rolls there were cylindrical sleeves, or +bearings, having seven sheaves in which was run a half-inch endless wire +rope. This rope was wound seven times over the sheaves as above, and led +upward and over a single-groove sheave, which was operated by the piston +of an air-cylinder, and in this manner the pressure was applied to the +rolls. It will be seen, therefore that the system consisted in a single +rope passed over sheaves and so arranged that it could be varied +in length, thus providing for elasticity in exerting pressure and +regulating it as desired. The efficiency of this system was incomparably +greater than that of any other known crusher or grinder, for while a +pressure of one hundred and twenty-five thousand pounds could be exerted +by these rolls, friction was almost entirely eliminated, because the +upper and lower roll bearings turned with the rolls and revolved in the +wire rope, which constituted the bearing proper. + +Several other important patents have been issued to Edison for crushing +and grinding rolls, some of them being for elaborations and improvements +of those above described but all covering methods of greater economy and +effectiveness in rock-grinding. + +Edison's work on conveyors during the period of his ore-concentrating +labors was distinctively original, ingenious and far in advance of +the times. His conception of the concentrating problem was broad and +embraced an entire system, of which a principal item was the continuous +transfer of enormous quantities of material from place to place at +the lowest possible cost. As he contemplated the concentration of six +thousand tons daily, the expense of manual labor to move such an immense +quantity of rock, sand, and ore would be absolutely prohibitive. Hence, +it became necessary to invent a system of conveyors that would be +capable of transferring this mass of material from one place to another. +And not only must these conveyors be capable of carrying the material, +but they must also be devised so that they would automatically receive +and discharge their respective loads at appointed places. Edison's +ingenuity, engineering ability, and inventive skill were equal to the +task, however, and were displayed in a system and variety of conveyors +that in practice seemed to act with almost human discrimination. When +fully installed throughout the plant, they automatically transferred +daily a mass of material equal to about one hundred thousand cubic feet, +from mill to mill, covering about a mile in the transit. Up and down, +winding in and out, turning corners, delivering material from one to +another, making a number of loops in the drying-oven, filling up bins +and passing on to the next when they were full, these conveyors in +automatic action seemingly played their part with human intelligence, +which was in reality the reflection of the intelligence and ingenuity +that had originally devised them and set them in motion. + +Six of Edison's patents on conveyors include a variety of devices that +have since came into broad general use for similar work, and have been +the means of effecting great economies in numerous industries of widely +varying kinds. Interesting as they are, however, we shall not attempt to +describe them in detail, as the space required would be too great. They +are specified in the list of patents following this Appendix, and may be +examined in detail by any interested student. + +In the same list will also be found a large number of Edison's patents +on apparatus and methods of screening, drying, mixing, and briquetting, +as well as for dust-proof bearings, and various types and groupings +of separators, all of which were called forth by the exigencies and +magnitude of his great undertaking, and without which he could not +possibly have attained the successful physical results that crowned his +labors. Edison's persistence in reducing the cost of his operations is +noteworthy in connection with his screening and drying inventions, in +which the utmost advantage is taken of the law of gravitation. With +its assistance, which cost nothing, these operations were performed +perfectly. It was only necessary to deliver the material at the top of +the chambers, and during its natural descent it was screened or dried as +the case might be. + +All these inventions and devices, as well as those described in detail +above (except magnetic separators and mixing and briquetting machines), +are being used by him to-day in the manufacture of Portland cement, as +that industry presents many of the identical problems which presented +themselves in relation to the concentration of iron ore. + + + + +XVII. THE LONG CEMENT KILN + +IN this remarkable invention, which has brought about a striking +innovation in a long-established business, we see another characteristic +instance of Edison's incisive reasoning and boldness of conception +carried into practical effect in face of universal opinions to the +contrary. + +For the information of those unacquainted with the process of +manufacturing Portland cement, it may be stated that the material +consists preliminarily of an intimate mixture of cement rock and +limestone, ground to a very fine powder. This powder is technically +known in the trade as "chalk," and is fed into rotary kilns and +"burned"; that is to say, it is subjected to a high degree of heat +obtained by the combustion of pulverized coal, which is injected +into the interior of the kiln. This combustion effects a chemical +decomposition of the chalk, and causes it to assume a plastic +consistency and to collect together in the form of small spherical +balls, which are known as "clinker." Kilns are usually arranged with +a slight incline, at the upper end of which the chalk is fed in and +gradually works its way down to the interior flame of burning fuel at +the other end. When it arrives at the lower end, the material has been +"burned," and the clinker drops out into a receiving chamber below. The +operation is continuous, a constant supply of chalk passing in at one +end of the kiln and a continuous dribble of clinker-balls dropping +out at the other. After cooling, the clinker is ground into very fine +powder, which is the Portland cement of commerce. + +It is self-evident that an ideal kiln would be one that produced the +maximum quantity of thoroughly clinkered material with a minimum amount +of fuel, labor, and investment. When Edison was preparing to go into +the cement business, he looked the ground over thoroughly, and, after +considerable investigation and experiment, came to the conclusion that +prevailing conditions as to kilns were far from ideal. + +The standard kilns then in use were about sixty feet in length, with an +internal diameter of about five feet. In all rotary kilns for burning +cement, the true clinkering operation takes place only within a limited +portion of their total length, where the heat is greatest; hence the +interior of the kiln may be considered as being divided longitudinally +into two parts or zones--namely, the combustion, or clinkering, zone, +and the zone of oncoming raw material. In the sixty-foot kiln the length +of the combustion zone was about ten feet, extending from a point six or +eight feet from the lower, or discharge, end to a point about eighteen +feet from that end. Consequently, beyond that point there was a zone of +only about forty feet, through which the heated gases passed and came +in contact with the oncoming material, which was in movement down toward +the clinkering zone. Since the bulk of oncoming material was small, +the gases were not called upon to part with much of their heat, and +therefore passed on up the stack at very high temperatures, ranging from +1500 degrees to 1800 degrees Fahr. Obviously, this heat was entirely +lost. + +An additional loss of efficiency arose from the fact that the material +moved so rapidly toward the combustion zone that it had not given up +all its carbon dioxide on reaching there; and by the giving off of +large quantities of that gas within the combustion zone, perfect and +economical combustion of coal could not be effected. + +The comparatively short length of the sixty-foot kiln not only limited +the amount of material that could be fed into it, but the limitation in +length of the combustion zone militated against a thorough clinkering of +the material, this operation being one in which the elements of time and +proper heat are prime considerations. Thus the quantity of good clinker +obtainable was unfavorably affected. By reason of these and other +limitations and losses, it had been possible, in practice, to obtain +only about two hundred and fifty barrels of clinker per day of +twenty-four hours; and that with an expenditure for coal proportionately +equal to about 29 to 33 per cent. of the quantity of clinker produced, +even assuming that all the clinker was of good quality. + +Edison realized that the secret of greater commercial efficiency and +improvement of quality lay in the ability to handle larger quantities +of material within a given time, and to produce a more perfect product +without increasing cost or investment in proportion. His reasoning led +him to the conclusion that this result could only be obtained through +the use of a kiln of comparatively great length, and his investigations +and experiments enabled him to decide upon a length of one hundred and +fifty feet, but with an increase in diameter of only six inches to a +foot over that of the sixty-foot kiln. + +The principal considerations that influenced Edison in making this +radical innovation may be briefly stated as follows: + +First. The ability to maintain in the kiln a load from five to seven +times greater than ordinarily employed, thereby tending to a more +economical output. + +Second. The combustion of a vastly increased bulk of pulverized coal +and a greatly enlarged combustion zone, extending about forty feet +longitudinally into the kiln--thus providing an area within which +the material might be maintained in a clinkering temperature for a +sufficiently long period to insure its being thoroughly clinkered from +periphery to centre. + +Third. By reason of such a greatly extended length of the zone of +oncoming material (and consequently much greater bulk), the gases and +other products of combustion would be cooled sufficiently between the +combustion zone and the stack so as to leave the kiln at a comparatively +low temperature. Besides, the oncoming material would thus be gradually +raised in temperature instead of being heated abruptly, as in the +shorter kilns. + +Fourth. The material having thus been greatly raised in temperature +before reaching the combustion zone would have parted with substantially +all its carbon dioxide, and therefore would not introduce into the +combustion zone sufficient of that gas to disturb the perfect character +of the combustion. + +Fifth. On account of the great weight of the heavy load in a long kiln, +there would result the formation of a continuous plastic coating on that +portion of the inner surface of the kiln where temperatures are +highest. This would effectively protect the fire-brick lining from the +destructive effects of the heat. + +Such, in brief, were the essential principles upon which Edison based +his conception and invention of the long kiln, which has since become so +well known in the cement business. + +Many other considerations of a minor and mechanical nature, but which +were important factors in his solution of this difficult problem, are +worthy of study by those intimately associated with or interested in the +art. Not the least of the mechanical questions was settled by Edison's +decision to make this tremendously long kiln in sections of cast-iron, +with flanges, bolted together, and supported on rollers rotated by +electric motors. Longitudinal expansion and thrust were also important +factors to be provided for, as well as special devices to prevent the +packing of the mass of material as it passed in and out of the kiln. +Special provision was also made for injecting streams of pulverized coal +in such manner as to create the largely extended zone of combustion. As +to the details of these and many other ingenious devices, we must refer +the curious reader to the patents, as it is merely intended in these +pages to indicate in a brief manner the main principles of Edison's +notable inventions. The principal United States patent on the long kiln +was issued October 24, 1905, No. 802,631. + +That his reasonings and deductions were correct in this case have been +indubitably proven by some years of experience with the long kiln in its +ability to produce from eight hundred to one thousand barrels of +good clinker every twenty-four hours, with an expenditure for coal +proportionately equal to about only 20 per cent. of the quantity of +clinker produced. + +To illustrate the long cement kiln by diagram would convey but little +to the lay mind, and we therefore present an illustration (Fig. 1) of +actual kilns in perspective, from which sense of their proportions may +be gathered. + + + + +XVIII. EDISON'S NEW STORAGE BATTERY + +GENERICALLY considered, a "battery" is a device which generates electric +current. There are two distinct species of battery, one being known as +"primary," and the other as "storage," although the latter is sometimes +referred to as a "secondary battery" or "accumulator." Every type of +each of these two species is essentially alike in its general make-up; +that is to say, every cell of battery of any kind contains at least +two elements of different nature immersed in a more or less liquid +electrolyte of chemical character. On closing the circuit of a primary +battery an electric current is generated by reason of the chemical +action which is set up between the electrolyte and the elements. +This involves a gradual consumption of one of the elements and a +corresponding exhaustion of the active properties of the electrolyte. By +reason of this, both the element and the electrolyte that have been used +up must be renewed from time to time, in order to obtain a continued +supply of electric current. + +The storage battery also generates electric current through chemical +action, but without involving the constant repriming with active +materials to replace those consumed and exhausted as above mentioned. +The term "storage," as applied to this species of battery, is, +however, a misnomer, and has been the cause of much misunderstanding +to nontechnical persons. To the lay mind a "storage" battery presents +itself in the aspect of a device in which electric energy is STORED, +just as compressed air is stored or accumulated in a tank. This view, +however, is not in accordance with facts. It is exactly like the primary +battery in the fundamental circumstance that its ability for generating +electric current depends upon chemical action. In strict terminology it +is a "reversible" battery, as will be quite obvious if we glance briefly +at its philosophy. When a storage battery is "charged," by having an +electric current passed through it, the electric energy produces a +chemical effect, adding oxygen to the positive plate, and taking oxygen +away from the negative plate. Thus, the positive plate becomes oxidized, +and the negative plate reduced. After the charging operation is +concluded the battery is ready for use, and upon its circuit being +closed through a translating device, such as a lamp or motor, a +reversion ("discharge") takes place, the positive plate giving up its +oxygen, and the negative plate being oxidized. These chemical actions +result in the generation of an electric current as in a primary battery. +As a matter of fact, the chemical actions and reactions in a storage +battery are much more complex, but the above will serve to afford the +lay reader a rather simple idea of the general result arrived at through +the chemical activity referred to. + +The storage battery, as a commercial article, was introduced into the +market in the year 1881. At that time, and all through the succeeding +years, until about 1905, there was only one type that was recognized as +commercially practicable--namely, that known as the lead-sulphuric-acid +cell, consisting of lead plates immersed in an electrolyte of dilute +sulphuric acid. In the year last named Edison first brought out his new +form of nickel-iron cell with alkaline electrolyte, as we have related +in the preceding narrative. Early in the eighties, at Menlo Park, he had +given much thought to the lead type of storage battery, and during the +course of three years had made a prodigious number of experiments in the +direction of improving it, probably performing more experiments in that +time than the aggregate of those of all other investigators. Even +in those early days he arrived at the conclusion that the +lead-sulphuric-acid combination was intrinsically wrong, and did not +embrace the elements of a permanent commercial device. He did not at +that time, however, engage in a serious search for another form of +storage battery, being tremendously occupied with his lighting system +and other matters. + +It may here be noted, for the information of the lay reader, that the +lead-acid type of storage battery consists of two or more lead plates +immersed in dilute sulphuric acid and contained in a receptacle of +glass, hard rubber, or other special material not acted upon by acid. +The plates are prepared and "formed" in various ways, and the chemical +actions are similar to those above stated, the positive plate being +oxidized and the negative reduced during "charge," and reversed during +"discharge." This type of cell, however, has many serious disadvantages +inherent to its very nature. We will name a few of them briefly. +Constant dropping of fine particles of active material often causes +short-circuiting of the plates, and always necessitates occasional +washing out of cells; deterioration through "sulphation" if discharge +is continued too far or if recharging is not commenced quickly enough; +destruction of adjacent metalwork by the corrosive fumes given out +during charge and discharge; the tendency of lead plates to "buckle" +under certain conditions; the limitation to the use of glass, hard +rubber, or similar containers on account of the action of the acid; and +the immense weight for electrical capacity. The tremendously complex +nature of the chemical reactions which take place in the lead-acid +storage battery also renders it an easy prey to many troublesome +diseases. + +In the year 1900, when Edison undertook to invent a storage battery, he +declared it should be a new type into which neither sulphuric nor +any other acid should enter. He said that the intimate and continued +companionship of an acid and a metal was unnatural, and incompatible +with the idea of durability and simplicity. He furthermore stated that +lead was an unmechanical metal for a battery, being heavy and lacking +stability and elasticity, and that as most metals were unaffected by +alkaline solutions, he was going to experiment in that direction. The +soundness of his reasoning is amply justified by the perfection of +results obtained in the new type of storage battery bearing his name, +and now to be described. + +The essential technical details of this battery are fully described +in an article written by one of Edison's laboratory staff, Walter +E. Holland, who for many years has been closely identified with the +inventor's work on this cell The article was published in the Electrical +World, New York, April 28, 1910; and the following extracts therefrom +will afford an intelligent comprehension of this invention: + +"The 'A' type Edison cell is the outcome of nine years of costly +experimentation and persistent toil on the part of its inventor and his +associates.... + +"The Edison invention involves the use of an entirely new +voltaic combination in an alkaline electrolyte, in place of the +lead-lead-peroxide combination and acid electrolyte, characteristic of +all other commercial storage batteries. Experience has proven that +this not only secures durability and greater output per unit-weight of +battery, but in addition there is eliminated a long list of troubles and +diseases inherent in the lead-acid combination.... + +"The principle on which the action of this new battery is based is +the oxidation and reduction of metals in an electrolyte which does not +combine with, and will not dissolve, either the metals or their oxides; +and an electrolyte, furthermore, which, although decomposed by the +action of the battery, is immediately re-formed in equal quantity; and +therefore in effect is a CONSTANT element, not changing in density or in +conductivity. + +"A battery embodying this basic principle will have features of great +value where lightness and durability are desiderata. For instance, the +electrolyte, being a constant factor, as explained, is not required in +any fixed and large amount, as is the case with sulphuric acid in the +lead battery; thus the cell may be designed with minimum distancing of +plates and with the greatest economy of space that is consistent with +safe insulation and good mechanical design. Again, the active materials +of the electrodes being insoluble in, and absolutely unaffected by, the +electrolyte, are not liable to any sort of chemical deterioration by +action of the electrolyte--no matter how long continued.... + +"The electrolyte of the Edison battery is a 21 per cent. solution of +potassium hydrate having, in addition, a small amount of lithium +hydrate. The active metals of the electrodes--which will oxidize and +reduce in this electrolyte without dissolution or chemical +deterioration--are nickel and iron. These active elements are not put in +the plates AS METALS; but one, nickel, in the form of a hydrate, and the +other, iron, as an oxide. + +"The containing cases of both kinds of active material (Fig. 1), and +their supporting grids (Fig. 2), as well as the bolts, washers, and nuts +used in assembling (Fig. 3), and even the retaining can and its cover +(Fig. 4), are all made of nickel-plated steel--a material in which +lightness, durability and mechanical strength are most happily +combined, and a material beyond suspicion as to corrosion in an alkaline +electrolyte.... + +"An essential part of Edison's discovery of active masetials for +an alkaline storage battery was the PREPARATION of these materials. +Metallic powder of iron and nickel, or even oxides of these metals, +prepared in the ordinary way, are not chemically active in a sufficient +degree to work in a battery. It is only when specially prepared iron +oxide of exceeding fineness, and nickel hydrate conforming to certain +physical, as well as chemical, standards can be made that the alkaline +battery is practicable. Needless to say, the working out of the +conditions and processes of manufacture of the materials has involved +great ingenuity and endless experimentation." + + +The article then treats of Edison's investigations into means for +supporting and making electrical connection with the active materials, +showing some of the difficulties encountered and the various discoveries +made in developing the perfected cell, after which the writer continues +his description of the "A" type cell, as follows: + + +"It will be seen at once that the construction of the two kinds of plate +is radically different. The negative or iron plate (Fig. 5) has the +familiar flat-pocket construction. Each negative contains twenty-four +pockets--a pocket being 1/2 inch wide by 3 inches long, and having a +maximum thickness of a little more than 1/8 inch. The positive or nickel +plate (Fig. 6) is seen to consist of two rows of round rods or pencils, +thirty in number, held in a vertical position by a steel support-frame. +The pencils have flat flanges at the ends (formed by closing in the +metal case), by which they are supported and electrical connection is +made. The frame is slit at the inner horizontal edges, and then folded +in such a way as to make individual clamping-jaws for each end-flange. +The clamping-in is done at great pressure, and the resultant plate has +great rigidity and strength. + +"The perforated tubes into which the nickel active material is loaded +are made of nickel-plated steel of high quality. They are put together +with a double-lapped spiral seam to give expansion-resisting qualities, +and as an additional precaution small metal rings are slipped on the +outside. Each tube is 1/4 inch in diameter by 4 1/8 inches long, add has +eight of the reinforcing rings. + +"It will be seen that the 'A' positive plate has been given the +theoretically best design to prevent expansion and overcome trouble from +that cause. Actual tests, long continued under very severe conditions, +have shown that the construction is right, and fulfils the most sanguine +expectations." + + +Mr. Holland in his article then goes on to explain the development of +the nickel flakes as the conducting factor in the positive element, but +as this has already been described in Chapter XXII, we shall pass on to +a later point, where he says: + + +"An idea of the conditions inside a loaded tube can best be had by +microscopic examination. Fig. 7 shows a magnified section of a regularly +loaded tube which has been sawed lengthwise. The vertical bounding walls +are edges of the perforated metal containing tube; the dark horizontal +lines are layers of nickel flake, while the light-colored thicker layers +represent the nickel hydrate. It should be noted that the layers of +flake nickel extend practically unbroken across the tube and make +contact with the metal wall at both sides. These metal layers conduct +current to or from the active nickel hydrate in all parts of the tube +very efficiently. There are about three hundred and fifty layers of +each kind of material in a 4 1/8-inch tube, each layer of nickel hydrate +being about 0.01 inch thick; so it will be seen that the current does +not have to penetrate very far into the nickel hydrate--one-half a +layer's thickness being the maximum distance. The perforations of +the containing tube, through which the electrolyte reaches the active +material, are also shown in Fig. 7." + + +In conclusion, the article enumerates the chief characteristics of the +Edison storage battery which fit it preeminently for transportation +service, as follows: 1. No loss of active material, hence no +sediment short-circuits. 2. No jar breakage. 3. Possibility of quick +disconnection or replacement of any cell without employment of skilled +labor. 4. Impossibility of "buckling" and harmlessness of a dead +short-circuit. 5. Simplicity of care required. 6. Durability of +materials and construction. 7. Impossibility of "sulphation." 8. Entire +absence of corrosive fumes. 9. Commercial advantages of light weight. +10. Duration on account of its dependability. 11. Its high practical +efficiency. + + + + +XIX. EDISON'S POURED CEMENT HOUSE + +THE inventions that have been thus far described fall into two +classes--first, those that were fundamental in the great arts and +industries which have been founded and established upon them, and, +second, those that have entered into and enlarged other arts that were +previously in existence. On coming to consider the subject now under +discussion, however, we find ourselves, at this writing, on the +threshold of an entirely new and undeveloped art of such boundless +possibilities that its ultimate extent can only be a matter of +conjecture. + +Edison's concrete house, however, involves two main considerations, +first of which was the conception or creation of the IDEA--vast and +comprehensive--of providing imperishable and sanitary homes for +the wage-earner by molding an entire house in one piece in a single +operation, so to speak, and so simply that extensive groups of such +dwellings could be constructed rapidly and at very reasonable cost. With +this idea suggested, one might suppose that it would be a simple matter +to make molds and pour in a concrete mixture. Not so, however. And here +the second consideration presents itself. An ordinary cement mixture is +composed of crushed stone, sand, cement, and water. If such a mixture +be poured into deep molds the heavy stone and sand settle to the bottom. +Should the mixture be poured into a horizontal mold, like the floor of +a house, the stone and sand settle, forming an ununiform mass. It was +at this point that invention commenced, in order to produce a concrete +mixture which would overcome this crucial difficulty. Edison, with +characteristic thoroughness, took up a line of investigation, and after +a prolonged series of experiments succeeded in inventing a mixture that +upon hardening remained uniform throughout its mass. In the beginning +of his experimentation he had made the conditions of test very severe by +the construction of forms similar to that shown in the sketch below. + +This consisted of a hollow wooden form of the dimensions indicated. +The mixture was to be poured into the hopper until the entire form was +filled, such mixture flowing down and along the horizontal legs and up +the vertical members. It was to be left until the mixture was hard, and +the requirement of the test was that there should be absolute uniformity +of mixture and mass throughout. This was finally accomplished, and +further invention then proceeded along engineering lines looking toward +the devising of a system of molds with which practicable dwellings might +be cast. + +Edison's boldness and breadth of conception are well illustrated in his +idea of a poured house, in which he displays his accustomed tendency +to reverse accepted methods. In fact, it is this very reversal of usual +procedure that renders it difficult for the average mind to instantly +grasp the full significance of the principles involved and the results +attained. + +Up to this time we have been accustomed to see the erection of a house +begun at the foundation and built up slowly, piece by piece, of solid +materials: first the outer frame, then the floors and inner walls, +followed by the stairways, and so on up to the putting on of the roof. +Hence, it requires a complete rearrangement of mental conceptions to +appreciate Edison's proposal to build a house FROM THE TOP DOWNWARD, in +a few hours, with a freely flowing material poured into molds, and in +a few days to take away the molds and find a complete indestructible +sanitary house, including foundation, frame, floors, walls, stairways, +chimneys, sanitary arrangements, and roof, with artistic ornamentation +inside and out, all in one solid piece, as if it were graven or bored +out of a rock. + +To bring about the accomplishment of a project so extraordinarily broad +involves engineering and mechanical conceptions of a high order, and, as +we have seen, these have been brought to bear on the subject by Edison, +together with an intimate knowledge of compounded materials. + +The main features of this invention are easily comprehensible with the +aid of the following diagrammatic sectional sketch: + +It should be first understood that the above sketch is in broad outline, +without elaboration, merely to illustrate the working principle; and +while the upright structure on the right is intended to represent a +set of molds in position to form a three-story house, with cellar, no +regular details of such a building (such as windows, doors, stairways, +etc.) are here shown, as they would only tend to complicate an +explanation. + +It will be noted that there are really two sets of molds, an inside and +an outside set, leaving a space between them throughout. Although not +shown in the sketch, there is in practice a number of bolts passing +through these two sets of molds at various places to hold them together +in their relative positions. In the open space between the molds there +are placed steel rods for the purpose of reinforcement; while all +through the entire structure provision is made for water and steam +pipes, gas-pipes and electric-light wires being placed in appropriate +positions as the molds are assembled. + +At the centre of the roof there will be noted a funnel-shaped opening. +Into this there is delivered by the endless chain of buckets shown on +the left a continuous stream of a special free-flowing concrete mixture. +This mixture descends by gravity, and gradually fills the entire +space between the two sets of molds. The delivery of the material--or +"pouring," as it is called--is continued until every part of the +space is filled and the mixture is even with the tip of the roof, +thus completing the pouring, or casting, of the house. In a few days +afterward the concrete will have hardened sufficiently to allow the +molds to be taken away leaving an entire house, from cellar floor to the +peak of the roof, complete in all its parts, even to mantels and picture +molding, and requiring only windows and doors, plumbing, heating, and +lighting fixtures to make it ready for habitation. + +In the above sketch the concrete mixers, A, B, are driven by the +electric motor, C. As the material is mixed it descends into the tank, +D, and flows through a trough into a lower tank, E, in which it is +constantly stirred, and from which it is taken by the endless chain +of buckets and dumped into the funnel-shaped opening at the top of the +molds, as above described. + +The molds are made of cast-iron in sections of such size and weight as +will be most convenient for handling, mostly in pieces not exceeding two +by four feet in rectangular dimensions. The subjoined sketch shows +an exterior view of several of these molds as they appear when bolted +together, the intersecting central portions representing ribs, which are +included as part of the casting for purposes of strength and rigidity. + +The molds represented above are those for straight work, such as walls +and floors. Those intended for stairways, eaves, cornices, windows, +doorways, etc., are much more complicated in design, although the same +general principles are employed in their construction. + +While the philosophy of pouring or casting a complete house in its +entirety is apparently quite simple, the development of the engineering +and mechanical questions involves the solution of a vast number of most +intricate and complicated problems covering not only the building as +a whole, but its numerous parts, down to the minutest detail. Safety, +convenience, duration, and the practical impossibility of altering +a one-piece solid dwelling are questions that must be met before its +construction, and therefore Edison has proceeded calmly on his way +toward the goal he has ever had clearly in mind, with utter indifference +to the criticisms and jeers of those who, as "experts," have professed +positive knowledge of the impossibility of his carrying out this daring +scheme. + + + + +LIST OF UNITED STATES PATENTS + +List of United States patents granted to Thomas A. Edison, arranged +according to dates of execution of applications for such patents. This +list shows the inventions as Mr. Edison has worked upon them from year +to year + + 1868 + + NO. TITLE OF PATENT DATE EXECUTED DATE EXECUTED + 90,646, Electrographic Vote Recorder . . . . .Oct. 13, 1868 + + 1869 + + 91,527 Printing Telegraph (reissued October + 25, 1870, numbered 4166, and August + 5, 1873, numbered 5519). . . . . . . .Jan. 25, 1869 + 96,567 Apparatus for Printing Telegraph (reissued + February 1, 1870, numbered + 3820). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 17, 1869 + 96,681 Electrical Switch for Telegraph Apparatus Aug. 27, 1869 + 102,320 Printing Telegraph--Pope and Edison + (reissued April 17, 1877, numbered + 7621, and December 9, 1884, numbered + 10,542). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 16, 1869 + 103,924 Printing Telegraphs--Pope and Edison + (reissued August 5, 1873) + + 1870 + + 103,035 Electromotor Escapement. . . . . . . . Feb. 5, 1870 + 128,608 Printing Telegraph Instruments . . . . .May 4, 1870 + 114,656 Telegraph Transmitting Instruments . .June 22, 1870 + 114,658 Electro Magnets for Telegraph + Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 22, 1870 + 114,657 Relay Magnets for Telegraph + Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 6, 1870 + 111,112 Electric Motor Governors . . . . . . .June 29, 1870 + 113,033 Printing Telegraph Apparatus . . . . .Nov. 17, 1870 + + 1871 + + 113,034 Printing Telegraph Apparatus . . . . .Jan. 10, 1871 + 123,005 Telegraph Apparatus. . . . . . . . . .July 26, 1871 + 123,006 Printing Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .July 26, 1871 + 123,984 Telegraph Apparatus. . . . . . . . . .July 26, 1871 + 124,800 Telegraphic Recording Instruments. . .Aug. 12, 1871 + 121,601 Machinery for Perforating Paper for + Telegraph Purposes . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 16, 1871 + 126,535 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1871 + 133,841 Typewriting Machine. . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1871 + + 1872 + 126,532 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 3 1872 + 126,531 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Jan. 17, 1872 + 126,534 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Jan. 17, 1872 + 126,528 Type Wheels for Printing Telegraphs. .Jan. 23, 1872 + 126,529 Type Wheels for Printing Telegraphs. .Jan. 23, 1872 + 126,530 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 14, 1872 + 126,533 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 14, 1872 + 132,456 Apparatus for Perforating Paper for + Telegraphic Use. . . . . . . . . . . March 15, 1872 + 132,455 Improvement in Paper for Chemical + Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 10, 1872 + 133,019 Electrical Printing Machine. . . . . April 18, 1872 + 128,131 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 26, 1872 + 128,604 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 26, 1872 + 128,605 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 26, 1872 + 128,606 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 26, 1872 + 128,607 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 26, 1872 + 131,334 Rheotomes or Circuit Directors . . . . .May 6, 1872 + 134,867 Automatic Telegraph Instruments. . . . .May 8, 1872 + 134,868 Electro Magnetic Adjusters . . . . . . .May 8, 1872 + 130,795 Electro Magnets. . . . . . . . . . . . .May 9, 1872 + 131,342 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .May 9, 1872 + 131,341 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . May 28, 1872 + 131,337 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1872 + 131,340 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1872 + 131,343 Transmitters and Circuits for Printing + Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1872 + 131,335 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1872 + 131,336 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1872 + 131,338 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 29, 1872 + 131,339 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 29, 1872 + 131,344 Unison Stops for Printing Telegraphs .June 29, 1872 + 134,866 Printing and Telegraph Instruments . .Oct. 16, 1872 + 138,869 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Oct. 16, 1872 + 142,999 Galvanic Batteries . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 31, 1872 + 141,772 Automatic or Chemical Telegraphs . . . Nov. 5, 1872 + 135,531 Circuits for Chemical Telegraphs . . . Nov. 9, 1872 + 146,812 Telegraph Signal Boxes . . . . . . . .Nov. 26, 1872 + 141,773 Circuits for Automatic Telegraphs. . .Dec. 12, 1872 + 141,776 Circuits for Automatic Telegraphs. . .Dec. 12, 1872 + 150,848 Chemical or Automatic Telegraphs . . .Dec. 12, 1872 + + + 1873 + + 139,128 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Jan. 21, 1873 + 139,129 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 13, 1873 + 140,487 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 13, 1873 + 140,489 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 13, 1873 + 138,870 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1873 + 141,774 Chemical Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1873 + 141,775 Perforator for Automatic Telegraphs. .March 7, 1873 + 141,777 Relay Magnets. . . . . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1873 + 142,688 Electric Regulators for Transmitting + Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1873 + 156,843 Duplex Chemical Telegraphs . . . . . .March 7, 1873 + 147,312 Perforators for Automatic Telegraphy March 24, 1873 + 147,314 Circuits for Chemical Telegraphs . . March 24, 1873 + 150,847 Receiving Instruments for Chemical + Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 24, 1873 + 140,488 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 + 147,311 Electric Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 + 147,313 Chemical Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 + 147,917 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 + 150,846 Telegraph Relays . . . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 + 160,405 Adjustable Electro Magnets for + Relays, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 + 162,633 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . April 22, 1873 + 151,209 Automatic Telegraphy and Perforators + Therefor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1873 + 160,402 Solutions for Chemical Telegraph PaperSept. 29, 1873 + 160,404 Solutions for Chemical Telegraph PaperSept. 29, 1873 + 160,580 Solutions for Chemical Telegraph PaperOct. 14, 1873 + 160,403 Solutions for Chemical Telegraph PaperOct. 29, 1873 + + 1874 + + + 154,788 District Telegraph Signal Box. . . . .April 2, 1874 + 168,004 Printing Telegraph . . . . . . . . . . May 22, 1874 + 166,859 Chemical Telegraphy. . . . . . . . . . June 1, 1874 + 166,860 Chemical Telegraphy. . . . . . . . . . June 1, 1874 + 166,861 Chemical Telegraphy. . . . . . . . . . June 1, 1874 + 158,787 Telegraph Apparatus. . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1874 + 172,305 Automatic Roman Character + Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1874 + 173,718 Automatic Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1874 + 178,221 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . Aug. 19, 1874 + 178,222 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 19, 1874 + 178,223 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 19, 1874 + 180,858 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 19, 1874 + 207,723 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 19, 1874 + 480,567 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 19, 1874 + 207,724 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 14, 1874 + + + 1875 + + 168,242 Transmitter and Receiver for Automatic + Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 18, 1875 + 168,243 Automatic Telegraphs . . . . . . . . .Jan. 18, 1875 + 168,385 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 18, 1875 + 168,466 Solution for Chemical Telegraphs . . .Jan. 18, 1875 + 168,467 Recording Point for Chemical Telegraph Jan. 18, 1875 + 195,751 Automatic Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . Jan. 18 1875 + 195,752 Automatic Telegraphs . . . . . . . . .Jan. 19, 1875 + 171,273 Telegraph Apparatus. . . . . . . . . . Feb 11, 1875 + 169,972 Electric Signalling Instrument . . . . Feb 24, 1875 + 209,241 Quadruplex Telegraph Repeaters (reissued + September 23, 1879, numbered + 8906). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb 24, 1875 + + 1876 + + 180,857 Autographic Printing . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1876 + 198,088 Telephonic Telegraphs. . . . . . . . .April 3, 1876 + 198,089 Telephonic or Electro Harmonic + Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .April 3, 1876 + 182,996 Acoustic Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .May 9, 1876 + 186,330 Acoustic Electric Telegraphs . . . . . .May 9, 1876 + 186,548 Telegraph Alarm and Signal Apparatus . .May 9, 1876 + 198,087 Telephonic Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .May 9, 1876 + 185,507 Electro Harmonic Multiplex Telegraph .Aug. 16, 1876 + 200,993 Acoustic Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 26, 1876 + 235,142 Acoustic Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 26, 1876 + 200,032 Synchronous Movements for Electric + Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 30, 1876 + 200,994 Automatic Telegraph Perforator and + Transmitter. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 30, 1876 + + 1877 + 205,370 Pneumatic Stencil Pens . . . . . . . . Feb. 3, 1877 + 213,554 Automatic Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . Feb. 3, 1877 + 196,747 Stencil Pens . . . . . . . . . . . . April 18, 1877 + 203,329 Perforating Pens . . . . . . . . . . April 18, 1877 + 474,230 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . April 18, 1877 + 217,781 Sextuplex Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . .May 8, 1877 + 230,621 Addressing Machine . . . . . . . . . . .May 8, 1877 + 377,374 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 8, 1877 + 453,601 Sextuplex Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . May 31, 1877 + 452,913 Sextuplex Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . May 31, 1877 + 512,872 Sextuplex Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . May 31, 1877 + 474,231 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . . July 9, 1877 + 203,014 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .July 16, 1877 + 208,299 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .July 16, 1877 + 203,015 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 16, 1877 + 420,594 Quadruplex Telegraph . . . . . . . . .Aug. 16, 1877 + 492,789 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 31, 1877 + 203,013 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 8, 1877 + 203 018 Telephone or Speaking Telegraph. . . . Dec. 8, 1877 + 200 521 Phonograph or Speaking Machine . . . .Dec. 15, 1877 + + 1878 + + 203,019 Circuit for Acoustic or Telephonic + Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 13, 1878 + 201,760 Speaking Machines. . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1878 + 203,016 Speaking Machines. . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1878 + 203,017 Telephone Call Signals . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1878 + 214,636 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 5, 1878 + 222,390 Carbon Telephones. . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 8, 1878 + 217,782 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 11, 1878 + 214,637 Thermal Regulator for Electric Lights.Nov. 14, 1878 + 210,767 Vocal Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 31, 1878 + 218,166 Magneto Electric Machines. . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1878 + 218,866 Electric Lighting Apparatus. . . . . . Dec. 3, 1878 + 219,628 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1878 + 295,990 Typewriter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 4, 1878 + 218,167 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 31, 1878 + + 1879 + + 224,329 Electric Lighting Apparatus. . . . . .Jan. 23, 1879 + 227,229 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 28, 1879 + 227,227 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 6, 1879 + 224.665 Autographic Stencils for Printing. . March 10, 1879 + 227.679 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 19, 1879 + 221,957 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 24, 1879 + 227,229 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . April 12, 1879 + 264,643 Magneto Electric Machines. . . . . . April 21, 1879 + 219,393 Dynamo Electric Machines . . . . . . . July 7, 1879 + 231,704 Electro Chemical Receiving Telephone .July 17, 1879 + 266,022 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 1, 1879 + 252,442 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 4, 1879 + 222,881 Magneto Electric Machines. . . . . . .Sept. 4, 1879 + 223,898 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 1, 1879 + + 1880 + + 230,255 Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 28, 1880 + 248,425 Apparatus for Producing High Vacuums Jan.28 1880 + 265,311 Electric Lamp and Holder for Same. . . Jan. 28 1880 + 369,280 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Jan. 28, 1880 + 227,226 Safety Conductor for Electric Lights .March 10,1880 + 228,617 Brake for Electro Magnetic Motors. . March 10, 1880 + 251,545 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . March 10, 1880 + 525,888 Manufacture of Carbons for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 10, 1880 + 264,649 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machines. March 11, + 1880 + 228,329 Magnetic Ore Separator . . . . . . . .April 3, 1880 + 238,868 Manufacture of Carbons for Incandescent + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . April 25, 1880 + 237,732 Electric Light . . . . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1880 + 248,417 Manufacturing Carbons for Electric + Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1880 + 298,679 Treating Carbons for Electric Lights .June 15, 1880 + 248,430 Electro Magnetic Brake . . . . . . . . July 2, 1880 + 265,778 Electro Magnetic Railway Engine. . . . July 3, 1880 + 248,432 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . .July 26, 1880 + 239,150 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . .July 27, 1880 + 239,372 Testing Electric Light Carbons--Edison + and Batchelor. . . . . . . . . . . . .July 28, 1880 + 251,540 Carbon Electric Lamps. . . . . . . . .July 28, 1880 + 263,139 Manufacture of Carbons for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 28, 1880 + 434,585 Telegraph Relay. . . . . . . . . . . .July 29, 1880 + 248 423 Carbonizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 30, 1880 + 263 140 Dynamo Electric Machines . . . . . . .July 30, 1880 + 248,434 Governor for Electric Engines. . . . .July 31, 1880 + 239,147 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .July 31, 1880 + 264,642 Electric Distribution and Translation + System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 4, 1880 + 293,433 Insulation of Railroad Tracks used for + Electric Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 6, 1880 + 239,373 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1880 + 239,745 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1880 + 263,135 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1880 + 251,546 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 10, 1880 + 239,153 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 11, 1880 + 351,855 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 11, 1880 + 248,435 Utilizing Electricity as Motive Power.Aug. 12, 1880 + 263,132 Electro Magnetic Roller. . . . . . . .Aug. 14, 1880 + 264,645 System of Conductors for the Distribution + of Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 1, 1880 + 240,678 Webermeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 22, 1880 + 239,152 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .Oct. 14, 1880 + 239,148 Treating Carbons for Electric Lights .Oct. 15, 1880 + 238,098 Magneto Signalling Apparatus--Edison + and Johnson. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 21, 1880 + 242,900 Manufacturing Carbons for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 21, 1880 + 251,556 Regulator for Magneto or Dynamo + Electric Machines. . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 21, 1880 + 248,426 Apparatus for Treating Carbons for + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 5, 1880 + 239,151 Forming Enlarged Ends on Carbon + Filaments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 19, 1880 + 12,631 Design Patent--Incandescent Electric + Lamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 23, 1880 + 239,149 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1880 + 242,896 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1880 + 242,897 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1880 + 248,565 Webermeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1880 + 263,878 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1880 + 239,154 Relay for Telegraphs . . . . . . . . .Dec. 11, 1880 + 242,898 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .Dec. 11, 1880 + 248,431 Preserving Fruit . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 11, 1880 + 265,777 Treating Carbons for Electric Lamps. .Dec. 11, 1880 + 239,374 Regulating the Generation of Electric + Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 16, 1880 + 248,428 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 16, 1880 + 248,427 Apparatus for Treating Carbons for + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 21, 1880 + 248,437 Apparatus for Treating Carbons for + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 21, 1880 + 248,416 Manufacture of Carbons for Electric + Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 30, 1880 + + 1881 + + 242,899 Electric Lighting. . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 19, 1881 + 248,418 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Jan. 19 1881 + 248,433 Vacuum Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . Jan. 19 1881 + 251,548 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . .Jan. 19, 1881 + 406,824 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 19, 1881 + 248,422 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .Jan. 20, 1881 + 431,018 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machine . . Feb. 3, 1881 + 242,901 Electric Motor . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 24, 1881 + 248,429 Electric Motor . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 24, 1881 + 248,421 Current Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 25, 1881 + 251,550 Magneto or Dynamo Electric Machines. .Feb. 26, 1881 + 251,555 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 26, 1881 + 482,549 Means for Controlling Electric + Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .March 2, 1881 + 248,420 Fixture and Attachment for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1881 + 251,553 Electric Chandeliers . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1881 + 251,554 Electric Lamp and Socket or Holder . .March 7, 1881 + 248,424 Fitting and Fixtures for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .March 8, 1881 + 248,419 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . March 30, 1881 + 251,542 System of Electric Light . . . . . . April 19, 1881 + 263,145 Making Incandescents . . . . . . . . April 19, 1881 + 266,447 Electric Incandescent Lamp . . . . . April 21, 1881 + 251,552 Underground Conductors . . . . . . . April 22, 1881 + 476,531 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . April 22, 1881 + 248,436 Depositing Cell for Plating the Connections + of Electric Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . May 17, 1881 + 251,539 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . May 17, 1881 + 263,136 Regulator for Dynamo or Magneto + Electric Machine . . . . . . . . . . . May 17, 1881 + 251,557 Webermeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 19, 1881 + 263,134 Regulator for Magneto Electric + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 19, 1881 + 251,541 Electro Magnetic Motor . . . . . . . . May 20, 1881 + 251,544 Manufacture of Electric Lamps. . . . . May 20, 1881 + 251,549 Electric Lamp and the Manufacture + thereof. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 20, 1881 + 251,558 Webermeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 20, 1881 + 341,644 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . May 20, 1881 + 251,551 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . . May 21, 1881 + 263,137 Electric Chandelier. . . . . . . . . . May 21, 1881 + 263,141 Straightening Carbons for Incandescent + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 21, 1881 + 264,657 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . . May 21, 1881 + 251,543 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . May 24, 1881 + 251,538 Electric Light . . . . . . . . . . . . May 27, 1881 + 425,760 Measurement of Electricity in Distribution + System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 3 1, 1881 + 251,547 Electrical Governor. . . . . . . . . . June 2, 1881 + 263,150 Magneto or Dynamo Electric Machines. June 3, 1881 + 263,131 Magnetic Ore Separator . . . . . . . . June 4, 1881 + 435,687 Means for Charging and Using Secondary + Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 21, 1881 + 263,143 Magneto or Dynamo Electric Machines. .June 24, 1881 + 251,537 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .June 25, 1881 + 263,147 Vacuum Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . .July 1, 188 1 + 439,389 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . . July 1, 1881 + 263,149 Commutator for Dynamo or Magneto + Electric Machines. . . . . . . . . . .July 22, 1881 + 479,184 Facsimile Telegraph--Edison and Kenny.July 26, 1881 + 400,317 Ore Separator. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 11, 1881 + 425,763 Commutator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 20, 1881 + 263,133 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machine . .Aug. 24, 1881 + 263,142 Electrical Distribution System . . . .Aug. 24, 1881 + 264,647 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machines. .Aug. 24, 1881 + 404,902 Electrical Distribution System . . . .Aug. 24, 1881 + 257,677 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 7, 1881 + 266,021 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 7, 1881 + 263,144 Mold for Carbonizing Incandescents . Sept. 19, 1881 + 265,774 Maintaining Temperatures in + Webermeters. . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 21, 1881 + 264,648 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machines. Sept. 23, 1881 + 265,776 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . Sept. 27, 1881 + 524,136 Regulator for Dynamo Electrical + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 27, 1881 + 273,715 Malleableizing Iron. . . . . . . . . . Oct. 4, 1881 + 281,352 Webermeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 5, 1881 + 446,667 Locomotives for Electric Railways. . .Oct. 11, 1881 + 288,318 Regulator for Dynamo or Magneto + Electric Machines. . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 17, 1881 + 263,148 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machines. Oct. 25, 1881 + 264,646 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machines. Oct. 25, 1881 + 251,559 Electrical Drop Light. . . . . . . . .Oct. 25, 1881 + 266,793 Electric Distribution System . . . . .Oct. 25, 1881 + 358,599 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Oct. 29, 1881 + 264,673 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machine. Nov. 3, 1881 + 263,138 Electric Arc Light . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 7, 1881 + 265,775 Electric Arc Light . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 7 1881 + 297,580 Electric Arc Light . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 7 1881 + 263,146 Dynamo Magneto Electric Machines . . .Nov. 22, 1881 + 266,588 Vacuum Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 25, 1881 + 251,536 Vacuum Pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 + 264,650 Manufacturing Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 + 264,660 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 + 379,770 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 + 293,434 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 + 439,391 Junction Box for Electric Wires. . . . Dec. 5, 1881 + 454,558 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 + 264,653 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1881 + 358,600 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1881 + 264,652 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Dec. 15, 1881 + 278,419 Dynamo Electric Machines . . . . . . .Dec. 15, 1881 + + 1882 + + 265,779 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 17, 1882 + 264,654 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . .Feb. 10, 1882 + 264,661 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines Feb. 10, 1882 + 264,664 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines Feb. 10, 1882 + 264,668 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines Feb. 10, 1882 + 264,669 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 10, 1882 + 264,671 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 10, 1882 + 275,613 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . .Feb. 10, 1882 + 401,646 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . .Feb. 10, 1882 + 264,658 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 + 264,659 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 + 265,780 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 + 265,781 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 + 278,416 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 + 379,771 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 + 272,034 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 30, 1882 + 274,576 Transmitting Telephone . . . . . . . March 30, 1882 + 274,577 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 30, 1882 + 264,662 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 + 264,663 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 + 264,665 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 + 264,666 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 + 268,205 Dynamo or Magneto Electric + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 + 273,488 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 + 273,492 Secondary Battery. . . . . . . . . . . May 19, 1882 + 460,122 Process of and Apparatus for + Generating Electricity . . . . . . . . May 19, 1882 + 466,460 Electrolytic Decomposition . . . . . .May 19,. 1882 + 264,672 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 22, 1882 + 264,667 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 22, 1882 + 265,786 Apparatus for Electrical Transmission + of Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 22, 1882 + 273,828 System of Underground Conductors of + Electric Distribution. . . . . . . . . May 22, 1882 + 379,772 System of Electrical Distribution. . . May 22, 1882 + 274,292 Secondary Battery. . . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1882 + 281,353 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machine . . June 3, 1882 + 287,523 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machine . . June 3, 1882 + 365,509 Filament for Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 3 1882 + 446,668 Electric Are Light . . . . . . . . . . .June 3 1882 + 543,985 Incandescent Conductor for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1882 + 264,651 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . . June 9, 1882 + 264,655 Incandescing Electric Lamps. . . . . . June 9, 1882 + 264,670 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 9, 1882 + 273,489 Turn-Table for Electric Railway. . . . June 9, 1882 + 273,490 Electro Magnetic Railway System. . . . June 9, 1882 + 401,486 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .June 12, 1882 + 476,527 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .June 12, 1882 + 439,390 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . .June 19, 1882 + 446,666 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .June 19, 1882 + 464,822 System of Distributing Electricity . .June 19, 1882 + 304,082 Electrical Meter . . . . . . . . . . .June 24, 1882 + 274,296 Manufacture of Incandescents . . . . . July 5, 1882 + 264,656 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . July 7, 1882 + 265,782 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines July 7, 1882 + 265,783 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines July 7, 1882 + 265,784 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines July 7, 1882 + 265,785 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 + 273,494 Electrical Railroad. . . . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 + 278,418 Translating Electric Currents from High + to Low Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 + 293,435 Electrical Meter . . . . . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 + 334,853 Mold for Carbonizing . . . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 + 339,278 Electric Railway . . . . . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 + 273,714 Magnetic Electric Signalling + Apparatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 5, 1882 + 282,287 Magnetic Electric Signalling + Apparatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 5, 1882 + 448,778 Electric Railway . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 5, 1882 + 439,392 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . .Aug. 12, 1882 + 271,613 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1882 + 287,518 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1882 + 406,825 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1882 + 439,393 Carbonizing Chamber. . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1882 + 273,487 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines Sept. 12, 1882 + 297,581 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . Sept. 12, 1882 + 395,962 Manufacturing Electric Lamps . . . . Sept. 16, 1882 + 287,525 Regulator for Systems of Electrical + Distribution--Edison and C. L. + Clarke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 4, 1882 + 365,465 Valve Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 5, 1882 + 317,631 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Oct. 7, 1882 + 307,029 Filament for Incandescent Lamp . . . . Oct. 9, 1882 + 268,206 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . .Oct. 10, 1882 + 273,486 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . .Oct. 12, 1882 + 274,293 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 14, 1882 + 275,612 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 14, 1882 + 430,932 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 14, 1882 + 271,616 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 16, 1882 + 543,986 Process for Treating Products Derived + from Vegetable Fibres. . . . . . . . .Oct. 17, 1882 + 543,987 Filament for Incandescent Lamps. . . .Oct. 17, 1882 + 271,614 Shafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 + 271,615 Governor for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 + 273,491 Regulator for Driving Engines of + Electrical Generators. . . . . . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 + 273,493 Valve Gear for Electrical Generator + Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 + 411,016 Manufacturing Carbon Filaments . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 + 492,150 Coating Conductors for Incandescent + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 + 273,485 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . .Oct. 26, 1882 + 317,632 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . .Oct. 26, 1882 + 317,633 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . .Oct. 26, 1882 + 287,520 Incandescing Conductor for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 3, 1882 + 353,783 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Nov. 3, 1882 + 430,933 Filament for Incandescent Lamps. . . . Nov. 3, 1882 + 274,294 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1882 + 281,350 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1882 + 274,295 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Nov. 14, 1882 + 276,233 Electrical Generator and Motor . . . .Nov. 14, 1882 + 274,290 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Nov. 20, 1882 + 274,291 Mold for Carbonizer. . . . . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1882 + 278,413 Regulator for Dynamo Electric MachinesNov. 28, 1882 + 278,414 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1882 + 287,519 Manufacturing Incandescing Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1882 + 287,524 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1882 + 438,298 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1882 + 276,232 Operating and Regulating Electrical + Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 20, 1882 + + 1883 + + 278,415 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 13, 1883 + 278,417 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 13, 1883 + 281,349 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 13, 1883 + 283,985 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Jan. 13 1883 + 283,986 System o' Electrical Distribution. . . Jan. 13 1883 + 459,835 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 13, 1883 + 13,940 Design Patent--Incandescing Electric + Lamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 13 1883 + 280,727 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Feb. 13 1883 + 395,123 Circuit Controller for Dynamo Machine.Feb. 13, 1883 + 287,521 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machine . .Feb. 17, 1883 + 287,522 Molds for Carbonizing. . . . . . . . .Feb. 17, 1883 + 438,299 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . .Feb. 17, 1883 + 446,669 Manufacture of Filaments for Incandescent + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 17, 1883 + 476,528 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Feb. 17, 1883 + 281,351 Electrical Generator . . . . . . . . .March 5, 1883 + 283,984 System of Electrical Distribution. . .March 5, 1883 + 287,517 System of Electrical Distribution. . .March 14,1883 + 283,983 System of Electrical Distribution. . .April 5, 1883 + 354,310 Manufacture of Carbon Conductors . . .April 6, 1883 + 370,123 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . .April 6, 1883 + 411,017 Carbonizing Flask. . . . . . . . . . .April 6, 1883 + 370,124 Manufacture of Filament for Incandescing + Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . April 12, 1883 + 287,516 System of Electrical Distribution. . . .May 8, 1883 + 341,839 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . .May 8, 1883 + 398,774 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . .May 8, 1883 + 370,125 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 + 370,126 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 + 370,127 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 + 370,128 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 + 370,129 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 + 370,130 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 + 370,131 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 + 438,300 Gauge for Testing Fibres for + Incandescent Lamp Carbons. . . . . . . June 1, 1883 + 287,511 Electric Regulator . . . . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 + 287,512 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 + 287,513 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 + 287,514 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 + 287,515 System of Electrical Distribution. . .June 25, 1883 + 297,582 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 + 328,572 Commutator for Dynamo Electric Machines June 25, 1883 + 430,934 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 + 438,301 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .June 25, 1883 + 297,583 Dynamo Electric Machines . . . . . . .July 27, 1883 + 304,083 Dynamo Electric Machines . . . . . . .July 27; 1883 + 304,084 Device for Protecting Electric Light + Systems from Lightning . . . . . . . .July 27, 1883 + 438,302 Commutator for Dynamo Electric + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 27, 1883 + 476,529 System of Electrical Distribution. . .July 27, 1883 + 297,584 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . . Aug. 8, 1883 + 307,030 Electrical Meter . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 8, 1883 + 297,585 Incandescing Conductor for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 14, 1883 + 297,586 Electrical Conductor . . . . . . . . Sept. 14, 1883 + 435,688 Process and Apparatus for Generating + Electricity. . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 14, 1883 + 470,922 Manufacture of Filaments for + Incandescent Lamps . . . . . . . . . Sept. 14, 1883 + 490,953 Generating Electricity . . . . . . . . Oct. 9, 1883 + 293,432 Electrical Generator or Motor. . . . .Oct. 17, 1883 + 307,031 Electrical Indicator . . . . . . . . . Nov. 2, 1883 + 337,254 Telephone--Edison and Bergmann . . . .Nov. 10, 1883 + 297,587 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .Nov. 16, 1883 + 298,954 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .Nov. 15, 1883 + 298,955 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .Nov. 15, 1883 + 304,085 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Nov. 15, 1883 + 509,517 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Nov. 15, 1883 + 425,761 Incandescent Lamp. . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 20, 1883 + 304,086 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Dec. 15, 1883 + + 1884 + + 298,956 Operating Dynamo Electric Machine. . . Jan. 5, 1884 + 304,087 Electrical Conductor . . . . . . . . .Jan. 12, 1884 + 395,963 Incandescent Lamp Filament . . . . . .Jan. 22, 1884 + 526,147 Plating One Material with Another. . .Jan. 22, 1884 + 339,279 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Feb. 8, 1884 + 314,115 Chemical Stock Quotation Telegraph-- + Edison and Kenny . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 9, 1884 + 436,968 Method and Apparatus for Drawing + Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 2, 1884 + 436,969 Apparatus for Drawing Wire . . . . . . June 2, 1884 + 438,303 Arc Lamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 2, 1884 + 343,017 System of Electrical Distribution. . .June 27, 1884 + 391,595 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .July 16, 1884 + 328,573 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . Sept. 12, 1884 + 328,574 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . Sept. 12, 1884 + 328,575 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . Sept. 12, 1884 + 391,596 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . Sept. 24, 1884 + 438,304 Electric Signalling Apparatus. . . . Sept. 24, 1884 + 422,577 Apparatus for Speaking Telephones-- + Edison and Gilliland . . . . . . . . .Oct. 21, 1884 + 329,030 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1884 + 422,578 Telephone Repeater . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 9, 1884 + 422,579 Telephone Repeater . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 9, 1884 + 340,707 Telephonic Repeater. . . . . . . . . . Dec. 9, 1884 + 340,708 Electrical Signalling Apparatus. . . .Dec. 19, 1884 + 347,097 Electrical Signalling Apparatus. . . .Dec. 19, 1884 + 478,743 Telephone Repeater . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 31, 1884 + + 1885 + + 340,709 Telephone Circuit--Edison and + Gilliland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jan. 2, 1885 + 378,044 Telephone Transmitter. . . . . . . . . Jan. 9, 1885 + 348,114 Electrode for Telephone Transmitters .Jan. 12, 1885 + 438,305 Fuse Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 14, 1885 + 350,234 System of Railway Signalling--Edison + and Gilliland. . . . . . . . . . . . .March 27,1885 + 486,634 System of Railway Signalling--Edison + and Gilliland. . . . . . . . . . . . .March 27,1885 + 333,289 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 27, 1885 + 333,290 Duplex Telegraphy. . . . . . . . . . April 30, 1885 + 333,291 Way Station Quadruplex Telegraph . . . .May 6, 1885 + 465,971 Means for Transmitting Signals Electrically May 14, 1885 + 422 072 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 7, 1885 + 437 422 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 7, 1885 + 422,073 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. I 2, 1885 + 422,074 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 24, 1885 + 435,689 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 30, 1885 + 438,306 Telephone - Edison and Gilliland . . .Dec. 22, 1885 + 350,235 Railway Telegraphy--Edison and + Gilliland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 28, 1885 + + 1886 + + 406,567 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 28, 1886 + 474,232 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 17, 1886 + 370 132 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 11, 1886 + 411,018 Manufacture of Incandescent Lamps. . .July 15, 1886 + 438,307 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July I 5, 1886 + 448,779 Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July IS, 1886 + 411,019 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 20, 1886 + 406,130 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 6, 1886 + 351,856 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . Sept. 30, 1886 + 454,262 Incandescent Lamp Filaments. . . . . .Oct. 26, 1886 + 466,400 Cut-Out for Incandescent Lamps--Edison + and J. F. Ott. . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 26, 1886 + 484,184 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . .Oct. 26, 1886 + 490,954 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments for + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 2, 1886 + 438,308 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Nov. 9, 1886 + 524,378 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Nov. 9, 1886 + 365,978 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Nov. 22, 1886 + 369 439 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Nov. 22, 1886 + 384 830 Railway Signalling--Edison and Gilliland Nov. 24, 1886 + 379,944 Commutator for Dynamo Electric MachinesNov. 26, 1886 + 411,020 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . .Nov. 26, 1886 + 485,616 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . . .Dec 6, 1886 + 485,615 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . . .Dec 6, 1886 + 525,007 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . . Dec. 6, 1886 + 369,441 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Dec. 10, 1886 + 369,442 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Dec. 16, 1886 + 369,443 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Dec. 16, 1886 + 484,185 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . .Dec. 20, 1886 + 534,207 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . .Dec. 20, 1886 + 373,584 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .Dec. 21, 1886 + + 1887 + + 468,949 Converter System for Electric + Railways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 7, 1887 + 380,100 Pyromagnetic Motor . . . . . . . . . . May 24, 1887 + 476,983 Pyromagnetic Generator . . . . . . . . .May 24 1887 + 476,530 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . June 1, 1887 + 377,518 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . .June 30, 1887 + 470,923 Railway Signalling . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 9, 1887 + 545,405 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Aug. 26, 1887 + 380,101 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Sept. 13 1887 + 380,102 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Sept. 14 1887 + 470,924 Electric Conductor . . . . . . . . . Sept. 26, 1887 + 563,462 Method of and Apparatus for Drawing + Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 17, 1887 + 385,173 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Nov. 5, 1887 + 506,215 Making Plate Glass . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 9, 1887 + 382,414 Burnishing Attachments for PhonographsNov. 22, 1887 + 386,974 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 22, 1887 + 430,570 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 22, 1887 + 382,416 Feed and Return Mechanism for PhonographsNov. 29, 1887 + 382,415 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Dec. 4, 1887 + 382,462 Phonogram Blanks . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1887 + + 1888 + + 484,582 Duplicating Phonograms . . . . . . . .Jan. 17, 1888 + 434,586 Electric Generator . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 21, 1888 + 434,587 Thermo Electric Battery. . . . . . . .Jan. 21, 1888 + 382,417 Making Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . .Jan. 30, 1888 + 389,369 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . . Feb. 2, 1888 + 382,418 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 20, 1888 + 390,462 Making Carbon Filaments. . . . . . . .Feb. 20, 1888 + 394,105 Phonograph Recorder. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 20, 1888 + 394,106 Phonograph Reproducer. . . . . . . . .Feb. 20, 1888 + 382,419 Duplicating Phonograms . . . . . . . .March 3, 1888 + 425,762 Cut-Out for Incandescent Lamps . . . .March 3, 1888 + 396,356 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . .March 19,1888 + 393,462 Making Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . April 28, 1888 + 393,463 Machine for Making Phonogram Blanks. April 28, 1888 + 393,464 Machine for Making Phonogram Blanks. April 28, 1888 + 534,208 Induction Converter. . . . . . . . . . .May 7, 1888 + 476,991 Method of and Apparatus for Separating + Ores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 9, 1888 + 400,646 Phonograph Recorder and Reproducer . . May 22, 1888 + 488,190 Phonograph Reproducer. . . . . . . . . May 22, 1888 + 488,189 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 26, 1888 + 470,925 Manufacture of Filaments for Incandescent + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . .June 21, 1888 + 393,465 Preparing Phonograph Recording Surfaces June 30, 1888 + 400,647 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 30, 1888 + 448,780 Device for Turning Off Phonogram Blanks June 30, 1888 + 393,466 Phonograph Recorder. . . . . . . . . .July 14, 1888 + 393,966 Recording and Reproducing Sounds . . .July 14, 1888 + 393,967 Recording and Reproducing Sounds . . .July 14, 1888 + 430,274 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .July 14, 1888 + 437,423 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 14, 1888 + 450,740 Phonograph Recorder. . . . . . . . . .July 14, 1888 + 485,617 Incandescent Lamp Filament . . . . . .July 14, 1888 + 448,781 Turning-Off Device for Phonographs . .July 16, 1888 + 400,648 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .July 27, 1888 + 499,879 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 27, 1888 + 397,705 Winding Field Magnets. . . . . . . . .Aug. 31, 1888 + 435,690 Making Armatures for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 31, 1888 + 430,275 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . Sept. 12, 1888 + 474,591 Extracting Gold from Sulphide Ores . Sept. 12, 1888 + 397,280 Phonograph Recorder and Reproducer . Sept. 19, 1888 + 397,706 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 29, 1888 + 400,649 Making Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . Sept. 29, 1888 + 400,650 Making Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . .Oct. 15, 1888 + 406,568 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 15, 1888 + 437,424 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 15, 1888 + 393,968 Phonograph Recorder. . . . . . . . . .Oct. 31, 1888 + + 1889 + + 406,569 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 10, 1889 + 488,191 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 10, 1889 + 430,276 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 12, 1889 + 406,570 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 406,571 Treating Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 406,572 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 406,573 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 406,574 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 406,575 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 406,576 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 430,277 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 437,425 Phonograph Recorder. . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 414,759 Phonogram Blanks . . . . . . . . . . March 22, 1889 + 414,760 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 22, 1889 + 462,540 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . March 22, 1889 + 430,278 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .April 8, 1889 + 438,309 Insulating Electrical Conductors . . April 25, 1889 + 423,039 Phonograph Doll or Other Toys. . . . .June 15, 1889 + 426,527 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1889 + 430,279 Voltaic Battery. . . . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1889 + 506,216 Apparatus for Making Glass . . . . . .June 29, 1889 + 414,761 Phonogram Blanks . . . . . . . . . . .July 16, 1889 + 430,280 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . .July 20, 1889 + 437,426 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 20, 1889 + 465,972 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 14, 1889 + 443,507 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 11 1889 + 513,095 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 11 1889 + + 1890 + + 434,588 Magnetic Ore Separator--Edison and + W. K. L. Dickson . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 16, 1890 + 437,427 Making Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . . Feb. 8, 1890 + 465,250 Extracting Copper Pyrites. . . . . . . Feb. 8, 1890 + 434,589 Propelling Mechanism for Electric Vehicles Feb. 14, 1890 + 438,310 Lamp Base. . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 25, 1890 + 437,428 Propelling Device for Electric Cars. April 29, 1890 + 437,429 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . April 29, 1890 + 454,941 Phonograph Recorder and Reproducer . . .May 6, 1890 + 436,127 Electric Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . May 17, 1890 + 484,583 Phonograph Cutting Tool. . . . . . . . May 24, 1890 + 484,584 Phonograph Reproducer. . . . . . . . . May 24, 1890 + 436,970 Apparatus for Transmitting Power . . . June 2, 1890 + 453,741 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July 5, 1890 + 454,942 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July 5, 1890 + 456,301 Phonograph Doll. . . . . . . . . . . . July 5, 1890 + 484,585 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July 5, 1890 + 456,302 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 4, 1890 + 476,984 Expansible Pulley. . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 9, 1890 + 493,858 Transmission of Power. . . . . . . . . Aug. 9, 1890 + 457,343 Magnetic Belting . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 6, 1890 + 444,530 Leading-in Wires for Incandescent Electric + Lamps (reissued October 10, 1905, + No. 12,393). . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 12, 1890 + 534 209 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . Sept. 13, 1890 + 476 985 Trolley for Electric Railways. . . . .Oct. 27, 1890 + 500,280 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 27, 1890 + 541,923 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 27, 1890 + 457,344 Smoothing Tool for Phonogram + Blanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 17, 1890 + 460,123 Phonogram Blank Carrier. . . . . . . .Nov. 17, 1890 + 500,281 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 17, 1890 + 541,924 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 17, 1890 + 500,282 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 1, 1890 + 575,151 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 1, 1890 + 605,667 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 1, 1890 + 610,706 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 1, 1890 + 622,843 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 1, 1890 + 609,268 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 6, 1890 + 493,425 Electric Locomotive. . . . . . . . . .Dec. 20, 1890 + + 1891 + + 476,992 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Jan. 20, 1891 + 470,926 Dynamo Electric Machine or Motor . . . Feb. 4, 1891 + 496,191 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 4, 1891 + 476,986 Means for Propelling Electric Cars . .Feb. 24, 1891 + 476,987 Electric Locomotive. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 24, 1891 + 465,973 Armatures for Dynamos or Motors. . . .March 4, 1891 + 470,927 Driving Mechanism for Cars . . . . . .March 4, 1891 + 465,970 Armature Connection for Motors or + Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 20, 1891 + 468,950 Commutator Brush for Electric Motors + and Dynamos. . . . . . . . . . . . . March 20, 1891 + 475,491 Electric Locomotive. . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1891 + 475,492 Electric Locomotive. . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1891 + 475,493 Electric Locomotive. . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1891 + 475,494 Electric Railway . . . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1891 + 463,251 Bricking Fine Ores . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 470,928 Alternating Current Generator. . . . .July 31, 1891 + 476,988 Lightning Arrester . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 476,989 Conductor for Electric Railways. . . .July 31, 1891 + 476,990 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 476,993 Electric Arc . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 484,183 Electrical Depositing Meter. . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 485,840 Bricking Fine Iron Ores. . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 493,426 Apparatus for Exhibiting Photographs + of Moving Objects. . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 509,518 Electric Railway . . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 589,168 Kinetographic Camera (reissued September + 30, 1902, numbered 12,037 + and 12,038, and January 12, 1904, + numbered 12,192) . . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 470,929 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 + 471,268 Ore Conveyor and Method of Arranging + Ore Thereon. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 + 472,288 Dust-Proof Bearings for Shafts . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 + 472,752 Dust-Proof Journal Bearings. . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 + 472,753 Ore-Screening Apparatus. . . . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 + 474,592 Ore-Conveying Apparatus. . . . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 + 474,593 Dust-Proof Swivel Shaft Bearing. . . .Aug. 28, 1891 + 498,385 Rollers for Ore-Crushing or Other + Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 + 470,930 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . . .Oct 8, 1891 + 476,532 Ore-Screening Apparatus. . . . . . . . .Oct 8, 1891 + 491,992 Cut-Out for Incandescent Electric Lamps Nov. 10, 1891 + + 1892 + + 491,993 Stop Device. . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 5 1892 + 564,423 Separating Ores. . . . . . . . . . . .June 2;, 1892 + 485,842 Magnetic Ore Separation. . . . . . . . July 9, 1892 + 485,841 Mechanically Separating Ores . . . . . July 9, 1892 + 513,096 Method of and Apparatus for Mixing + Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 24, 1892 + + 1893 + + 509,428 Composition Brick and Making Same. . March 15, 1893 + 513,097 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 22, 1893 + 567,187 Crushing Rolls . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1893 + 602 064 Conveyor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1893 + 534 206 Filament for Incandescent Lamps. . . .Dec. 15, 1893 + + 1896 + + 865,367 Fluorescent Electric Lamp. . . . . . . May 16, 1896 + + 1897 + + 604.740 Governor for Motors. . . . . . . . . .Jan. 25, 1897 + 607,588 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 25, 1897 + 637,327 Rolls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 14, 1897 + 672,616 Breaking Rock. . . . . . . . . . . . . May 14, 1897 + 675,056 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . . May 14, 1897 + 676,618 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . . May 14, 1897 + 605,475 Drying Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1897 + 605,668 Mixer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1897 + 667,201 Flight Conveyor. . . . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1897 + 671,314 Lubricating Journal Bearings . . . . .June 10, 1897 + 671,315 Conveyor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1897 + 675,057 Screening Pulverized Material. . . . .June 10, 1897 + + 1898 + + 713,209 Duplicating Phonograms . . . . . . . .Feb. 21, 1898 + 703,774 Reproducer for Phonographs . . . . . March 21, 1898 + 626,460 Filament for Incandescent Lamps and + Manufacturing Same . . . . . . . . . .March 29,1898 + 648,933 Dryer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 11, 1898 + 661,238 Machine for Forming Pulverized + Material in Briquettes . . . . . . . April 11, 1898 + 674,057 Crushing Rolls . . . . . . . . . . . April 11, 1898 + 703,562 Apparatus for Bricking Pulverized Material April 11, 1898 + 704,010 Apparatus for Concentrating Magnetic + Iron Ores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 11, 1898 + 659,389 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 19, 1898 + + 1899 + + 648,934 Screening or Sizing Very Fine Materials Feb. 6, 1899 + 663,015 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 6, 1899 + 688,610 Phonographic Recording Apparatus . . .Feb. 10, 1899 + 643,764 Reheating Compressed Air for + Industrial Purposes. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 24, 1899 + 660,293 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . .March 23,1899 + 641,281 Expanding Pulley--Edison and Johnson .March 28,1899 + 727,116 Grinding Rolls . . . . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1899 + 652,457 Phonograph (reissued September 25, + 1900, numbered 11,857) . . . . . . . Sept. 12, 1899 + 648,935 Apparatus for Duplicating Phonograph + Records. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 27, 1899 + 685,911 Apparatus for Reheating Compressed + Air for Industrial Purposes. . . . . .Nov. 24, 1899 + 657,922 Apparatus for Reheating Compressed + Air for Industrial Purposes. . . . . . Dec. 9, 1899 + + 1900 + + 676,840 Magnetic Separating Apparatus. . . . . Jan. 3, 1900 + 660,845 Apparatus for Sampling, Averaging, + Mixing, and Storing Materials in Bulk Jan. 9, 1900 + 662,063 Process of Sampling, Averaging, Mixing, + and Storing Materials in Bulk. . . . . Jan. 9, 1900 + 679,500 Apparatus for Screening Fine Materials Jan. 24, 1900 + 671,316 Apparatus for Screening Fine Materials Feb. 23, 1900 + 671,317 Apparatus for Screening Fine Materials March 28, 1900 + 759,356 Burning Portland Cement Clinker, etc April 10, 1900 + 759,357 Apparatus for Burning Portland Cement + Clinker, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . .April 10 1900 + 655,480 Phonographic Reproducing Device. . . .April 30 1900 + 657,527 Making Metallic Phonograph Records . April 30, 1900 + 667,202 Duplicating Phonograph Records . . . April 30, 1900 + 667,662 Duplicating Phonograph Records . . . April 30, 1900 + 713,863 Coating Phonograph Records . . . . . . May IS, 1900 + 676,841 Magnetic Separating Apparatus. . . . . June 11 1900 + 759,358 Magnetic Separating Apparatus. . . . . June 11 1900 + 680,520 Phonograph Records . . . . . . . . . .July 23, 1900 + 672,617 Apparatus for Breaking Rock. . . . . . Aug. 1, 1900 + 676,225 Phonographic Recording Apparatus . . .Aug. 10, 1900 + 703,051 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 28, 1900 + 684,204 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . . Oct. IS 1900 + 871,214 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . . Oct. IS 1900 + 704,303 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Dec. 22, 1900 + + 1901 + + 700,136 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . . Feb. 18 1901 + 700,137 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . . Feb. 23 1901 + 704,304 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Feb. 23, 1901 + 704,305 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . . May 10, 1901 + 678,722 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .June 17, 1901 + 684,205 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .June 17, 1901 + 692,507 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .June 17, 1901 + 701,804 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .June 17, 1901 + 704,306 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .June 17, 1901 + 705,829 Reproducer for Sound Records . . . . .Oct. 24, 1901 + 831,606 Sound Recording Apparatus. . . . . . .Oct. 24, 1901 + 827,089 Calcining Furnaces . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 24, 1901 + + + 1902 + + 734,522 Process of Nickel-Plating. . . . . . .Feb. 11, 1902 + 727,117 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . Sept. 29, 1902 + + 727,118 Manufacturing Electrolytically Active + Finely Divided Iron. . . . . . . . . .Oct. 13, 1902 + 721,682 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 721,870 Funnel for Filling Storage Battery Jars Nov. 13, 1902 + 723,449 Electrode for Storage Batteries. . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 723,450 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 754,755 Compressing Dies . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 754,858 Storage Battery Tray . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 754,859 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 764,183 Separating Mechanically Entrained + Globules from Gases. . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 802,631 Apparatus for Burning Portland Cement + Clinker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 852,424 Secondary Batteries. . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 722,502 Handling Cable Drawn Cars on Inclines. Dec. 18, + 1902 + 724,089 Operating Motors in Dust Laden + Atmospheres. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 18, 1902 + 750,102 Electrical Automobile. . . . . . . . .Dec. 18, 1902 + 758,432 Stock House Conveyor . . . . . . . . .Dec. 18, 1902 + 873,219 Feed Regulators for Grinding Machines. Dec. 18, + 1902 + 832,046 Automatic Weighing and Mixing Apparatus Dec. 18, 1902 + + 1903 + + 772,647 Photographic Film for Moving Picture + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 13, 1903 + 841,677 Apparatus for Separating and Grinding + Fine Materials . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 22, 1903 + 790,351 Duplicating Phonograph Records . . . .Jan. 30. 1903 + 831,269 Storage Battery Electrode Plate. . . .Jan. 30, 1903 + 775,965 Dry Separator. . . . . . . . . . . . April 27, 1903 + 754,756 Process of Treating Ores from Magnetic + Gangue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 25, 1903 + 775,600 Rotary Cement Kilns. . . . . . . . . .July 20, 1903 + 767,216 Apparatus for Vacuously Depositing + Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July 30 1903 + 796,629 Lamp Guard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July 30 1903 + 772,648 Vehicle Wheel. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1903 + 850,912 Making Articles by Electro-Plating . . .Oct 3, 1903 + 857,041 Can or Receptacle for Storage Batteries.Oct 3, 1903 + 766,815 Primary Battery. . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 16, 1903 + 943,664 Sound Recording Apparatus. . . . . . .Nov. 16, 1903 + 873,220 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Nov. 20, 1903 + 898,633 Filling Apparatus for Storage Battery + Jars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 8, 1903 + + 1904 + + 767,554 Rendering Storage Battery Gases Non- + Explosive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 8, 1904 + 861,241 Portland Cement and Manufacturing Same June 20, 1904 + 800,800 Phonograph Records and Making Same . .June 24, 1904 + 821,622 Cleaning Metallic Surfaces . . . . . .June 24, 1904 + 879,612 Alkaline Storage Batteries . . . . . .June 24, 1904 + 880,484 Process of Producing Very Thin Sheet + Metal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 24, 1904 + 827,297 Alkaline Batteries . . . . . . . . . .July 12, 1904 + 797,845 Sheet Metal for Perforated Pockets of + Storage Batteries. . . . . . . . . . .July 12, 1904 + 847,746 Electrical Welding Apparatus . . . . .July 12, 1904 + 821,032 Storage Battery. . . . . . . . . . . . Aug 10, 1904 + 861,242 Can or Receptacle for Storage Battery. Aug 10, 1904 + 970,615 Methods and Apparatus for Making + Sound Records. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 23, 1904 + 817,162 Treating Alkaline Storage Batteries. Sept. 26, 1904 + 948,542 Method of Treating Cans of Alkaline + Storage Batteries. . . . . . . . . . Sept. 28, 1904 + 813,490 Cement Kiln. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct 29, 1904 + 821,625 Treating Alkaline Storage Batteries. . Oct 29, 1904 + 821,623 Storage Battery Filling Apparatus. . . Nov. 1, 1904 + 821,624 Gas Separator for Storage Battery. . .Oct. 29, 1904 + + 1905 + + 879,859 Apparatus for Producing Very Thin + Sheet Metal. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 16, 1905 + 804,799 Apparatus for Perforating Sheet Metal March 17, 1905 + 870,024 Apparatus for Producing Perforated + Strips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 23, 1905 + 882,144 Secondary Battery Electrodes . . . . March 29, 1905 + 821,626 Process of Making Metallic Films or + Flakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .March 29,1905 + 821,627 Making Metallic Flakes or Scales . . .March 29,1905 + 827,717 Making Composite Metal . . . . . . . .March 29,1905 + 839,371 Coating Active Material with Flake-like + Conducting Material. . . . . . . . . .March 29,1905 + 854,200 Making Storage Battery Electrodes. . .March 29,1905 + 857,929 Storage Battery Electrodes . . . . . March 29, 1905 + 860,195 Storage Battery Electrodes . . . . . April 26, 1905 + 862,145 Process of Making Seamless Tubular + Pockets or Receptacles for Storage + Battery Electrodes . . . . . . . . . April 26, 1905 + 839,372 Phonograph Records or Blanks . . . . April 28, 1905 + 813,491 Pocket Filling Machine . . . . . . . . May 15, 1905 + 821,628 Making Conducting Films. . . . . . . . May 20, 1905 + 943,663 Horns for Talking Machines . . . . . . May 20, 1905 + 950 226 Phonograph Recording Apparatus . . . . May 20, 1905 + 785 297 Gas Separator for Storage Batteries. .July 18, 1905 + 950,227 Apparatus for Making Metallic Films + or Flakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 10, 1905 + 936,433 Tube Filling and Tamping Machine . . .Oct. 12, 1905 + 967,178 Tube Forming Machines--Edison and + John F. Ott. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 16, 1905 + 880,978 Electrode Elements for Storage + Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 31, 1905 + 880,979 Method of Making Storage Battery + Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 31, 1905 + 850,913 Secondary Batteries. . . . . . . . . . Dec. 6, 1905 + 914,342 Storage Battery. . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 6, 1905 + + 1906 + + 858,862 Primary and Secondary Batteries. . . . Jan. 9, 1906 + 850,881 Composite Metal. . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 19, 1906 + 964,096 Processes of Electro-Plating . . . . .Feb. 24, 1906 + 914,372 Making Thin Metallic Flakes. . . . . .July 13, 1906 + 962,822 Crushing Rolls . . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 4, 1906 + 923,633 Shaft Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 11, 1906 + 962,823 Crushing Rolls . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 11, 1906 + 930,946 Apparatus for Burning Portland Cement. Oct. 22,1906 + 898 404 Making Articles by Electro-Plating . . Nov. 2, 1906 + 930,948 Apparatus for Burning Portland Cement.Nov. 16, 1906 + 930,949 Apparatus for Burning Portland Cement. Nov. 26 1906 + 890,625 Apparatus for Grinding Coal. . . . . . Nov, 33 1906 + 948,558 Storage Battery Electrodes . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1906 + 964,221 Sound Records. . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 28, 1906 + + 1907 + + 865,688 Making Metallic Films or Flakes. . . .Jan. 11, 1907 + 936,267 Feed Mechanism for Phonographs and + Other Machines . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 11, 1907 + 936,525 Making Metallic Films or Flakes. . . .Jan. 17, 1907 + 865,687 Making Nickel Films. . . . . . . . . .Jan. 18, 1907 + 939,817 Cement Kiln. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 8, 1907 + 855,562 Diaphragm for Talking Machines . . . .Feb. 23, 1907 + 939,992 Phonographic Recording and Reproducing + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 25, 1907 + 941,630 Process and Apparatus for Artificially + Aging or Seasoning Portland Cement . .Feb. 25, 1907 + 876,445 Electrolyte for Alkaline Storage Batteries May 8, 1907 + 914,343 Making Storage Battery Electrodes. . . May 15, 1907 + 861,819 Discharging Apparatus for Belt Conveyors June 11, 1907 + 954,789 Sprocket Chain Drives. . . . . . . . .June 11, 1907 + 909,877 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 18, 1907 + + 1908 + + 896,811 Metallic Film for Use with Storage Batteries + and Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 4, 1908 + 940,635 Electrode Element for Storage Batteries Feb. 4, + 1908 + 909,167 Water-Proofing Paint for Portland + Cement Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 4, 1908 + 896,812 Storage Batteries. . . . . . . . . . March 13, 1908 + 944,481 Processes and Apparatus for Artificially + Aging or Seasoning Portland Cement. March 13,1908 + 947,806 Automobiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . March 13,-1908 + 909,168 Water-Proofing Fibres and Fabrics. . . May 27, 1908 + 909,169 Water-Proofing Paint for Portland + Cement Structures. . . . . . . . . . . May 27, 1908 + 970,616 Flying Machines. . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 20, 1908 + + 1909 + 930,947 Gas Purifier . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 15, 1909 + 40,527 Design Patent for Phonograph Cabinet. Sept. 13, 1909 + + + FOREIGN PATENTS + + + In addition to the United States patents issued to Edison, as above + enumerated, there have been granted to him (up to October, 1910) by + foreign governments 1239 patents, as follows: + + Argentine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 + Australia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 + Austria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101 + Belgium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 + Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 + Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129 + Cape of Good Hope. . . . . . . . . . . . .5 + Ceylon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 + Cuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 + Denmark. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 + France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111 + Germany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130 + Great Britain. . . . . . . . . . . . . .131 + Hungary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 + India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 + Italy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 + Japan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 + Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 + Natal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 + New South Wales. . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 + New Zealand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 + Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 + Orange Free State. . . . . . . . . . . . .2 + Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 + Queensland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 + Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 + South African Republic . . . . . . . . . .4 + South Australia. . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 + Spain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 + Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 + Switzerland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 + Tasmania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 + Victoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 + West Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 + + Total of Edison's Foreign Patents. . . 1239 + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Edison, His Life and Inventions, by +Frank Lewis Dyer and Thomas Commerford Martin + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EDISON, HIS LIFE AND INVENTIONS *** + +***** This file should be named 820.txt or 820.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/8/2/820/ + +Produced by Charles Keller and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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