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diff --git a/820-h/820-h.htm b/820-h/820-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4b95dbe --- /dev/null +++ b/820-h/820-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,27012 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="us-ascii"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" lang="en"> + <head> + <title> + Edison his Life and Inventions, by Frank Lewis Dyer + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Edison, His Life and Inventions, by +Frank Lewis Dyer and Thomas Commerford Martin + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Edison, His Life and Inventions + +Author: Frank Lewis Dyer and Thomas Commerford Martin + +Release Date: January 21, 2006 [EBook #820] +Last Updated: January 26, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EDISON, HIS LIFE AND INVENTIONS *** + + + + +Produced by Charles Keller and David Widger + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h1> + EDISON HIS LIFE AND INVENTIONS + </h1> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Frank Lewis Dyer + </h2> + <h4> + General Counsel For The Edison Laboratory And Allied Interests + </h4> + <h3> + And + </h3> + <h2> + Thomas Commerford Martin + </h2> + <h4> + Ex-President Of The American Institute Of Electrical Engineers + </h4> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0001"> <b>EDISON HIS LIFE AND INVENTIONS</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkintro"> <b>INTRODUCTION</b> </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II </a><br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0003"> + CHAPTER III </a><br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV </a><br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V </a><br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0006"> + CHAPTER VI </a><br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII </a><br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX </a><br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0010"> + CHAPTER X </a><br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI </a><br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII </a><br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0014"> + CHAPTER XIV </a><br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XV </a><br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0016"> CHAPTER XVI </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0017"> CHAPTER XVII </a><br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0018"> + CHAPTER XVIII </a><br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0019"> CHAPTER XIX </a><br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0020"> CHAPTER XX </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0021"> CHAPTER XXI </a><br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0022"> + CHAPTER XXII </a><br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0023"> CHAPTER XXIII </a><br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0024"> CHAPTER XXIV </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0025"> CHAPTER XXV </a><br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0026"> + CHAPTER XXVI </a><br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0027"> CHAPTER XXVII </a><br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0028"> CHAPTER XXVIII </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0029"> CHAPTER XXIX </a> <br /> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_APPE"> <b>INTRODUCTION TO THE APPENDIX</b> </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_APPE"> APPENDIX </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0035"> I. THE STOCK PRINTER </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0036"> II. THE QUADRUPLEX AND PHONOPLEX </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0037"> III. AUTOMATIC TELEGRAPHY </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0038"> IV. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0039"> V. THE ELECTROMOTOGRAPH </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0040"> VI. THE TELEPHONE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0041"> VII. EDISON'S TASIMETER </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0042"> VIII. THE EDISON PHONOGRAPH </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0043"> X. EDISON'S DYNAMO WORK </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0044"> XI. THE EDISON FEEDER SYSTEM </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0045"> XII. THE THREE-WIRE SYSTEM </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0046"> XIII. EDISON'S ELECTRIC RAILWAY </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0047"> XIV. TRAIN TELEGRAPHY </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0048"> XV. KINETOGRAPH AND PROJECTING KINETOSCOPE + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0049"> XVI. EDISON'S ORE-MILLING INVENTIONS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0050"> XVII. THE LONG CEMENT KILN </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0051"> XVIII. EDISON'S NEW STORAGE BATTERY + </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0052"> XIX. EDISON'S POURED CEMENT HOUSE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_LIST"> LIST OF UNITED STATES PATENTS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#linkforeign"> FOREIGN PATENTS </a> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="linkintro" id="linkintro"></a> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + INTRODUCTION + </h2> + <p> + PRIOR to this, no complete, authentic, and authorized record of the work + of Mr. Edison, during an active life, has been given to the world. That + life, if there is anything in heredity, is very far from finished; and + while it continues there will be new achievement. + </p> + <p> + An insistently expressed desire on the part of the public for a definitive + biography of Edison was the reason for the following pages. The present + authors deem themselves happy in the confidence reposed in them, and in + the constant assistance they have enjoyed from Mr. Edison while preparing + these pages, a great many of which are altogether his own. This + co-operation in no sense relieves the authors of responsibility as to any + of the views or statements of their own that the book contains. They have + realized the extreme reluctance of Mr. Edison to be made the subject of + any biography at all; while he has felt that, if it must be written, it + were best done by the hands of friends and associates of long standing, + whose judgment and discretion he could trust, and whose intimate knowledge + of the facts would save him from misrepresentation. + </p> + <p> + The authors of the book are profoundly conscious of the fact that the + extraordinary period of electrical development embraced in it has been + prolific of great men. They have named some of them; but there has been no + idea of setting forth various achievements or of ascribing distinctive + merits. This treatment is devoted to one man whom his fellow-citizens have + chosen to regard as in many ways representative of the American at his + finest flowering in the field of invention during the nineteenth century. + </p> + <p> + It is designed in these pages to bring the reader face to face with + Edison; to glance at an interesting childhood and a youthful period marked + by a capacity for doing things, and by an insatiable thirst for knowledge; + then to accompany him into the great creative stretch of forty years, + during which he has done so much. This book shows him plunged deeply into + work for which he has always had an incredible capacity, reveals the + exercise of his unsurpassed inventive ability, his keen reasoning powers, + his tenacious memory, his fertility of resource; follows him through a + series of innumerable experiments, conducted methodically, reaching out + like rays of search-light into all the regions of science and nature, and + finally exhibits him emerging triumphantly from countless difficulties + bearing with him in new arts the fruits of victorious struggle. + </p> + <p> + These volumes aim to be a biography rather than a history of electricity, + but they have had to cover so much general ground in defining the + relations and contributions of Edison to the electrical arts, that they + serve to present a picture of the whole development effected in the last + fifty years, the most fruitful that electricity has known. The effort has + been made to avoid technique and abstruse phrases, but some degree of + explanation has been absolutely necessary in regard to each group of + inventions. The task of the authors has consisted largely in summarizing + fairly the methods and processes employed by Edison; and some idea of the + difficulties encountered by them in so doing may be realized from the fact + that one brief chapter, for example,—that on ore milling—covers + nine years of most intense application and activity on the part of the + inventor. It is something like exhibiting the geological eras of the earth + in an outline lantern slide, to reduce an elaborate series of strenuous + experiments and a vast variety of ingenious apparatus to the space of a + few hundred words. + </p> + <p> + A great deal of this narrative is given in Mr. Edison's own language, from + oral or written statements made in reply to questions addressed to him + with the object of securing accuracy. A further large part is based upon + the personal contributions of many loyal associates; and it is desired + here to make grateful acknowledgment to such collaborators as Messrs. + Samuel Insull, E. H. Johnson, F. R. Upton, R. N Dyer, S. B. Eaton, Francis + Jehl, W. S. Andrews, W. J. Jenks, W. J. Hammer, F. J. Sprague, W. S. + Mallory, and C. L. Clarke, and others, without whose aid the issuance of + this book would indeed have been impossible. In particular, it is desired + to acknowledge indebtedness to Mr. W. H. Meadowcroft not only for + substantial aid in the literary part of the work, but for indefatigable + effort to group, classify, and summarize the boundless material embodied + in Edison's note-books and memorabilia of all kinds now kept at the Orange + laboratory. Acknowledgment must also be made of the courtesy and + assistance of Mrs. Edison, and especially of the loan of many interesting + and rare photographs from her private collection. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0001" id="link2H_4_0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + EDISON HIS LIFE AND INVENTIONS + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I + </h2> + <h3> + THE AGE OF ELECTRICITY + </h3> + <p> + THE year 1847 marked a period of great territorial acquisition by the + American people, with incalculable additions to their actual and potential + wealth. By the rational compromise with England in the dispute over the + Oregon region, President Polk had secured during 1846, for undisturbed + settlement, three hundred thousand square miles of forest, fertile land, + and fisheries, including the whole fair Columbia Valley. Our active + "policy of the Pacific" dated from that hour. With swift and clinching + succession came the melodramatic Mexican War, and February, 1848, saw + another vast territory south of Oregon and west of the Rocky Mountains + added by treaty to the United States. Thus in about eighteen months there + had been pieced into the national domain for quick development and + exploitation a region as large as the entire Union of Thirteen States at + the close of the War of Independence. Moreover, within its boundaries was + embraced all the great American gold-field, just on the eve of discovery, + for Marshall had detected the shining particles in the mill-race at the + foot of the Sierra Nevada nine days before Mexico signed away her rights + in California and in all the vague, remote hinterland facing Cathayward. + </p> + <p> + Equally momentous were the times in Europe, where the attempt to secure + opportunities of expansion as well as larger liberty for the individual + took quite different form. The old absolutist system of government was + fast breaking up, and ancient thrones were tottering. The red lava of deep + revolutionary fires oozed up through many glowing cracks in the political + crust, and all the social strata were shaken. That the wild outbursts of + insurrection midway in the fifth decade failed and died away was not + surprising, for the superincumbent deposits of tradition and convention + were thick. But the retrospect indicates that many reforms and political + changes were accomplished, although the process involved the exile of not + a few ardent spirits to America, to become leading statesmen, inventors, + journalists, and financiers. In 1847, too, Russia began her tremendous + march eastward into Central Asia, just as France was solidifying her first + gains on the littoral of northern Africa. In England the fierce fervor of + the Chartist movement, with its violent rhetoric as to the rights of man, + was sobering down and passing pervasively into numerous practical schemes + for social and political amelioration, constituting in their entirety a + most profound change throughout every part of the national life. + </p> + <p> + Into such times Thomas Alva Edison was born, and his relations to them and + to the events of the past sixty years are the subject of this narrative. + Aside from the personal interest that attaches to the picturesque career, + so typically American, there is a broader aspect in which the work of the + "Franklin of the Nineteenth Century" touches the welfare and progress of + the race. It is difficult at any time to determine the effect of any + single invention, and the investigation becomes more difficult where + inventions of the first class have been crowded upon each other in rapid + and bewildering succession. But it will be admitted that in Edison one + deals with a central figure of the great age that saw the invention and + introduction in practical form of the telegraph, the submarine cable, the + telephone, the electric light, the electric railway, the electric + trolley-car, the storage battery, the electric motor, the phonograph, the + wireless telegraph; and that the influence of these on the world's affairs + has not been excelled at any time by that of any other corresponding + advances in the arts and sciences. These pages deal with Edison's share in + the great work of the last half century in abridging distance, + communicating intelligence, lessening toil, improving illumination, + recording forever the human voice; and on behalf of inventive genius it + may be urged that its beneficent results and gifts to mankind compare with + any to be credited to statesman, warrior, or creative writer of the same + period. + </p> + <p> + Viewed from the standpoint of inventive progress, the first half of the + nineteenth century had passed very profitably when Edison appeared—every + year marked by some notable achievement in the arts and sciences, with + promise of its early and abundant fruition in commerce and industry. There + had been exactly four decades of steam navigation on American waters. + Railways were growing at the rate of nearly one thousand miles annually. + Gas had become familiar as a means of illumination in large cities. Looms + and tools and printing-presses were everywhere being liberated from the + slow toil of man-power. The first photographs had been taken. Chloroform, + nitrous oxide gas, and ether had been placed at the service of the + physician in saving life, and the revolver, guncotton, and nitroglycerine + added to the agencies for slaughter. New metals, chemicals, and elements + had become available in large numbers, gases had been liquefied and + solidified, and the range of useful heat and cold indefinitely extended. + The safety-lamp had been given to the miner, the caisson to the + bridge-builder, the anti-friction metal to the mechanic for bearings. It + was already known how to vulcanize rubber, and how to galvanize iron. The + application of machinery in the harvest-field had begun with the embryonic + reaper, while both the bicycle and the automobile were heralded in + primitive prototypes. The gigantic expansion of the iron and steel + industry was foreshadowed in the change from wood to coal in the smelting + furnaces. The sewing-machine had brought with it, like the friction match, + one of the most profound influences in modifying domestic life, and making + it different from that of all preceding time. + </p> + <p> + Even in 1847 few of these things had lost their novelty, most of them were + in the earlier stages of development. But it is when we turn to + electricity that the rich virgin condition of an illimitable new kingdom + of discovery is seen. Perhaps the word "utilization" or "application" is + better than discovery, for then, as now, an endless wealth of phenomena + noted by experimenters from Gilbert to Franklin and Faraday awaited the + invention that could alone render them useful to mankind. The eighteenth + century, keenly curious and ceaselessly active in this fascinating field + of investigation, had not, after all, left much of a legacy in either + principles or appliances. The lodestone and the compass; the frictional + machine; the Leyden jar; the nature of conductors and insulators; the + identity of electricity and the thunder-storm flash; the use of + lightning-rods; the physiological effects of an electrical shock—these + constituted the bulk of the bequest to which philosophers were the only + heirs. Pregnant with possibilities were many of the observations that had + been recorded. But these few appliances made up the meagre kit of tools + with which the nineteenth century entered upon its task of acquiring the + arts and conveniences now such an intimate part of "human nature's daily + food" that the average American to-day pays more for his electrical + service than he does for bread. + </p> + <p> + With the first year of the new century came Volta's invention of the + chemical battery as a means of producing electricity. A well-known Italian + picture represents Volta exhibiting his apparatus before the young + conqueror Napoleon, then ravishing from the Peninsula its treasure of + ancient art and founding an ephemeral empire. At such a moment this gift + of despoiled Italy to the world was a noble revenge, setting in motion + incalculable beneficent forces and agencies. For the first time man had + command of a steady supply of electricity without toil or effort. The + useful results obtainable previously from the current of a frictional + machine were not much greater than those to be derived from the flight of + a rocket. While the frictional appliance is still employed in medicine, it + ranks with the flint axe and the tinder-box in industrial obsolescence. No + art or trade could be founded on it; no diminution of daily work or + increase of daily comfort could be secured with it. But the little battery + with its metal plates in a weak solution proved a perennial reservoir of + electrical energy, safe and controllable, from which supplies could be + drawn at will. That which was wild had become domesticated; regular crops + took the place of haphazard gleanings from brake or prairie; the + possibility of electrical starvation was forever left behind. + </p> + <p> + Immediately new processes of inestimable value revealed themselves; new + methods were suggested. Almost all the electrical arts now employed made + their beginnings in the next twenty-five years, and while the more + extensive of them depend to-day on the dynamo for electrical energy, some + of the most important still remain in loyal allegiance to the older + source. The battery itself soon underwent modifications, and new types + were evolved—the storage, the double-fluid, and the dry. Various + analogies next pointed to the use of heat, and the thermoelectric cell + emerged, embodying the application of flame to the junction of two + different metals. Davy, of the safety-lamp, threw a volume of current + across the gap between two sticks of charcoal, and the voltaic arc, + forerunner of electric lighting, shed its bright beams upon a dazzled + world. The decomposition of water by electrolytic action was recognized + and made the basis of communicating at a distance even before the days of + the electromagnet. The ties that bind electricity and magnetism in + twinship of relation and interaction were detected, and Faraday's work in + induction gave the world at once the dynamo and the motor. "Hitch your + wagon to a star," said Emerson. To all the coal-fields and all the + waterfalls Faraday had directly hitched the wheels of industry. Not only + was it now possible to convert mechanical energy into electricity cheaply + and in illimitable quantities, but electricity at once showed its + ubiquitous availability as a motive power. Boats were propelled by it, + cars were hauled, and even papers printed. Electroplating became an art, + and telegraphy sprang into active being on both sides of the Atlantic. + </p> + <p> + At the time Edison was born, in 1847, telegraphy, upon which he was to + leave so indelible an imprint, had barely struggled into acceptance by the + public. In England, Wheatstone and Cooke had introduced a ponderous + magnetic needle telegraph. In America, in 1840, Morse had taken out his + first patent on an electromagnetic telegraph, the principle of which is + dominating in the art to this day. Four years later the memorable message + "What hath God wrought!" was sent by young Miss Ellsworth over his + circuits, and incredulous Washington was advised by wire of the action of + the Democratic Convention in Baltimore in nominating Polk. By 1847 + circuits had been strung between Washington and New York, under private + enterprise, the Government having declined to buy the Morse system for + $100,000. Everything was crude and primitive. The poles were two hundred + feet apart and could barely hold up a wash-line. The slim, bare, copper + wire snapped on the least provocation, and the circuit was "down" for + thirty-six days in the first six months. The little glass-knob insulators + made seductive targets for ignorant sportsmen. Attempts to insulate the + line wire were limited to coating it with tar or smearing it with wax for + the benefit of all the bees in the neighborhood. The farthest western + reach of the telegraph lines in 1847 was Pittsburg, with three-ply iron + wire mounted on square glass insulators with a little wooden pentroof for + protection. In that office, where Andrew Carnegie was a messenger boy, the + magnets in use to receive the signals sent with the aid of powerful + nitric-acid batteries weighed as much as seventy-five pounds apiece. But + the business was fortunately small at the outset, until the new device, + patronized chiefly by lottery-men, had proved its utility. Then came the + great outburst of activity. Within a score of years telegraph wires + covered the whole occupied country with a network, and the first great + electrical industry was a pronounced success, yielding to its pioneers the + first great harvest of electrical fortunes. It had been a sharp struggle + for bare existence, during which such a man as the founder of Cornell + University had been glad to get breakfast in New York with a + quarter-dollar picked up on Broadway. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II + </h2> + <h3> + EDISON'S PEDIGREE + </h3> + <p> + THOMAS ALVA EDISON was born at Milan Ohio, February 11, 1847. The State + that rivals Virginia as a "Mother of Presidents" has evidently other + titles to distinction of the same nature. For picturesque detail it would + not be easy to find any story excelling that of the Edison family before + it reached the Western Reserve. The story epitomizes American idealism, + restlessness, freedom of individual opinion, and ready adjustment to the + surrounding conditions of pioneer life. The ancestral Edisons who came + over from Holland, as nearly as can be determined, in 1730, were + descendants of extensive millers on the Zuyder Zee, and took up patents of + land along the Passaic River, New Jersey, close to the home that Mr. + Edison established in the Orange Mountains a hundred and sixty years + later. They landed at Elizabethport, New Jersey, and first settled near + Caldwell in that State, where some graves of the family may still be + found. President Cleveland was born in that quiet hamlet. It is a curious + fact that in the Edison family the pronunciation of the name has always + been with the long "e" sound, as it would naturally be in the Dutch + language. The family prospered and must have enjoyed public confidence, + for we find the name of Thomas Edison, as a bank official on Manhattan + Island, signed to Continental currency in 1778. According to the family + records this Edison, great-grandfather of Thomas Alva, reached the extreme + old age of 104 years. But all was not well, and, as has happened so often + before, the politics of father and son were violently different. The + Loyalist movement that took to Nova Scotia so many Americans after the War + of Independence carried with it John, the son of this stalwart + Continental. Thus it came about that Samuel Edison, son of John, was born + at Digby, Nova Scotia, in 1804. Seven years later John Edison who, as a + Loyalist or United Empire emigrant, had become entitled under the laws of + Canada to a grant of six hundred acres of land, moved westward to take + possession of this property. He made his way through the State of New York + in wagons drawn by oxen to the remote and primitive township of Bayfield, + in Upper Canada, on Lake Huron. Although the journey occurred in balmy + June, it was necessarily attended with difficulty and privation; but the + new home was situated in good farming country, and once again this + interesting nomadic family settled down. + </p> + <p> + John Edison moved from Bayfield to Vienna, Ontario, on the northern bank + of Lake Erie. Mr. Edison supplies an interesting reminiscence of the old + man and his environment in those early Canadian days. "When I was five + years old I was taken by my father and mother on a visit to Vienna. We + were driven by carriage from Milan, Ohio, to a railroad, then to a port on + Lake Erie, thence by a canal-boat in a tow of several to Port Burwell, in + Canada, across the lake, and from there we drove to Vienna, a short + distance away. I remember my grandfather perfectly as he appeared, at 102 + years of age, when he died. In the middle of the day he sat under a large + tree in front of the house facing a well-travelled road. His head was + covered completely with a large quantity of very white hair, and he chewed + tobacco incessantly, nodding to friends as they passed by. He used a very + large cane, and walked from the chair to the house, resenting any + assistance. I viewed him from a distance, and could never get very close + to him. I remember some large pipes, and especially a molasses jug, a + trunk, and several other things that came from Holland." + </p> + <p> + John Edison was long-lived, like his father, and reached the ripe old age + of 102, leaving his son Samuel charged with the care of the family + destinies, but with no great burden of wealth. Little is known of the + early manhood of this father of T. A. Edison until we find him keeping a + hotel at Vienna, marrying a school-teacher there (Miss Nancy Elliott, in + 1828), and taking a lively share in the troublous politics of the time. He + was six feet in height, of great bodily vigor, and of such personal + dominance of character that he became a captain of the insurgent forces + rallying under the banners of Papineau and Mackenzie. The opening years of + Queen Victoria's reign witnessed a belated effort in Canada to emphasize + the principle that there should not be taxation without representation; + and this descendant of those who had left the United States from + disapproval of such a doctrine, flung himself headlong into its support. + </p> + <p> + It has been said of Earl Durham, who pacified Canada at this time and + established the present system of government, that he made a country and + marred a career. But the immediate measures of repression enforced before + a liberal policy was adopted were sharp and severe, and Samuel Edison also + found his own career marred on Canadian soil as one result of the Durham + administration. Exile to Bermuda with other insurgents was not so + attractive as the perils of a flight to the United States. A very hurried + departure was effected in secret from the scene of trouble, and there are + romantic traditions of his thrilling journey of one hundred and eighty-two + miles toward safety, made almost entirely without food or sleep, through a + wild country infested with Indians of unfriendly disposition. Thus was the + Edison family repatriated by a picturesque political episode, and the + great inventor given a birthplace on American soil, just as was Benjamin + Franklin when his father came from England to Boston. Samuel Edison left + behind him, however, in Canada, several brothers, all of whom lived to the + age of ninety or more, and from whom there are descendants in the region. + </p> + <p> + After some desultory wanderings for a year or two along the shores of Lake + Erie, among the prosperous towns then springing up, the family, with its + Canadian home forfeited, and in quest of another resting-place, came to + Milan, Ohio, in 1842. That pretty little village offered at the moment + many attractions as a possible Chicago. The railroad system of Ohio was + still in the future, but the Western Reserve had already become a vast + wheat-field, and huge quantities of grain from the central and northern + counties sought shipment to Eastern ports. The Huron River, emptying into + Lake Erie, was navigable within a few miles of the village, and provided + an admirable outlet. Large granaries were established, and proved so + successful that local capital was tempted into the project of making a + tow-path canal from Lockwood Landing all the way to Milan itself. The + quaint old Moravian mission and quondam Indian settlement of one hundred + inhabitants found itself of a sudden one of the great grain ports of the + world, and bidding fair to rival Russian Odessa. A number of grain + warehouses, or primitive elevators, were built along the bank of the + canal, and the produce of the region poured in immediately, arriving in + wagons drawn by four or six horses with loads of a hundred bushels. No + fewer than six hundred wagons came clattering in, and as many as twenty + sail vessels were loaded with thirty-five thousand bushels of grain, + during a single day. The canal was capable of being navigated by craft of + from two hundred to two hundred and fifty tons burden, and the demand for + such vessels soon led to the development of a brisk ship-building + industry, for which the abundant forests of the region supplied the + necessary lumber. An evidence of the activity in this direction is + furnished by the fact that six revenue cutters were launched at this port + in these brisk days of its prime. + </p> + <p> + Samuel Edison, versatile, buoyant of temper, and ever optimistic, would + thus appear to have pitched his tent with shrewd judgment. There was + plenty of occupation ready to his hand, and more than one enterprise + received his attention; but he devoted his energies chiefly to the making + of shingles, for which there was a large demand locally and along the + lake. Canadian lumber was used principally in this industry. The wood was + imported in "bolts" or pieces three feet long. A bolt made two shingles; + it was sawn asunder by hand, then split and shaved. None but first-class + timber was used, and such shingles outlasted far those made by machinery + with their cross-grain cut. A house in Milan, on which some of those + shingles were put in 1844, was still in excellent condition forty-two + years later. Samuel Edison did well at this occupation, and employed + several men, but there were other outlets from time to time for his + business activity and speculative disposition. + </p> + <p> + Edison's mother was an attractive and highly educated woman, whose + influence upon his disposition and intellect has been profound and + lasting. She was born in Chenango County, New York, in 1810, and was the + daughter of the Rev. John Elliott, a Baptist minister and descendant of an + old Revolutionary soldier, Capt. Ebenezer Elliott, of Scotch descent. The + old captain was a fine and picturesque type. He fought all through the + long War of Independence—seven years—and then appears to have + settled down at Stonington, Connecticut. There, at any rate, he found his + wife, "grandmother Elliott," who was Mercy Peckham, daughter of a Scotch + Quaker. Then came the residence in New York State, with final removal to + Vienna, for the old soldier, while drawing his pension at Buffalo, lived + in the little Canadian town, and there died, over 100 years old. The + family was evidently one of considerable culture and deep religious + feeling, for two of Mrs. Edison's uncles and two brothers were also in the + same Baptist ministry. As a young woman she became a teacher in the public + high school at Vienna, and thus met her husband, who was residing there. + The family never consisted of more than three children, two boys and a + girl. A trace of the Canadian environment is seen in the fact that + Edison's elder brother was named William Pitt, after the great English + statesman. Both his brother and the sister exhibited considerable ability. + William Pitt Edison as a youth was so clever with his pencil that it was + proposed to send him to Paris as an art student. In later life he was + manager of the local street railway lines at Port Huron, Michigan, in + which he was heavily interested. He also owned a good farm near that town, + and during the ill-health at the close of his life, when compelled to + spend much of the time indoors, he devoted himself almost entirely to + sketching. It has been noted by intimate observers of Thomas A. Edison + that in discussing any project or new idea his first impulse is to take up + any piece of paper available and make drawings of it. His voluminous + note-books are a mass of sketches. Mrs-Tannie Edison Bailey, the sister, + had, on the other hand, a great deal of literary ability, and spent much + of her time in writing. + </p> + <p> + The great inventor, whose iron endurance and stern will have enabled him + to wear down all his associates by work sustained through arduous days and + sleepless nights, was not at all strong as a child, and was of fragile + appearance. He had an abnormally large but well-shaped head, and it is + said that the local doctors feared he might have brain trouble. In fact, + on account of his assumed delicacy, he was not allowed to go to school for + some years, and even when he did attend for a short time the results were + not encouraging—his mother being hotly indignant upon hearing that + the teacher had spoken of him to an inspector as "addled." The youth was, + indeed, fortunate far beyond the ordinary in having a mother at once + loving, well-informed, and ambitious, capable herself, from her experience + as a teacher, of undertaking and giving him an education better than could + be secured in the local schools of the day. Certain it is that under this + simple regime studious habits were formed and a taste for literature + developed that have lasted to this day. If ever there was a man who tore + the heart out of books it is Edison, and what has once been read by him is + never forgotten if useful or worthy of submission to the test of + experiment. + </p> + <p> + But even thus early the stronger love of mechanical processes and of + probing natural forces manifested itself. Edison has said that he never + saw a statement in any book as to such things that he did not + involuntarily challenge, and wish to demonstrate as either right or wrong. + As a mere child the busy scenes of the canal and the grain warehouses were + of consuming interest, but the work in the ship-building yards had an + irresistible fascination. His questions were so ceaseless and innumerable + that the penetrating curiosity of an unusually strong mind was regarded as + deficiency in powers of comprehension, and the father himself, a man of no + mean ingenuity and ability, reports that the child, although capable of + reducing him to exhaustion by endless inquiries, was often spoken of as + rather wanting in ordinary acumen. This apparent dulness is, however, a + quite common incident to youthful genius. + </p> + <p> + The constructive tendencies of this child of whom his father said once + that he had never had any boyhood days in the ordinary sense, were early + noted in his fondness for building little plank roads out of the debris of + the yards and mills. His extraordinarily retentive memory was shown in his + easy acquisition of all the songs of the lumber gangs and canal men before + he was five years old. One incident tells how he was found one day in the + village square copying laboriously the signs of the stores. A highly + characteristic event at the age of six is described by his sister. He had + noted a goose sitting on her eggs and the result. One day soon after, he + was missing. By-and-by, after an anxious search, his father found him + sitting in a nest he had made in the barn, filled with goose-eggs and + hens' eggs he had collected, trying to hatch them out. + </p> + <p> + One of Mr. Edison's most vivid recollections goes back to 1850, when as a + child three of four years old he saw camped in front of his home six + covered wagons, "prairie schooners," and witnessed their departure for + California. The great excitement over the gold discoveries was thus felt + in Milan, and these wagons, laden with all the worldly possessions of + their owners, were watched out of sight on their long journey by this + fascinated urchin, whose own discoveries in later years were to tempt many + other argonauts into the auriferous realms of electricity. + </p> + <p> + Another vivid memory of this period concerns his first realization of the + grim mystery of death. He went off one day with the son of the wealthiest + man in the town to bathe in the creek. Soon after they entered the water + the other boy disappeared. Young Edison waited around the spot for half an + hour or more, and then, as it was growing dark, went home puzzled and + lonely, but silent as to the occurrence. About two hours afterward, when + the missing boy was being searched for, a man came to the Edison home to + make anxious inquiry of the companion with whom he had last been seen. + Edison told all the circumstances with a painful sense of being in some + way implicated. The creek was at once dragged, and then the body was + recovered. + </p> + <p> + Edison had himself more than one narrow escape. Of course he fell in the + canal and was nearly drowned; few boys in Milan worth their salt omitted + that performance. On another occasion he encountered a more novel peril by + falling into the pile of wheat in a grain elevator and being almost + smothered. Holding the end of a skate-strap for another lad to shorten + with an axe, he lost the top of a finger. Fire also had its perils. He + built a fire in a barn, but the flames spread so rapidly that, although he + escaped himself, the barn was wholly destroyed, and he was publicly + whipped in the village square as a warning to other youths. Equally well + remembered is a dangerous encounter with a ram that attacked him while he + was busily engaged digging out a bumblebee's nest near an orchard fence. + The animal knocked him against the fence, and was about to butt him again + when he managed to drop over on the safe side and escape. He was badly + hurt and bruised, and no small quantity of arnica was needed for his + wounds. + </p> + <p> + Meantime little Milan had reached the zenith of its prosperity, and all of + a sudden had been deprived of its flourishing grain trade by the new + Columbus, Sandusky & Hocking Railroad; in fact, the short canal was + one of the last efforts of its kind in this country to compete with the + new means of transportation. The bell of the locomotive was everywhere + ringing the death-knell of effective water haulage, with such dire results + that, in 1880, of the 4468 miles of American freight canal, that had cost + $214,000,000, no fewer than 1893 miles had been abandoned, and of the + remaining 2575 miles quite a large proportion was not paying expenses. The + short Milan canal suffered with the rest, and to-day lies well-nigh + obliterated, hidden in part by vegetable gardens, a mere grass-grown + depression at the foot of the winding, shallow valley. Other railroads + also prevented any further competition by the canal, for a branch of the + Wheeling & Lake Erie now passes through the village, while the Lake + Shore & Michigan Southern runs a few miles to the south. + </p> + <p> + The owners of the canal soon had occasion to regret that they had + disdained the overtures of enterprising railroad promoters desirous of + reaching the village, and the consequences of commercial isolation rapidly + made themselves felt. It soon became evident to Samuel Edison and his wife + that the cozy brick home on the bluff must be given up and the struggle + with fortune resumed elsewhere. They were well-to-do, however, and + removing, in 1854, to Port Huron, Michigan, occupied a large colonial + house standing in the middle of an old Government fort reservation of ten + acres overlooking the wide expanse of the St. Clair River just after it + leaves Lake Huron. It was in many ways an ideal homestead, toward which + the family has always felt the strongest attachment, but the association + with Milan has never wholly ceased. The old house in which Edison was born + is still occupied (in 1910) by Mr. S. O. Edison, a half-brother of + Edison's father, and a man of marked inventive ability. He was once + prominent in the iron-furnace industry of Ohio, and was for a time + associated in the iron trade with the father of the late President + McKinley. Among his inventions may be mentioned a machine for making fuel + from wheat straw, and a smoke-consuming device. + </p> + <p> + This birthplace of Edison remains the plain, substantial little brick + house it was originally: one-storied, with rooms finished on the attic + floor. Being built on the hillside, its basement opens into the rear yard. + It was at first heated by means of open coal grates, which may not have + been altogether adequate in severe winters, owing to the altitude and the + north-eastern exposure, but a large furnace is one of the more modern + changes. Milan itself is not materially unlike the smaller Ohio towns of + its own time or those of later creation, but the venerable appearance of + the big elm-trees that fringe the trim lawns tells of its age. It is, + indeed, an extremely neat, snug little place, with well-kept homes, mostly + of frame construction, and flagged streets crossing each other at right + angles. There are no poor—at least, everybody is apparently + well-to-do. While a leisurely atmosphere pervades the town, few idlers are + seen. Some of the residents are engaged in local business; some are + occupied in farming and grape culture; others are employed in the + iron-works near-by, at Norwalk. The stores and places of public resort are + gathered about the square, where there is plenty of room for hitching when + the Saturday trading is done at that point, at which periods the fitful + bustle recalls the old wheat days when young Edison ran with curiosity + among the six and eight horse teams that had brought in grain. This square + is still covered with fine primeval forest trees, and has at its centre a + handsome soldiers' monument of the Civil War, to which four paved walks + converge. It is an altogether pleasant and unpretentious town, which + cherishes with no small amount of pride its association with the name of + Thomas Alva Edison. + </p> + <p> + In view of Edison's Dutch descent, it is rather singular to find him with + the name of Alva, for the Spanish Duke of Alva was notoriously the worst + tyrant ever known to the Low Countries, and his evil deeds occupy many + stirring pages in Motley's famous history. As a matter of fact, Edison was + named after Capt. Alva Bradley, an old friend of his father, and a + celebrated ship-owner on the Lakes. Captain Bradley died a few years ago + in wealth, while his old associate, with equal ability for making money, + was never able long to keep it (differing again from the Revolutionary New + York banker from whom his son's other name, "Thomas," was taken). + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III + </h2> + <h3> + BOYHOOD AT PORT HURON, MICHIGAN + </h3> + <p> + THE new home found by the Edison family at Port Huron, where Alva spent + his brief boyhood before he became a telegraph operator and roamed the + whole middle West of that period, was unfortunately destroyed by fire just + after the close of the Civil War. A smaller but perhaps more comfortable + home was then built by Edison's father on some property he had bought at + the near-by village of Gratiot, and there his mother spent the remainder + of her life in confirmed invalidism, dying in 1871. Hence the pictures and + postal cards sold largely to souvenir-hunters as the Port Huron home do + not actually show that in or around which the events now referred to took + place. + </p> + <p> + It has been a romance of popular biographers, based upon the fact that + Edison began his career as a newsboy, to assume that these earlier years + were spent in poverty and privation, as indeed they usually are by the + "newsies" who swarm and shout their papers in our large cities. While it + seems a pity to destroy this erroneous idea, suggestive of a heroic climb + from the depths to the heights, nothing could be further from the truth. + Socially the Edison family stood high in Port Huron at a time when there + was relatively more wealth and general activity than to-day. The town in + its pristine prime was a great lumber centre, and hummed with the industry + of numerous sawmills. An incredible quantity of lumber was made there + yearly until the forests near-by vanished and the industry with them. The + wealth of the community, invested largely in this business and in allied + transportation companies, was accumulated rapidly and as freely spent + during those days of prosperity in St. Clair County, bringing with it a + high standard of domestic comfort. In all this the Edisons shared on equal + terms. + </p> + <p> + Thus, contrary to the stories that have been so widely published, the + Edisons, while not rich by any means, were in comfortable circumstances, + with a well-stocked farm and large orchard to draw upon also for + sustenance. Samuel Edison, on moving to Port Huron, became a dealer in + grain and feed, and gave attention to that business for many years. But he + was also active in the lumber industry in the Saginaw district and several + other things. It was difficult for a man of such mercurial, restless + temperament to stay constant to any one occupation; in fact, had he been + less visionary he would have been more prosperous, but might not have had + a son so gifted with insight and imagination. One instance of the + optimistic vagaries which led him incessantly to spend time and money on + projects that would not have appealed to a man less sanguine was the + construction on his property of a wooden observation tower over a hundred + feet high, the top of which was reached toilsomely by winding stairs, + after the payment of twenty-five cents. It is true that the tower + commanded a pretty view by land and water, but Colonel Sellers himself + might have projected this enterprise as a possible source of steady + income. At first few visitors panted up the long flights of steps to the + breezy platform. During the first two months Edison's father took in three + dollars, and felt extremely blue over the prospect, and to young Edison + and his relatives were left the lonely pleasures of the lookout and the + enjoyment of the telescope with which it was equipped. But one fine day + there came an excursion from an inland town to see the lake. They + picnicked in the grove, and six hundred of them went up the tower. After + that the railroad company began to advertise these excursions, and the + receipts each year paid for the observatory. + </p> + <p> + It might be thought that, immersed in business and preoccupied with + schemes of this character, Mr. Edison was to blame for the neglect of his + son's education. But that was not the case. The conditions were peculiar. + It was at the Port Huron public school that Edison received all the + regular scholastic instruction he ever enjoyed—just three months. He + might have spent the full term there, but, as already noted, his teacher + had found him "addled." He was always, according to his own recollection, + at the foot of the class, and had come almost to regard himself as a + dunce, while his father entertained vague anxieties as to his stupidity. + The truth of the matter seems to be that Mrs. Edison, a teacher of + uncommon ability and force, held no very high opinion of the average + public-school methods and results, and was both eager to undertake the + instruction of her son and ambitious for the future of a boy whom she knew + from pedagogic experience to be receptive and thoughtful to a very unusual + degree. With her he found study easy and pleasant. The quality of culture + in that simple but refined home, as well as the intellectual character of + this youth without schooling, may be inferred from the fact that before he + had reached the age of twelve he had read, with his mother's help, + Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Hume's History of England, + Sears' History of the World, Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy, and the + Dictionary of Sciences; and had even attempted to struggle through + Newton's Principia, whose mathematics were decidedly beyond both teacher + and student. Besides, Edison, like Faraday, was never a mathematician, and + has had little personal use for arithmetic beyond that which is called + "mental." He said once to a friend: "I can always hire some + mathematicians, but they can't hire me." His father, by-the-way, always + encouraged these literary tastes, and paid him a small sum for each new + book mastered. It will be noted that fiction makes no showing in the list; + but it was not altogether excluded from the home library, and Edison has + all his life enjoyed it, particularly the works of such writers as Victor + Hugo, after whom, because of his enthusiastic admiration—possibly + also because of his imagination—he was nicknamed by his + fellow-operators, "Victor Hugo Edison." + </p> + <p> + Electricity at that moment could have no allure for a youthful mind. Crude + telegraphy represented what was known of it practically, and about that + the books read by young Edison were not redundantly informational. Even + had that not been so, the inclinations of the boy barely ten years old + were toward chemistry, and fifty years later there is seen no change of + predilection. It sounds like heresy to say that Edison became an + electrician by chance, but it is the sober fact that to this pre-eminent + and brilliant leader in electrical achievement escape into the chemical + domain still has the aspect of a delightful truant holiday. One of the + earliest stories about his boyhood relates to the incident when he induced + a lad employed in the family to swallow a large quantity of Seidlitz + powders in the belief that the gases generated would enable him to fly. + The agonies of the victim attracted attention, and Edison's mother marked + her displeasure by an application of the switch kept behind the old Seth + Thomas "grandfather clock." The disastrous result of this experiment did + not discourage Edison at all, as he attributed failure to the lad rather + than to the motive power. In the cellar of the Edison homestead young Alva + soon accumulated a chemical outfit, constituting the first in a long + series of laboratories. The word "laboratory" had always been associated + with alchemists in the past, but as with "filament" this untutored + stripling applied an iconoclastic practicability to it long before he + realized the significance of the new departure. Goethe, in his legend of + Faust, shows the traditional or conventional philosopher in his + laboratory, an aged, tottering, gray-bearded investigator, who only + becomes youthful upon diabolical intervention, and would stay senile + without it. In the Edison laboratory no such weird transformation has been + necessary, for the philosopher had youth, fiery energy, and a grimly + practical determination that would submit to no denial of the goal of + something of real benefit to mankind. Edison and Faust are indeed the + extremes of philosophic thought and accomplishment. + </p> + <p> + The home at Port Huron thus saw the first Edison laboratory. The boy began + experimenting when he was about ten or eleven years of age. He got a copy + of Parker's School Philosophy, an elementary book on physics, and about + every experiment in it he tried. Young Alva, or "Al," as he was called, + thus early displayed his great passion for chemistry, and in the cellar of + the house he collected no fewer than two hundred bottles, gleaned in + baskets from all parts of the town. These were arranged carefully on + shelves and all labelled "Poison," so that no one else would handle or + disturb them. They contained the chemicals with which he was constantly + experimenting. To others this diversion was both mysterious and + meaningless, but he had soon become familiar with all the chemicals + obtainable at the local drug stores, and had tested to his satisfaction + many of the statements encountered in his scientific reading. Edison has + said that sometimes he has wondered how it was he did not become an + analytical chemist instead of concentrating on electricity, for which he + had at first no great inclination. + </p> + <p> + Deprived of the use of a large part of her cellar, tiring of the "mess" + always to be found there, and somewhat fearful of results, his mother once + told the boy to clear everything out and restore order. The thought of + losing all his possessions was the cause of so much ardent distress that + his mother relented, but insisted that he must get a lock and key, and + keep the embryonic laboratory closed up all the time except when he was + there. This was done. From such work came an early familiarity with the + nature of electrical batteries and the production of current from them. + Apparently the greater part of his spare time was spent in the cellar, for + he did not share to any extent in the sports of the boys of the + neighborhood, his chum and chief companion, Michael Oates, being a lad of + Dutch origin, many years older, who did chores around the house, and who + could be recruited as a general utility Friday for the experiments of this + young explorer—such as that with the Seidlitz powders. + </p> + <p> + Such pursuits as these consumed the scant pocket-money of the boy very + rapidly. He was not in regular attendance at school, and had read all the + books within reach. It was thus he turned newsboy, overcoming the + reluctance of his parents, particularly that of his mother, by pointing + out that he could by this means earn all he wanted for his experiments and + get fresh reading in the shape of papers and magazines free of charge. + Besides, his leisure hours in Detroit he would be able to spend at the + public library. He applied (in 1859) for the privilege of selling + newspapers on the trains of the Grand Trunk Railroad, between Port Huron + and Detroit, and obtained the concession after a short delay, during which + he made an essay in his task of selling newspapers. + </p> + <p> + Edison had, as a fact, already had some commercial experience from the age + of eleven. The ten acres of the reservation offered an excellent + opportunity for truck-farming, and the versatile head of the family could + not avoid trying his luck in this branch of work. A large "market garden" + was laid out, in which Edison worked pretty steadily with the help of the + Dutch boy, Michael Oates—he of the flying experiment. These boys had + a horse and small wagon intrusted to them, and every morning in the season + they would load up with onions, lettuce, peas, etc., and go through the + town. + </p> + <p> + As much as $600 was turned over to Mrs. Edison in one year from this + source. The boy was indefatigable but not altogether charmed with + agriculture. "After a while I tired of this work, as hoeing corn in a hot + sun is unattractive, and I did not wonder that it had built up cities. + Soon the Grand Trunk Railroad was extended from Toronto to Port Huron, at + the foot of Lake Huron, and thence to Detroit, at about the same time the + War of the Rebellion broke out. By a great amount of persistence I got + permission from my mother to go on the local train as a newsboy. The local + train from Port Huron to Detroit, a distance of sixty-three miles, left at + 7 A.M. and arrived again at 9.30 P.M. After being on the train for several + months, I started two stores in Port Huron—one for periodicals, and + the other for vegetables, butter, and berries in the season. These were + attended by two boys who shared in the profits. The periodical store I + soon closed, as the boy in charge could not be trusted. The vegetable + store I kept up for nearly a year. After the railroad had been opened a + short time, they put on an express which left Detroit in the morning and + returned in the evening. I received permission to put a newsboy on this + train. Connected with this train was a car, one part for baggage and the + other part for U. S. mail, but for a long time it was not used. Every + morning I had two large baskets of vegetables from the Detroit market + loaded in the mail-car and sent to Port Huron, where the boy would take + them to the store. They were much better than those grown locally, and + sold readily. I never was asked to pay freight, and to this day cannot + explain why, except that I was so small and industrious, and the nerve to + appropriate a U. S. mail-car to do a free freight business was so + monumental. However, I kept this up for a long time, and in addition + bought butter from the farmers along the line, and an immense amount of + blackberries in the season. I bought wholesale and at a low price, and + permitted the wives of the engineers and trainmen to have the benefit of + the discount. After a while there was a daily immigrant train put on. This + train generally had from seven to ten coaches filled always with + Norwegians, all bound for Iowa and Minnesota. On these trains I employed a + boy who sold bread, tobacco, and stick candy. As the war progressed the + daily newspaper sales became very profitable, and I gave up the vegetable + store." + </p> + <p> + The hours of this occupation were long, but the work was not particularly + heavy, and Edison soon found opportunity for his favorite avocation—chemical + experimentation. His train left Port Huron at 7 A.M., and made its + southward trip to Detroit in about three hours. This gave a stay in that + city from 10 A.M. until the late afternoon, when the train left, arriving + at Port Huron about 9.30 P.M. The train was made up of three coaches—baggage, + smoking, and ordinary passenger or "ladies." The baggage-car was divided + into three compartments—one for trunks and packages, one for the + mail, and one for smoking. In those days no use was made of the + smoking-compartment, as there was no ventilation, and it was turned over + to young Edison, who not only kept papers there and his stock of goods as + a "candy butcher," but soon had it equipped with an extraordinary variety + of apparatus. There was plenty of leisure on the two daily runs, even for + an industrious boy, and thus he found time to transfer his laboratory from + the cellar and re-establish it on the train. + </p> + <p> + His earnings were also excellent—so good, in fact, that eight or ten + dollars a day were often taken in, and one dollar went every day to his + mother. Thus supporting himself, he felt entitled to spend any other + profit left over on chemicals and apparatus. And spent it was, for with + access to Detroit and its large stores, where he bought his supplies, and + to the public library, where he could quench his thirst for technical + information, Edison gave up all his spare time and money to chemistry. + Surely the country could have presented at that moment no more striking + example of the passionate pursuit of knowledge under difficulties than + this newsboy, barely fourteen years of age, with his jars and test-tubes + installed on a railway baggage-car. + </p> + <p> + Nor did this amazing equipment stop at batteries and bottles. The same + little space a few feet square was soon converted by this precocious youth + into a newspaper office. The outbreak of the Civil War gave a great + stimulus to the demand for all newspapers, noticing which he became + ambitious to publish a local journal of his own, devoted to the news of + that section of the Grand Trunk road. A small printing-press that had been + used for hotel bills of fare was picked up in Detroit, and type was also + bought, some of it being placed on the train so that composition could go + on in spells of leisure. To one so mechanical in his tastes as Edison, it + was quite easy to learn the rudiments of the printing art, and thus the + Weekly Herald came into existence, of which he was compositor, pressman, + editor, publisher, and newsdealer. Only one or two copies of this journal + are now discoverable, but its appearance can be judged from the reduced + facsimile here shown. The thing was indeed well done as the work of a + youth shown by the date to be less than fifteen years old. The literary + style is good, there are only a few trivial slips in spelling, and the + appreciation is keen of what would be interesting news and gossip. The + price was three cents a copy, or eight cents a month for regular + subscribers, and the circulation ran up to over four hundred copies an + issue. This was by no means the result of mere public curiosity, but + attested the value of the sheet as a genuine newspaper, to which many + persons in the railroad service along the line were willing contributors. + Indeed, with the aid of the railway telegraph, Edison was often able to + print late news of importance, of local origin, that the distant regular + papers like those of Detroit, which he handled as a newsboy, could not + get. It is no wonder that this clever little sheet received the approval + and patronage of the English engineer Stephenson when inspecting the Grand + Trunk system, and was noted by no less distinguished a contemporary than + the London Times as the first newspaper in the world to be printed on a + train in motion. The youthful proprietor sometimes cleared as much as + twenty to thirty dollars a month from this unique journalistic enterprise. + </p> + <p> + But all this extra work required attention, and Edison solved the + difficulty of attending also to the newsboy business by the employment of + a young friend, whom he trained and treated liberally as an understudy. + There was often plenty of work for both in the early days of the war, when + the news of battle caused intense excitement and large sales of papers. + Edison, with native shrewdness already so strikingly displayed, would + telegraph the station agents and get them to bulletin the event of the day + at the front, so that when each station was reached there were eager + purchasers waiting. He recalls in particular the sensation caused by the + great battle of Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, in April, 1862, in which + both Grant and Sherman were engaged, in which Johnston died, and in which + there was a ghastly total of 25,000 killed and wounded. + </p> + <p> + In describing his enterprising action that day, Edison says that when he + reached Detroit the bulletin-boards of the newspaper offices were + surrounded with dense crowds, which read awestricken the news that there + were 60,000 killed and wounded, and that the result was uncertain. "I knew + that if the same excitement was attained at the various small towns along + the road, and especially at Port Huron, the sale of papers would be great. + I then conceived the idea of telegraphing the news ahead, went to the + operator in the depot, and by giving him Harper's Weekly and some other + papers for three months, he agreed to telegraph to all the stations the + matter on the bulletin-board. I hurriedly copied it, and he sent it, + requesting the agents to display it on the blackboards used for stating + the arrival and departure of trains. I decided that instead of the usual + one hundred papers I could sell one thousand; but not having sufficient + money to purchase that number, I determined in my desperation to see the + editor himself and get credit. The great paper at that time was the + Detroit Free Press. I walked into the office marked 'Editorial' and told a + young man that I wanted to see the editor on important business—important + to me, anyway, I was taken into an office where there were two men, and I + stated what I had done about telegraphing, and that I wanted a thousand + papers, but only had money for three hundred, and I wanted credit. One of + the men refused it, but the other told the first spokesman to let me have + them. This man, I afterward learned, was Wilbur F. Storey, who + subsequently founded the Chicago Times, and became celebrated in the + newspaper world. By the aid of another boy I lugged the papers to the + train and started folding them. The first station, called Utica, was a + small one where I generally sold two papers. I saw a crowd ahead on the + platform, and thought it some excursion, but the moment I landed there was + a rush for me; then I realized that the telegraph was a great invention. I + sold thirty-five papers there. The next station was Mount Clemens, now a + watering-place, but then a town of about one thousand. I usually sold six + to eight papers there. I decided that if I found a corresponding crowd + there, the only thing to do to correct my lack of judgment in not getting + more papers was to raise the price from five cents to ten. The crowd was + there, and I raised the price. At the various towns there were + corresponding crowds. It had been my practice at Port Huron to jump from + the train at a point about one-fourth of a mile from the station, where + the train generally slackened speed. I had drawn several loads of sand to + this point to jump on, and had become quite expert. The little Dutch boy + with the horse met me at this point. When the wagon approached the + outskirts of the town I was met by a large crowd. I then yelled: + 'Twenty-five cents apiece, gentlemen! I haven't enough to go around!' I + sold all out, and made what to me then was an immense sum of money." + </p> + <p> + Such episodes as this added materially to his income, but did not + necessarily increase his savings, for he was then, as now, an utter + spendthrift so long as some new apparatus or supplies for experiment could + be had. In fact, the laboratory on wheels soon became crowded with such + equipment, most costly chemicals were bought on the instalment plan, and + Fresenius' Qualitative Analysis served as a basis for ceaseless testing + and study. George Pullman, who then had a small shop at Detroit and was + working on his sleeping-car, made Edison a lot of wooden apparatus for his + chemicals, to the boy's delight. Unfortunately a sudden change came, + fraught with disaster. The train, running one day at thirty miles an hour + over a piece of poorly laid track, was thrown suddenly out of the + perpendicular with a violent lurch, and, before Edison could catch it, a + stick of phosphorus was jarred from its shelf, fell to the floor, and + burst into flame. The car took fire, and the boy, in dismay, was still + trying to quench the blaze when the conductor, a quick-tempered Scotchman, + who acted also as baggage-master, hastened to the scene with water and + saved his car. On the arrival at Mount Clemens station, its next stop, + Edison and his entire outfit, laboratory, printing-plant, and all, were + promptly ejected by the enraged conductor, and the train then moved off, + leaving him on the platform, tearful and indignant in the midst of his + beloved but ruined possessions. It was lynch law of a kind; but in view of + the responsibility, this action of the conductor lay well within his + rights and duties. + </p> + <p> + It was through this incident that Edison acquired the deafness that has + persisted all through his life, a severe box on the ears from the scorched + and angry conductor being the direct cause of the infirmity. Although this + deafness would be regarded as a great affliction by most people, and has + brought in its train other serious baubles, Mr. Edison has always regarded + it philosophically, and said about it recently: "This deafness has been of + great advantage to me in various ways. When in a telegraph office, I could + only hear the instrument directly on the table at which I sat, and unlike + the other operators, I was not bothered by the other instruments. Again, + in experimenting on the telephone, I had to improve the transmitter so I + could hear it. This made the telephone commercial, as the magneto + telephone receiver of Bell was too weak to be used as a transmitter + commercially. It was the same with the phonograph. The great defect of + that instrument was the rendering of the overtones in music, and the + hissing consonants in speech. I worked over one year, twenty hours a day, + Sundays and all, to get the word 'specie' perfectly recorded and + reproduced on the phonograph. When this was done I knew that everything + else could be done which was a fact. Again, my nerves have been preserved + intact. Broadway is as quiet to me as a country village is to a person + with normal hearing." + </p> + <p> + Saddened but not wholly discouraged, Edison soon reconstituted his + laboratory and printing-office at home, although on the part of the family + there was some fear and objection after this episode, on the score of + fire. But Edison promised not to bring in anything of a dangerous nature. + He did not cease the publication of the Weekly Herald. On the contrary, he + prospered in both his enterprises until persuaded by the "printer's devil" + in the office of the Port Huron Commercial to change the character of his + journal, enlarge it, and issue it under the name of Paul Pry, a happy + designation for this or kindred ventures in the domain of society + journalism. No copies of Paul Pry can now be found, but it is known that + its style was distinctly personal, that gossip was its specialty, and that + no small offence was given to the people whose peculiarities or + peccadilloes were discussed in a frank and breezy style by the two boys. + In one instance the resentment of the victim of such unsought publicity + was so intense he laid hands on Edison and pitched the startled young + editor into the St. Clair River. The name of this violator of the freedom + of the press was thereafter excluded studiously from the columns of Paul + Pry, and the incident may have been one of those which soon caused the + abandonment of the paper. Edison had great zest in this work, and but for + the strong influences in other directions would probably have continued in + the newspaper field, in which he was, beyond question, the youngest + publisher and editor of the day. + </p> + <p> + Before leaving this period of his career, it is to be noted that it gave + Edison many favorable opportunities. In Detroit he could spend frequent + hours in the public library, and it is matter of record that he began his + liberal acquaintance with its contents by grappling bravely with a certain + section and trying to read it through consecutively, shelf by shelf, + regardless of subject. In a way this is curiously suggestive of the + earnest, energetic method of "frontal attack" with which the inventor has + since addressed himself to so many problems in the arts and sciences. + </p> + <p> + The Grand Trunk Railroad machine-shops at Port Huron were a great + attraction to the boy, who appears to have spent a good deal of his time + there. He who was to have much to do with the evolution of the modern + electric locomotive was fascinated by the mechanism of the steam + locomotive; and whenever he could get the chance Edison rode in the cab + with the engineer of his train. He became thoroughly familiar with the + intricacies of fire-box, boiler, valves, levers, and gears, and liked + nothing better than to handle the locomotive himself during the run. On + one trip, when the engineer lay asleep while his eager substitute piloted + the train, the boiler "primed," and a deluge overwhelmed the young driver, + who stuck to his post till the run and the ordeal were ended. Possibly + this helped to spoil a locomotive engineer, but went to make a great + master of the new motive power. "Steam is half an Englishman," said + Emerson. The temptation is strong to say that workaday electricity is half + an American. Edison's own account of the incident is very laughable: "The + engine was one of a number leased to the Grand Trunk by the Chicago, + Burlington & Quincy. It had bright brass bands all over, the woodwork + beautifully painted, and everything highly polished, which was the custom + up to the time old Commodore Vanderbilt stopped it on his roads. After + running about fifteen miles the fireman couldn't keep his eyes open (this + event followed an all-night dance of the trainmen's fraternal + organization), and he agreed to permit me to run the engine. I took + charge, reducing the speed to about twelve miles an hour, and brought the + train of seven cars to her destination at the Grand Trunk junction safely. + But something occurred which was very much out of the ordinary. I was very + much worried about the water, and I knew that if it got low the boiler was + likely to explode. I hadn't gone twenty miles before black damp mud blew + out of the stack and covered every part of the engine, including myself. I + was about to awaken the fireman to find out the cause of this when it + stopped. Then I approached a station where the fireman always went out to + the cowcatcher, opened the oil-cup on the steam-chest, and poured oil in. + I started to carry out the procedure when, upon opening the oil-cup, the + steam rushed out with a tremendous noise, nearly knocking me off the + engine. I succeeded in closing the oil-cup and got back in the cab, and + made up my mind that she would pull through without oil. I learned + afterward that the engineer always shut off steam when the fireman went + out to oil. This point I failed to notice. My powers of observation were + very much improved after this occurrence. Just before I reached the + junction another outpour of black mud occurred, and the whole engine was a + sight—so much so that when I pulled into the yard everybody turned + to see it, laughing immoderately. I found the reason of the mud was that I + carried so much water it passed over into the stack, and this washed out + all the accumulated soot." + </p> + <p> + One afternoon about a week before Christmas Edison's train jumped the + track near Utica, a station on the line. Four old Michigan Central cars + with rotten sills collapsed in the ditch and went all to pieces, + distributing figs, raisins, dates, and candies all over the track and the + vicinity. Hating to see so much waste, Edison tried to save all he could + by eating it on the spot, but as a result "our family doctor had the time + of his life with me in this connection." + </p> + <p> + An absurd incident described by Edison throws a vivid light on the + free-and-easy condition of early railroad travel and on the Southern + extravagance of the time. "In 1860, just before the war broke out there + came to the train one afternoon, in Detroit, two fine-looking young men + accompanied by a colored servant. They bought tickets for Port Huron, the + terminal point for the train. After leaving the junction just outside of + Detroit, I brought in the evening papers. When I came opposite the two + young men, one of them said: 'Boy, what have you got?' I said: 'Papers.' + 'All right.' He took them and threw them out of the window, and, turning + to the colored man, said: 'Nicodemus, pay this boy.' I told Nicodemus the + amount, and he opened a satchel and paid me. The passengers didn't know + what to make of the transaction. I returned with the illustrated papers + and magazines. These were seized and thrown out of the window, and I was + told to get my money of Nicodemus. I then returned with all the old + magazines and novels I had not been able to sell, thinking perhaps this + would be too much for them. I was small and thin, and the layer reached + above my head, and was all I could possibly carry. I had prepared a list, + and knew the amount in case they bit again. When I opened the door, all + the passengers roared with laughter. I walked right up to the young men. + One asked me what I had. I said 'Magazines and novels.' He promptly threw + them out of the window, and Nicodemus settled. Then I came in with cracked + hickory nuts, then pop-corn balls, and, finally, molasses candy. All went + out of the window. I felt like Alexander the Great!—I had no more + chance! I had sold all I had. Finally I put a rope to my trunk, which was + about the size of a carpenter's chest, and started to pull this from the + baggage-car to the passenger-car. It was almost too much for my strength, + but at last I got it in front of those men. I pulled off my coat, shoes, + and hat, and laid them on the chest. Then he asked: 'What have you got, + boy?' I said: 'Everything, sir, that I can spare that is for sale.' The + passengers fairly jumped with laughter. Nicodemus paid me $27 for this + last sale, and threw the whole out of the door in the rear of the car. + These men were from the South, and I have always retained a soft spot in + my heart for a Southern gentleman." + </p> + <p> + While Edison was a newsboy on the train a request came to him one day to + go to the office of E. B. Ward & Company, at that time the largest + owners of steamboats on the Great Lakes. The captain of their largest boat + had died suddenly, and they wanted a message taken to another captain who + lived about fourteen miles from Ridgeway station on the railroad. This + captain had retired, taken up some lumber land, and had cleared part of + it. Edison was offered $15 by Mr. Ward to go and fetch him, but as it was + a wild country and would be dark, Edison stood out for $25, so that he + could get the companionship of another lad. The terms were agreed to. + Edison arrived at Ridgeway at 8.30 P.M., when it was raining and as dark + as ink. Getting another boy with difficulty to volunteer, he launched out + on his errand in the pitch-black night. The two boys carried lanterns, but + the road was a rough path through dense forest. The country was wild, and + it was a usual occurrence to see deer, bear, and coon skins nailed up on + the sides of houses to dry. Edison had read about bears, but couldn't + remember whether they were day or night prowlers. The farther they went + the more apprehensive they became, and every stump in the ravished forest + looked like a bear. The other lad proposed seeking safety up a tree, but + Edison demurred on the plea that bears could climb, and that the message + must be delivered that night to enable the captain to catch the morning + train. First one lantern went out, then the other. "We leaned up against a + tree and cried. I thought if I ever got out of that scrape alive I would + know more about the habits of animals and everything else, and be prepared + for all kinds of mischance when I undertook an enterprise. However, the + intense darkness dilated the pupils of our eyes so as to make them very + sensitive, and we could just see at times the outlines of the road. + Finally, just as a faint gleam of daylight arrived, we entered the + captain's yard and delivered the message. In my whole life I never spent + such a night of horror as this, but I got a good lesson." + </p> + <p> + An amusing incident of this period is told by Edison. "When I was a boy," + he says, "the Prince of Wales, the late King Edward, came to Canada + (1860). Great preparations were made at Sarnia, the Canadian town opposite + Port Huron. About every boy, including myself, went over to see the + affair. The town was draped in flags most profusely, and carpets were laid + on the cross-walks for the prince to walk on. There were arches, etc. A + stand was built raised above the general level, where the prince was to be + received by the mayor. Seeing all these preparations, my idea of a prince + was very high; but when he did arrive I mistook the Duke of Newcastle for + him, the duke being a fine-looking man. I soon saw that I was mistaken: + that the prince was a young stripling, and did not meet expectations. + Several of us expressed our belief that a prince wasn't much, after all, + and said that we were thoroughly disappointed. For this one boy was + whipped. Soon the Canuck boys attacked the Yankee boys, and we were all + badly licked. I, myself, got a black eye. That has always prejudiced me + against that kind of ceremonial and folly." It is certainly interesting to + note that in later years the prince for whom Edison endured the ignominy + of a black eye made generous compensation in a graceful letter + accompanying the gold Albert Medal awarded by the Royal Society of Arts. + </p> + <p> + Another incident of the period is as follows: "After selling papers in + Port Huron, which was often not reached until about 9.30 at night, I + seldom got home before 11.00 or 11.30. About half-way home from the + station and the town, and within twenty-five feet of the road in a dense + wood, was a soldiers' graveyard where three hundred soldiers were buried, + due to a cholera epidemic which took place at Fort Gratiot, near by, many + years previously. At first we used to shut our eyes and run the horse past + this graveyard, and if the horse stepped on a twig my heart would give a + violent movement, and it is a wonder that I haven't some valvular disease + of that organ. But soon this running of the horse became monotonous, and + after a while all fears of graveyards absolutely disappeared from my + system. I was in the condition of Sam Houston, the pioneer and founder of + Texas, who, it was said, knew no fear. Houston lived some distance from + the town and generally went home late at night, having to pass through a + dark cypress swamp over a corduroy road. One night, to test his alleged + fearlessness, a man stationed himself behind a tree and enveloped himself + in a sheet. He confronted Houston suddenly, and Sam stopped and said: 'If + you are a man, you can't hurt me. If you are a ghost, you don't want to + hurt me. And if you are the devil, come home with me; I married your + sister!'" + </p> + <p> + It is not to be inferred, however, from some of the preceding statements + that the boy was of an exclusively studious bent of mind. He had then, as + now, the keen enjoyment of a joke, and no particular aversion to the + practical form. An incident of the time is in point. "After the breaking + out of the war there was a regiment of volunteer soldiers quartered at + Fort Gratiot, the reservation extending to the boundary line of our house. + Nearly every night we would hear a call, such as 'Corporal of the Guard, + No. 1.' This would be repeated from sentry to sentry until it reached the + barracks, when Corporal of the Guard, No. 1, would come and see what was + wanted. I and the little Dutch boy, after returning from the town after + selling our papers, thought we would take a hand at military affairs. So + one night, when it was very dark, I shouted for Corporal of the Guard, No. + 1. The second sentry, thinking it was the terminal sentry who shouted, + repeated it to the third, and so on. This brought the corporal along the + half mile, only to find that he was fooled. We tried him three nights; but + the third night they were watching, and caught the little Dutch boy, took + him to the lock-up at the fort, and shut him up. They chased me to the + house. I rushed for the cellar. In one small apartment there were two + barrels of potatoes and a third one nearly empty. I poured these remnants + into the other barrels, sat down, and pulled the barrel over my head, + bottom up. The soldiers had awakened my father, and they were searching + for me with candles and lanterns. The corporal was absolutely certain I + came into the cellar, and couldn't see how I could have gotten out, and + wanted to know from my father if there was no secret hiding-place. On + assurance of my father, who said that there was not, he said it was most + extraordinary. I was glad when they left, as I was cramped, and the + potatoes were rotten that had been in the barrel and violently offensive. + The next morning I was found in bed, and received a good switching on the + legs from my father, the first and only one I ever received from him, + although my mother kept a switch behind the old Seth Thomas clock that had + the bark worn off. My mother's ideas and mine differed at times, + especially when I got experimenting and mussed up things. The Dutch boy + was released next morning." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV + </h2> + <h3> + THE YOUNG TELEGRAPH OPERATOR + </h3> + <p> + "WHILE a newsboy on the railroad," says Edison, "I got very much + interested in electricity, probably from visiting telegraph offices with a + chum who had tastes similar to mine." It will also have been noted that he + used the telegraph to get items for his little journal, and to bulletin + his special news of the Civil War along the line. The next step was + natural, and having with his knowledge of chemistry no trouble about + "setting up" his batteries, the difficulties of securing apparatus were + chiefly those connected with the circuits and the instruments. American + youths to-day are given, if of a mechanical turn of mind, to amateur + telegraphy or telephony, but seldom, if ever, have to make any part of the + system constructed. In Edison's boyish days it was quite different, and + telegraphic supplies were hard to obtain. But he and his "chum" had a line + between their homes, built of common stove-pipe wire. The insulators were + bottles set on nails driven into trees and short poles. The magnet wire + was wound with rags for insulation, and pieces of spring brass were used + for keys. With an idea of securing current cheaply, Edison applied the + little that he knew about static electricity, and actually experimented + with cats, which he treated vigorously as frictional machines until the + animals fled in dismay, and Edison had learned his first great lesson in + the relative value of sources of electrical energy. The line was made to + work, however, and additional to the messages that the boys interchanged, + Edison secured practice in an ingenious manner. His father insisted on + 11.30 as proper bedtime, which left but a short interval after the long + day on the train. But each evening, when the boy went home with a bundle + of papers that had not been sold in the town, his father would sit up + reading the "returnables." Edison, therefore, on some excuse, left the + papers with his friend, but suggested that he could get the news from him + by telegraph, bit by bit. The scheme interested his father, and was put + into effect, the messages being written down and handed over for perusal. + This yielded good practice nightly, lasting until 12 and 1 o'clock, and + was maintained for some time until Mr. Edison became willing that his son + should stay up for a reasonable time. The papers were then brought home + again, and the boys amused themselves to their hearts' content until the + line was pulled down by a stray cow wandering through the orchard. + Meantime better instruments had been secured, and the rudiments of + telegraphy had been fairly mastered. + </p> + <p> + The mixed train on which Edison was employed as newsboy did the + way-freight work and shunting at the Mount Clemens station, about half an + hour being usually spent in the work. One August morning, in 1862, while + the shunting was in progress, and a laden box-car had been pushed out of a + siding, Edison, who was loitering about the platform, saw the little son + of the station agent, Mr. J. U. Mackenzie, playing with the gravel on the + main track along which the car without a brakeman was rapidly approaching. + Edison dropped his papers and his glazed cap, and made a dash for the + child, whom he picked up and lifted to safety without a second to spare, + as the wheel of the car struck his heel; and both were cut about the face + and hands by the gravel ballast on which they fell. The two boys were + picked up by the train-hands and carried to the platform, and the grateful + father at once offered to teach the rescuer, whom he knew and liked, the + art of train telegraphy and to make an operator of him. It is needless to + say that the proposal was eagerly accepted. + </p> + <p> + Edison found time for his new studies by letting one of his friends look + after the newsboy work on the train for part of the trip, reserving to + himself the run between Port Huron and Mount Clemens. That he was already + well qualified as a beginner is evident from the fact that he had mastered + the Morse code of the telegraphic alphabet, and was able to take to the + station a neat little set of instruments he had just finished with his own + hands at a gun-shop in Detroit. This was probably a unique achievement in + itself among railway operators of that day or of later times. The drill of + the student involved chiefly the acquisition of the special signals + employed in railway work, including the numerals and abbreviations applied + to save time. Some of these have passed into the slang of the day, "73" + being well known as a telegrapher's expression of compliments or good + wishes, while "23" is an accident or death message, and has been given + broader popular significance as a general synonym for "hoodoo." All of + this came easily to Edison, who had, moreover, as his Herald showed, an + unusual familiarity with train movement along that portion of the Grand + Trunk road. + </p> + <p> + Three or four months were spent pleasantly and profitably by the youth in + this course of study, and Edison took to it enthusiastically, giving it no + less than eighteen hours a day. He then put up a little telegraph line + from the station to the village, a distance of about a mile, and opened an + office in a drug store; but the business was naturally very small. The + telegraph operator at Port Huron knowing of his proficiency, and wanting + to get into the United States Military Telegraph Corps, where the pay in + those days of the Civil War was high, succeeded in convincing his + brother-in-law, Mr. M. Walker, that young Edison could fill the position. + Edison was, of course, well acquainted with the operators along the road + and at the southern terminal, and took up his new duties very easily. The + office was located in a jewelry store, where newspapers and periodicals + were also sold. Edison was to be found at the office both day and night, + sleeping there. "I became quite valuable to Mr. Walker. After working all + day I worked at the office nights as well, for the reason that 'press + report' came over one of the wires until 3 A.M., and I would cut in and + copy it as well as I could, to become more rapidly proficient. The goal of + the rural telegraph operator was to be able to take press. Mr. Walker + tried to get my father to apprentice me at $20 per month, but they could + not agree. I then applied for a job on the Grand Trunk Railroad as a + railway operator, and was given a place, nights, at Stratford Junction, + Canada." Apparently his friend Mackenzie helped him in the matter. The + position carried a salary of $25 per month. No serious objections were + raised by his family, for the distance from Port Huron was not great, and + Stratford was near Bayfield, the old home from which the Edisons had come, + so that there were doubtless friends or even relatives in the vicinity. + This was in 1863. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Walker was an observant man, who has since that time installed a + number of waterworks systems and obtained several patents of his own. He + describes the boy of sixteen as engrossed intensely in his experiments and + scientific reading, and somewhat indifferent, for this reason, to his + duties as operator. This office was not particularly busy, taking from $50 + to $75 a month, but even the messages taken in would remain unsent on the + hook while Edison was in the cellar below trying to solve some chemical + problem. The manager would see him studying sometimes an article in such a + paper as the Scientific American, and then disappearing to buy a few + sundries for experiments. Returning from the drug store with his + chemicals, he would not be seen again until required by his duties, or + until he had found out for himself, if possible, in this offhand manner, + whether what he had read was correct or not. When he had completed his + experiment all interest in it was lost, and the jars and wires would be + left to any fate that might befall them. In like manner Edison would make + free use of the watchmaker's tools that lay on the little table in the + front window, and would take the wire pliers there without much thought as + to their value as distinguished from a lineman's tools. The one idea was + to do quickly what he wanted to do; and the same swift, almost headlong + trial of anything that comes to hand, while the fervor of a new experiment + is felt, has been noted at all stages of the inventor's career. One is + reminded of Palissy's recklessness, when in his efforts to make the enamel + melt on his pottery he used the very furniture of his home for firewood. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Edison remarks the fact that there was very little difference between + the telegraph of that time and of to-day, except the general use of the + old Morse register with the dots and dashes recorded by indenting paper + strips that could be read and checked later at leisure if necessary. He + says: "The telegraph men couldn't explain how it worked, and I was always + trying to get them to do so. I think they couldn't. I remember the best + explanation I got was from an old Scotch line repairer employed by the + Montreal Telegraph Company, which operated the railroad wires. He said + that if you had a dog like a dachshund, long enough to reach from + Edinburgh to London, if you pulled his tail in Edinburgh he would bark in + London. I could understand that, but I never could get it through me what + went through the dog or over the wire." To-day Mr. Edison is just as + unable to solve the inner mystery of electrical transmission. Nor is he + alone. At the banquet given to celebrate his jubilee in 1896 as professor + at Glasgow University, Lord Kelvin, the greatest physicist of our time, + admitted with tears in his eyes and the note of tragedy in his voice, that + when it came to explaining the nature of electricity, he knew just as + little as when he had begun as a student, and felt almost as though his + life had been wasted while he tried to grapple with the great mystery of + physics. + </p> + <p> + Another episode of this period is curious in its revelation of the + tenacity with which Edison has always held to some of his oldest + possessions with a sense of personal attachment. "While working at + Stratford Junction," he says, "I was told by one of the freight conductors + that in the freight-house at Goodrich there were several boxes of old + broken-up batteries. I went there and found over eighty cells of the + well-known Grove nitric-acid battery. The operator there, who was also + agent, when asked by me if I could have the electrodes of each cell, made + of sheet platinum, gave his permission readily, thinking they were of tin. + I removed them all, amounting to several ounces. Platinum even in those + days was very expensive, costing several dollars an ounce, and I owned + only three small strips. I was overjoyed at this acquisition, and those + very strips and the reworked scrap are used to this day in my laboratory + over forty years later." + </p> + <p> + It was at Stratford that Edison's inventiveness was first displayed. The + hours of work of a night operator are usually from 7 P.M. to 7 A.M., and + to insure attention while on duty it is often provided that the operator + every hour, from 9 P.M. until relieved by the day operator, shall send in + the signal "6" to the train dispatcher's office. Edison revelled in the + opportunity for study and experiment given him by his long hours of + freedom in the daytime, but needed sleep, just as any healthy youth does. + Confronted by the necessity of sending in this watchman's signal as + evidence that he was awake and on duty, he constructed a small wheel with + notches on the rim, and attached it to the clock in such a manner that the + night-watchman could start it when the line was quiet, and at each hour + the wheel revolved and sent in accurately the dots required for "sixing." + The invention was a success, the device being, indeed, similar to that of + the modern district messenger box; but it was soon noticed that, in spite + of the regularity of the report, "Sf" could not be raised even if a train + message were sent immediately after. Detection and a reprimand came in due + course, but were not taken very seriously. + </p> + <p> + A serious occurrence that might have resulted in accident drove him soon + after from Canada, although the youth could hardly be held to blame for + it. Edison says: "This night job just suited me, as I could have the whole + day to myself. I had the faculty of sleeping in a chair any time for a few + minutes at a time. I taught the night-yardman my call, so I could get half + an hour's sleep now and then between trains, and in case the station was + called the watchman would awaken me. One night I got an order to hold a + freight train, and I replied that I would. I rushed out to find the + signalman, but before I could find him and get the signal set, the train + ran past. I ran to the telegraph office, and reported that I could not + hold her. The reply was: 'Hell!' The train dispatcher, on the strength of + my message that I would hold the train, had permitted another to leave the + last station in the opposite direction. There was a lower station near the + junction where the day operator slept. I started for it on foot. The night + was dark, and I fell into a culvert and was knocked senseless." Owing to + the vigilance of the two engineers on the locomotives, who saw each other + approaching on the straight single track, nothing more dreadful happened + than a summons to the thoughtless operator to appear before the general + manager at Toronto. On reaching the manager's office, his trial for + neglect of duty was fortunately interrupted by the call of two Englishmen; + and while their conversation proceeded, Edison slipped quietly out of the + room, hurried to the Grand Trunk freight depot, found a conductor he knew + taking out a freight train for Sarnia, and was not happy until the + ferry-boat from Sarnia had landed him once more on the Michigan shore. The + Grand Trunk still owes Mr. Edison the wages due him at the time he thus + withdrew from its service, but the claim has never been pressed. + </p> + <p> + The same winter of 1863-64, while at Port Huron, Edison had a further + opportunity of displaying his ingenuity. An ice-jam had broken the light + telegraph cable laid in the bed of the river across to Sarnia, and thus + communication was interrupted. The river is three-quarters of a mile wide, + and could not be crossed on foot; nor could the cable be repaired. Edison + at once suggested using the steam whistle of the locomotive, and by + manipulating the valve conversed the short and long outbursts of shrill + sound into the Morse code. An operator on the Sarnia shore was quick + enough to catch the significance of the strange whistling, and messages + were thus sent in wireless fashion across the ice-floes in the river. It + is said that such signals were also interchanged by military telegraphers + during the war, and possibly Edison may have heard of the practice; but be + that as it may, he certainly showed ingenuity and resource in applying + such a method to meet the necessity. It is interesting to note that at + this point the Grand Trunk now has its St. Clair tunnel, through which the + trains are hauled under the river-bed by electric locomotives. + </p> + <p> + Edison had now begun unconsciously the roaming and drifting that took him + during the next five years all over the Middle States, and that might well + have wrecked the career of any one less persistent and industrious. It was + a period of his life corresponding to the Wanderjahre of the German + artisan, and was an easy way of gratifying a taste for travel without the + risk of privation. To-day there is little temptation to the telegrapher to + go to distant parts of the country on the chance that he may secure a + livelihood at the key. The ranks are well filled everywhere, and of late + years the telegraph as an art or industry has shown relatively slight + expansion, owing chiefly to the development of telephony. Hence, if + vacancies occur, there are plenty of operators available, and salaries + have remained so low as to lead to one or two formidable and costly + strikes that unfortunately took no account of the economic conditions of + demand and supply. But in the days of the Civil War there was a great + dearth of skilful manipulators of the key. About fifteen hundred of the + best operators in the country were at the front on the Federal side alone, + and several hundred more had enlisted. This created a serious scarcity, + and a nomadic operator going to any telegraphic centre would be sure to + find a place open waiting for him. At the close of the war a majority of + those who had been with the two opposed armies remained at the key under + more peaceful surroundings, but the rapid development of the commercial + and railroad systems fostered a new demand, and then for a time it seemed + almost impossible to train new operators fast enough. In a few years, + however, the telephone sprang into vigorous existence, dating from 1876, + drawing off some of the most adventurous spirits from the telegraph field; + and the deterrent influence of the telephone on the telegraph had made + itself felt by 1890. The expiration of the leading Bell telephone patents, + five years later, accentuated even more sharply the check that had been + put on telegraphy, as hundreds and thousands of "independent" telephone + companies were then organized, throwing a vast network of toll lines over + Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and other States, and affording cheap, + instantaneous means of communication without any necessity for the + intervention of an operator. + </p> + <p> + It will be seen that the times have changed radically since Edison became + a telegrapher, and that in this respect a chapter of electrical history + has been definitely closed. There was a day when the art offered a + distinct career to all of its practitioners, and young men of ambition and + good family were eager to begin even as messenger boys, and were ready to + undergo a severe ordeal of apprenticeship with the belief that they could + ultimately attain positions of responsibility and profit. At the same time + operators have always been shrewd enough to regard the telegraph as a + stepping-stone to other careers in life. A bright fellow entering the + telegraph service to-day finds the experience he may gain therein + valuable, but he soon realizes that there are not enough good-paying + official positions to "go around," so as to give each worthy man a chance + after he has mastered the essentials of the art. He feels, therefore, that + to remain at the key involves either stagnation or deterioration, and that + after, say, twenty-five years of practice he will have lost ground as + compared with friends who started out in other occupations. The craft of + an operator, learned without much difficulty, is very attractive to a + youth, but a position at the key is no place for a man of mature years. + His services, with rare exceptions, grow less valuable as he advances in + age and nervous strain breaks him down. On the contrary, men engaged in + other professions find, as a rule, that they improve and advance with + experience, and that age brings larger rewards and opportunities. + </p> + <p> + The list of well-known Americans who have been graduates of the key is + indeed an extraordinary one, and there is no department of our national + life in which they have not distinguished themselves. The contrast, in + this respect, between them and their European colleagues is highly + significant. In Europe the telegraph systems are all under government + management, the operators have strictly limited spheres of promotion, and + at the best the transition from one kind of employment to another is not + made so easily as in the New World. But in the United States we have seen + Rufus Bullock become Governor of Georgia, and Ezra Cornell Governor of New + York. Marshall Jewell was Postmaster-General of President Grant's Cabinet, + and Daniel Lamont was Secretary of State in President Cleveland's. Gen. T. + T. Eckert, past-President of the Western Union Telegraph Company, was + Assistant Secretary of War under President Lincoln; and Robert J. Wynne, + afterward a consul-general, served as Assistant Postmaster General. A very + large proportion of the presidents and leading officials of the great + railroad systems are old telegraphers, including Messrs. W. C. Brown, + President of the New York Central Railroad, and Marvin Hughitt, President + of the Chicago & North western Railroad. In industrial and financial + life there have been Theodore N. Vail, President of the Bell telephone + system; L. C. Weir, late President of the Adams Express; A. B. Chandler, + President of the Postal Telegraph and Cable Company; Sir W. Van Home, + identified with Canadian development; Robert C. Clowry, President of the + Western Union Telegraph Company; D. H. Bates, Manager of the Baltimore + & Ohio telegraph for Robert Garrett; and Andrew Carnegie, the greatest + ironmaster the world has ever known, as well as its greatest + philanthropist. In journalism there have been leaders like Edward + Rosewater, founder of the Omaha Bee; W. J. Elverson, of the Philadelphia + Press; and Frank A. Munsey, publisher of half a dozen big magazines. + George Kennan has achieved fame in literature, and Guy Carleton and Harry + de Souchet have been successful as dramatists. These are but typical of + hundreds of men who could be named who have risen from work at the key to + become recognized leaders in differing spheres of activity. + </p> + <p> + But roving has never been favorable to the formation of steady habits. The + young men who thus floated about the country from one telegraph office to + another were often brilliant operators, noted for speed in sending and + receiving, but they were undisciplined, were without the restraining + influences of home life, and were so highly paid for their work that they + could indulge freely in dissipation if inclined that way. Subjected to + nervous tension for hours together at the key, many of them unfortunately + took to drink, and having ended one engagement in a city by a debauch that + closed the doors of the office to them, would drift away to the nearest + town, and there securing work, would repeat the performance. At one time, + indeed, these men were so numerous and so much in evidence as to + constitute a type that the public was disposed to accept as representative + of the telegraphic fraternity; but as the conditions creating him ceased + to exist, the "tramp operator" also passed into history. It was, however, + among such characters that Edison was very largely thrown in these early + days of aimless drifting, to learn something perhaps of their nonchalant + philosophy of life, sharing bed and board with them under all kinds of + adverse conditions, but always maintaining a stoic abstemiousness, and + never feeling other than a keen regret at the waste of so much genuine + ability and kindliness on the part of those knights errant of the key + whose inevitable fate might so easily have been his own. + </p> + <p> + Such a class or group of men can always be presented by an individual + type, and this is assuredly best embodied in Milton F. Adams, one of + Edison's earliest and closest friends, to whom reference will be made in + later chapters, and whose life has been so full of adventurous episodes + that he might well be regarded as the modern Gil Blas. That career is + certainly well worth the telling as "another story," to use the Kipling + phrase. Of him Edison says: "Adams was one of a class of operators never + satisfied to work at any place for any great length of time. He had the + 'wanderlust.' After enjoying hospitality in Boston in 1868-69, on the + floor of my hall-bedroom, which was a paradise for the entomologist, while + the boarding-house itself was run on the banting system of flesh + reduction, he came to me one day and said: 'Good-bye, Edison; I have got + sixty cents, and I am going to San Francisco.' And he did go. How, I never + knew personally. I learned afterward that he got a job there, and then + within a week they had a telegraphers' strike. He got a big torch and sold + patent medicine on the streets at night to support the strikers. Then he + went to Peru as partner of a man who had a grizzly bear which they + proposed entering against a bull in the bull-ring in that city. The + grizzly was killed in five minutes, and so the scheme died. Then Adams + crossed the Andes, and started a market-report bureau in Buenos Ayres. + This didn't pay, so he started a restaurant in Pernambuco, Brazil. There + he did very well, but something went wrong (as it always does to a nomad), + so he went to the Transvaal, and ran a panorama called 'Paradise Lost' in + the Kaffir kraals. This didn't pay, and he became the editor of a + newspaper; then went to England to raise money for a railroad in Cape + Colony. Next I heard of him in New York, having just arrived from Bogota, + United States of Colombia, with a power of attorney and $2000 from a + native of that republic, who had applied for a patent for tightening a + belt to prevent it from slipping on a pulley—a device which he + thought a new and great invention, but which was in use ever since + machinery was invented. I gave Adams, then, a position as salesman for + electrical apparatus. This he soon got tired of, and I lost sight of him." + Adams, in speaking of this episode, says that when he asked for + transportation expenses to St. Louis, Edison pulled out of his pocket a + ferry ticket to Hoboken, and said to his associates: "I'll give him that, + and he'll get there all right." This was in the early days of electric + lighting; but down to the present moment the peregrinations of this + versatile genius of the key have never ceased in one hemisphere or the + other, so that as Mr. Adams himself remarked to the authors in April, + 1908: "The life has been somewhat variegated, but never dull." + </p> + <p> + The fact remains also that throughout this period Edison, while himself a + very Ishmael, never ceased to study, explore, experiment. Referring to + this beginning of his career, he mentions a curious fact that throws light + on his ceaseless application. "After I became a telegraph operator," he + says, "I practiced for a long time to become a rapid reader of print, and + got so expert I could sense the meaning of a whole line at once. This + faculty, I believe, should be taught in schools, as it appears to be + easily acquired. Then one can read two or three books in a day, whereas if + each word at a time only is sensed, reading is laborious." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V + </h2> + <h3> + ARDUOUS YEARS IN THE CENTRAL WEST + </h3> + <p> + IN 1903, when accepting the position of honorary electrician to the + International Exposition held in St. Louis in 1904, to commemorate the + centenary of the Louisiana Purchase, Mr. Edison spoke in his letter of the + Central West as a "region where as a young telegraph operator I spent many + arduous years before moving East." The term of probation thus referred to + did not end until 1868, and while it lasted Edison's wanderings carried + him from Detroit to New Orleans, and took him, among other cities, to + Indianapolis, Cincinnati, Louisville, and Memphis, some of which he + visited twice in his peregrinations to secure work. From Canada, after the + episodes noted in the last chapter, he went to Adrian, Michigan, and of + what happened there Edison tells a story typical of his wanderings for + several years to come. "After leaving my first job at Stratford Junction, + I got a position as operator on the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern at + Adrian, Michigan, in the division superintendent's office. As usual, I + took the 'night trick,' which most operators disliked, but which I + preferred, as it gave me more leisure to experiment. I had obtained from + the station agent a small room, and had established a little shop of my + own. One day the day operator wanted to get off, and I was on duty. About + 9 o'clock the superintendent handed me a despatch which he said was very + important, and which I must get off at once. The wire at the time was very + busy, and I asked if I should break in. I got orders to do so, and acting + under those orders of the superintendent, I broke in and tried to send the + despatch; but the other operator would not permit it, and the struggle + continued for ten minutes. Finally I got possession of the wire and sent + the message. The superintendent of telegraph, who then lived in Adrian and + went to his office in Toledo every day, happened that day to be in the + Western Union office up-town—and it was the superintendent I was + really struggling with! In about twenty minutes he arrived livid with + rage, and I was discharged on the spot. I informed him that the general + superintendent had told me to break in and send the despatch, but the + general superintendent then and there repudiated the whole thing. Their + families were socially close, so I was sacrificed. My faith in human + nature got a slight jar." + </p> + <p> + Edison then went to Toledo and secured a position at Fort Wayne, on the + Pittsburg, Fort Wayne & Chicago Railroad, now leased to the + Pennsylvania system. This was a "day job," and he did not like it. He + drifted two months later to Indianapolis, arriving there in the fall of + 1864, when he was at first assigned to duty at the Union Station at a + salary of $75 a month for the Western Union Telegraph Company, whose + service he now entered, and with which he has been destined to maintain + highly important and close relationships throughout a large part of his + life. Superintendent Wallick appears to have treated him generously and to + have loaned him instruments, a kindness that was greatly appreciated, for + twenty years later the inventor called on his old employer, and together + they visited the scene where the borrowed apparatus had been mounted on a + rough board in the depot. Edison did not stay long in Indianapolis, + however, resigning in February, 1865, and proceeding to Cincinnati. The + transfer was possibly due to trouble caused by one of his early inventions + embodying what has been characterized by an expert as "probably the most + simple and ingenious arrangement of connections for a repeater." His + ambition was to take "press report," but finding, even after considerable + practice, that he "broke" frequently, he adjusted two embossing Morse + registers—one to receive the press matter, and the other to repeat + the dots and dashes at a lower speed, so that the message could be copied + leisurely. Hence he could not be rushed or "broken" in receiving, while he + could turn out "copy" that was a marvel of neatness and clearness. All was + well so long as ordinary conditions prevailed, but when an unusual + pressure occurred the little system fell behind, and the newspapers + complained of the slowness with which reports were delivered to them. It + is easy to understand that with matter received at a rate of forty words + per minute and worked off at twenty-five words per minute a serious + congestion or delay would result, and the newspapers were more anxious for + the news than they were for fine penmanship. + </p> + <p> + Of this device Mr. Edison remarks: "Together we took press for several + nights, my companion keeping the apparatus in adjustment and I copying. + The regular press operator would go to the theatre or take a nap, only + finishing the report after 1 A.M. One of the newspapers complained of bad + copy toward the end of the report—that, is from 1 to 3 A.M., and + requested that the operator taking the report up to 1 A.M.—which was + ourselves—take it all, as the copy then was perfectly + unobjectionable. This led to an investigation by the manager, and the + scheme was forbidden. + </p> + <p> + "This instrument, many years afterward, was applied by me for transferring + messages from one wire to any other wire simultaneously, or after any + interval of time. It consisted of a disk of paper, the indentations being + formed in a volute spiral, exactly as in the disk phonograph to-day. It + was this instrument which gave me the idea of the phonograph while working + on the telephone." + </p> + <p> + Arrived in Cincinnati, where he got employment in the Western Union + commercial telegraph department at a wage of $60 per month, Edison made + the acquaintance of Milton F. Adams, already referred to as facile + princeps the typical telegrapher in all his more sociable and brilliant + aspects. Speaking of that time, Mr. Adams says: "I can well recall when + Edison drifted in to take a job. He was a youth of about eighteen years, + decidedly unprepossessing in dress and rather uncouth in manner. I was + twenty-one, and very dudish. He was quite thin in those days, and his nose + was very prominent, giving a Napoleonic look to his face, although the + curious resemblance did not strike me at the time. The boys did not take + to him cheerfully, and he was lonesome. I sympathized with him, and we + became close companions. As an operator he had no superiors and very few + equals. Most of the time he was monkeying with the batteries and circuits, + and devising things to make the work of telegraphy less irksome. He also + relieved the monotony of office-work by fitting up the battery circuits to + play jokes on his fellow-operators, and to deal with the vermin that + infested the premises. He arranged in the cellar what he called his 'rat + paralyzer,' a very simple contrivance consisting of two plates insulated + from each other and connected with the main battery. They were so placed + that when a rat passed over them the fore feet on the one plate and the + hind feet on the other completed the circuit and the rat departed this + life, electrocuted." + </p> + <p> + Shortly after Edison's arrival at Cincinnati came the close of the Civil + War and the assassination of President Lincoln. It was natural that + telegraphers should take an intense interest in the general struggle, for + not only did they handle all the news relating to it, but many of them + were at one time or another personal participants. For example, one of the + operators in the Cincinnati office was George Ellsworth, who was + telegrapher for Morgan, the famous Southern Guerrilla, and was with him + when he made his raid into Ohio and was captured near the Pennsylvania + line. Ellsworth himself made a narrow escape by swimming the Ohio River + with the aid of an army mule. Yet we can well appreciate the + unimpressionable way in which some of the men did their work, from an + anecdote that Mr. Edison tells of that awful night of Friday, April 14, + 1865: "I noticed," he says, "an immense crowd gathering in the street + outside a newspaper office. I called the attention of the other operators + to the crowd, and we sent a messenger boy to find the cause of the + excitement. He returned in a few minutes and shouted 'Lincoln's shot.' + Instinctively the operators looked from one face to another to see which + man had received the news. All the faces were blank, and every man said he + had not taken a word about the shooting. 'Look over your files,' said the + boss to the man handling the press stuff. For a few moments we waited in + suspense, and then the man held up a sheet of paper containing a short + account of the shooting of the President. The operator had worked so + mechanically that he had handled the news without the slightest knowledge + of its significance." Mr. Adams says that at the time the city was en fete + on account of the close of the war, the name of the assassin was received + by telegraph, and it was noted with a thrill of horror that it was that of + a brother of Edwin Booth and of Junius Brutus Booth—the latter of + whom was then playing at the old National Theatre. Booth was hurried away + into seclusion, and the next morning the city that had been so gay over + night with bunting was draped with mourning. + </p> + <p> + Edison's diversions in Cincinnati were chiefly those already observed. He + read a great deal, but spent most of his leisure in experiment. Mr. Adams + remarks: "Edison and I were very fond of tragedy. Forrest and John + McCullough were playing at the National Theatre, and when our capital was + sufficient we would go to see those eminent tragedians alternate in + Othello and Iago. Edison always enjoyed Othello greatly. Aside from an + occasional visit to the Loewen Garden 'over the Rhine,' with a glass of + beer and a few pretzels, consumed while listening to the excellent music + of a German band, the theatre was the sum and substance of our innocent + dissipation." + </p> + <p> + The Cincinnati office, as a central point, appears to have been attractive + to many of the clever young operators who graduated from it to positions + of larger responsibility. Some of them were conspicuous for their skill + and versatility. Mr. Adams tells this interesting story as an + illustration: "L. C. Weir, or Charlie, as he was known, at that time agent + for the Adams Express Company, had the remarkable ability of taking + messages and copying them twenty-five words behind the sender. One day he + came into the operating-room, and passing a table he heard Louisville + calling Cincinnati. He reached over to the key and answered the call. My + attention was arrested by the fact that he walked off after responding, + and the sender happened to be a good one. Weir coolly asked for a pen, and + when he sat down the sender was just one message ahead of him with date, + address, and signature. Charlie started in, and in a beautiful, large, + round hand copied that message. The sender went right along, and when he + finished with six messages closed his key. When Weir had done with the + last one the sender began to think that after all there had been no + receiver, as Weir did not 'break,' but simply gave his O. K. He afterward + became president of the Adams Express, and was certainly a wonderful + operator." The operating-room referred to was on the fifth floor of the + building with no elevators. + </p> + <p> + Those were the early days of trade unionism in telegraphy, and the + movement will probably never quite die out in the craft which has always + shown so much solidarity. While Edison was in Cincinnati a delegation of + five union operators went over from Cleveland to form a local branch, and + the occasion was one of great conviviality. Night came, but the unionists + were conspicuous by their absence, although more circuits than one were + intolerant of delay and clamorous for attention—-eight local + unionists being away. The Cleveland report wire was in special need, and + Edison, almost alone in the office, devoted himself to it all through the + night and until 3 o'clock the next morning, when he was relieved. + </p> + <p> + He had previously been getting $80 a month, and had eked this out by + copying plays for the theatre. His rating was that of a "plug" or inferior + operator; but he was determined to lift himself into the class of + first-class operators, and had kept up the practice of going to the office + at night to "copy press," acting willingly as a substitute for any + operator who wanted to get off for a few hours—which often meant all + night. Speaking of this special ordeal, for which he had thus been + unconsciously preparing, Edison says: "My copy looked fine if viewed as a + whole, as I could write a perfectly straight line across the wide sheet, + which was not ruled. There were no flourishes, but the individual letters + would not bear close inspection. When I missed understanding a word, there + was no time to think what it was, so I made an illegible one to fill in, + trusting to the printers to sense it. I knew they could read anything, + although Mr. Bloss, an editor of the Inquirer, made such bad copy that one + of his editorials was pasted up on the notice-board in the telegraph + office with an offer of one dollar to any man who could 'read twenty + consecutive words.' Nobody ever did it. When I got through I was too + nervous to go home, so waited the rest of the night for the day manager, + Mr. Stevens, to see what was to be the outcome of this Union formation and + of my efforts. He was an austere man, and I was afraid of him. I got the + morning papers, which came out at 4 A. M., and the press report read + perfectly, which surprised me greatly. I went to work on my regular day + wire to Portsmouth, Ohio, and there was considerable excitement, but + nothing was said to me, neither did Mr. Stevens examine the copy on the + office hook, which I was watching with great interest. However, about 3 P. + M. he went to the hook, grabbed the bunch and looked at it as a whole + without examining it in detail, for which I was thankful. Then he jabbed + it back on the hook, and I knew I was all right. He walked over to me, and + said: 'Young man, I want you to work the Louisville wire nights; your + salary will be $125.' Thus I got from the plug classification to that of a + 'first-class man.'" + </p> + <p> + But no sooner was this promotion secured than he started again on his + wanderings southward, while his friend Adams went North, neither having + any difficulty in making the trip. "The boys in those days had + extraordinary facilities for travel. As a usual thing it was only + necessary for them to board a train and tell the conductor they were + operators. Then they would go as far as they liked. The number of + operators was small, and they were in demand everywhere." It was in this + way Edison made his way south as far as Memphis, Tennessee, where the + telegraph service at that time was under military law, although the + operators received $125 a month. Here again Edison began to invent and + improve on existing apparatus, with the result of having once more to + "move on." The story may be told in his own terse language: "I was not the + inventor of the auto repeater, but while in Memphis I worked on one. + Learning that the chief operator, who was a protege of the superintendent, + was trying in some way to put New York and New Orleans together for the + first time since the close of the war, I redoubled my efforts, and at 2 + o'clock one morning I had them speaking to each other. The office of the + Memphis Avalanche was in the same building. The paper got wind of it and + sent messages. A column came out in the morning about it; but when I went + to the office in the afternoon to report for duty I was discharged with + out explanation. The superintendent would not even give me a pass to + Nashville, so I had to pay my fare. I had so little money left that I + nearly starved at Decatur, Alabama, and had to stay three days before + going on north to Nashville. Arrived in that city, I went to the telegraph + office, got money enough to buy a little solid food, and secured a pass to + Louisville. I had a companion with me who was also out of a job. I arrived + at Louisville on a bitterly cold day, with ice in the gutters. I was + wearing a linen duster and was not much to look at, but got a position at + once, working on a press wire. My travelling companion was less successful + on account of his 'record.' They had a limit even in those days when the + telegraph service was so demoralized." + </p> + <p> + Some reminiscences of Mr. Edison are of interest as bearing not only upon + the "demoralized" telegraph service, but the conditions from which the New + South had to emerge while working out its salvation. "The telegraph was + still under military control, not having been turned over to the original + owners, the Southern Telegraph Company. In addition to the regular force, + there was an extra force of two or three operators, and some stranded + ones, who were a burden to us, for board was high. One of these derelicts + was a great source of worry to me, personally. He would come in at all + hours and either throw ink around or make a lot of noise. One night he + built a fire in the grate and started to throw pistol cartridges into the + flames. These would explode, and I was twice hit by the bullets, which + left a black-and-blue mark. Another night he came in and got from some + part of the building a lot of stationery with 'Confederate States' printed + at the head. He was a fine operator, and wrote a beautiful hand. He would + take a sheet of this paper, write capital 'A', and then take another sheet + and make the 'A' differently; and so on through the alphabet; each time + crumpling the paper up in his hand and throwing it on the floor. He would + keep this up until the room was filled nearly flush with the table. Then + he would quit. + </p> + <p> + "Everything at that time was 'wide open.' Disorganization reigned supreme. + There was no head to anything. At night myself and a companion would go + over to a gorgeously furnished faro-bank and get our midnight lunch. + Everything was free. There were over twenty keno-rooms running. One of + them that I visited was in a Baptist church, the man with the wheel being + in the pulpit, and the gamblers in the pews. + </p> + <p> + "While there the manager of the telegraph office was arrested for + something I never understood, and incarcerated in a military prison about + half a mile from the office. The building was in plain sight from the + office, and four stories high. He was kept strictly incommunicado. One + day, thinking he might be confined in a room facing the office, I put my + arm out of the window and kept signalling dots and dashes by the movement + of the arm. I tried this several times for two days. Finally he noticed + it, and putting his arm through the bars of the window he established + communication with me. He thus sent several messages to his friends, and + was afterward set free." + </p> + <p> + Another curious story told by Edison concerns a fellow-operator on night + duty at Chattanooga Junction, at the time he was at Memphis: "When it was + reported that Hood was marching on Nashville, one night a Jew came into + the office about 11 o'clock in great excitement, having heard the Hood + rumor. He, being a large sutler, wanted to send a message to save his + goods. The operator said it was impossible—that orders had been + given to send no private messages. Then the Jew wanted to bribe my friend, + who steadfastly refused for the reason, as he told the Jew, that he might + be court-martialled and shot. Finally the Jew got up to $800. The operator + swore him to secrecy and sent the message. Now there was no such order + about private messages, and the Jew, finding it out, complained to Captain + Van Duzer, chief of telegraphs, who investigated the matter, and while he + would not discharge the operator, laid him off indefinitely. Van Duzer was + so lenient that if an operator were discharged, all the operator had to do + was to wait three days and then go and sit on the stoop of Van Duzer's + office all day, and he would be taken back. But Van Duzer swore he would + never give in in this case. He said that if the operator had taken $800 + and sent the message at the regular rate, which was twenty-five cents, it + would have been all right, as the Jew would be punished for trying to + bribe a military operator; but when the operator took the $800 and then + sent the message deadhead, he couldn't stand it, and he would never + relent." + </p> + <p> + A third typical story of this period deals with a cipher message for + Thomas. Mr. Edison narrates it as follows: "When I was an operator in + Cincinnati working the Louisville wire nights for a time, one night a man + over on the Pittsburg wire yelled out: 'D. I. cipher,' which meant that + there was a cipher message from the War Department at Washington and that + it was coming—and he yelled out 'Louisville.' I started immediately + to call up that place. It was just at the change of shift in the office. I + could not get Louisville, and the cipher message began to come. It was + taken by the operator on the other table direct from the War Department. + It was for General Thomas, at Nashville. I called for about twenty minutes + and notified them that I could not get Louisville. I kept at it for about + fifteen minutes longer, and notified them that there was still no answer + from Louisville. They then notified the War Department that they could not + get Louisville. Then we tried to get it by all kinds of roundabout ways, + but in no case could anybody get them at that office. Soon a message came + from the War Department to send immediately for the manager of the + Cincinnati office. He was brought to the office and several messages were + exchanged, the contents of which, of course, I did not know, but the + matter appeared to be very serious, as they were afraid of General Hood, + of the Confederate Army, who was then attempting to march on Nashville; + and it was very important that this cipher of about twelve hundred words + or so should be got through immediately to General Thomas. I kept on + calling up to 12 or 1 o'clock, but no Louisville. About 1 o'clock the + operator at the Indianapolis office got hold of an operator on a wire + which ran from Indianapolis to Louisville along the railroad, who happened + to come into his office. He arranged with this operator to get a relay of + horses, and the message was sent through Indianapolis to this operator who + had engaged horses to carry the despatches to Louisville and find out the + trouble, and get the despatches through without delay to General Thomas. + In those days the telegraph fraternity was rather demoralized, and the + discipline was very lax. It was found out a couple of days afterward that + there were three night operators at Louisville. One of them had gone over + to Jeffersonville and had fallen off a horse and broken his leg, and was + in a hospital. By a remarkable coincidence another of the men had been + stabbed in a keno-room, and was also in hospital while the third operator + had gone to Cynthiana to see a man hanged and had got left by the train." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + I think the most important line of + investigation is the production of + Electricity direct from carbon. + Edison +</pre> + <p> + Young Edison remained in Louisville for about two years, quite a long stay + for one with such nomadic instincts. It was there that he perfected the + peculiar vertical style of writing which, beginning with him in + telegraphy, later became so much of a fad with teachers of penmanship and + in the schools. He says of this form of writing, a current example of + which is given above: "I developed this style in Louisville while taking + press reports. My wire was connected to the 'blind' side of a repeater at + Cincinnati, so that if I missed a word or sentence, or if the wire worked + badly, I could not break in and get the last words, because the Cincinnati + man had no instrument by which he could hear me. I had to take what came. + When I got the job, the cable across the Ohio River at Covington, + connecting with the line to Louisville, had a variable leak in it, which + caused the strength of the signalling current to make violent + fluctuations. I obviated this by using several relays, each with a + different adjustment, working several sounders all connected with one + sounding-plate. The clatter was bad, but I could read it with fair ease. + When, in addition to this infernal leak, the wires north to Cleveland + worked badly, it required a large amount of imagination to get the sense + of what was being sent. An imagination requires an appreciable time for + its exercise, and as the stuff was coming at the rate of thirty-five to + forty words a minute, it was very difficult to write down what was coming + and imagine what wasn't coming. Hence it was necessary to become a very + rapid writer, so I started to find the fastest style. I found that the + vertical style, with each letter separate and without any flourishes, was + the most rapid, and that the smaller the letter the greater the rapidity. + As I took on an average from eight to fifteen columns of news report every + day, it did not take long to perfect this method." Mr. Edison has adhered + to this characteristic style of penmanship down to the present time. + </p> + <p> + As a matter of fact, the conditions at Louisville at that time were not + much better than they had been at Memphis. The telegraph operating-room + was in a deplorable condition. It was on the second story of a dilapidated + building on the principal street of the city, with the battery-room in the + rear; behind which was the office of the agent of the Associated Press. + The plastering was about one-third gone from the ceiling. A small stove, + used occasionally in the winter, was connected to the chimney by a + tortuous pipe. The office was never cleaned. The switchboard for + manipulating the wires was about thirty-four inches square. The brass + connections on it were black with age and with the arcing effects of + lightning, which, to young Edison, seemed particularly partial to + Louisville. "It would strike on the wires," he says, "with an explosion + like a cannon-shot, making that office no place for an operator with + heart-disease." Around the dingy walls were a dozen tables, the ends next + to the wall. They were about the size of those seen in old-fashioned + country hotels for holding the wash-bowl and pitcher. The copper wires + connecting the instruments to the switchboard were small, crystallized, + and rotten. The battery-room was filled with old record-books and message + bundles, and one hundred cells of nitric-acid battery, arranged on a stand + in the centre of the room. This stand, as well as the floor, was almost + eaten through by the destructive action of the powerful acid. Grim and + uncompromising as the description reads, it was typical of the equipment + in those remote days of the telegraph at the close of the war. + </p> + <p> + Illustrative of the length to which telegraphers could go at a time when + they were so much in demand, Edison tells the following story: "When I + took the position there was a great shortage of operators. One night at 2 + A.M. another operator and I were on duty. I was taking press report, and + the other man was working the New York wire. We heard a heavy tramp, + tramp, tramp on the rickety stairs. Suddenly the door was thrown open with + great violence, dislodging it from one of the hinges. There appeared in + the doorway one of the best operators we had, who worked daytime, and who + was of a very quiet disposition except when intoxicated. He was a great + friend of the manager of the office. His eyes were bloodshot and wild, and + one sleeve had been torn away from his coat. Without noticing either of us + he went up to the stove and kicked it over. The stove-pipe fell, + dislocated at every joint. It was half full of exceedingly fine soot, + which floated out and filled the room completely. This produced a + momentary respite to his labors. When the atmosphere had cleared + sufficiently to see, he went around and pulled every table away from the + wall, piling them on top of the stove in the middle of the room. Then he + proceeded to pull the switchboard away from the wall. It was held tightly + by screws. He succeeded, finally, and when it gave way he fell with the + board, and striking on a table cut himself so that he soon became covered + with blood. He then went to the battery-room and knocked all the batteries + off on the floor. The nitric acid soon began to combine with the plaster + in the room below, which was the public receiving-room for messengers and + bookkeepers. The excess acid poured through and ate up the account-books. + After having finished everything to his satisfaction, he left. I told the + other operator to do nothing. We would leave things just as they were, and + wait until the manager came. In the mean time, as I knew all the wires + coming through to the switchboard, I rigged up a temporary set of + instruments so that the New York business could be cleared up, and we also + got the remainder of the press matter. At 7 o'clock the day men began to + appear. They were told to go down-stairs and wait the coming of the + manager. At 8 o'clock he appeared, walked around, went into the + battery-room, and then came to me, saying: 'Edison, who did this?' I told + him that Billy L. had come in full of soda-water and invented the ruin + before him. He walked backward and forward, about a minute, then coming up + to my table put his fist down, and said: 'If Billy L. ever does that + again, I will discharge him.' It was needless to say that there were other + operators who took advantage of that kind of discipline, and I had many + calls at night after that, but none with such destructive effects." + </p> + <p> + This was one aspect of life as it presented itself to the sensitive and + observant young operator in Louisville. But there was another, more + intellectual side, in the contact afforded with journalism and its + leaders, and the information taken in almost unconsciously as to the + political and social movements of the time. Mr. Edison looks back on this + with great satisfaction. "I remember," he says, "the discussions between + the celebrated poet and journalist George D. Prentice, then editor of the + Courier-Journal, and Mr. Tyler, of the Associated Press. I believe + Prentice was the father of the humorous paragraph of the American + newspaper. He was poetic, highly educated, and a brilliant talker. He was + very thin and small. I do not think he weighed over one hundred and twenty + five pounds. Tyler was a graduate of Harvard, and had a very clear + enunciation, and, in sharp contrast to Prentice, he was a large man. After + the paper had gone to press, Prentice would generally come over to Tyler's + office and start talking. Having while in Tyler's office heard them + arguing on the immortality of the soul, etc., I asked permission of Mr. + Tyler if, after finishing the press matter, I might come in and listen to + the conversation, which I did many times after. One thing I never could + comprehend was that Tyler had a sideboard with liquors and generally + crackers. Prentice would pour out half a glass of what they call corn + whiskey, and would dip the crackers in it and eat them. Tyler took it sans + food. One teaspoonful of that stuff would put me to sleep." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Edison throws also a curious side-light on the origin of the comic + column in the modern American newspaper, the telegraph giving to a new + joke or a good story the ubiquity and instantaneity of an important + historical event. "It was the practice of the press operators all over the + country at that time, when a lull occurred, to start in and send jokes or + stories the day men had collected; and these were copied and pasted up on + the bulletin-board. Cleveland was the originating office for 'press,' + which it received from New York, and sent it out simultaneously to + Milwaukee, Chicago, Toledo, Detroit, Pittsburg, Columbus, Dayton, + Cincinnati, Indianapolis, Vincennes, Terre Haute, St. Louis, and + Louisville. Cleveland would call first on Milwaukee, if he had anything. + If so, he would send it, and Cleveland would repeat it to all of us. Thus + any joke or story originating anywhere in that area was known the next day + all over. The press men would come in and copy anything which could be + published, which was about three per cent. I collected, too, quite a large + scrap-book of it, but unfortunately have lost it." + </p> + <p> + Edison tells an amusing story of his own pursuits at this time. Always an + omnivorous reader, he had some difficulty in getting a sufficient quantity + of literature for home consumption, and was in the habit of buying books + at auctions and second-hand stores. One day at an auction-room he secured + a stack of twenty unbound volumes of the North American Review for two + dollars. These he had bound and delivered at the telegraph office. One + morning, when he was free as usual at 3 o'clock, he started off at a rapid + pace with ten volumes on his shoulder. He found himself very soon the + subject of a fusillade. When he stopped, a breathless policeman grabbed + him by the throat and ordered him to drop his parcel and explain matters, + as a suspicious character. He opened the package showing the books, + somewhat to the disgust of the officer, who imagined he had caught a + burglar sneaking away in the dark alley with his booty. Edison explained + that being deaf he had heard no challenge, and therefore had kept moving; + and the policeman remarked apologetically that it was fortunate for Edison + he was not a better shot. + </p> + <p> + The incident is curiously revelatory of the character of the man, for it + must be admitted that while literary telegraphers are by no means scarce, + there are very few who would spend scant savings on back numbers of a + ponderous review at an age when tragedy, beer, and pretzels are far more + enticing. Through all his travels Edison has preserved those books, and + has them now in his library at Llewellyn Park, on Orange Mountain, New + Jersey. + </p> + <p> + Drifting after a time from Louisville, Edison made his way as far north as + Detroit, but, like the famous Duke of York, soon made his way back again. + Possibly the severer discipline after the happy-go-lucky regime in the + Southern city had something to do with this restlessness, which again + manifested itself, however, on his return thither. The end of the war had + left the South a scene of destruction and desolation, and many men who had + fought bravely and well found it hard to reconcile themselves to the grim + task of reconstruction. To them it seemed better to "let ill alone" and + seek some other clime where conditions would be less onerous. At this + moment a great deal of exaggerated talk was current as to the sunny life + and easy wealth of Latin America, and under its influences many + "unreconstructed" Southerners made their way to Mexico, Brazil, Peru, or + the Argentine. Telegraph operators were naturally in touch with this + movement, and Edison's fertile imagination was readily inflamed by the + glowing idea of all these vague possibilities. Again he threw up his + steady work and, with a couple of sanguine young friends, made his way to + New Orleans. They had the notion of taking positions in the Brazilian + Government telegraphs, as an advertisement had been inserted in some paper + stating that operators were wanted. They had timed their departure from + Louisville so as to catch a specially chartered steamer, which was to + leave New Orleans for Brazil on a certain day, to convey a large number of + Confederates and their families, who were disgusted with the United States + and were going to settle in Brazil, where slavery still prevailed. Edison + and his friends arrived in New Orleans just at the time of the great riot, + when several hundred negroes were killed, and the city was in the hands of + a mob. The Government had seized the steamer chartered for Brazil, in + order to bring troops from the Yazoo River to New Orleans to stop the + rioting. The young operators therefore visited another shipping-office to + make inquiries as to vessels for Brazil, and encountered an old Spaniard + who sat in a chair near the steamer agent's desk, and to whom they + explained their intentions. He had lived and worked in South America, and + was very emphatic in his assertion, as he shook his yellow, bony finger at + them, that the worst mistake they could possibly make would be to leave + the United States. He would not leave on any account, and they as young + Americans would always regret it if they forsook their native land, whose + freedom, climate, and opportunities could not be equalled anywhere on the + face of the globe. Such sincere advice as this could not be disdained, and + Edison made his way North again. One cannot resist speculation as to what + might have happened to Edison himself and to the development of + electricity had he made this proposed plunge into the enervating tropics. + It will be remembered that at a somewhat similar crisis in life young + Robert Burns entertained seriously the idea of forsaking Scotland for the + West Indies. That he did not go was certainly better for Scottish verse, + to which he contributed later so many immortal lines; and it was probably + better for himself, even if he died a gauger. It is simply impossible to + imagine Edison working out the phonograph, telephone, and incandescent + lamp under the tropical climes he sought. Some years later he was informed + that both his companions had gone to Vera Cruz, Mexico, and had died there + of yellow fever. + </p> + <p> + Work was soon resumed at Louisville, where the dilapidated old office + occupied at the close of the war had been exchanged for one much more + comfortable and luxurious in its equipment. As before, Edison was allotted + to press report, and remembers very distinctly taking the Presidential + message and veto of the District of Columbia bill by President Johnson. As + the matter was received over the wire he paragraphed it so that each + printer had exactly three lines, thus enabling the matter to be set up + very expeditiously in the newspaper offices. This earned him the gratitude + of the editors, a dinner, and all the newspaper "exchanges" he wanted. + Edison's accounts of the sprees and debauches of other night operators in + the loosely managed offices enable one to understand how even a little + steady application to the work in hand would be appreciated. On one + occasion Edison acted as treasurer for his bibulous companions, holding + the stakes, so to speak, in order that the supply of liquor might last + longer. One of the mildest mannered of the party took umbrage at the + parsimony of the treasurer and knocked him down, whereupon the others in + the party set upon the assailant and mauled him so badly that he had to + spend three weeks in hospital. At another time two of his companions + sharing the temporary hospitality of his room smashed most of the + furniture, and went to bed with their boots on. Then his kindly + good-nature rebelled. "I felt that this was running hospitality into the + ground, so I pulled them out and left them on the floor to cool off from + their alcoholic trance." + </p> + <p> + Edison seems on the whole to have been fairly comfortable and happy in + Louisville, surrounding himself with books and experimental apparatus, and + even inditing a treatise on electricity. But his very thirst for knowledge + and new facts again proved his undoing. The instruments in the handsome + new offices were fastened in their proper places, and operators were + strictly forbidden to remove them, or to use the batteries except on + regular work. This prohibition meant little to Edison, who had access to + no other instruments except those of the company. "I went one night," he + says, "into the battery-room to obtain some sulphuric acid for + experimenting. The carboy tipped over, the acid ran out, went through to + the manager's room below, and ate up his desk and all the carpet. The next + morning I was summoned before him, and told that what the company wanted + was operators, not experimenters. I was at liberty to take my pay and get + out." + </p> + <p> + The fact that Edison is a very studious man, an insatiate lover and reader + of books, is well known to his associates; but surprise is often expressed + at his fund of miscellaneous information. This, it will be seen, is partly + explained by his work for years as a "press" reporter. He says of this: + "The second time I was in Louisville, they had moved into a new office, + and the discipline was now good. I took the press job. In fact, I was a + very poor sender, and therefore made the taking of press report a + specialty. The newspaper men allowed me to come over after going to press + at 3 A.M. and get all the exchanges I wanted. These I would take home and + lay at the foot of my bed. I never slept more than four or five hours' so + that I would awake at nine or ten and read these papers until dinner-time. + I thus kept posted, and knew from their activity every member of Congress, + and what committees they were on; and all about the topical doings, as + well as the prices of breadstuffs in all the primary markets. I was in a + much better position than most operators to call on my imagination to + supply missing words or sentences, which were frequent in those days of + old, rotten wires, badly insulated, especially on stormy nights. Upon such + occasions I had to supply in some cases one-fifth of the whole matter—pure + guessing—but I got caught only once. There had been some kind of + convention in Virginia, in which John Minor Botts was the leading figure. + There was great excitement about it, and two votes had been taken in the + convention on the two days. There was no doubt that the vote the next day + would go a certain way. A very bad storm came up about 10 o'clock, and my + wire worked very badly. Then there was a cessation of all signals; then I + made out the words 'Minor Botts.' The next was a New York item. I filled + in a paragraph about the convention and how the vote had gone, as I was + sure it would. But next day I learned that instead of there being a vote + the convention had adjourned without action until the day after." In like + manner, it was at Louisville that Mr. Edison got an insight into the + manner in which great political speeches are more frequently reported than + the public suspects. "The Associated Press had a shorthand man travelling + with President Johnson when he made his celebrated swing around the circle + in a private train delivering hot speeches in defence of his conduct. The + man engaged me to write out the notes from his reading. He came in loaded + and on the verge of incoherence. We started in, but about every two + minutes I would have to scratch out whole paragraphs and insert the same + things said in another and better way. He would frequently change words, + always to the betterment of the speech. I couldn't understand this, and + when he got through, and I had copied about three columns, I asked him why + those changes, if he read from notes. 'Sonny,' he said, 'if these + politicians had their speeches published as they deliver them, a great + many shorthand writers would be out of a job. The best shorthanders and + the holders of good positions are those who can take a lot of rambling, + incoherent stuff and make a rattling good speech out of it.'" + </p> + <p> + Going back to Cincinnati and beginning his second term there as an + operator, Edison found the office in new quarters and with greatly + improved management. He was again put on night duty, much to his + satisfaction. He rented a room in the top floor of an office building, + bought a cot and an oil-stove, a foot lathe, and some tools. He cultivated + the acquaintance of Mr. Sommers, superintendent of telegraph of the + Cincinnati & Indianapolis Railroad, who gave him permission to take + such scrap apparatus as he might desire, that was of no use to the + company. With Sommers on one occasion he had an opportunity to indulge his + always strong sense of humor. "Sommers was a very witty man," he says, + "and fond of experimenting. We worked on a self-adjusting telegraph relay, + which would have been very valuable if we could have got it. I soon became + the possessor of a second-hand Ruhmkorff induction coil, which, although + it would only give a small spark, would twist the arms and clutch the + hands of a man so that he could not let go of the apparatus. One day we + went down to the round-house of the Cincinnati & Indianapolis Railroad + and connected up the long wash-tank in the room with the coil, one + electrode being connected to earth. Above this wash-room was a flat roof. + We bored a hole through the roof, and could see the men as they came in. + The first man as he entered dipped his hands in the water. The floor being + wet he formed a circuit, and up went his hands. He tried it the second + time, with the same result. He then stood against the wall with a puzzled + expression. We surmised that he was waiting for somebody else to come in, + which occurred shortly after—with the same result. Then they went + out, and the place was soon crowded, and there was considerable + excitement. Various theories were broached to explain the curious + phenomenon. We enjoyed the sport immensely." It must be remembered that + this was over forty years ago, when there was no popular instruction in + electricity, and when its possibilities for practical joking were known to + very few. To-day such a crowd of working-men would be sure to include at + least one student of a night school or correspondence course who would + explain the mystery offhand. + </p> + <p> + Note has been made of the presence of Ellsworth in the Cincinnati office, + and his service with the Confederate guerrilla Morgan, for whom he tapped + Federal wires, read military messages, sent false ones, and did serious + mischief generally. It is well known that one operator can recognize + another by the way in which he makes his signals—it is his style of + handwriting. Ellsworth possessed in a remarkable degree the skill of + imitating these peculiarities, and thus he deceived the Union operators + easily. Edison says that while apparently a quiet man in bearing, + Ellsworth, after the excitement of fighting, found the tameness of a + telegraph office obnoxious, and that he became a bad "gun man" in the + Panhandle of Texas, where he was killed. "We soon became acquainted," says + Edison of this period in Cincinnati, "and he wanted me to invent a secret + method of sending despatches so that an intermediate operator could not + tap the wire and understand it. He said that if it could be accomplished, + he could sell it to the Government for a large sum of money. This suited + me, and I started in and succeeded in making such an instrument, which had + in it the germ of my quadruplex now used throughout the world, permitting + the despatch of four messages over one wire simultaneously. By the time I + had succeeded in getting the apparatus to work, Ellsworth suddenly + disappeared. Many years afterward I used this little device again for the + same purpose. At Menlo Park, New Jersey, I had my laboratory. There were + several Western Union wires cut into the laboratory, and used by me in + experimenting at night. One day I sat near an instrument which I had left + connected during the night. I soon found it was a private wire between New + York and Philadelphia, and I heard among a lot of stuff a message that + surprised me. A week after that I had occasion to go to New York, and, + visiting the office of the lessee of the wire, I asked him if he hadn't + sent such and such a message. The expression that came over his face was a + sight. He asked me how I knew of any message. I told him the + circumstances, and suggested that he had better cipher such + communications, or put on a secret sounder. The result of the interview + was that I installed for him my old Cincinnati apparatus, which was used + thereafter for many years." + </p> + <p> + Edison did not make a very long stay in Cincinnati this time, but went + home after a while to Port Huron. Soon tiring of idleness and isolation he + sent "a cry from Macedonia" to his old friend "Milt" Adams, who was in + Boston, and whom he wished to rejoin if he could get work promptly in the + East. + </p> + <p> + Edison himself gives the details of this eventful move, when he went East + to grow up with the new art of electricity. "I had left Louisville the + second time, and went home to see my parents. After stopping at home for + some time, I got restless, and thought I would like to work in the East. + Knowing that a former operator named Adams, who had worked with me in the + Cincinnati office, was in Boston, I wrote him that I wanted a job there. + He wrote back that if I came on immediately he could get me in the Western + Union office. I had helped out the Grand Trunk Railroad telegraph people + by a new device when they lost one of the two submarine cables they had + across the river, making the remaining cable act just as well for their + purpose, as if they had two. I thought I was entitled to a pass, which + they conceded; and I started for Boston. After leaving Toronto a terrific + blizzard came up and the train got snowed under in a cut. After staying + there twenty-four hours, the trainmen made snowshoes of fence-rail splints + and started out to find food, which they did about a half mile away. They + found a roadside inn, and by means of snowshoes all the passengers were + taken to the inn. The train reached Montreal four days late. A number of + the passengers and myself went to the military headquarters to testify in + favor of a soldier who was on furlough, and was two days late, which was a + serious matter with military people, I learned. We willingly did this, for + this soldier was a great story-teller, and made the time pass quickly. I + met here a telegraph operator named Stanton, who took me to his + boarding-house, the most cheerless I have ever been in. Nobody got enough + to eat; the bedclothes were too short and too thin; it was 28 degrees + below zero, and the wash-water was frozen solid. The board was cheap, + being only $1.50 per week. + </p> + <p> + "Stanton said that the usual live-stock accompaniment of operators' + boarding-houses was absent; he thought the intense cold had caused them to + hibernate. Stanton, when I was working in Cincinnati, left his position + and went out on the Union Pacific to work at Julesburg, which was a cattle + town at that time and very tough. I remember seeing him off on the train, + never expecting to see him again. Six months afterward, while working + press wire in Cincinnati, about 2 A.M., there was flung into the middle of + the operating-room a large tin box. It made a report like a pistol, and we + all jumped up startled. In walked Stanton. 'Gentlemen,' he said 'I have + just returned from a pleasure trip to the land beyond the Mississippi. All + my wealth is contained in my metallic travelling case and you are welcome + to it.' The case contained one paper collar. He sat down, and I noticed + that he had a woollen comforter around his neck with his coat buttoned + closely. The night was intensely warm. He then opened his coat and + revealed the fact that he had nothing but the bare skin. 'Gentlemen,' said + he, 'you see before you an operator who has reached the limit of + impecuniosity.'" Not far from the limit of impecuniosity was Edison + himself, as he landed in Boston in 1868 after this wintry ordeal. + </p> + <p> + This chapter has run to undue length, but it must not close without one + citation from high authority as to the service of the military telegraph + corps so often referred to in it. General Grant in his Memoirs, describing + the movements of the Army of the Potomac, lays stress on the service of + his telegraph operators, and says: "Nothing could be more complete than + the organization and discipline of this body of brave and intelligent men. + Insulated wires were wound upon reels, two men and a mule detailed to each + reel. The pack-saddle was provided with a rack like a sawbuck, placed + crosswise, so that the wheel would revolve freely; there was a wagon + provided with a telegraph operator, battery, and instruments for each + division corps and army, and for my headquarters. Wagons were also loaded + with light poles supplied with an iron spike at each end to hold the wires + up. The moment troops were in position to go into camp, the men would put + up their wires. Thus in a few minutes' longer time than it took a mule to + walk the length of its coil, telegraphic communication would be effected + between all the headquarters of the army. No orders ever had to be given + to establish the telegraph." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI + </h2> + <h3> + WORK AND INVENTION IN BOSTON + </h3> + <p> + MILTON ADAMS was working in the office of the Franklin Telegraph Company + in Boston when he received Edison's appeal from Port Huron, and with + characteristic impetuosity at once made it his business to secure a + position for his friend. There was no opening in the Franklin office, so + Adams went over to the Western Union office, and asked the manager, Mr. + George F. Milliken, if he did not want an operator who, like young + Lochinvar, came out of the West. "What kind of copy does he make?" was the + cautious response. "I passed Edison's letter through the window for his + inspection. Milliken read it, and a look of surprise came over his + countenance as he asked me if he could take it off the line like that. I + said he certainly could, and that there was nobody who could stick him. + Milliken said that if he was that kind of an operator I could send for + him, and I wrote to Edison to come on, as I had a job for him in the main + office of the Western Union." Meantime Edison had secured his pass over + the Grand Trunk Railroad, and spent four days and nights on the journey, + suffering extremes of cold and hunger. Franklin's arrival in Philadelphia + finds its parallel in the very modest debut of Adams's friend in Boston. + </p> + <p> + It took only five minutes for Edison to get the "job," for Superintendent + Milliken, a fine type of telegraph official, saw quickly through the + superficialities, and realized that it was no ordinary young operator he + was engaging. Edison himself tells the story of what happened. "The + manager asked me when I was ready to go to work. 'Now,' I replied I was + then told to return at 5.30 P.M., and punctually at that hour I entered + the main operating-room and was introduced to the night manager. The + weather being cold, and being clothed poorly, my peculiar appearance + caused much mirth, and, as I afterward learned, the night operators had + consulted together how they might 'put up a job on the jay from the woolly + West.' I was given a pen and assigned to the New York No. 1 wire. After + waiting an hour, I was told to come over to a special table and take a + special report for the Boston Herald, the conspirators having arranged to + have one of the fastest senders in New York send the despatch and 'salt' + the new man. I sat down unsuspiciously at the table, and the New York man + started slowly. Soon he increased his speed, to which I easily adapted my + pace. This put my rival on his mettle, and he put on his best powers, + which, however, were soon reached. At this point I happened to look up, + and saw the operators all looking over my shoulder, with their faces + shining with fun and excitement. I knew then that they were trying to put + up a job on me, but kept my own counsel. The New York man then commenced + to slur over his words, running them together and sticking the signals; + but I had been used to this style of telegraphy in taking report, and was + not in the least discomfited. Finally, when I thought the fun had gone far + enough, and having about completed the special, I quietly opened the key + and remarked, telegraphically, to my New York friend: 'Say, young man, + change off and send with your other foot.' This broke the New York man all + up, and he turned the job over to another man to finish." + </p> + <p> + Edison had a distaste for taking press report, due to the fact that it was + steady, continuous work, and interfered with the studies and + investigations that could be carried on in the intervals of ordinary + commercial telegraphy. He was not lazy in any sense. While he had no very + lively interest in the mere routine work of a telegraph office, he had the + profoundest curiosity as to the underlying principles of electricity that + made telegraphy possible, and he had an unflagging desire and belief in + his own ability to improve the apparatus he handled daily. The whole + intellectual atmosphere of Boston was favorable to the development of the + brooding genius in this shy, awkward, studious youth, utterly indifferent + to clothes and personal appearance, but ready to spend his last dollar on + books and scientific paraphernalia. It is matter of record that he did + once buy a new suit for thirty dollars in Boston, but the following + Sunday, while experimenting with acids in his little workshop, the suit + was spoiled. "That is what I get for putting so much money in a new suit," + was the laconic remark of the youth, who was more than delighted to pick + up a complete set of Faraday's works about the same time. Adams says that + when Edison brought home these books at 4 A.M. he read steadily until + breakfast-time, and then he remarked, enthusiastically: "Adams, I have got + so much to do and life is so short, I am going to hustle." And thereupon + he started on a run for breakfast. Edison himself says: "It was in Boston + I bought Faraday's works. I think I must have tried about everything in + those books. His explanations were simple. He used no mathematics. He was + the Master Experimenter. I don't think there were many copies of Faraday's + works sold in those days. The only people who did anything in electricity + were the telegraphers and the opticians making simple school apparatus to + demonstrate the principles." One of these firms was Palmer & Hall, + whose catalogue of 1850 showed a miniature electric locomotive made by Mr. + Thomas Hall, and exhibited in operation the following year at the + Charitable Mechanics' Fair in Boston. In 1852 Mr. Hall made for a Dr. A. + L. Henderson, of Buffalo, New York, a model line of railroad with + electric-motor engine, telegraph line, and electric railroad signals, + together with a figure operating the signals at each end of the line + automatically. This was in reality the first example of railroad trains + moved by telegraph signals, a practice now so common and universal as to + attract no comment. To show how little some fundamental methods can change + in fifty years, it may be noted that Hall conveyed the current to his tiny + car through forty feet of rail, using the rail as conductor, just as + Edison did more than thirty years later in his historic experiments for + Villard at Menlo Park; and just as a large proportion of American trolley + systems do at this present moment. + </p> + <p> + It was among such practical, investigating folk as these that Edison was + very much at home. Another notable man of this stamp, with whom Edison was + thrown in contact, was the late Mr. Charles Williams, who, beginning his + career in the electrical field in the forties, was at the height of + activity as a maker of apparatus when Edison arrived in the city; and who + afterward, as an associate of Alexander Graham Bell, enjoyed the + distinction of being the first manufacturer in the world of telephones. At + his Court Street workshop Edison was a frequent visitor. Telegraph repairs + and experiments were going on constantly, especially on the early + fire-alarm telegraphs [1] of Farmer and Gamewell, and with the aid of one + of the men there—probably George Anders—Edison worked out into + an operative model his first invention, a vote-recorder, the first Edison + patent, for which papers were executed on October 11, 1868, and which was + taken out June 1, 1869, No. 90,646. The purpose of this particular device + was to permit a vote in the National House of Representatives to be taken + in a minute or so, complete lists being furnished of all members voting on + the two sides of any question Mr. Edison, in recalling the circumstances, + says: "Roberts was the telegraph operator who was the financial backer to + the extent of $100. The invention when completed was taken to Washington. + I think it was exhibited before a committee that had something to do with + the Capitol. The chairman of the committee, after seeing how quickly and + perfectly it worked, said: 'Young man, if there is any invention on earth + that we don't want down here, it is this. One of the greatest weapons in + the hands of a minority to prevent bad legislation is filibustering on + votes, and this instrument would prevent it.' I saw the truth of this, + because as press operator I had taken miles of Congressional proceedings, + and to this day an enormous amount of time is wasted during each session + of the House in foolishly calling the members' names and recording and + then adding their votes, when the whole operation could be done in almost + a moment by merely pressing a particular button at each desk. For + filibustering purposes, however, the present methods are most admirable." + Edison determined from that time forth to devote his inventive faculties + only to things for which there was a real, genuine demand, something that + subserved the actual necessities of humanity. This first patent was taken + out for him by the late Hon. Carroll D. Wright, afterward U. S. + Commissioner of Labor, and a well-known publicist, then practicing patent + law in Boston. He describes Edison as uncouth in manner, a chewer rather + than a smoker of tobacco, but full of intelligence and ideas. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 1: The general scheme of a fire-alarm telegraph + system embodies a central office to which notice can be sent + from any number of signal boxes of the outbreak of a fire in + the district covered by the box, the central office in turn + calling out the nearest fire engines, and warning the fire + department in general of the occurrence. Such fire alarms + can be exchanged automatically, or by operators, and are + sometimes associated with a large fire-alarm bell or + whistle. Some boxes can be operated by the passing public; + others need special keys. The box mechanism is usually of + the ratchet, step-by-step movement, familiar in district + messenger call-boxes.] +</pre> + <p> + Edison's curiously practical, though imaginative, mind demanded realities + to work upon, things that belong to "human nature's daily food," and he + soon harked back to telegraphy, a domain in which he was destined to + succeed, and over which he was to reign supreme as an inventor. He did + not, however, neglect chemistry, but indulged his tastes in that direction + freely, although we have no record that this work was anything more, at + that time, than the carrying out of experiments outlined in the books. The + foundations were being laid for the remarkable chemical knowledge that + later on grappled successfully with so many knotty problems in the realm + of chemistry; notably with the incandescent lamp and the storage battery. + Of one incident in his chemical experiments he tells the following story: + "I had read in a scientific paper the method of making nitroglycerine, and + was so fired by the wonderful properties it was said to possess, that I + determined to make some of the compound. We tested what we considered a + very small quantity, but this produced such terrible and unexpected + results that we became alarmed, the fact dawning upon us that we had a + very large white elephant in our possession. At 6 A.M. I put the explosive + into a sarsaparilla bottle, tied a string to it, wrapped it in a paper, + and gently let it down into the sewer, corner of State and Washington + Streets." The associate in this was a man whom he had found endeavoring to + make electrical apparatus for sleight-of-hand performances. + </p> + <p> + In the Boston telegraph office at that time, as perhaps at others, there + were operators studying to enter college; possibly some were already in + attendance at Harvard University. This condition was not unusual at one + time; the first electrical engineer graduated from Columbia University, + New York, followed up his studies while a night operator, and came out + brilliantly at the head of his class. Edison says of these scholars that + they paraded their knowledge rather freely, and that it was his delight to + go to the second-hand book stores on Cornhill and study up questions which + he could spring upon them when he got an occasion. With those engaged on + night duty he got midnight lunch from an old Irishman called "the Cake + Man," who appeared regularly with his wares at 12 midnight. "The office + was on the ground floor, and had been a restaurant previous to its + occupation by the Western Union Telegraph Company. It was literally loaded + with cockroaches, which lived between the wall and the board running + around the room at the floor, and which came after the lunch. These were + such a bother on my table that I pasted two strips of tinfoil on the wall + at my desk, connecting one piece to the positive pole of the big battery + supplying current to the wires and the negative pole to the other strip. + The cockroaches moving up on the wall would pass over the strips. The + moment they got their legs across both strips there was a flash of light + and the cockroaches went into gas. This automatic electrocuting device + attracted so much attention, and got half a column in an evening paper, + that the manager made me stop it." The reader will remember that a similar + plan of campaign against rats was carried out by Edison while in the West. + </p> + <p> + About this time Edison had a narrow escape from injury that might easily + have shortened his career, and he seems to have provoked the trouble more + or less innocently by using a little elementary chemistry. "After being in + Boston several months," he says, "working New York wire No. 1, I was + requested to work the press wire, called the 'milk route,' as there were + so many towns on it taking press simultaneously. New York office had + reported great delays on the wire, due to operators constantly + interrupting, or 'breaking,' as it was called, to have words repeated + which they had failed to get; and New York claimed that Boston was one of + the worst offenders. It was a rather hard position for me, for if I took + the report without breaking, it would prove the previous Boston operator + incompetent. The results made the operator have some hard feelings against + me. He was put back on the wire, and did much better after that. It seems + that the office boy was down on this man. One night he asked me if I could + tell him how to fix a key so that it would not 'break,' even if the + circuit-breaker was open, and also so that it could not be easily + detected. I told him to jab a penful of ink on the platinum points, as + there was sugar enough to make it sufficiently thick to hold up when the + operator tried to break—the current still going through the ink so + that he could not break. + </p> + <p> + "The next night about 1 A.M. this operator, on the press wire, while I was + standing near a House printer studying it, pulled out a glass insulator, + then used upside down as a substitute for an ink-bottle, and threw it with + great violence at me, just missing my head. It would certainly have killed + me if it had not missed. The cause of the trouble was that this operator + was doing the best he could not to break, but being compelled to, opened + his key and found he couldn't. The press matter came right along, and he + could not stop it. The office boy had put the ink in a few minutes before, + when the operator had turned his head during a lull. He blamed me + instinctively as the cause of the trouble. Later on we became good + friends. He took his meals at the same emaciator that I did. His main + object in life seemed to be acquiring the art of throwing up wash-pitchers + and catching them without breaking them. About one-third of his salary was + used up in paying for pitchers." + </p> + <p> + One day a request reached the Western Union Telegraph office in Boston, + from the principal of a select school for young ladies, to the effect that + she would like some one to be sent up to the school to exhibit and + describe the Morse telegraph to her "children." There has always been a + warm interest in Boston in the life and work of Morse, who was born there, + at Charlestown, barely a mile from the birthplace of Franklin, and this + request for a little lecture on Morse's telegraph was quite natural. + Edison, who was always ready to earn some extra money for his experiments, + and was already known as the best-informed operator in the office, + accepted the invitation. What happened is described by Adams as follows: + "We gathered up a couple of sounders, a battery, and sonic wire, and at + the appointed time called on her to do the stunt. Her school-room was + about twenty by twenty feet, not including a small platform. We rigged up + the line between the two ends of the room, Edison taking the stage while I + was at the other end of the room. All being in readiness, the principal + was told to bring in her children. The door opened and in came about + twenty young ladies elegantly gowned, not one of whom was under seventeen. + When Edison saw them I thought he would faint. He called me on the line + and asked me to come to the stage and explain the mysteries of the Morse + system. I replied that I thought he was in the right place, and told him + to get busy with his talk on dots and dashes. Always modest, Edison was so + overcome he could hardly speak, but he managed to say, finally, that as + his friend Mr. Adams was better equipped with cheek than he was, we would + change places, and he would do the demonstrating while I explained the + whole thing. This caused the bevy to turn to see where the lecturer was. I + went on the stage, said something, and we did some telegraphing over the + line. I guess it was satisfactory; we got the money, which was the main + point to us." Edison tells the story in a similar manner, but insists that + it was he who saved the situation. "I managed to say that I would work the + apparatus, and Mr. Adams would make the explanations. Adams was so + embarrassed that he fell over an ottoman. The girls tittered, and this + increased his embarrassment until he couldn't say a word. The situation + was so desperate that for a reason I never could explain I started in + myself and talked and explained better than I ever did before or since. I + can talk to two or three persons; but when there are more they radiate + some unknown form of influence which paralyzes my vocal cords. However, I + got out of this scrape, and many times afterward when I chanced with other + operators to meet some of the young ladies on their way home from school, + they would smile and nod, much to the mystification of the operators, who + were ignorant of this episode." + </p> + <p> + Another amusing story of this period of impecuniosity and financial strain + is told thus by Edison: "My friend Adams was working in the Franklin + Telegraph Company, which competed with the Western Union. Adams was laid + off, and as his financial resources had reached absolute zero centigrade, + I undertook to let him sleep in my hall bedroom. I generally had hall + bedrooms, because they were cheap and I needed money to buy apparatus. I + also had the pleasure of his genial company at the boarding-house about a + mile distant, but at the sacrifice of some apparatus. One morning, as we + were hastening to breakfast, we came into Tremont Row, and saw a large + crowd in front of two small 'gents' furnishing goods stores. We stopped to + ascertain the cause of the excitement. One store put up a paper sign in + the display window which said: 'Three-hundred pairs of stockings received + this day, five cents a pair—no connection with the store next door.' + Presently the other store put up a sign stating they had received three + hundred pairs, price three cents per pair, and stated that they had no + connection with the store next door. Nobody went in. The crowd kept + increasing. Finally, when the price had reached three pairs for one cent, + Adams said to me: 'I can't stand this any longer; give me a cent.' I gave + him a nickel, and he elbowed his way in; and throwing the money on the + counter, the store being filled with women clerks, he said: 'Give me three + pairs.' The crowd was breathless, and the girl took down a box and drew + out three pairs of baby socks. 'Oh!' said Adams, 'I want men's size.' + 'Well, sir, we do not permit one to pick sizes for that amount of money.' + And the crowd roared; and this broke up the sales." + </p> + <p> + It has generally been supposed that Edison did not take up work on the + stock ticker until after his arrival a little later in New York; but he + says: "After the vote-recorder I invented a stock ticker, and started a + ticker service in Boston; had thirty or forty subscribers, and operated + from a room over the Gold Exchange. This was about a year after Callahan + started in New York." To say the least, this evidenced great ability and + enterprise on the part of the youth. The dealings in gold during the Civil + War and after its close had brought gold indicators into use, and these + had soon been followed by "stock tickers," the first of which was + introduced in New York in 1867. The success of this new but still + primitively crude class of apparatus was immediate. Four manufacturers + were soon busy trying to keep pace with the demands for it from brokers; + and the Gold & Stock Telegraph Company formed to exploit the system + soon increased its capital from $200,000 to $300,000, paying 12 per cent. + dividends on the latter amount. Within its first year the capital was + again increased to $1,000,000, and dividends of 10 per cent. were paid + easily on that sum also. It is needless to say that such facts became + quickly known among the operators, from whose ranks, of course, the new + employees were enlisted; and it was a common ambition among the more + ingenious to produce a new ticker. From the beginning, each phase of + electrical development—indeed, each step in mechanics—has been + accompanied by the well-known phenomenon of invention; namely, the attempt + of the many to perfect and refine and even re-invent where one or two + daring spirits have led the way. The figures of capitalization and profit + just mentioned were relatively much larger in the sixties than they are + to-day; and to impressionable young operators they spelled illimitable + wealth. Edison was, how ever, about the only one in Boston of whom history + makes record as achieving any tangible result in this new art; and he soon + longed for the larger telegraphic opportunity of New York. His friend, + Milt Adams, went West with quenchless zest for that kind of roving life + and aimless adventure of which the serious minded Edison had already had + more than enough. Realizing that to New York he must look for further + support in his efforts, Edison, deep in debt for his embryonic inventions, + but with high hope and courage, now made the next momentous step in his + career. He was far riper in experience and practice of his art than any + other telegrapher of his age, and had acquired, moreover, no little + knowledge of the practical business of life. Note has been made above of + his invention of a stock ticker in Boston, and of his establishing a + stock-quotation circuit. This was by no means all, and as a fitting close + to this chapter he may be quoted as to some other work and its perils in + experimentation: "I also engaged in putting up private lines, upon which I + used an alphabetical dial instrument for telegraphing between business + establishments, a forerunner of modern telephony. This instrument was very + simple and practical, and any one could work it after a few minutes' + explanation. I had these instruments made at Mr. Hamblet's, who had a + little shop where he was engaged in experimenting with electric clocks. + Mr. Hamblet was the father and introducer in after years of the Western + Union Telegraph system of time distribution. My laboratory was the + headquarters for the men, and also of tools and supplies for those private + lines. They were put up cheaply, as I used the roofs of houses, just as + the Western Union did. It never occurred to me to ask permission from the + owners; all we did was to go to the store, etc., say we were telegraph + men, and wanted to go up to the wires on the roof; and permission was + always granted. + </p> + <p> + "In this laboratory I had a large induction coil which I had borrowed to + make some experiments with. One day I got hold of both electrodes of the + coil, and it clinched my hand on them so that I couldn't let go. The + battery was on a shelf. The only way I could get free was to back off and + pull the coil, so that the battery wires would pull the cells off the + shelf and thus break the circuit. I shut my eyes and pulled, but the + nitric acid splashed all over my face and ran down my back. I rushed to a + sink, which was only half big enough, and got in as well as I could and + wiggled around for several minutes to permit the water to dilute the acid + and stop the pain. My face and back were streaked with yellow; the skin + was thoroughly oxidized. I did not go on the street by daylight for two + weeks, as the appearance of my face was dreadful. The skin, however, + peeled off, and new skin replaced it without any damage." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII + </h2> + <h3> + THE STOCK TICKER + </h3> + <p> + "THE letters and figures used in the language of the tape," said a + well-known Boston stock speculator, "are very few, but they spell ruin in + ninety-nine million ways." It is not to be inferred, however, that the + modern stock ticker has anything to do with the making or losing of + fortunes. There were regular daily stock-market reports in London + newspapers in 1825, and New York soon followed the example. As far back as + 1692, Houghton issued in London a weekly review of financial and + commercial transactions, upon which Macaulay based the lively narrative of + stock speculation in the seventeenth century, given in his famous history. + That which the ubiquitous stock ticker has done is to give instantaneity + to the news of what the stock market is doing, so that at every minute, + thousands of miles apart, brokers, investors, and gamblers may learn the + exact conditions. The existence of such facilities is to be admired rather + than deplored. News is vital to Wall Street, and there is no living man on + whom the doings in Wall Street are without effect. The financial history + of the United States and of the world, as shown by the prices of + government bonds and general securities, has been told daily for forty + years on these narrow strips of paper tape, of which thousands of miles + are run yearly through the "tickers" of New York alone. It is true that + the record of the chattering little machine, made in cabalistic + abbreviations on the tape, can drive a man suddenly to the very verge of + insanity with joy or despair; but if there be blame for that, it attaches + to the American spirit of speculation and not to the ingenious mechanism + which reads and registers the beating of the financial pulse. + </p> + <p> + Edison came first to New York in 1868, with his early stock printer, which + he tried unsuccessfully to sell. He went back to Boston, and quite + undismayed got up a duplex telegraph. "Toward the end of my stay in + Boston," he says, "I obtained a loan of money, amounting to $800, to build + a peculiar kind of duplex telegraph for sending two messages over a single + wire simultaneously. The apparatus was built, and I left the Western Union + employ and went to Rochester, New York, to test the apparatus on the lines + of the Atlantic & Pacific Telegraph between that city and New York. + But the assistant at the other end could not be made to understand + anything, notwithstanding I had written out a very minute description of + just what to do. After trying for a week I gave it up and returned to New + York with but a few cents in my pocket." Thus he who has never speculated + in a stock in his life was destined to make the beginnings of his own + fortune by providing for others the apparatus that should bring to the + eye, all over a great city, the momentary fluctuations of stocks and + bonds. No one could have been in direr poverty than he when the steamboat + landed him in New York in 1869. He was in debt, and his few belongings in + books and instruments had to be left behind. He was not far from starving. + Mr. W. S. Mallory, an associate of many years, quotes directly from him on + this point: "Some years ago we had a business negotiation in New York + which made it necessary for Mr. Edison and me to visit the city five or + six times within a comparatively short period. It was our custom to leave + Orange about 11 A.M., and on arrival in New York to get our lunch before + keeping the appointments, which were usually made for two o'clock. Several + of these lunches were had at Delmonico's, Sherry's, and other places of + similar character, but one day, while en route, Mr. Edison said: 'I have + been to lunch with you several times; now to-day I am going to take you to + lunch with me, and give you the finest lunch you ever had.' When we + arrived in Hoboken, we took the downtown ferry across the Hudson, and when + we arrived on the Manhattan side Mr. Edison led the way to Smith & + McNell's, opposite Washington Market, and well known to old New Yorkers. + We went inside and as soon as the waiter appeared Mr. Edison ordered apple + dumplings and a cup of coffee for himself. He consumed his share of the + lunch with the greatest possible pleasure. Then, as soon as he had + finished, he went to the cigar counter and purchased cigars. As we walked + to keep the appointment he gave me the following reminiscence: When he + left Boston and decided to come to New York he had only money enough for + the trip. After leaving the boat his first thought was of breakfast; but + he was without money to obtain it. However, in passing a wholesale + tea-house he saw a man tasting tea, so he went in and asked the 'taster' + if he might have some of the tea. This the man gave him, and thus he + obtained his first breakfast in New York. He knew a telegraph operator + here, and on him he depended for a loan to tide him over until such time + as he should secure a position. During the day he succeeded in locating + this operator, but found that he also was out of a job, and that the best + he could do was to loan him one dollar, which he did. This small sum of + money represented both food and lodging until such time as work could be + obtained. Edison said that as the result of the time consumed and the + exercise in walking while he found his friend, he was extremely hungry, + and that he gave most serious consideration as to what he should buy in + the way of food, and what particular kind of food would be most satisfying + and filling. The result was that at Smith & McNell's he decided on + apple dumplings and a cup of coffee, than which he never ate anything more + appetizing. It was not long before he was at work and was able to live in + a normal manner." + </p> + <p> + During the Civil War, with its enormous increase in the national debt and + the volume of paper money, gold had gone to a high premium; and, as ever, + by its fluctuations in price the value of all other commodities was + determined. This led to the creation of a "Gold Room" in Wall Street, + where the precious metal could be dealt in; while for dealings in stocks + there also existed the "Regular Board," the "Open Board," and the "Long + Room." Devoted to one, but the leading object of speculation, the "Gold + Room" was the very focus of all the financial and gambling activity of the + time, and its quotations governed trade and commerce. At first notations + in chalk on a blackboard sufficed, but seeing their inadequacy, Dr. S. S. + Laws, vice-president and actual presiding officer of the Gold Exchange, + devised and introduced what was popularly known as the "gold indicator." + This exhibited merely the prevailing price of gold; but as its quotations + changed from instant to instant, it was in a most literal sense "the + cynosure of neighboring eyes." One indicator looked upon the Gold Room; + the other opened toward the street. Within the exchange the face could + easily be seen high up on the west wall of the room, and the machine was + operated by Mr. Mersereau, the official registrar of the Gold Board. + </p> + <p> + Doctor Laws, who afterward became President of the State University of + Missouri, was an inventor of unusual ability and attainments. In his early + youth he had earned his livelihood in a tool factory; and, apparently with + his savings, he went to Princeton, where he studied electricity under no + less a teacher than the famous Joseph Henry. At the outbreak of the war in + 1861 he was president of one of the Presbyterian synodical colleges in the + South, whose buildings passed into the hands of the Government. Going to + Europe, he returned to New York in 1863, and, becoming interested with a + relative in financial matters, his connection with the Gold Exchange soon + followed, when it was organized. The indicating mechanism he now devised + was electrical, controlled at central by two circuit-closing keys, and was + a prototype of all the later and modern step-by-step printing telegraphs, + upon which the distribution of financial news depends. The "fraction" drum + of the indicator could be driven in either direction, known as the advance + and retrograde movements, and was divided and marked in eighths. It geared + into a "unit" drum, just as do speed-indicators and cyclometers. Four + electrical pulsations were required to move the drum the distance between + the fractions. The general operation was simple, and in normally active + times the mechanism and the registrar were equal to all emergencies. But + it is obvious that the record had to be carried away to the brokers' + offices and other places by messengers; and the delay, confusion, and + mistakes soon suggested to Doctor Laws the desirability of having a number + of indicators at such scattered points, operated by a master transmitter, + and dispensing with the regiments of noisy boys. He secured this privilege + of distribution, and, resigning from the exchange, devoted his exclusive + attention to the "Gold Reporting Telegraph," which he patented, and for + which, at the end of 1866, he had secured fifty subscribers. His + indicators were small oblong boxes, in the front of which was a long slot, + allowing the dials as they travelled past, inside, to show the numerals + constituting the quotation; the dials or wheels being arranged in a row + horizontally, overlapping each other, as in modern fare registers which + are now seen on most trolley cars. It was not long before there were three + hundred subscribers; but the very success of this device brought + competition and improvement. Mr. E. A. Callahan, an ingenious + printing-telegraph operator, saw that there were unexhausted possibilities + in the idea, and his foresight and inventiveness made him the father of + the "ticker," in connection with which he was thus, like Laws, one of the + first to grasp and exploit the underlying principle of the "central + station" as a universal source of supply. The genesis of his invention Mr. + Callahan has told in an interesting way: "In 1867, on the site of the + present Mills Building on Broad Street, opposite the Stock Exchange of + today, was an old building which had been cut up to subserve the + necessities of its occupants, all engaged in dealing in gold and stocks. + It had one main entrance from the street to a hallway, from which entrance + to the offices of two prominent broker firms was obtained. Each firm had + its own army of boys, numbering from twelve to fifteen, whose duties were + to ascertain the latest quotations from the different exchanges. Each boy + devoted his attention to some particularly active stock. Pushing each + other to get into these narrow quarters, yelling out the prices at the + door, and pushing back for later ones, the hustle made this doorway to me + a most undesirable refuge from an April shower. I was simply whirled into + the street. I naturally thought that much of this noise and confusion + might be dispensed with, and that the prices might be furnished through + some system of telegraphy which would not require the employment of + skilled operators. The conception of the stock ticker dates from this + incident." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Callahan's first idea was to distribute gold quotations, and to this + end he devised an "indicator." It consisted of two dials mounted + separately, each revolved by an electromagnet, so that the desired figures + were brought to an aperture in the case enclosing the apparatus, as in the + Laws system. Each shaft with its dial was provided with two ratchet + wheels, one the reverse of the other. One was used in connection with the + propelling lever, which was provided with a pawl to fit into the teeth of + the reversed ratchet wheel on its forward movement. It was thus made + impossible for either dial to go by momentum beyond its limit. Learning + that Doctor Laws, with the skilful aid of F. L. Pope, was already active + in the same direction, Mr. Callahan, with ready wit, transformed his + indicator into a "ticker" that would make a printed record. The name of + the "ticker" came through the casual remark of an observer to whom the + noise was the most striking feature of the mechanism. Mr. Callahan removed + the two dials, and, substituting type wheels, turned the movements face to + face, so that each type wheel could imprint its characters upon a paper + tape in two lines. Three wires stranded together ran from the central + office to each instrument. Of these one furnished the current for the + alphabet wheel, one for the figure wheel, and one for the mechanism that + took care of the inking and printing on the tape. Callahan made the + further innovation of insulating his circuit wires, although the cost was + then forty times as great as that of bare wire. It will be understood that + electromagnets were the ticker's actuating agency. The ticker apparatus + was placed under a neat glass shade and mounted on a shelf. Twenty-five + instruments were energized from one circuit, and the quotations were + supplied from a "central" at 18 New Street. The Gold & Stock Telegraph + Company was promptly organized to supply to brokers the system, which was + very rapidly adopted throughout the financial district of New York, at the + southern tip of Manhattan Island. Quotations were transmitted by the Morse + telegraph from the floor of the Stock Exchange to the "central," and + thence distributed to the subscribers. Success with the "stock" news + system was instantaneous. + </p> + <p> + It was at this juncture that Edison reached New York, and according to his + own statement found shelter at night in the battery-room of the Gold + Indicator Company, having meantime applied for a position as operator with + the Western Union. He had to wait a few days, and during this time he + seized the opportunity to study the indicators and the complicated general + transmitter in the office, controlled from the keyboard of the operator on + the floor of the Gold Exchange. What happened next has been the basis of + many inaccurate stories, but is dramatic enough as told in Mr. Edison's + own version: "On the third day of my arrival and while sitting in the + office, the complicated general instrument for sending on all the lines, + and which made a very great noise, suddenly came to a stop with a crash. + Within two minutes over three hundred boys—a boy from every broker + in the street—rushed up-stairs and crowded the long aisle and + office, that hardly had room for one hundred, all yelling that such and + such a broker's wire was out of order and to fix it at once. It was + pandemonium, and the man in charge became so excited that he lost control + of all the knowledge he ever had. I went to the indicator, and, having + studied it thoroughly, knew where the trouble ought to be, and found it. + One of the innumerable contact springs had broken off and had fallen down + between the two gear wheels and stopped the instrument; but it was not + very noticeable. As I went out to tell the man in charge what the matter + was, Doctor Laws appeared on the scene, the most excited person I had + seen. He demanded of the man the cause of the trouble, but the man was + speechless. I ventured to say that I knew what the trouble was, and he + said, 'Fix it! Fix it! Be quick!' I removed the spring and set the contact + wheels at zero; and the line, battery, and inspecting men all scattered + through the financial district to set the instruments. In about two hours + things were working again. Doctor Laws came in to ask my name and what I + was doing. I told him, and he asked me to come to his private office the + following day. His office was filled with stacks of books all relating to + metaphysics and kindred matters. He asked me a great many questions about + the instruments and his system, and I showed him how he could simplify + things generally. He then requested that I should call next day. On + arrival, he stated at once that he had decided to put me in charge of the + whole plant, and that my salary would be $300 per month! This was such a + violent jump from anything I had ever seen before, that it rather + paralyzed me for a while, I thought it was too much to be lasting, but I + determined to try and live up to that salary if twenty hours a day of hard + work would do it. I kept this position, made many improvements, devised + several stock tickers, until the Gold & Stock Telegraph Company + consolidated with the Gold Indicator Company." Certainly few changes in + fortune have been more sudden and dramatic in any notable career than this + which thus placed an ill-clad, unkempt, half-starved, eager lad in a + position of such responsibility in days when the fluctuations in the price + of gold at every instant meant fortune or ruin to thousands. + </p> + <p> + Edison, barely twenty-one years old, was a keen observer of the stirring + events around him. "Wall Street" is at any time an interesting study, but + it was never at a more agitated and sensational period of its history than + at this time. Edison's arrival in New York coincided with an active + speculation in gold which may, indeed, be said to have provided him with + occupation; and was soon followed by the attempt of Mr. Jay Gould and his + associates to corner the gold market, precipitating the panic of Black + Friday, September 24, 1869. Securing its import duties in the precious + metal and thus assisting to create an artificial stringency in the gold + market, the Government had made it a practice to relieve the situation by + selling a million of gold each month. The metal was thus restored to + circulation. In some manner, President Grant was persuaded that general + conditions and the movement of the crops would be helped if the sale of + gold were suspended for a time; and, this put into effect, he went to + visit an old friend in Pennsylvania remote from railroads and telegraphs. + The Gould pool had acquired control of $10,000,000 in gold, and drove the + price upward rapidly from 144 toward their goal of 200. On Black Friday + they purchased another $28,000,000 at 160, and still the price went up. + The financial and commercial interests of the country were in panic; but + the pool persevered in its effort to corner gold, with a profit of many + millions contingent on success. Yielding to frantic requests, President + Grant, who returned to Washington, caused Secretary Boutwell, of the + Treasury, to throw $4,000,000 of gold into the market. Relief was + instantaneous, the corner was broken, but the harm had been done. Edison's + remarks shed a vivid side-light on this extraordinary episode: "On Black + Friday," he says, "we had a very exciting time with the indicators. The + Gould and Fisk crowd had cornered gold, and had run the quotations up + faster than the indicator could follow. The indicator was composed of + several wheels; on the circumference of each wheel were the numerals; and + one wheel had fractions. It worked in the same way as an ordinary counter; + one wheel made ten revolutions, and at the tenth it advanced the adjacent + wheel; and this in its turn having gone ten revolutions, advanced the next + wheel, and so on. On the morning of Black Friday the indicator was quoting + 150 premium, whereas the bids by Gould's agents in the Gold Room were 165 + for five millions or any part. We had a paper-weight at the transmitter + (to speed it up), and by one o'clock reached the right quotation. The + excitement was prodigious. New Street, as well as Broad Street, was jammed + with excited people. I sat on the top of the Western Union telegraph booth + to watch the surging, crazy crowd. One man came to the booth, grabbed a + pencil, and attempted to write a message to Boston. The first stroke went + clear off the blank; he was so excited that he had the operator write the + message for him. Amid great excitement Speyer, the banker, went crazy and + it took five men to hold him; and everybody lost their head. The Western + Union operator came to me and said: 'Shake, Edison, we are O. K. We + haven't got a cent.' I felt very happy because we were poor. These + occasions are very enjoyable to a poor man; but they occur rarely." + </p> + <p> + There is a calm sense of detachment about this description that has been + possessed by the narrator even in the most anxious moments of his career. + He was determined to see all that could be seen, and, quitting his perch + on the telegraph booth, sought the more secluded headquarters of the pool + forces. "A friend of mine was an operator who worked in the office of + Belden & Company, 60 Broadway, which were headquarters for Fisk. Mr. + Gould was up-town in the Erie offices in the Grand Opera House. The firm + on Broad Street, Smith, Gould & Martin, was the other branch. All were + connected with wires. Gould seemed to be in charge, Fisk being the + executive down-town. Fisk wore a velvet corduroy coat and a very peculiar + vest. He was very chipper, and seemed to be light-hearted and happy. + Sitting around the room were about a dozen fine-looking men. All had the + complexion of cadavers. There was a basket of champagne. Hundreds of boys + were rushing in paying checks, all checks being payable to Belden & + Company. When James Brown, of Brown Brothers & Company, broke the + corner by selling five million gold, all payments were repudiated by + Smith, Gould & Martin; but they continued to receive checks at Belden + & Company's for some time, until the Street got wind of the game. + There was some kind of conspiracy with the Government people which I could + not make out, but I heard messages that opened my eyes as to the + ramifications of Wall Street. Gold fell to 132, and it took us all night + to get the indicator back to that quotation. All night long the streets + were full of people. Every broker's office was brilliantly lighted all + night, and all hands were at work. The clearing-house for gold had been + swamped, and all was mixed up. No one knew if he was bankrupt or not." + </p> + <p> + Edison in those days rather liked the modest coffee-shops, and mentions + visiting one. "When on the New York No. 1 wire, that I worked in Boston, + there was an operator named Jerry Borst at the other end. He was a + first-class receiver and rapid sender. We made up a scheme to hold this + wire, so he changed one letter of the alphabet and I soon got used to it; + and finally we changed three letters. If any operator tried to receive + from Borst, he couldn't do it, so Borst and I always worked together. + Borst did less talking than any operator I ever knew. Never having seen + him, I went while in New York to call upon him. I did all the talking. He + would listen, stroke his beard, and say nothing. In the evening I went + over to an all-night lunch-house in Printing House Square in a basement—Oliver's. + Night editors, including Horace Greeley, and Henry Raymond, of the New + York Times, took their midnight lunch there. When I went with Borst and + another operator, they pointed out two or three men who were then + celebrated in the newspaper world. The night was intensely hot and close. + After getting our lunch and upon reaching the sidewalk, Borst opened his + mouth, and said: 'That's a great place; a plate of cakes, a cup of coffee, + and a Russian bath, for ten cents.' This was about fifty per cent. of his + conversation for two days." + </p> + <p> + The work of Edison on the gold-indicator had thrown him into close + relationship with Mr. Franklin L. Pope, the young telegraph engineer then + associated with Doctor Laws, and afterward a distinguished expert and + technical writer, who became President of the American Institute of + Electrical Engineers in 1886. Each recognized the special ability of the + other, and barely a week after the famous events of Black Friday the + announcement of their partnership appeared in the Telegrapher of October + 1, 1869. This was the first "professional card," if it may be so + described, ever issued in America by a firm of electrical engineers, and + is here reproduced. It is probable that the advertisement, one of the + largest in the Telegrapher, and appearing frequently, was not paid for at + full rates, as the publisher, Mr. J. N. Ashley, became a partner in the + firm, and not altogether a "sleeping one" when it came to a division of + profits, which at times were considerable. In order to be nearer his new + friend Edison boarded with Pope at Elizabeth, New Jersey, for some time, + living "the strenuous life" in the performance of his duties. Associated + with Pope and Ashley, he followed up his work on telegraph printers with + marked success. "While with them I devised a printer to print gold + quotations instead of indicating them. The lines were started, and the + whole was sold out to the Gold & Stock Telegraph Company. My + experimenting was all done in the small shop of a Doctor Bradley, located + near the station of the Pennsylvania Railroad in Jersey City. Every night + I left for Elizabeth on the 1 A.M. train, then walked half a mile to Mr. + Pope's house and up at 6 A.M. for breakfast to catch the 7 A.M. train. + This continued all winter, and many were the occasions when I was nearly + frozen in the Elizabeth walk." This Doctor Bradley appears to have been + the first in this country to make electrical measurements of precision + with the galvanometer, but was an old-school experimenter who would work + for years on an instrument without commercial value. He was also extremely + irascible, and when on one occasion the connecting wire would not come out + of one of the binding posts of a new and costly galvanometer, he jerked + the instrument to the floor and then jumped on it. He must have been, + however, a man of originality, as evidenced by his attempt to age whiskey + by electricity, an attempt that has often since been made. "The hobby he + had at the time I was there," says Edison, "was the aging of raw whiskey + by passing strong electric currents through it. He had arranged twenty + jars with platinum electrodes held in place by hard rubber. When all was + ready, he filled the cells with whiskey, connected the battery, locked the + door of the small room in which they were placed, and gave positive orders + that no one should enter. He then disappeared for three days. On the + second day we noticed a terrible smell in the shop, as if from some dead + animal. The next day the doctor arrived and, noticing the smell, asked + what was dead. We all thought something had got into his whiskey-room and + died. He opened it and was nearly overcome. The hard rubber he used was, + of course, full of sulphur, and this being attacked by the nascent + hydrogen, had produced sulphuretted hydrogen gas in torrents, displacing + all of the air in the room. Sulphuretted hydrogen is, as is well known, + the gas given off by rotten eggs." + </p> + <p> + Another glimpse of this period of development is afforded by an + interesting article on the stock-reporting telegraph in the Electrical + World of March 4, 1899, by Mr. Ralph W. Pope, the well-known Secretary of + the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, who had as a youth an + active and intimate connection with that branch of electrical industry. In + the course of his article he mentions the curious fact that Doctor Laws at + first, in receiving quotations from the Exchanges, was so distrustful of + the Morse system that he installed long lines of speaking-tube as a more + satisfactory and safe device than a telegraph wire. As to the relations of + that time Mr. Pope remarks: "The rivalry between the two concerns resulted + in consolidation, Doctor Laws's enterprise being absorbed by the Gold + & Stock Telegraph Company, while the Laws stock printer was relegated + to the scrap-heap and the museum. Competition in the field did not, + however, cease. Messrs. Pope and Edison invented a one-wire printer, and + started a system of 'gold printers' devoted to the recording of gold + quotations and sterling exchange only. It was intended more especially for + importers and exchange brokers, and was furnished at a lower price than + the indicator service.... The building and equipment of private telegraph + lines was also entered upon. This business was also subsequently absorbed + by the Gold & Stock Telegraph Company, which was probably at this time + at the height of its prosperity. The financial organization of the company + was peculiar and worthy of attention. Each subscriber for a machine paid + in $100 for the privilege of securing an instrument. For the service he + paid $25 weekly. In case he retired or failed, he could transfer his + 'right,' and employees were constantly on the alert for purchasable + rights, which could be disposed of at a profit. It was occasionally worth + the profit to convince a man that he did not actually own the machine + which had been placed in his office.... The Western Union Telegraph + Company secured a majority of its stock, and Gen. Marshall Lefferts was + elected president. A private-line department was established, and the + business taken over from Pope, Edison, and Ashley was rapidly enlarged." + </p> + <p> + At this juncture General Lefferts, as President of the Gold & Stock + Telegraph Company, requested Edison to go to work on improving the stock + ticker, furnishing the money; and the well-known "Universal" ticker, in + wide-spread use in its day, was one result. Mr. Edison gives a graphic + picture of the startling effect on his fortunes: "I made a great many + inventions; one was the special ticker used for many years outside of New + York in the large cities. This was made exceedingly simple, as they did + not have the experts we had in New York to handle anything complicated. + The same ticker was used on the London Stock Exchange. After I had made a + great number of inventions and obtained patents, the General seemed + anxious that the matter should be closed up. One day I exhibited and + worked a successful device whereby if a ticker should get out of unison in + a broker's office and commence to print wild figures, it could be brought + to unison from the central station, which saved the labor of many men and + much trouble to the broker. He called me into his office, and said: 'Now, + young man, I want to close up the matter of your inventions. How much do + you think you should receive?' I had made up my mind that, taking into + consideration the time and killing pace I was working at, I should be + entitled to $5000, but could get along with $3000. When the psychological + moment arrived, I hadn't the nerve to name such a large sum, so I said: + 'Well, General, suppose you make me an offer.' Then he said: 'How would + $40,000 strike you?' This caused me to come as near fainting as I ever + got. I was afraid he would hear my heart beat. I managed to say that I + thought it was fair. 'All right, I will have a contract drawn; come around + in three days and sign it, and I will give you the money.' I arrived on + time, but had been doing some considerable thinking on the subject. The + sum seemed to be very large for the amount of work, for at that time I + determined the value by the time and trouble, and not by what the + invention was worth to others. I thought there was something unreal about + it. However, the contract was handed to me. I signed without reading it." + Edison was then handed the first check he had ever received, one for + $40,000 drawn on the Bank of New York, at the corner of William and Wall + Streets. On going to the bank and passing in the check at the wicket of + the paying teller, some brief remarks were made to him, which in his + deafness he did not understand. The check was handed back to him, and + Edison, fancying for a moment that in some way he had been cheated, went + outside "to the large steps to let the cold sweat evaporate." He then went + back to the General, who, with his secretary, had a good laugh over the + matter, told him the check must be endorsed, and sent with him a young man + to identify him. The ceremony of identification performed with the paying + teller, who was quite merry over the incident, Edison was given the amount + in bundles of small bills "until there certainly seemed to be one cubic + foot." Unaware that he was the victim of a practical joke, Edison + proceeded gravely to stow away the money in his overcoat pockets and all + his other pockets. He then went to Newark and sat up all night with the + money for fear it might be stolen. Once more he sought help next morning, + when the General laughed heartily, and, telling the clerk that the joke + must not be carried any further, enabled him to deposit the currency in + the bank and open an account. + </p> + <p> + Thus in an inconceivably brief time had Edison passed from poverty to + independence; made a deep impression as to his originality and ability on + important people, and brought out valuable inventions; lifting himself at + one bound out of the ruck of mediocrity, and away from the deadening + drudgery of the key. Best of all he was enterprising, one of the leaders + and pioneers for whom the world is always looking; and, to use his own + criticism of himself, he had "too sanguine a temperament to keep money in + solitary confinement." With quiet self-possession he seized his + opportunity, began to buy machinery, rented a shop and got work for it. + Moving quickly into a larger shop, Nos. 10 and 12 Ward Street, Newark, New + Jersey, he secured large orders from General Lefferts to build stock + tickers, and employed fifty men. As business increased he put on a night + force, and was his own foreman on both shifts. Half an hour of sleep three + or four times in the twenty-four hours was all he needed in those days, + when one invention succeeded another with dazzling rapidity, and when he + worked with the fierce, eruptive energy of a great volcano, throwing out + new ideas incessantly with spectacular effect on the arts to which they + related. It has always been a theory with Edison that we sleep altogether + too much; but on the other hand he never, until long past fifty, knew or + practiced the slightest moderation in work or in the use of strong coffee + and black cigars. He has, moreover, while of tender and kindly + disposition, never hesitated to use men up as freely as a Napoleon or + Grant; seeing only the goal of a complete invention or perfected device, + to attain which all else must become subsidiary. He gives a graphic + picture of his first methods as a manufacturer: "Nearly all my men were on + piece work, and I allowed them to make good wages, and never cut until the + pay became absurdly high as they got more expert. I kept no books. I had + two hooks. All the bills and accounts I owed I jabbed on one hook; and + memoranda of all owed to myself I put on the other. When some of the bills + fell due, and I couldn't deliver tickers to get a supply of money, I gave + a note. When the notes were due, a messenger came around from the bank + with the note and a protest pinned to it for $1.25. Then I would go to New + York and get an advance, or pay the note if I had the money. This method + of giving notes for my accounts and having all notes protested I kept up + over two years, yet my credit was fine. Every store I traded with was + always glad to furnish goods, perhaps in amazed admiration of my system of + doing business, which was certainly new." After a while Edison got a + bookkeeper, whose vagaries made him look back with regret on the earlier, + primitive method. "The first three months I had him go over the books to + find out how much we had made. He reported $3000. I gave a supper to some + of my men to celebrate this, only to be told two days afterward that he + had made a mistake, and that we had lost $500; and then a few days after + that he came to me again and said he was all mixed up, and now found that + we had made over $7000." Edison changed bookkeepers, but never thereafter + counted anything real profit until he had paid all his debts and had the + profits in the bank. + </p> + <p> + The factory work at this time related chiefly to stock tickers, + principally the "Universal," of which at one time twelve hundred were in + use. Edison's connection with this particular device was very close while + it lasted. In a review of the ticker art, Mr. Callahan stated, with rather + grudging praise, that "a ticker at the present time (1901) would be + considered as impracticable and unsalable if it were not provided with a + unison device," and he goes on to remark: "The first unison on stock + tickers was one used on the Laws printer. [2] It was a crude and + unsatisfactory piece of mechanism and necessitated doubling of the battery + in order to bring it into action. It was short-lived. The Edison unison + comprised a lever with a free end travelling in a spiral or worm on the + type-wheel shaft until it met a pin at the end of the worm, thus + obstructing the shaft and leaving the type-wheels at the zero-point until + released by the printing lever. This device is too well known to require a + further description. It is not applicable to any instrument using two + independently moving type-wheels; but on nearly if not all other + instruments will be found in use." The stock ticker has enjoyed the + devotion of many brilliant inventors—G. M. Phelps, H. Van + Hoevenbergh, A. A. Knudson, G. B. Scott, S. D. Field, John Burry—and + remains in extensive use as an appliance for which no substitute or + competitor has been found. In New York the two great stock exchanges have + deemed it necessary to own and operate a stock-ticker service for the sole + benefit of their members; and down to the present moment the process of + improvement has gone on, impelled by the increasing volume of business to + be reported. It is significant of Edison's work, now dimmed and overlaid + by later advances, that at the very outset he recognized the vital + importance of interchangeability in the construction of this delicate and + sensitive apparatus. But the difficulties of these early days were almost + insurmountable. Mr. R. W. Pope says of the "Universal" machines that they + were simple and substantial and generally satisfactory, but adds: "These + instruments were supposed to have been made with interchangeable parts; + but as a matter of fact the instances in which these parts would fit were + very few. The instruction-book prepared for the use of inspectors stated + that 'The parts should not be tinkered nor bent, as they are accurately + made and interchangeable.' The difficulties encountered in fitting them + properly doubtless gave rise to a story that Mr. Edison had stated that + there were three degrees of interchangeability. This was interpreted to + mean: First, the parts will fit; second, they will almost fit; third, they + do not fit, and can't be made to fit." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 2: This I invented as well.—T. A. E.] +</pre> + <p> + This early shop affords an illustration of the manner in which Edison has + made a deep impression on the personnel of the electrical arts. At a + single bench there worked three men since rich or prominent. One was + Sigmund Bergmann, for a time partner with Edison in his lighting + developments in the United States, and now head and principal owner of + electrical works in Berlin employing ten thousand men. The next man + adjacent was John Kruesi, afterward engineer of the great General Electric + Works at Schenectady. A third was Schuckert, who left the bench to settle + up his father's little estate at Nuremberg, stayed there and founded + electrical factories, which became the third largest in Germany, their + proprietor dying very wealthy. "I gave them a good training as to working + hours and hustling," says their quondam master; and this is equally true + as applied to many scores of others working in companies bearing the + Edison name or organized under Edison patents. It is curiously significant + in this connection that of the twenty-one presidents of the national + society, the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, founded in 1884, + eight have been intimately associated with Edison—namely, Norvin + Green and F. L. Pope, as business colleagues of the days of which we now + write; while Messrs. Frank J. Sprague, T. C. Martin, A. E. Kennelly, S. S. + Wheeler, John W. Lieb, Jr., and Louis A. Ferguson have all been at one + time or another in the Edison employ. The remark was once made that if a + famous American teacher sat at one end of a log and a student at the other + end, the elements of a successful university were present. It is equally + true that in Edison and the many men who have graduated from his stern + school of endeavor, America has had its foremost seat of electrical + engineering. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII + </h2> + <h3> + AUTOMATIC, DUPLEX, AND QUADRUPLEX TELEGRAPHY + </h3> + <p> + WORK of various kinds poured in upon the young manufacturer, busy also + with his own schemes and inventions, which soon began to follow so many + distinct lines of inquiry that it ceases to be easy or necessary for the + historian to treat them all in chronological sequence. Some notion of his + ceaseless activity may be formed from the fact that he started no fewer + than three shops in Newark during 1870-71, and while directing these was + also engaged by the men who controlled the Automatic Telegraph Company of + New York, which had a circuit to Washington, to help it out of its + difficulties. "Soon after starting the large shop (10 and 12 Ward Street, + Newark), I rented shop-room to the inventor of a new rifle. I think it was + the Berdan. In any event, it was a rifle which was subsequently adopted by + the British Army. The inventor employed a tool-maker who was the finest + and best tool-maker I had ever seen. I noticed that he worked pretty near + the whole of the twenty-four hours. This kind of application I was looking + for. He was getting $21.50 per week, and was also paid for overtime. I + asked him if he could run the shop. 'I don't know; try me!' he said. 'All + right, I will give you $60 per week to run both shifts.' He went at it. + His executive ability was greater than that of any other man I have yet + seen. His memory was prodigious, conversation laconic, and movements + rapid. He doubled the production inside three months, without materially + increasing the pay-roll, by increasing the cutting speeds of tools, and by + the use of various devices. When in need of rest he would lie down on a + work-bench, sleep twenty or thirty minutes, and wake up fresh. As this was + just what I could do, I naturally conceived a great pride in having such a + man in charge of my work. But almost everything has trouble connected with + it. He disappeared one day, and although I sent men everywhere that it was + likely he could be found, he was not discovered. After two weeks he came + into the factory in a terrible condition as to clothes and face. He sat + down and, turning to me, said: 'Edison, it's no use, this is the third + time; I can't stand prosperity. Put my salary back and give me a job.' I + was very sorry to learn that it was whiskey that spoiled such a career. I + gave him an inferior job and kept him for a long time." + </p> + <p> + Edison had now entered definitely upon that career as an inventor which + has left so deep an imprint on the records of the United States Patent + Office, where from his first patent in 1869 up to the summer of 1910 no + fewer than 1328 separate patents have been applied for in his name, + averaging thirty-two every year, and one about every eleven days; with a + substantially corresponding number issued. The height of this inventive + activity was attained about 1882, in which year no fewer than 141 patents + were applied for, and seventy-five granted to him, or nearly nine times as + many as in 1876, when invention as a profession may be said to have been + adopted by this prolific genius. It will be understood, of course, that + even these figures do not represent the full measure of actual invention, + as in every process and at every step there were many discoveries that + were not brought to patent registration, but remained "trade secrets." And + furthermore, that in practically every case the actual patented invention + followed from one to a dozen or more gradually developing forms of the + same idea. + </p> + <p> + An Englishman named George Little had brought over a system of automatic + telegraphy which worked well on a short line, but was a failure when put + upon the longer circuits for which automatic methods are best adapted. The + general principle involved in automatic or rapid telegraphs, except the + photographic ones, is that of preparing the message in advance, for + dispatch, by perforating narrow strips of paper with holes—work + which can be done either by hand-punches or by typewriter apparatus. A + certain group of perforations corresponds to a Morse group of dots and + dashes for a letter of the alphabet. When the tape thus made ready is run + rapidly through a transmitting machine, electrical contact occurs wherever + there is a perforation, permitting the current from the battery to flow + into the line and thus transmit signals correspondingly. At the distant + end these signals are received sometimes on an ink-writing recorder as + dots and dashes, or even as typewriting letters; but in many of the + earlier systems, like that of Bain, the record at the higher rates of + speed was effected by chemical means, a tell-tale stain being made on the + travelling strip of paper by every spurt of incoming current. Solutions of + potassium iodide were frequently used for this purpose, giving a sharp, + blue record, but fading away too rapidly. + </p> + <p> + The Little system had perforating apparatus operated by electromagnets; + its transmitting machine was driven by a small electromagnetic motor; and + the record was made by electrochemical decomposition, the writing member + being a minute platinum roller instead of the more familiar iron stylus. + Moreover, a special type of wire had been put up for the single circuit of + two hundred and eighty miles between New York and Washington. This is + believed to have been the first "compound" wire made for telegraphic or + other signalling purposes, the object being to secure greater lightness + with textile strength and high conductivity. It had a steel core, with a + copper ribbon wound spirally around it, and tinned to the core wire. But + the results obtained were poor, and in their necessity the parties in + interest turned to Edison. + </p> + <p> + Mr. E. H. Johnson tells of the conditions: "Gen. W. J. Palmer and some New + York associates had taken up the Little automatic system and had expended + quite a sum in its development, when, thinking they had reduced it to + practice, they got Tom Scott, of the Pennsylvania Railroad to send his + superintendent of telegraph over to look into and report upon it. Of + course he turned it down. The syndicate was appalled at this report, and + in this extremity General Palmer thought of the man who had impressed him + as knowing it all by the telling of telegraphic tales as a means of + whiling away lonesome hours on the plains of Colorado, where they were + associated in railroad-building. So this man—it was I—was sent + for to come to New York and assuage their grief if possible. My report was + that the system was sound fundamentally, that it contained the germ of a + good thing, but needed working out. Associated with General Palmer was one + Col. Josiah C. Reiff, then Eastern bond agent for the Kansas Pacific + Railroad. The Colonel was always resourceful, and didn't fail in this + case. He knew of a young fellow who was doing some good work for Marshall + Lefferts, and who it was said was a genius at invention, and a very fiend + for work. His name was Edison, and he had a shop out at Newark, New + Jersey. He came and was put in my care for the purpose of a mutual + exchange of ideas and for a report by me as to his competency in the + matter. This was my introduction to Edison. He confirmed my views of the + automatic system. He saw its possibilities, as well as the chief obstacles + to be overcome—viz., the sluggishness of the wire, together with the + need of mechanical betterment of the apparatus; and he agreed to take the + job on one condition—namely, that Johnson would stay and help, as + 'he was a man with ideas.' Mr. Johnson was accordingly given three months' + leave from Colorado railroad-building, and has never seen Colorado since." + </p> + <p> + Applying himself to the difficulties with wonted energy, Edison devised + new apparatus, and solved the problem to such an extent that he and his + assistants succeeded in transmitting and recording one thousand words per + minute between New York and Washington, and thirty-five hundred words per + minute to Philadelphia. Ordinary manual transmission by key is not in + excess of forty to fifty words a minute. Stated very briefly, Edison's + principal contribution to the commercial development of the automatic was + based on the observation that in a line of considerable length electrical + impulses become enormously extended, or sluggish, due to a phenomenon + known as self-induction, which with ordinary Morse work is in a measure + corrected by condensers. But in the automatic the aim was to deal with + impulses following each other from twenty-five to one hundred times as + rapidly as in Morse lines, and to attempt to receive and record + intelligibly such a lightning-like succession of signals would have seemed + impossible. But Edison discovered that by utilizing a shunt around the + receiving instrument, with a soft iron core, the self-induction would + produce a momentary and instantaneous reversal of the current at the end + of each impulse, and thereby give an absolutely sharp definition to each + signal. This discovery did away entirely with sluggishness, and made it + possible to secure high speeds over lines of comparatively great lengths. + But Edison's work on the automatic did not stop with this basic + suggestion, for he took up and perfected the mechanical construction of + the instruments, as well as the perforators, and also suggested numerous + electrosensitive chemicals for the receivers, so that the automatic + telegraph, almost entirely by reason of his individual work, was placed on + a plane of commercial practicability. The long line of patents secured by + him in this art is an interesting exhibit of the development of a germ to + a completed system, not, as is usually the case, by numerous inventors + working over considerable periods of time, but by one man evolving the + successive steps at a white heat of activity. + </p> + <p> + This system was put in commercial operation, but the company, now + encouraged, was quite willing to allow Edison to work out his idea of an + automatic that would print the message in bold Roman letters instead of in + dots and dashes; with consequent gain in speed in delivery of the message + after its receipt in the operating-room, it being obviously necessary in + the case of any message received in Morse characters to copy it in script + before delivery to the recipient. A large shop was rented in Newark, + equipped with $25,000 worth of machinery, and Edison was given full + charge. Here he built their original type of apparatus, as improved, and + also pushed his experiments on the letter system so far that at a test, + between New York and Philadelphia, three thousand words were sent in one + minute and recorded in Roman type. Mr. D. N. Craig, one of the early + organizers of the Associated Press, became interested in this company, + whose president was Mr. George Harrington, formerly Assistant Secretary of + the United States Treasury. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Craig brought with him at this time—the early seventies—from + Milwaukee a Mr. Sholes, who had a wooden model of a machine to which had + been given the then new and unfamiliar name of "typewriter." Craig was + interested in the machine, and put the model in Edison's hands to perfect. + "This typewriter proved a difficult thing," says Edison, "to make + commercial. The alignment of the letters was awful. One letter would be + one-sixteenth of an inch above the others; and all the letters wanted to + wander out of line. I worked on it till the machine gave fair results. [3] + Some were made and used in the office of the Automatic company. Craig was + very sanguine that some day all business letters would be written on a + typewriter. He died before that took place; but it gradually made its way. + The typewriter I got into commercial shape is now known as the Remington. + About this time I got an idea I could devise an apparatus by which four + messages could simultaneously be sent over a single wire without + interfering with each other. I now had five shops, and with experimenting + on this new scheme I was pretty busy; at least I did not have ennui." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 3: See illustration on opposite page, showing + reproduction of the work done with this machine.] +</pre> + <p> + A very interesting picture of Mr. Edison at this time is furnished by Mr. + Patrick B. Delany, a well-known inventor in the field of automatic and + multiplex telegraphy, who at that time was a chief operator of the + Franklin Telegraph Company at Philadelphia. His remark about Edison that + "his ingenuity inspired confidence, and wavering financiers stiffened up + when it became known that he was to develop the automatic" is a noteworthy + evidence of the manner in which the young inventor had already gained a + firm footing. He continues: "Edward H. Johnson was brought on from the + Denver & Rio Grande Railway to assist in the practical introduction of + automatic telegraphy on a commercial basis, and about this time, in 1872, + I joined the enterprise. Fairly good results were obtained between New + York and Washington, and Edison, indifferent to theoretical difficulties, + set out to prove high speeds between New York and Charleston, South + Carolina, the compound wire being hitched up to one of the Southern & + Atlantic wires from Washington to Charleston for the purpose of + experimentation. Johnson and I went to the Charleston end to carry out + Edison's plans, which were rapidly unfolded by telegraph every night from + a loft on lower Broadway, New York. We could only get the wire after all + business was cleared, usually about midnight, and for months, in the quiet + hours, that wire was subjected to more electrical acrobatics than any + other wire ever experienced. When the experiments ended, Edison's system + was put into regular commercial operation between New York and Washington; + and did fine work. If the single wire had not broken about every other + day, the venture would have been a financial success; but moisture got in + between the copper ribbon and the steel core, setting up galvanic action + which made short work of the steel. The demonstration was, however, + sufficiently successful to impel Jay Gould to contract to pay about + $4,000,000 in stock for the patents. The contract was never completed so + far as the $4,000,000 were concerned, but Gould made good use of it in + getting control of the Western Union." + </p> + <p> + One of the most important persons connected with the automatic enterprise + was Mr. George Harrington, to whom we have above referred, and with whom + Mr. Edison entered into close confidential relations, so that the + inventions made were held jointly, under a partnership deed covering "any + inventions or improvements that may be useful or desired in automatic + telegraphy." Mr. Harrington was assured at the outset by Edison that while + the Little perforator would give on the average only seven or eight words + per minute, which was not enough for commercial purposes, he could devise + one giving fifty or sixty words, and that while the Little solution for + the receiving tape cost $15 to $17 per gallon, he could furnish a ferric + solution costing only five or six cents per gallon. In every respect + Edison "made good," and in a short time the system was a success, "Mr. + Little having withdrawn his obsolete perforator, his ineffective + resistance, his costly chemical solution, to give place to Edison's + perforator, Edison's resistance and devices, and Edison's solution costing + a few cents per gallon. But," continues Mr. Harrington, in a memorable + affidavit, "the inventive efforts of Mr. Edison were not confined to + automatic telegraphy, nor did they cease with the opening of that line to + Washington." They all led up to the quadruplex. + </p> + <p> + Flattered by their success, Messrs. Harrington and Reiff, who owned with + Edison the foreign patents for the new automatic system, entered into an + arrangement with the British postal telegraph authorities for a trial of + the system in England, involving its probable adoption if successful. + Edison was sent to England to make the demonstration, in 1873, reporting + there to Col. George E. Gouraud, who had been an associate in the United + States Treasury with Mr. Harrington, and was now connected with the new + enterprise. With one small satchel of clothes, three large boxes of + instruments, and a bright fellow-telegrapher named Jack Wright, he took + voyage on the Jumping Java, as she was humorously known, of the Cunard + line. The voyage was rough and the little Java justified her reputation by + jumping all over the ocean. "At the table," says Edison, "there were never + more than ten or twelve people. I wondered at the time how it could pay to + run an ocean steamer with so few people; but when we got into calm water + and could see the green fields, I was astounded to see the number of + people who appeared. There were certainly two or three hundred. I learned + afterward that they were mostly going to the Vienna Exposition. Only two + days could I get on deck, and on one of these a gentleman had a bad scalp + wound from being thrown against the iron wall of a small smoking-room + erected over a freight hatch." + </p> + <p> + Arrived in London, Edison set up his apparatus at the Telegraph Street + headquarters, and sent his companion to Liverpool with the instruments for + that end. The condition of the test was that he was to send from Liverpool + and receive in London, and to record at the rate of one thousand words per + minute, five hundred words to be sent every half hour for six hours. + Edison was given a wire and batteries to operate with, but a preliminary + test soon showed that he was going to fail. Both wire and batteries were + poor, and one of the men detailed by the authorities to watch the test + remarked quietly, in a friendly way: "You are not going to have much show. + They are going to give you an old Bridgewater Canal wire that is so poor + we don't work it, and a lot of 'sand batteries' at Liverpool." [4] The + situation was rather depressing to the young American thus encountering, + for the first time, the stolid conservatism and opposition to change that + characterizes so much of official life and methods in Europe. "I thanked + him," says Edison, "and hoped to reciprocate somehow. I knew I was in a + hole. I had been staying at a little hotel in Covent Garden called the + Hummums! and got nothing but roast beef and flounders, and my imagination + was getting into a coma. What I needed was pastry. That night I found a + French pastry shop in High Holborn Street and filled up. My imagination + got all right. Early in the morning I saw Gouraud, stated my case, and + asked if he would stand for the purchase of a powerful battery to send to + Liverpool. He said 'Yes.' I went immediately to Apps on the Strand and + asked if he had a powerful battery. He said he hadn't; that all that he + had was Tyndall's Royal Institution battery, which he supposed would not + serve. I saw it—one hundred cells—and getting the price—one + hundred guineas—hurried to Gouraud. He said 'Go ahead.' I + telegraphed to the man in Liverpool. He came on, got the battery to + Liverpool, set up and ready, just two hours before the test commenced. One + of the principal things that made the system a success was that the line + was put to earth at the sending end through a magnet, and the extra + current from this, passed to the line, served to sharpen the recording + waves. This new battery was strong enough to pass a powerful current + through the magnet without materially diminishing the strength of the line + current." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 4: The sand battery is now obsolete. In this type, + the cell containing the elements was filled with sand, which + was kept moist with an electrolyte.] +</pre> + <p> + The test under these more favorable circumstances was a success. "The + record was as perfect as copper plate, and not a single remark was made in + the 'time lost' column." Edison was now asked if he thought he could get a + greater speed through submarine cables with this system than with the + regular methods, and replied that he would like a chance to try it. For + this purpose, twenty-two hundred miles of Brazilian cable then stored + under water in tanks at the Greenwich works of the Telegraph Construction + & Maintenance Company, near London, was placed at his disposal from 8 + P.M. until 6 A.M. "This just suited me, as I preferred night-work. I got + my apparatus down and set up, and then to get a preliminary idea of what + the distortion of the signal would be, I sent a single dot, which should + have been recorded upon my automatic paper by a mark about + one-thirty-second of an inch long. Instead of that it was twenty-seven + feet long! If I ever had any conceit, it vanished from my boots up. I + worked on this cable more than two weeks, and the best I could do was two + words per minute, which was only one-seventh of what the guaranteed speed + of the cable should be when laid. What I did not know at the time was that + a coiled cable, owing to induction, was infinitely worse than when laid + out straight, and that my speed was as good as, if not better than, with + the regular system; but no one told me this." While he was engaged on + these tests Colonel Gouraud came down one night to visit him at the lonely + works, spent a vigil with him, and toward morning wanted coffee. There was + only one little inn near by, frequented by longshoremen and employees from + the soap-works and cement-factories—a rough lot—and there at + daybreak they went as soon as the other customers had left for work. "The + place had a bar and six bare tables, and was simply infested with roaches. + The only things that I ever could get were coffee made from burnt bread, + with brown molasses-cake. I ordered these for Gouraud. The taste of the + coffee, the insects, etc., were too much. He fainted. I gave him a big + dose of gin, and this revived him. He went back to the works and waited + until six when the day men came, and telegraphed for a carriage. He lost + all interest in the experiments after that, and I was ordered back to + America." Edison states, however, that the automatic was finally adopted + in England and used for many years; indeed, is still in use there. But + they took whatever was needed from his system, and he "has never had a + cent from them." + </p> + <p> + Arduous work was at once resumed at home on duplex and quadruplex + telegraphy, just as though there had been no intermission or + discouragement over dots twenty-seven feet long. A clue to his activity is + furnished in the fact that in 1872 he had applied for thirty-eight patents + in the class of telegraphy, and twenty-five in 1873; several of these + being for duplex methods, on which he had experimented. The earlier + apparatus had been built several years prior to this, as shown by a + curious little item of news that appeared in the Telegrapher of January + 30, 1869: "T. A. Edison has resigned his situation in the Western Union + office, Boston, and will devote his time to bringing out his inventions." + Oh, the supreme, splendid confidence of youth! Six months later, as we + have seen, he had already made his mark, and the same journal, in October, + 1869, could say: "Mr. Edison is a young man of the highest order of + mechanical talent, combined with good scientific electrical knowledge and + experience. He has already invented and patented a number of valuable and + useful inventions, among which may be mentioned the best instrument for + double transmission yet brought out." Not bad for a novice of twenty-two. + It is natural, therefore, after his intervening work on indicators, stock + tickers, automatic telegraphs, and typewriters, to find him harking back + to duplex telegraphy, if, indeed, he can be said to have dropped it in the + interval. It has always been one of the characteristic features of + Edison's method of inventing that work in several lines has gone forward + at the same time. No one line of investigation has ever been enough to + occupy his thoughts fully; or to express it otherwise, he has found rest + in turning from one field of work to another, having absolutely no + recreations or hobbies, and not needing them. It may also be said that, + once entering it, Mr. Edison has never abandoned any field of work. He may + change the line of attack; he may drop the subject for a time; but sooner + or later the note-books or the Patent Office will bear testimony to the + reminiscent outcropping of latent thought on the matter. His attention has + shifted chronologically, and by process of evolution, from one problem to + another, and some results are found to be final; but the interest of the + man in the thing never dies out. No one sees more vividly than he the fact + that in the interplay of the arts one industry shapes and helps another, + and that no invention lives to itself alone. + </p> + <p> + The path to the quadruplex lay through work on the duplex, which, + suggested first by Moses G. Farmer in 1852, had been elaborated by many + ingenious inventors, notably in this country by Stearns, before Edison + once again applied his mind to it. The different methods of such multiple + transmission—namely, the simultaneous dispatch of the two + communications in opposite directions over the same wire, or the dispatch + of both at once in the same direction—gave plenty of play to + ingenuity. Prescott's Elements of the Electric Telegraph, a standard work + in its day, described "a method of simultaneous transmission invented by + T. A. Edison, of New Jersey, in 1873," and says of it: "Its peculiarity + consists in the fact that the signals are transmitted in one direction by + reversing the polarity of a constant current, and in the opposite + direction by increasing or decreasing the strength of the same current." + Herein lay the germ of the Edison quadruplex. It is also noted that "In + 1874 Edison invented a method of simultaneous transmission by induced + currents, which has given very satisfactory results in experimental + trials." Interest in the duplex as a field of invention dwindled, however, + as the quadruplex loomed up, for while the one doubled the capacity of a + circuit, the latter created three "phantom wires," and thus quadruplexed + the working capacity of any line to which it was applied. As will have + been gathered from the above, the principle embodied in the quadruplex is + that of working over the line with two currents from each end that differ + from each other in strength or nature, so that they will affect only + instruments adapted to respond to just such currents and no others; and by + so arranging the receiving apparatus as not to be affected by the currents + transmitted from its own end of the line. Thus by combining instruments + that respond only to variation in the strength of current from the distant + station, with instruments that respond only to the change in the direction + of current from the distant station, and by grouping a pair of these at + each end of the line, the quadruplex is the result. Four sending and four + receiving operators are kept busy at each end, or eight in all. Aside from + other material advantages, it is estimated that at least from $15,000,000 + to $20,000,000 has been saved by the Edison quadruplex merely in the cost + of line construction in America. + </p> + <p> + The quadruplex has not as a rule the same working efficiency that four + separate wires have. This is due to the fact that when one of the + receiving operators is compelled to "break" the sending operator for any + reason, the "break" causes the interruption of the work of eight + operators, instead of two, as would be the case on a single wire. The + working efficiency of the quadruplex, therefore, with the apparatus in + good working condition, depends entirely upon the skill of the operators + employed to operate it. But this does not reflect upon or diminish the + ingenuity required for its invention. Speaking of the problem involved, + Edison said some years later to Mr. Upton, his mathematical assistant, + that "he always considered he was only working from one room to another. + Thus he was not confused by the amount of wire and the thought of + distance." + </p> + <p> + The immense difficulties of reducing such a system to practice may be + readily conceived, especially when it is remembered that the "line" + itself, running across hundreds of miles of country, is subject to all + manner of atmospheric conditions, and varies from moment to moment in its + ability to carry current, and also when it is borne in mind that the + quadruplex requires at each end of the line a so-called "artificial line," + which must have the exact resistance of the working line and must be + varied with the variations in resistance of the working line. At this + juncture other schemes were fermenting in his brain; but the quadruplex + engrossed him. "This problem was of most difficult and complicated kind, + and I bent all my energies toward its solution. It required a peculiar + effort of the mind, such as the imagining of eight different things moving + simultaneously on a mental plane, without anything to demonstrate their + efficiency." It is perhaps hardly to be wondered at that when notified he + would have to pay 12 1/2 per cent. extra if his taxes in Newark were not + at once paid, he actually forgot his own name when asked for it suddenly + at the City Hall, lost his place in the line, and, the fatal hour + striking, had to pay the surcharge after all! + </p> + <p> + So important an invention as the quadruplex could not long go begging, but + there were many difficulties connected with its introduction, some of + which are best described in Mr. Edison's own words: "Around 1873 the + owners of the Automatic Telegraph Company commenced negotiations with Jay + Gould for the purchase of the wires between New York and Washington, and + the patents for the system, then in successful operation. Jay Gould at + that time controlled the Atlantic & Pacific Telegraph Company, and was + competing with the Western Union and endeavoring to depress Western Union + stock on the Exchange. About this time I invented the quadruplex. I wanted + to interest the Western Union Telegraph Company in it, with a view of + selling it, but was unsuccessful until I made an arrangement with the + chief electrician of the company, so that he could be known as a joint + inventor and receive a portion of the money. At that time I was very short + of money, and needed it more than glory. This electrician appeared to want + glory more than money, so it was an easy trade. I brought my apparatus + over and was given a separate room with a marble-tiled floor, which, + by-the-way, was a very hard kind of floor to sleep on, and started in + putting on the finishing touches. + </p> + <p> + "After two months of very hard work, I got a detail at regular times of + eight operators, and we got it working nicely from one room to another + over a wire which ran to Albany and back. Under certain conditions of + weather, one side of the quadruplex would work very shakily, and I had not + succeeded in ascertaining the cause of the trouble. On a certain day, when + there was a board meeting of the company, I was to make an exhibition + test. The day arrived. I had picked the best operators in New York, and + they were familiar with the apparatus. I arranged that if a storm + occurred, and the bad side got shaky, they should do the best they could + and draw freely on their imaginations. They were sending old messages. + About 1, o'clock everything went wrong, as there was a storm somewhere + near Albany, and the bad side got shaky. Mr. Orton, the president, and Wm. + H. Vanderbilt and the other directors came in. I had my heart trying to + climb up around my oesophagus. I was paying a sheriff five dollars a day + to withhold judgment which had been entered against me in a case which I + had paid no attention to; and if the quadruplex had not worked before the + president, I knew I was to have trouble and might lose my machinery. The + New York Times came out next day with a full account. I was given $5000 as + part payment for the invention, which made me easy, and I expected the + whole thing would be closed up. But Mr. Orton went on an extended tour + just about that time. I had paid for all the experiments on the quadruplex + and exhausted the money, and I was again in straits. In the mean time I + had introduced the apparatus on the lines of the company, where it was + very successful. + </p> + <p> + "At that time the general superintendent of the Western Union was Gen. T. + T. Eckert (who had been Assistant Secretary of War with Stanton). Eckert + was secretly negotiating with Gould to leave the Western Union and take + charge of the Atlantic & Pacific—Gould's company. One day Eckert + called me into his office and made inquiries about money matters. I told + him Mr. Orton had gone off and left me without means, and I was in + straits. He told me I would never get another cent, but that he knew a man + who would buy it. I told him of my arrangement with the electrician, and + said I could not sell it as a whole to anybody; but if I got enough for + it, I would sell all my interest in any SHARE I might have. He seemed to + think his party would agree to this. I had a set of quadruplex over in my + shop, 10 and 12 Ward Street, Newark, and he arranged to bring him over + next evening to see the apparatus. So the next morning Eckert came over + with Jay Gould and introduced him to me. This was the first time I had + ever seen him. I exhibited and explained the apparatus, and they departed. + The next day Eckert sent for me, and I was taken up to Gould's house, + which was near the Windsor Hotel, Fifth Avenue. In the basement he had an + office. It was in the evening, and we went in by the servants' entrance, + as Eckert probably feared that he was watched. Gould started in at once + and asked me how much I wanted. I said: 'Make me an offer.' Then he said: + 'I will give you $30,000.' I said: 'I will sell any interest I may have + for that money,' which was something more than I thought I could get. The + next morning I went with Gould to the office of his lawyers, Sherman & + Sterling, and received a check for $30,000, with a remark by Gould that I + had got the steamboat Plymouth Rock, as he had sold her for $30,000 and + had just received the check. There was a big fight on between Gould's + company and the Western Union, and this caused more litigation. The + electrician, on account of the testimony involved, lost his glory. The + judge never decided the case, but went crazy a few months afterward." It + was obviously a characteristically shrewd move on the part of Mr. Gould to + secure an interest in the quadruplex, as a factor in his campaign against + the Western Union, and as a decisive step toward his control of that + system, by the subsequent merger that included not only the Atlantic & + Pacific Telegraph Company, but the American Union Telegraph Company. + </p> + <p> + Nor was Mr. Gould less appreciative of the value of Edison's automatic + system. Referring to matters that will be taken up later in the narrative, + Edison says: "After this Gould wanted me to help install the automatic + system in the Atlantic & Pacific company, of which General Eckert had + been elected president, the company having bought the Automatic Telegraph + Company. I did a lot of work for this company making automatic apparatus + in my shop at Newark. About this time I invented a district messenger + call-box system, and organized a company called the Domestic Telegraph + Company, and started in to install the system in New York. I had great + difficulty in getting subscribers, having tried several canvassers, who, + one after the other, failed to get subscribers. When I was about to give + it up, a test operator named Brown, who was on the Automatic Telegraph + wire between New York and Washington, which passed through my Newark shop, + asked permission to let him try and see if he couldn't get subscribers. I + had very little faith in his ability to get any, but I thought I would + give him a chance, as he felt certain of his ability to succeed. He + started in, and the results were surprising. Within a month he had + procured two hundred subscribers, and the company was a success. I have + never quite understood why six men should fail absolutely, while the + seventh man should succeed. Perhaps hypnotism would account for it. This + company was sold out to the Atlantic & Pacific company." As far back + as 1872, Edison had applied for a patent on district messenger signal + boxes, but it was not issued until January, 1874, another patent being + granted in September of the same year. In this field of telegraph + application, as in others, Edison was a very early comer, his only + predecessor being the fertile and ingenious Callahan, of stock-ticker + fame. The first president of the Gold & Stock Telegraph Company, + Elisha W. Andrews, had resigned in 1870 in order to go to England to + introduce the stock ticker in London. He lived in Englewood, New Jersey, + and the very night he had packed his trunk the house was burglarized. + Calling on his nearest friend the next morning for even a pair of + suspenders, Mr. Andrews was met with regrets of inability, because the + burglars had also been there. A third and fourth friend in the vicinity + was appealed to with the same disheartening reply of a story of wholesale + spoliation. Mr. Callahan began immediately to devise a system of + protection for Englewood; but at that juncture a servant-girl who had been + for many years with a family on the Heights in Brooklyn went mad suddenly + and held an aged widow and her daughter as helpless prisoners for + twenty-four hours without food or water. This incident led to an extension + of the protective idea, and very soon a system was installed in Brooklyn + with one hundred subscribers. Out of this grew in turn the district + messenger system, for it was just as easy to call a messenger as to sound + a fire-alarm or summon the police. To-day no large city in America is + without a service of this character, but its function was sharply limited + by the introduction of the telephone. + </p> + <p> + Returning to the automatic telegraph it is interesting to note that so + long as Edison was associated with it as a supervising providence it did + splendid work, which renders the later neglect of automatic or "rapid + telegraphy" the more remarkable. Reid's standard Telegraph in America + bears astonishing testimony on this point in 1880, as follows: "The + Atlantic & Pacific Telegraph Company had twenty-two automatic + stations. These included the chief cities on the seaboard, Buffalo, + Chicago, and Omaha. The through business during nearly two years was + largely transmitted in this way. Between New York and Boston two thousand + words a minute have been sent. The perforated paper was prepared at the + rate of twenty words per minute. Whatever its demerits this system enabled + the Atlantic & Pacific company to handle a much larger business during + 1875 and 1876 than it could otherwise have done with its limited number of + wires in their then condition." Mr. Reid also notes as a very thorough + test of the perfect practicability of the system, that it handled the + President's message, December 3, 1876, of 12,600 words with complete + success. This long message was filed at Washington at 1.05 and delivered + in New York at 2.07. The first 9000 words were transmitted in forty-five + minutes. The perforated strips were prepared in thirty minutes by ten + persons, and duplicated by nine copyists. But to-day, nearly thirty-five + years later, telegraphy in America is still practically on a basis of hand + transmission! + </p> + <p> + Of this period and his association with Jay Gould, some very interesting + glimpses are given by Edison. "While engaged in putting in the automatic + system, I saw a great deal of Gould, and frequently went uptown to his + office to give information. Gould had no sense of humor. I tried several + times to get off what seemed to me a funny story, but he failed to see any + humor in them. I was very fond of stories, and had a choice lot, always + kept fresh, with which I could usually throw a man into convulsions. One + afternoon Gould started in to explain the great future of the Union + Pacific Railroad, which he then controlled. He got a map, and had an + immense amount of statistics. He kept at it for over four hours, and got + very enthusiastic. Why he should explain to me, a mere inventor, with no + capital or standing, I couldn't make out. He had a peculiar eye, and I + made up my mind that there was a strain of insanity somewhere. This idea + was strengthened shortly afterward when the Western Union raised the + monthly rental of the stock tickers. Gould had one in his house office, + which he watched constantly. This he had removed, to his great + inconvenience, because the price had been advanced a few dollars! He + railed over it. This struck me as abnormal. I think Gould's success was + due to abnormal development. He certainly had one trait that all men must + have who want to succeed. He collected every kind of information and + statistics about his schemes, and had all the data. His connection with + men prominent in official life, of which I was aware, was surprising to + me. His conscience seemed to be atrophied, but that may be due to the fact + that he was contending with men who never had any to be atrophied. He + worked incessantly until 12 or 1 o'clock at night. He took no pride in + building up an enterprise. He was after money, and money only. Whether the + company was a success or a failure mattered not to him. After he had + hammered the Western Union through his opposition company and had tired + out Mr. Vanderbilt, the latter retired from control, and Gould went in and + consolidated his company and controlled the Western Union. He then + repudiated the contract with the Automatic Telegraph people, and they + never received a cent for their wires or patents, and I lost three years + of very hard labor. But I never had any grudge against him, because he was + so able in his line, and as long as my part was successful the money with + me was a secondary consideration. When Gould got the Western Union I knew + no further progress in telegraphy was possible, and I went into other + lines." The truth is that General Eckert was a conservative—even a + reactionary—and being prejudiced like many other American telegraph + managers against "machine telegraphy," threw out all such improvements. + </p> + <p> + The course of electrical history has been variegated by some very + remarkable litigation; but none was ever more extraordinary than that + referred to here as arising from the transfer of the Automatic Telegraph + Company to Mr. Jay Gould and the Atlantic & Pacific Telegraph Company. + The terms accepted by Colonel Reiff from Mr. Gould, on December 30, 1874, + provided that the purchasing telegraph company should increase its capital + to $15,000,000, of which the Automatic interests were to receive + $4,000,000 for their patents, contracts, etc. The stock was then selling + at about 25, and in the later consolidation with the Western Union "went + in" at about 60; so that the real purchase price was not less than + $1,000,000 in cash. There was a private arrangement in writing with Mr. + Gould that he was to receive one-tenth of the "result" to the Automatic + group, and a tenth of the further results secured at home and abroad. Mr. + Gould personally bought up and gave money and bonds for one or two + individual interests on the above basis, including that of Harrington, who + in his representative capacity executed assignments to Mr. Gould. But + payments were then stopped, and the other owners were left without any + compensation, although all that belonged to them in the shape of property + and patents was taken over bodily into Atlantic & Pacific hands, and + never again left them. Attempts at settlement were made in their behalf, + and dragged wearily, due apparently to the fact that the plans were + blocked by General Eckert, who had in some manner taken offence at a + transaction effected without his active participation in all the details. + Edison, who became under the agreement the electrician of the Atlantic + & Pacific Telegraph Company, has testified to the unfriendly attitude + assumed toward him by General Eckert, as president. In a graphic letter + from Menlo Park to Mr. Gould, dated February 2, 1877, Edison makes a most + vigorous and impassioned complaint of his treatment, "which, acting + cumulatively, was a long, unbroken disappointment to me"; and he reminds + Mr. Gould of promises made to him the day the transfer had been effected + of Edison's interest in the quadruplex. The situation was galling to the + busy, high-spirited young inventor, who, moreover, "had to live"; and it + led to his resumption of work for the Western Union Telegraph Company, + which was only too glad to get him back. Meantime, the saddened and + perplexed Automatic group was left unpaid, and it was not until 1906, on a + bill filed nearly thirty years before, that Judge Hazel, in the United + States Circuit Court for the Southern District of New York, found strongly + in favor of the claimants and ordered an accounting. The court held that + there had been a most wrongful appropriation of the patents, including + alike those relating to the automatic, the duplex, and the quadruplex, all + being included in the general arrangement under which Mr. Gould had held + put his tempting bait of $4,000,000. In the end, however, the complainant + had nothing to show for all his struggle, as the master who made the + accounting set the damages at one dollar! + </p> + <p> + Aside from the great value of the quadruplex, saving millions of dollars, + for a share in which Edison received $30,000, the automatic itself is + described as of considerable utility by Sir William Thomson in his juror + report at the Centennial Exposition of 1876, recommending it for award. + This leading physicist of his age, afterward Lord Kelvin, was an adept in + telegraphy, having made the ocean cable talk, and he saw in Edison's + "American Automatic," as exhibited by the Atlantic & Pacific company, + a most meritorious and useful system. With the aid of Mr. E. H. Johnson he + made exhaustive tests, carrying away with him to Glasgow University the + surprising records that he obtained. His official report closes thus: "The + electromagnetic shunt with soft iron core, invented by Mr. Edison, + utilizing Professor Henry's discovery of electromagnetic induction in a + single circuit to produce a momentary reversal of the line current at the + instant when the battery is thrown off and so cut off the chemical marks + sharply at the proper instant, is the electrical secret of the great speed + he has achieved. The main peculiarities of Mr. Edison's automatic + telegraph shortly stated in conclusion are: (1) the perforator; (2) the + contact-maker; (3) the electromagnetic shunt; and (4) the ferric cyanide + of iron solution. It deserves award as a very important step in land + telegraphy." The attitude thus disclosed toward Mr. Edison's work was + never changed, except that admiration grew as fresh inventions were + brought forward. To the day of his death Lord Kelvin remained on terms of + warmest friendship with his American co-laborer, with whose genius he thus + first became acquainted at Philadelphia in the environment of Franklin. + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to give any complete idea of the activity maintained at + the Newark shops during these anxious, harassed years, but the statement + that at one time no fewer than forty-five different inventions were being + worked upon, will furnish some notion of the incandescent activity of the + inventor and his assistants. The hours were literally endless; and upon + one occasion, when the order was in hand for a large quantity of stock + tickers, Edison locked his men in until the job had been finished of + making the machine perfect, and "all the bugs taken out," which meant + sixty hours of unintermitted struggle with the difficulties. Nor were the + problems and inventions all connected with telegraphy. On the contrary, + Edison's mind welcomed almost any new suggestion as a relief from the + regular work in hand. Thus: "Toward the latter part of 1875, in the Newark + shop, I invented a device for multiplying copies of letters, which I sold + to Mr. A. B. Dick, of Chicago, and in the years since it has been + universally introduced throughout the world. It is called the + 'Mimeograph.' I also invented devices for and introduced paraffin paper, + now used universally for wrapping up candy, etc." The mimeograph employs a + pointed stylus, used as in writing with a lead-pencil, which is moved over + a kind of tough prepared paper placed on a finely grooved steel plate. The + writing is thus traced by means of a series of minute perforations in the + sheet, from which, as a stencil, hundreds of copies can be made. Such + stencils can be prepared on typewriters. Edison elaborated this principle + in two other forms—one pneumatic and one electric—the latter + being in essence a reciprocating motor. Inside the barrel of the electric + pen a little plunger, carrying the stylus, travels to and fro at a very + high rate of speed, due to the attraction and repulsion of the solenoid + coils of wire surrounding it; and as the hand of the writer guides it the + pen thus makes its record in a series of very minute perforations in the + paper. The current from a small battery suffices to energize the pen, and + with the stencil thus made hundreds of copies of the document can be + furnished. As a matter of fact, as many as three thousand copies have been + made from a single mimeographic stencil of this character. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX + </h2> + <h3> + THE TELEPHONE, MOTOGRAPH, AND MICROPHONE + </h3> + <p> + A VERY great invention has its own dramatic history. Episodes full of + human interest attend its development. The periods of weary struggle, the + daring adventure along unknown paths, the clash of rival claimants, are + closely similar to those which mark the revelation and subjugation of a + new continent. At the close of the epoch of discovery it is seen that + mankind as a whole has made one more great advance; but in the earlier + stages one watched chiefly the confused vicissitudes of fortune of the + individual pioneers. The great modern art of telephony has had thus in its + beginnings, its evolution, and its present status as a universal medium of + intercourse, all the elements of surprise, mystery, swift creation of + wealth, tragic interludes, and colossal battle that can appeal to the + imagination and hold public attention. And in this new electrical + industry, in laying its essential foundations, Edison has again been one + of the dominant figures. + </p> + <p> + As far back as 1837, the American, Page, discovered the curious fact that + an iron bar, when magnetized and demagnetized at short intervals of time, + emitted sounds due to the molecular disturbances in the mass. Philipp + Reis, a simple professor in Germany, utilized this principle in the + construction of apparatus for the transmission of sound; but in the grasp + of the idea he was preceded by Charles Bourseul, a young French soldier in + Algeria, who in 1854, under the title of "Electrical Telephony," in a + Parisian illustrated paper, gave a brief and lucid description as follows: + </p> + <p> + "We know that sounds are made by vibrations, and are made sensible to the + ear by the same vibrations, which are reproduced by the intervening + medium. But the intensity of the vibrations diminishes very rapidly with + the distance; so that even with the aid of speaking-tubes and trumpets it + is impossible to exceed somewhat narrow limits. Suppose a man speaks near + a movable disk sufficiently flexible to lose none of the vibrations of the + voice; that this disk alternately makes and breaks the connection with a + battery; you may have at a distance another disk which will simultaneously + execute the same vibrations.... Any one who is not deaf and dumb may use + this mode of transmission, which would require no apparatus except an + electric battery, two vibrating disks, and a wire." + </p> + <p> + This would serve admirably for a portrayal of the Bell telephone, except + that it mentions distinctly the use of the make-and-break method (i. e., + where the circuit is necessarily opened and closed as in telegraphy, + although, of course, at an enormously higher rate), which has never proved + practical. + </p> + <p> + So far as is known Bourseul was not practical enough to try his own + suggestion, and never made a telephone. About 1860, Reis built several + forms of electrical telephonic apparatus, all imitating in some degree the + human ear, with its auditory tube, tympanum, etc., and examples of the + apparatus were exhibited in public not only in Germany, but in England. + There is a variety of testimony to the effect that not only musical + sounds, but stray words and phrases, were actually transmitted with + mediocre, casual success. It was impossible, however, to maintain the + devices in adjustment for more than a few seconds, since the invention + depended upon the make-and-break principle, the circuit being made and + broken every time an impulse-creating sound went through it, causing the + movement of the diaphragm on which the sound-waves impinged. Reis himself + does not appear to have been sufficiently interested in the marvellous + possibilities of the idea to follow it up—remarking to the man who + bought his telephonic instruments and tools that he had shown the world + the way. In reality it was not the way, although a monument erected to his + memory at Frankfort styles him the inventor of the telephone. As one of + the American judges said, in deciding an early litigation over the + invention of the telephone, a hundred years of Reis would not have given + the world the telephonic art for public use. Many others after Reis tried + to devise practical make-and-break telephones, and all failed; although + their success would have rendered them very valuable as a means of + fighting the Bell patent. But the method was a good starting-point, even + if it did not indicate the real path. If Reis had been willing to + experiment with his apparatus so that it did not make-and-break, he would + probably have been the true father of the telephone, besides giving it the + name by which it is known. It was not necessary to slam the gate open and + shut. All that was required was to keep the gate closed, and rattle the + latch softly. Incidentally it may be noted that Edison in experimenting + with the Reis transmitter recognized at once the defect caused by the + make-and-break action, and sought to keep the gap closed by the use, + first, of one drop of water, and later of several drops. But the water + decomposed, and the incurable defect was still there. + </p> + <p> + The Reis telephone was brought to America by Dr. P. H. Van der Weyde, a + well-known physicist in his day, and was exhibited by him before a + technical audience at Cooper Union, New York, in 1868, and described + shortly after in the technical press. The apparatus attracted attention, + and a set was secured by Prof. Joseph Henry for the Smithsonian + Institution. There the famous philosopher showed and explained it to + Alexander Graham Bell, when that young and persevering Scotch genius went + to get help and data as to harmonic telegraphy, upon which he was working, + and as to transmitting vocal sounds. Bell took up immediately and + energetically the idea that his two predecessors had dropped—and + reached the goal. In 1875 Bell, who as a student and teacher of vocal + physiology had unusual qualifications for determining feasible methods of + speech transmission, constructed his first pair of magneto telephones for + such a purpose. In February of 1876 his first telephone patent was applied + for, and in March it was issued. The first published account of the modern + speaking telephone was a paper read by Bell before the American Academy of + Arts and Sciences in Boston in May of that year; while at the Centennial + Exposition at Philadelphia the public first gained any familiarity with + it. It was greeted at once with scientific acclaim and enthusiasm as a + distinctly new and great invention, although at first it was regarded more + as a scientific toy than as a commercially valuable device. + </p> + <p> + By an extraordinary coincidence, the very day that Bell's application for + a patent went into the United States Patent Office, a caveat was filed + there by Elisha Gray, of Chicago, covering the specific idea of + transmitting speech and reproducing it in a telegraphic circuit "through + an instrument capable of vibrating responsively to all the tones of the + human voice, and by which they are rendered audible." Out of this incident + arose a struggle and a controversy whose echoes are yet heard as to the + legal and moral rights of the two inventors, the assertion even being made + that one of the most important claims of Gray, that on a liquid battery + transmitter, was surreptitiously "lifted" into the Bell application, then + covering only the magneto telephone. It was also asserted that the filing + of the Gray caveat antedated by a few hours the filing of the Bell + application. All such issues when brought to the American courts were + brushed aside, the Bell patent being broadly maintained in all its + remarkable breadth and fullness, embracing an entire art; but Gray was + embittered and chagrined, and to the last expressed his belief that the + honor and glory should have been his. The path of Gray to the telephone + was a natural one. A Quaker carpenter who studied five years at Oberlin + College, he took up electrical invention, and brought out many ingenious + devices in rapid succession in the telegraphic field, including the now + universal needle annunciator for hotels, etc., the useful telautograph, + automatic self-adjusting relays, private-line printers—leading up to + his famous "harmonic" system. This was based upon the principle that a + sound produced in the presence of a reed or tuning-fork responding to the + sound, and acting as the armature of a magnet in a closed circuit, would, + by induction, set up electric impulses in the circuit and cause a distant + magnet having a similarly tuned armature to produce the same tone or note. + He also found that over the same wire at the same time another series of + impulses corresponding to another note could be sent through the agency of + a second set of magnets without in any way interfering with the first + series of impulses. Building the principle into apparatus, with a keyboard + and vibrating "reeds" before his magnets, Doctor Gray was able not only to + transmit music by his harmonic telegraph, but went so far as to send nine + different telegraph messages at the same instant, each set of instruments + depending on its selective note, while any intermediate office could pick + up the message for itself by simply tuning its relays to the keynote + required. Theoretically the system could be split up into any number of + notes and semi-tones. Practically it served as the basis of some real + telegraphic work, but is not now in use. Any one can realize, however, + that it did not take so acute and ingenious a mind very long to push + forward to the telephone, as a dangerous competitor with Bell, who had + also, like Edison, been working assiduously in the field of acoustic and + multiple telegraphs. Seen in the retrospect, the struggle for the goal at + this moment was one of the memorable incidents in electrical history. + </p> + <p> + Among the interesting papers filed at the Orange Laboratory is a + lithograph, the size of an ordinary patent drawing, headed "First + Telephone on Record." The claim thus made goes back to the period when all + was war, and when dispute was hot and rife as to the actual invention of + the telephone. The device shown, made by Edison in 1875, was actually + included in a caveat filed January 14, 1876, a month before Bell or Gray. + It shows a little solenoid arrangement, with one end of the plunger + attached to the diaphragm of a speaking or resonating chamber. Edison + states that while the device is crudely capable of use as a magneto + telephone, he did not invent it for transmitting speech, but as an + apparatus for analyzing the complex waves arising from various sounds. It + was made in pursuance of his investigations into the subject of harmonic + telegraphs. He did not try the effect of sound-waves produced by the human + voice until Bell came forward a few months later; but he found then that + this device, made in 1875, was capable of use as a telephone. In his + testimony and public utterances Edison has always given Bell credit for + the discovery of the transmission of articulate speech by talking against + a diaphragm placed in front of an electromagnet; but it is only proper + here to note, in passing, the curious fact that he had actually produced a + device that COULD talk, prior to 1876, and was therefore very close to + Bell, who took the one great step further. A strong characterization of + the value and importance of the work done by Edison in the development of + the carbon transmitter will be found in the decision of Judge Brown in the + United States Circuit Court of Appeals, sitting in Boston, on February 27, + 1901, declaring void the famous Berliner patent of the Bell telephone + system. [5] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 5: See Federal Reporter, vol. 109, p. 976 et seq.] +</pre> + <p> + Bell's patent of 1876 was of an all-embracing character, which only the + make-and-break principle, if practical, could have escaped. It was pointed + out in the patent that Bell discovered the great principle that electrical + undulations induced by the vibrations of a current produced by sound-waves + can be represented graphically by the same sinusoidal curve that expresses + the original sound vibrations themselves; or, in other words, that a curve + representing sound vibrations will correspond precisely to a curve + representing electric impulses produced or generated by those identical + sound vibrations—as, for example, when the latter impinge upon a + diaphragm acting as an armature of an electromagnet, and which by movement + to and fro sets up the electric impulses by induction. To speak plainly, + the electric impulses correspond in form and character to the sound + vibration which they represent. This reduced to a patent "claim" governed + the art as firmly as a papal bull for centuries enabled Spain to hold the + Western world. The language of the claim is: "The method of and apparatus + for transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically as herein + described, by causing electrical undulations similar in form to the + vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sounds + substantially as set forth." It was a long time, however, before the + inclusive nature of this grant over every possible telephone was + understood or recognized, and litigation for and against the patent lasted + during its entire life. At the outset, the commercial value of the + telephone was little appreciated by the public, and Bell had the greatest + difficulty in securing capital; but among far-sighted inventors there was + an immediate "rush to the gold fields." Bell's first apparatus was poor, + the results being described by himself as "unsatisfactory and + discouraging," which was almost as true of the devices he exhibited at the + Philadelphia Centennial. The new-comers, like Edison, Berliner, Blake, + Hughes, Gray, Dolbear, and others, brought a wealth of ideas, a fund of + mechanical ingenuity, and an inventive ability which soon made the + telephone one of the most notable gains of the century, and one of the + most valuable additions to human resources. The work that Edison did was, + as usual, marked by infinite variety of method as well as by the power to + seize on the one needed element of practical success. Every one of the six + million telephones in use in the United States, and of the other millions + in use through out the world, bears the imprint of his genius, as at one + time the instruments bore his stamped name. For years his name was branded + on every Bell telephone set, and his patents were a mainstay of what has + been popularly called the "Bell monopoly." Speaking of his own efforts in + this field, Mr. Edison says: + </p> + <p> + "In 1876 I started again to experiment for the Western Union and Mr. + Orton. This time it was the telephone. Bell invented the first telephone, + which consisted of the present receiver, used both as a transmitter and a + receiver (the magneto type). It was attempted to introduce it + commercially, but it failed on account of its faintness and the extraneous + sounds which came in on its wires from various causes. Mr. Orton wanted me + to take hold of it and make it commercial. As I had also been working on a + telegraph system employing tuning-forks, simultaneously with both Bell and + Gray, I was pretty familiar with the subject. I started in, and soon + produced the carbon transmitter, which is now universally used. + </p> + <p> + "Tests were made between New York and Philadelphia, also between New York + and Washington, using regular Western Union wires. The noises were so + great that not a word could be heard with the Bell receiver when used as a + transmitter between New York and Newark, New Jersey. Mr. Orton and W. K. + Vanderbilt and the board of directors witnessed and took part in the + tests. The Western Union then put them on private lines. Mr. Theodore + Puskas, of Budapest, Hungary, was the first man to suggest a telephone + exchange, and soon after exchanges were established. The telephone + department was put in the hands of Hamilton McK. Twombly, Vanderbilt's + ablest son-in-law, who made a success of it. The Bell company, of Boston, + also started an exchange, and the fight was on, the Western Union pirating + the Bell receiver, and the Boston company pirating the Western Union + transmitter. About this time I wanted to be taken care of. I threw out + hints of this desire. Then Mr. Orton sent for me. He had learned that + inventors didn't do business by the regular process, and concluded he + would close it right up. He asked me how much I wanted. I had made up my + mind it was certainly worth $25,000, if it ever amounted to anything for + central-station work, so that was the sum I had in mind to stick to and + get—obstinately. Still it had been an easy job, and only required a + few months, and I felt a little shaky and uncertain. So I asked him to + make me an offer. He promptly said he would give me $100,000. 'All right,' + I said. 'It is yours on one condition, and that is that you do not pay it + all at once, but pay me at the rate of $6000 per year for seventeen years'—the + life of the patent. He seemed only too pleased to do this, and it was + closed. My ambition was about four times too large for my business + capacity, and I knew that I would soon spend this money experimenting if I + got it all at once, so I fixed it that I couldn't. I saved seventeen years + of worry by this stroke." + </p> + <p> + Thus modestly is told the debut of Edison in the telephone art, to which + with his carbon transmitter he gave the valuable principle of varying the + resistance of the transmitting circuit with changes in the pressure, as + well as the vital practice of using the induction coil as a means of + increasing the effective length of the talking circuit. Without these, + modern telephony would not and could not exist. [6] But Edison, in + telephonic work, as in other directions, was remarkably fertile and + prolific. His first inventions in the art, made in 1875-76, continue + through many later years, including all kinds of carbon instruments + —the water telephone, electrostatic telephone, condenser telephone, + chemical telephone, various magneto telephones, inertia telephone, mercury + telephone, voltaic pile telephone, musical transmitter, and the + electromotograph. All were actually made and tested. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 6: Briefly stated, the essential difference + between Bell's telephone and Edison's is this: With the + former the sound vibrations impinge upon a steel diaphragm + arranged adjacent to the pole of a bar electromagnet, + whereby the diaphragm acts as an armature, and by its + vibrations induces very weak electric impulses in the + magnetic coil. These impulses, according to Bell's theory, + correspond in form to the sound-waves, and passing over the + line energize the magnet coil at the receiving end, and by + varying the magnetism cause the receiving diaphragm to be + similarly vibrated to reproduce the sounds. A single + apparatus is therefore used at each end, performing the + double function of transmitter and receiver. With Edison's + telephone a closed circuit is used on which is constantly + flowing a battery current, and included in that circuit is a + pair of electrodes, one or both of which is of carbon. These + electrodes are always in contact with a certain initial + pressure, so that current will be always flowing over the + circuit. One of the electrodes is connected with the + diaphragm on which the sound-waves impinge, and the + vibration of this diaphragm causes the pressure between the + electrodes to be correspondingly varied, and thereby effects + a variation in the current, resulting in the production of + impulses which actuate the receiving magnet. In other words, + with Bell's telephone the sound-waves themselves generate + the electric impulses, which are hence extremely faint. With + the Edison telephone, the sound-waves actuate an electric + valve, so to speak, and permit variations in a current of + any desired strength. + + A second distinction between the two telephones is this: + With the Bell apparatus the very weak electric impulses + generated by the vibration of the transmitting diaphragm + pass over the entire line to the receiving end, and in + consequence the permissible length of line is limited to a + few miles under ideal conditions. With Edison's telephone + the battery current does not flow on the main line, but + passes through the primary circuit of an induction coil, by + which corresponding impulses of enormously higher potential + are sent out on the main line to the receiving end. In + consequence, the line may be hundreds of miles in length. No + modern telephone system in use to-day lacks these + characteristic features—the varying resistance and the + induction coil.] +</pre> + <p> + The principle of the electromotograph was utilized by Edison in more ways + than one, first of all in telegraphy at this juncture. The well-known Page + patent, which had lingered in the Patent Office for years, had just been + issued, and was considered a formidable weapon. It related to the use of a + retractile spring to withdraw the armature lever from the magnet of a + telegraph or other relay or sounder, and thus controlled the art of + telegraphy, except in simple circuits. "There was no known way," remarks + Edison, "whereby this patent could be evaded, and its possessor would + eventually control the use of what is known as the relay and sounder, and + this was vital to telegraphy. Gould was pounding the Western Union on the + Stock Exchange, disturbing its railroad contracts, and, being advised by + his lawyers that this patent was of great value, bought it. The moment Mr. + Orton heard this he sent for me and explained the situation, and wanted me + to go to work immediately and see if I couldn't evade it or discover some + other means that could be used in case Gould sustained the patent. It + seemed a pretty hard job, because there was no known means of moving a + lever at the other end of a telegraph wire except by the use of a magnet. + I said I would go at it that night. In experimenting some years + previously, I had discovered a very peculiar phenomenon, and that was that + if a piece of metal connected to a battery was rubbed over a moistened + piece of chalk resting on a metal connected to the other pole, when the + current passed the friction was greatly diminished. When the current was + reversed the friction was greatly increased over what it was when no + current was passing. Remembering this, I substituted a piece of chalk + rotated by a small electric motor for the magnet, and connecting a sounder + to a metallic finger resting on the chalk, the combination claim of Page + was made worthless. A hitherto unknown means was introduced in the + electric art. Two or three of the devices were made and tested by the + company's expert. Mr. Orton, after he had me sign the patent application + and got it in the Patent Office, wanted to settle for it at once. He asked + my price. Again I said: 'Make me an offer.' Again he named $100,000. I + accepted, providing he would pay it at the rate of $6000 a year for + seventeen years. This was done, and thus, with the telephone money, I + received $12,000 yearly for that period from the Western Union Telegraph + Company." + </p> + <p> + A year or two later the motograph cropped up again in Edison's work in a + curious manner. The telephone was being developed in England, and Edison + had made arrangements with Colonel Gouraud, his old associate in the + automatic telegraph, to represent his interests. A company was formed, a + large number of instruments were made and sent to Gouraud in London, and + prospects were bright. Then there came a threat of litigation from the + owners of the Bell patent, and Gouraud found he could not push the + enterprise unless he could avoid using what was asserted to be an + infringement of the Bell receiver. He cabled for help to Edison, who sent + back word telling him to hold the fort. "I had recourse again," says + Edison, "to the phenomenon discovered by me years previous, that the + friction of a rubbing electrode passing over a moist chalk surface was + varied by electricity. I devised a telephone receiver which was afterward + known as the 'loud-speaking telephone,' or 'chalk receiver.' There was no + magnet, simply a diaphragm and a cylinder of compressed chalk about the + size of a thimble. A thin spring connected to the centre of the diaphragm + extended outwardly and rested on the chalk cylinder, and was pressed + against it with a pressure equal to that which would be due to a weight of + about six pounds. The chalk was rotated by hand. The volume of sound was + very great. A person talking into the carbon transmitter in New York had + his voice so amplified that he could be heard one thousand feet away in an + open field at Menlo Park. This great excess of power was due to the fact + that the latter came from the person turning the handle. The voice, + instead of furnishing all the power as with the present receiver, merely + controlled the power, just as an engineer working a valve would control a + powerful engine. + </p> + <p> + "I made six of these receivers and sent them in charge of an expert on the + first steamer. They were welcomed and tested, and shortly afterward I + shipped a hundred more. At the same time I was ordered to send twenty + young men, after teaching them to become expert. I set up an exchange, + around the laboratory, of ten instruments. I would then go out and get + each one out of order in every conceivable way, cutting the wires of one, + short-circuiting another, destroying the adjustment of a third, putting + dirt between the electrodes of a fourth, and so on. A man would be sent to + each to find out the trouble. When he could find the trouble ten + consecutive times, using five minutes each, he was sent to London. About + sixty men were sifted to get twenty. Before all had arrived, the Bell + company there, seeing we could not be stopped, entered into negotiations + for consolidation. One day I received a cable from Gouraud offering + '30,000' for my interest. I cabled back I would accept. When the draft + came I was astonished to find it was for L30,000. I had thought it was + dollars." + </p> + <p> + In regard to this singular and happy conclusion, Edison makes some + interesting comments as to the attitude of the courts toward inventors, + and the difference between American and English courts. "The men I sent + over were used to establish telephone exchanges all over the Continent, + and some of them became wealthy. It was among this crowd in London that + Bernard Shaw was employed before he became famous. The chalk telephone was + finally discarded in favor of the Bell receiver—the latter being + more simple and cheaper. Extensive litigation with new-comers followed. My + carbon-transmitter patent was sustained, and preserved the monopoly of the + telephone in England for many years. Bell's patent was not sustained by + the courts. Sir Richard Webster, now Chief-Justice of England, was my + counsel, and sustained all of my patents in England for many years. + Webster has a marvellous capacity for understanding things scientific; and + his address before the courts was lucidity itself. His brain is highly + organized. My experience with the legal fraternity is that scientific + subjects are distasteful to them, and it is rare in this country, on + account of the system of trying patent suits, for a judge really to reach + the meat of the controversy, and inventors scarcely ever get a decision + squarely and entirely in their favor. The fault rests, in my judgment, + almost wholly with the system under which testimony to the extent of + thousands of pages bearing on all conceivable subjects, many of them + having no possible connection with the invention in dispute, is presented + to an over-worked judge in an hour or two of argument supported by several + hundred pages of briefs; and the judge is supposed to extract some essence + of justice from this mass of conflicting, blind, and misleading + statements. It is a human impossibility, no matter how able and + fair-minded the judge may be. In England the case is different. There the + judges are face to face with the experts and other witnesses. They get the + testimony first-hand and only so much as they need, and there are no + long-winded briefs and arguments, and the case is decided then and there, + a few months perhaps after suit is brought, instead of many years + afterward, as in this country. And in England, when a case is once finally + decided it is settled for the whole country, while here it is not so. Here + a patent having once been sustained, say, in Boston, may have to be + litigated all over again in New York, and again in Philadelphia, and so on + for all the Federal circuits. Furthermore, it seems to me that scientific + disputes should be decided by some court containing at least one or two + scientific men—men capable of comprehending the significance of an + invention and the difficulties of its accomplishment—if justice is + ever to be given to an inventor. And I think, also, that this court should + have the power to summon before it and examine any recognized expert in + the special art, who might be able to testify to FACTS for or against the + patent, instead of trying to gather the truth from the tedious essays of + hired experts, whose depositions are really nothing but sworn arguments. + The real gist of patent suits is generally very simple, and I have no + doubt that any judge of fair intelligence, assisted by one or more + scientific advisers, could in a couple of days at the most examine all the + necessary witnesses; hear all the necessary arguments, and actually decide + an ordinary patent suit in a way that would more nearly be just, than can + now be done at an expenditure of a hundred times as much money and months + and years of preparation. And I have no doubt that the time taken by the + court would be enormously less, because if a judge attempts to read the + bulky records and briefs, that work alone would require several days. + </p> + <p> + "Acting as judges, inventors would not be very apt to correctly decide a + complicated law point; and on the other hand, it is hard to see how a + lawyer can decide a complicated scientific point rightly. Some inventors + complain of our Patent Office, but my own experience with the Patent + Office is that the examiners are fair-minded and intelligent, and when + they refuse a patent they are generally right; but I think the whole + trouble lies with the system in vogue in the Federal courts for trying + patent suits, and in the fact, which cannot be disputed, that the Federal + judges, with but few exceptions, do not comprehend complicated scientific + questions. To secure uniformity in the several Federal circuits and + correct errors, it has been proposed to establish a central court of + patent appeals in Washington. This I believe in; but this court should + also contain at least two scientific men, who would not be blind to the + sophistry of paid experts. [7] Men whose inventions would have created + wealth of millions have been ruined and prevented from making any money + whereby they could continue their careers as creators of wealth for the + general good, just because the experts befuddled the judge by their + misleading statements." + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 7: As an illustration of the perplexing nature of + expert evidence in patent cases, the reader will probably be + interested in perusing the following extracts from the + opinion of Judge Dayton, in the suit of Bryce Bros. Co. vs. + Seneca Glass Co., tried in the United States Circuit Court, + Northern District of West Virginia, reported in The Federal + Reporter, 140, page 161: + + "On this subject of the validity of this patent, a vast + amount of conflicting, technical, perplexing, and almost + hypercritical discussion and opinion has been indulged, both + in the testimony and in the able and exhaustive arguments + and briefs of counsel. Expert Osborn for defendant, after + setting forth minutely his superior qualifications + mechanical education, and great experience, takes up in + detail the patent claims, and shows to his own entire + satisfaction that none of them are new; that all of them + have been applied, under one form or another, in some + twenty-two previous patents, and in two other machines, not + patented, to-wit, the Central Glass and Kuny Kahbel ones; + that the whole machine is only 'an aggregation of well-known + mechanical elements that any skilled designer would bring to + his use in the construction of such a machine.' This + certainly, under ordinary conditions, would settle the + matter beyond peradventure; for this witness is a very wise + and learned man in these things, and very positive. But + expert Clarke appears for the plaintiff, and after setting + forth just as minutely his superior qualifications, + mechanical education, and great experience, which appear + fully equal in all respects to those of expert Osborn, + proceeds to take up in detail the patent claims, and shows + to his entire satisfaction that all, with possibly one + exception, are new, show inventive genius, and distinct + advances upon the prior art. In the most lucid, and even + fascinating, way he discusses all the parts of this machine, + compares it with the others, draws distinctions, points out + the merits of the one in controversy and the defects of all + the others, considers the twenty-odd patents referred to by + Osborn, and in the politest, but neatest, manner imaginable + shows that expert Osborn did not know what he was talking + about, and sums the whole matter up by declaring this + 'invention of Mr. Schrader's, as embodied in the patent in + suit, a radical and wide departure, from the Kahbel machine' + (admitted on all sides to be nearest prior approach to it), + 'a distinct and important advance in the art of engraving + glassware, and generally a machine for this purpose which + has involved the exercise of the inventive faculty in the + highest degree.' + + "Thus a more radical and irreconcilable disagreement between + experts touching the same thing could hardly be found. So it + is with the testimony. If we take that for the defendant, + the Central Glass Company machine, and especially the Kuny + Kahbel machine, built and operated years before this patent + issued, and not patented, are just as good, just as + effective and practical, as this one, and capable of turning + out just as perfect work and as great a variety of it. On + the other hand, if we take that produced by the plaintiff, + we are driven to the conclusion that these prior machines, + the product of the same mind, were only progressive steps + forward from utter darkness, so to speak, into full + inventive sunlight, which made clear to him the solution of + the problem in this patented machine. The shortcomings of + the earlier machines are minutely set forth, and the + witnesses for the plaintiff are clear that they are neither + practical nor profitable. + + "But this is not all of the trouble that confronts us in + this case. Counsel of both sides, with an indomitable + courage that must command admiration, a courage that has led + them to a vast amount of study, investigation, and thought, + that in fact has made them all experts, have dissected this + record of 356 closely printed pages, applied all mechanical + principles and laws to the facts as they see them, and, + besides, have ransacked the law-books and cited an enormous + number of cases, more or less in point, as illustration of + their respective contentions. The courts find nothing more + difficult than to apply an abstract principle to all classes + of cases that may arise. The facts in each case so + frequently create an exception to the general rule that such + rule must be honored rather in its breach than in its + observance. Therefore, after a careful examination of these + cases, it is no criticism of the courts to say that both + sides have found abundant and about an equal amount of + authority to sustain their respective contentions, and, as a + result, counsel have submitted, in briefs, a sum total of + 225 closely printed pages, in which they have clearly, yet, + almost to a mathematical certainty, demonstrated on the one + side that this Schrader machine is new and patentable, and + on the other that it is old and not so. Under these + circumstances, it would be unnecessary labor and a fruitless + task for me to enter into any further technical discussion + of the mechanical problems involved, for the purpose of + seeking to convince either side of its error. In cases of + such perplexity as this generally some incidents appear that + speak more unerringly than do the tongues of the witnesses, + and to some of these I purpose to now refer."] +</pre> + <p> + Mr. Bernard Shaw, the distinguished English author, has given a most vivid + and amusing picture of this introduction of Edison's telephone into + England, describing the apparatus as "a much too ingenious invention, + being nothing less than a telephone of such stentorian efficiency that it + bellowed your most private communications all over the house, instead of + whispering them with some sort of discretion." Shaw, as a young man, was + employed by the Edison Telephone Company, and was very much alive to his + surroundings, often assisting in public demonstrations of the apparatus + "in a manner which I am persuaded laid the foundation of Mr. Edison's + reputation." The sketch of the men sent over from America is graphic: + "Whilst the Edison Telephone Company lasted it crowded the basement of a + high pile of offices in Queen Victoria Street with American artificers. + These deluded and romantic men gave me a glimpse of the skilled + proletariat of the United States. They sang obsolete sentimental songs + with genuine emotion; and their language was frightful even to an + Irishman. They worked with a ferocious energy which was out of all + proportion to the actual result achieved. Indomitably resolved to assert + their republican manhood by taking no orders from a tall-hatted Englishman + whose stiff politeness covered his conviction that they were relatively to + himself inferior and common persons, they insisted on being slave-driven + with genuine American oaths by a genuine free and equal American foreman. + They utterly despised the artfully slow British workman, who did as little + for his wages as he possibly could; never hurried himself; and had a deep + reverence for one whose pocket could be tapped by respectful behavior. + Need I add that they were contemptuously wondered at by this same British + workman as a parcel of outlandish adult boys who sweated themselves for + their employer's benefit instead of looking after their own interest? They + adored Mr. Edison as the greatest man of all time in every possible + department of science, art, and philosophy, and execrated Mr. Graham Bell, + the inventor of the rival telephone, as his Satanic adversary; but each of + them had (or intended to have) on the brink of completion an improvement + on the telephone, usually a new transmitter. They were free-souled + creatures, excellent company, sensitive, cheerful, and profane; liars, + braggarts, and hustlers, with an air of making slow old England hum, which + never left them even when, as often happened, they were wrestling with + difficulties of their own making, or struggling in no-thoroughfares, from + which they had to be retrieved like stray sheep by Englishmen without + imagination enough to go wrong." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Samuel Insull, who afterward became private secretary to Mr. Edison, + and a leader in the development of American electrical manufacturing and + the central-station art, was also in close touch with the London situation + thus depicted, being at the time private secretary to Colonel Gouraud, and + acting for the first half hour as the amateur telephone operator in the + first experimental exchange erected in Europe. He took notes of an early + meeting where the affairs of the company were discussed by leading men + like Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) and the Right Hon. E. P. Bouverie + (then a cabinet minister), none of whom could see in the telephone much + more than an auxiliary for getting out promptly in the next morning's + papers the midnight debates in Parliament. "I remember another incident," + says Mr. Insull. "It was at some celebration of one of the Royal Societies + at the Burlington House, Piccadilly. We had a telephone line running + across the roofs to the basement of the building. I think it was to + Tyndall's laboratory in Burlington Street. As the ladies and gentlemen + came through, they naturally wanted to look at the great curiosity, the + loud-speaking telephone: in fact, any telephone was a curiosity then. Mr. + and Mrs. Gladstone came through. I was handling the telephone at the + Burlington House end. Mrs. Gladstone asked the man over the telephone + whether he knew if a man or woman was speaking; and the reply came in + quite loud tones that it was a man!" + </p> + <p> + With Mr. E. H. Johnson, who represented Edison, there went to England for + the furtherance of this telephone enterprise, Mr. Charles Edison, a nephew + of the inventor. He died in Paris, October, 1879, not twenty years of age. + Stimulated by the example of his uncle, this brilliant youth had already + made a mark for himself as a student and inventor, and when only eighteen + he secured in open competition the contract to install a complete + fire-alarm telegraph system for Port Huron. A few months later he was + eagerly welcomed by his uncle at Menlo Park, and after working on the + telephone was sent to London to aid in its introduction. There he made the + acquaintance of Professor Tyndall, exhibited the telephone to the late + King of England; and also won the friendship of the late King of the + Belgians, with whom he took up the project of establishing telephonic + communication between Belgium and England. At the time of his premature + death he was engaged in installing the Edison quadruplex between Brussels + and Paris, being one of the very few persons then in Europe familiar with + the working of that invention. + </p> + <p> + Meantime, the telephonic art in America was undergoing very rapid + development. In March, 1878, addressing "the capitalists of the Electric + Telephone Company" on the future of his invention, Bell outlined with + prophetic foresight and remarkable clearness the coming of the modern + telephone exchange. Comparing with gas and water distribution, he said: + "In a similar manner, it is conceivable that cables of telephone wires + could be laid underground or suspended overhead communicating by branch + wires with private dwellings, country houses, shops, manufactories, etc., + uniting them through the main cable with a central office, where the wire + could be connected as desired, establishing direct communication between + any two places in the city.... Not only so, but I believe, in the future, + wires will unite the head offices of telephone companies in different + cities; and a man in one part of the country may communicate by word of + mouth with another in a distant place." + </p> + <p> + All of which has come to pass. Professor Bell also suggested how this + could be done by "the employ of a man in each central office for the + purpose of connecting the wires as directed." He also indicated the two + methods of telephonic tariff—a fixed rental and a toll; and + mentioned the practice, now in use on long-distance lines, of a time + charge. As a matter of fact, this "centralizing" was attempted in May, + 1877, in Boston, with the circuits of the Holmes burglar-alarm system, + four banking-houses being thus interconnected; while in January of 1878 + the Bell telephone central-office system at New Haven, Connecticut, was + opened for business, "the first fully equipped commercial telephone + exchange ever established for public or general service." + </p> + <p> + All through this formative period Bell had adhered to and introduced the + magneto form of telephone, now used only as a receiver, and very poorly + adapted for the vital function of a speech-transmitter. From August, 1877, + the Western Union Telegraph Company worked along the other line, and in + 1878, with its allied Gold & Stock Telegraph Company, it brought into + existence the American Speaking Telephone Company to introduce the Edison + apparatus, and to create telephone exchanges all over the country. In this + warfare, the possession of a good battery transmitter counted very heavily + in favor of the Western Union, for upon that the real expansion of the + whole industry depended; but in a few months the Bell system had its + battery transmitter, too, tending to equalize matters. Late in the same + year patent litigation was begun which brought out clearly the merits of + Bell, through his patent, as the original and first inventor of the + electric speaking telephone; and the Western Union Telegraph Company made + terms with its rival. A famous contract bearing date of November 10, 1879, + showed that under the Edison and other controlling patents the Western + Union Company had already set going some eighty-five exchanges, and was + making large quantities of telephonic apparatus. In return for its + voluntary retirement from the telephonic field, the Western Union + Telegraph Company, under this contract, received a royalty of 20 per cent. + of all the telephone earnings of the Bell system while the Bell patents + ran; and thus came to enjoy an annual income of several hundred thousand + dollars for some years, based chiefly on its modest investment in Edison's + work. It was also paid several thousand dollars in cash for the Edison, + Phelps, Gray, and other apparatus on hand. It secured further 40 per cent. + of the stock of the local telephone systems of New York and Chicago; and + last, but by no means least, it exacted from the Bell interests an + agreement to stay out of the telegraph field. + </p> + <p> + By March, 1881, there were in the United States only nine cities of more + than ten thousand inhabitants, and only one of more than fifteen thousand, + without a telephone exchange. The industry thrived under competition, and + the absence of it now had a decided effect in checking growth; for when + the Bell patent expired in 1893, the total of telephone sets in operation + in the United States was only 291,253. To quote from an official Bell + statement: + </p> + <p> + "The brief but vigorous Western Union competition was a kind of blessing + in disguise. The very fact that two distinct interests were actively + engaged in the work of organizing and establishing competing telephone + exchanges all over the country, greatly facilitated the spread of the idea + and the growth of the business, and familiarized the people with the use + of the telephone as a business agency; while the keenness of the + competition, extending to the agents and employees of both companies, + brought about a swift but quite unforeseen and unlooked-for expansion in + the individual exchanges of the larger cities, and a corresponding advance + in their importance, value, and usefulness." + </p> + <p> + The truth of this was immediately shown in 1894, after the Bell patents + had expired, by the tremendous outburst of new competitive activity, in + "independent" country systems and toll lines through sparsely settled + districts—work for which the Edison apparatus and methods were + peculiarly adapted, yet against which the influence of the Edison patent + was invoked. The data secured by the United States Census Office in 1902 + showed that the whole industry had made gigantic leaps in eight years, and + had 2,371,044 telephone stations in service, of which 1,053,866 were + wholly or nominally independent of the Bell. By 1907 an even more notable + increase was shown, and the Census figures for that year included no fewer + than 6,118,578 stations, of which 1,986,575 were "independent." These six + million instruments every single set employing the principle of the carbon + transmitter—were grouped into 15,527 public exchanges, in the very + manner predicted by Bell thirty years before, and they gave service in the + shape of over eleven billions of talks. The outstanding capitalized value + of the plant was $814,616,004, the income for the year was nearly + $185,000,000, and the people employed were 140,000. If Edison had done + nothing else, his share in the creation of such an industry would have + entitled him to a high place among inventors. + </p> + <p> + This chapter is of necessity brief in its reference to many extremely + interesting points and details; and to some readers it may seem incomplete + in its references to the work of other men than Edison, whose influence on + telephony as an art has also been considerable. In reply to this pertinent + criticism, it may be pointed out that this is a life of Edison, and not of + any one else; and that even the discussion of his achievements alone in + these various fields requires more space than the authors have at their + disposal. The attempt has been made, however, to indicate the course of + events and deal fairly with the facts. The controversy that once waged + with great excitement over the invention of the microphone, but has long + since died away, is suggestive of the difficulties involved in trying to + do justice to everybody. A standard history describes the microphone thus: + </p> + <p> + "A form of apparatus produced during the early days of the telephone by + Professor Hughes, of England, for the purpose of rendering faint, + indistinct sounds distinctly audible, depended for its operation on the + changes that result in the resistance of loose contacts. This apparatus + was called the microphone, and was in reality but one of the many forms + that it is possible to give to the telephone transmitter. For example, the + Edison granular transmitter was a variety of microphone, as was also + Edison's transmitter, in which the solid button of carbon was employed. + Indeed, even the platinum point, which in the early form of the Reis + transmitter pressed against the platinum contact cemented to the centre of + the diaphragm, was a microphone." + </p> + <p> + At a time when most people were amazed at the idea of hearing, with the + aid of a "microphone," a fly walk at a distance of many miles, the + priority of invention of such a device was hotly disputed. Yet without + desiring to take anything from the credit of the brilliant American, + Hughes, whose telegraphic apparatus is still in use all over Europe, it + may be pointed out that this passage gives Edison the attribution of at + least two original forms of which those suggested by Hughes were mere + variations and modifications. With regard to this matter, Mr. Edison + himself remarks: "After I sent one of my men over to London especially, to + show Preece the carbon transmitter, and where Hughes first saw it, and + heard it—then within a month he came out with the microphone, + without any acknowledgment whatever. Published dates will show that Hughes + came along after me." + </p> + <p> + There have been other ways also in which Edison has utilized the peculiar + property that carbon possesses of altering its resistance to the passage + of current, according to the pressure to which it is subjected, whether at + the surface, or through closer union of the mass. A loose road with a few + inches of dust or pebbles on it offers appreciable resistance to the + wheels of vehicles travelling over it; but if the surface is kept hard and + smooth the effect is quite different. In the same way carbon, whether + solid or in the shape of finely divided powder, offers a high resistance + to the passage of electricity; but if the carbon is squeezed together the + conditions change, with less resistance to electricity in the circuit. For + his quadruplex system, Mr. Edison utilized this fact in the construction + of a rheostat or resistance box. It consists of a series of silk disks + saturated with a sizing of plumbago and well dried. The disks are + compressed by means of an adjustable screw; and in this manner the + resistance of a circuit can be varied over a wide range. + </p> + <p> + In like manner Edison developed a "pressure" or carbon relay, adapted to + the transference of signals of variable strength from one circuit to + another. An ordinary relay consists of an electromagnet inserted in the + main line for telegraphing, which brings a local battery and sounder + circuit into play, reproducing in the local circuit the signals sent over + the main line. The relay is adjusted to the weaker currents likely to be + received, but the signals reproduced on the sounder by the agency of the + relay are, of course, all of equal strength, as they depend upon the local + battery, which has only this steady work to perform. In cases where it is + desirable to reproduce the signals in the local circuit with the same + variations in strength as they are received by the relay, the Edison + carbon pressure relay does the work. The poles of the electromagnet in the + local circuit are hollowed out and filled up with carbon disks or powdered + plumbago. The armature and the carbon-tipped poles of the electromagnet + form part of the local circuit; and if the relay is actuated by a weak + current the armature will be attracted but feebly. The carbon being only + slightly compressed will offer considerable resistance to the flow of + current from the local battery, and therefore the signal on the local + sounder will be weak. If, on the contrary, the incoming current on the + main line be strong, the armature will be strongly attracted, the carbon + will be sharply compressed, the resistance in the local circuit will be + proportionately lowered, and the signal heard on the local sounder will be + a loud one. Thus it will be seen, by another clever juggle with the + willing agent, carbon, for which he has found so many duties, Edison is + able to transfer or transmit exactly, to the local circuit, the main-line + current in all its minutest variations. + </p> + <p> + In his researches to determine the nature of the motograph phenomena, and + to open up other sources of electrical current generation, Edison has + worked out a very ingenious and somewhat perplexing piece of apparatus + known as the "chalk battery." It consists of a series of chalk cylinders + mounted on a shaft revolved by hand. Resting against each of these + cylinders is a palladium-faced spring, and similar springs make contact + with the shaft between each cylinder. By connecting all these springs in + circuit with a galvanometer and revolving the shaft rapidly, a notable + deflection is obtained of the galvanometer needle, indicating the + production of electrical energy. The reason for this does not appear to + have been determined. + </p> + <p> + Last but not least, in this beautiful and ingenious series, comes the + "tasimeter," an instrument of most delicate sensibility in the presence of + heat. The name is derived from the Greek, the use of the apparatus being + primarily to measure extremely minute differences of pressure. A strip of + hard rubber with pointed ends rests perpendicularly on a platinum plate, + beneath which is a carbon button, under which again lies another platinum + plate. The two plates and the carbon button form part of an electric + circuit containing a battery and a galvanometer. The hard-rubber strip is + exceedingly sensitive to heat. The slightest degree of heat imparted to it + causes it to expand invisibly, thus increasing the pressure contact on the + carbon button and producing a variation in the resistance of the circuit, + registered immediately by the little swinging needle of the galvanometer. + The instrument is so sensitive that with a delicate galvanometer it will + show the impingement of the heat from a person's hand thirty feet away. + The suggestion to employ such an apparatus in astronomical observations + occurs at once, and it may be noted that in one instance the heat of rays + of light from the remote star Arcturus gave results. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X + </h2> + <h3> + THE PHONOGRAPH + </h3> + <p> + AT the opening of the Electrical Show in New York City in October, 1908, + to celebrate the jubilee of the Atlantic Cable and the first quarter + century of lighting with the Edison service on Manhattan Island, the + exercises were all conducted by means of the Edison phonograph. This + included the dedicatory speech of Governor Hughes, of New York; the modest + remarks of Mr. Edison, as president; the congratulations of the presidents + of several national electric bodies, and a number of vocal and + instrumental selections of operatic nature. All this was heard clearly by + a very large audience, and was repeated on other evenings. The same + speeches were used again phonographically at the Electrical Show in + Chicago in 1909—and now the records are preserved for reproduction a + hundred or a thousand years hence. This tour de force, never attempted + before, was merely an exemplification of the value of the phonograph not + only in establishing at first hand the facts of history, but in preserving + the human voice. What would we not give to listen to the very accents and + tones of the Sermon on the Mount, the orations of Demosthenes, the first + Pitt's appeal for American liberty, the Farewell of Washington, or the + Address at Gettysburg? Until Edison made his wonderful invention in 1877, + the human race was entirely without means for preserving or passing on to + posterity its own linguistic utterances or any other vocal sound. We have + some idea how the ancients looked and felt and wrote; the abundant + evidence takes us back to the cave-dwellers. But all the old languages are + dead, and the literary form is their embalmment. We do not even know + definitely how Shakespeare's and Goldsmith's plays were pronounced on the + stage in the theatres of the time; while it is only a guess that perhaps + Chaucer would sound much more modern than he scans. + </p> + <p> + The analysis of sound, which owes so much to Helmholtz, was one step + toward recording; and the various means of illustrating the phenomena of + sound to the eye and ear, prior to the phonograph, were all ingenious. One + can watch the dancing little flames of Koenig, and see a voice expressed + in tongues of fire; but the record can only be photographic. In like + manner, the simple phonautograph of Leon Scott, invented about 1858, + records on a revolving cylinder of blackened paper the sound vibrations + transmitted through a membrane to which a tiny stylus is attached; so that + a human mouth uses a pen and inscribes its sign vocal. Yet after all we + are just as far away as ever from enabling the young actors at Harvard to + give Aristophanes with all the true, subtle intonation and inflection of + the Athens of 400 B.C. The instrument is dumb. Ingenuity has been shown + also in the invention of "talking-machines," like Faber's, based on the + reed organ pipe. These automata can be made by dexterous manipulation to + jabber a little, like a doll with its monotonous "ma-ma," or a cuckoo + clock; but they lack even the sterile utility of the imitative art of + ventriloquism. The real great invention lies in creating devices that + shall be able to evoke from tinfoil, wax, or composition at any time + to-day or in the future the sound that once was as evanescent as the + vibrations it made on the air. + </p> + <p> + Contrary to the general notion, very few of the great modern inventions + have been the result of a sudden inspiration by which, Minerva-like, they + have sprung full-fledged from their creators' brain; but, on the contrary, + they have been evolved by slow and gradual steps, so that frequently the + final advance has been often almost imperceptible. The Edison phonograph + is an important exception to the general rule; not, of course, the + phonograph of the present day with all of its mechanical perfection, but + as an instrument capable of recording and reproducing sound. Its invention + has been frequently attributed to the discovery that a point attached to a + telephone diaphragm would, under the effect of sound-waves, vibrate with + sufficient force to prick the finger. The story, though interesting, is + not founded on fact; but, if true, it is difficult to see how the + discovery in question could have contributed materially to the ultimate + accomplishment. To a man of Edison's perception it is absurd to suppose + that the effect of the so-called discovery would not have been made as a + matter of deduction long before the physical sensation was experienced. As + a matter of fact, the invention of the phonograph was the result of pure + reason. Some time prior to 1877, Edison had been experimenting on an + automatic telegraph in which the letters were formed by embossing strips + of paper with the proper arrangement of dots and dashes. By drawing this + strip beneath a contact lever, the latter was actuated so as to control + the circuits and send the desired signals over the line. It was observed + that when the strip was moved very rapidly the vibration of the lever + resulted in the production of an audible note. With these facts before + him, Edison reasoned that if the paper strip could be imprinted with + elevations and depressions representative of sound-waves, they might be + caused to actuate a diaphragm so as to reproduce the corresponding sounds. + The next step in the line of development was to form the necessary + undulations on the strip, and it was then reasoned that original sounds + themselves might be utilized to form a graphic record by actuating a + diaphragm and causing a cutting or indenting point carried thereby to + vibrate in contact with a moving surface, so as to cut or indent the + record therein. Strange as it may seem, therefore, and contrary to the + general belief, the phonograph was developed backward, the production of + the sounds being of prior development to the idea of actually recording + them. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Edison's own account of the invention of the phonograph is intensely + interesting. "I was experimenting," he says, "on an automatic method of + recording telegraph messages on a disk of paper laid on a revolving + platen, exactly the same as the disk talking-machine of to-day. The platen + had a spiral groove on its surface, like the disk. Over this was placed a + circular disk of paper; an electromagnet with the embossing point + connected to an arm travelled over the disk; and any signals given through + the magnets were embossed on the disk of paper. If this disk was removed + from the machine and put on a similar machine provided with a contact + point, the embossed record would cause the signals to be repeated into + another wire. The ordinary speed of telegraphic signals is thirty-five to + forty words a minute; but with this machine several hundred words were + possible. + </p> + <p> + "From my experiments on the telephone I knew of the power of a diaphragm + to take up sound vibrations, as I had made a little toy which, when you + recited loudly in the funnel, would work a pawl connected to the + diaphragm; and this engaging a ratchet-wheel served to give continuous + rotation to a pulley. This pulley was connected by a cord to a little + paper toy representing a man sawing wood. Hence, if one shouted: 'Mary had + a little lamb,' etc., the paper man would start sawing wood. I reached the + conclusion that if I could record the movements of the diaphragm properly, + I could cause such record to reproduce the original movements imparted to + the diaphragm by the voice, and thus succeed in recording and reproducing + the human voice. + </p> + <p> + "Instead of using a disk I designed a little machine using a cylinder + provided with grooves around the surface. Over this was to be placed + tinfoil, which easily received and recorded the movements of the + diaphragm. A sketch was made, and the piece-work price, $18, was marked on + the sketch. I was in the habit of marking the price I would pay on each + sketch. If the workman lost, I would pay his regular wages; if he made + more than the wages, he kept it. The workman who got the sketch was John + Kruesi. I didn't have much faith that it would work, expecting that I + might possibly hear a word or so that would give hope of a future for the + idea. Kruesi, when he had nearly finished it, asked what it was for. I + told him I was going to record talking, and then have the machine talk + back. He thought it absurd. However, it was finished, the foil was put on; + I then shouted 'Mary had a little lamb,' etc. I adjusted the reproducer, + and the machine reproduced it perfectly. I was never so taken aback in my + life. Everybody was astonished. I was always afraid of things that worked + the first time. Long experience proved that there were great drawbacks + found generally before they could be got commercial; but here was + something there was no doubt of." + </p> + <p> + No wonder that honest John Kruesi, as he stood and listened to the + marvellous performance of the simple little machine he had himself just + finished, ejaculated in an awe-stricken tone: "Mein Gott im Himmel!" And + yet he had already seen Edison do a few clever things. No wonder they sat + up all night fixing and adjusting it so as to get better and better + results—reciting and singing, trying each other's voices, and then + listening with involuntary awe as the words came back again and again, + just as long as they were willing to revolve the little cylinder with its + dotted spiral indentations in the tinfoil under the vibrating stylus of + the reproducing diaphragm. It took a little time to acquire the knack of + turning the crank steadily while leaning over the recorder to talk into + the machine; and there was some deftness required also in fastening down + the tinfoil on the cylinder where it was held by a pin running in a + longitudinal slot. Paraffined paper appears also to have been experimented + with as an impressible material. It is said that Carman, the foreman of + the machine shop, had gone the length of wagering Edison a box of cigars + that the device would not work. All the world knows that he lost. + </p> + <p> + The original Edison phonograph thus built by Kruesi is preserved in the + South Kensington Museum, London. That repository can certainly have no + greater treasure of its kind. But as to its immediate use, the inventor + says: "That morning I took it over to New York and walked into the office + of the Scientific American, went up to Mr. Beach's desk, and said I had + something to show him. He asked what it was. I told him I had a machine + that would record and reproduce the human voice. I opened the package, set + up the machine and recited, 'Mary had a little lamb,' etc. Then I + reproduced it so that it could be heard all over the room. They kept me at + it until the crowd got so great Mr. Beach was afraid the floor would + collapse; and we were compelled to stop. The papers next morning contained + columns. None of the writers seemed to understand how it was done. I tried + to explain, it was so very simple, but the results were so surprising they + made up their minds probably that they never would understand it—and + they didn't. + </p> + <p> + "I started immediately making several larger and better machines, which I + exhibited at Menlo Park to crowds. The Pennsylvania Railroad ran special + trains. Washington people telegraphed me to come on. I took a phonograph + to Washington and exhibited it in the room of James G. Blaine's niece + (Gail Hamilton); and members of Congress and notable people of that city + came all day long until late in the evening. I made one break. I recited + 'Mary,' etc., and another ditty: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 'There was a little girl, who had a little curl + Right in the middle of her forehead; + And when she was good she was very, very good, + But when she was bad she was horrid.' +</pre> + <p> + "It will be remembered that Senator Roscoe Conkling, then very prominent, + had a curl of hair on his forehead; and all the caricaturists developed it + abnormally. He was very sensitive about the subject. When he came in he + was introduced; but being rather deaf, I didn't catch his name, but sat + down and started the curl ditty. Everybody tittered, and I was told that + Mr. Conkling was displeased. About 11 o'clock at night word was received + from President Hayes that he would be very much pleased if I would come up + to the White House. I was taken there, and found Mr. Hayes and several + others waiting. Among them I remember Carl Schurz, who was playing the + piano when I entered the room. The exhibition continued till about 12.30 + A.M., when Mrs. Hayes and several other ladies, who had been induced to + get up and dress, appeared. I left at 3.30 A.M. + </p> + <p> + "For a long time some people thought there was trickery. One morning at + Menlo Park a gentleman came to the laboratory and asked to see the + phonograph. It was Bishop Vincent, who helped Lewis Miller found the + Chautauqua I exhibited it, and then he asked if he could speak a few + words. I put on a fresh foil and told him to go ahead. He commenced to + recite Biblical names with immense rapidity. On reproducing it he said: 'I + am satisfied, now. There isn't a man in the United States who could recite + those names with the same rapidity.'" + </p> + <p> + The phonograph was now fairly launched as a world sensation, and a + reference to the newspapers of 1878 will show the extent to which it and + Edison were themes of universal discussion. Some of the press notices of + the period were most amazing—and amusing. As though the real + achievements of this young man, barely thirty, were not tangible and solid + enough to justify admiration of his genius, the "yellow journalists" of + the period began busily to create an "Edison myth," with gross absurdities + of assertion and attribution from which the modest subject of it all has + not yet ceased to suffer with unthinking people. A brilliantly vicious + example of this method of treatment is to be found in the Paris Figaro of + that year, which under the appropriate title of "This Astounding Eddison" + lay bare before the French public the most startling revelations as to the + inventor's life and character. "It should be understood," said this + journal, "that Mr. Eddison does not belong to himself. He is the property + of the telegraph company which lodges him in New York at a superb hotel; + keeps him on a luxurious footing, and pays him a formidable salary so as + to be the one to know of and profit by his discoveries. The company has, + in the dwelling of Eddison, men in its employ who do not quit him for a + moment, at the table, on the street, in the laboratory. So that this + wretched man, watched more closely than ever was any malefactor, cannot + even give a moment's thought to his own private affairs without one of his + guards asking him what he is thinking about." This foolish "blague" was + accompanied by a description of Edison's new "aerophone," a steam machine + which carried the voice a distance of one and a half miles. "You speak to + a jet of vapor. A friend previously advised can answer you by the same + method." Nor were American journals backward in this wild exaggeration. + </p> + <p> + The furor had its effect in stimulating a desire everywhere on the part of + everybody to see and hear the phonograph. A small commercial organization + was formed to build and exploit the apparatus, and the shops at Menlo Park + laboratory were assisted by the little Bergmann shop in New York. Offices + were taken for the new enterprise at 203 Broadway, where the Mail and + Express building now stands, and where, in a general way, under the + auspices of a talented dwarf, C. A. Cheever, the embryonic phonograph and + the crude telephone shared rooms and expenses. Gardiner G. Hubbard, + father-in-law of Alex. Graham Bell, was one of the stockholders in the + Phonograph Company, which paid Edison $10,000 cash and a 20 per cent. + royalty. This curious partnership was maintained for some time, even when + the Bell Telephone offices were removed to Reade Street, New York, whither + the phonograph went also; and was perhaps explained by the fact that just + then the ability of the phonograph as a money-maker was much more easily + demonstrated than was that of the telephone, still in its short range + magneto stage and awaiting development with the aid of the carbon + transmitter. + </p> + <p> + The earning capacity of the phonograph then, as largely now, lay in its + exhibition qualities. The royalties from Boston, ever intellectually awake + and ready for something new, ran as high as $1800 a week. In New York + there was a ceaseless demand for it, and with the aid of Hilbourne L. + Roosevelt, a famous organ builder, and uncle of ex-President Roosevelt, + concerts were given at which the phonograph was "featured." To manage this + novel show business the services of James Redpath were called into + requisition with great success. Redpath, famous as a friend and biographer + of John Brown, as a Civil War correspondent, and as founder of the + celebrated Redpath Lyceum Bureau in Boston, divided the country into + territories, each section being leased for exhibition purposes on a basis + of a percentage of the "gate money." To 203 Broadway from all over the + Union flocked a swarm of showmen, cranks, and particularly of old + operators, who, the seedier they were in appearance, the more insistent + they were that "Tom" should give them, for the sake of "Auld lang syne," + this chance to make a fortune for him and for themselves. At the top of + the building was a floor on which these novices were graduated in the use + and care of the machine, and then, with an equipment of tinfoil and other + supplies, they were sent out on the road. It was a diverting experience + while it lasted. The excitement over the phonograph was maintained for + many months, until a large proportion of the inhabitants of the country + had seen it; and then the show receipts declined and dwindled away. Many + of the old operators, taken on out of good-nature, were poor exhibitors + and worse accountants, and at last they and the machines with which they + had been intrusted faded from sight. But in the mean time Edison had + learned many lessons as to this practical side of development that were + not forgotten when the renascence of the phonograph began a few years + later, leading up to the present enormous and steady demand for both + machines and records. + </p> + <p> + It deserves to be pointed out that the phonograph has changed little in + the intervening years from the first crude instruments of 1877-78. It has + simply been refined and made more perfect in a mechanical sense. Edison + was immensely impressed with its possibilities, and greatly inclined to + work upon it, but the coming of the electric light compelled him to throw + all his energies for a time into the vast new field awaiting conquest. The + original phonograph, as briefly noted above, was rotated by hand, and the + cylinder was fed slowly longitudinally by means of a nut engaging a screw + thread on the cylinder shaft. Wrapped around the cylinder was a sheet of + tinfoil, with which engaged a small chisel-like recording needle, + connected adhesively with the centre of an iron diaphragm. Obviously, as + the cylinder was turned, the needle followed a spiral path whose pitch + depended upon that of the feed screw. Along this path a thread was cut in + the cylinder so as to permit the needle to indent the foil readily as the + diaphragm vibrated. By rotating the cylinder and by causing the diaphragm + to vibrate under the effect of vocal or musical sounds, the needle-like + point would form a series of indentations in the foil corresponding to and + characteristic of the sound-waves. By now engaging the point with the + beginning of the grooved record so formed, and by again rotating the + cylinder, the undulations of the record would cause the needle and its + attached diaphragm to vibrate so as to effect the reproduction. Such an + apparatus was necessarily undeveloped, and was interesting only from a + scientific point of view. It had many mechanical defects which prevented + its use as a practical apparatus. Since the cylinder was rotated by hand, + the speed at which the record was formed would vary considerably, even + with the same manipulator, so that it would have been impossible to record + and reproduce music satisfactorily; in doing which exact uniformity of + speed is essential. The formation of the record in tinfoil was also + objectionable from a practical standpoint, since such a record was faint + and would be substantially obliterated after two or three reproductions. + Furthermore, the foil could not be easily removed from and replaced upon + the instrument, and consequently the reproduction had to follow the + recording immediately, and the successive tinfoils were thrown away. The + instrument was also heavy and bulky. Notwithstanding these objections the + original phonograph created, as already remarked, an enormous popular + excitement, and the exhibitions were considered by many sceptical persons + as nothing more than clever ventriloquism. The possibilities of the + instrument as a commercial apparatus were recognized from the very first, + and some of the fields in which it was predicted that the phonograph would + be used are now fully occupied. Some have not yet been realized. Writing + in 1878 in the North American-Review, Mr. Edison thus summed up his own + ideas as to the future applications of the new invention: + </p> + <p> + "Among the many uses to which the phonograph will be applied are the + following: + </p> + <p> + 1. Letter writing and all kinds of dictation without the aid of a + stenographer. + </p> + <p> + 2. Phonographic books, which will speak to blind people without effort on + their part. + </p> + <p> + 3. The teaching of elocution. + </p> + <p> + 4. Reproduction of music. + </p> + <p> + 5. The 'Family Record'—a registry of sayings, reminiscences, etc., + by members of a family in their own voices, and of the last words of dying + persons. + </p> + <p> + 6. Music-boxes and toys. + </p> + <p> + 7. Clocks that should announce in articulate speech the time for going + home, going to meals, etc. + </p> + <p> + 8. The preservation of languages by exact reproduction of the manner of + pronouncing. + </p> + <p> + 9. Educational purposes; such as preserving the explanations made by a + teacher, so that the pupil can refer to them at any moment, and spelling + or other lessons placed upon the phonograph for convenience in committing + to memory. + </p> + <p> + 10. Connection with the telephone, so as to make that instrument an + auxiliary in the transmission of permanent and invaluable records, instead + of being the recipient of momentary and fleeting communication." + </p> + <p> + Of the above fields of usefulness in which it was expected that the + phonograph might be applied, only three have been commercially realized—namely, + the reproduction of musical, including vaudeville or talking selections, + for which purpose a very large proportion of the phonographs now made is + used; the employment of the machine as a mechanical stenographer, which + field has been taken up actively only within the past few years; and the + utilization of the device for the teaching of languages, for which purpose + it has been successfully employed, for example, by the International + Correspondence Schools of Scranton, Pennsylvania, for several years. The + other uses, however, which were early predicted for the phonograph have + not as yet been worked out practically, although the time seems not far + distant when its general utility will be widely enlarged. Both dolls and + clocks have been made, but thus far the world has not taken them + seriously. + </p> + <p> + The original phonograph, as invented by Edison, remained in its crude and + immature state for almost ten years—still the object of + philosophical interest, and as a convenient text-book illustration of the + effect of sound vibration. It continued to be a theme of curious interest + to the imaginative, and the subject of much fiction, while its neglected + commercial possibilities were still more or less vaguely referred to. + During this period of arrested development, Edison was continuously + working on the invention and commercial exploitation of the incandescent + lamp. In 1887 his time was comparatively free, and the phonograph was then + taken up with renewed energy, and the effort made to overcome its + mechanical defects and to furnish a commercial instrument, so that its + early promise might be realized. The important changes made from that time + up to 1890 converted the phonograph from a scientific toy into a + successful industrial apparatus. The idea of forming the record on tinfoil + had been early abandoned, and in its stead was substituted a cylinder of + wax-like material, in which the record was cut by a minute chisel-like + gouging tool. Such a record or phonogram, as it was then called, could be + removed from the machine or replaced at any time, many reproductions could + be obtained without wearing out the record, and whenever desired the + record could be shaved off by a turning-tool so as to present a fresh + surface on which a new record could be formed, something like an ancient + palimpsest. A wax cylinder having walls less than one-quarter of an inch + in thickness could be used for receiving a large number of records, since + the maximum depth of the record groove is hardly ever greater than one + one-thousandth of an inch. Later on, and as the crowning achievement in + the phonograph field, from a commercial point of view, came the + duplication of records to the extent of many thousands from a single + "master." This work was actively developed between the years 1890 and + 1898, and its difficulties may be appreciated when the problem is stated; + the copying from a single master of many millions of excessively minute + sound-waves having a maximum width of one hundredth of an inch, and a + maximum depth of one thousandth of an inch, or less than the thickness of + a sheet of tissue-paper. Among the interesting developments of this + process was the coating of the original or master record with a + homogeneous film of gold so thin that three hundred thousand of these + piled one on top of the other would present a thickness of only one inch! + </p> + <p> + Another important change was in the nature of a reversal of the original + arrangement, the cylinder or mandrel carrying the record being mounted in + fixed bearings, and the recording or reproducing device being fed + lengthwise, like the cutting-tool of a lathe, as the blank or record was + rotated. It was early recognized that a single needle for forming the + record and the reproduction therefrom was an undesirable arrangement, + since the formation of the record required a very sharp cutting-tool, + while satisfactory and repeated reproduction suggested the use of a stylus + which would result in the minimum wear. After many experiments and the + production of a number of types of machines, the present recorders and + reproducers were evolved, the former consisting of a very small + cylindrical gouging tool having a diameter of about forty thousandths of + an inch, and the latter a ball or button-shaped stylus with a diameter of + about thirty-five thousandths of an inch. By using an incisor of this + sort, the record is formed of a series of connected gouges with rounded + sides, varying in depth and width, and with which the reproducer + automatically engages and maintains its engagement. Another difficulty + encountered in the commercial development of the phonograph was the + adjustment of the recording stylus so as to enter the wax-like surface to + a very slight depth, and of the reproducer so as to engage exactly the + record when formed. The earlier types of machines were provided with + separate screws for effecting these adjustments; but considerable skill + was required to obtain good results, and great difficulty was experienced + in meeting the variations in the wax-like cylinders, due to the warping + under atmospheric changes. Consequently, with the early types of + commercial phonographs, it was first necessary to shave off the blank + accurately before a record was formed thereon, in order that an absolutely + true surface might be presented. To overcome these troubles, the very + ingenious suggestion was then made and adopted, of connecting the + recording and reproducing styluses to their respective diaphragms through + the instrumentality of a compensating weight, which acted practically as a + fixed support under the very rapid sound vibrations, but which yielded + readily to distortions or variations in the wax-like cylinders. By reason + of this improvement, it became possible to do away with all adjustments, + the mass of the compensating weight causing the recorder to engage the + blank automatically to the required depth, and to maintain the reproducing + stylus always with the desired pressure on the record when formed. These + automatic adjustments were maintained even though the blank or record + might be so much out of true as an eighth of an inch, equal to more than + two hundred times the maximum depth of the record groove. + </p> + <p> + Another improvement that followed along the lines adopted by Edison for + the commercial development of the phonograph was making the recording and + reproducing styluses of sapphire, an extremely hard, non-oxidizable jewel, + so that those tiny instruments would always retain their true form and + effectively resist wear. Of course, in this work many other things were + done that may still be found on the perfected phonograph as it stands + to-day, and many other suggestions were made which were contemporaneously + adopted, but which were later abandoned. For the curious-minded, reference + is made to the records in the Patent Office, which will show that up to + 1893 Edison had obtained upward of sixty-five patents in this art, from + which his line of thought can be very closely traced. The phonograph of + to-day, except for the perfection of its mechanical features, in its + beauty of manufacture and design, and in small details, may be considered + identical with the machine of 1889, with the exception that with the + latter the rotation of the record cylinder was effected by an electric + motor. + </p> + <p> + Its essential use as then contemplated was as a substitute for + stenographers, and the most extravagant fancies were indulged in as to + utility in that field. To exploit the device commercially, the patents + were sold to Philadelphia capitalists, who organized the North American + Phonograph Company, through which leases for limited periods were granted + to local companies doing business in special territories, generally within + the confines of a single State. Under that plan, resembling the methods of + 1878, the machines and blank cylinders were manufactured by the Edison + Phonograph Works, which still retains its factories at Orange, New Jersey. + The marketing enterprise was early doomed to failure, principally because + the instruments were not well understood, and did not possess the + necessary refinements that would fit them for the special field in which + they were to be used. At first the instruments were leased; but it was + found that the leases were seldom renewed. Efforts were then made to sell + them, but the prices were high—from $100 to $150. In the midst of + these difficulties, the chief promoter of the enterprise, Mr. Lippincott, + died; and it was soon found that the roseate dreams of success entertained + by the sanguine promoters were not to be realized. The North American + Phonograph Company failed, its principal creditor being Mr. Edison, who, + having acquired the assets of the defunct concern, organized the National + Phonograph Company, to which he turned over the patents; and with + characteristic energy he attempted again to build up a business with which + his favorite and, to him, most interesting invention might be successfully + identified. The National Phonograph Company from the very start determined + to retire at least temporarily from the field of stenographic use, and to + exploit the phonograph for musical purposes as a competitor of the + music-box. Hence it was necessary that for such work the relatively heavy + and expensive electric motor should be discarded, and a simple spring + motor constructed with a sufficiently sensitive governor to permit + accurate musical reproduction. Such a motor was designed, and is now used + on all phonographs except on such special instruments as may be made with + electric motors, as well as on the successful apparatus that has more + recently been designed and introduced for stenographic use. Improved + factory facilities were introduced; new tools were made, and various types + of machines were designed so that phonographs can now be bought at prices + ranging from $10 to $200. Even with the changes which were thus made in + the two machines, the work of developing the business was slow, as a + demand had to be created; and the early prejudice of the public against + the phonograph, due to its failure as a stenographic apparatus, had to be + overcome. The story of the phonograph as an industrial enterprise, from + this point of departure, is itself full of interest, but embraces so many + details that it is necessarily given in a separate later chapter. We must + return to the days of 1878, when Edison, with at least three first-class + inventions to his credit—the quadruplex, the carbon telephone, and + the phonograph—had become a man of mark and a "world character." + </p> + <p> + The invention of the phonograph was immediately followed, as usual, by the + appearance of several other incidental and auxiliary devices, some + patented, and others remaining simply the application of the principles of + apparatus that had been worked out. One of these was the telephonograph, a + combination of a telephone at a distant station with a phonograph. The + diaphragm of the phonograph mouthpiece is actuated by an electromagnet in + the same way as that of an ordinary telephone receiver, and in this manner + a record of the message spoken from a distance can be obtained and turned + into sound at will. Evidently such a process is reversible, and the + phonograph can send a message to the distant receiver. + </p> + <p> + This idea was brilliantly demonstrated in practice in February, 1889, by + Mr. W. J. Hammer, one of Edison's earliest and most capable associates, + who carried on telephonographic communication between New York and an + audience in Philadelphia. The record made in New York on the Edison + phonograph was repeated into an Edison carbon transmitter, sent over one + hundred and three miles of circuit, including six miles of underground + cable; received by an Edison motograph; repeated by that on to a + phonograph; transferred from the phonograph to an Edison carbon + transmitter, and by that delivered to the Edison motograph receiver in the + enthusiastic lecture-hall, where every one could hear each sound and + syllable distinctly. In real practice this spectacular playing with sound + vibrations, as if they were lacrosse balls to toss around between the + goals, could be materially simplified. + </p> + <p> + The modern megaphone, now used universally in making announcements to + large crowds, particularly at sporting events, is also due to this period + as a perfection by Edison of many antecedent devices going back, perhaps, + much further than the legendary funnels through which Alexander the Great + is said to have sent commands to his outlying forces. The improved Edison + megaphone for long-distance work comprised two horns of wood or metal + about six feet long, tapering from a diameter of two feet six inches at + the mouth to a small aperture provided with ear-tubes. These converging + horns or funnels, with a large speaking-trumpet in between them, are + mounted on a tripod, and the megaphone is complete. Conversation can be + carried on with this megaphone at a distance of over two miles, as with a + ship or the balloon. The modern megaphone now employs the receiver form + thus introduced as its very effective transmitter, with which the + old-fashioned speaking-trumpet cannot possibly compete; and the word + "megaphone" is universally applied to the single, side-flaring horn. + </p> + <p> + A further step in this line brought Edison to the "aerophone," around + which the Figaro weaved its fanciful description. In the construction of + the aerophone the same kind of tympanum is used as in the phonograph, but + the imitation of the human voice, or the transmission of sound, is + effected by the quick opening and closing of valves placed within a + steam-whistle or an organ-pipe. The vibrations of the diaphragm + communicated to the valves cause them to operate in synchronism, so that + the vibrations are thrown upon the escaping air or steam; and the result + is an instrument with a capacity of magnifying the sounds two hundred + times, and of hurling them to great distances intelligibly, like a huge + fog-siren, but with immense clearness and penetration. All this study of + sound transmission over long distances without wires led up to the + consideration and invention of pioneer apparatus for wireless telegraphy—but + that also is another chapter. + </p> + <p> + Yet one more ingenious device of this period must be noted—Edison's + vocal engine, the patent application for which was executed in August, + 1878, the patent being granted the following December. Reference to this + by Edison himself has already been quoted. The "voice-engine," or + "phonomotor," converts the vibrations of the voice or of music, acting on + the diaphragm, into motion which is utilized to drive some secondary + appliance, whether as a toy or for some useful purpose. Thus a man can + actually talk a hole through a board. + </p> + <p> + Somewhat weary of all this work and excitement, and not having enjoyed any + cessation from toil, or period of rest, for ten years, Edison jumped + eagerly at the opportunity afforded him in the summer of 1878 of making a + westward trip. Just thirty years later, on a similar trip over the same + ground, he jotted down for this volume some of his reminiscences. The lure + of 1878 was the opportunity to try the ability of his delicate tasimeter + during the total eclipse of the sun, July 29. His admiring friend, Prof. + George F. Barker, of the University of Pennsylvania, with whom he had now + been on terms of intimacy for some years, suggested the holiday, and was + himself a member of the excursion party that made its rendezvous at + Rawlins, Wyoming Territory. Edison had tested his tasimeter, and was + satisfied that it would measure down to the millionth part of a degree + Fahrenheit. It was just ten years since he had left the West in poverty + and obscurity, a penniless operator in search of a job; but now he was a + great inventor and famous, a welcome addition to the band of astronomers + and physicists assembled to observe the eclipse and the corona. + </p> + <p> + "There were astronomers from nearly every nation," says Mr. Edison. "We + had a special car. The country at that time was rather new; game was in + great abundance, and could be seen all day long from the car window, + especially antelope. We arrived at Rawlins about 4 P.M. It had a small + machine shop, and was the point where locomotives were changed for the + next section. The hotel was a very small one, and by doubling up we were + barely accommodated. My room-mate was Fox, the correspondent of the New + York Herald. After we retired and were asleep a thundering knock on the + door awakened us. Upon opening the door a tall, handsome man with flowing + hair dressed in western style entered the room. His eyes were bloodshot, + and he was somewhat inebriated. He introduced himself as 'Texas Jack'—Joe + Chromondo—and said he wanted to see Edison, as he had read about me + in the newspapers. Both Fox and I were rather scared, and didn't know what + was to be the result of the interview. The landlord requested him not to + make so much noise, and was thrown out into the hall. Jack explained that + he had just come in with a party which had been hunting, and that he felt + fine. He explained, also, that he was the boss pistol-shot of the West; + that it was he who taught the celebrated Doctor Carver how to shoot. Then + suddenly pointing to a weather-vane on the freight depot, he pulled out a + Colt revolver and fired through the window, hitting the vane. The shot + awakened all the people, and they rushed in to see who was killed. It was + only after I told him I was tired and would see him in the morning that he + left. Both Fox and I were so nervous we didn't sleep any that night. + </p> + <p> + "We were told in the morning that Jack was a pretty good fellow, and was + not one of the 'bad men,' of whom they had a good supply. They had one in + the jail, and Fox and I went over to see him. A few days before he had + held up a Union Pacific train and robbed all the passengers. In the jail + also was a half-breed horse-thief. We interviewed the bad man through bars + as big as railroad rails. He looked like a 'bad man.' The rim of his ear + all around came to a sharp edge and was serrated. His eyes were nearly + white, and appeared as if made of glass and set in wrong, like the + life-size figures of Indians in the Smithsonian Institution. His face was + also extremely irregular. He wouldn't answer a single question. I learned + afterward that he got seven years in prison, while the horse-thief was + hanged. As horses ran wild, and there was no protection, it meant death to + steal one." + </p> + <p> + This was one interlude among others. "The first thing the astronomers did + was to determine with precision their exact locality upon the earth. A + number of observations were made, and Watson, of Michigan University, with + two others, worked all night computing, until they agreed. They said they + were not in error more than one hundred feet, and that the station was + twelve miles out of the position given on the maps. It seemed to take an + immense amount of mathematics. I preserved one of the sheets, which looked + like the time-table of a Chinese railroad. The instruments of the various + parties were then set up in different parts of the little town, and got + ready for the eclipse which was to occur in three or four days. Two days + before the event we all got together, and obtaining an engine and car, + went twelve miles farther west to visit the United States Government + astronomers at a place called Separation, the apex of the Great Divide, + where the waters run east to the Mississippi and west to the Pacific. Fox + and I took our Winchester rifles with an idea of doing a little shooting. + After calling on the Government people we started to interview the + telegraph operator at this most lonely and desolate spot. After talking + over old acquaintances I asked him if there was any game around. He said, + 'Plenty of jack-rabbits.' These jack-rabbits are a very peculiar species. + They have ears about six inches long and very slender legs, about three + times as long as those of an ordinary rabbit, and travel at a great speed + by a series of jumps, each about thirty feet long, as near as I could + judge. The local people called them 'narrow-gauge mules.' Asking the + operator the best direction, he pointed west, and noticing a rabbit in a + clear space in the sage bushes, I said, 'There is one now.' I advanced + cautiously to within one hundred feet and shot. The rabbit paid no + attention. I then advanced to within ten feet and shot again—the + rabbit was still immovable. On looking around, the whole crowd at the + station were watching—and then I knew the rabbit was stuffed! + However, we did shoot a number of live ones until Fox ran out of + cartridges. On returning to the station I passed away the time shooting at + cans set on a pile of tins. Finally the operator said to Fox: 'I have a + fine Springfield musket, suppose you try it!' So Fox took the musket and + fired. It knocked him nearly over. It seems that the musket had been run + over by a handcar, which slightly bent the long barrel, but not + sufficiently for an amateur like Fox to notice. After Fox had his shoulder + treated with arnica at the Government hospital tent, we returned to + Rawlins." + </p> + <p> + The eclipse was, however, the prime consideration, and Edison followed the + example of his colleagues in making ready. The place which he secured for + setting up his tasimeter was an enclosure hardly suitable for the purpose, + and he describes the results as follows: + </p> + <p> + "I had my apparatus in a small yard enclosed by a board fence six feet + high, at one end there was a house for hens. I noticed that they all went + to roost just before totality. At the same time a slight wind arose, and + at the moment of totality the atmosphere was filled with thistle-down and + other light articles. I noticed one feather, whose weight was at least one + hundred and fifty milligrams, rise perpendicularly to the top of the + fence, where it floated away on the wind. My apparatus was entirely too + sensitive, and I got no results." It was found that the heat from the + corona of the sun was ten times the index capacity of the instrument; but + this result did not leave the value of the device in doubt. The Scientific + American remarked; + </p> + <p> + "Seeing that the tasimeter is affected by a wider range of etheric + undulations than the eye can take cognizance of, and is withal far more + acutely sensitive, the probabilities are that it will open up hitherto + inaccessible regions of space, and possibly extend the range of aerial + knowledge as far beyond the limit obtained by the telescope as that is + beyond the narrow reach of unaided vision." + </p> + <p> + The eclipse over, Edison, with Professor Barker, Major Thornberg, several + soldiers, and a number of railroad officials, went hunting about one + hundred miles south of the railroad in the Ute country. A few months later + the Major and thirty soldiers were ambushed near the spot at which the + hunting-party had camped, and all were killed. Through an introduction + from Mr. Jay Gould, who then controlled the Union Pacific, Edison was + allowed to ride on the cow-catchers of the locomotives. "The different + engineers gave me a small cushion, and every day I rode in this manner, + from Omaha to the Sacramento Valley, except through the snow-shed on the + summit of the Sierras, without dust or anything else to obstruct the view. + Only once was I in danger when the locomotive struck an animal about the + size of a small cub bear—which I think was a badger. This animal + struck the front of the locomotive just under the headlight with great + violence, and was then thrown off by the rebound. I was sitting to one + side grasping the angle brace, so no harm was done." + </p> + <p> + This welcome vacation lasted nearly two months; but Edison was back in his + laboratory and hard at work before the end of August, gathering up many + loose ends, and trying out many thoughts and ideas that had accumulated on + the trip. One hot afternoon—August 30th, as shown by the document in + the case—Mr. Edison was found by one of the authors of this + biography employed most busily in making a mysterious series of tests on + paper, using for ink acids that corrugated and blistered the paper where + written upon. When interrogated as to his object, he stated that the plan + was to afford blind people the means of writing directly to each other, + especially if they were also deaf and could not hear a message on the + phonograph. The characters which he was thus forming on the paper were + high enough in relief to be legible to the delicate touch of a blind man's + fingers, and with simple apparatus letters could be thus written, sent, + and read. There was certainly no question as to the result obtained at the + moment, which was all that was asked; but the Edison autograph thus and + then written now shows the paper eaten out by the acid used, although + covered with glass for many years. Mr. Edison does not remember that he + ever recurred to this very interesting test. + </p> + <p> + He was, however, ready for anything new or novel, and no record can ever + be made or presented that would do justice to a tithe of the thoughts and + fancies daily and hourly put upon the rack. The famous note-books, to + which reference will be made later, were not begun as a regular series, as + it was only the profusion of these ideas that suggested the vital value of + such systematic registration. Then as now, the propositions brought to + Edison ranged over every conceivable subject, but the years have taught + him caution in grappling with them. He tells an amusing story of one + dilemma into which his good-nature led him at this period: "At Menlo Park + one day, a farmer came in and asked if I knew any way to kill potato-bugs. + He had twenty acres of potatoes, and the vines were being destroyed. I + sent men out and culled two quarts of bugs, and tried every chemical I had + to destroy them. Bisulphide of carbon was found to do it instantly. I got + a drum and went over to the potato farm and sprinkled it on the vines with + a pot. Every bug dropped dead. The next morning the farmer came in very + excited and reported that the stuff had killed the vines as well. I had to + pay $300 for not experimenting properly." + </p> + <p> + During this year, 1878, the phonograph made its way also to Europe, and + various sums of money were paid there to secure the rights to its + manufacture and exploitation. In England, for example, the Microscopic + Company paid $7500 down and agreed to a royalty, while arrangements were + effected also in France, Russia, and other countries. In every instance, + as in this country, the commercial development had to wait several years, + for in the mean time another great art had been brought into existence, + demanding exclusive attention and exhaustive toil. And when the work was + done the reward was a new heaven and a new earth—in the art of + illumination. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI + </h2> + <h3> + THE INVENTION OF THE INCANDESCENT LAMP + </h3> + <p> + IT is possible to imagine a time to come when the hours of work and rest + will once more be regulated by the sun. But the course of civilization has + been marked by an artificial lengthening of the day, and by a constant + striving after more perfect means of illumination. Why mankind should + sleep through several hours of sunlight in the morning, and stay awake + through a needless time in the evening, can probably only be attributed to + total depravity. It is certainly a most stupid, expensive, and harmful + habit. In no one thing has man shown greater fertility of invention than + in lighting; to nothing does he cling more tenaciously than to his devices + for furnishing light. Electricity to-day reigns supreme in the field of + illumination, but every other kind of artificial light that has ever been + known is still in use somewhere. Toward its light-bringers the race has + assumed an attitude of veneration, though it has forgotten, if it ever + heard, the names of those who first brightened its gloom and dissipated + its darkness. If the tallow candle, hitherto unknown, were now invented, + its creator would be hailed as one of the greatest benefactors of the + present age. + </p> + <p> + Up to the close of the eighteenth century, the means of house and street + illumination were of two generic kinds—grease and oil; but then came + a swift and revolutionary change in the adoption of gas. The ideas and + methods of Murdoch and Lebon soon took definite shape, and "coal smoke" + was piped from its place of origin to distant points of consumption. As + early as 1804, the first company ever organized for gas lighting was + formed in London, one side of Pall Mall being lit up by the enthusiastic + pioneer, Winsor, in 1807. Equal activity was shown in America, and + Baltimore began the practice of gas lighting in 1816. It is true that + there were explosions, and distinguished men like Davy and Watt opined + that the illuminant was too dangerous; but the "spirit of coal" had + demonstrated its usefulness convincingly, and a commercial development + began, which, for extent and rapidity, was not inferior to that marking + the concurrent adoption of steam in industry and transportation. + </p> + <p> + Meantime the wax candle and the Argand oil lamp held their own bravely. + The whaling fleets, long after gas came into use, were one of the greatest + sources of our national wealth. To New Bedford, Massachusetts, alone, some + three or four hundred ships brought their whale and sperm oil, spermaceti, + and whalebone; and at one time that port was accounted the richest city in + the United States in proportion to its population. The ship-owners and + refiners of that whaling metropolis were slow to believe that their + monopoly could ever be threatened by newer sources of illumination; but + gas had become available in the cities, and coal-oil and petroleum were + now added to the list of illuminating materials. The American whaling + fleet, which at the time of Edison's birth mustered over seven hundred + sail, had dwindled probably to a bare tenth when he took up the problem of + illumination; and the competition of oil from the ground with oil from the + sea, and with coal-gas, had made the artificial production of light + cheaper than ever before, when up to the middle of the century it had + remained one of the heaviest items of domestic expense. Moreover, just + about the time that Edison took up incandescent lighting, water-gas was + being introduced on a large scale as a commercial illuminant that could be + produced at a much lower cost than coal-gas. + </p> + <p> + Throughout the first half of the nineteenth century the search for a + practical electric light was almost wholly in the direction of employing + methods analogous to those already familiar; in other words, obtaining the + illumination from the actual consumption of the light-giving material. In + the third quarter of the century these methods were brought to + practicality, but all may be referred back to the brilliant demonstrations + of Sir Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution, circa 1809-10, when, with + the current from a battery of two thousand cells, he produced an intense + voltaic arc between the points of consuming sticks of charcoal. For more + than thirty years the arc light remained an expensive laboratory + experiment; but the coming of the dynamo placed that illuminant on a + commercial basis. The mere fact that electrical energy from the least + expensive chemical battery using up zinc and acids costs twenty times as + much as that from a dynamo—driven by steam-engine—is in itself + enough to explain why so many of the electric arts lingered in embryo + after their fundamental principles had been discovered. Here is seen also + further proof of the great truth that one invention often waits for + another. + </p> + <p> + From 1850 onward the improvements in both the arc lamp and the dynamo were + rapid; and under the superintendence of the great Faraday, in 1858, + protecting beams of intense electric light from the voltaic arc were shed + over the waters of the Straits of Dover from the beacons of South Foreland + and Dungeness. By 1878 the arc-lighting industry had sprung into existence + in so promising a manner as to engender an extraordinary fever and furor + of speculation. At the Philadelphia Centennial Exposition of 1876, + Wallace-Farmer dynamos built at Ansonia, Connecticut, were shown, with the + current from which arc lamps were there put in actual service. A year or + two later the work of Charles F. Brush and Edward Weston laid the deep + foundation of modern arc lighting in America, securing as well substantial + recognition abroad. + </p> + <p> + Thus the new era had been ushered in, but it was based altogether on the + consumption of some material—carbon—in a lamp open to the air. + Every lamp the world had ever known did this, in one way or another. + Edison himself began at that point, and his note-books show that he made + various experiments with this type of lamp at a very early stage. Indeed, + his experiments had led him so far as to anticipate in 1875 what are now + known as "flaming arcs," the exceedingly bright and generally orange or + rose-colored lights which have been introduced within the last few years, + and are now so frequently seen in streets and public places. While the + arcs with plain carbons are bluish-white, those with carbons containing + calcium fluoride have a notable golden glow. + </p> + <p> + He was convinced, however, that the greatest field of lighting lay in the + illumination of houses and other comparatively enclosed areas, to replace + the ordinary gas light, rather than in the illumination of streets and + other outdoor places by lights of great volume and brilliancy. Dismissing + from his mind quickly the commercial impossibility of using arc lights for + general indoor illumination, he arrived at the conclusion that an electric + lamp giving light by incandescence was the solution of the problem. + </p> + <p> + Edison was familiar with the numerous but impracticable and commercially + unsuccessful efforts that had been previously made by other inventors and + investigators to produce electric light by incandescence, and at the time + that he began his experiments, in 1877, almost the whole scientific world + had pronounced such an idea as impossible of fulfilment. The leading + electricians, physicists, and experts of the period had been studying the + subject for more than a quarter of a century, and with but one known + exception had proven mathematically and by close reasoning that the + "Subdivision of the Electric Light," as it was then termed, was + practically beyond attainment. Opinions of this nature have ever been but + a stimulus to Edison when he has given deep thought to a subject, and has + become impressed with strong convictions of possibility, and in this + particular case he was satisfied that the subdivision of the electric + light—or, more correctly, the subdivision of the electric current—was + not only possible but entirely practicable. + </p> + <p> + It will have been perceived from the foregoing chapters that from the time + of boyhood, when he first began to rub against the world, his commercial + instincts were alert and predominated in almost all of the enterprises + that he set in motion. This characteristic trait had grown stronger as he + matured, having received, as it did, fresh impetus and strength from his + one lapse in the case of his first patented invention, the vote-recorder. + The lesson he then learned was to devote his inventive faculties only to + things for which there was a real, genuine demand, and that would subserve + the actual necessities of humanity; and it was probably a fortunate + circumstance that this lesson was learned at the outset of his career as + an inventor. He has never assumed to be a philosopher or "pure scientist." + </p> + <p> + In order that the reader may grasp an adequate idea of the magnitude and + importance of Edison's invention of the incandescent lamp, it will be + necessary to review briefly the "state of the art" at the time he began + his experiments on that line. After the invention of the voltaic battery, + early in the last century, experiments were made which determined that + heat could be produced by the passage of the electric current through + wires of platinum and other metals, and through pieces of carbon, as noted + already, and it was, of course, also observed that if sufficient current + were passed through these conductors they could be brought from the lower + stage of redness up to the brilliant white heat of incandescence. As early + as 1845 the results of these experiments were taken advantage of when + Starr, a talented American who died at the early age of twenty-five, + suggested, in his English patent of that year, two forms of small + incandescent electric lamps, one having a burner made from platinum foil + placed under a glass cover without excluding the air; and the other + composed of a thin plate or pencil of carbon enclosed in a Torricellian + vacuum. These suggestions of young Starr were followed by many other + experimenters, whose improvements consisted principally in devices to + increase the compactness and portability of the lamp, in the sealing of + the lamp chamber to prevent the admission of air, and in means for + renewing the carbon burner when it had been consumed. Thus Roberts, in + 1852, proposed to cement the neck of the glass globe into a metallic cup, + and to provide it with a tube or stop-cock for exhaustion by means of a + hand-pump. Lodyguine, Konn, Kosloff, and Khotinsky, between 1872 and 1877, + proposed various ingenious devices for perfecting the joint between the + metal base and the glass globe, and also provided their lamps with several + short carbon pencils, which were automatically brought into circuit + successively as the pencils were consumed. In 1876 or 1877, Bouliguine + proposed the employment of a long carbon pencil, a short section only of + which was in circuit at any one time and formed the burner, the lamp being + provided with a mechanism for automatically pushing other sections of the + pencil into position between the contacts to renew the burner. Sawyer and + Man proposed, in 1878, to make the bottom plate of glass instead of metal, + and provided ingenious arrangements for charging the lamp chamber with an + atmosphere of pure nitrogen gas which does not support combustion. + </p> + <p> + These lamps and many others of similar character, ingenious as they were, + failed to become of any commercial value, due, among other things, to the + brief life of the carbon burner. Even under the best conditions it was + found that the carbon members were subject to a rapid disintegration or + evaporation, which experimenters assumed was due to the disrupting action + of the electric current; and hence the conclusion that carbon contained in + itself the elements of its own destruction, and was not a suitable + material for the burner of an incandescent lamp. On the other hand, + platinum, although found to be the best of all materials for the purpose, + aside from its great expense, and not combining with oxygen at high + temperatures as does carbon, required to be brought so near the + melting-point in order to give light, that a very slight increase in the + temperature resulted in its destruction. It was assumed that the + difficulty lay in the material of the burner itself, and not in its + environment. + </p> + <p> + It was not realized up to such a comparatively recent date as 1879 that + the solution of the great problem of subdivision of the electric current + would not, however, be found merely in the production of a durable + incandescent electric lamp—even if any of the lamps above referred + to had fulfilled that requirement. The other principal features necessary + to subdivide the electric current successfully were: the burning of an + indefinite number of lights on the same circuit; each light to give a + useful and economical degree of illumination; and each light to be + independent of all the others in regard to its operation and + extinguishment. + </p> + <p> + The opinions of scientific men of the period on the subject are well + represented by the two following extracts—the first, from a lecture + at the Royal United Service Institution, about February, 1879, by Mr. + (Sir) W. H. Preece, one of the most eminent electricians in England, who, + after discussing the question mathematically, said: "Hence the + sub-division of the light is an absolute ignis fatuus." The other extract + is from a book written by Paget Higgs, LL.D., D.Sc., published in London + in 1879, in which he says: "Much nonsense has been talked in relation to + this subject. Some inventors have claimed the power to 'indefinitely + divide' the electric current, not knowing or forgetting that such a + statement is incompatible with the well-proven law of conservation of + energy." + </p> + <p> + "Some inventors," in the last sentence just quoted, probably—indeed, + we think undoubtedly—refers to Edison, whose earlier work in + electric lighting (1878) had been announced in this country and abroad, + and who had then stated boldly his conviction of the practicability of the + subdivision of the electrical current. The above extracts are good + illustrations, however, of scientific opinions up to the end of 1879, when + Mr. Edison's epoch-making invention rendered them entirely untenable. The + eminent scientist, John Tyndall, while not sharing these precise views, at + least as late as January 17, 1879, delivered a lecture before the Royal + Institution on "The Electric Light," when, after pointing out the + development of the art up to Edison's work, and showing the apparent + hopelessness of the problem, he said: "Knowing something of the intricacy + of the practical problem, I should certainly prefer seeing it in Edison's + hands to having it in mine." + </p> + <p> + The reader may have deemed this sketch of the state of the art to be a + considerable digression; but it is certainly due to the subject to present + the facts in such a manner as to show that this great invention was + neither the result of improving some process or device that was known or + existing at the time, nor due to any unforeseen lucky chance, nor the + accidental result of other experiments. On the contrary, it was the + legitimate outcome of a series of exhaustive experiments founded upon + logical and original reasoning in a mind that had the courage and + hardihood to set at naught the confirmed opinions of the world, voiced by + those generally acknowledged to be the best exponents of the art—experiments + carried on amid a storm of jeers and derision, almost as contemptuous as + if the search were for the discovery of perpetual motion. In this we see + the man foreshadowed by the boy who, when he obtained his books on + chemistry or physics, did not accept any statement of fact or experiment + therein, but worked out every one of them himself to ascertain whether or + not they were true. + </p> + <p> + Although this brings the reader up to the year 1879, one must turn back + two years and accompany Edison in his first attack on the electric-light + problem. In 1877 he sold his telephone invention (the carbon transmitter) + to the Western Union Telegraph Company, which had previously come into + possession also of his quadruplex inventions, as already related. He was + still busily engaged on the telephone, on acoustic electrical + transmission, sextuplex telegraphs, duplex telegraphs, miscellaneous + carbon articles, and other inventions of a minor nature. During the whole + of the previous year and until late in the summer of 1877, he had been + working with characteristic energy and enthusiasm on the telephone; and, + in developing this invention to a successful issue, had preferred the use + of carbon and had employed it in numerous forms, especially in the form of + carbonized paper. + </p> + <p> + Eighteen hundred and seventy-seven in Edison's laboratory was a veritable + carbon year, for it was carbon in some shape or form for interpolation in + electric circuits of various kinds that occupied the thoughts of the whole + force from morning to night. It is not surprising, therefore, that in + September of that year, when Edison turned his thoughts actively toward + electric lighting by incandescence, his early experiments should be in the + line of carbon as an illuminant. His originality of method was displayed + at the very outset, for one of the first experiments was the bringing to + incandescence of a strip of carbon in the open air to ascertain merely how + much current was required. This conductor was a strip of carbonized paper + about an inch long, one-sixteenth of an inch broad, and six or seven + one-thousandths of an inch thick, the ends of which were secured to clamps + that formed the poles of a battery. The carbon was lighted up to + incandescence, and, of course, oxidized and disintegrated immediately. + Within a few days this was followed by experiments with the same kind of + carbon, but in vacuo by means of a hand-worked air-pump. This time the + carbon strip burned at incandescence for about eight minutes. Various + expedients to prevent oxidization were tried, such, for instance, as + coating the carbon with powdered glass, which in melting would protect the + carbon from the atmosphere, but without successful results. + </p> + <p> + Edison was inclined to concur in the prevailing opinion as to the easy + destructibility of carbon, but, without actually settling the point in his + mind, he laid aside temporarily this line of experiment and entered a new + field. He had made previously some trials of platinum wire as an + incandescent burner for a lamp, but left it for a time in favor of carbon. + He now turned to the use of almost infusible metals—such as boron, + ruthenium, chromium, etc.—as separators or tiny bridges between two + carbon points, the current acting so as to bring these separators to a + high degree of incandescence, at which point they would emit a brilliant + light. He also placed some of these refractory metals directly in the + circuit, bringing them to incandescence, and used silicon in powdered form + in glass tubes placed in the electric circuit. His notes include the use + of powdered silicon mixed with lime or other very infusible non-conductors + or semi-conductors. Edison's conclusions on these substances were that, + while in some respects they were within the bounds of possibility for the + subdivision of the electric current, they did not reach the ideal that he + had in mind for commercial results. + </p> + <p> + Edison's systematized attacks on the problem were two in number, the first + of which we have just related, which began in September, 1877, and + continued until about January, 1878. Contemporaneously, he and his force + of men were very busily engaged day and night on other important + enterprises and inventions. Among the latter, the phonograph may be + specially mentioned, as it was invented in the late fall of 1877. From + that time until July, 1878, his time and attention day and night were + almost completely absorbed by the excitement caused by the invention and + exhibition of the machine. In July, feeling entitled to a brief vacation + after several years of continuous labor, Edison went with the expedition + to Wyoming to observe an eclipse of the sun, and incidentally to test his + tasimeter, a delicate instrument devised by him for measuring heat + transmitted through immense distances of space. His trip has been already + described. He was absent about two months. Coming home rested and + refreshed, Mr. Edison says: "After my return from the trip to observe the + eclipse of the sun, I went with Professor Barker, Professor of Physics in + the University of Pennsylvania, and Doctor Chandler, Professor of + Chemistry in Columbia College, to see Mr. Wallace, a large manufacturer of + brass in Ansonia, Connecticut. Wallace at this time was experimenting on + series arc lighting. Just at that time I wanted to take up something new, + and Professor Barker suggested that I go to work and see if I could + subdivide the electric light so it could be got in small units like gas. + This was not a new suggestion, because I had made a number of experiments + on electric lighting a year before this. They had been laid aside for the + phonograph. I determined to take up the search again and continue it. On + my return home I started my usual course of collecting every kind of data + about gas; bought all the transactions of the gas-engineering societies, + etc., all the back volumes of gas journals, etc. Having obtained all the + data, and investigated gas-jet distribution in New York by actual + observations, I made up my mind that the problem of the subdivision of the + electric current could be solved and made commercial." About the end of + August, 1878, he began his second organized attack on the subdivision of + the current, which was steadily maintained until he achieved signal + victory a year and two months later. + </p> + <p> + The date of this interesting visit to Ansonia is fixed by an inscription + made by Edison on a glass goblet which he used. The legend in diamond + scratches runs: "Thomas A. Edison, September 8, 1878, made under the + electric light." Other members of the party left similar memorials, which + under the circumstances have come to be greatly prized. A number of + experiments were witnessed in arc lighting, and Edison secured a small + Wallace-Farmer dynamo for his own work, as well as a set of Wallace arc + lamps for lighting the Menlo Park laboratory. Before leaving Ansonia, + Edison remarked, significantly: "Wallace, I believe I can beat you making + electric lights. I don't think you are working in the right direction." + Another date which shows how promptly the work was resumed is October 14, + 1878, when Edison filed an application for his first lighting patent: + "Improvement in Electric Lights." In after years, discussing the work of + Wallace, who was not only a great pioneer electrical manufacturer, but one + of the founders of the wire-drawing and brass-working industry, Edison + said: "Wallace was one of the earliest pioneers in electrical matters in + this country. He has done a great deal of good work, for which others have + received the credit; and the work which he did in the early days of + electric lighting others have benefited by largely, and he has been + crowded to one side and forgotten." Associated in all this work with + Wallace at Ansonia was Prof. Moses G. Farmer, famous for the introduction + of the fire-alarm system; as the discoverer of the self-exciting principle + of the modern dynamo; as a pioneer experimenter in the electric-railway + field; as a telegraph engineer, and as a lecturer on mines and explosives + to naval classes at Newport. During 1858, Farmer, who, like Edison, was a + ceaseless investigator, had made a series of studies upon the production + of light by electricity, and had even invented an automatic regulator by + which a number of platinum lamps in multiple arc could be kept at uniform + voltage for any length of time. In July, 1859, he lit up one of the rooms + of his house at Salem, Massachusetts, every evening with such lamps, using + in them small pieces of platinum and iridium wire, which were made to + incandesce by means of current from primary batteries. Farmer was not one + of the party that memorable day in September, but his work was known + through his intimate connection with Wallace, and there is no doubt that + reference was made to it. Such work had not led very far, the "lamps" were + hopelessly short-lived, and everything was obviously experimental; but it + was all helpful and suggestive to one whose open mind refused no hint from + any quarter. + </p> + <p> + At the commencement of his new attempts, Edison returned to his + experiments with carbon as an incandescent burner for a lamp, and made a + very large number of trials, all in vacuo. Not only were the ordinary + strip paper carbons tried again, but tissue-paper coated with tar and + lampblack was rolled into thin sticks, like knitting-needles, carbonized + and raised to incandescence in vacuo. Edison also tried hard carbon, wood + carbons, and almost every conceivable variety of paper carbon in like + manner. With the best vacuum that he could then get by means of the + ordinary air-pump, the carbons would last, at the most, only from ten to + fifteen minutes in a state of incandescence. Such results were evidently + not of commercial value. + </p> + <p> + Edison then turned his attention in other directions. In his earliest + consideration of the problem of subdividing the electric current, he had + decided that the only possible solution lay in the employment of a lamp + whose incandescing body should have a high resistance combined with a + small radiating surface, and be capable of being used in what is called + "multiple arc," so that each unit, or lamp, could be turned on or off + without interfering with any other unit or lamp. No other arrangement + could possibly be considered as commercially practicable. + </p> + <p> + The full significance of the three last preceding sentences will not be + obvious to laymen, as undoubtedly many of the readers of this book may be; + and now being on the threshold of the series of Edison's experiments that + led up to the basic invention, we interpolate a brief explanation, in + order that the reader may comprehend the logical reasoning and work that + in this case produced such far-reaching results. + </p> + <p> + If we consider a simple circuit in which a current is flowing, and include + in the circuit a carbon horseshoe-like conductor which it is desired to + bring to incandescence by the heat generated by the current passing + through it, it is first evident that the resistance offered to the current + by the wires themselves must be less than that offered by the burner, + because, otherwise current would be wasted as heat in the conducting + wires. At the very foundation of the electric-lighting art is the + essentially commercial consideration that one cannot spend very much for + conductors, and Edison determined that, in order to use wires of a + practicable size, the voltage of the current (i.e., its pressure or the + characteristic that overcomes resistance to its flow) should be one + hundred and ten volts, which since its adoption has been the standard. To + use a lower voltage or pressure, while making the solution of the lighting + problem a simple one as we shall see, would make it necessary to increase + the size of the conducting wires to a prohibitive extent. To increase the + voltage or pressure materially, while permitting some saving in the cost + of conductors, would enormously increase the difficulties of making a + sufficiently high resistance conductor to secure light by incandescence. + This apparently remote consideration —weight of copper used—was + really the commercial key to the problem, just as the incandescent burner + was the scientific key to that problem. Before Edison's invention + incandescent lamps had been suggested as a possibility, but they were + provided with carbon rods or strips of relatively low resistance, and to + bring these to incandescence required a current of low pressure, because a + current of high voltage would pass through them so readily as not to + generate heat; and to carry a current of low pressure through wires + without loss would require wires of enormous size. [8] Having a current of + relatively high pressure to contend with, it was necessary to provide a + carbon burner which, as compared with what had previously been suggested, + should have a very great resistance. Carbon as a material, determined + after patient search, apparently offered the greatest hope, but even with + this substance the necessary high resistance could be obtained only by + making the burner of extremely small cross-section, thereby also reducing + its radiating surface. Therefore, the crucial point was the production of + a hair-like carbon filament, with a relatively great resistance and small + radiating surface, capable of withstanding mechanical shock, and + susceptible of being maintained at a temperature of over two thousand + degrees for a thousand hours or more before breaking. And this filamentary + conductor required to be supported in a vacuum chamber so perfectly formed + and constructed that during all those hours, and subjected as it is to + varying temperatures, not a particle of air should enter to disintegrate + the filament. And not only so, but the lamp after its design must not be a + mere laboratory possibility, but a practical commercial article capable of + being manufactured at low cost and in large quantities. A statement of + what had to be done in those days of actual as well as scientific + electrical darkness is quite sufficient to explain Tyndall's attitude of + mind in preferring that the problem should be in Edison's hands rather + than in his own. To say that the solution of the problem lay merely in + reducing the size of the carbon burner to a mere hair, is to state a + half-truth only; but who, we ask, would have had the temerity even to + suggest that such an attenuated body could be maintained at a white heat, + without disintegration, for a thousand hours? The solution consisted not + only in that, but in the enormous mass of patiently worked-out details—the + manufacture of the filaments, their uniform carbonization, making the + globes, producing a perfect vacuum, and countless other factors, the + omission of any one of which would probably have resulted eventually in + failure. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 8: As a practical illustration of these facts it + was calculated by Professor Barker, of the University of + Pennsylvania (after Edison had invented the incandescent + lamp), that if it should cost $100,000 for copper conductors + to supply current to Edison lamps in a given area, it would + cost about $200,000,000 for copper conductors for lighting + the same area by lamps of the earlier experimenters—such, + for instance, as the lamp invented by Konn in 1875. This + enormous difference would be accounted for by the fact that + Edison's lamp was one having a high resistance and + relatively small radiating surface, while Konn's lamp was + one having a very low resistance and large radiating + surface.] +</pre> + <p> + Continuing the digression one step farther in order to explain the term + "multiple arc," it may be stated that there are two principal systems of + distributing electric current, one termed "series," and the other + "multiple arc." The two are illustrated, diagrammatically, side by side, + the arrows indicating flow of current. The series system, it will be seen, + presents one continuous path for the current. The current for the last + lamp must pass through the first and all the intermediate lamps. Hence, if + any one light goes out, the continuity of the path is broken, current + cannot flow, and all the lamps are extinguished unless a loop or by-path + is provided. It is quite obvious that such a system would be commercially + impracticable where small units, similar to gas jets, were employed. On + the other hand, in the multiple-arc system, current may be considered as + flowing in two parallel conductors like the vertical sides of a ladder, + the ends of which never come together. Each lamp is placed in a separate + circuit across these two conductors, like a rung in the ladder, thus + making a separate and independent path for the current in each case. + Hence, if a lamp goes out, only that individual subdivision, or ladder + step, is affected; just that one particular path for the current is + interrupted, but none of the other lamps is interfered with. They remain + lighted, each one independent of the other. The reader will quite readily + understand, therefore, that a multiple-arc system is the only one + practically commercial where electric light is to be used in small units + like those of gas or oil. + </p> + <p> + Such was the nature of the problem that confronted Edison at the outset. + There was nothing in the whole world that in any way approximated a + solution, although the most brilliant minds in the electrical art had been + assiduously working on the subject for a quarter of a century preceding. + As already seen, he came early to the conclusion that the only solution + lay in the use of a lamp of high resistance and small radiating surface, + and, with characteristic fervor and energy, he attacked the problem from + this standpoint, having absolute faith in a successful outcome. The mere + fact that even with the successful production of the electric lamp the + assault on the complete problem of commercial lighting would hardly be + begun did not deter him in the slightest. To one of Edison's enthusiastic + self-confidence the long vista of difficulties ahead—we say it in + all sincerity—must have been alluring. + </p> + <p> + After having devoted several months to experimental trials of carbon, at + the end of 1878, as already detailed, he turned his attention to the + platinum group of metals and began a series of experiments in which he + used chiefly platinum wire and iridium wire, and alloys of refractory + metals in the form of wire burners for incandescent lamps. These metals + have very high fusing-points, and were found to last longer than the + carbon strips previously used when heated up to incandescence by the + electric current, although under such conditions as were then possible + they were melted by excess of current after they had been lighted a + comparatively short time, either in the open air or in such a vacuum as + could be obtained by means of the ordinary air-pump. + </p> + <p> + Nevertheless, Edison continued along this line of experiment with + unremitting vigor, making improvement after improvement, until about + April, 1879, he devised a means whereby platinum wire of a given length, + which would melt in the open air when giving a light equal to four + candles, would emit a light of twenty-five candle-power without fusion. + This was accomplished by introducing the platinum wire into an all-glass + globe, completely sealed and highly exhausted of air, and passing a + current through the platinum wire while the vacuum was being made. In + this, which was a new and radical invention, we see the first step toward + the modern incandescent lamp. The knowledge thus obtained that current + passing through the platinum during exhaustion would drive out occluded + gases (i.e., gases mechanically held in or upon the metal), and increase + the infusibility of the platinum, led him to aim at securing greater + perfection in the vacuum, on the theory that the higher the vacuum + obtained, the higher would be the infusibility of the platinum burner. And + this fact also was of the greatest importance in making successful the + final use of carbon, because without the subjection of the carbon to the + heating effect of current during the formation of the vacuum, the presence + of occluded gases would have been a fatal obstacle. + </p> + <p> + Continuing these experiments with most fervent zeal, taking no account of + the passage of time, with an utter disregard for meals, and but scanty + hours of sleep snatched reluctantly at odd periods of the day or night, + Edison kept his laboratory going without cessation. A great variety of + lamps was made of the platinum-iridium type, mostly with thermal devices + to regulate the temperature of the burner and prevent its being melted by + an excess of current. The study of apparatus for obtaining more perfect + vacua was unceasingly carried on, for Edison realized that in this there + lay a potent factor of ultimate success. About August he had obtained a + pump that would produce a vacuum up to about the one-hundred-thousandth + part of an atmosphere, and some time during the next month, or beginning + of October, had obtained one that would produce a vacuum up to the + one-millionth part of an atmosphere. It must be remembered that the + conditions necessary for MAINTAINING this high vacuum were only made + possible by his invention of the one-piece all-glass globe, in which all + the joints were hermetically sealed during its manufacture into a lamp, + whereby a high vacuum could be retained continuously for any length of + time. + </p> + <p> + In obtaining this perfection of vacuum apparatus, Edison realized that he + was approaching much nearer to a solution of the problem. In his + experiments with the platinum-iridium lamps, he had been working all the + time toward the proposition of high resistance and small radiating + surface, until he had made a lamp having thirty feet of fine platinum wire + wound upon a small bobbin of infusible material; but the desired economy, + simplicity, and durability were not obtained in this manner, although at + all times the burner was maintained at a critically high temperature. + After attaining a high degree of perfection with these lamps, he + recognized their impracticable character, and his mind reverted to the + opinion he had formed in his early experiments two years before—viz., + that carbon had the requisite resistance to permit a very simple conductor + to accomplish the object if it could be used in the form of a hair-like + "filament," provided the filament itself could be made sufficiently + homogeneous. As we have already seen, he could not use carbon successfully + in his earlier experiments, for the strips of carbon he then employed, + although they were much larger than "filaments," would not stand, but were + consumed in a few minutes under the imperfect conditions then at his + command. + </p> + <p> + Now, however, that he had found means for obtaining and maintaining high + vacua, Edison immediately went back to carbon, which from the first he had + conceived of as the ideal substance for a burner. His next step proved + conclusively the correctness of his old deductions. On October 21, 1879, + after many patient trials, he carbonized a piece of cotton sewing-thread + bent into a loop or horseshoe form, and had it sealed into a glass globe + from which he exhausted the air until a vacuum up to one-millionth of an + atmosphere was produced. This lamp, when put on the circuit, lighted up + brightly to incandescence and maintained its integrity for over forty + hours, and lo! the practical incandescent lamp was born. The impossible, + so called, had been attained; subdivision of the electric-light current + was made practicable; the goal had been reached; and one of the greatest + inventions of the century was completed. Up to this time Edison had spent + over $40,000 in his electric-light experiments, but the results far more + than justified the expenditure, for with this lamp he made the discovery + that the FILAMENT of carbon, under the conditions of high vacuum, was + commercially stable and would stand high temperatures without the + disintegration and oxidation that took place in all previous attempts that + he knew of for making an incandescent burner out of carbon. Besides, this + lamp possessed the characteristics of high resistance and small radiating + surface, permitting economy in the outlay for conductors, and requiring + only a small current for each unit of light—conditions that were + absolutely necessary of fulfilment in order to accomplish commercially the + subdivision of the electric-light current. + </p> + <p> + This slender, fragile, tenuous thread of brittle carbon, glowing steadily + and continuously with a soft light agreeable to the eyes, was the tiny key + that opened the door to a world revolutionized in its interior + illumination. It was a triumphant vindication of Edison's reasoning + powers, his clear perceptions, his insight into possibilities, and his + inventive faculty, all of which had already been productive of so many + startling, practical, and epoch-making inventions. And now he had stepped + over the threshold of a new art which has since become so world-wide in + its application as to be an integral part of modern human experience. [9] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 9: The following extract from Walker on Patents + (4th edition) will probably be of interest to the reader: + + "Sec. 31a. A meritorious exception, to the rule of the last + section, is involved in the adjudicated validity of the + Edison incandescent-light patent. The carbon filament, which + constitutes the only new part of the combination of the + second claim of that patent, differs from the earlier carbon + burners of Sawyer and Man, only in having a diameter of one- + sixty-fourth of an inch or less, whereas the burners of + Sawyer and Man had a diameter of one-thirty-second of an + inch or more. But that reduction of one-half in diameter + increased the resistance of the burner FOURFOLD, and reduced + its radiating surface TWOFOLD, and thus increased eightfold, + its ratio of resistance to radiating surface. That eightfold + increase of proportion enabled the resistance of the + conductor of electricity from the generator to the burner to + be increased eightfold, without any increase of percentage + of loss of energy in that conductor, or decrease of + percentage of development of heat in the burner; and thus + enabled the area of the cross-section of that conductor to + be reduced eightfold, and thus to be made with one-eighth of + the amount of copper or other metal, which would be required + if the reduction of diameter of the burner from one-thirty- + second to one-sixty-fourth of an inch had not been made. And + that great reduction in the size and cost of conductors, + involved also a great difference in the composition of the + electric energy employed in the system; that difference + consisting in generating the necessary amount of electrical + energy with comparatively high electromotive force, and + comparatively low current, instead of contrariwise. For this + reason, the use of carbon filaments, one-sixty-fourth of an + inch in diameter or less, instead of carbon burners one- + thirty-second of an inch in diameter or more, not only + worked an enormous economy in conductors, but also + necessitated a great change in generators, and did both + according to a philosophy, which Edison was the first to + know, and which is stated in this paragraph in its simplest + form and aspect, and which lies at the foundation of the + incandescent electric lighting of the world."] +</pre> + <p> + No sooner had the truth of this new principle been established than the + work to establish it firmly and commercially was carried on more + assiduously than ever. The next immediate step was a further investigation + of the possibilities of improving the quality of the carbon filament. + Edison had previously made a vast number of experiments with carbonized + paper for various electrical purposes, with such good results that he once + more turned to it and now made fine filament-like loops of this material + which were put into other lamps. These proved even more successful + (commercially considered) than the carbonized thread—so much so that + after a number of such lamps had been made and put through severe tests, + the manufacture of lamps from these paper carbons was begun and carried on + continuously. This necessitated first the devising and making of a large + number of special tools for cutting the carbon filaments and for making + and putting together the various parts of the lamps. Meantime, great + excitement had been caused in this country and in Europe by the + announcement of Edison's success. In the Old World, scientists generally + still declared the impossibility of subdividing the electric-light + current, and in the public press Mr. Edison was denounced as a dreamer. + Other names of a less complimentary nature were applied to him, even + though his lamp were actually in use, and the principle of commercial + incandescent lighting had been established. + </p> + <p> + Between October 21, 1879, and December 21, 1879, some hundreds of these + paper-carbon lamps had been made and put into actual use, not only in the + laboratory, but in the streets and several residences at Menlo Park, New + Jersey, causing great excitement and bringing many visitors from far and + near. On the latter date a full-page article appeared in the New York + Herald which so intensified the excited feeling that Mr. Edison deemed it + advisable to make a public exhibition. On New Year's Eve, 1879, special + trains were run to Menlo Park by the Pennsylvania Railroad, and over three + thousand persons took advantage of the opportunity to go out there and + witness this demonstration for themselves. In this great crowd were many + public officials and men of prominence in all walks of life, who were + enthusiastic in their praises. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, the mind that conceived and made practical this + invention could not rest content with anything less than perfection, so + far as it could be realized. Edison was not satisfied with paper carbons. + They were not fully up to the ideal that he had in mind. What he sought + was a perfectly uniform and homogeneous carbon, one like the "One-Hoss + Shay," that had no weak spots to break down at inopportune times. He began + to carbonize everything in nature that he could lay hands on. In his + laboratory note-books are innumerable jottings of the things that were + carbonized and tried, such as tissue-paper, soft paper, all kinds of + cardboards, drawing-paper of all grades, paper saturated with tar, all + kinds of threads, fish-line, threads rubbed with tarred lampblack, fine + threads plaited together in strands, cotton soaked in boiling tar, + lamp-wick, twine, tar and lampblack mixed with a proportion of lime, + vulcanized fibre, celluloid, boxwood, cocoanut hair and shell, spruce, + hickory, baywood, cedar and maple shavings, rosewood, punk, cork, bagging, + flax, and a host of other things. He also extended his searches far into + the realms of nature in the line of grasses, plants, canes, and similar + products, and in these experiments at that time and later he carbonized, + made into lamps, and tested no fewer than six thousand different species + of vegetable growths. + </p> + <p> + The reasons for such prodigious research are not apparent on the face of + the subject, nor is this the occasion to enter into an explanation, as + that alone would be sufficient to fill a fair-sized book. Suffice it to + say that Edison's omnivorous reading, keen observation, power of + assimilating facts and natural phenomena, and skill in applying the + knowledge thus attained to whatever was in hand, now came into full play + in determining that the results he desired could only be obtained in + certain directions. + </p> + <p> + At this time he was investigating everything with a microscope, and one + day in the early part of 1880 he noticed upon a table in the laboratory an + ordinary palm-leaf fan. He picked it up and, looking it over, observed + that it had a binding rim made of bamboo, cut from the outer edge of the + cane; a very long strip. He examined this, and then gave it to one of his + assistants, telling him to cut it up and get out of it all the filaments + he could, carbonize them, put them into lamps, and try them. The results + of this trial were exceedingly successful, far better than with anything + else thus far used; indeed, so much so, that after further experiments and + microscopic examinations Edison was convinced that he was now on the right + track for making a thoroughly stable, commercial lamp; and shortly + afterward he sent a man to Japan to procure further supplies of bamboo. + The fascinating story of the bamboo hunt will be told later; but even this + bamboo lamp was only one item of a complete system to be devised—a + system that has since completely revolutionized the art of interior + illumination. + </p> + <p> + Reference has been made in this chapter to the preliminary study that + Edison brought to bear on the development of the gas art and industry. + This study was so exhaustive that one can only compare it to the careful + investigation made in advance by any competent war staff of the elements + of strength and weakness, on both sides, in a possible campaign. A popular + idea of Edison that dies hard, pictures a breezy, slap-dash, energetic + inventor arriving at new results by luck and intuition, making boastful + assertions and then winning out by mere chance. The native simplicity of + the man, the absence of pose and ceremony, do much to strengthen this + notion; but the real truth is that while gifted with unusual imagination, + Edison's march to the goal of a new invention is positively humdrum and + monotonous in its steady progress. No one ever saw Edison in a hurry; no + one ever saw him lazy; and that which he did with slow, careful scrutiny + six months ago, he will be doing with just as much calm deliberation of + research six months hence—and six years hence if necessary. If, for + instance, he were asked to find the most perfect pebble on the Atlantic + shore of New Jersey, instead of hunting here, there, and everywhere for + the desired object, we would no doubt find him patiently screening the + entire beach, sifting out the most perfect stones and eventually, by + gradual exclusion, reaching the long-sought-for pebble; and the mere fact + that in this search years might be taken, would not lessen his enthusiasm + to the slightest extent. + </p> + <p> + In the "prospectus book" among the series of famous note-books, all the + references and data apply to gas. The book is numbered 184, falls into the + period now dealt with, and runs along casually with items spread out over + two or three years. All these notes refer specifically to "Electricity vs. + Gas as General Illuminants," and cover an astounding range of inquiry and + comment. One of the very first notes tells the whole story: "Object, + Edison to effect exact imitation of all done by gas, so as to replace + lighting by gas by lighting by electricity. To improve the illumination to + such an extent as to meet all requirements of natural, artificial, and + commercial conditions." A large programme, but fully executed! The notes, + it will be understood, are all in Edison's handwriting. They go on to + observe that "a general system of distribution is the only possible means + of economical illumination," and they dismiss isolated-plant lighting as + in mills and factories as of so little importance to the public—"we + shall leave the consideration of this out of this book." The shrewd + prophecy is made that gas will be manufactured less for lighting, as the + result of electrical competition, and more and more for heating, etc., + thus enlarging its market and increasing its income. Comment is made on + kerosene and its cost, and all kinds of general statistics are jotted down + as desirable. Data are to be obtained on lamp and dynamo efficiency, and + "Another review of the whole thing as worked out upon pure science + principles by Rowland, Young, Trowbridge; also Rowland on the + possibilities and probabilities of cheaper production by better + manufacture—higher incandescence without decrease of life of lamps." + Notes are also made on meters and motors. "It doesn't matter if + electricity is used for light or for power"; while small motors, it is + observed, can be used night or day, and small steam-engines are + inconvenient. Again the shrewd comment: "Generally poorest district for + light, best for power, thus evening up whole city—the effect of this + on investment." + </p> + <p> + It is pointed out that "Previous inventions failed—necessities for + commercial success and accomplishment by Edison. Edison's great effort—not + to make a large light or a blinding light, but a small light having the + mildness of gas." Curves are then called for of iron and copper investment—also + energy line—curves of candle-power and electromotive force; curves + on motors; graphic representation of the consumption of gas January to + December; tables and formulae; representations graphically of what one + dollar will buy in different kinds of light; "table, weight of copper + required different distance, 100-ohm lamp, 16 candles"; table with curves + showing increased economy by larger engine, higher power, etc. There is + not much that is dilettante about all this. Note is made of an article in + April, 1879, putting the total amount of gas investment in the whole world + at that time at $1,500,000,000; which is now (1910) about the amount of + the electric-lighting investment in the United States. Incidentally a note + remarks: "So unpleasant is the effect of the products of gas that in the + new Madison Square Theatre every gas jet is ventilated by special tubes to + carry away the products of combustion." In short, there is no aspect of + the new problem to which Edison failed to apply his acutest powers; and + the speed with which the new system was worked out and introduced was + simply due to his initial mastery of all the factors in the older art. + Luther Stieringer, an expert gas engineer and inventor, whose services + were early enlisted, once said that Edison knew more about gas than any + other man he had ever met. The remark is an evidence of the kind of + preparation Edison gave himself for his new task. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII + </h2> + <h3> + MEMORIES OF MENLO PARK + </h3> + <p> + FROM the spring of 1876 to 1886 Edison lived and did his work at Menlo + Park; and at this stage of the narrative, midway in that interesting and + eventful period, it is appropriate to offer a few notes and jottings on + the place itself, around which tradition is already weaving its fancies, + just as at the time the outpouring of new inventions from it invested the + name with sudden prominence and with the glamour of romance. "In 1876 I + moved," says Edison, "to Menlo Park, New Jersey, on the Pennsylvania + Railroad, several miles below Elizabeth. The move was due to trouble I had + about rent. I had rented a small shop in Newark, on the top floor of a + padlock factory, by the month. I gave notice that I would give it up at + the end of the month, paid the rent, moved out, and delivered the keys. + Shortly afterward I was served with a paper, probably a judgment, wherein + I was to pay nine months' rent. There was some law, it seems, that made a + monthly renter liable for a year. This seemed so unjust that I determined + to get out of a place that permitted such injustice." For several Sundays + he walked through different parts of New Jersey with two of his assistants + before he decided on Menlo Park. The change was a fortunate one, for the + inventor had married Miss Mary E. Stillwell, and was now able to establish + himself comfortably with his wife and family while enjoying immediate + access to the new laboratory. Every moment thus saved was valuable. + </p> + <p> + To-day the place and region have gone back to the insignificance from + which Edison's genius lifted them so startlingly. A glance from the car + windows reveals only a gently rolling landscape dotted with modest + residences and unpretentious barns; and there is nothing in sight by way + of memorial to suggest that for nearly a decade this spot was the scene of + the most concentrated and fruitful inventive activity the world has ever + known. Close to the Menlo Park railway station is a group of gaunt and + deserted buildings, shelter of the casual tramp, and slowly crumbling away + when not destroyed by the carelessness of some ragged smoker. This silent + group of buildings comprises the famous old laboratory and workshops of + Mr. Edison, historic as being the birthplace of the carbon transmitter, + the phonograph, the incandescent lamp, and the spot where Edison also + worked out his systems of electrical distribution, his commercial dynamo, + his electric railway, his megaphone, his tasimeter, and many other + inventions of greater or lesser degree. Here he continued, moreover, his + earlier work on the quadruplex, sextuplex, multiplex, and automatic + telegraphs, and did his notable pioneer work in wireless telegraphy. As + the reader knows, it had been a master passion with Edison from boyhood up + to possess a laboratory, in which with free use of his own time and + powers, and with command of abundant material resources, he could wrestle + with Nature and probe her closest secrets. Thus, from the little cellar at + Port Huron, from the scant shelves in a baggage car, from the nooks and + corners of dingy telegraph offices, and the grimy little shops in New York + and Newark, he had now come to the proud ownership of an establishment to + which his favorite word "laboratory" might justly be applied. Here he + could experiment to his heart's content and invent on a larger, bolder + scale than ever—and he did! + </p> + <p> + Menlo Park was the merest hamlet. Omitting the laboratory structures, it + had only about seven houses, the best looking of which Edison lived in, a + place that had a windmill pumping water into a reservoir. One of the + stories of the day was that Edison had his front gate so connected with + the pumping plant that every visitor as he opened or closed the gate added + involuntarily to the supply in the reservoir. Two or three of the houses + were occupied by the families of members of the staff; in the others + boarders were taken, the laboratory, of course, furnishing all the + patrons. Near the railway station was a small saloon kept by an old + Scotchman named Davis, where billiards were played in idle moments, and + where in the long winter evenings the hot stove was a centre of attraction + to loungers and story-tellers. The truth is that there was very little + social life of any kind possible under the strenuous conditions prevailing + at the laboratory, where, if anywhere, relaxation was enjoyed at odd + intervals of fatigue and waiting. + </p> + <p> + The main laboratory was a spacious wooden building of two floors. The + office was in this building at first, until removed to the brick library + when that was finished. There S. L. Griffin, an old telegraph friend of + Edison, acted as his secretary and had charge of a voluminous and amazing + correspondence. The office employees were the Carman brothers and the late + John F. Randolph, afterwards secretary. According to Mr. Francis Jehl, of + Budapest, then one of the staff, to whom the writers are indebted for a + great deal of valuable data on this period: "It was on the upper story of + this laboratory that the most important experiments were executed, and + where the incandescent lamp was born. This floor consisted of a large hall + containing several long tables, upon which could be found all the various + instruments, scientific and chemical apparatus that the arts at that time + could produce. Books lay promiscuously about, while here and there long + lines of bichromate-of-potash cells could be seen, together with + experimental models of ideas that Edison or his assistants were engaged + upon. The side walls of this hall were lined with shelves filled with + bottles, phials, and other receptacles containing every imaginable + chemical and other material that could be obtained, while at the end of + this hall, and near the organ which stood in the rear, was a large glass + case containing the world's most precious metals in sheet and wire form, + together with very rare and costly chemicals. When evening came on, and + the last rays of the setting sun penetrated through the side windows, this + hall looked like a veritable Faust laboratory. + </p> + <p> + "On the ground floor we had our testing-table, which stood on two large + pillars of brick built deep into the earth in order to get rid of all + vibrations on account of the sensitive instruments that were upon it. + There was the Thomson reflecting mirror galvanometer and electrometer, + while nearby were the standard cells by which the galvanometers were + adjusted and standardized. This testing-table was connected by means of + wires with all parts of the laboratory and machine-shop, so that + measurements could be conveniently made from a distance, as in those days + we had no portable and direct-reading instruments, such as now exist. + Opposite this table we installed, later on, our photometrical chamber, + which was constructed on the Bunsen principle. A little way from this + table, and separated by a partition, we had the chemical laboratory with + its furnaces and stink-chambers. Later on another chemical laboratory was + installed near the photometer-room, and this Dr. A. Haid had charge of." + </p> + <p> + Next to the laboratory in importance was the machine-shop, a large and + well-lighted building of brick, at one end of which there was the boiler + and engine-room. This shop contained light and heavy lathes, boring and + drilling machines, all kinds of planing machines; in fact, tools of all + descriptions, so that any apparatus, however delicate or heavy, could be + made and built as might be required by Edison in experimenting. Mr. John + Kruesi had charge of this shop, and was assisted by a number of skilled + mechanics, notably John Ott, whose deft fingers and quick intuitive grasp + of the master's ideas are still in demand under the more recent conditions + at the Llewellyn Park laboratory in Orange. + </p> + <p> + Between the machine-shop and the laboratory was a small building of wood + used as a carpenter-shop, where Tom Logan plied his art. Nearby was the + gasoline plant. Before the incandescent lamp was perfected, the only + illumination was from gasoline gas; and that was used later for + incandescent-lamp glass-blowing, which was done in another small building + on one side of the laboratory. Apparently little or no lighting service + was obtained from the Wallace-Farmer arc lamps secured from Ansonia, + Connecticut. The dynamo was probably needed for Edison's own experiments. + </p> + <p> + On the outskirts of the property was a small building in which lampblack + was crudely but carefully manufactured and pressed into very small cakes, + for use in the Edison carbon transmitters of that time. The + night-watchman, Alfred Swanson, took care of this curious plant, which + consisted of a battery of petroleum lamps that were forced to burn to the + sooting point. During his rounds in the night Swanson would find time to + collect from the chimneys the soot that the lamps gave. It was then + weighed out into very small portions, which were pressed into cakes or + buttons by means of a hand-press. These little cakes were delicately + packed away between layers of cotton in small, light boxes and shipped to + Bergmann in New York, by whom the telephone transmitters were being made. + A little later the Edison electric railway was built on the confines of + the property out through the woods, at first only a third of a mile in + length, but reaching ultimately to Pumptown, almost three miles away. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Edison's own words may be quoted as to the men with whom he surrounded + himself here and upon whose services he depended principally for help in + the accomplishment of his aims. In an autobiographical article in the + Electrical World of March 5, 1904, he says: "It is interesting to note + that in addition to those mentioned above (Charles Batchelor and Frank + Upton), I had around me other men who ever since have remained active in + the field, such as Messrs. Francis Jehl, William J. Hammer, Martin Force, + Ludwig K. Boehm, not forgetting that good friend and co-worker, the late + John Kruesi. They found plenty to do in the various developments of the + art, and as I now look back I sometimes wonder how we did so much in so + short a time." Mr. Jehl in his reminiscences adds another name to the + above—namely, that of John W. Lawson, and then goes on to say: + "These are the names of the pioneers of incandescent lighting, who were + continuously at the side of Edison day and night for some years, and who, + under his guidance, worked upon the carbon-filament lamp from its birth to + ripe maturity. These men all had complete faith in his ability and stood + by him as on a rock, guarding their work with the secretiveness of a + burglar-proof safe. Whenever it leaked out in the world that Edison was + succeeding in his work on the electric light, spies and others came to the + Park; so it was of the utmost importance that the experiments and their + results should be kept a secret until Edison had secured the protection of + the Patent Office." With this staff was associated from the first Mr. E. + H. Johnson, whose work with Mr. Edison lay chiefly, however, outside the + laboratory, taking him to all parts of the country and to Europe. There + were also to be regarded as detached members of it the Bergmann brothers, + manufacturing for Mr. Edison in New York, and incessantly experimenting + for him. In addition there must be included Mr. Samuel Insull, whose + activities for many years as private secretary and financial manager were + devoted solely to Mr. Edison's interests, with Menlo Park as a centre and + main source of anxiety as to pay-rolls and other constantly recurring + obligations. The names of yet other associates occur from time to time in + this narrative—"Edison men" who have been very proud of their close + relationship to the inventor and his work at old Menlo. "There was also + Mr. Charles L. Clarke, who devoted himself mainly to engineering matters, + and later on acted as chief engineer of the Edison Electric Light Company + for some years. Then there were William Holzer and James Hipple, both of + whom took an active part in the practical development of the glass-blowing + department of the laboratory, and, subsequently, at the first Edison lamp + factory at Menlo Park. Later on Messrs. Jehl, Hipple, and Force assisted + Mr. Batchelor to install the lamp-works of the French Edison Company at + Ivry-sur-Seine. Then there were Messrs. Charles T. Hughes, Samuel D. Mott, + and Charles T. Mott, who devoted their time chiefly to commercial affairs. + Mr. Hughes conducted most of this work, and later on took a prominent part + in Edison's electric-railway experiments. His business ability was on a + high level, while his personal character endeared him to us all." + </p> + <p> + Among other now well-known men who came to us and assisted in various + kinds of work were Messrs. Acheson, Worth, Crosby, Herrick, and Hill, + while Doctor Haid was placed by Mr. Edison in charge of a special chemical + laboratory. Dr. E. L. Nichols was also with us for a short time conducting + a special series of experiments. There was also Mr. Isaacs, who did a + great deal of photographic work, and to whom we must be thankful for the + pictures of Menlo Park in connection with Edison's work. + </p> + <p> + "Among others who were added to Mr. Kruesi's staff in the machine-shop + were Messrs. J. H. Vail and W. S. Andrews. Mr. Vail had charge of the + dynamo-room. He had a good general knowledge of machinery, and very soon + acquired such familiarity with the dynamos that he could skip about among + them with astonishing agility to regulate their brushes or to throw rosin + on the belts when they began to squeal. Later on he took an active part in + the affairs and installations of the Edison Light Company. Mr. Andrews + stayed on Mr. Kruesi's staff as long as the laboratory machine-shop was + kept open, after which he went into the employ of the Edison Electric + Light Company and became actively engaged in the commercial and technical + exploitation of the system. Another man who was with us at Menlo Park was + Mr. Herman Claudius, an Austrian, who at one time was employed in + connection with the State Telegraphs of his country. To him Mr. Edison + assigned the task of making a complete model of the network of conductors + for the contemplated first station in New York." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Francis R. Upton, who was early employed by Mr. Edison as his + mathematician, furnishes a pleasant, vivid picture of his chief associates + engaged on the memorable work at Menlo Park. He says: "Mr. Charles + Batchelor was Mr. Edison's principal assistant at that time. He was an + Englishman, and came to this country to set up the thread-weaving + machinery for the Clark thread-works. He was a most intelligent, patient, + competent, and loyal assistant to Mr. Edison. I remember distinctly seeing + him work many hours to mount a small filament; and his hand would be as + steady and his patience as unyielding at the end of those many hours as it + was at the beginning, in spite of repeated failures. He was a wonderful + mechanic; the control that he had of his fingers was marvellous, and his + eyesight was sharp. Mr. Batchelor's judgment and good sense were always in + evidence. + </p> + <p> + "Mr. Kruesi was the superintendent, a Swiss trained in the best Swiss + ideas of accuracy. He was a splendid mechanic with a vigorous temper, and + wonderful ability to work continuously and to get work out of men. It was + an ideal combination, that of Edison, Batchelor, and Kruesi. Mr. Edison + with his wonderful flow of ideas which were sharply defined in his mind, + as can be seen by any of the sketches that he made, as he evidently always + thinks in three dimensions; Mr. Kruesi, willing to take the ideas, and + capable of comprehending them, would distribute the work so as to get it + done with marvellous quickness and great accuracy. Mr. Batchelor was + always ready for any special fine experimenting or observation, and could + hold to whatever he was at as long as Mr. Edison wished; and always + brought to bear on what he was at the greatest skill." + </p> + <p> + While Edison depended upon Upton for his mathematical work, he was wont to + check it up in a very practical manner, as evidenced by the following + incident described by Mr. Jehl: "I was once with Mr. Upton calculating + some tables which he had put me on, when Mr. Edison appeared with a glass + bulb having a pear-shaped appearance in his hand. It was the kind that we + were going to use for our lamp experiments; and Mr. Edison asked Mr. Upton + to please calculate for him its cubic contents in centimetres. Now Mr. + Upton was a very able mathematician, who, after he finished his studies at + Princeton, went to Germany and got his final gloss under that great + master, Helmholtz. Whatever he did and worked on was executed in a pure + mathematical manner, and any wrangler at Oxford would have been delighted + to see him juggle with integral and differential equations, with a + dexterity that was surprising. He drew the shape of the bulb exactly on + paper, and got the equation of its lines with which he was going to + calculate its contents, when Mr. Edison again appeared and asked him what + it was. He showed Edison the work he had already done on the subject, and + told him that he would very soon finish calculating it. 'Why,' said + Edison, 'I would simply take that bulb and fill it with mercury and weigh + it; and from the weight of the mercury and its specific gravity I'll get + it in five minutes, and use less mental energy than is necessary in such a + fatiguing operation.'" + </p> + <p> + Menlo Park became ultimately the centre of Edison's business life as it + was of his inventing. After the short distasteful period during the + introduction of his lighting system, when he spent a large part of his + time at the offices at 65 Fifth Avenue, New York, or on the actual work + connected with the New York Edison installation, he settled back again in + Menlo Park altogether. Mr. Samuel Insull describes the business methods + which prevailed throughout the earlier Menlo Park days of "storm and + stress," and the curious conditions with which he had to deal as private + secretary: "I never attempted to systematize Edison's business life. + Edison's whole method of work would upset the system of any office. He was + just as likely to be at work in his laboratory at midnight as midday. He + cared not for the hours of the day or the days of the week. If he was + exhausted he might more likely be asleep in the middle of the day than in + the middle of the night, as most of his work in the way of inventions was + done at night. I used to run his office on as close business methods as my + experience admitted; and I would get at him whenever it suited his + convenience. Sometimes he would not go over his mail for days at a time; + but other times he would go regularly to his office in the morning. At + other times my engagements used to be with him to go over his business + affairs at Menlo Park at night, if I was occupied in New York during the + day. In fact, as a matter of convenience I used more often to get at him + at night, as it left my days free to transact his affairs, and enabled me, + probably at a midnight luncheon, to get a few minutes of his time to look + over his correspondence and get his directions as to what I should do in + some particular negotiation or matter of finance. While it was a matter of + suiting Edison's convenience as to when I should transact business with + him, it also suited my own ideas, as it enabled me after getting through + my business with him to enjoy the privilege of watching him at his work, + and to learn something about the technical side of matters. Whatever + knowledge I may have of the electric light and power industry I feel I owe + it to the tuition of Edison. He was about the most willing tutor, and I + must confess that he had to be a patient one." + </p> + <p> + Here again occurs the reference to the incessant night-work at Menlo Park, + a note that is struck in every reminiscence and in every record of the + time. But it is not to be inferred that the atmosphere of grim + determination and persistent pursuit of the new invention characteristic + of this period made life a burden to the small family of laborers + associated with Edison. Many a time during the long, weary nights of + experimenting Edison would call a halt for refreshments, which he had + ordered always to be sent in when night-work was in progress. Everything + would be dropped, all present would join in the meal, and the last good + story or joke would pass around. In his notes Mr. Jehl says: "Our lunch + always ended with a cigar, and I may mention here that although Edison was + never fastidious in eating, he always relished a good cigar, and seemed to + find in it consolation and solace.... It often happened that while we were + enjoying the cigars after our midnight repast, one of the boys would start + up a tune on the organ and we would all sing together, or one of the + others would give a solo. Another of the boys had a voice that sounded + like something between the ring of an old tomato can and a pewter jug. He + had one song that he would sing while we roared with laughter. He was also + great in imitating the tin-foil phonograph.... When Boehm was in + good-humor he would play his zither now and then, and amuse us by singing + pretty German songs. On many of these occasions the laboratory was the + rendezvous of jolly and convivial visitors, mostly old friends and + acquaintances of Mr. Edison. Some of the office employees would also drop + in once in a while, and as everybody present was always welcome to partake + of the midnight meal, we all enjoyed these gatherings. After a while, when + we were ready to resume work, our visitors would intimate that they were + going home to bed, but we fellows could stay up and work, and they would + depart, generally singing some song like Good-night, ladies! . . . It + often happened that when Edison had been working up to three or four + o'clock in the morning, he would lie down on one of the laboratory tables, + and with nothing but a couple of books for a pillow, would fall into a + sound sleep. He said it did him more good than being in a soft bed, which + spoils a man. Some of the laboratory assistants could be seen now and then + sleeping on a table in the early morning hours. If their snoring became + objectionable to those still at work, the 'calmer' was applied. This + machine consisted of a Babbitt's soap box without a cover. Upon it was + mounted a broad ratchet-wheel with a crank, while into the teeth of the + wheel there played a stout, elastic slab of wood. The box would be placed + on the table where the snorer was sleeping and the crank turned rapidly. + The racket thus produced was something terrible, and the sleeper would + jump up as though a typhoon had struck the laboratory. The irrepressible + spirit of humor in the old days, although somewhat strenuous at times, + caused many a moment of hilarity which seemed to refresh the boys, and + enabled them to work with renewed vigor after its manifestation." Mr. + Upton remarks that often during the period of the invention of the + incandescent lamp, when under great strain and fatigue, Edison would go to + the organ and play tunes in a primitive way, and come back to crack jokes + with the staff. "But I have often felt that Mr. Edison never could + comprehend the limitations of the strength of other men, as his own + physical and mental strength have always seemed to be without limit. He + could work continuously as long as he wished, and had sleep at his + command. His sleep was always instant, profound, and restful. He has told + me that he never dreamed. I have known Mr. Edison now for thirty-one + years, and feel that he has always kept his mind direct and simple, going + straight to the root of troubles. One of the peculiarities I have noticed + is that I have never known him to break into a conversation going on + around him, and ask what people were talking about. The nearest he would + ever come to it was when there had evidently been some story told, and his + face would express a desire to join in the laugh, which would immediately + invite telling the story to him." + </p> + <p> + Next to those who worked with Edison at the laboratory and were with him + constantly at Menlo Park were the visitors, some of whom were his business + associates, some of them scientific men, and some of them hero-worshippers + and curiosity-hunters. Foremost in the first category was Mr. E. H. + Johnson, who was in reality Edison's most intimate friend, and was + required for constant consultation; but whose intense activity, remarkable + grasp of electrical principles, and unusual powers of exposition, led to + his frequent detachment for long trips, including those which resulted in + the introduction of the telephone, phonograph, and electric light in + England and on the Continent. A less frequent visitor was Mr. S. Bergmann, + who had all he needed to occupy his time in experimenting and + manufacturing, and whose contemporaneous Wooster Street letter-heads + advertised Edison's inventions as being made there, Among the scientists + were Prof. George F. Barker, of Philadelphia, a big, good-natured + philosopher, whose valuable advice Edison esteemed highly. In sharp + contrast to him was the earnest, serious Rowland, of Johns Hopkins + University, afterward the leading American physicist of his day. Profs. C. + F. Brackett and C. F. Young, of Princeton University, were often received, + always interested in what Edison was doing, and proud that one of their + own students, Mr. Upton, was taking such a prominent part in the + development of the work. + </p> + <p> + Soon after the success of the lighting experiments and the installation at + Menlo Park became known, Edison was besieged by persons from all parts of + the world anxious to secure rights and concessions for their respective + countries. Among these was Mr. Louis Rau, of Paris, who organized the + French Edison Company, the pioneer Edison lighting corporation in Europe, + and who, with the aid of Mr. Batchelor, established lamp-works and a + machine-shop at Ivry sur-Seine, near Paris, in 1882. It was there that Mr. + Nikola Tesla made his entree into the field of light and power, and began + his own career as an inventor; and there also Mr. Etienne Fodor, general + manager of the Hungarian General Electric Company at Budapest, received + his early training. It was he who erected at Athens the first European + Edison station on the now universal three-wire system. Another visitor + from Europe, a little later, was Mr. Emil Rathenau, the present director + of the great Allgemeine Elektricitaets Gesellschaft of Germany. He secured + the rights for the empire, and organized the Berlin Edison system, now one + of the largest in the world. Through his extraordinary energy and + enterprise the business made enormous strides, and Mr. Rathenau has become + one of the most conspicuous industrial figures in his native country. From + Italy came Professor Colombo, later a cabinet minister, with his friend + Signor Buzzi, of Milan. The rights were secured for the peninsula; Colombo + and his friends organized the Italian Edison Company, and erected at Milan + the first central station in that country. Mr. John W. Lieb, Jr., now a + vice-president of the New York Edison Company, was sent over by Mr. Edison + to steer the enterprise technically, and spent ten years in building it + up, with such brilliant success that he was later decorated as Commander + of the Order of the Crown of Italy by King Victor. Another young American + enlisted into European service was Mr. E. G. Acheson, the inventor of + carborundum, who built a number of plants in Italy and France before he + returned home. Mr. Lieb has since become President of the American + Institute of Electrical Engineers and the Association of Edison + Illuminating Companies, while Doctor Acheson has been President of the + American Electrochemical Society. + </p> + <p> + Switzerland sent Messrs. Turrettini, Biedermann, and Thury, all + distinguished engineers, to negotiate for rights in the republic; and so + it went with regard to all the other countries of Europe, as well as those + of South America. It was a question of keeping such visitors away rather + than of inviting them to take up the exploitation of the Edison system; + for what time was not spent in personal interviews was required for the + masses of letters from every country under the sun, all making inquiries, + offering suggestions, proposing terms. Nor were the visitors merely those + on business bent. There were the lion-hunters and celebrities, of whom + Sarah Bernhardt may serve as a type. One visit of note was that paid by + Lieut. G. W. De Long, who had an earnest and protracted conversation with + Edison over the Arctic expedition he was undertaking with the aid of Mr. + James Gordon Bennett, of the New York Herald. The Jeannette was being + fitted out, and Edison told De Long that he would make and present him + with a small dynamo machine, some incandescent lamps, and an arc lamp. + While the little dynamo was being built all the men in the laboratory + wrote their names on the paper insulation that was wound upon the iron + core of the armature. As the Jeannette had no steam-engine on board that + could be used for the purpose, Edison designed the dynamo so that it could + be worked by man power and told Lieutenant De Long "it would keep the boys + warm up in the Arctic," when they generated current with it. The ill-fated + ship never returned from her voyage, but went down in the icy waters of + the North, there to remain until some future cataclysm of nature, ten + thousand years hence, shall reveal the ship and the first marine dynamo as + curious relics of a remote civilization. + </p> + <p> + Edison also furnished De Long with a set of telephones provided with + extensible circuits, so that parties on the ice-floes could go long + distances from the ship and still keep in communication with her. So far + as the writers can ascertain this is the first example of "field + telephony." Another nautical experiment that he made at this time, + suggested probably by the requirements of the Arctic expedition, was a + buoy that was floated in New York harbor, and which contained a small + Edison dynamo and two or three incandescent lamps. The dynamo was driven + by the wave or tide motion through intermediate mechanism, and thus the + lamps were lit up from time to time, serving as signals. These were the + prototypes of the lighted buoys which have since become familiar, as in + the channel off Sandy Hook. + </p> + <p> + One notable afternoon was that on which the New York board of aldermen + took a special train out to Menlo Park to see the lighting system with its + conductors underground in operation. The Edison Electric Illuminating + Company was applying for a franchise, and the aldermen, for lack of + scientific training and specific practical information, were very + sceptical on the subject—as indeed they might well be. "Mr. Edison + demonstrated personally the details and merits of the system to them. The + voltage was increased to a higher pressure than usual, and all the + incandescent lamps at Menlo Park did their best to win the approbation of + the New York City fathers. After Edison had finished exhibiting all the + good points of his system, he conducted his guests upstairs in the + laboratory, where a long table was spread with the best things that one of + the most prominent New York caterers could furnish. The laboratory + witnessed high times that night, for all were in the best of humor, and + many a bottle was drained in toasting the health of Edison and the + aldermen." This was one of the extremely rare occasions on which Edison + has addressed an audience; but the stake was worth the effort. The + representatives of New York could with justice drink the health of the + young inventor, whose system is one of the greatest boons the city has + ever had conferred upon it. + </p> + <p> + Among other frequent visitors was Mr, Edison's father, "one of those + amiable, patriarchal characters with a Horace Greeley beard, typical + Americans of the old school," who would sometimes come into the laboratory + with his two grandchildren, a little boy and girl called "Dash" and "Dot." + He preferred to sit and watch his brilliant son at work "with an + expression of satisfaction on his face that indicated a sense of happiness + and content that his boy, born in that distant, humble home in Ohio, had + risen to fame and brought such honor upon the name. It was, indeed, a + pathetic sight to see a father venerate his son as the elder Edison did." + Not less at home was Mr. Mackenzie, the Mt. Clemens station agent, the + life of whose child Edison had saved when a train newsboy. The old + Scotchman was one of the innocent, chartered libertines of the place, with + an unlimited stock of good jokes and stories, but seldom of any practical + use. On one occasion, however, when everything possible and impossible + under the sun was being carbonized for lamp filaments, he allowed a + handful of his bushy red beard to be taken for the purpose; and his laugh + was the loudest when the Edison-Mackenzie hair lamps were brought up to + incandescence—their richness in red rays being slyly attributed to + the nature of the filamentary material! Oddly enough, a few years later, + some inventor actually took out a patent for making incandescent lamps + with carbonized hair for filaments! + </p> + <p> + Yet other visitors again haunted the place, and with the following + reminiscence of one of them, from Mr. Edison himself, this part of the + chapter must close: "At Menlo Park one cold winter night there came into + the laboratory a strange man in a most pitiful condition. He was nearly + frozen, and he asked if he might sit by the stove. In a few moments he + asked for the head man, and I was brought forward. He had a head of + abnormal size, with highly intellectual features and a very small and + emaciated body. He said he was suffering very much, and asked if I had any + morphine. As I had about everything in chemistry that could be bought, I + told him I had. He requested that I give him some, so I got the morphine + sulphate. He poured out enough to kill two men, when I told him that we + didn't keep a hotel for suicides, and he had better cut the quantity down. + He then bared his legs and arms, and they were literally pitted with + scars, due to the use of hypodermic syringes. He said he had taken it for + years, and it required a big dose to have any effect. I let him go ahead. + In a short while he seemed like another man and began to tell stories, and + there were about fifty of us who sat around listening until morning. He + was a man of great intelligence and education. He said he was a Jew, but + there was no distinctive feature to verify this assertion. He continued to + stay around until he finished every combination of morphine with an acid + that I had, probably ten ounces all told. Then he asked if he could have + strychnine. I had an ounce of the sulphate. He took enough to kill a + horse, and asserted it had as good an effect as morphine. When this was + gone, the only thing I had left was a chunk of crude opium, perhaps two or + three pounds. He chewed this up and disappeared. I was greatly + disappointed, because I would have laid in another stock of morphine to + keep him at the laboratory. About a week afterward he was found dead in a + barn at Perth Amboy." + </p> + <p> + Returning to the work itself, note of which has already been made in this + and preceding chapters, we find an interesting and unique reminiscence in + Mr. Jehl's notes of the reversion to carbon as a filament in the lamps, + following an exhibition of metallic-filament lamps given in the spring of + 1879 to the men in the syndicate advancing the funds for these + experiments: "They came to Menlo Park on a late afternoon train from New + York. It was already dark when they were conducted into the machine-shop, + where we had several platinum lamps installed in series. When Edison had + finished explaining the principles and details of the lamp, he asked + Kruesi to let the dynamo machine run. It was of the Gramme type, as our + first dynamo of the Edison design was not yet finished. Edison then + ordered the 'juice' to be turned on slowly. To-day I can see those lamps + rising to a cherry red, like glowbugs, and hear Mr. Edison saying 'a + little more juice,' and the lamps began to glow. 'A little more' is the + command again, and then one of the lamps emits for an instant a light like + a star in the distance, after which there is an eruption and a puff; and + the machine-shop is in total darkness. We knew instantly which lamp had + failed, and Batchelor replaced that by a good one, having a few in reserve + near by. The operation was repeated two or three times with about the same + results, after which the party went into the library until it was time to + catch the train for New York." + </p> + <p> + Such an exhibition was decidedly discouraging, and it was not a jubilant + party that returned to New York, but: "That night Edison remained in the + laboratory meditating upon the results that the platinum lamp had given so + far. I was engaged reading a book near a table in the front, while Edison + was seated in a chair by a table near the organ. With his head turned + downward, and that conspicuous lock of hair hanging loosely on one side, + he looked like Napoleon in the celebrated picture, On the Eve of a Great + Battle. Those days were heroic ones, for he then battled against mighty + odds, and the prospects were dim and not very encouraging. In cases of + emergency Edison always possessed a keen faculty of deciding immediately + and correctly what to do; and the decision he then arrived at was + predestined to be the turning-point that led him on to ultimate + success.... After that exhibition we had a house-cleaning at the + laboratory, and the metallic-filament lamps were stored away, while + preparations were made for our experiments on carbon lamps." + </p> + <p> + Thus the work went on. Menlo Park has hitherto been associated in the + public thought with the telephone, phonograph, and incandescent lamp; but + it was there, equally, that the Edison dynamo and system of distribution + were created and applied to their specific purposes. While all this study + of a possible lamp was going on, Mr. Upton was busy calculating the + economy of the "multiple arc" system, and making a great many tables to + determine what resistance a lamp should have for the best results, and at + what point the proposed general system would fall off in economy when the + lamps were of the lower resistance that was then generally assumed to be + necessary. The world at that time had not the shadow of an idea as to what + the principles of a multiple arc system should be, enabling millions of + lamps to be lighted off distributing circuits, each lamp independent of + every other; but at Menlo Park at that remote period in the seventies Mr. + Edison's mathematician was formulating the inventor's conception in clear, + instructive figures; "and the work then executed has held its own ever + since." From the beginning of his experiments on electric light, Mr. + Edison had a well-defined idea of producing not only a practicable lamp, + but also a SYSTEM of commercial electric lighting. Such a scheme involved + the creation of an entirely new art, for there was nothing on the face of + the earth from which to draw assistance or precedent, unless we except the + elementary forms of dynamos then in existence. It is true, there were + several types of machines in use for the then very limited field of arc + lighting, but they were regarded as valueless as a part of a great + comprehensive scheme which could supply everybody with light. Such + machines were confessedly inefficient, although representing the farthest + reach of a young art. A commission appointed at that time by the Franklin + Institute, and including Prof. Elihu Thomson, investigated the merits of + existing dynamos and reported as to the best of them: "The Gramme machine + is the most economical as a means of converting motive force into + electricity; it utilizes in the arc from 38 to 41 per cent. of the motive + work produced, after deduction is made for friction and the resistance of + the air." They reported also that the Brush arc lighting machine "produces + in the luminous arc useful work equivalent to 31 per cent. of the motive + power employed, or to 38 1/2 per cent. after the friction has been + deducted." Commercial possibilities could not exist in the face of such + low economy as this, and Mr. Edison realized that he would have to improve + the dynamo himself if he wanted a better machine. The scientific world at + that time was engaged in a controversy regarding the external and internal + resistance of a circuit in which a generator was situated. Discussing the + subject Mr. Jehl, in his biographical notes, says: "While this controversy + raged in the scientific papers, and criticism and confusion seemed at its + height, Edison and Upton discussed this question very thoroughly, and + Edison declared he did not intend to build up a system of distribution in + which the external resistance would be equal to the internal resistance. + He said he was just about going to do the opposite; he wanted a large + external resistance and a low internal one. He said he wanted to sell the + energy outside of the station and not waste it in the dynamo and + conductors, where it brought no profits.... In these later days, when + these ideas of Edison are used as common property, and are applied in + every modern system of distribution, it is astonishing to remember that + when they were propounded they met with most vehement antagonism from the + world at large." Edison, familiar with batteries in telegraphy, could not + bring himself to believe that any substitute generator of electrical + energy could be efficient that used up half its own possible output before + doing an equal amount of outside work. + </p> + <p> + Undaunted by the dicta of contemporaneous science, Mr. Edison attacked the + dynamo problem with his accustomed vigor and thoroughness. He chose the + drum form for his armature, and experimented with different kinds of iron. + Cores were made of cast iron, others of forged iron; and still others of + sheets of iron of various thicknesses separated from each other by paper + or paint. These cores were then allowed to run in an excited field, and + after a given time their temperature was measured and noted. By such + practical methods Edison found that the thin, laminated cores of sheet + iron gave the least heat, and had the least amount of wasteful eddy + currents. His experiments and ideas on magnetism at that period were far + in advance of the time. His work and tests regarding magnetism were + repeated later on by Hopkinson and Kapp, who then elucidated the whole + theory mathematically by means of formulae and constants. Before this, + however, Edison had attained these results by pioneer work, founded on his + original reasoning, and utilized them in the construction of his dynamo, + thus revolutionizing the art of building such machines. + </p> + <p> + After thorough investigation of the magnetic qualities of different kinds + of iron, Edison began to make a study of winding the cores, first + determining the electromotive force generated per turn of wire at various + speeds in fields of different intensities. He also considered various + forms and shapes for the armature, and by methodical and systematic + research obtained the data and best conditions upon which he could build + his generator. In the field magnets of his dynamo he constructed the cores + and yoke of forged iron having a very large cross-section, which was a new + thing in those days. Great attention was also paid to all the joints, + which were smoothed down so as to make a perfect magnetic contact. The + Edison dynamo, with its large masses of iron, was a vivid contrast to the + then existing types with their meagre quantities of the ferric element. + Edison also made tests on his field magnets by slowly raising the strength + of the exciting current, so that he obtained figures similar to those + shown by a magnetic curve, and in this way found where saturation + commenced, and where it was useless to expend more current on the field. + If he had asked Upton at the time to formulate the results of his work in + this direction, for publication, he would have anticipated the historic + work on magnetism that was executed by the two other investigators; + Hopkinson and Kapp, later on. + </p> + <p> + The laboratory note-books of the period bear abundant evidence of the + systematic and searching nature of these experiments and investigations, + in the hundreds of pages of notes, sketches, calculations, and tables made + at the time by Edison, Upton, Batchelor, Jehl, and by others who from time + to time were intrusted with special experiments to elucidate some + particular point. Mr. Jehl says: "The experiments on armature-winding were + also very interesting. Edison had a number of small wooden cores made, at + both ends of which we inserted little brass nails, and we wound the wooden + cores with twine as if it were wire on an armature. In this way we studied + armature-winding, and had matches where each of us had a core, while bets + were made as to who would be the first to finish properly and correctly a + certain kind of winding. Care had to be taken that the wound core + corresponded to the direction of the current, supposing it were placed in + a field and revolved. After Edison had decided this question, Upton made + drawings and tables from which the real armatures were wound and connected + to the commutator. To a student of to-day all this seems simple, but in + those days the art of constructing dynamos was about as dark as air + navigation is at present.... Edison also improved the armature by dividing + it and the commutator into a far greater number of sections than up to + that time had been the practice. He was also the first to use mica in + insulating the commutator sections from each other." + </p> + <p> + In the mean time, during the progress of the investigations on the dynamo, + word had gone out to the world that Edison expected to invent a generator + of greater efficiency than any that existed at the time. Again he was + assailed and ridiculed by the technical press, for had not the foremost + electricians and physicists of Europe and America worked for years on the + production of dynamos and arc lamps as they then existed? Even though this + young man at Menlo Park had done some wonderful things for telegraphy and + telephony; even if he had recorded and reproduced human speech, he had his + limitations, and could not upset the settled dictum of science that the + internal resistance must equal the external resistance. + </p> + <p> + Such was the trend of public opinion at the time, but "after Mr. Kruesi + had finished the first practical dynamo, and after Mr. Upton had tested it + thoroughly and verified his figures and results several times—for he + also was surprised—Edison was able to tell the world that he had + made a generator giving an efficiency of 90 per cent." Ninety per cent. as + against 40 per cent. was a mighty hit, and the world would not believe it. + Criticism and argument were again at their height, while Upton, as + Edison's duellist, was kept busy replying to private and public challenges + of the fact.... "The tremendous progress of the world in the last quarter + of a century, owing to the revolution caused by the all-conquering march + of 'Heavy Current Engineering,' is the outcome of Edison's work at Menlo + Park that raised the efficiency of the dynamo from 40 per cent. to 90 per + cent." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Upton sums it all up very precisely in his remarks upon this period: + "What has now been made clear by accurate nomenclature was then very foggy + in the text-books. Mr. Edison had completely grasped the effect of + subdivision of circuits, and the influence of wires leading to such + subdivisions, when it was most difficult to express what he knew in + technical language. I remember distinctly when Mr. Edison gave me the + problem of placing a motor in circuit in multiple arc with a fixed + resistance; and I had to work out the problem entirely, as I could find no + prior solution. There was nothing I could find bearing upon the counter + electromotive force of the armature, and the effect of the resistance of + the armature on the work given out by the armature. It was a wonderful + experience to have problems given me out of the intuitions of a great + mind, based on enormous experience in practical work, and applying to new + lines of progress. One of the main impressions left upon me after knowing + Mr. Edison for many years is the marvellous accuracy of his guesses. He + will see the general nature of a result long before it can be reached by + mathematical calculation. His greatness was always to be clearly seen when + difficulties arose. They always made him cheerful, and started him + thinking; and very soon would come a line of suggestions which would not + end until the difficulty was met and overcome, or found insurmountable. I + have often felt that Mr. Edison got himself purposely into trouble by + premature publications and otherwise, so that he would have a full + incentive to get himself out of the trouble." + </p> + <p> + This chapter may well end with a statement from Mr. Jehl, shrewd and + observant, as a participator in all the early work of the development of + the Edison lighting system: "Those who were gathered around him in the old + Menlo Park laboratory enjoyed his confidence, and he theirs. Nor was this + confidence ever abused. He was respected with a respect which only great + men can obtain, and he never showed by any word or act that he was their + employer in a sense that would hurt the feelings, as is often the case in + the ordinary course of business life. He conversed, argued, and disputed + with us all as if he were a colleague on the same footing. It was his + winning ways and manners that attached us all so loyally to his side, and + made us ever ready with a boundless devotion to execute any request or + desire." Thus does a great magnet, run through a heap of sand and filings, + exert its lines of force and attract irresistibly to itself the iron and + steel particles that are its affinity, and having sifted them out, leaving + the useless dust behind, hold them to itself with responsive tenacity. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII + </h2> + <h3> + A WORLD-HUNT FOR FILAMENT MATERIAL + </h3> + <p> + IN writing about the old experimenting days at Menlo Park, Mr. F. R. Upton + says: "Edison's day is twenty-four hours long, for he has always worked + whenever there was anything to do, whether day or night, and carried a + force of night workers, so that his experiments could go on continually. + If he wanted material, he always made it a principle to have it at once, + and never hesitated to use special messengers to get it. I remember in the + early days of the electric light he wanted a mercury pump for exhausting + the lamps. He sent me to Princeton to get it. I got back to Metuchen late + in the day, and had to carry the pump over to the laboratory on my back + that evening, set it up, and work all night and the next day getting + results." + </p> + <p> + This characteristic principle of obtaining desired material in the + quickest and most positive way manifested itself in the search that Edison + instituted for the best kind of bamboo for lamp filaments, immediately + after the discovery related in a preceding chapter. It is doubtful + whether, in the annals of scientific research and experiment, there is + anything quite analogous to the story of this search and the various + expeditions that went out from the Edison laboratory in 1880 and + subsequent years, to scour the earth for a material so apparently simple + as a homogeneous strip of bamboo, or other similar fibre. Prolonged and + exhaustive experiment, microscopic examination, and an intimate knowledge + of the nature of wood and plant fibres, however, had led Edison to the + conclusion that bamboo or similar fibrous filaments were more suitable + than anything else then known for commercial incandescent lamps, and he + wanted the most perfect for that purpose. Hence, the quickest way was to + search the tropics until the proper material was found. + </p> + <p> + The first emissary chosen for this purpose was the late William H. Moore, + of Rahway, New Jersey, who left New York in the summer of 1880, bound for + China and Japan, these being the countries preeminently noted for the + production of abundant species of bamboo. On arrival in the East he + quickly left the cities behind and proceeded into the interior, extending + his search far into the more remote country districts, collecting + specimens on his way, and devoting much time to the study of the bamboo, + and in roughly testing the relative value of its fibre in canes of one, + two, three, four, and five year growths. Great bales of samples were sent + to Edison, and after careful tests a certain variety and growth of + Japanese bamboo was determined to be the most satisfactory material for + filaments that had been found. Mr. Moore, who was continuing his searches + in that country, was instructed to arrange for the cultivation and + shipment of regular supplies of this particular species. Arrangements to + this end were accordingly made with a Japanese farmer, who began to make + immediate shipments, and who subsequently displayed so much ingenuity in + fertilizing and cross-fertilizing that the homogeneity of the product was + constantly improved. The use of this bamboo for Edison lamp filaments was + continued for many years. + </p> + <p> + Although Mr. Moore did not meet with the exciting adventures of some + subsequent explorers, he encountered numerous difficulties and novel + experiences in his many months of travel through the hinterland of Japan + and China. The attitude toward foreigners thirty years ago was not as + friendly as it has since become, but Edison, as usual, had made a happy + choice of messengers, as Mr. Moore's good nature and diplomacy attested. + These qualities, together with his persistence and perseverance and + faculty of intelligent discrimination in the matter of fibres, helped to + make his mission successful, and gave to him the honor of being the one + who found the bamboo which was adopted for use as filaments in commercial + Edison lamps. + </p> + <p> + Although Edison had satisfied himself that bamboo furnished the most + desirable material thus far discovered for incandescent-lamp filaments, he + felt that in some part of the world there might be found a natural product + of the same general character that would furnish a still more perfect and + homogeneous material. In his study of this subject, and during the + prosecution of vigorous and searching inquiries in various directions, he + learned that Mr. John C. Brauner, then residing in Brooklyn, New York, had + an expert knowledge of indigenous plants of the particular kind desired. + During the course of a geological survey which he had made for the + Brazilian Government, Mr. Brauner had examined closely the various species + of palms which grow plentifully in that country, and of them there was one + whose fibres he thought would be just what Edison wanted. + </p> + <p> + Accordingly, Mr. Brauner was sent for and dispatched to Brazil in + December, 1880, to search for and send samples of this and such other + palms, fibres, grasses, and canes as, in his judgment, would be suitable + for the experiments then being carried on at Menlo Park. Landing at Para, + he crossed over into the Amazonian province, and thence proceeded through + the heart of the country, making his way by canoe on the rivers and their + tributaries, and by foot into the forests and marshes of a vast and almost + untrodden wilderness. In this manner Mr. Brauner traversed about two + thousand miles of the comparatively unknown interior of Southern Brazil, + and procured a large variety of fibrous specimens, which he shipped to + Edison a few months later. When these fibres arrived in the United States + they were carefully tested and a few of them found suitable but not + superior to the Japanese bamboo, which was then being exclusively used in + the manufacture of commercial Edison lamps. + </p> + <p> + Later on Edison sent out an expedition to explore the wilds of Cuba and + Jamaica. A two months' investigation of the latter island revealed a + variety of bamboo growths, of which a great number of specimens were + obtained and shipped to Menlo Park; but on careful test they were found + inferior to the Japanese bamboo, and hence rejected. The exploration of + the glades and swamps of Florida by three men extended over a period of + five months in a minute search for fibrous woods of the palmetto species. + A great variety was found, and over five hundred boxes of specimens were + shipped to the laboratory from time to time, but none of them tested out + with entirely satisfactory results. + </p> + <p> + The use of Japanese bamboo for carbon filaments was therefore continued in + the manufacture of lamps, although an incessant search was maintained for + a still more perfect material. The spirit of progress, so pervasive in + Edison's character, led him, however, to renew his investigations further + afield by sending out two other men to examine the bamboo and similar + growths of those parts of South America not covered by Mr. Brauner. These + two men were Frank McGowan and C. F. Hanington, both of whom had been for + nearly seven years in the employ of the Edison Electric Light Company in + New York. The former was a stocky, rugged Irishman, possessing the native + shrewdness and buoyancy of his race, coupled with undaunted courage and + determination; and the latter was a veteran of the Civil War, with some + knowledge of forest and field, acquired as a sportsman. They left New York + in September, 1887, arriving in due time at Para, proceeding thence + twenty-three hundred miles up the Amazon River to Iquitos. Nothing of an + eventful nature occurred during this trip, but on arrival at Iquitos the + two men separated; Mr. McGowan to explore on foot and by canoe in Peru, + Ecuador, and Colombia, while Mr. Hanington returned by the Amazon River to + Para. Thence Hanington went by steamer to Montevideo, and by similar + conveyance up the River de la Plata and through Uruguay, Argentine, and + Paraguay to the southernmost part of Brazil, collecting a large number of + specimens of palms and grasses. + </p> + <p> + The adventures of Mr. McGowan, after leaving Iquitos, would fill a book if + related in detail. The object of the present narrative and the space at + the authors' disposal, however, do not permit of more than a brief mention + of his experiences. His first objective point was Quito, about five + hundred miles away, which he proposed to reach on foot and by means of + canoeing on the Napo River through a wild and comparatively unknown + country teeming with tribes of hostile natives. The dangers of the + expedition were pictured to him in glowing colors, but spurning prophecies + of dire disaster, he engaged some native Indians and a canoe and started + on his explorations, reaching Quito in eighty-seven days, after a thorough + search of the country on both sides of the Napo River. From Quito he went + to Guayaquil, from there by steamer to Buenaventura, and thence by rail, + twelve miles, to Cordova. From this point he set out on foot to explore + the Cauca Valley and the Cordilleras. + </p> + <p> + Mr. McGowan found in these regions a great variety of bamboo, small and + large, some species growing seventy-five to one hundred feet in height, + and from six to nine inches in diameter. He collected a large number of + specimens, which were subsequently sent to Orange for Edison's + examination. After about fifteen months of exploration attended by much + hardship and privation, deserted sometimes by treacherous guides, twice + laid low by fevers, occasionally in peril from Indian attacks, wild + animals and poisonous serpents, tormented by insect pests, endangered by + floods, one hundred and nineteen days without meat, ninety-eight days + without taking off his clothes, Mr. McGowan returned to America, broken in + health but having faithfully fulfilled the commission intrusted to him. + The Evening Sun, New York, obtained an interview with him at that time, + and in its issue of May 2, 1889, gave more than a page to a brief story of + his interesting adventures, and then commented editorially upon them, as + follows: + </p> + <p> + "A ROMANCE OF SCIENCE" + </p> + <p> + "The narrative given elsewhere in the Evening Sun of the wanderings of + Edison's missionary of science, Mr. Frank McGowan, furnishes a new proof + that the romances of real life surpass any that the imagination can frame. + </p> + <p> + "In pursuit of a substance that should meet the requirements of the Edison + incandescent lamp, Mr. McGowan penetrated the wilderness of the Amazon, + and for a year defied its fevers, beasts, reptiles, and deadly insects in + his quest of a material so precious that jealous Nature has hidden it in + her most secret fastnesses. + </p> + <p> + "No hero of mythology or fable ever dared such dragons to rescue some + captive goddess as did this dauntless champion of civilization. Theseus, + or Siegfried, or any knight of the fairy books might envy the victories of + Edison's irresistible lieutenant. + </p> + <p> + "As a sample story of adventure, Mr. McGowan's narrative is a marvel fit + to be classed with the historic journeyings of the greatest travellers. + But it gains immensely in interest when we consider that it succeeded in + its scientific purpose. The mysterious bamboo was discovered, and large + quantities of it were procured and brought to the Wizard's laboratory, + there to suffer another wondrous change and then to light up our + pleasure-haunts and our homes with a gentle radiance." + </p> + <p> + A further, though rather sad, interest attaches to the McGowan story, for + only a short time had elapsed after his return to America when he + disappeared suddenly and mysteriously, and in spite of long-continued and + strenuous efforts to obtain some light on the subject, no clew or trace of + him was ever found. He was a favorite among the Edison "oldtimers," and + his memory is still cherished, for when some of the "boys" happen to get + together, as they occasionally do, some one is almost sure to "wonder what + became of poor 'Mac.'" He was last seen at Mouquin's famous old French + restaurant on Fulton Street, New York, where he lunched with one of the + authors of this book and the late Luther Stieringer. He sat with them for + two or three hours discussing his wonderful trip, and telling some + fascinating stories of adventure. Then the party separated at the Ann + Street door of the restaurant, after making plans to secure the narrative + in more detailed form for subsequent use—and McGowan has not been + seen from that hour to this. The trail of the explorer was more instantly + lost in New York than in the vast recesses of the Amazon swamps. + </p> + <p> + The next and last explorer whom Edison sent out in search of natural + fibres was Mr. James Ricalton, of Maplewood, New Jersey, a + school-principal, a well-known traveller, and an ardent student of natural + science. Mr. Ricalton's own story of his memorable expedition is so + interesting as to be worthy of repetition here: + </p> + <p> + "A village schoolmaster is not unaccustomed to door-rappings; for the + steps of belligerent mothers are often thitherward bent seeking redress + for conjured wrongs to their darling boobies. + </p> + <p> + "It was a bewildering moment, therefore, to the Maplewood teacher when, in + answering a rap at the door one afternoon, he found, instead of an irate + mother, a messenger from the laboratory of the world's greatest inventor + bearing a letter requesting an audience a few hours later. + </p> + <p> + "Being the teacher to whom reference is made, I am now quite willing to + confess that for the remainder of that afternoon, less than a problem in + Euclid would have been sufficient to disqualify me for the remaining + scholastic duties of the hour. I felt it, of course, to be no small honor + for a humble teacher to be called to the sanctum of Thomas A. Edison. The + letter, however, gave no intimation of the nature of the object for which + I had been invited to appear before Mr. Edison.... + </p> + <p> + "When I was presented to Mr. Edison his way of setting forth the mission + he had designated for me was characteristic of how a great mind conceives + vast undertakings and commands great things in few words. At this time Mr. + Edison had discovered that the fibre of a certain bamboo afforded a very + desirable carbon for the electric lamp, and the variety of bamboo used was + a product of Japan. It was his belief that in other parts of the world + other and superior varieties might be found, and to that end he had + dispatched explorers to bamboo regions in the valleys of the great South + American rivers, where specimens were found of extraordinary quality; but + the locality in which these specimens were found was lost in the limitless + reaches of those great river-bottoms. The great necessity for more durable + carbons became a desideratum so urgent that the tireless inventor decided + to commission another explorer to search the tropical jungles of the + Orient. + </p> + <p> + "This brings me then to the first meeting of Edison, when he set forth + substantially as follows, as I remember it twenty years ago, the purpose + for which he had called me from my scholastic duties. With a quizzical + gleam in his eye, he said: 'I want a man to ransack all the tropical + jungles of the East to find a better fibre for my lamp; I expect it to be + found in the palm or bamboo family. How would you like that job?' Suiting + my reply to his love of brevity and dispatch, I said, 'That would suit + me.' 'Can you go to-morrow?' was his next question. 'Well, Mr. Edison, I + must first of all get a leave of absence from my Board of Education, and + assist the board to secure a substitute for the time of my absence. How + long will it take, Mr. Edison?' 'How can I tell? Maybe six months, and + maybe five years; no matter how long, find it.' He continued: 'I sent a + man to South America to find what I want; he found it; but lost the place + where he found it, so he might as well never have found it at all.' Hereat + I was enjoined to proceed forthwith to court the Board of Education for a + leave of absence, which I did successfully, the board considering that a + call so important and honorary was entitled to their unqualified favor, + which they generously granted. + </p> + <p> + "I reported to Mr. Edison on the following day, when he instructed me to + come to the laboratory at once to learn all the details of drawing and + carbonizing fibres, which it would be necessary to do in the Oriental + jungles. This I did, and, in the mean time, a set of suitable tools for + this purpose had been ordered to be made in the laboratory. As soon as I + learned my new trade, which I accomplished in a few days, Mr. Edison + directed me to the library of the laboratory to occupy a few days in + studying the geography of the Orient and, particularly, in drawing maps of + the tributaries of the Ganges, the Irrawaddy, and the Brahmaputra rivers, + and other regions which I expected to explore. + </p> + <p> + "It was while thus engaged that Mr. Edison came to me one day and said: + 'If you will go up to the house' (his palatial home not far away) 'and + look behind the sofa in the library you will find a joint of bamboo, a + specimen of that found in South America; bring it down and make a study of + it; if you find something equal to that I will be satisfied.' At the home + I was guided to the library by an Irish servant-woman, to whom I + communicated my knowledge of the definite locality of the sample joint. + She plunged her arm, bare and herculean, behind the aforementioned sofa, + and holding aloft a section of wood, called out in a mood of discovery: + 'Is that it?' Replying in the affirmative, she added, under an impulse of + innocent divination that whatever her wizard master laid hands upon could + result in nothing short of an invention, 'Sure, sor, and what's he going + to invint out o' that?' + </p> + <p> + "My kit of tools made, my maps drawn, my Oriental geography reviewed, I + come to the point when matters of immediate departure are discussed; and + when I took occasion to mention to my chief that, on the subject of life + insurance, underwriters refuse to take any risks on an enterprise so + hazardous, Mr. Edison said that, if I did not place too high a valuation + on my person, he would take the risk himself. I replied that I was born + and bred in New York State, but now that I had become a Jersey man I did + not value myself at above fifteen hundred dollars. Edison laughed and said + that he would assume the risk, and another point was settled. The next + matter was the financing of the trip, about which Mr. Edison asked in a + tentative way about the rates to the East. I told him the expense of such + a trip could not be determined beforehand in detail, but that I had + established somewhat of a reputation for economic travel, and that I did + not believe any traveller could surpass me in that respect. He desired no + further assurance in that direction, and thereupon ordered a letter of + credit made out with authorization to order a second when the first was + exhausted. Herein then are set forth in briefest space the preliminaries + of a circuit of the globe in quest of fibre. + </p> + <p> + "It so happened that the day on which I set out fell on Washington's + Birthday, and I suggested to my boys and girls at school that they make a + line across the station platform near the school at Maplewood, and from + this line I would start eastward around the world, and if good-fortune + should bring me back I would meet them from the westward at the same line. + As I had often made them 'toe the scratch,' for once they were only too + well pleased to have me toe the line for them. + </p> + <p> + "This was done, and I sailed via England and the Suez Canal to Ceylon, + that fair isle to which Sindbad the Sailor made his sixth voyage, + picturesquely referred to in history as the 'brightest gem in the British + Colonial Crown.' I knew Ceylon to be eminently tropical; I knew it to be + rich in many varieties of the bamboo family, which has been called the + king of the grasses; and in this family had I most hope of finding the + desired fibre. Weeks were spent in this paradisiacal isle. Every part was + visited. Native wood craftsmen were offered a premium on every new species + brought in, and in this way nearly a hundred species were tested, a + greater number than was found in any other country. One of the best + specimens tested during the entire trip around the world was found first + in Ceylon, although later in Burmah, it being indigenous to the latter + country. It is a gigantic tree-grass or reed growing in clumps of from one + to two hundred, often twelve inches in diameter, and one hundred and fifty + feet high, and known as the giant bamboo (Bambusa gigantia). This giant + grass stood the highest test as a carbon, and on account of its + extraordinary size and qualities I extend it this special mention. With + others who have given much attention to this remarkable reed, I believe + that in its manifold uses the bamboo is the world's greatest dendral + benefactor. + </p> + <p> + "From Ceylon I proceeded to India, touching the great peninsula first at + Cape Comorin, and continuing northward by way of Pondicherry, Madura, and + Madras; and thence to the tableland of Bangalore and the Western Ghauts, + testing many kinds of wood at every point, but particularly the palm and + bamboo families. From the range of the Western Ghauts I went to Bombay and + then north by the way of Delhi to Simla, the summer capital of the + Himalayas; thence again northward to the headwaters of the Sutlej River, + testing everywhere on my way everything likely to afford the desired + carbon. + </p> + <p> + "On returning from the mountains I followed the valleys of the Jumna and + the Ganges to Calcutta, whence I again ascended the Sub-Himalayas to + Darjeeling, where the numerous river-bottoms were sprinkled plentifully + with many varieties of bamboo, from the larger sizes to dwarfed species + covering the mountain slopes, and not longer than the grass of meadows. + Again descending to the plains I passed eastward to the Brahmaputra River, + which I ascended to the foot-hills in Assam; but finding nothing of + superior quality in all this northern region I returned to Calcutta and + sailed thence to Rangoon, in Burmah; and there, finding no samples giving + more excellent tests in the lower reaches of the Irrawaddy, I ascended + that river to Mandalay, where, through Burmese bamboo wiseacres, I + gathered in from round about and tested all that the unusually rich + Burmese flora could furnish. In Burmah the giant bamboo, as already + mentioned, is found indigenous; but beside it no superior varieties were + found. Samples tested at several points on the Malay Peninsula showed no + new species, except at a point north of Singapore, where I found a species + large and heavy which gave a test nearly equal to that of the giant bamboo + in Ceylon. + </p> + <p> + "After completing the Malay Peninsula I had planned to visit Java and + Borneo; but having found in the Malay Peninsula and in Ceylon a bamboo + fibre which averaged a test from one to two hundred per cent. better than + that in use at the lamp factory, I decided it was unnecessary to visit + these countries or New Guinea, as my 'Eureka' had already been + established, and that I would therefore set forth over the return + hemisphere, searching China and Japan on the way. The rivers in Southern + China brought down to Canton bamboos of many species, where this + wondrously utilitarian reed enters very largely into the industrial life + of that people, and not merely into the industrial life, but even into the + culinary arts, for bamboo sprouts are a universal vegetable in China; but + among all the bamboos of China I found none of superexcellence in + carbonizing qualities. Japan came next in the succession of countries to + be explored, but there the work was much simplified, from the fact that + the Tokio Museum contains a complete classified collection of all the + different species in the empire, and there samples could be obtained and + tested. + </p> + <p> + "Now the last of the important bamboo-producing countries in the globe + circuit had been done, and the 'home-lap' was in order; the broad Pacific + was spanned in fourteen days; my natal continent in six; and on the 22d of + February, on the same day, at the same hour, at the same minute, one year + to a second, 'little Maude,' a sweet maid of the school, led me across the + line which completed the circuit of the globe, and where I was greeted by + the cheers of my boys and girls. I at once reported to Mr. Edison, whose + manner of greeting my return was as characteristic of the man as his + summary and matter-of-fact manner of my dispatch. His little catechism of + curious inquiry was embraced in four small and intensely Anglo-Saxon words—with + his usual pleasant smile he extended his hand and said: 'Did you get it?' + This was surely a summing of a year's exploration not less laconic than + Caesar's review of his Gallic campaign. When I replied that I had, but + that he must be the final judge of what I had found, he said that during + my absence he had succeeded in making an artificial carbon which was + meeting the requirements satisfactorily; so well, indeed, that I believe + no practical use was ever made of the bamboo fibres thereafter. + </p> + <p> + "I have herein given a very brief resume of my search for fibre through + the Orient; and during my connection with that mission I was at all times + not less astonished at Mr. Edison's quick perception of conditions and his + instant decision and his bigness of conceptions, than I had always been + with his prodigious industry and his inventive genius. + </p> + <p> + "Thinking persons know that blatant men never accomplish much, and + Edison's marvellous brevity of speech along with his miraculous + achievements should do much to put bores and garrulity out of fashion." + </p> + <p> + Although Edison had instituted such a costly and exhaustive search + throughout the world for the most perfect of natural fibres, he did not + necessarily feel committed for all time to the exclusive use of that + material for his lamp filaments. While these explorations were in + progress, as indeed long before, he had given much thought to the + production of some artificial compound that would embrace not only the + required homogeneity, but also many other qualifications necessary for the + manufacture of an improved type of lamp which had become desirable by + reason of the rapid adoption of his lighting system. + </p> + <p> + At the very time Mr. McGowan was making his explorations deep in South + America, and Mr. Ricalton his swift trip around the world, Edison, after + much investigation and experiment, had produced a compound which promised + better results than bamboo fibres. After some changes dictated by + experience, this artificial filament was adopted in the manufacture of + lamps. No radical change was immediately made, however, but the product of + the lamp factory was gradually changed over, during the course of a few + years, from the use of bamboo to the "squirted" filament, as the new + material was called. An artificial compound of one kind or another has + indeed been universally adopted for the purpose by all manufacturers; + hence the incandescing conductors in all carbon-filament lamps of the + present day are made in that way. The fact remains, however, that for + nearly nine years all Edison lamps (many millions in the aggregate) were + made with bamboo filaments, and many of them for several years after that, + until bamboo was finally abandoned in the early nineties, except for use + in a few special types which were so made until about the end of 1908. The + last few years have witnessed a remarkable advance in the manufacture of + incandescent lamps in the substitution of metallic filaments for those of + carbon. It will be remembered that many of the earlier experiments were + based on the use of strips of platinum; while other rare metals were the + subject of casual trial. No real success was attained in that direction, + and for many years the carbon-filament lamp reigned supreme. During the + last four or five years lamps with filaments made from tantalum and + tungsten have been produced and placed on the market with great success, + and are now largely used. Their price is still very high, however, as + compared with that of the carbon lamp, which has been vastly improved in + methods of construction, and whose average price of fifteen cents is only + one-tenth of what it was when Edison first brought it out. + </p> + <p> + With the close of Mr. McGowan's and Mr. Ricalton's expeditions, there + ended the historic world-hunt for natural fibres. From start to finish the + investigations and searches made by Edison himself, and carried on by + others under his direction, are remarkable not only from the fact that + they entailed a total expenditure of about $100,000, (disbursed under his + supervision by Mr. Upton), but also because of their unique inception and + thoroughness they illustrate one of the strongest traits of his character—an + invincible determination to leave no stone unturned to acquire that which + he believes to be in existence, and which, when found, will answer the + purpose that he has in mind. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV + </h2> + <h3> + INVENTING A COMPLETE SYSTEM OF LIGHTING + </h3> + <p> + IN Berlin, on December 11, 1908, with notable eclat, the seventieth + birthday was celebrated of Emil Rathenau, the founder of the great + Allgemein Elektricitaets Gesellschaft. This distinguished German, creator + of a splendid industry, then received the congratulations of his + fellow-countrymen, headed by Emperor William, who spoke enthusiastically + of his services to electro-technics and to Germany. In his interesting + acknowledgment, Mr. Rathenau told how he went to Paris in 1881, and at the + electrical exhibition there saw the display of Edison's inventions in + electric lighting "which have met with as little proper appreciation as + his countless innovations in connection with telegraphy, telephony, and + the entire electrical industry." He saw the Edison dynamo, and he saw the + incandescent lamp, "of which millions have been manufactured since that + day without the great master being paid the tribute to his invention." But + what impressed the observant, thoroughgoing German was the breadth with + which the whole lighting art had been elaborated and perfected, even at + that early day. "The Edison system of lighting was as beautifully + conceived down to the very details, and as thoroughly worked out as if it + had been tested for decades in various towns. Neither sockets, switches, + fuses, lamp-holders, nor any of the other accessories necessary to + complete the installation were wanting; and the generating of the current, + the regulation, the wiring with distributing boxes, house connections, + meters, etc., all showed signs of astonishing skill and incomparable + genius." + </p> + <p> + Such praise on such an occasion from the man who introduced incandescent + electric lighting into Germany is significant as to the continued + appreciation abroad of Mr. Edison's work. If there is one thing modern + Germany is proud and jealous of, it is her leadership in electrical + engineering and investigation. But with characteristic insight, Mr. + Rathenau here placed his finger on the great merit that has often been + forgotten. Edison was not simply the inventor of a new lamp and a new + dynamo. They were invaluable elements, but far from all that was + necessary. His was the mighty achievement of conceiving and executing in + all its details an art and an industry absolutely new to the world. Within + two years this man completed and made that art available in its essential, + fundamental facts, which remain unchanged after thirty years of rapid + improvement and widening application. + </p> + <p> + Such a stupendous feat, whose equal is far to seek anywhere in the history + of invention, is worth studying, especially as the task will take us over + much new ground and over very little of the territory already covered. + Notwithstanding the enormous amount of thought and labor expended on the + incandescent lamp problem from the autumn of 1878 to the winter of 1879, + it must not be supposed for one moment that Edison's whole endeavor and + entire inventive skill had been given to the lamp alone, or the dynamo + alone. We have sat through the long watches of the night while Edison + brooded on the real solution of the swarming problems. We have gazed + anxiously at the steady fingers of the deft and cautious Batchelor, as one + fragile filament after another refused to stay intact until it could be + sealed into its crystal prison and there glow with light that never was + before on land or sea. We have calculated armatures and field coils for + the new dynamo with Upton, and held the stakes for Jehl and his fellows at + their winding bees. We have seen the mineral and vegetable kingdoms rifled + and ransacked for substances that would yield the best "filament." We have + had the vague consciousness of assisting at a great development whose + evidences to-day on every hand attest its magnitude. We have felt the + fierce play of volcanic effort, lifting new continents of opportunity from + the infertile sea, without any devastation of pre-existing fields of human + toil and harvest. But it still remains to elucidate the actual thing done; + to reduce it to concrete data, and in reducing, to unfold its colossal + dimensions. + </p> + <p> + The lighting system that Edison contemplated in this entirely new + departure from antecedent methods included the generation of electrical + energy, or current, on a very large scale; its distribution throughout + extended areas, and its division and subdivision into small units + converted into light at innumerable points in every direction from the + source of supply, each unit to be independent of every other and + susceptible to immediate control by the user. + </p> + <p> + This was truly an altogether prodigious undertaking. We need not wonder + that Professor Tyndall, in words implying grave doubt as to the + possibility of any solution of the various problems, said publicly that he + would much rather have the matter in Edison's hands than in his own. There + were no precedents, nothing upon which to build or improve. The problems + could only be answered by the creation of new devices and methods + expressly worked out for their solution. An electric lamp answering + certain specific requirements would, indeed, be the key to the situation, + but its commercial adaptation required a multifarious variety of apparatus + and devices. The word "system" is much abused in invention, and during the + early days of electric lighting its use applied to a mere freakish lamp or + dynamo was often ludicrous. But, after all, nothing short of a complete + system could give real value to the lamp as an invention; nothing short of + a system could body forth the new art to the public. Let us therefore set + down briefly a few of the leading items needed for perfect illumination by + electricity, all of which were part of the Edison programme: + </p> + <p> + First—To conceive a broad and fundamentally correct method of + distributing the current, satisfactory in a scientific sense and practical + commercially in its efficiency and economy. This meant, ready made, a + comprehensive plan analogous to illumination by gas, with a network of + conductors all connected together, so that in any given city area the + lights could be fed with electricity from several directions, thus + eliminating any interruption due to the disturbance on any particular + section. + </p> + <p> + Second—To devise an electric lamp that would give about the same + amount of light as a gas jet, which custom had proven to be a suitable and + useful unit. This lamp must possess the quality of requiring only a small + investment in the copper conductors reaching it. Each lamp must be + independent of every other lamp. Each and all the lights must be produced + and operated with sufficient economy to compete on a commercial basis with + gas. The lamp must be durable, capable of being easily and safely handled + by the public, and one that would remain capable of burning at full + incandescence and candle-power a great length of time. + </p> + <p> + Third—To devise means whereby the amount of electrical energy + furnished to each and every customer could be determined, as in the case + of gas, and so that this could be done cheaply and reliably by a meter at + the customer's premises. + </p> + <p> + Fourth—To elaborate a system or network of conductors capable of + being placed underground or overhead, which would allow of being tapped at + any intervals, so that service wires could be run from the main conductors + in the street into each building. Where these mains went below the surface + of the thoroughfare, as in large cities, there must be protective conduit + or pipe for the copper conductors, and these pipes must allow of being + tapped wherever necessary. With these conductors and pipes must also be + furnished manholes, junction-boxes, connections, and a host of varied + paraphernalia insuring perfect general distribution. + </p> + <p> + Fifth—To devise means for maintaining at all points in an extended + area of distribution a practically even pressure of current, so that all + the lamps, wherever located, near or far away from the central station, + should give an equal light at all times, independent of the number that + might be turned on; and safeguarding the lamps against rupture by sudden + and violent fluctuations of current. There must also be means for thus + regulating at the point where the current was generated the quality or + pressure of the current throughout the whole lighting area, with devices + for indicating what such pressure might actually be at various points in + the area. + </p> + <p> + Sixth—To design efficient dynamos, such not being in existence at + the time, that would convert economically the steam-power of high-speed + engines into electrical energy, together with means for connecting and + disconnecting them with the exterior consumption circuits; means for + regulating, equalizing their loads, and adjusting the number of dynamos to + be used according to the fluctuating demands on the central station. Also + the arrangement of complete stations with steam and electric apparatus and + auxiliary devices for insuring their efficient and continuous operation. + </p> + <p> + Seventh—To invent devices that would prevent the current from + becoming excessive upon any conductors, causing fire or other injury; also + switches for turning the current on and off; lamp-holders, fixtures, and + the like; also means and methods for establishing the interior circuits + that were to carry current to chandeliers and fixtures in buildings. + </p> + <p> + Here was the outline of the programme laid down in the autumn of 1878, and + pursued through all its difficulties to definite accomplishment in about + eighteen months, some of the steps being made immediately, others being + taken as the art evolved. It is not to be imagined for one moment that + Edison performed all the experiments with his own hands. The method of + working at Menlo Park has already been described in these pages by those + who participated. It would not only have been physically impossible for + one man to have done all this work himself, in view of the time and labor + required, and the endless detail; but most of the apparatus and devices + invented or suggested by him as the art took shape required the handiwork + of skilled mechanics and artisans of a high order of ability. Toward the + end of 1879 the laboratory force thus numbered at least one hundred + earnest men. In this respect of collaboration, Edison has always adopted a + policy that must in part be taken to explain his many successes. Some + inventors of the greatest ability, dealing with ideas and conceptions of + importance, have found it impossible to organize or even to tolerate a + staff of co-workers, preferring solitary and secret toil, incapable of + team work, or jealous of any intrusion that could possibly bar them from a + full and complete claim to the result when obtained. Edison always stood + shoulder to shoulder with his associates, but no one ever questioned the + leadership, nor was it ever in doubt where the inspiration originated. The + real truth is that Edison has always been so ceaselessly fertile of ideas + himself, he has had more than his whole staff could ever do to try them + all out; he has sought co-operation, but no exterior suggestion. As a + matter of fact a great many of the "Edison men" have made notable + inventions of their own, with which their names are imperishably + associated; but while they were with Edison it was with his work that they + were and must be busied. + </p> + <p> + It was during this period of "inventing a system" that so much systematic + and continuous work with good results was done by Edison in the design and + perfection of dynamos. The value of his contributions to the art of + lighting comprised in this work has never been fully understood or + appreciated, having been so greatly overshadowed by his invention of the + incandescent lamp, and of a complete system of distribution. It is a fact, + however, that the principal improvements he made in dynamo-electric + generators were of a radical nature and remain in the art. Thirty years + bring about great changes, especially in a field so notably progressive as + that of the generation of electricity; but different as are the dynamos of + to-day from those of the earlier period, they embody essential principles + and elements that Edison then marked out and elaborated as the conditions + of success. There was indeed prompt appreciation in some well-informed + quarters of what Edison was doing, evidenced by the sensation caused in + the summer of 1881, when he designed, built, and shipped to Paris for the + first Electrical Exposition ever held, the largest dynamo that had been + built up to that time. It was capable of lighting twelve hundred + incandescent lamps, and weighed with its engine twenty-seven tons, the + armature alone weighing six tons. It was then, and for a long time after, + the eighth wonder of the scientific world, and its arrival and + installation in Paris were eagerly watched by the most famous physicists + and electricians of Europe. + </p> + <p> + Edison's amusing description of his experience in shipping the dynamo to + Paris when built may appropriately be given here: "I built a very large + dynamo with the engine directly connected, which I intended for the Paris + Exposition of 1881. It was one or two sizes larger than those I had + previously built. I had only a very short period in which to get it ready + and put it on a steamer to reach the Exposition in time. After the machine + was completed we found the voltage was too low. I had to devise a way of + raising the voltage without changing the machine, which I did by adding + extra magnets. After this was done, we tested the machine, and the + crank-shaft of the engine broke and flew clear across the shop. By working + night and day a new crank-shaft was put in, and we only had three days + left from that time to get it on board the steamer; and had also to run a + test. So we made arrangements with the Tammany leader, and through him + with the police, to clear the street—one of the New York crosstown + streets—and line it with policemen, as we proposed to make a quick + passage, and didn't know how much time it would take. About four hours + before the steamer had to get it, the machine was shut down after the + test, and a schedule was made out in advance of what each man had to do. + Sixty men were put on top of the dynamo to get it ready, and each man had + written orders as to what he was to perform. We got it all taken apart and + put on trucks and started off. They drove the horses with a fire-bell in + front of them to the French pier, the policemen lining the streets. Fifty + men were ready to help the stevedores get it on the steamer—and we + were one hour ahead of time." + </p> + <p> + This Exposition brings us, indeed, to a dramatic and rather pathetic + parting of the ways. The hour had come for the old laboratory force that + had done such brilliant and memorable work to disband, never again to + assemble under like conditions for like effort, although its members all + remained active in the field, and many have ever since been associated + prominently with some department of electrical enterprise. The fact was + they had done their work so well they must now disperse to show the world + what it was, and assist in its industrial exploitation. In reality, they + were too few for the demands that reached Edison from all parts of the + world for the introduction of his system; and in the emergency the men + nearest to him and most trusted were those upon whom he could best depend + for such missionary work as was now required. The disciples full of fire + and enthusiasm, as well as of knowledge and experience, were soon + scattered to the four winds, and the rapidity with which the Edison system + was everywhere successfully introduced is testimony to the good judgment + with which their leader had originally selected them as his colleagues. No + one can say exactly just how this process of disintegration began, but Mr. + E. H. Johnson had already been sent to England in the Edison interests, + and now the question arose as to what should be done with the French + demands and the Paris Electrical Exposition, whose importance as a point + of new departure in electrical industry was speedily recognized on both + sides of the Atlantic. It is very interesting to note that as the earlier + staff broke up, Edison became the centre of another large body, equally + devoted, but more particularly concerned with the commercial development + of his ideas. Mr. E. G. Acheson mentions in his personal notes on work at + the laboratory, that in December of 1880, while on some experimental work, + he was called to the new lamp factory started recently at Menlo Park, and + there found Edison, Johnson, Batchelor, and Upton in conference, and + "Edison informed me that Mr. Batchelor, who was in charge of the + construction, development, and operation of the lamp factory, was soon to + sail for Europe to prepare for the exhibit to be made at the Electrical + Exposition to be held in Paris during the coming summer." These + preparations overlap the reinforcement of the staff with some notable + additions, chief among them being Mr. Samuel Insull, whose interesting + narrative of events fits admirably into the story at this stage, and gives + a vivid idea of the intense activity and excitement with which the whole + atmosphere around Edison was then surcharged: "I first met Edison on March + 1, 1881. I arrived in New York on the City of Chester about five or six in + the evening, and went direct to 65 Fifth Avenue. I had come over to act as + Edison's private secretary, the position having been obtained for me + through the good offices of Mr. E. H. Johnson, whom I had known in London, + and who wrote to Mr. U. H. Painter, of Washington, about me in the fall of + 1880. Mr. Painter sent the letter on to Mr. Batchelor, who turned it over + to Edison. Johnson returned to America late in the fall of 1880, and in + January, 1881, cabled to me to come to this country. At the time he cabled + for me Edison was still at Menlo Park, but when I arrived in New York the + famous offices of the Edison Electric Light Company had been opened at + '65' Fifth Avenue, and Edison had moved into New York with the idea of + assisting in the exploitation of the Light Company's business. + </p> + <p> + "I was taken by Johnson direct from the Inman Steamship pier to 65 Fifth + Avenue, and met Edison for the first time. There were three rooms on the + ground floor at that time. The front one was used as a kind of + reception-room; the room immediately behind it was used as the office of + the president of the Edison Electric Light Company, Major S. B. Eaton. The + rear room, which was directly back of the front entrance hall, was + Edison's office, and there I first saw him. There was very little in the + room except a couple of walnut roller-top desks—which were very + generally used in American offices at that time. Edison received me with + great cordiality. I think he was possibly disappointed at my being so + young a man; I had only just turned twenty-one, and had a very boyish + appearance. The picture of Edison is as vivid to me now as if the incident + occurred yesterday, although it is now more than twenty-nine years since + that first meeting. I had been connected with Edison's affairs in England + as private secretary to his London agent for about two years; and had been + taught by Johnson to look on Edison as the greatest electrical inventor of + the day—a view of him, by-the-way, which has been greatly + strengthened as the years have rolled by. Owing to this, and to the fact + that I felt highly flattered at the appointment as his private secretary, + I was naturally prepared to accept him as a hero. With my strict English + ideas as to the class of clothes to be worn by a prominent man, there was + nothing in Edison's dress to impress me. He wore a rather seedy black + diagonal Prince Albert coat and waistcoat, with trousers of a dark + material, and a white silk handkerchief around his neck, tied in a + careless knot falling over the stiff bosom of a white shirt somewhat the + worse for wear. He had a large wide-awake hat of the sombrero pattern then + generally used in this country, and a rough, brown overcoat, cut somewhat + similarly to his Prince Albert coat. His hair was worn quite long, and + hanging carelessly over his fine forehead. His face was at that time, as + it is now, clean shaven. He was full in face and figure, although by no + means as stout as he has grown in recent years. What struck me above + everything else was the wonderful intelligence and magnetism of his + expression, and the extreme brightness of his eyes. He was far more modest + than in my youthful picture of him. I had expected to find a man of + distinction. His appearance, as a whole, was not what you would call + 'slovenly,' it is best expressed by the word 'careless.'" + </p> + <p> + Mr. Insull supplements this pen-picture by another, bearing upon the + hustle and bustle of the moment: "After a short conversation Johnson + hurried me off to meet his family, and later in the evening, about eight + o'clock, he and I returned to Edison's office; and I found myself launched + without further ceremony into Edison's business affairs. Johnson had + already explained to me that he was sailing the next morning, March 2d, on + the S.S. Arizona, and that Mr. Edison wanted to spend the evening + discussing matters in connection with his European affairs. It was + assumed, inasmuch as I had just arrived from London, that I would be able + to give more or less information on this subject. As Johnson was to sail + the next morning at five o'clock, Edison explained that it would be + necessary for him to have an understanding of European matters. Edison + started out by drawing from his desk a check-book and stating how much + money he had in the bank; and he wanted to know what European telephone + securities were most salable, as he wished to raise the necessary funds to + put on their feet the incandescent lamp factory, the Electric Tube works, + and the necessary shops to build dynamos. All through the interview I was + tremendously impressed with Edison's wonderful resourcefulness and grasp, + and his immediate appreciation of any suggestion of consequence bearing on + the subject under discussion. + </p> + <p> + "He spoke with very great enthusiasm of the work before him—namely, + the development of his electric-lighting system; and his one idea seemed + to be to raise all the money he could with the object of pouring it into + the manufacturing side of the lighting business. I remember how + extraordinarily I was impressed with him on this account, as I had just + come from a circle of people in London who not only questioned the + possibility of the success of Edison's invention, but often expressed + doubt as to whether the work he had done could be called an invention at + all. After discussing affairs with Johnson—who was receiving his + final instructions from Edison—far into the night, and going down to + the steamer to see Johnson aboard, I finished my first night's business + with Edison somewhere between four and five in the morning, feeling + thoroughly imbued with the idea that I had met one of the great master + minds of the world. You must allow for my youthful enthusiasm, but you + must also bear in mind Edison's peculiar gift of magnetism, which has + enabled him during his career to attach so many men to him. I fell a + victim to the spell at the first interview." + </p> + <p> + Events moved rapidly in those days. The next morning, Tuesday, Edison took + his new fidus Achates with him to a conference with John Roach, the famous + old ship-builder, and at it agreed to take the AEtna Iron works, where + Roach had laid the foundations of his fame and fortune. These works were + not in use at the time. They were situated on Goerck Street, New York, + north of Grand Street, on the east side of the city, and there, very soon + after, was established the first Edison dynamo-manufacturing + establishment, known for many years as the Edison Machine Works. The same + night Insull made his first visit to Menlo Park. Up to that time he had + seen very little incandescent lighting, for the simple reason that there + was very little to see. Johnson had had a few Edison lamps in London, lit + up from primary batteries, as a demonstration; and in the summer of 1880 + Swan had had a few series lamps burning in London. In New York a small + gas-engine plant was being started at the Edison offices on Fifth Avenue. + But out at Menlo Park there was the first actual electric-lighting central + station, supplying distributed incandescent lamps and some electric motors + by means of underground conductors imbedded in asphaltum and surrounded by + a wooden box. Mr. Insull says: "The system employed was naturally the + two-wire, as at that time the three-wire had not been thought of. The + lamps were partly of the horseshoe filament paper-carbon type, and partly + bamboo-filament lamps, and were of an efficiency of 95 to 100 watts per 16 + c.p. I can never forget the impression that this first view of the + electric-lighting industry produced on me. Menlo Park must always be + looked upon as the birthplace of the electric light and power industry. At + that time it was the only place where could be seen an electric light and + power multiple arc distribution system, the operation of which seemed as + successful to my youthful mind as the operation of one of the large + metropolitan systems to-day. I well remember about ten o'clock that night + going down to the Menlo Park depot and getting the station agent, who was + also the telegraph operator, to send some cable messages for me to my + London friends, announcing that I had seen Edison's incandescent lighting + system in actual operation, and that so far as I could tell it was an + accomplished fact. A few weeks afterward I received a letter from one of + my London friends, who was a doubting Thomas, upbraiding me for coming so + soon under the spell of the 'Yankee inventor.'" + </p> + <p> + It was to confront and deal with just this element of doubt in London and + in Europe generally, that the dispatch of Johnson to England and of + Batchelor to France was intended. Throughout the Edison staff there was a + mingled feeling of pride in the work, resentment at the doubts expressed + about it, and keen desire to show how excellent it was. Batchelor left for + Paris in July, 1881—on his second trip to Europe that year—and + the exhibit was made which brought such an instantaneous recognition of + the incalculable value of Edison's lighting inventions, as evidenced by + the awards and rewards immediately bestowed upon him. He was made an + officer of the Legion of Honor, and Prof. George F. Barker cabled as + follows from Paris, announcing the decision of the expert jury which + passed upon the exhibits: "Accept my congratulations. You have distanced + all competitors and obtained a diploma of honor, the highest award given + in the Exposition. No person in any class in which you were an exhibitor + received a like reward." + </p> + <p> + Nor was this all. Eminent men in science who had previously expressed + their disbelief in the statements made as to the Edison system were now + foremost in generous praise of his notable achievements, and accorded him + full credit for its completion. A typical instance was M. Du Moncel, a + distinguished electrician, who had written cynically about Edison's work + and denied its practicability. He now recanted publicly in this language, + which in itself shows the state of the art when Edison came to the front: + "All these experiments achieved but moderate success, and when, in 1879, + the new Edison incandescent carbon lamp was announced, many of the + scientists, and I, particularly, doubted the accuracy of the reports which + came from America. This horseshoe of carbonized paper seemed incapable to + resist mechanical shocks and to maintain incandescence for any + considerable length of time. Nevertheless, Mr. Edison was not discouraged, + and despite the active opposition made to his lamp, despite the polemic + acerbity of which he was the object, he did not cease to perfect it; and + he succeeded in producing the lamps which we now behold exhibited at the + Exposition, and are admired by all for their perfect steadiness." + </p> + <p> + The competitive lamps exhibited and tested at this time comprised those of + Edison, Maxim, Swan, and Lane-Fox. The demonstration of Edison's success + stimulated the faith of his French supporters, and rendered easier the + completion of plans for the Societe Edison Continental, of Paris, formed + to operate the Edison patents on the Continent of Europe. Mr. Batchelor, + with Messrs. Acheson and Hipple, and one or two other assistants, at the + close of the Exposition transferred their energies to the construction and + equipment of machine-shops and lamp factories at Ivry-sur-Seine for the + company, and in a very short time the installation of plants began in + various countries—France, Italy, Holland, Belgium, etc. + </p> + <p> + All through 1881 Johnson was very busy, for his part, in England. The + first "Jumbo" Edison dynamo had gone to Paris; the second and third went + to London, where they were installed in 1881 by Mr. Johnson and his + assistant, Mr. W. J. Hammer, in the three-thousand-light central station + on Holborn Viaduct, the plant going into operation on January 12, 1882. + Outside of Menlo Park this was the first regular station for incandescent + lighting in the world, as the Pearl Street station in New York did not go + into operation until September of the same year. This historic plant was + hurriedly thrown together on Crown land, and would doubtless have been the + nucleus of a great system but for the passage of the English electric + lighting act of 1882, which at once throttled the industry by its absurd + restrictive provisions, and which, though greatly modified, has left + England ever since in a condition of serious inferiority as to development + in electric light and power. The streets and bridges of Holborn Viaduct + were lighted by lamps turned on and off from the station, as well as the + famous City Temple of Dr. Joseph Parker, the first church in the world to + be lighted by incandescent lamps—indeed, so far as can be + ascertained, the first church to be illuminated by electricity in any + form. Mr. W. J. Hammer, who supplies some very interesting notes on the + installation, says: "I well remember the astonishment of Doctor Parker and + his associates when they noted the difference of temperature as compared + with gas. I was informed that the people would not go in the gallery in + warm weather, owing to the great heat caused by the many gas jets, whereas + on the introduction of the incandescent lamp there was no complaint." The + telegraph operating-room of the General Post-Office, at St. Martin's-Le + Grand and Newgate Street nearby, was supplied with four hundred lamps + through the instrumentality of Mr. (Sir) W. H. Preece, who, having been + seriously sceptical as to Mr. Edison's results, became one of his most + ardent advocates, and did much to facilitate the introduction of the + light. This station supplied its customers by a network of feeders and + mains of the standard underground two-wire Edison tubing-conductors in + sections of iron pipe—such as was used subsequently in New York, + Milan, and other cities. It also had a measuring system for the current, + employing the Edison electrolytic meter. Arc lamps were operated from its + circuits, and one of the first sets of practicable storage batteries was + used experimentally at the station. In connection with these batteries Mr. + Hammer tells a characteristic anecdote of Edison: "A careless boy passing + through the station whistling a tune and swinging carelessly a hammer in + his hand, rapped a carboy of sulphuric acid which happened to be on the + floor above a 'Jumbo' dynamo. The blow broke the glass carboy, and the + acid ran down upon the field magnets of the dynamo, destroying the + windings of one of the twelve magnets. This accident happened while I was + taking a vacation in Germany, and a prominent scientific man connected + with the company cabled Mr. Edison to know whether the machine would work + if the coil was cut out. Mr. Edison sent the laconic reply: 'Why doesn't + he try it and see?' Mr. E. H. Johnson was kept busy not only with the + cares and responsibilities of this pioneer English plant, but by + negotiations as to company formations, hearings before Parliamentary + committees, and particularly by distinguished visitors, including all the + foremost scientific men in England, and a great many well-known members of + the peerage. Edison was fortunate in being represented by a man with so + much address, intimate knowledge of the subject, and powers of + explanation. As one of the leading English papers said at the time, with + equal humor and truth: 'There is but one Edison, and Johnson is his + prophet.'" + </p> + <p> + As the plant continued in operation, various details and ideas of + improvement emerged, and Mr. Hammer says: "Up to the time of the + construction of this plant it had been customary to place a single-pole + switch on one wire and a safety fuse on the other; and the practice of + putting fuses on both sides of a lighting circuit was first used here. + Some of the first, if not the very first, of the insulated fixtures were + used in this plant, and many of the fixtures were equipped with ball + insulating joints, enabling the chandeliers—or 'electroliers'—to + be turned around, as was common with the gas chandeliers. This particular + device was invented by Mr. John B. Verity, whose firm built many of the + fixtures for the Edison Company, and constructed the notable electroliers + shown at the Crystal Palace Exposition of 1882." + </p> + <p> + We have made a swift survey of developments from the time when the system + of lighting was ready for use, and when the staff scattered to introduce + it. It will be readily understood that Edison did not sit with folded + hands or drop into complacent satisfaction the moment he had reached the + practical stage of commercial exploitation. He was not willing to say "Let + us rest and be thankful," as was one of England's great Liberal leaders + after a long period of reform. On the contrary, he was never more active + than immediately after the work we have summed up at the beginning of this + chapter. While he had been pursuing his investigations of the generator in + conjunction with the experiments on the incandescent lamp, he gave much + thought to the question of distribution of the current over large areas, + revolving in his mind various plans for the accomplishment of this + purpose, and keeping his mathematicians very busy working on the various + schemes that suggested themselves from time to time. The idea of a + complete system had been in his mind in broad outline for a long time, but + did not crystallize into commercial form until the incandescent lamp was + an accomplished fact. Thus in January, 1880, his first patent application + for a "System of Electrical Distribution" was signed. It was filed in the + Patent Office a few days later, but was not issued as a patent until + August 30, 1887. It covered, fundamentally, multiple arc distribution, how + broadly will be understood from the following extracts from the New York + Electrical Review of September 10, 1887: "It would appear as if the entire + field of multiple distribution were now in the hands of the owners of this + patent.... The patent is about as broad as a patent can be, being + regardless of specific devices, and laying a powerful grasp on the + fundamental idea of multiple distribution from a number of generators + throughout a metallic circuit." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Edison made a number of other applications for patents on electrical + distribution during the year 1880. Among these was the one covering the + celebrated "Feeder" invention, which has been of very great commercial + importance in the art, its object being to obviate the "drop" in pressure, + rendering lights dim in those portions of an electric-light system that + were remote from the central station. [10] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 10: For further explanation of "Feeder" patent, + see Appendix.] +</pre> + <p> + From these two patents alone, which were absolutely basic and fundamental + in effect, and both of which were, and still are, put into actual use + wherever central-station lighting is practiced, the reader will see that + Mr. Edison's patient and thorough study, aided by his keen foresight and + unerring judgment, had enabled him to grasp in advance with a master hand + the chief and underlying principles of a true system—that system + which has since been put into practical use all over the world, and whose + elements do not need the touch or change of more modern scientific + knowledge. + </p> + <p> + These patents were not by any means all that he applied for in the year + 1880, which it will be remembered was the year in which he was perfecting + the incandescent electric lamp and methods, to put into the market for + competition with gas. It was an extraordinarily busy year for Mr. Edison + and his whole force, which from time to time was increased in number. + Improvement upon improvement was the order of the day. That which was + considered good to-day was superseded by something better and more + serviceable to-morrow. Device after device, relating to some part of the + entire system, was designed, built, and tried, only to be rejected + ruthlessly as being unsuitable; but the pursuit was not abandoned. It was + renewed over and over again in innumerable ways until success had been + attained. + </p> + <p> + During the year 1880 Edison had made application for sixty patents, of + which thirty-two were in relation to incandescent lamps; seven covered + inventions relating to distributing systems (including the two above + particularized); five had reference to inventions of parts, such as + motors, sockets, etc.; six covered inventions relating to dynamo-electric + machines; three related to electric railways, and seven to miscellaneous + apparatus, such as telegraph relays, magnetic ore separators, magneto + signalling apparatus, etc. + </p> + <p> + The list of Mr. Edison's patents (see Appendices) is not only a monument + to his life's work, but serves to show what subjects he has worked on from + year to year since 1868. The reader will see from an examination of this + list that the years 1880, 1881, 1882, and 1883 were the most prolific + periods of invention. It is worth while to scrutinize this list closely to + appreciate the wide range of his activities. Not that his patents cover + his entire range of work by any means, for his note-books reveal a great + number of major and minor inventions for which he has not seen fit to take + out patents. Moreover, at the period now described Edison was the victim + of a dishonest patent solicitor, who deprived him of a number of patents + in the following manner: + </p> + <p> + "Around 1881-82 I had several solicitors attending to different classes of + work. One of these did me a most serious injury. It was during the time + that I was developing my electric-lighting system, and I was working and + thinking very hard in order to cover all the numerous parts, in order that + it would be complete in every detail. I filed a great many applications + for patents at that time, but there were seventy-eight of the inventions I + made in that period that were entirely lost to me and my company by reason + of the dishonesty of this patent solicitor. Specifications had been drawn, + and I had signed and sworn to the application for patents for these + seventy-eight inventions, and naturally I supposed they had been filed in + the regular way. + </p> + <p> + "As time passed I was looking for some action of the Patent Office, as + usual, but none came. I thought it very strange, but had no suspicions + until I began to see my inventions recorded in the Patent Office Gazette + as being patented by others. Of course I ordered an investigation, and + found that the patent solicitor had drawn from the company the fees for + filing all these applications, but had never filed them. All the papers + had disappeared, however, and what he had evidently done was to sell them + to others, who had signed new applications and proceeded to take out + patents themselves on my inventions. I afterward found that he had been + previously mixed up with a somewhat similar crooked job in connection with + telephone patents. + </p> + <p> + "I am free to confess that the loss of these seventy-eight inventions has + left a sore spot in me that has never healed. They were important, useful, + and valuable, and represented a whole lot of tremendous work and mental + effort, and I had had a feeling of pride in having overcome through them a + great many serious obstacles, One of these inventions covered the + multipolar dynamo. It was an elaborated form of the type covered by my + patent No. 219,393 which had a ring armature. I modified and improved on + this form and had a number of pole pieces placed all around the ring, with + a modified form of armature winding. I built one of these machines and ran + it successfully in our early days at the Goerck Street shop. + </p> + <p> + "It is of no practical use to mention the man's name. I believe he is + dead, but he may have left a family. The occurrence is a matter of the old + Edison Company's records." + </p> + <p> + It will be seen from an examination of the list of patents in the Appendix + that Mr. Edison has continued year after year adding to his contributions + to the art of electric lighting, and in the last twenty-eight years—1880-1908—has + taken out no fewer than three hundred and seventy-five patents in this + branch of industry alone. These patents may be roughly tabulated as + follows: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Incandescent lamps and their manufacture....................149 +Distributing systems and their control and regulation....... 77 +Dynamo-electric machines and accessories....................106 +Minor parts, such as sockets, switches, safety catches, +meters, underground conductors and parts, etc............... 43 +</pre> + <p> + Quite naturally most of these patents cover inventions that are in the + nature of improvements or based upon devices which he had already created; + but there are a number that relate to inventions absolutely fundamental + and original in their nature. Some of these have already been alluded to; + but among the others there is one which is worthy of special mention in + connection with the present consideration of a complete system. This is + patent No. 274,290, applied for November 27, 1882, and is known as the + "Three-wire" patent. It is described more fully in the Appendix. + </p> + <p> + The great importance of the "Feeder" and "Three-wire" inventions will be + apparent when it is realized that without them it is a question whether + electric light could be sold to compete with low-priced gas, on account of + the large investment in conductors that would be necessary. If a large + city area were to be lighted from a central station by means of copper + conductors running directly therefrom to all parts of the district, it + would be necessary to install large conductors, or suffer such a drop of + pressure at the ends most remote from the station as to cause the lights + there to burn with a noticeable diminution of candle-power. The Feeder + invention overcame this trouble, and made it possible to use conductors + ONLY ONE-EIGHTH THE SIZE that would otherwise have been necessary to + produce the same results. + </p> + <p> + A still further economy in cost of conductors was effected by the + "Three-wire" invention, by the use of which the already diminished + conductors could be still further reduced TO ONE-THIRD of this smaller + size, and at the same time allow of the successful operation of the + station with far better results than if it were operated exactly as at + first conceived. The Feeder and Three-wire systems are at this day used in + all parts of the world, not only in central-station work, but in the + installation and operation of isolated electric-light plants in large + buildings. No sensible or efficient station manager or electric contractor + would ever think of an installation made upon any other plan. Thus Mr. + Edison's early conceptions of the necessities of a complete system, one of + them made even in advance of practice, have stood firm, unimproved, and + unchanged during the past twenty-eight years, a period of time which has + witnessed more wonderful and rapid progress in electrical science and art + than has been known during any similar art or period of time since the + world began. + </p> + <p> + It must be remembered that the complete system in all its parts is not + comprised in the few of Mr. Edison's patents, of which specific mention is + here made. In order to comprehend the magnitude and extent of his work and + the quality of his genius, it is necessary to examine minutely the list of + patents issued for the various elements which go to make up such a system. + To attempt any relation in detail of the conception and working-out of + each part or element; to enter into any description of the almost + innumerable experiments and investigations that were made would entail the + writing of several volumes, for Mr. Edison's close-written note-books + covering these subjects number nearly two hundred. + </p> + <p> + It is believed that enough evidence has been given in this chapter to lead + to an appreciation of the assiduous work and practical skill involved in + "inventing a system" of lighting that would surpass, and to a great + extent, in one single quarter of a century, supersede all the other + methods of illumination developed during long centuries. But it will be + appropriate before passing on to note that on January 17, 1908, while this + biography was being written, Mr. Edison became the fourth recipient of the + John Fritz gold medal for achievement in industrial progress. This medal + was founded in 1902 by the professional friends and associates of the + veteran American ironmaster and metallurgical inventor, in honor of his + eightieth birthday. Awards are made by a board of sixteen engineers + appointed in equal numbers from the four great national engineering + societies—the American Society of Civil Engineers, the American + Institute of Mining Engineers, the American Society of Mechanical + Engineers, and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, whose + membership embraces the very pick and flower of professional engineering + talent in America. Up to the time of the Edison award, three others had + been made. The first was to Lord Kelvin, the Nestor of physics in Europe, + for his work in submarine-cable telegraphy and other scientific + achievement. The second was to George Westinghouse for the air-brake. The + third was to Alexander Graham Bell for the invention and introduction of + the telephone. The award to Edison was not only for his inventions in + duplex and quadruplex telegraphy, and for the phonograph, but for the + development of a commercially practical incandescent lamp, and the + development of a complete system of electric lighting, including dynamos, + regulating devices, underground system, protective devices, and meters. + Great as has been the genius brought to bear on electrical development, + there is no other man to whom such a comprehensive tribute could be paid. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV + </h2> + <h3> + INTRODUCTION OF THE EDISON ELECTRIC LIGHT + </h3> + <p> + IN the previous chapter on the invention of a system, the narrative has + been carried along for several years of activity up to the verge of the + successful and commercial application of Edison's ideas and devices for + incandescent electric lighting. The story of any one year in this period, + if treated chronologically, would branch off in a great many different + directions, some going back to earlier work, others forward to arts not + yet within the general survey; and the effect of such treatment would be + confusing. In like manner the development of the Edison lighting system + followed several concurrent, simultaneous lines of advance; and an effort + was therefore made in the last chapter to give a rapid glance over the + whole movement, embracing a term of nearly five years, and including in + its scope both the Old World and the New. What is necessary to the + completeness of the story at this stage is not to recapitulate, but to + take up some of the loose ends of threads woven in and follow them through + until the clear and comprehensive picture of events can be seen. + </p> + <p> + Some things it would be difficult to reproduce in any picture of the art + and the times. One of the greatest delusions of the public in regard to + any notable invention is the belief that the world is waiting for it with + open arms and an eager welcome. The exact contrary is the truth. There is + not a single new art or device the world has ever enjoyed of which it can + be said that it was given an immediate and enthusiastic reception. The way + of the inventor is hard. He can sometimes raise capital to help him in + working out his crude conceptions, but even then it is frequently done at + a distressful cost of personal surrender. When the result is achieved the + invention makes its appeal on the score of economy of material or of + effort; and then "labor" often awaits with crushing and tyrannical spirit + to smash the apparatus or forbid its very use. Where both capital and + labor are agreed that the object is worthy of encouragement, there is the + supreme indifference of the public to overcome, and the stubborn + resistance of pre-existing devices to combat. The years of hardship and + struggle are thus prolonged, the chagrin of poverty and neglect too + frequently embitters the inventor's scanty bread; and one great spirit + after another has succumbed to the defeat beyond which lay the + procrastinated triumph so dearly earned. Even in America, where the + adoption of improvements and innovations is regarded as so prompt and + sure, and where the huge tolls of the Patent Office and the courts bear + witness to the ceaseless efforts of the inventor, it is impossible to deny + the sad truth that unconsciously society discourages invention rather than + invites it. Possibly our national optimism as revealed in invention—the + seeking a higher good—needs some check. Possibly the leaders would + travel too fast and too far on the road to perfection if conservatism did + not also play its salutary part in insisting that the procession move + forward as a whole. + </p> + <p> + Edison and his electric light were happily more fortunate than other men + and inventions, in the relative cordiality of the reception given them. + The merit was too obvious to remain unrecognized. Nevertheless, it was + through intense hostility and opposition that the young art made its way, + pushed forward by Edison's own strong personality and by his unbounded, + unwavering faith in the ultimate success of his system. It may seem + strange that great effort was required to introduce a light so manifestly + convenient, safe, agreeable, and advantageous, but the facts are matter of + record; and to-day the recollection of some of the episodes brings a + fierce glitter into the eye and keen indignation into the voice of the man + who has come so victoriously through it all. + </p> + <p> + It was not a fact at any time that the public was opposed to the idea of + the electric light. On the contrary, the conditions for its acceptance had + been ripening fast. Yet the very vogue of the electric arc light made + harder the arrival of the incandescent. As a new illuminant for the + streets, the arc had become familiar, either as a direct substitute for + the low gas lamp along the sidewalk curb, or as a novel form of moonlight, + raised in groups at the top of lofty towers often a hundred and fifty feet + high. Some of these lights were already in use for large indoor spaces, + although the size of the unit, the deadly pressure of the current, and the + sputtering sparks from the carbons made them highly objectionable for such + purposes. A number of parent arc-lighting companies were in existence, and + a great many local companies had been called into being under franchises + for commercial business and to execute regular city contracts for street + lighting. In this manner a good deal of capital and the energies of many + prominent men in politics and business had been rallied distinctively to + the support of arc lighting. Under the inventive leadership of such + brilliant men as Brush, Thomson, Weston, and Van Depoele—there were + scores of others—the industry had made considerable progress and the + art had been firmly established. Here lurked, however, very vigorous + elements of opposition, for Edison predicted from the start the + superiority of the small electric unit of light, and devoted himself + exclusively to its perfection and introduction. It can be readily seen + that this situation made it all the more difficult for the Edison system + to secure the large sums of money needed for its exploitation, and to + obtain new franchises or city ordinances as a public utility. Thus in a + curious manner the modern art of electric lighting was in a very true + sense divided against itself, with intense rivalries and jealousies which + were none the less real because they were but temporary and occurred in a + field where ultimate union of forces was inevitable. For a long period the + arc was dominant and supreme in the lighting branch of the electrical + industries, in all respects, whether as to investment, employees, income, + and profits, or in respect to the manufacturing side. When the great + National Electric Light Association was formed in 1885, its organizers + were the captains of arc lighting, and not a single Edison company or + licensee could be found in its ranks, or dared to solicit membership. The + Edison companies, soon numbering about three hundred, formed their own + association—still maintained as a separate and useful body—and + the lines were tensely drawn in a way that made it none too easy for the + Edison service to advance, or for an impartial man to remain friendly with + both sides. But the growing popularity of incandescent lighting, the + flexibility and safety of the system, the ease with which other electric + devices for heat, power, etc., could be put indiscriminately on the same + circuits with the lamps, in due course rendered the old attitude of + opposition obviously foolish and untenable. The United States Census + Office statistics of 1902 show that the income from incandescent lighting + by central stations had by that time become over 52 per cent. of the + total, while that from arc lighting was less than 29; and electric-power + service due to the ease with which motors could be introduced on + incandescent circuits brought in 15 per cent. more. Hence twenty years + after the first Edison stations were established the methods they involved + could be fairly credited with no less than 67 per cent. of all + central-station income in the country, and the proportion has grown since + then. It will be readily understood that under these conditions the modern + lighting company supplies to its customers both incandescent and arc + lighting, frequently from the same dynamo-electric machinery as a source + of current; and that the old feud as between the rival systems has died + out. In fact, for some years past the presidents of the National Electric + Light Association have been chosen almost exclusively from among the + managers of the great Edison lighting companies in the leading cities. + </p> + <p> + The other strong opposition to the incandescent light came from the gas + industry. There also the most bitter feeling was shown. The gas manager + did not like the arc light, but it interfered only with his street + service, which was not his largest source of income by any means. What did + arouse his ire and indignation was to find this new opponent, the little + incandescent lamp, pushing boldly into the field of interior lighting, + claiming it on a great variety of grounds of superiority, and calmly + ignoring the question of price, because it was so much better. Newspaper + records and the pages of the technical papers of the day show to what an + extent prejudice and passion were stirred up and the astounding degree to + which the opposition to the new light was carried. + </p> + <p> + Here again was given a most convincing demonstration of the truth that + such an addition to the resources of mankind always carries with it + unsuspected benefits even for its enemies. In two distinct directions the + gas art was immediately helped by Edison's work. The competition was most + salutary in the stimulus it gave to improvements in processes for making, + distributing, and using gas, so that while vast economies have been + effected at the gas works, the customer has had an infinitely better light + for less money. In the second place, the coming of the incandescent light + raised the standard of illumination in such a manner that more gas than + ever was wanted in order to satisfy the popular demand for brightness and + brilliancy both indoors and on the street. The result of the operation of + these two forces acting upon it wholly from without, and from a rival it + was desired to crush, has been to increase enormously the production and + use of gas in the last twenty-five years. It is true that the income of + the central stations is now over $300,000,000 a year, and that + isolated-plant lighting represents also a large amount of diverted + business; but as just shown, it would obviously be unfair to regard all + this as a loss from the standpoint of gas. It is in great measure due to + new sources of income developed by electricity for itself. + </p> + <p> + A retrospective survey shows that had the men in control of the American + gas-lighting art, in 1880, been sufficiently far-sighted, and had they + taken a broader view of the situation, they might easily have remained + dominant in the whole field of artificial lighting by securing the + ownership of the patents and devices of the new industry. Apparently not a + single step of that kind was undertaken, nor probably was there a gas + manager who would have agreed with Edison in the opinion written down by + him at the time in little note-book No. 184, that gas properties were + having conferred on them an enhanced earning capacity. It was doubtless + fortunate and providential for the electric-lighting art that in its state + of immature development it did not fall into the hands of men who were + opposed to its growth, and would not have sought its technical perfection. + It was allowed to carve out its own career, and thus escaped the fate that + is supposed to have attended other great inventions—of being bought + up merely for purposes of suppression. There is a vague popular notion + that this happens to the public loss; but the truth is that no discovery + of any real value is ever entirely lost. It may be retarded; but that is + all. In the case of the gas companies and the incandescent light, many of + them to whom it was in the early days as great an irritant as a red flag + to a bull, emulated the performance of that animal and spent a great deal + of money and energy in bellowing and throwing up dirt in the effort to + destroy the hated enemy. This was not long nor universally the spirit + shown; and to-day in hundreds of cities the electric and gas properties + are united under the one management, which does not find it impossible to + push in a friendly and progressive way the use of both illuminants. The + most conspicuous example of this identity of interest is given in New York + itself. + </p> + <p> + So much for the early opposition, of which there was plenty. But it may be + questioned whether inertia is not equally to be dreaded with active + ill-will. Nothing is more difficult in the world than to get a good many + hundreds of thousands or millions of people to do something they have + never done before. A very real difficulty in the introduction of his lamp + and lighting system by Edison lay in the absolute ignorance of the public + at large, not only as to its merits, but as to the very appearance of the + light, Some few thousand people had gone out to Menlo Park, and had there + seen the lamps in operation at the laboratory or on the hillsides, but + they were an insignificant proportion of the inhabitants of the United + States. Of course, a great many accounts were written and read, but while + genuine interest was aroused it was necessarily apathetic. A newspaper + description or a magazine article may be admirably complete in itself, + with illustrations, but until some personal experience is had of the thing + described it does not convey a perfect mental picture, nor can it always + make the desire active and insistent. Generally, people wait to have the + new thing brought to them; and hence, as in the case of the Edison light, + an educational campaign of a practical nature is a fundamental condition + of success. + </p> + <p> + Another serious difficulty confronting Edison and his associates was that + nowhere in the world were there to be purchased any of the appliances + necessary for the use of the lighting system. Edison had resolved from the + very first that the initial central station embodying his various ideas + should be installed in New York City, where he could superintend the + installation personally, and then watch the operation. Plans to that end + were now rapidly maturing; but there would be needed among many other + things—every one of them new and novel—dynamos, switchboards, + regulators, pressure and current indicators, fixtures in great variety, + incandescent lamps, meters, sockets, small switches, underground + conductors, junction-boxes, service-boxes, manhole-boxes, connectors, and + even specially made wire. Now, not one of these miscellaneous things was + in existence; not an outsider was sufficiently informed about such devices + to make them on order, except perhaps the special wire. Edison therefore + started first of all a lamp factory in one of the buildings at Menlo Park, + equipped it with novel machinery and apparatus, and began to instruct men, + boys, and girls, as they could be enlisted, in the absolutely new art, + putting Mr. Upton in charge. + </p> + <p> + With regard to the conditions attendant upon the manufacture of the lamps, + Edison says: "When we first started the electric light we had to have a + factory for manufacturing lamps. As the Edison Light Company did not seem + disposed to go into manufacturing, we started a small lamp factory at + Menlo Park with what money I could raise from my other inventions and + royalties, and some assistance. The lamps at that time were costing about + $1.25 each to make, so I said to the company: 'If you will give me a + contract during the life of the patents, I will make all the lamps + required by the company and deliver them for forty cents.' The company + jumped at the chance of this offer, and a contract was drawn up. We then + bought at a receiver's sale at Harrison, New Jersey, a very large brick + factory building which had been used as an oil-cloth works. We got it at a + great bargain, and only paid a small sum down, and the balance on + mortgage. We moved the lamp works from Menlo Park to Harrison. The first + year the lamps cost us about $1.10 each. We sold them for forty cents; but + there were only about twenty or thirty thousand of them. The next year + they cost us about seventy cents, and we sold them for forty. There were a + good many, and we lost more money the second year than the first. The + third year I succeeded in getting up machinery and in changing the + processes, until it got down so that they cost somewhere around fifty + cents. I still sold them for forty cents, and lost more money that year + than any other, because the sales were increasing rapidly. The fourth year + I got it down to thirty-seven cents, and I made all the money up in one + year that I had lost previously. I finally got it down to twenty-two + cents, and sold them for forty cents; and they were made by the million. + Whereupon the Wall Street people thought it was a very lucrative business, + so they concluded they would like to have it, and bought us out. + </p> + <p> + "One of the incidents which caused a very great cheapening was that, when + we started, one of the important processes had to be done by experts. This + was the sealing on of the part carrying the filament into the globe, which + was rather a delicate operation in those days, and required several months + of training before any one could seal in a fair number of parts in a day. + When we got to the point where we employed eighty of these experts they + formed a union; and knowing it was impossible to manufacture lamps without + them, they became very insolent. One instance was that the son of one of + these experts was employed in the office, and when he was told to do + anything would not do it, or would give an insolent reply. He was + discharged, whereupon the union notified us that unless the boy was taken + back the whole body would go out. It got so bad that the manager came to + me and said he could not stand it any longer; something had got to be + done. They were not only more surly; they were diminishing the output, and + it became impossible to manage the works. He got me enthused on the + subject, so I started in to see if it were not possible to do that + operation by machinery. After feeling around for some days I got a clew + how to do it. I then put men on it I could trust, and made the preliminary + machinery. That seemed to work pretty well. I then made another machine + which did the work nicely. I then made a third machine, and would bring in + yard men, ordinary laborers, etc., and when I could get these men to put + the parts together as well as the trained experts, in an hour, I + considered the machine complete. I then went secretly to work and made + thirty of the machines. Up in the top loft of the factory we stored those + machines, and at night we put up the benches and got everything all ready. + Then we discharged the office-boy. Then the union went out. It has been + out ever since. + </p> + <p> + "When we formed the works at Harrison we divided the interests into one + hundred shares or parts at $100 par. One of the boys was hard up after a + time, and sold two shares to Bob Cutting. Up to that time we had never + paid anything; but we got around to the point where the board declared a + dividend every Saturday night. We had never declared a dividend when + Cutting bought his shares, and after getting his dividends for three weeks + in succession, he called up on the telephone and wanted to know what kind + of a concern this was that paid a weekly dividend. The works sold for + $1,085,000." + </p> + <p> + Incidentally it may be noted, as illustrative of the problems brought to + Edison, that while he had the factory at Harrison an importer in the + Chinese trade went to him and wanted a dynamo to be run by hand power. The + importer explained that in China human labor was cheaper than steam power. + Edison devised a machine to answer the purpose, and put long spokes on it, + fitted it up, and shipped it to China. He has not, however, heard of it + since. + </p> + <p> + For making the dynamos Edison secured, as noted in the preceding chapter, + the Roach Iron Works on Goerck Street, New York, and this was also + equipped. A building was rented on Washington Street, where machinery and + tools were put in specially designed for making the underground tube + conductors and their various paraphernalia; and the faithful John Kruesi + was given charge of that branch of production. To Sigmund Bergmann, who + had worked previously with Edison on telephone apparatus and phonographs, + and was already making Edison specialties in a small way in a loft on + Wooster Street, New York, was assigned the task of constructing sockets, + fixtures, meters, safety fuses, and numerous other details. + </p> + <p> + Thus, broadly, the manufacturing end of the problem of introduction was + cared for. In the early part of 1881 the Edison Electric Light Company + leased the old Bishop mansion at 65 Fifth Avenue, close to Fourteenth + Street, for its headquarters and show-rooms. This was one of the finest + homes in the city of that period, and its acquisition was a premonitory + sign of the surrender of the famous residential avenue to commerce. The + company needed not only offices, but, even more, such an interior as would + display to advantage the new light in everyday use; and this house with + its liberal lines, spacious halls, lofty ceilings, wide parlors, and + graceful, winding stairway was ideal for the purpose. In fact, in + undergoing this violent change, it did not cease to be a home in the real + sense, for to this day many an Edison veteran's pulse is quickened by some + chance reference to "65," where through many years the work of development + by a loyal and devoted band of workers was centred. Here Edison and a few + of his assistants from Menlo Park installed immediately in the basement a + small generating plant, at first with a gas-engine which was not + successful, and then with a Hampson high-speed engine and boiler, + constituting a complete isolated plant. The building was wired from top to + bottom, and equipped with all the appliances of the art. The experience + with the little gas-engine was rather startling. "At an early period at + '65' we decided," says Edison, "to light it up with the Edison system, and + put a gas-engine in the cellar, using city gas. One day it was not going + very well, and I went down to the man in charge and got exploring around. + Finally I opened the pedestal—a storehouse for tools, etc. We had an + open lamp, and when we opened the pedestal, it blew the doors off, and + blew out the windows, and knocked me down, and the other man." + </p> + <p> + For the next four or five years "65" was a veritable beehive, day and + night. The routine was very much the same as that at the laboratory, in + its utter neglect of the clock. The evenings were not only devoted to the + continuance of regular business, but the house was thrown open to the + public until late at night, never closing before ten o'clock, so as to + give everybody who wished an opportunity to see that great novelty of the + time—the incandescent light—whose fame had meanwhile been + spreading all over the globe. The first year, 1881, was naturally that + which witnessed the greatest rush of visitors; and the building hardly + ever closed its doors till midnight. During the day business was carried + on under great stress, and Mr. Insull has described how Edison was to be + found there trying to lead the life of a man of affairs in the + conventional garb of polite society, instead of pursuing inventions and + researches in his laboratory. But the disagreeable ordeal could not be + dodged. After the experience Edison could never again be tempted to quit + his laboratory and work for any length of time; but in this instance there + were some advantages attached to the sacrifice, for the crowds of + lion-hunters and people seeking business arrangements would only have gone + out to Menlo Park; while, on the other hand, the great plans for lighting + New York demanded very close personal attention on the spot. + </p> + <p> + As it was, not only Edison, but all the company's directors, officers, and + employees, were kept busy exhibiting and explaining the light. To the + public of that day, when the highest known form of house illuminant was + gas, the incandescent lamp, with its ability to burn in any position, its + lack of heat so that you could put your hand on the brilliant glass globe; + the absence of any vitiating effect on the atmosphere, the obvious safety + from fire; the curious fact that you needed no matches to light it, and + that it was under absolute control from a distance—these and many + other features came as a distinct revelation and marvel, while promising + so much additional comfort, convenience, and beauty in the home, that + inspection was almost invariably followed by a request for installation. + </p> + <p> + The camaraderie that existed at this time was very democratic, for all + were workers in a common cause; all were enthusiastic believers in the + doctrine they proclaimed, and hoped to profit by the opening up of the new + art. Often at night, in the small hours, all would adjourn for + refreshments to a famous resort nearby, to discuss the events of to-day + and to-morrow, full of incident and excitement. The easy relationship of + the time is neatly sketched by Edison in a humorous complaint as to his + inability to keep his own cigars: "When at '65' I used to have in my desk + a box of cigars. I would go to the box four or five times to get a cigar, + but after it got circulated about the building, everybody would come to + get my cigars, so that the box would only last about a day and a half. I + was telling a gentleman one day that I could not keep a cigar. Even if I + locked them up in my desk they would break it open. He suggested to me + that he had a friend over on Eighth Avenue who made a superior grade of + cigars, and who would show them a trick. He said he would have some of + them made up with hair and old paper, and I could put them in without a + word and see the result. I thought no more about the matter. He came in + two or three months after, and said: 'How did that cigar business work?' I + didn't remember anything about it. On coming to investigate, it appeared + that the box of cigars had been delivered and had been put in my desk, and + I had smoked them all! I was too busy on other things to notice." + </p> + <p> + It was no uncommon sight to see in the parlors in the evening John + Pierpont Morgan, Norvin Green, Grosvenor P. Lowrey, Henry Villard, Robert + L. Cutting, Edward D. Adams, J. Hood Wright, E. G. Fabbri, R. M. Galloway, + and other men prominent in city life, many of them stock-holders and + directors; all interested in doing this educational work. Thousands of + persons thus came—bankers, brokers, lawyers, editors, and reporters, + prominent business men, electricians, insurance experts, under whose + searching and intelligent inquiries the facts were elicited, and general + admiration was soon won for the system, which in advance had solved so + many new problems. Edison himself was in universal request and the subject + of much adulation, but altogether too busy and modest to be spoiled by it. + Once in a while he felt it his duty to go over the ground with scientific + visitors, many of whom were from abroad, and discuss questions which were + not simply those of technique, but related to newer phenomena, such as the + action of carbon, the nature and effects of high vacua; the principles of + electrical subdivision; the value of insulation, and many others which, + unfortunate to say, remain as esoteric now as they were then, ever + fruitful themes of controversy. + </p> + <p> + Speaking of those days or nights, Edison says: "Years ago one of the great + violinists was Remenyi. After his performances were over he used to come + down to '65' and talk economics, philosophy, moral science, and everything + else. He was highly educated and had great mental capacity. He would talk + with me, but I never asked him to bring his violin. One night he came with + his violin, about twelve o'clock. I had a library at the top of the house, + and Remenyi came up there. He was in a genial humor, and played the violin + for me for about two hours—$2000 worth. The front doors were closed, + and he walked up and down the room as he played. After that, every time he + came to New York he used to call at '65' late at night with his violin. If + we were not there, he could come down to the slums at Goerck Street, and + would play for an hour or two and talk philosophy. I would talk for the + benefit of his music. Henry E. Dixey, then at the height of his 'Adonis' + popularity, would come in in those days, after theatre hours, and would + entertain us with stories—1882-84. Another visitor who used to give + us a good deal of amusement and pleasure was Captain Shaw, the head of the + London Fire Brigade. He was good company. He would go out among the + fire-laddies and have a great time. One time Robert Lincoln and Anson + Stager, of the Western Union, interested in the electric light, came on to + make some arrangement with Major Eaton, President of the Edison Electric + Light Company. They came to '65' in the afternoon, and Lincoln commenced + telling stories—like his father. They told stories all the + afternoon, and that night they left for Chicago. When they got to + Cleveland, it dawned upon them that they had not done any business, so + they had to come back on the next train to New York to transact it. They + were interested in the Chicago Edison Company, now one of the largest of + the systems in the world. Speaking of telling stories, I once got telling + a man stories at the Harrison lamp factory, in the yard, as he was + leaving. It was winter, and he was all in furs. I had nothing on to + protect me against the cold. I told him one story after the other—six + of them. Then I got pleurisy, and had to be shipped to Florida for cure." + </p> + <p> + The organization of the Edison Electric Light Company went back to 1878; + but up to the time of leasing 65 Fifth Avenue it had not been engaged in + actual business. It had merely enjoyed the delights of anxious + anticipation, and the perilous pleasure of backing Edison's experiments. + Now active exploitation was required. Dr. Norvin Green, the well-known + President of the Western Union Telegraph Company, was president also of + the Edison Company, but the pressing nature of his regular duties left him + no leisure for such close responsible management as was now required. + Early in 1881 Mr. Grosvenor P. Lowrey, after consultation with Mr. Edison, + prevailed upon Major S. B. Eaton, the leading member of a very prominent + law firm in New York, to accept the position of vice-president and general + manager of the company, in which, as also in some of the subsidiary Edison + companies, and as president, he continued actively and energetically for + nearly four years, a critical, formative period in which the solidity of + the foundation laid is attested by the magnitude and splendor of the + superstructure. + </p> + <p> + The fact that Edison conferred at this point with Mr. Lowrey should, + perhaps, be explained in justice to the distinguished lawyer, who for so + many years was the close friend of the inventor, and the chief counsel in + all the tremendous litigation that followed the effort to enforce and + validate the Edison patents. As in England Mr. Edison was fortunate in + securing the legal assistance of Sir Richard Webster, afterward Lord Chief + Justice of England, so in America it counted greatly in his favor to enjoy + the advocacy of such a man as Lowrey, prominent among the famous leaders + of the New York bar. Born in Massachusetts, Mr. Lowrey, in his earlier + days of straitened circumstances, was accustomed to defray some portion of + his educational expenses by teaching music in the Berkshire villages, and + by a curious coincidence one of his pupils was F. L. Pope, later Edison's + partner for a time. Lowrey went West to "Bleeding Kansas" with the first + Governor, Reeder, and both were active participants in the exciting scenes + of the "Free State" war until driven away in 1856, like many other + free-soilers, by the acts of the "Border Ruffian" legislature. Returning + East, Mr. Lowrey took up practice in New York, soon becoming eminent in + his profession, and upon the accession of William Orton to the presidency + of the Western Union Telegraph Company in 1866, he was appointed its + general counsel, the duties of which post he discharged for fifteen years. + One of the great cases in which he thus took a leading and distinguished + part was that of the quadruplex telegraph; and later he acted as legal + adviser to Henry Villard in his numerous grandiose enterprises. Lowrey + thus came to know Edison, to conceive an intense admiration for him, and + to believe in his ability at a time when others could not detect the fire + of genius smouldering beneath the modest exterior of a gaunt young + operator slowly "finding himself." It will be seen that Mr Lowrey was in a + peculiarly advantageous position to make his convictions about Edison + felt, so that it was he and his friends who rallied quickly to the new + banner of discovery, and lent to the inventor the aid that came at a + critical period. In this connection it may be well to quote an article + that appeared at the time of Mr. Lowrey's death, in 1893: "One of the most + important services which Mr. Lowrey has ever performed was in furnishing + and procuring the necessary financial backing for Thomas A. Edison in + bringing out and perfecting his system of incandescent lighting. With + characteristic pertinacity, Mr. Lowrey stood by the inventor through thick + and thin, in spite of doubt, discouragement, and ridicule, until at last + success crowned his efforts. In all the litigation which has resulted from + the wide-spread infringements of the Edison patents, Mr. Lowrey has ever + borne the burden and heat of the day, and perhaps in no other field has he + so personally distinguished himself as in the successful advocacy of the + claims of Edison to the invention of the incandescent lamp and everything + 'hereunto pertaining.'" + </p> + <p> + This was the man of whom Edison had necessarily to make a confidant and + adviser, and who supplied other things besides the legal direction and + financial alliance, by his knowledge of the world and of affairs. There + were many vital things to be done in the exploitation of the system that + Edison simply could not and would not do; but in Lowrey's savoir faire, + ready wit and humor, chivalry of devotion, graceful eloquence, and + admirable equipoise of judgment were all the qualities that the occasion + demanded and that met the exigencies. + </p> + <p> + We are indebted to Mr. Insull for a graphic sketch of Edison at this + period, and of the conditions under which work was done and progress was + made: "I do not think I had any understanding with Edison when I first + went with him as to my duties. I did whatever he told me, and looked after + all kinds of affairs, from buying his clothes to financing his business. I + used to open the correspondence and answer it all, sometimes signing + Edison's name with my initial, and sometimes signing my own name. If the + latter course was pursued, and I was addressing a stranger, I would sign + as Edison's private secretary. I held his power of attorney, and signed + his checks. It was seldom that Edison signed a letter or check at this + time. If he wanted personally to send a communication to anybody, if it + was one of his close associates, it would probably be a pencil memorandum + signed 'Edison.' I was a shorthand writer, but seldom took down from + Edison's dictation, unless it was on some technical subject that I did not + understand. I would go over the correspondence with Edison, sometimes + making a marginal note in shorthand, and sometimes Edison would make his + own notes on letters, and I would be expected to clean up the + correspondence with Edison's laconic comments as a guide as to the + character of answer to make. It was a very common thing for Edison to + write the words 'Yes' or 'No,' and this would be all I had on which to + base my answer. Edison marginalized documents extensively. He had a + wonderful ability in pointing out the weak points of an agreement or a + balance-sheet, all the while protesting he was no lawyer or accountant; + and his views were expressed in very few words, but in a characteristic + and emphatic manner. + </p> + <p> + "The first few months I was with Edison he spent most of the time in the + office at 65 Fifth Avenue. Then there was a great deal of trouble with the + life of the lamps there, and he disappeared from the office and spent his + time largely at Menlo Park. At another time there was a great deal of + trouble with some of the details of construction of the dynamos, and + Edison spent a lot of time at Goerck Street, which had been rapidly + equipped with the idea of turning out bi-polar dynamo-electric machines, + direct-connected to the engine, the first of which went to Paris and + London, while the next were installed in the old Pearl Street station of + the Edison Electric Illuminating Company of New York, just south of Fulton + Street, on the west side of the street. Edison devoted a great deal of his + time to the engineering work in connection with the laying out of the + first incandescent electric-lighting system in New York. Apparently at + that time—between the end of 1881 and spring of 1882—the most + serious work was the manufacture and installation of underground + conductors in this territory. These conductors were manufactured by the + Electric Tube Company, which Edison controlled in a shop at 65 Washington + Street, run by John Kruesi. Half-round copper conductors were used, kept + in place relatively to each other and in the tube, first of all by a heavy + piece of cardboard, and later on by a rope; and then put in a twenty-foot + iron pipe; and a combination of asphaltum and linseed oil was forced into + the pipe for the insulation. I remember as a coincidence that the building + was only twenty feet wide. These lengths of conductors were twenty feet + six inches long, as the half-round coppers extended three inches beyond + the drag-ends of the lengths of pipe; and in one of the operations we used + to take the length of tubing out of the window in order to turn it around. + I was elected secretary of the Electric Tube Company, and was expected to + look after its finance; and it was in this position that my long intimacy + with John Kruesi started." + </p> + <p> + At this juncture a large part of the correspondence referred very + naturally to electric lighting, embodying requests for all kinds of + information, catalogues, prices, terms, etc.; and all these letters were + turned over to the lighting company by Edison for attention. The company + was soon swamped with propositions for sale of territorial rights and with + other negotiations, and some of these were accompanied by the offer of + very large sums of money. It was the beginning of the electric-light furor + which soon rose to sensational heights. Had the company accepted the cash + offers from various localities, it could have gathered several millions of + dollars at once into its treasury; but this was not at all in accord with + Mr. Edison's idea, which was to prove by actual experience the commercial + value of the system, and then to license central-station companies in + large cities and towns, the parent company taking a percentage of their + capital for the license under the Edison patents, and contracting also for + the supply of apparatus, lamps, etc. This left the remainder of the + country open for the cash sale of plants wherever requested. His counsels + prevailed, and the wisdom of the policy adopted was seen in the swift + establishment of Edison companies in centres of population both great and + small, whose business has ever been a constant and growing source of + income for the parent manufacturing interests. + </p> + <p> + From first to last Edison has been an exponent and advocate of the + central-station idea of distribution now so familiar to the public mind, + but still very far from being carried out to its logical conclusion. In + this instance, demands for isolated plants for lighting factories, mills, + mines, hotels, etc., began to pour in, and something had to be done with + them. This was a class of plant which the inquirers desired to purchase + outright and operate themselves, usually because of remoteness from any + possible source of general supply of current. It had not been Edison's + intention to cater to this class of customer until his broad + central-station plan had been worked out, and he has always discouraged + the isolated plant within the limits of urban circuits; but this demand + was so insistent it could not be denied, and it was deemed desirable to + comply with it at once, especially as it was seen that the steady call for + supplies and renewals would benefit the new Edison manufacturing plants. + After a very short trial, it was found necessary to create a separate + organization for this branch of the industry, leaving the Edison Electric + Light Company to continue under the original plan of operation as a + parent, patent-holding and licensing company. Accordingly a new and + distinct corporation was formed called the Edison Company for Isolated + Lighting, to which was issued a special license to sell and operate plants + of a self-contained character. As a matter of fact such work began in + advance of almost every other kind. A small plant using the paper-carbon + filament lamps was furnished by Edison at the earnest solicitation of Mr. + Henry Villard for the steamship Columbia, in 1879, and it is amusing to + note that Mr. Upton carried the lamps himself to the ship, very tenderly + and jealously, like fresh eggs, in a market-garden basket. The + installation was most successful. Another pioneer plant was that equipped + and started in January, 1881, for Hinds & Ketcham, a New York firm of + lithographers and color printers, who had previously been able to work + only by day, owing to difficulties in color-printing by artificial light. + A year later they said: "It is the best substitute for daylight we have + ever known, and almost as cheap." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Edison himself describes various instances in which the demand for + isolated plants had to be met: "One night at '65,'" he says, "James Gordon + Bennett came in. We were very anxious to get into a printing + establishment. I had caused a printer's composing case to be set up with + the idea that if we could get editors and publishers in to see it, we + should show them the advantages of the electric light. So ultimately Mr. + Bennett came, and after seeing the whole operation of everything, he + ordered Mr. Howland, general manager of the Herald, to light the newspaper + offices up at once with electricity." + </p> + <p> + Another instance of the same kind deals with the introduction of the light + for purely social purposes: "While at 65 Fifth Avenue," remarks Mr. + Edison, "I got to know Christian Herter, then the largest decorator in the + United States. He was a highly intellectual man, and I loved to talk to + him. He was always railing against the rich people, for whom he did work, + for their poor taste. One day Mr. W. H. Vanderbilt came to '65,' saw the + light, and decided that he would have his new house lighted with it. This + was one of the big 'box houses' on upper Fifth Avenue. He put the whole + matter in the hands of his son-in-law, Mr. H. McK. Twombly, who was then + in charge of the telephone department of the Western Union. Twombly closed + the contract with us for a plant. Mr. Herter was doing the decoration, and + it was extraordinarily fine. After a while we got the engines and boilers + and wires all done, and the lights in position, before the house was quite + finished, and thought we would have an exhibit of the light. About eight + o'clock in the evening we lit up, and it was very good. Mr. Vanderbilt and + his wife and some of his daughters came in, and were there a few minutes + when a fire occurred. The large picture-gallery was lined with silk cloth + interwoven with fine metallic thread. In some manner two wires had got + crossed with this tinsel, which became red-hot, and the whole mass was + soon afire. I knew what was the matter, and ordered them to run down and + shut off. It had not burst into flame, and died out immediately. Mrs. + Vanderbilt became hysterical, and wanted to know where it came from. We + told her we had the plant in the cellar, and when she learned we had a + boiler there she said she would not occupy the house. She would not live + over a boiler. We had to take the whole installation out. The houses + afterward went onto the New York Edison system." + </p> + <p> + The art was, however, very crude and raw, and as there were no artisans in + existence as mechanics or electricians who had any knowledge of the + practice, there was inconceivable difficulty in getting such isolated + plants installed, as well as wiring the buildings in the district to be + covered by the first central station in New York. A night school was, + therefore, founded at Fifth Avenue, and was put in charge of Mr. E. H. + Johnson, fresh from his successes in England. The most available men for + the purpose were, of course, those who had been accustomed to wiring for + the simpler electrical systems then in vogue—telephones, + district-messenger calls, burglar alarms, house annunciators, etc., and a + number of these "wiremen" were engaged and instructed patiently in the + rudiments of the new art by means of a blackboard and oral lessons. + Students from the technical schools and colleges were also eager recruits, + for here was something that promised a career, and one that was especially + alluring to youth because of its novelty. These beginners were also + instructed in general engineering problems under the guidance of Mr. C. L. + Clarke, who was brought in from the Menlo Park laboratory to assume charge + of the engineering part of the company's affairs. Many of these pioneer + students and workmen became afterward large and successful contractors, or + have filled positions of distinction as managers and superintendents of + central stations. Possibly the electrical industry may not now attract as + much adventurous genius as it did then, for automobiles, aeronautics, and + other new arts have come to the front in a quarter of a century to enlist + the enthusiasm of a younger generation of mercurial spirits; but it is + certain that at the period of which we write, Edison himself, still under + thirty-five, was the centre of an extraordinary group of men, full of + effervescing and aspiring talent, to which he gave glorious opportunity. + </p> + <p> + A very novel literary feature of the work was the issuance of a bulletin + devoted entirely to the Edison lighting propaganda. Nowadays the "house + organ," as it is called, has become a very hackneyed feature of industrial + development, confusing in its variety and volume, and a somewhat doubtful + adjunct to a highly perfected, widely circulating periodical technical + press. But at that time, 1882, the Bulletin of the Edison Electric Light + Company, published in ordinary 12mo form, was distinctly new in + advertising and possibly unique, as it is difficult to find anything that + compared with it. The Bulletin was carried on for some years, until its + necessity was removed by the development of other opportunities for + reaching the public; and its pages serve now as a vivid and lively picture + of the period to which its record applies. The first issue, of January 12, + 1882, was only four pages, but it dealt with the question of insurance; + plants at Santiago, Chili, and Rio de Janeiro; the European Company with + 3,500,000 francs subscribed; the work in Paris, London, Strasburg, and + Moscow; the laying of over six miles of street mains in New York; a patent + decision in favor of Edison; and the size of safety catch wire. By April + of 1882, the Bulletin had attained the respectable size of sixteen pages; + and in December it was a portly magazine of forty-eight. Every item bears + testimony to the rapid progress being made; and by the end of 1882 it is + seen that no fewer than 153 isolated Edison plants had been installed in + the United States alone, with a capacity of 29,192 lamps. Moreover, the + New York central station had gone into operation, starting at 3 P.M. on + September 4, and at the close of 1882 it was lighting 225 houses wired for + about 5000 lamps. This epochal story will be told in the next chapter. + Most interesting are the Bulletin notes from England, especially in regard + to the brilliant exhibition given by Mr. E. H. Johnson at the Crystal + Palace, Sydenham, visited by the Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh, twice by + the Dukes of Westminster and Sutherland, by three hundred members of the + Gas Institute, and by innumerable delegations from cities, boroughs, etc. + Describing this before the Royal Society of Arts, Sir W. H. Preece, + F.R.S., remarked: "Many unkind things have been said of Mr. Edison and his + promises; perhaps no one has been severer in this direction than myself. + It is some gratification for me to announce my belief that he has at last + solved the problem he set himself to solve, and to be able to describe to + the Society the way in which he has solved it." Before the exhibition + closed it was visited by the Prince and Princess of Wales—now the + deceased Edward VII. and the Dowager Queen Alexandra—and the + Princess received from Mr. Johnson as a souvenir a tiny electric + chandelier fashioned like a bouquet of fern leaves and flowers, the buds + being some of the first miniature incandescent lamps ever made. + </p> + <p> + The first item in the first Bulletin dealt with the "Fire Question," and + all through the successive issues runs a series of significant items on + the same subject. Many of them are aimed at gas, and there are several + grim summaries of death and fires due to gas-leaks or explosions. A + tendency existed at the time to assume that electricity was altogether + safe, while its opponents, predicating their attacks on arc-lighting + casualties, insisted it was most dangerous. Edison's problem in educating + the public was rather difficult, for while his low-pressure, + direct-current system has always been absolutely without danger to life, + there has also been the undeniable fact that escaping electricity might + cause a fire just as a leaky water-pipe can flood a house. The important + question had arisen, therefore, of satisfying the fire underwriters as to + the safety of the system. He had foreseen that there would be an absolute + necessity for special devices to prevent fires from occurring by reason of + any excess of current flowing in any circuit; and several of his earliest + detail lighting inventions deal with this subject. The insurance + underwriters of New York and other parts of the country gave a great deal + of time and study to the question through their most expert + representatives, with the aid of Edison and his associates, other + electric-light companies cooperating; and the knowledge thus gained was + embodied in insurance rules to govern wiring for electric lights, + formulated during the latter part of 1881, adopted by the New York Board + of Fire Underwriters, January 12, 1882, and subsequently endorsed by other + boards in the various insurance districts. Under temporary rulings, + however, a vast amount of work had already been done, but it was obvious + that as the industry grew there would be less and less possibility of + supervision except through such regulations, insisting upon the use of the + best devices and methods. Indeed, the direct superintendence soon became + unnecessary, owing to the increasing knowledge and greater skill acquired + by the installing staff; and this system of education was notably improved + by a manual written by Mr. Edison himself. Copies of this brochure are as + scarce to-day as First Folio Shakespeares, and command prices equal to + those of other American first editions. The little book is the only known + incursion of its author into literature, if we except the brief articles + he has written for technical papers and for the magazines. It contained + what was at once a full, elaborate, and terse explanation of a complete + isolated plant, with diagrams of various methods of connection and + operation, and a carefully detailed description of every individual part, + its functions and its characteristics. The remarkable success of those + early years was indeed only achieved by following up with Chinese + exactness the minute and intimate methods insisted upon by Edison as to + the use of the apparatus and devices employed. It was a curious example of + establishing standard practice while changing with kaleidoscopic rapidity + all the elements involved. He was true to an ideal as to the pole-star, + but was incessantly making improvements in every direction. With an + iconoclasm that has often seemed ruthless and brutal he did not hesitate + to sacrifice older devices the moment a new one came in sight that + embodied a real advance in securing effective results. The process is + heroic but costly. Nobody ever had a bigger scrap-heap than Edison; but + who dare proclaim the process intrinsically wasteful if the losses occur + in the initial stages, and the economies in all the later ones? + </p> + <p> + With Edison in this introduction of his lighting system the method was + ruthless, but not reckless. At an early stage of the commercial + development a standardizing committee was formed, consisting of the heads + of all the departments, and to this body was intrusted the task of testing + and criticising all existing and proposed devices, as well as of + considering the suggestions and complaints of workmen offered from time to + time. This procedure was fruitful in two principal results—the + education of the whole executive force in the technical details of the + system; and a constant improvement in the quality of the Edison + installations; both contributing to the rapid growth of the industry. + </p> + <p> + For many years Goerck Street played an important part in Edison's affairs, + being the centre of all his manufacture of heavy machinery. But it was not + in a desirable neighborhood, and owing to the rapid growth of the business + soon became disadvantageous for other reasons. Edison tells of his + frequent visits to the shops at night, with the escort of "Jim" Russell, a + well-known detective, who knew all the denizens of the place: "We used to + go out at night to a little, low place, an all-night house—eight + feet wide and twenty-two feet long—where we got a lunch at two or + three o'clock in the morning. It was the toughest kind of restaurant ever + seen. For the clam chowder they used the same four clams during the whole + season, and the average number of flies per pie was seven. This was by + actual count." + </p> + <p> + As to the shops and the locality: "The street was lined with rather old + buildings and poor tenements. We had not much frontage. As our business + increased enormously, our quarters became too small, so we saw the + district Tammany leader and asked him if we could not store castings and + other things on the sidewalk. He gave us permission—told us to go + ahead, and he would see it was all right. The only thing he required for + this was that when a man was sent with a note from him asking us to give + him a job, he was to be put on. We had a hand-laborer foreman—'Big + Jim'—a very powerful Irishman, who could lift above half a ton. When + one of the Tammany aspirants appeared, he was told to go right to work at + $1.50 per day. The next day he was told off to lift a certain piece, and + if the man could not lift it he was discharged. That made the Tammany man + all safe. Jim could pick the piece up easily. The other man could not, and + so we let him out. Finally the Tammany leader called a halt, as we were + running big engine lathes out on the sidewalk, and he was afraid we were + carrying it a little too far. The lathes were worked right out in the + street, and belted through the windows of the shop." + </p> + <p> + At last it became necessary to move from Goerck Street, and Mr. Edison + gives a very interesting account of the incidents in connection with the + transfer of the plant to Schenectady, New York: "After our works at Goerck + Street got too small, we had labor troubles also. It seems I had rather a + socialistic strain in me, and I raised the pay of the workmen twenty-five + cents an hour above the prevailing rate of wages, whereupon Hoe & + Company, our near neighbors, complained at our doing this. I said I + thought it was all right. But the men, having got a little more wages, + thought they would try coercion and get a little more, as we were + considered soft marks. Whereupon they struck at a time that was critical. + However, we were short of money for pay-rolls; and we concluded it might + not be so bad after all, as it would give us a couple of weeks to catch + up. So when the men went out they appointed a committee to meet us; but + for two weeks they could not find us, so they became somewhat more anxious + than we were. Finally they said they would like to go back. We said all + right, and back they went. It was quite a novelty to the men not to be + able to find us when they wanted to; and they didn't relish it at all. + </p> + <p> + "What with these troubles and the lack of room, we decided to find a + factory elsewhere, and decided to try the locomotive works up at + Schenectady. It seems that the people there had had a falling out among + themselves, and one of the directors had started opposition works; but + before he had completed all the buildings and put in machinery some + compromise was made, and the works were for sale. We bought them very + reasonably and moved everything there. These works were owned by me and my + assistants until sold to the Edison General Electric Company. At one time + we employed several thousand men; and since then the works have been + greatly expanded. + </p> + <p> + "At these new works our orders were far in excess of our capital to handle + the business, and both Mr. Insull and I were afraid we might get into + trouble for lack of money. Mr. Insull was then my business manager, + running the whole thing; and, therefore, when Mr. Henry Villard and his + syndicate offered to buy us out, we concluded it was better to be sure + than be sorry; so we sold out for a large sum. Villard was a very + aggressive man with big ideas, but I could never quite understand him. He + had no sense of humor. I remember one time we were going up on the Hudson + River boat to inspect the works, and with us was Mr. Henderson, our chief + engineer, who was certainly the best raconteur of funny stories I ever + knew. We sat at the tail-end of the boat, and he started in to tell funny + stories. Villard could not see a single point, and scarcely laughed at + all; and Henderson became so disconcerted he had to give it up. It was the + same way with Gould. In the early telegraph days I remember going with him + to see Mackay in 'The Impecunious Country Editor.' It was very funny, full + of amusing and absurd situations; but Gould never smiled once." + </p> + <p> + The formation of the Edison General Electric Company involved the + consolidation of the immediate Edison manufacturing interests in electric + light and power, with a capitalization of $12,000,000, now a relatively + modest sum; but in those days the amount was large, and the combination + caused a great deal of newspaper comment as to such a coinage of brain + power. The next step came with the creation of the great General Electric + Company of to-day, a combination of the Edison, Thomson-Houston, and Brush + lighting interests in manufacture, which to this day maintains the + ever-growing plants at Harrison, Lynn, and Schenectady, and there employs + from twenty to twenty-five thousand people. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0016" id="link2HCH0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVI + </h2> + <h3> + THE FIRST EDISON CENTRAL STATION + </h3> + <p> + A NOTED inventor once said at the end of a lifetime of fighting to defend + his rights, that he found there were three stages in all great inventions: + the first, in which people said the thing could not be done; the second, + in which they said anybody could do it; and the third, in which they said + it had always been done by everybody. In his central-station work Edison + has had very much this kind of experience; for while many of his opponents + came to acknowledge the novelty and utility of his plans, and gave him + unstinted praise, there are doubtless others who to this day profess to + look upon him merely as an adapter. How different the view of so eminent a + scientist as Lord Kelvin was, may be appreciated from his remark when in + later years, in reply to the question why some one else did not invent so + obvious and simple a thing as the Feeder System, he said: "The only answer + I can think of is that no one else was Edison." + </p> + <p> + Undaunted by the attitude of doubt and the predictions of impossibility, + Edison had pushed on until he was now able to realize all his ideas as to + the establishment of a central station in the work that culminated in New + York City in 1882. After he had conceived the broad plan, his ambition was + to create the initial plant on Manhattan Island, where it would be + convenient of access for watching its operation, and where the + demonstration of its practicability would have influence in financial + circles. The first intention was to cover a district extending from Canal + Street on the north to Wall Street on the south; but Edison soon realized + that this territory was too extensive for the initial experiment, and he + decided finally upon the district included between Wall, Nassau, Spruce, + and Ferry streets, Peck Slip and the East River, an area nearly a square + mile in extent. One of the preliminary steps taken to enable him to figure + on such a station and system was to have men go through this district on + various days and note the number of gas jets burning at each hour up to + two or three o'clock in the morning. The next step was to divide the + region into a number of sub-districts and institute a house-to-house + canvass to ascertain precisely the data and conditions pertinent to the + project. When the canvass was over, Edison knew exactly how many gas jets + there were in every building in the entire district, the average hours of + burning, and the cost of light; also every consumer of power, and the + quantity used; every hoistway to which an electric motor could be applied; + and other details too numerous to mention, such as related to the gas + itself, the satisfaction of the customers, and the limitations of day and + night demand. All this information was embodied graphically in large maps + of the district, by annotations in colored inks; and Edison thus could + study the question with every detail before him. Such a reconnaissance, + like that of a coming field of battle, was invaluable, and may help give a + further idea of the man's inveterate care for the minutiae of things. + </p> + <p> + The laboratory note-books of this period—1878-80, more particularly—show + an immense amount of calculation by Edison and his chief mathematician, + Mr. Upton, on conductors for the distribution of current over large areas, + and then later in the district described. With the results of this canvass + before them, the sizes of the main conductors to be laid throughout the + streets of this entire territory were figured, block by block; and the + results were then placed on the map. These data revealed the fact that the + quantity of copper required for the main conductors would be exceedingly + large and costly; and, if ever, Edison was somewhat dismayed. But as usual + this apparently insurmountable difficulty only spurred him on to further + effort. It was but a short time thereafter that he solved the knotty + problem by an invention mentioned in a previous chapter. This is known as + the "feeder and main" system, for which he signed the application for a + patent on August 4, 1880. As this invention effected a saving of + seven-eighths of the cost of the chief conductors in a straight multiple + arc system, the mains for the first district were refigured, and enormous + new maps were made, which became the final basis of actual installation, + as they were subsequently enlarged by the addition of every proposed + junction-box, bridge safety-catch box, and street-intersection box in the + whole area. + </p> + <p> + When this patent, after protracted fighting, was sustained by Judge Green + in 1893, the Electrical Engineer remarked that the General Electric + Company "must certainly feel elated" because of its importance; and the + journal expressed its fear that although the specifications and claims + related only to the maintenance of uniform pressure of current on lighting + circuits, the owners might naturally seek to apply it also to feeders used + in the electric-railway work already so extensive. At this time, however, + the patent had only about a year of life left, owing to the expiration of + the corresponding English patent. The fact that thirteen years had elapsed + gives a vivid idea of the ordeal involved in sustaining a patent and the + injustice to the inventor, while there is obviously hardship to those who + cannot tell from any decision of the court whether they are infringing or + not. It is interesting to note that the preparation for hearing this case + in New Jersey was accompanied by models to show the court exactly the + method and its economy, as worked out in comparison with what is known as + the "tree system" of circuits—the older alternative way of doing it. + As a basis of comparison, a district of thirty-six city blocks in the form + of a square was assumed. The power station was placed at the centre of the + square; each block had sixteen consumers using fifteen lights each. + Conductors were run from the station to supply each of the four quarters + of the district with light. In one example the "feeder" system was used; + in the other the "tree." With these models were shown two cubes which + represented one one-hundredth of the actual quantity of copper required + for each quarter of the district by the two-wire tree system as compared + with the feeder system under like conditions. The total weight of copper + for the four quarter districts by the tree system was 803,250 pounds, but + when the feeder system was used it was only 128,739 pounds! This was a + reduction from $23.24 per lamp for copper to $3.72 per lamp. Other models + emphasized this extraordinary contrast. At the time Edison was doing this + work on economizing in conductors, much of the criticism against him was + based on the assumed extravagant use of copper implied in the obvious + "tree" system, and it was very naturally said that there was not enough + copper in the world to supply his demands. It is true that the modern + electrical arts have been a great stimulator of copper production, now + taking a quarter of all made; yet evidently but for such inventions as + this such arts could not have come into existence at all, or else in + growing up they would have forced copper to starvation prices. [11] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 11: For description of feeder patent see + Appendix.] +</pre> + <p> + It should be borne in mind that from the outset Edison had determined upon + installing underground conductors as the only permanent and satisfactory + method for the distribution of current from central stations in cities; + and that at Menlo Park he laid out and operated such a system with about + four hundred and twenty-five lamps. The underground system there was + limited to the immediate vicinity of the laboratory and was somewhat + crude, as well as much less complicated than would be the network of over + eighty thousand lineal feet, which he calculated to be required for the + underground circuits in the first district of New York City. At Menlo Park + no effort was made for permanency; no provision was needed in regard to + occasional openings of the street for various purposes; no new customers + were to be connected from time to time to the mains, and no repairs were + within contemplation. In New York the question of permanency was of + paramount importance, and the other contingencies were sure to arise as + well as conditions more easy to imagine than to forestall. These problems + were all attacked in a resolute, thoroughgoing manner, and one by one + solved by the invention of new and unprecedented devices that were + adequate for the purposes of the time, and which are embodied in apparatus + of slight modification in use up to the present day. + </p> + <p> + Just what all this means it is hard for the present generation to imagine. + New York and all the other great cities in 1882, and for some years + thereafter, were burdened and darkened by hideous masses of overhead wires + carried on ugly wooden poles along all the main thoroughfares. One after + another rival telegraph and telephone, stock ticker, burglar-alarm, and + other companies had strung their circuits without any supervision or + restriction; and these wires in all conditions of sag or decay ramified + and crisscrossed in every direction, often hanging broken and loose-ended + for months, there being no official compulsion to remove any dead wire. + None of these circuits carried dangerous currents; but the introduction of + the arc light brought an entirely new menace in the use of pressures that + were even worse than the bully of the West who "kills on sight," because + this kindred peril was invisible, and might lurk anywhere. New poles were + put up, and the lighting circuits on them, with but a slight insulation of + cotton impregnated with some "weather-proof" compound, straggled all over + the city exposed to wind and rain and accidental contact with other wires, + or with the metal of buildings. So many fatalities occurred that the + insulated wire used, called "underwriters," because approved by the + insurance bodies, became jocularly known as "undertakers," and efforts + were made to improve its protective qualities. Then came the overhead + circuits for distributing electrical energy to motors for operating + elevators, driving machinery, etc., and these, while using a lower, safer + potential, were proportionately larger. There were no wires underground. + Morse had tried that at the very beginning of electrical application, in + telegraphy, and all agreed that renewals of the experiment were at once + costly and foolish. At last, in cities like New York, what may be styled + generically the "overhead system" of wires broke down under its own + weight; and various methods of underground conductors were tried, hastened + in many places by the chopping down of poles and wires as the result of + some accident that stirred the public indignation. One typical tragic + scene was that in New York, where, within sight of the City Hall, a + lineman was killed at his work on the arc light pole, and his body slowly + roasted before the gaze of the excited populace, which for days afterward + dropped its silver and copper coin into the alms-box nailed to the fatal + pole for the benefit of his family. Out of all this in New York came a + board of electrical control, a conduit system, and in the final analysis + the Public Service Commission, that is credited to Governor Hughes as the + furthest development of utility corporation control. + </p> + <p> + The "road to yesterday" back to Edison and his insistence on underground + wires is a long one, but the preceding paragraph traces it. Even admitting + that the size and weight of his low-tension conductors necessitated + putting them underground, this argues nothing against the propriety and + sanity of his methods. He believed deeply and firmly in the analogy + between electrical supply and that for water and gas, and pointed to the + trite fact that nobody hoisted the water and gas mains into the air on + stilts, and that none of the pressures were inimical to human safety. The + arc-lighting methods were unconsciously and unwittingly prophetic of the + latter-day long-distance transmissions at high pressure that, + electrically, have placed the energy of Niagara at the command of Syracuse + and Utica, and have put the power of the falling waters of the Sierras at + the disposal of San Francisco, two hundred miles away. But within city + limits overhead wires, with such space-consuming potentials, are as + fraught with mischievous peril to the public as the dynamite stored by a + nonchalant contractor in the cellar of a schoolhouse. As an offset, then, + to any tendency to depreciate the intrinsic value of Edison's lighting + work, let the claim be here set forth modestly and subject to + interference, that he was the father of underground wires in America, and + by his example outlined the policy now dominant in every city of the first + rank. Even the comment of a cynic in regard to electrical development may + be accepted: "Some electrical companies wanted all the air; others + apparently had use for all the water; Edison only asked for the earth." + </p> + <p> + The late Jacob Hess, a famous New York Republican politician, was a member + of the commission appointed to put the wires underground in New York City, + in the "eighties." He stated that when the commission was struggling with + the problem, and examining all kinds of devices and plans, patented and + unpatented, for which fabulous sums were often asked, the body turned to + Edison in its perplexity and asked for advice. Edison said: "All you have + to do, gentlemen, is to insulate your wires, draw them through the + cheapest thing on earth—iron pipe—run your pipes through + channels or galleries under the street, and you've got the whole thing + done." This was practically the system adopted and in use to this day. + What puzzled the old politician was that Edison would accept nothing for + his advice. + </p> + <p> + Another story may also be interpolated here as to the underground work + done in New York for the first Edison station. It refers to the "man + higher up," although the phrase had not been coined in those days of lower + public morality. That a corporation should be "held up" was accepted + philosophically by the corporation as one of the unavoidable incidents of + its business; and if the corporation "got back" by securing some privilege + without paying for it, the public was ready to condone if not applaud. + Public utilities were in the making, and no one in particular had a keen + sense of what was right or what was wrong, in the hard, practical details + of their development. Edison tells this illuminating story: "When I was + laying tubes in the streets of New York, the office received notice from + the Commissioner of Public Works to appear at his office at a certain + hour. I went up there with a gentleman to see the Commissioner, H. O. + Thompson. On arrival he said to me: 'You are putting down these tubes. The + Department of Public Works requires that you should have five inspectors + to look after this work, and that their salary shall be $5 per day, + payable at the end of each week. Good-morning.' I went out very much + crestfallen, thinking I would be delayed and harassed in the work which I + was anxious to finish, and was doing night and day. We watched patiently + for those inspectors to appear. The only appearance they made was to draw + their pay Saturday afternoon." + </p> + <p> + Just before Christmas in 1880—December 17—as an item for the + silk stocking of Father Knickerbocker—the Edison Electric + Illuminating Company of New York was organized. In pursuance of the policy + adhered to by Edison, a license was issued to it for the exclusive use of + the system in that territory—Manhattan Island—in consideration + of a certain sum of money and a fixed percentage of its capital in stock + for the patent rights. Early in 1881 it was altogether a paper enterprise, + but events moved swiftly as narrated already, and on June 25, 1881, the + first "Jumbo" prototype of the dynamo-electric machines to generate + current at the Pearl Street station was put through its paces before being + shipped to Paris to furnish new sensations to the flaneur of the + boulevards. A number of the Edison officers and employees assembled at + Goerck Street to see this "gigantic" machine go into action, and watched + its performance with due reverence all through the night until five + o'clock on Sunday morning, when it respected the conventionalities by + breaking a shaft and suspending further tests. After this dynamo was + shipped to France, and its successors to England for the Holborn Viaduct + plant, Edison made still further improvements in design, increasing + capacity and economy, and then proceeded vigorously with six machines for + Pearl Street. + </p> + <p> + An ideal location for any central station is at the very centre of the + district served. It may be questioned whether it often goes there. In the + New York first district the nearest property available was a double + building at Nos. 255 and 257 Pearl Street, occupying a lot so by 100 feet. + It was four stories high, with a fire-wall dividing it into two equal + parts. One of these parts was converted for the uses of the station + proper, and the other was used as a tube-shop by the underground + construction department, as well as for repair-shops, storage, etc. Those + were the days when no one built a new edifice for station purposes; that + would have been deemed a fantastic extravagance. One early station in New + York for arc lighting was an old soap-works whose well-soaked floors did + not need much additional grease to render them choice fuel for the + inevitable flames. In this Pearl Street instance, the building, erected + originally for commercial uses, was quite incapable of sustaining the + weight of the heavy dynamos and steam-engines to be installed on the + second floor; so the old flooring was torn out and a new one of heavy + girders supported by stiff columns was substituted. This heavy + construction, more familiar nowadays, and not unlike the supporting metal + structure of the Manhattan Elevated road, was erected independent of the + enclosing walls, and occupied the full width of 257 Pearl Street, and + about three-quarters of its depth. This change in the internal + arrangements did not at all affect the ugly external appearance, which did + little to suggest the stately and ornate stations since put up by the New + York Edison Company, the latest occupying whole city blocks. + </p> + <p> + Of this episode Edison gives the following account: "While planning for my + first New York station—Pearl Street—of course, I had no real + estate, and from lack of experience had very little knowledge of its cost + in New York; so I assumed a rather large, liberal amount of it to plan my + station on. It occurred to me one day that before I went too far with my + plans I had better find out what real estate was worth. In my original + plan I had 200 by 200 feet. I thought that by going down on a slum street + near the water-front I would get some pretty cheap property. So I picked + out the worst dilapidated street there was, and found I could only get two + buildings, each 25 feet front, one 100 feet deep and the other 85 feet + deep. I thought about $10,000 each would cover it; but when I got the + price I found that they wanted $75,000 for one and $80,000 for the other. + Then I was compelled to change my plans and go upward in the air where + real estate was cheap. I cleared out the building entirely to the walls + and built my station of structural ironwork, running it up high." + </p> + <p> + Into this converted structure was put the most complete steam plant + obtainable, together with all the mechanical and engineering adjuncts + bearing upon economical and successful operation. Being in a narrow street + and a congested district, the plant needed special facilities for the + handling of coal and ashes, as well as for ventilation and forced draught. + All of these details received Mr. Edison's personal care and consideration + on the spot, in addition to the multitude of other affairs demanding his + thought. Although not a steam or mechanical engineer, his quick grasp of + principles and omnivorous reading had soon supplied the lack of training; + nor had he forgotten the practical experience picked up as a boy on the + locomotives of the Grand Trunk road. It is to be noticed as a feature of + the plant, in common with many of later construction, that it was placed + well away from the water's edge, and equipped with non-condensing engines; + whereas the modern plant invariably seeks the bank of a river or lake for + the purpose of a generous supply of water for its condensing engines or + steam-turbines. These are among the refinements of practice coincidental + with the advance of the art. + </p> + <p> + At the award of the John Fritz gold medal in April, 1909, to Charles T. + Porter for his work in advancing the knowledge of steam-engineering, and + for improvements in engine construction, Mr. Frank J. Sprague spoke on + behalf of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers of the debt of + electricity to the high-speed steam-engine. He recalled the fact that at + the French Exposition of 1867 Mr. Porter installed two Porter-Allen + engines to drive electric alternating-current generators for supplying + current to primitive lighthouse apparatus. While the engines were not + directly coupled to the dynamos, it was a curious fact that the piston + speeds and number of revolutions were what is common to-day in isolated + direct-coupled plants. In the dozen years following Mr. Porter built many + engines with certain common characteristics—i.e., high piston speed + and revolutions, solid engine bed, and babbitt-metal bearings; but there + was no electric driving until 1880, when Mr. Porter installed a high-speed + engine for Edison at his laboratory in Menlo Park. Shortly after this he + was invited to construct for the Edison Pearl Street station the first of + a series of engines for so-called "steam-dynamos," each independently + driven by a direct-coupled engine. Mr. Sprague compared the relations thus + established between electricity and the high-speed engine not to those of + debtor and creditor, but rather to those of partners—an industrial + marriage—one of the most important in the engineering world. Here + were two machines destined to be joined together, economizing space, + enhancing economy, augmenting capacity, reducing investment, and + increasing dividends. + </p> + <p> + While rapid progress was being made in this and other directions, the + wheels of industry were humming merrily at the Edison Tube Works, for over + fifteen miles of tube conductors were required for the district, besides + the boxes to connect the network at the street intersections, and the + hundreds of junction boxes for taking the service conductors into each of + the hundreds of buildings. In addition to the immense amount of money + involved, this specialized industry required an enormous amount of + experiment, as it called for the development of an entirely new art. But + with Edison's inventive fertility—if ever there was a + cross-fertilizer of mechanical ideas it is he—and with Mr. Kruesi's + never-failing patience and perseverance applied to experiment and + evolution, rapid progress was made. A franchise having been obtained from + the city, the work of laying the underground conductors began in the late + fall of 1881, and was pushed with almost frantic energy. It is not to be + supposed, however, that the Edison tube system had then reached a finality + of perfection in the eyes of its inventor. In his correspondence with + Kruesi, as late as 1887, we find Edison bewailing the inadequacy of the + insulation of the conductors under twelve hundred volts pressure, as for + example: "Dear Kruesi,—There is nothing wrong with your present + compound. It is splendid. The whole trouble is air-bubbles. The hotter it + is poured the greater the amount of air-bubbles. At 212 it can be put on + rods and there is no bubble. I have a man experimenting and testing all + the time. Until I get at the proper method of pouring and getting rid of + the air-bubbles, it will be waste of time to experiment with other + asphalts. Resin oil distils off easily. It may answer, but paraffine or + other similar substances must be put in to prevent brittleness, One thing + is certain, and that is, everything must be poured in layers, not only the + boxes, but the tubes. The tube itself should have a thin coating. The rope + should also have a coating. The rods also. The whole lot, rods and rope, + when ready for tube, should have another coat, and then be placed in tube + and filled. This will do the business." Broad and large as a continent in + his ideas, if ever there was a man of finical fussiness in attention to + detail, it is Edison. A letter of seven pages of about the same date in + 1887 expatiates on the vicious troubles caused by the air-bubble, and + remarks with fine insight into the problems of insulation and the idea of + layers of it: "Thus you have three separate coatings, and it is impossible + an air-hole in one should match the other." + </p> + <p> + To a man less thorough and empirical in method than Edison, it would have + been sufficient to have made his plans clear to associates or subordinates + and hold them responsible for accurate results. No such vicarious + treatment would suit him, ready as he has always been to share the work + where he could give his trust. In fact he realized, as no one else did at + this stage, the tremendous import of this novel and comprehensive scheme + for giving the world light; and he would not let go, even if busy to the + breaking-point. Though plunged in a veritable maelstrom of new and + important business interests, and though applying for no fewer than + eighty-nine patents in 1881, all of which were granted, he superintended + on the spot all this laying of underground conductors for the first + district. Nor did he merely stand around and give orders. Day and night he + actually worked in the trenches with the laborers, amid the dirt and + paving-stones and hurry-burly of traffic, helping to lay the tubes, + filling up junction-boxes, and taking part in all the infinite detail. He + wanted to know for himself how things went, why for some occult reason a + little change was necessary, what improvement could be made in the + material. His hours of work were not regulated by the clock, but lasted + until he felt the need of a little rest. Then he would go off to the + station building in Pearl Street, throw an overcoat on a pile of tubes, + lie down and sleep for a few hours, rising to resume work with the first + gang. There was a small bedroom on the third floor of the station + available for him, but going to bed meant delay and consumed time. It is + no wonder that such impatience, such an enthusiasm, drove the work forward + at a headlong pace. + </p> + <p> + Edison says of this period: "When we put down the tubes in the lower part + of New York, in the streets, we kept a big stock of them in the cellar of + the station at Pearl Street. As I was on all the time, I would take a nap + of an hour or so in the daytime—any time—and I used to sleep + on those tubes in the cellar. I had two Germans who were testing there, + and both of them died of diphtheria, caught in the cellar, which was cold + and damp. It never affected me." + </p> + <p> + It is worth pausing just a moment to glance at this man taking a fitful + rest on a pile of iron pipe in a dingy building. His name is on the tip of + the world's tongue. Distinguished scientists from every part of Europe + seek him eagerly. He has just been decorated and awarded high honors by + the French Government. He is the inventor of wonderful new apparatus, and + the exploiter of novel and successful arts. The magic of his achievements + and the rumors of what is being done have caused a wild drop in gas + securities, and a sensational rise in his own electric-light stock from + $100 to $3500 a share. Yet these things do not at all affect his slumber + or his democratic simplicity, for in that, as in everything else, he is + attending strictly to business, "doing the thing that is next to him." + </p> + <p> + Part of the rush and feverish haste was due to the approach of frost, + which, as usual in New York, suspended operations in the earth; but the + laying of the conductors was resumed promptly in the spring of 1882; and + meantime other work had been advanced. During the fall and winter months + two more "Jumbo" dynamos were built and sent to London, after which the + construction of six for New York was swiftly taken in hand. In the month + of May three of these machines, each with a capacity of twelve hundred + incandescent lamps, were delivered at Pearl Street and assembled on the + second floor. On July 5th—owing to the better opportunity for + ceaseless toil given by a public holiday—the construction of the + operative part of the station was so far completed that the first of the + dynamos was operated under steam; so that three days later the + satisfactory experiment was made of throwing its flood of electrical + energy into a bank of one thousand lamps on an upper floor. Other tests + followed in due course. All was excitement. The field-regulating apparatus + and the electrical-pressure indicator—first of its kind—were + also tested, and in turn found satisfactory. Another vital test was made + at this time—namely, of the strength of the iron structure itself on + which the plant was erected. This was done by two structural experts; and + not till he got their report as to ample factors of safety was Edison + reassured as to this detail. + </p> + <p> + A remark of Edison, familiar to all who have worked with him, when it is + reported to him that something new goes all right and is satisfactory from + all points of view, is: "Well, boys, now let's find the bugs," and the + hunt for the phylloxera begins with fiendish, remorseless zest. Before + starting the plant for regular commercial service, he began personally a + series of practical experiments and tests to ascertain in advance what + difficulties would actually arise in practice, so that he could provide + remedies or preventives. He had several cots placed in the adjoining + building, and he and a few of his most strenuous assistants worked day and + night, leaving the work only for hurried meals and a snatch of sleep. + These crucial tests, aiming virtually to break the plant down if possible + within predetermined conditions, lasted several weeks, and while most + valuable in the information they afforded, did not hinder anything, for + meantime customers' premises throughout the district were being wired and + supplied with lamps and meters. + </p> + <p> + On Monday, September 4, 1882, at 3 o'clock, P.M., Edison realized the + consummation of his broad and original scheme. The Pearl Street station + was officially started by admitting steam to the engine of one of the + "Jumbos," current was generated, turned into the network of underground + conductors, and was transformed into light by the incandescent lamps that + had thus far been installed. This date and event may properly be regarded + as historical, for they mark the practical beginning of a new art, which + in the intervening years has grown prodigiously, and is still increasing + by leaps and bounds. + </p> + <p> + Everything worked satisfactorily in the main. There were a few mechanical + and engineering annoyances that might naturally be expected to arise in a + new and unprecedented enterprise; but nothing of sufficient moment to + interfere with the steady and continuous supply of current to customers at + all hours of the day and night. Indeed, once started, this station was + operated uninterruptedly for eight years with only insignificant stoppage. + </p> + <p> + It will have been noted by the reader that there was nothing to indicate + rashness in starting up the station, as only one dynamo was put in + operation. Within a short time, however, it was deemed desirable to supply + the underground network with more current, as many additional customers + had been connected and the demand for the new light was increasing very + rapidly. Although Edison had successfully operated several dynamos in + multiple arc two years before—i.e., all feeding current together + into the same circuits—there was not, at this early period of + experience, any absolute certainty as to what particular results might + occur upon the throwing of the current from two or more such massive + dynamos into a great distributing system. The sequel showed the value of + Edison's cautious method in starting the station by operating only a + single unit at first. + </p> + <p> + He decided that it would be wise to make the trial operation of a second + "Jumbo" on a Sunday, when business houses were closed in the district, + thus obviating any danger of false impressions in the public mind in the + event of any extraordinary manifestations. The circumstances attending the + adding of a second dynamo are thus humorously described by Edison: "My + heart was in my mouth at first, but everything worked all right.... Then + we started another engine and threw them in parallel. Of all the circuses + since Adam was born, we had the worst then! One engine would stop, and the + other would run up to about a thousand revolutions, and then they would + see-saw. The trouble was with the governors. When the circus commenced, + the gang that was standing around ran out precipitately, and I guess some + of them kept running for a block or two. I grabbed the throttle of one + engine, and E. H. Johnson, who was the only one present to keep his wits, + caught hold of the other, and we shut them off." One of the "gang" that + ran, but, in this case, only to the end of the room, afterward said: "At + the time it was a terrifying experience, as I didn't know what was going + to happen. The engines and dynamos made a horrible racket, from loud and + deep groans to a hideous shriek, and the place seemed to be filled with + sparks and flames of all colors. It was as if the gates of the infernal + regions had been suddenly opened." + </p> + <p> + This trouble was at once attacked by Edison in his characteristic and + strenuous way. The above experiment took place between three and four + o'clock on a Sunday afternoon, and within a few hours he had gathered his + superintendent and men of the machine-works and had them at work on a + shafting device that he thought would remedy the trouble. He says: "Of + course, I discovered that what had happened was that one set was running + the other as a motor. I then put up a long shaft, connecting all the + governors together, and thought this would certainly cure the trouble; but + it didn't. The torsion of the shaft was so great that one governor still + managed to get ahead of the others. Well, it was a serious state of + things, and I worried over it a lot. Finally I went down to Goerck Street + and got a piece of shafting and a tube in which it fitted. I twisted the + shafting one way and the tube the other as far as I could, and pinned them + together. In this way, by straining the whole outfit up to its elastic + limit in opposite directions, the torsion was practically eliminated, and + after that the governors ran together all right." + </p> + <p> + Edison realized, however, that in commercial practice this was only a + temporary expedient, and that a satisfactory permanence of results could + only be attained with more perfect engines that could be depended upon for + close and simple regulation. The engines that were made part of the first + three "Jumbos" placed in the station were the very best that could be + obtained at the time, and even then had been specially designed and built + for the purpose. Once more quoting Edison on this subject: "About that + time" (when he was trying to run several dynamos in parallel in the Pearl + Street station) "I got hold of Gardiner C. Sims, and he undertook to build + an engine to run at three hundred and fifty revolutions and give one + hundred and seventy-five horse-power. He went back to Providence and set + to work, and brought the engine back with him to the shop. It worked only + a few minutes when it busted. That man sat around that shop and slept in + it for three weeks, until he got his engine right and made it work the way + he wanted it to. When he reached this period I gave orders for the + engine-works to run night and day until we got enough engines, and when + all was ready we started the engines. Then everything worked all right.... + One of these engines that Sims built ran twenty-four hours a day, three + hundred and sixty-five days in the year, for over a year before it + stopped." [12] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 12: We quote the following interesting notes of + Mr. Charles L. Clarke on the question of see-sawing, or + "hunting," as it was afterward termed: +</pre> + <p> + "In the Holborn Viaduct station the difficulty of 'hunting' was not + experienced. At the time the 'Jumbos' were first operated in multiple arc, + April 8, 1882, one machine was driven by a Porter-Allen engine, and the + other by an Armington & Sims engine, and both machines were on a solid + foundation. At the station at Milan, Italy, the first 'Jumbos' operated in + multiple arc were driven by Porter-Allen engines, and dash-pots were + applied to the governors. These machines were also upon a solid + foundation, and no trouble was experienced. + </p> + <p> + "At the Pearl Street station, however, the machines were supported upon + long iron floor-beams, and at the high speed of 350 revolutions per + minute, considerable vertical vibration was given to the engines. And the + writer is inclined to the opinion that this vibration, acting in the same + direction as the action of gravitation, which was one of the two + controlling forces in the operation of the Porter-Allen governor, was the + primary cause of the 'hunting.' In the Armington & Sims engine the + controlling forces in the operation of the governor were the centrifugal + force of revolving weights, and the opposing force of compressed springs, + and neither the action of gravitation nor the vertical vibrations of the + engine could have any sensible effect upon the governor."] + </p> + <p> + The Pearl Street station, as this first large plant was called, made rapid + and continuous growth in its output of electric current. It started, as we + have said, on September 4, 1882, supplying about four hundred lights to a + comparatively small number of customers. Among those first supplied was + the banking firm of Drexel, Morgan & Company, corner of Broad and Wall + streets, at the outermost limits of the system. Before the end of December + of the same year the light had so grown in favor that it was being + supplied to over two hundred and forty customers whose buildings were + wired for over five thousand lamps. By this time three more "Jumbos" had + been added to the plant. The output from this time forward increased + steadily up to the spring of 1884, when the demands of the station + necessitated the installation of two additional "Jumbos" in the adjoining + building, which, with the venous improvements that had been made in the + mean time, gave the station a capacity of over eleven thousand lamps + actually in service at any one time. + </p> + <p> + During the first three months of operating the Pearl Street station light + was supplied to customers without charge. Edison had perfect confidence in + his meters, and also in the ultimate judgment of the public as to the + superiority of the incandescent electric light as against other + illuminants. He realized, however, that in the beginning of the operation + of an entirely novel plant there was ample opportunity for unexpected + contingencies, although the greatest care had been exercised to make + everything as perfect as possible. Mechanical defects or other unforeseen + troubles in any part of the plant or underground system might arise and + cause temporary stoppages of operation, thus giving grounds for + uncertainty which would create a feeling of public distrust in the + permanence of the supply of light. + </p> + <p> + As to the kind of mishap that was wont to occur, Edison tells the + following story: "One afternoon, after our Pearl Street station started, a + policeman rushed in and told us to send an electrician at once up to the + corner of Ann and Nassau streets—some trouble. Another man and I + went up. We found an immense crowd of men and boys there and in the + adjoining streets—a perfect jam. There was a leak in one of our + junction-boxes, and on account of the cellars extending under the street, + the top soil had become insulated. Hence, by means of this leak powerful + currents were passing through this thin layer of moist earth. When a horse + went to pass over it he would get a very severe shock. When I arrived I + saw coming along the street a ragman with a dilapidated old horse, and one + of the boys told him to go over on the other side of the road—which + was the place where the current leaked. When the ragman heard this he took + that side at once. The moment the horse struck the electrified soil he + stood straight up in the air, and then reared again; and the crowd yelled, + the policeman yelled; and the horse started to run away. This continued + until the crowd got so serious that the policeman had to clear it out; and + we were notified to cut the current off. We got a gang of men, cut the + current off for several junction-boxes, and fixed the leak. One man who + had seen it came to me next day and wanted me to put in apparatus for him + at a place where they sold horses. He said he could make a fortune with + it, because he could get old nags in there and make them act like + thoroughbreds." + </p> + <p> + So well had the work been planned and executed, however, that nothing + happened to hinder the continuous working of the station and the supply of + light to customers. Hence it was decided in December, 1882, to begin + charging a price for the service, and, accordingly, Edison electrolytic + meters were installed on the premises of each customer then connected. The + first bill for lighting, based upon the reading of one of these meters, + amounted to $50.40, and was collected on January 18, 1883, from the + Ansonia Brass and Copper Company, 17 and 19 Cliff Street. Generally + speaking, customers found that their bills compared fairly with gas bills + for corresponding months where the same amount of light was used, and they + paid promptly and cheerfully, with emphatic encomiums of the new light. + During November, 1883, a little over one year after the station was + started, bills for lighting amounting to over $9000 were collected. + </p> + <p> + An interesting story of meter experience in the first few months of + operation of the Pearl Street station is told by one of the "boys" who was + then in position to know the facts; "Mr. J. P. Morgan, whose firm was one + of the first customers, expressed to Mr. Edison some doubt as to the + accuracy of the meter. The latter, firmly convinced of its correctness, + suggested a strict test by having some cards printed and hung on each + fixture at Mr. Morgan's place. On these cards was to be noted the number + of lamps in the fixture, and the time they were turned on and off each day + for a month. At the end of that time the lamp-hours were to be added + together by one of the clerks and figured on a basis of a definite amount + per lamp-hour, and compared with the bill that would be rendered by the + station for the corresponding period. The results of the first month's + test showed an apparent overcharge by the Edison company. Mr. Morgan was + exultant, while Mr. Edison was still confident and suggested a + continuation of the test. Another month's trial showed somewhat similar + results. Mr. Edison was a little disturbed, but insisted that there was a + mistake somewhere. He went down to Drexel, Morgan & Company's office + to investigate, and, after looking around, asked when the office was + cleaned out. He was told it was done at night by the janitor, who was sent + for, and upon being interrogated as to what light he used, said that he + turned on a central fixture containing about ten lights. It came out that + he had made no record of the time these lights were in use. He was told to + do so in future, and another month's test was made. On comparison with the + company's bill, rendered on the meter-reading, the meter came within a few + cents of the amount computed from the card records, and Mr. Morgan was + completely satisfied of the accuracy of the meter." + </p> + <p> + It is a strange but not extraordinary commentary on the perversity of + human nature and the lack of correct observation, to note that even after + the Pearl Street station had been in actual operation twenty-four hours a + day for nearly three months, there should still remain an attitude of + "can't be done." That such a scepticism still obtained is evidenced by the + public prints of the period. Edison's electric-light system and his broad + claims were freely discussed and animadverted upon at the very time he was + demonstrating their successful application. To show some of the feeling at + the time, we reproduce the following letter, which appeared November 29, + 1882: + </p> + <p> + "To the Editor of the Sun: + </p> + <p> + "SIR,—In reading the discussions relative to the Pearl Street + station of the Edison light, I have noted that while it is claimed that + there is scarcely any loss from leakage of current, nothing is said about + the loss due to the resistance of the long circuits. I am informed that + this is the secret of the failure to produce with the power in position a + sufficient amount of current to run all the lamps that have been put up, + and that while six, and even seven, lights to the horse-power may be + produced from an isolated plant, the resistance of the long underground + wires reduces this result in the above case to less than three lights to + the horse-power, thus making the cost of production greatly in excess of + gas. Can the Edison company explain this? 'INVESTIGATOR'." + </p> + <p> + This was one of the many anonymous letters that had been written to the + newspapers on the subject, and the following reply by the Edison company + was printed December 3, 1882: + </p> + <p> + "To the Editor of the Sun: + </p> + <p> + "SIR,—'Investigator' in Wednesday's Sun, says that the Edison + company is troubled at its Pearl Street station with a 'loss of current, + due to the resistance of the long circuits'; also that, whereas Edison + gets 'six or even seven lights to the horse-power in isolated plants, the + resistance of the long underground wires reduces that result in the Pearl + Street station to less than three lights to the horse-power.' Both of + these statements are false. As regards loss due to resistance, there is a + well-known law for determining it, based on Ohm's law. By use of that law + we knew in advance, that is to say, when the original plans for the + station were drawn, just what this loss would be, precisely the same as a + mechanical engineer when constructing a mill with long lines of shafting + can forecast the loss of power due to friction. The practical result in + the Pearl Street station has fully demonstrated the correctness of our + estimate thus made in advance. As regards our getting only three lights + per horse-power, our station has now been running three months, without + stopping a moment, day or night, and we invariably get over six lamps per + horse-power, or substantially the same as we do in our isolated plants. We + are now lighting one hundred and ninety-three buildings, wired for + forty-four hundred lamps, of which about two-thirds are in constant use, + and we are adding additional houses and lamps daily. These figures can be + verified at the office of the Board of Underwriters, where certificates + with full details permitting the use of our light are filed by their own + inspector. To light these lamps we run from one to three dynamos, + according to the lamps in use at any given time, and we shall start + additional dynamos as fast as we can connect more buildings. Neither as + regards the loss due to resistance, nor as regards the number of lamps per + horse-power, is there the slightest trouble or disappointment on the part + of our company, and your correspondent is entirely in error is assuming + that there is. Let me suggest that if 'Investigator' really wishes to + investigate, and is competent and willing to learn the exact facts, he can + do so at this office, where there is no mystery of concealment, but, on + the contrary, a strong desire to communicate facts to intelligent + inquirers. Such a method of investigating must certainly be more + satisfactory to one honestly seeking knowledge than that of first assuming + an error as the basis of a question, and then demanding an explanation. + </p> + <p> + "Yours very truly, + </p> + <p> + "S. B. EATON, President." + </p> + <p> + Viewed from the standpoint of over twenty-seven years later, the wisdom + and necessity of answering anonymous newspaper letters of this kind might + be deemed questionable, but it must be remembered that, although the Pearl + Street station was working successfully, and Edison's comprehensive plans + were abundantly vindicated, the enterprise was absolutely new and only + just stepping on the very threshold of commercial exploitation. To enter + in and possess the land required the confidence of capital and the general + public. Hence it was necessary to maintain a constant vigilance to defeat + the insidious attacks of carping critics and others who would attempt to + injure the Edison system by misleading statements. + </p> + <p> + It will be interesting to the modern electrician to note that when this + pioneer station was started, and in fact for some little time afterward, + there was not a single electrical instrument in the whole station—not + a voltmeter or an ammeter! Nor was there a central switchboard! Each + dynamo had its own individual control switch. The feeder connections were + all at the front of the building, and the general voltage control + apparatus was on the floor above. An automatic pressure indicator had been + devised and put in connection with the main circuits. It consisted, + generally speaking, of an electromagnet with relays connecting with a red + and a blue lamp. When the electrical pressure was normal, neither lamp was + lighted; but if the electromotive force rose above a predetermined amount + by one or two volts, the red lamp lighted up, and the attendant at the + hand-wheel of the field regulator inserted resistance in the field + circuit, whereas, if the blue lamp lighted, resistance was cut out until + the pressure was raised to normal. Later on this primitive indicator was + supplanted by the "Bradley Bridge," a crude form of the "Howell" pressure + indicators, which were subsequently used for many years in the Edison + stations. + </p> + <p> + Much could be added to make a complete pictorial description of the + historic Pearl Street station, but it is not within the scope of this + narrative to enter into diffuse technical details, interesting as they may + be to many persons. We cannot close this chapter, however, without mention + of the fate of the Pearl Street station, which continued in successful + commercial operation until January 2, 1890, when it was partially + destroyed by fire. All the "Jumbos" were ruined, excepting No. 9, which is + still a venerated relic in the possession of the New York Edison Company. + Luckily, the boilers were unharmed. Belt-driven generators and engines + were speedily installed, and the station was again in operation in a few + days. The uninjured "Jumbo," No. 9, again continued to perform its duty. + But in the words of Mr. Charles L. Clarke, "the glory of the old Pearl + Street station, unique in bearing the impress of Mr. Edison's personality, + and, as it were, constructed with his own hands, disappeared in the flame + and smoke of that Thursday morning fire." + </p> + <p> + The few days' interruption of the service was the only serious one that + has taken place in the history of the New York Edison Company from + September 4, 1882, to the present date. The Pearl Street station was + operated for some time subsequent to the fire, but increasing demands in + the mean time having led to the construction of other stations, the mains + of the First District were soon afterward connected to another plant, the + Pearl Street station was dismantled, and the building was sold in 1895. + </p> + <p> + The prophetic insight into the magnitude of central-station lighting that + Edison had when he was still experimenting on the incandescent lamp over + thirty years ago is a little less than astounding, when it is so amply + verified in the operations of the New York Edison Company (the successor + of the Edison Electric Illuminating Company of New York) and many others. + At the end of 1909 the New York Edison Company alone was operating + twenty-eight stations and substations, having a total capacity of 159,500 + kilowatts. Connected with its lines were approximately 85,000 customers + wired for 3,813,899 incandescent lamps and nearly 225,000 horse-power + through industrial electric motors connected with the underground service. + A large quantity of electrical energy is also supplied for heating and + cooking, charging automobiles, chemical and plating work, and various + other uses. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0017" id="link2HCH0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVII + </h2> + <h3> + OTHER EARLY STATIONS—THE METER + </h3> + <p> + WE have now seen the Edison lighting system given a complete, convincing + demonstration in Paris, London, and New York; and have noted steps taken + for its introduction elsewhere on both sides of the Atlantic. The Paris + plant, like that at the Crystal Palace, was a temporary exhibit. The + London plant was less temporary, but not permanent, supplying before it + was torn out no fewer than three thousand lamps in hotels, churches, + stores, and dwellings in the vicinity of Holborn Viaduct. There Messrs. + Johnson and Hammer put into practice many of the ideas now standard in the + art, and secured much useful data for the work in New York, of which the + story has just been told. + </p> + <p> + As a matter of fact the first Edison commercial station to be operated in + this country was that at Appleton, Wisconsin, but its only serious claim + to notice is that it was the initial one of the system driven by + water-power. It went into service August 15, 1882, about three weeks + before the Pearl Street station. It consisted of one small dynamo of a + capacity of two hundred and eighty lights of 10 c.p. each, and was housed + in an unpretentious wooden shed. The dynamo-electric machine, though + small, was robust, for under all the varying speeds of water-power, and + the vicissitudes of the plant to which it, belonged, it continued in + active use until 1899—seventeen years. + </p> + <p> + Edison was from the first deeply impressed with the possibilities of + water-power, and, as this incident shows, was prompt to seize such a very + early opportunity. But his attention was in reality concentrated closely + on the supply of great centres of population, a task which he then felt + might well occupy his lifetime; and except in regard to furnishing + isolated plants he did not pursue further the development of + hydro-electric stations. That was left to others, and to the application + of the alternating current, which has enabled engineers to harness remote + powers, and, within thoroughly economical limits, transmit thousands of + horse-power as much as two hundred miles at pressures of 80,000 and + 100,000 volts. Owing to his insistence on low pressure, direct current for + use in densely populated districts, as the only safe and truly universal, + profitable way of delivering electrical energy to the consumers, Edison + has been frequently spoken of as an opponent of the alternating current. + This does him an injustice. At the time a measure was before the Virginia + legislature, in 1890, to limit the permissible pressures of current so as + to render it safe, he said: "You want to allow high pressure wherever the + conditions are such that by no possible accident could that pressure get + into the houses of the consumers; you want to give them all the latitude + you can." In explaining this he added: "Suppose you want to take the falls + down at Richmond, and want to put up a water-power? Why, if we erect a + station at the falls, it is a great economy to get it up to the city. By + digging a cheap trench and putting in an insulated cable, and connecting + such station with the central part of Richmond, having the end of the + cable come up into the station from the earth and there connected with + motors, the power of the falls would be transmitted to these motors. If + now the motors were made to run dynamos conveying low-pressure currents to + the public, there is no possible way whereby this high-pressure current + could get to the public." In other words, Edison made the sharp + fundamental distinction between high pressure alternating current for + transmission and low pressure direct current for distribution; and this is + exactly the practice that has been adopted in all the great cities of the + country to-day. There seems no good reason for believing that it will + change. It might perhaps have been altogether better for Edison, from the + financial standpoint, if he had not identified himself so completely with + one kind of current, but that made no difference to him, as it was a + matter of conviction; and Edison's convictions are granitic. Moreover, + this controversy over the two currents, alternating and direct, which has + become historical in the field of electricity—and is something like + the "irrepressible conflict" we heard of years ago in national affairs—illustrates + another aspect of Edison's character. Broad as the prairies and free in + thought as the winds that sweep them, he is idiosyncratically opposed to + loose and wasteful methods, to plans of empire that neglect the poor at + the gate. Everything he has done has been aimed at the conservation of + energy, the contraction of space, the intensification of culture. Burbank + and his tribe represent in the vegetable world, Edison in the mechanical. + Not only has he developed distinctly new species, but he has elucidated + the intensive art of getting $1200 out of an electrical acre instead of + $12—a manured market-garden inside London and a ten-bushel exhausted + wheat farm outside Lawrence, Kansas, being the antipodes of productivity—yet + very far short of exemplifying the difference of electrical yield between + an acre of territory in Edison's "first New York district" and an acre in + some small town. + </p> + <p> + Edison's lighting work furnished an excellent basis—in fact, the + only one—for the development of the alternating current now so + generally employed in central-station work in America; and in the McGraw + Electrical Directory of April, 1909, no fewer than 4164 stations out of + 5780 reported its use. When the alternating current was introduced for + practical purposes it was not needed for arc lighting, the circuit for + which, from a single dynamo, would often be twenty or thirty miles in + length, its current having a pressure of not less than five or six + thousand volts. For some years it was not found feasible to operate motors + on alternating-current circuits, and that reason was often urged against + it seriously. It could not be used for electroplating or deposition, nor + could it charge storage batteries, all of which are easily within the + ability of the direct current. But when it came to be a question of + lighting a scattered suburb, a group of dwellings on the outskirts, a + remote country residence or a farm-house, the alternating current, in all + elements save its danger, was and is ideal. Its thin wires can be carried + cheaply over vast areas, and at each local point of consumption the + transformer of size exactly proportioned to its local task takes the + high-voltage transmission current and lowers its potential at a ratio of + 20 or 40 to 1, for use in distribution and consumption circuits. This + evolution has been quite distinct, with its own inventors like Gaulard and + Gibbs and Stanley, but came subsequent to the work of supplying small, + dense areas of population; the art thus growing from within, and using + each new gain as a means for further achievement. + </p> + <p> + Nor was the effect of such great advances as those made by Edison limited + to the electrical field. Every department of mechanics was stimulated and + benefited to an extraordinary degree. Copper for the circuits was more + highly refined than ever before to secure the best conductivity, and + purity was insisted on in every kind of insulation. Edison was intolerant + of sham and shoddy, and nothing would satisfy him that could not stand + cross-examination by microscope, test-tube, and galvanometer. It was, + perhaps, the steam-engine on which the deepest imprint for good was made, + referred to already in the remarks of Mr. F. J. Sprague in the preceding + chapter, but best illustrated in the perfection of the modern high-speed + engine of the Armington & Sims type. Unless he could secure an engine + of smoother running and more exactly governed and regulated than those + available for his dynamo and lamp, Edison realized that he would find it + almost impossible to give a steady light. He did not want his customers to + count the heart-beats of the engine in the flicker of the lamp. Not a + single engine was even within gunshot of the standard thus set up, but the + emergency called forth its man in Gardiner C. Sims, a talented draughtsman + and designer who had been engaged in locomotive construction and in the + engineering department of the United States Navy. He may be quoted as to + what happened: "The deep interest, financial and moral, and friendly + backing I received from Mr. Edison, together with valuable suggestions, + enabled me to bring out the engine; as I was quite alone in the world—poor—I + had found a friend who knew what he wanted and explained it clearly. Mr. + Edison was a leader far ahead of the time. He compelled the design of the + successful engine. + </p> + <p> + "Our first engine compelled the inventing and making of a suitable engine + indicator to indicate it—the Tabor. He obtained the desired speed + and load with a friction brake; also regulator of speed; but waited for an + indicator to verify it. Then again there was no known way to lubricate an + engine for continuous running, and Mr. Edison informed me that as a marine + engine started before the ship left New York and continued running until + it reached its home port, so an engine for his purposes must produce light + at all times. That was a poser to me, for a five-hours' run was about all + that had been required up to that time. + </p> + <p> + "A day or two later Mr. Edison inquired: 'How far is it from here to + Lawrence; it is a long walk, isn't it?' 'Yes, rather.' He said: 'Of course + you will understand I meant without oil.' To say I was deeply perplexed + does not express my feelings. We were at the machine works, Goerck Street. + I started for the oil-room, when, about entering, I saw a small funnel + lying on the floor. It had been stepped on and flattened. I took it up, + and it had solved the engine-oiling problem—and my walk to Lawrence + like a tramp actor's was off! The eccentric strap had a round glass + oil-cup with a brass base that screwed into the strap. I took it off, and + making a sketch, went to Dave Cunningham, having the funnel in my hand to + illustrate what I wanted made. I requested him to make a sheet-brass + oil-cup and solder it to the base I had. He did so. I then had a standard + made to hold another oil-cup, so as to see and regulate the drop-feed. On + this combination I obtained a patent which is now universally used." + </p> + <p> + It is needless to say that in due course the engine builders of the United + States developed a variety of excellent prime movers for electric-light + and power plants, and were grateful to the art from which such a stimulus + came to their industry; but for many years one never saw an Edison + installation without expecting to find one or more Armington & Sims + high-speed engines part of it. Though the type has gone out of existence, + like so many other things that are useful in their day and generation, it + was once a very vital part of the art, and one more illustration of that + intimate manner in which the advances in different fields of progress + interact and co-operate. + </p> + <p> + Edison had installed his historic first great central-station system in + New York on the multiple arc system covered by his feeder and main + invention, which resulted in a notable saving in the cost of conductors as + against a straight two-wire system throughout of the "tree" kind. He soon + foresaw that still greater economy would be necessary for commercial + success not alone for the larger territory opening, but for the compact + districts of large cities. Being firmly convinced that there was a way + out, he pushed aside a mass of other work, and settled down to this + problem, with the result that on November 20, 1882, only two months after + current had been sent out from Pearl Street, he executed an application + for a patent covering what is now known as the "three-wire system." It has + been universally recognized as one of the most valuable inventions in the + history of the lighting art. [13] Its use resulted in a saving of over 60 + per cent. of copper in conductors, figured on the most favorable basis + previously known, inclusive of those calculated under his own feeder and + main system. Such economy of outlay being effected in one of the heaviest + items of expense in central-station construction, it was now made possible + to establish plants in towns where the large investment would otherwise + have been quite prohibitive. The invention is in universal use today, + alike for direct and for alternating current, and as well in the equipment + of large buildings as in the distribution system of the most extensive + central-station networks. One cannot imagine the art without it. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 13: For technical description and illustration of + this invention, see Appendix.] +</pre> + <p> + The strong position held by the Edison system, under the strenuous + competition that was already springing up, was enormously improved by the + introduction of the three-wire system; and it gave an immediate impetus to + incandescent lighting. Desiring to put this new system into practical use + promptly, and receiving applications for licenses from all over the + country, Edison selected Brockton, Massachusetts, and Sunbury, + Pennsylvania, as the two towns for the trial. Of these two Brockton + required the larger plant, but with the conductors placed underground. It + was the first to complete its arrangements and close its contract. Mr. + Henry Villard, it will be remembered, had married the daughter of + Garrison, the famous abolitionist, and it was through his relationship + with the Garrison family that Brockton came to have the honor of + exemplifying so soon the principles of an entirely new art. Sunbury, + however, was a much smaller installation, employed overhead conductors, + and hence was the first to "cross the tape." It was specially suited for a + trial plant also, in the early days when a yield of six or eight lamps to + the horse-power was considered subject for congratulation. The town being + situated in the coal region of Pennsylvania, good coal could then be + obtained there at seventy-five cents a ton. + </p> + <p> + The Sunbury generating plant consisted of an Armington & Sims engine + driving two small Edison dynamos having a total capacity of about four + hundred lamps of 16 c.p. The indicating instruments were of the crudest + construction, consisting of two voltmeters connected by "pressure wires" + to the centre of electrical distribution. One ammeter, for measuring the + quantity of current output, was interpolated in the "neutral bus" or + third-wire return circuit to indicate when the load on the two machines + was out of balance. The circuits were opened and closed by means of about + half a dozen roughly made plug-switches. [14] The "bus-bars" to receive + the current from the dynamos were made of No. 000 copper line wire, + straightened out and fastened to the wooden sheathing of the station by + iron staples without any presence to insulation. Commenting upon this Mr. + W. S. Andrews, detailed from the central staff, says: "The interior + winding of the Sunbury station, including the running of two three-wire + feeders the entire length of the building from back to front, the wiring + up of the dynamos and switchboard and all instruments, together with + bus-bars, etc.—in fact, all labor and material used in the + electrical wiring installation—amounted to the sum of $90. I + received a rather sharp letter from the New York office expostulating for + this EXTRAVAGANT EXPENDITURE, and stating that great economy must be + observed in future!" The street conductors were of the overhead pole-line + construction, and were installed by the construction company that had been + organized by Edison to build and equip central stations. A special type of + street pole had been devised by him for the three-wire system. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 14: By reason of the experience gained at this + station through the use of these crude plug-switches, Mr. + Edison started a competition among a few of his assistants + to devise something better. The result was the invention of + a "breakdown" switch by Mr. W. S. Andrews, which was + accepted by Mr. Edison as the best of the devices suggested, + and was developed and used for a great many years + afterward.] +</pre> + <p> + Supplementing the story of Mr. Andrews is that of Lieut. F. J. Sprague, + who also gives a curious glimpse of the glorious uncertainties and + vicissitudes of that formative period. Mr. Sprague served on the jury at + the Crystal Palace Exhibition with Darwin's son—the present Sir + Horace—and after the tests were ended left the Navy and entered + Edison's service at the suggestion of Mr. E. H. Johnson, who was Edison's + shrewd recruiting sergeant in those days: "I resigned sooner than Johnson + expected, and he had me on his hands. Meanwhile he had called upon me to + make a report of the three-wire system, known in England as the Hopkinson, + both Dr. John Hopkinson and Mr. Edison being independent inventors at + practically the same time. I reported on that, left London, and landed in + New York on the day of the opening of the Brooklyn Bridge in 1883—May + 24—with a year's leave of absence. + </p> + <p> + "I reported at the office of Mr. Edison on Fifth Avenue and told him I had + seen Johnson. He looked me over and said: 'What did he promise you?' I + replied: 'Twenty-five hundred dollars a year.' He did not say much, but + looked it. About that time Mr. Andrews and I came together. On July 2d of + that year we were ordered to Sunbury, and to be ready to start the station + on the fourth. The electrical work had to be done in forty-eight hours! + Having travelled around the world, I had cultivated an indifference to any + special difficulties of that kind. Mr. Andrews and I worked in + collaboration until the night of the third. I think he was perhaps more + appreciative than I was of the discipline of the Edison Construction + Department, and thought it would be well for us to wait until the morning + of the fourth before we started up. I said we were sent over to get going, + and insisted on starting up on the night of the third. We had an Armington + & Sims engine with sight-feed oiler. I had never seen one, and did not + know how it worked, with the result that we soon burned up the babbitt + metal in the bearings and spent a good part of the night getting them in + order. The next day Mr. Edison, Mr. Insull, and the chief engineer of the + construction department appeared on the scene and wanted to know what had + happened. They found an engine somewhat loose in the bearings, and there + followed remarks which would not look well in print. Andrews skipped from + under; he obeyed orders; I did not. But the plant ran, and it was the + first three-wire station in this country." + </p> + <p> + Seen from yet another angle, the worries of this early work were not + merely those of the men on the "firing line." Mr. Insull, in speaking of + this period, says: "When it was found difficult to push the + central-station business owing to the lack of confidence in its financial + success, Edison decided to go into the business of promoting and + constructing central-station plants, and he formed what was known as the + Thomas A. Edison Construction Department, which he put me in charge of. + The organization was crude, the steam-engineering talent poor, and owing + to the impossibility of getting any considerable capital subscribed, the + plants were put in as cheaply as possible. I believe that this + construction department was unkindly named the 'Destruction Department.' + It served its purpose; never made any money; and I had the unpleasant task + of presiding at its obsequies." + </p> + <p> + On July 4th the Sunbury plant was put into commercial operation by Edison, + and he remained a week studying its conditions and watching for any + unforeseen difficulty that might arise. Nothing happened, however, to + interfere with the successful running of the station, and for twenty years + thereafter the same two dynamos continued to furnish light in Sunbury. + They were later used as reserve machines, and finally, with the engine, + retired from service as part of the "Collection of Edisonia"; but they + remain in practically as good condition as when installed in 1883. + </p> + <p> + Sunbury was also provided with the first electro-chemical meters used in + the United States outside New York City, so that it served also to + accentuate electrical practice in a most vital respect—namely, the + measurement of the electrical energy supplied to customers. At this time + and long after, all arc lighting was done on a "flat rate" basis. The arc + lamp installed outside a customer's premises, or in a circuit for public + street lighting, burned so many hours nightly, so many nights in the + month; and was paid for at that rate, subject to rebate for hours when the + lamp might be out through accident. The early arc lamps were rated to + require 9 to 10 amperes of current, at 45 volts pressure each, receiving + which they were estimated to give 2000 c.p., which was arrived at by + adding together the light found at four different positions, so that in + reality the actual light was about 500 c.p. Few of these data were ever + actually used, however; and it was all more or less a matter of guesswork, + although the central-station manager, aiming to give good service, would + naturally see that the dynamos were so operated as to maintain as steadily + as possible the normal potential and current. The same loose methods + applied to the early attempts to use electric motors on arc-lighting + circuits, and contracts were made based on the size of the motor, the + width of the connecting belt, or the amount of power the customer thought + he used—never on the measurement of the electrical energy furnished + him. + </p> + <p> + Here again Edison laid the foundation of standard practice. It is true + that even down to the present time the flat rate is applied to a great + deal of incandescent lighting, each lamp being charged for individually + according to its probable consumption during each month. This may answer, + perhaps, in a small place where the manager can gauge pretty closely from + actual observation what each customer does; but even then there are + elements of risk and waste; and obviously in a large city such a method + would soon be likely to result in financial disaster to the plant. Edison + held that the electricity sold must be measured just like gas or water, + and he proceeded to develop a meter. There was infinite scepticism around + him on the subject, and while other inventors were also giving the subject + their thought, the public took it for granted that anything so utterly + intangible as electricity, that could not be seen or weighed, and only + gave secondary evidence of itself at the exact point of use, could not be + brought to accurate registration. The general attitude of doubt was + exemplified by the incident in Mr. J. P. Morgan's office, noted in the + last chapter. Edison, however, had satisfied himself that there were + various ways of accomplishing the task, and had determined that the + current should be measured on the premises of every consumer. His + electrolytic meter was very successful, and was of widespread use in + America and in Europe until the perfection of mechanical meters by Elihu + Thomson and others brought that type into general acceptance. Hence the + Edison electrolytic meter is no longer used, despite its excellent + qualities. Houston & Kennelly in their Electricity in Everyday Life + sum the matter up as follows: "The Edison chemical meter is capable of + giving fair measurements of the amount of current passing. By reason, + however, of dissatisfaction caused from the inability of customers to read + the indications of the meter, it has in later years, to a great extent, + been replaced by registering meters that can be read by the customer." + </p> + <p> + The principle employed in the Edison electrolytic meter is that which + exemplifies the power of electricity to decompose a chemical substance. In + other words it is a deposition bath, consisting of a glass cell in which + two plates of chemically pure zinc are dipped in a solution of zinc + sulphate. When the lights or motors in the circuit are turned on, and a + certain definite small portion of the current is diverted to flow through + the meter, from the positive plate to the negative plate, the latter + increases in weight by receiving a deposit of metallic zinc; the positive + plate meantime losing in weight by the metal thus carried away from it. + This difference in weight is a very exact measure of the quantity of + electricity, or number of ampere-hours, that have, so to speak, passed + through the cell, and hence of the whole consumption in the circuit. The + amount thus due from the customer is ascertained by removing the cell, + washing and drying the plates, and weighing them in a chemical balance. + Associated with this simple form of apparatus were various ingenious + details and refinements to secure regularity of operation, freedom from + inaccuracy, and immunity from such tampering as would permit theft of + current or damage. As the freezing of the zinc sulphate solution in cold + weather would check its operation, Edison introduced, for example, into + the meter an incandescent lamp and a thermostat so arranged that when the + temperature fell to a certain point, or rose above another point, it was + cut in or out; and in this manner the meter could be kept from freezing. + The standard Edison meter practice was to remove the cells once a month to + the meter-room of the central-station company for examination, another set + being substituted. The meter was cheap to manufacture and install, and not + at all liable to get out of order. + </p> + <p> + In December, 1888, Mr. W. J. Jenks read an interesting paper before the + American Institute of Electrical Engineers on the six years of practical + experience had up to that time with the meter, then more generally in use + than any other. It appears from the paper that twenty-three Edison + stations were then equipped with 5187 meters, which were relied upon for + billing the monthly current consumption of 87,856 lamps and 350 motors of + 1000 horse-power total. This represented about 75 per cent. of the entire + lamp capacity of the stations. There was an average cost per lamp for + meter operation of twenty-two cents a year, and each meter took care of an + average of seventeen lamps. It is worthy of note, as to the promptness + with which the Edison stations became paying properties, that four of the + metered stations were earning upward of 15 per cent. on their capital + stock; three others between 8 and 10 per cent.; eight between 5 and 8 per + cent.; the others having been in operation too short a time to show + definite results, although they also went quickly to a dividend basis. + Reports made in the discussion at the meeting by engineers showed the + simplicity and success of the meter. Mr. C. L. Edgar, of the Boston Edison + system, stated that he had 800 of the meters in service cared for by two + men and three boys, the latter employed in collecting the meter cells; the + total cost being perhaps $2500 a year. Mr. J. W. Lieb wrote from Milan, + Italy, that he had in use on the Edison system there 360 meters ranging + from 350 ampere-hours per month up to 30,000. + </p> + <p> + In this connection it should be mentioned that the Association of Edison + Illuminating Companies in the same year adopted resolutions unanimously to + the effect that the Edison meter was accurate, and that its use was not + expensive for stations above one thousand lights; and that the best + financial results were invariably secured in a station selling current by + meter. Before the same association, at its meeting in September, 1898, at + Sault Ste. Marie, Mr. C. S. Shepard read a paper on the meter practice of + the New York Edison Company, giving data as to the large number of Edison + meters in use and the transition to other types, of which to-day the + company has several on its circuits: "Until October, 1896, the New York + Edison Company metered its current in consumer's premises exclusively by + the old-style chemical meters, of which there were connected on that date + 8109. It was then determined to purchase no more." Mr. Shepard went on to + state that the chemical meters were gradually displaced, and that on + September 1, 1898, there were on the system 5619 mechanical and 4874 + chemical. The meter continued in general service during 1899, and probably + up to the close of the century. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Andrews relates a rather humorous meter story of those early days: + "The meter man at Sunbury was a firm and enthusiastic believer in the + correctness of the Edison meter, having personally verified its reading + many times by actual comparison of lamp-hours. One day, on making out a + customer's bill, his confidence received a severe shock, for the meter + reading showed a consumption calling for a charge of over $200, whereas he + knew that the light actually used should not cost more than one-quarter of + that amount. He weighed and reweighed the meter plates, and pursued every + line of investigation imaginable, but all in vain. He felt he was up + against it, and that perhaps another kind of a job would suit him better. + Once again he went to the customer's meter to look around, when a small + piece of thick wire on the floor caught his eye. The problem was solved. + He suddenly remembered that after weighing the plates he went and put them + in the customer's meter; but the wire attached to one of the plates was + too long to go in the meter, and he had cut it off. He picked up the piece + of wire, took it to the station, weighed it carefully, and found that it + accounted for about $150 worth of electricity, which was the amount of the + difference." + </p> + <p> + Edison himself is, however, the best repertory of stories when it comes to + the difficulties of that early period, in connection with metering the + current and charging for it. He may be quoted at length as follows: "When + we started the station at Pearl Street, in September, 1882, we were not + very commercial. We put many customers on, but did not make out many + bills. We were more interested in the technical condition of the station + than in the commercial part. We had meters in which there were two bottles + of liquid. To prevent these electrolytes from freezing we had in each + meter a strip of metal. When it got very cold the metal would contract and + close a circuit, and throw a lamp into circuit inside the meter. The heat + from this lamp would prevent the liquid from freezing, so that the meter + could go on doing its duty. The first cold day after starting the station, + people began to come in from their offices, especially down in Front + Street and Water Street, saying the meter was on fire. We received + numerous telephone messages about it. Some had poured water on it, and + others said: 'Send a man right up to put it out.' + </p> + <p> + "After the station had been running several months and was technically a + success, we began to look after the financial part. We started to collect + some bills; but we found that our books were kept badly, and that the + person in charge, who was no business man, had neglected that part of it. + In fact, he did not know anything about the station, anyway. So I got the + directors to permit me to hire a man to run the station. This was Mr. + Chinnock, who was then superintendent of the Metropolitan Telephone + Company of New York. I knew Chinnock to be square and of good business + ability, and induced him to leave his job. I made him a personal + guarantee, that if he would take hold of the station and put it on a + commercial basis, and pay 5 per cent. on $600,000, I would give him + $10,000 out of my own pocket. He took hold, performed the feat, and I paid + him the $10,000. I might remark in this connection that years afterward I + applied to the Edison Electric Light Company asking them if they would not + like to pay me this money, as it was spent when I was very hard up and + made the company a success, and was the foundation of their present + prosperity. They said they 'were sorry'—that is, 'Wall Street sorry'—and + refused to pay it. This shows what a nice, genial, generous lot of people + they have over in Wall Street. + </p> + <p> + "Chinnock had a great deal of trouble getting the customers straightened + out. I remember one man who had a saloon on Nassau Street. He had had his + lights burning for two or three months. It was in June, and Chinnock put + in a bill for $20; July for $20; August about $28; September about $35. Of + course the nights were getting longer. October about $40; November about + $45. Then the man called Chinnock up. He said: 'I want to see you about my + electric-light bill.' Chinnock went up to see him. He said: 'Are you the + manager of this electric-light plant?' Chinnock said: 'I have the honor.' + 'Well,' he said, my bill has gone from $20 up to $28, $35, $45. I want you + to understand, young fellow, that my limit is $60.' + </p> + <p> + "After Chinnock had had all this trouble due to the incompetency of the + previous superintendent, a man came in and said to him: 'Did Mr. Blank + have charge of this station?' 'Yes.' 'Did he know anything about running a + station like this?' Chinnock said: 'Does he KNOW anything about running a + station like this? No, sir. He doesn't even suspect anything.' + </p> + <p> + "One day Chinnock came to me and said: 'I have a new customer.' I said: + 'What is it?' He said: 'I have a fellow who is going to take two hundred + and fifty lights.' I said: 'What for?' 'He has a place down here in a top + loft, and has got two hundred and fifty barrels of "rotgut" whiskey. He + puts a light down in the barrel and lights it up, and it ages the + whiskey.' I met Chinnock several weeks after, and said: 'How is the + whiskey man getting along?' 'It's all right; he is paying his bill. It + fixes the whiskey and takes the shudder right out of it.' Somebody went + and took out a patent on this idea later. + </p> + <p> + "In the second year we put the Stock Exchange on the circuits of the + station, but were very fearful that there would be a combination of heavy + demand and a dark day, and that there would be an overloaded station. We + had an index like a steam-gauge, called an ampere-meter, to indicate the + amount of current going out. I was up at 65 Fifth Avenue one afternoon. A + sudden black cloud came up, and I telephoned to Chinnock and asked him + about the load. He said: 'We are up to the muzzle, and everything is + running all right.' By-and-by it became so thick we could not see across + the street. I telephoned again, and felt something would happen, but + fortunately it did not. I said to Chinnock: 'How is it now?' He replied: + 'Everything is red-hot, and the ampere-meter has made seventeen + revolutions.'" + </p> + <p> + In 1883 no such fittings as "fixture insulators" were known. It was the + common practice to twine the electric wires around the disused + gas-fixtures, fasten them with tape or string, and connect them to + lamp-sockets screwed into attachments under the gas-burners—elaborated + later into what was known as the "combination fixture." As a result it was + no uncommon thing to see bright sparks snapping between the chandelier and + the lighting wires during a sharp thunder-storm. A startling manifestation + of this kind happened at Sunbury, when the vivid display drove nervous + guests of the hotel out into the street, and the providential storm led + Mr. Luther Stieringer to invent the "insulating joint." This separated the + two lighting systems thoroughly, went into immediate service, and is + universally used to-day. + </p> + <p> + Returning to the more specific subject of pioneer plants of importance, + that at Brockton must be considered for a moment, chiefly for the reason + that the city was the first in the world to possess an Edison station + distributing current through an underground three-wire network of + conductors—the essentially modern contemporaneous practice, standard + twenty-five years later. It was proposed to employ pole-line construction + with overhead wires, and a party of Edison engineers drove about the town + in an open barouche with a blue-print of the circuits and streets spread + out on their knees, to determine how much tree-trimming would be + necessary. When they came to some heavily shaded spots, the fine trees + were marked "T" to indicate that the work in getting through them would be + "tough." Where the trees were sparse and the foliage was thin, the same + cheerful band of vandals marked the spots "E" to indicate that there it + would be "easy" to run the wires. In those days public opinion was not so + alive as now to the desirability of preserving shade-trees, and of + enhancing the beauty of a city instead of destroying it. Brockton had a + good deal of pride in its fine trees, and a strong sentiment was very soon + aroused against the mutilation proposed so thoughtlessly. The investors in + the enterprise were ready and anxious to meet the extra cost of putting + the wires underground. Edison's own wishes were altogether for the use of + the methods he had so carefully devised; and hence that bustling home of + shoe manufacture was spared this infliction of more overhead wires. + </p> + <p> + The station equipment at Brockton consisted at first of three dynamos, one + of which was so arranged as to supply both sides of the system during + light loads by a breakdown switch connection. This arrangement interfered + with correct meter registration, as the meters on one side of the system + registered backward during the hours in which the combination was + employed. Hence, after supplying an all-night customer whose lamps were on + one side of the circuits, the company might be found to owe him some thing + substantial in the morning. Soon after the station went into operation + this ingenious plan was changed, and the third dynamo was replaced by two + others. The Edison construction department took entire charge of the + installation of the plant, and the formal opening was attended on October + 1, 1883, by Mr. Edison, who then remained a week in ceaseless study and + consultation over the conditions developed by this initial three-wire + underground plant. Some idea of the confidence inspired by the fame of + Edison at this period is shown by the fact that the first theatre ever + lighted from a central station by incandescent lamps was designed this + year, and opened in 1884 at Brockton with an equipment of three hundred + lamps. The theatre was never piped for gas! It was also from the Brockton + central station that current was first supplied to a fire-engine house—another + display of remarkably early belief in the trustworthiness of the service, + under conditions where continuity of lighting was vital. The building was + equipped in such a manner that the striking of the fire-alarm would light + every lamp in the house automatically and liberate the horses. It was at + this central station that Lieutenant Sprague began his historic work on + the electric motor; and here that another distinguished engineer and + inventor, Mr. H. Ward Leonard, installed the meters and became meter man, + in order that he might study in every intimate detail the improvements and + refinements necessary in that branch of the industry. + </p> + <p> + The authors are indebted for these facts and some other data embodied in + this book to Mr. W. J. Jenks, who as manager of this plant here made his + debut in the Edison ranks. He had been connected with local telephone + interests, but resigned to take active charge of this plant, imbibing + quickly the traditional Edison spirit, working hard all day and sleeping + in the station at night on a cot brought there for that purpose. It was a + time of uninterrupted watchfulness. The difficulty of obtaining engineers + in those days to run the high-speed engines (three hundred and fifty + revolutions per minute) is well illustrated by an amusing incident in the + very early history of the station. A locomotive engineer had been engaged, + as it was supposed he would not be afraid of anything. One evening there + came a sudden flash of fire and a spluttering, sizzling noise. There had + been a short-circuit on the copper mains in the station. The fireman hid + behind the boiler and the engineer jumped out of the window. Mr. Sprague + realized the trouble, quickly threw off the current and stopped the + engine. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Jenks relates another humorous incident in connection with this plant: + "One night I heard a knock at the office door, and on opening it saw two + well-dressed ladies, who asked if they might be shown through. I invited + them in, taking them first to the boiler-room, where I showed them the + coal-pile, explaining that this was used to generate steam in the boiler. + We then went to the dynamo-room, where I pointed out the machines + converting the steam-power into electricity, appearing later in the form + of light in the lamps. After that they were shown the meters by which the + consumption of current was measured. They appeared to be interested, and I + proceeded to enter upon a comparison of coal made into gas or burned under + a boiler to be converted into electricity. The ladies thanked me + effusively and brought their visit to a close. As they were about to go + through the door, one of them turned to me and said: 'We have enjoyed this + visit very much, but there is one question we would like to ask: What is + it that you make here?'" + </p> + <p> + The Brockton station was for a long time a show plant of the Edison + company, and had many distinguished visitors, among them being Prof. Elihu + Thomson, who was present at the opening, and Sir W. H. Preece, of London. + The engineering methods pursued formed the basis of similar installations + in Lawrence, Massachusetts, in November, 1883; in Fall River, + Massachusetts, in December, 1883; and in Newburgh, New York, the following + spring. + </p> + <p> + Another important plant of this period deserves special mention, as it was + the pioneer in the lighting of large spaces by incandescent lamps. This + installation of five thousand lamps on the three-wire system was made to + illuminate the buildings at the Louisville, Kentucky, Exposition in 1883, + and, owing to the careful surveys, calculations, and preparations of H. M. + Byllesby and the late Luther Stieringer, was completed and in operation + within six weeks after the placing of the order. The Jury of Awards, in + presenting four medals to the Edison company, took occasion to pay a high + compliment to the efficiency of the system. It has been thought by many + that the magnificent success of this plant did more to stimulate the + growth of the incandescent lighting business than any other event in the + history of the Edison company. It was literally the beginning of the + electrical illumination of American Expositions, carried later to such + splendid displays as those of the Chicago World's Fair in 1893, Buffalo in + 1901, and St. Louis in 1904. + </p> + <p> + Thus the art was set going in the United States under many difficulties, + but with every sign of coming triumph. Reference has already been made to + the work abroad in Paris and London. The first permanent Edison station in + Europe was that at Milan, Italy, for which the order was given as early as + May, 1882, by an enterprising syndicate. Less than a year later, March 3, + 1883, the installation was ready and was put in operation, the Theatre + Santa Radegonda having been pulled down and a new central-station building + erected in its place—probably the first edifice constructed in + Europe for the specific purpose of incandescent lighting. Here "Jumbos" + were installed from time to time, until at last there were no fewer than + ten of them; and current was furnished to customers with a total of nearly + ten thousand lamps connected to the mains. This pioneer system was + operated continuously until February 9, 1900, or for a period of about + seventeen years, when the sturdy old machines, still in excellent + condition, were put out of service, so that a larger plant could be + installed to meet the demand. This new plant takes high-tension polyphase + current from a water-power thirty or forty miles away at Paderno, on the + river Adda, flowing from the Apennines; but delivers low-tension direct + current for distribution to the regular Edison three-wire system + throughout Milan. + </p> + <p> + About the same time that southern Europe was thus opened up to the new + system, South America came into line, and the first Edison central station + there was installed at Santiago, Chile, in the summer of 1883, under the + supervision of Mr. W. N. Stewart. This was the result of the success + obtained with small isolated plants, leading to the formation of an Edison + company. It can readily be conceived that at such an extreme distance from + the source of supply of apparatus the plant was subject to many peculiar + difficulties from the outset, of which Mr. Stewart speaks as follows: "I + made an exhibition of the 'Jumbo' in the theatre at Santiago, and on the + first evening, when it was filled with the aristocracy of the city, I + discovered to my horror that the binding wire around the armature was + slowly stripping off and going to pieces. We had no means of boring out + the field magnets, and we cut grooves in them. I think the machine is + still running (1907). The station went into operation soon after with an + equipment of eight Edison 'K' dynamos with certain conditions inimical to + efficiency, but which have not hindered the splendid expansion of the + local system. With those eight dynamos we had four belts between each + engine and the dynamo. The steam pressure was limited to seventy-five + pounds per square inch. We had two-wire underground feeders, sent without + any plans or specifications for their installation. The station had + neither voltmeter nor ammeter. The current pressure was regulated by a + galvanometer. We were using coal costing $12 a ton, and were paid for our + light in currency worth fifty cents on the dollar. The only thing I can be + proud of in connection with the plant is the fact that I did not design + it, that once in a while we made out to pay its operating expenses, and + that occasionally we could run it for three months without a total + breakdown." + </p> + <p> + It was not until 1885 that the first Edison station in Germany was + established; but the art was still very young, and the plant represented + pioneer lighting practice in the Empire. The station at Berlin comprised + five boilers, and six vertical steam-engines driving by belts twelve + Edison dynamos, each of about fifty-five horse-power capacity. A model of + this station is preserved in the Deutschen Museum at Munich. In the + bulletin of the Berlin Electricity Works for May, 1908, it is said with + regard to the events that led up to the creation of the system, as noted + already at the Rathenau celebration: "The year 1881 was a mile-stone in + the history of the Allgemeine Elektricitaets Gesellschaft. The + International Electrical Exposition at Paris was intended to place before + the eyes of the civilized world the achievements of the century. Among the + exhibits of that Exposition was the Edison system of incandescent + lighting. IT BECAME THE BASIS OF MODERN HEAVY CURRENT TECHNICS." The last + phrase is italicized as being a happy and authoritative description, as + well as a tribute. + </p> + <p> + This chapter would not be complete if it failed to include some reference + to a few of the earlier isolated plants of a historic character. Note has + already been made of the first Edison plants afloat on the Jeannette and + Columbia, and the first commercial plant in the New York lithographic + establishment. The first mill plant was placed in the woollen factory of + James Harrison at Newburgh, New York, about September 15, 1881. A year + later, Mr. Harrison wrote with some pride: "I believe my mill was the + first lighted with your electric light, and therefore may be called No. 1. + Besides being job No. 1 it is a No. 1 job, and a No. 1 light, being better + and cheaper than gas and absolutely safe as to fire." The first + steam-yacht lighted by incandescent lamps was James Gordon Bennett's + Namouna, equipped early in 1882 with a plant for one hundred and twenty + lamps of eight candlepower, which remained in use there many years + afterward. + </p> + <p> + The first Edison plant in a hotel was started in October, 1881, at the + Blue Mountain House in the Adirondacks, and consisted of two "Z" dynamos + with a complement of eight and sixteen candle lamps. The hotel is situated + at an elevation of thirty-five hundred feet above the sea, and was at that + time forty miles from the railroad. The machinery was taken up in pieces + on the backs of mules from the foot of the mountain. The boilers were + fired by wood, as the economical transportation of coal was a physical + impossibility. For a six-hour run of the plant one-quarter of a cord of + wood was required, at a cost of twenty-five cents per cord. + </p> + <p> + The first theatre in the United States to be lighted by an Edison isolated + plant was the Bijou Theatre, Boston. The installation of boilers, engines, + dynamos, wiring, switches, fixtures, three stage regulators, and six + hundred and fifty lamps, was completed in eleven days after receipt of the + order, and the plant was successfully operated at the opening of the + theatre, on December 12, 1882. + </p> + <p> + The first plant to be placed on a United States steamship was the one + consisting of an Edison "Z" dynamo and one hundred and twenty eight-candle + lamps installed on the Fish Commission's steamer Albatross in 1883. The + most interesting feature of this installation was the employment of + special deep-sea lamps, supplied with current through a cable nine hundred + and forty feet in length, for the purpose of alluring fish. By means of + the brilliancy of the lamps marine animals in the lower depths were + attracted and then easily ensnared. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0018" id="link2HCH0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVIII + </h2> + <h3> + THE ELECTRIC RAILWAY + </h3> + <p> + EDISON had no sooner designed his dynamo in 1879 than he adopted the same + form of machine for use as a motor. The two are shown in the Scientific + American of October 18, 1879, and are alike, except that the dynamo is + vertical and the motor lies in a horizontal position, the article + remarking: "Its construction differs but slightly from the electric + generator." This was but an evidence of his early appreciation of the + importance of electricity as a motive power; but it will probably surprise + many people to know that he was the inventor of an electric motor before + he perfected his incandescent lamp. His interest in the subject went back + to his connection with General Lefferts in the days of the evolution of + the stock ticker. While Edison was carrying on his shop at Newark, New + Jersey, there was considerable excitement in electrical circles over the + Payne motor, in regard to the alleged performance of which Governor + Cornell of New York and other wealthy capitalists were quite enthusiastic. + Payne had a shop in Newark, and in one small room was the motor, weighing + perhaps six hundred pounds. It was of circular form, incased in iron, with + the ends of several small magnets sticking through the floor. A pulley and + belt, connected to a circular saw larger than the motor, permitted large + logs of oak timber to be sawed with ease with the use of two small cells + of battery. Edison's friend, General Lefferts, had become excited and was + determined to invest a large sum of money in the motor company, but + knowing Edison's intimate familiarity with all electrical subjects he was + wise enough to ask his young expert to go and see the motor with him. At + an appointed hour Edison went to the office of the motor company and found + there the venerable Professor Morse, Governor Cornell, General Lefferts, + and many others who had been invited to witness a performance of the + motor. They all proceeded to the room where the motor was at work. Payne + put a wire in the binding-post of the battery, the motor started, and an + assistant began sawing a heavy oak log. It worked beautifully, and so + great was the power developed, apparently, from the small battery, that + Morse exclaimed: "I am thankful that I have lived to see this day." But + Edison kept a close watch on the motor. The results were so foreign to his + experience that he knew there was a trick in it. He soon discovered it. + While holding his hand on the frame of the motor he noticed a tremble + coincident with the exhaust of an engine across the alleyway, and he then + knew that the power came from the engine by a belt under the floor, + shifted on and off by a magnet, the other magnets being a blind. He + whispered to the General to put his hand on the frame of the motor, watch + the exhaust, and note the coincident tremor. The General did so, and in + about fifteen seconds he said: "Well, Edison, I must go now. This thing is + a fraud." And thus he saved his money, although others not so shrewdly + advised were easily persuaded to invest by such a demonstration. + </p> + <p> + A few years later, in 1878, Edison went to Wyoming with a group of + astronomers, to test his tasimeter during an eclipse of the sun, and saw + the land white to harvest. He noticed the long hauls to market or elevator + that the farmers had to make with their loads of grain at great expense, + and conceived the idea that as ordinary steam-railroad service was too + costly, light electric railways might be constructed that could be + operated automatically over simple tracks, the propelling motors being + controlled at various points. Cheap to build and cheap to maintain, such + roads would be a great boon to the newer farming regions of the West, + where the highways were still of the crudest character, and where + transportation was the gravest difficulty with which the settlers had to + contend. The plan seems to have haunted him, and he had no sooner worked + out a generator and motor that owing to their low internal resistance + could be operated efficiently, than he turned his hand to the practical + trial of such a railroad, applicable to both the haulage of freight and + the transportation of passengers. Early in 1880, when the tremendous rush + of work involved in the invention of the incandescent lamp intermitted a + little, he began the construction of a stretch of track close to the Menlo + Park laboratory, and at the same time built an electric locomotive to + operate over it. + </p> + <p> + This is a fitting stage at which to review briefly what had been done in + electric traction up to that date. There was absolutely no art, but there + had been a number of sporadic and very interesting experiments made. The + honor of the first attempt of any kind appears to rest with this country + and with Thomas Davenport, a self-trained blacksmith, of Brandon, Vermont, + who made a small model of a circular electric railway and cars in 1834, + and exhibited it the following year in Springfield, Boston, and other + cities. Of course he depended upon batteries for current, but the + fundamental idea was embodied of using the track for the circuit, one rail + being positive and the other negative, and the motor being placed across + or between them in multiple arc to receive the current. Such are also + practically the methods of to-day. The little model was in good + preservation up to the year 1900, when, being shipped to the Paris + Exposition, it was lost, the steamer that carried it foundering in + mid-ocean. The very broad patent taken out by this simple mechanic, so far + ahead of his times, was the first one issued in America for an electric + motor. Davenport was also the first man to apply electric power to the + printing-press, in 1840. In his traction work he had a close second in + Robert Davidson, of Aberdeen, Scotland, who in 1839 operated both a lathe + and a small locomotive with the motor he had invented. His was the credit + of first actually carrying passengers—two at a time, over a rough + plank road—while it is said that his was the first motor to be tried + on real tracks, those of the Edinburgh-Glasgow road, making a speed of + four miles an hour. + </p> + <p> + The curse of this work and of all that succeeded it for a score of years + was the necessity of depending upon chemical batteries for current, the + machine usually being self-contained and hauling the batteries along with + itself, as in the case of the famous Page experiments in April, 1851, when + a speed of nineteen miles an hour was attained on the line of the + Washington & Baltimore road. To this unfruitful period belonged, + however, the crude idea of taking the current from a stationary source of + power by means of an overhead contact, which has found its practical + evolution in the modern ubiquitous trolley; although the patent for this, + based on his caveat of 1879, was granted several years later than that to + Stephen D. Field, for the combination of an electric motor operated by + means of a current from a stationary dynamo or source of electricity + conducted through the rails. As a matter of fact, in 1856 and again in + 1875, George F. Green, a jobbing machinist, of Kalamazoo, Michigan, built + small cars and tracks to which current was fed from a distant battery, + enough energy being utilized to haul one hundred pounds of freight or one + passenger up and down a "road" two hundred feet long. All the work prior + to the development of the dynamo as a source of current was sporadic and + spasmodic, and cannot be said to have left any trace on the art, though it + offered many suggestions as to operative methods. + </p> + <p> + The close of the same decade of the nineteenth century that saw the + electric light brought to perfection, saw also the realization in practice + of all the hopes of fifty years as to electric traction. Both utilizations + depended upon the supply of current now cheaply obtainable from the + dynamo. These arts were indeed twins, feeding at inexhaustible breasts. In + 1879, at the Berlin Exhibition, the distinguished firm of Siemens, to + whose ingenuity and enterprise electrical development owes so much, + installed a road about one-third of a mile in length, over which the + locomotive hauled a train of three small cars at a speed of about eight + miles an hour, carrying some twenty persons every trip. Current was fed + from a dynamo to the motor through a central third rail, the two outer + rails being joined together as the negative or return circuit. Primitive + but essentially successful, this little road made a profound impression on + the minds of many inventors and engineers, and marked the real beginning + of the great new era, which has already seen electricity applied to the + operation of main lines of trunk railways. But it is not to be supposed + that on the part of the public there was any great amount of faith then + discernible; and for some years the pioneers had great difficulty, + especially in this country, in raising money for their early modest + experiments. Of the general conditions at this moment Frank J. Sprague + says in an article in the Century Magazine of July, 1905, on the creation + of the new art: "Edison was perhaps nearer the verge of great + electric-railway possibilities than any other American. In the face of + much adverse criticism he had developed the essentials of the + low-internal-resistance dynamo with high-resistance field, and many of the + essential features of multiple-arc distribution, and in 1880 he built a + small road at his laboratory at Menlo Park." + </p> + <p> + On May 13th of the year named this interesting road went into operation as + the result of hard and hurried work of preparation during the spring + months. The first track was about a third of a mile in length, starting + from the shops, following a country road, passing around a hill at the + rear and curving home, in the general form of the letter "U." The rails + were very light. Charles T. Hughes, who went with Edison in 1879, and was + in charge of much of the work, states that they were "second" street-car + rails, insulated with tar canvas paper and things of that sort—"asphalt." + They were spiked down on ordinary sleepers laid upon the natural grade, + and the gauge was about three feet six inches. At one point the grade + dropped some sixty feet in a distance of three hundred, and the curves + were of recklessly short radius. The dynamos supplying current to the road + were originally two of the standard size "Z" machines then being made at + the laboratory, popularly known throughout the Edison ranks as + "Longwaisted Mary Anns," and the circuits from these were carried out to + the rails by underground conductors. They were not large—about + twelve horse-power each—generating seventy-five amperes of current + at one hundred and ten volts, so that not quite twenty-five horse-power of + electrical energy was available for propulsion. + </p> + <p> + The locomotive built while the roadbed was getting ready was a + four-wheeled iron truck, an ordinary flat dump-car about six feet long and + four feet wide, upon which was mounted a "Z" dynamo used as a motor, so + that it had a capacity of about twelve horsepower. This machine was laid + on its side, with the armature end coming out at the front of the + locomotive, and the motive power was applied to the driving-axle by a + cumbersome series of friction pulleys. Each wheel of the locomotive had a + metal rim and a centre web of wood or papier-mache, and the current picked + up by one set of wheels was carried through contact brushes and a brass + hub to the motor; the circuit back to the track, or other rail, being + closed through the other wheels in a similar manner. The motor had its + field-magnet circuit in permanent connection as a shunt across the rails, + protected by a crude bare copper-wire safety-catch. A switch in the + armature circuit enabled the motorman to reverse the direction of travel + by reversing the current flow through the armature coils. + </p> + <p> + Things went fairly well for a time on that memorable Thursday afternoon, + when all the laboratory force made high holiday and scrambled for foothold + on the locomotive for a trip; but the friction gearing was not equal to + the sudden strain put upon it during one run and went to pieces. Some + years later, also, Daft again tried friction gear in his historical + experiments on the Manhattan Elevated road, but the results were attended + with no greater success. The next resort of Edison was to belts, the + armature shafting belted to a countershaft on the locomotive frame, and + the countershaft belted to a pulley on the car-axle. The lever which threw + the former friction gear into adjustment was made to operate an idler + pulley for tightening the axle-belt. When the motor was started, the + armature was brought up to full revolution and then the belt was tightened + on the car-axle, compelling motion of the locomotive. But the belts were + liable to slip a great deal in the process, and the chafing of the belts + charred them badly. If that did not happen, and if the belt was made taut + suddenly, the armature burned out—which it did with disconcerting + frequency. The next step was to use a number of resistance-boxes in series + with the armature, so that the locomotive could start with those in + circuit, and then the motorman could bring it up to speed gradually by + cutting one box out after the other. To stop the locomotive, the armature + circuit was opened by the main switch, stopping the flow of current, and + then brakes were applied by long levers. Matters generally and the motors + in particular went much better, even if the locomotive was so freely + festooned with resistance-boxes all of perceptible weight and occupying + much of the limited space. These details show forcibly and typically the + painful steps of advance that every inventor in this new field had to make + in the effort to reach not alone commercial practicability, but mechanical + feasibility. It was all empirical enough; but that was the only way open + even to the highest talent. + </p> + <p> + Smugglers landing laces and silks have been known to wind them around + their bodies, as being less ostentatious than carrying them in a trunk. + Edison thought his resistance-boxes an equally superfluous display, and + therefore ingeniously wound some copper resistance wire around one of the + legs of the motor field magnet, where it was out of the way, served as a + useful extra field coil in starting up the motor, and dismissed most of + the boxes back to the laboratory—a few being retained under the seat + for chance emergencies. Like the boxes, this coil was in series with the + armature, and subject to plugging in and out at will by the motorman. Thus + equipped, the locomotive was found quite satisfactory, and long did yeoman + service. It was given three cars to pull, one an open awning-car with two + park benches placed back to back; one a flat freight-car, and one box-car + dubbed the "Pullman," with which Edison illustrated a system of electric + braking. Although work had been begun so early in the year, and the road + had been operating since May, it was not until July that Edison executed + any application for patents on his "electromagnetic railway engine," or + his ingenious braking system. Every inventor knows how largely his fate + lies in the hands of a competent and alert patent attorney, in both the + preparation and the prosecution of his case; and Mr. Sprague is justified + in observing in his Century article: "The paucity of controlling claims + obtained in these early patents is remarkable." It is notorious that + Edison did not then enjoy the skilful aid in safeguarding his ideas that + he commanded later. + </p> + <p> + The daily newspapers and technical journals lost no time in bringing the + road to public attention, and the New York Herald of June 25th was swift + to suggest that here was the locomotive that would be "most pleasing to + the average New Yorker, whose head has ached with noise, whose eyes have + been filled with dust, or whose clothes have been ruined with oil." A + couple of days later, the Daily Graphic illustrated and described the road + and published a sketch of a one-hundred-horse-power electric locomotive + for the use of the Pennsylvania Railroad between Perth Amboy and Rahway. + Visitors, of course, were numerous, including many curious, sceptical + railroad managers, few if any of whom except Villard could see the + slightest use for the new motive power. There is, perhaps, some excuse for + such indifference. No men in the world have more new inventions brought to + them than railroad managers, and this was the rankest kind of novelty. It + was not, indeed, until a year later, in May, 1881, that the first regular + road collecting fares was put in operation—a little stretch of one + and a half miles from Berlin to Lichterfelde, with one miniature motorcar. + Edison was in reality doing some heavy electric-railway engineering, his + apparatus full of ideas, suggestions, prophecies; but to the operators of + long trunk lines it must have seemed utterly insignificant and "excellent + fooling." + </p> + <p> + Speaking of this situation, Mr. Edison says: "One day Frank Thomson, the + President of the Pennsylvania Railroad, came out to see the electric light + and the electric railway in operation. The latter was then about a mile + long. He rode on it. At that time I was getting out plans to make an + electric locomotive of three hundred horse-power with six-foot drivers, + with the idea of showing people that they could dispense with their steam + locomotives. Mr. Thomson made the objection that it was impracticable, and + that it would be impossible to supplant steam. His great experience and + standing threw a wet blanket on my hopes. But I thought he might perhaps + be mistaken, as there had been many such instances on record. I continued + to work on the plans, and about three years later I started to build the + locomotive at the works at Goerck Street, and had it about finished when I + was switched off on some other work. One of the reasons why I felt the + electric railway to be eminently practical was that Henry Villard, the + President of the Northern Pacific, said that one of the greatest things + that could be done would be to build right-angle feeders into the + wheat-fields of Dakota and bring in the wheat to the main lines, as the + farmers then had to draw it from forty to eighty miles. There was a point + where it would not pay to raise it at all; and large areas of the country + were thus of no value. I conceived the idea of building a very light + railroad of narrow gauge, and had got all the data as to the winds on the + plains, and found that it would be possible with very large windmills to + supply enough power to drive those wheat trains." + </p> + <p> + Among others who visited the little road at this juncture were persons + interested in the Manhattan Elevated system of New York, on which + experiments were repeatedly tried later, but which was not destined to + adopt a method so obviously well suited to all the conditions until after + many successful demonstrations had been made on elevated roads elsewhere. + It must be admitted that Mr. Edison was not very profoundly impressed with + the desire entertained in that quarter to utilize any improvement, for he + remarks: "When the Elevated Railroad in New York, up Sixth Avenue, was + started there was a great clamor about the noise, and injunctions were + threatened. The management engaged me to make a report on the cause of the + noise. I constructed an instrument that would record the sound, and set + out to make a preliminary report, but I found that they never intended to + do anything but let the people complain." + </p> + <p> + It was upon the co-operation of Villard that Edison fell back, and an + agreement was entered into between them on September 14, 1881, which + provided that the latter would "build two and a half miles of electric + railway at Menlo Park, equipped with three cars, two locomotives, one for + freight, and one for passengers, capacity of latter sixty miles an hour. + Capacity freight engine, ten tons net freight; cost of handling a ton of + freight per mile per horse-power to be less than ordinary locomotive.... + If experiments are successful, Villard to pay actual outlay in + experiments, and to treat with the Light Company for the installation of + at least fifty miles of electric railroad in the wheat regions." Mr. + Edison is authority for the statement that Mr. Villard advanced between + $35,000 and $40,000, and that the work done was very satisfactory; but it + did not end at that time in any practical results, as the Northern Pacific + went into the hands of a receiver, and Mr. Villard's ability to help was + hopelessly crippled. The directors of the Edison Electric Light Company + could not be induced to have anything to do with the electric railway, and + Mr. Insull states that the money advanced was treated by Mr. Edison as a + personal loan and repaid to Mr. Villard, for whom he had a high admiration + and a strong feeling of attachment. Mr. Insull says: "Among the financial + men whose close personal friendship Edison enjoyed, I would mention Henry + Villard, who, I think, had a higher appreciation of the possibilities of + the Edison system than probably any other man of his time in Wall Street. + He dropped out of the business at the time of the consolidation of the + Thomson-Houston Company with the Edison General Electric Company; but from + the earliest days of the business, when it was in its experimental period, + when the Edison light and power system was but an idea, down to the day of + his death, Henry Villard continued a strong supporter not only with his + influence, but with his money. He was the first capitalist to back + individually Edison's experiments in electric railways." + </p> + <p> + In speaking of his relationships with Mr. Villard at this time, Edison + says: "When Villard was all broken down, and in a stupor caused by his + disasters in connection with the Northern Pacific, Mrs. Villard sent for + me to come and cheer him up. It was very difficult to rouse him from his + despair and apathy, but I talked about the electric light to him, and its + development, and told him that it would help him win it all back and put + him in his former position. Villard made his great rally; he made money + out of the electric light; and he got back control of the Northern + Pacific. Under no circumstances can a hustler be kept down. If he is only + square, he is bound to get back on his feet. Villard has often been blamed + and severely criticised, but he was not the only one to blame. His + engineers had spent $20,000,000 too much in building the road, and it was + not his fault if he found himself short of money, and at that time unable + to raise any more." + </p> + <p> + Villard maintained his intelligent interest in electric-railway + development, with regard to which Edison remarks: "At one time Mr. Villard + got the idea that he would run the mountain division of the Northern + Pacific Railroad by electricity. He asked me if it could be done. I said: + 'Certainly, it is too easy for me to undertake; let some one else do it.' + He said: 'I want you to tackle the problem,' and he insisted on it. So I + got up a scheme of a third rail and shoe and erected it in my yard here in + Orange. When I got it all ready, he had all his division engineers come on + to New York, and they came over here. I showed them my plans, and the + unanimous decision of the engineers was that it was absolutely and utterly + impracticable. That system is on the New York Central now, and was also + used on the New Haven road in its first work with electricity." + </p> + <p> + At this point it may be well to cite some other statements of Edison as to + kindred work, with which he has not usually been associated in the public + mind. "In the same manner I had worked out for the Manhattan Elevated + Railroad a system of electric trains, and had the control of each car + centred at one place—multiple control. This was afterward worked out + and made practical by Frank Sprague. I got up a slot contact for street + railways, and have a patent on it—a sliding contact in a slot. + Edward Lauterbach was connected with the Third Avenue Railroad in New York—as + counsel—and I told him he was making a horrible mistake putting in + the cable. I told him to let the cable stand still and send electricity + through it, and he would not have to move hundreds of tons of metal all + the time. He would rue the day when he put the cable in." It cannot be + denied that the prophecy was fulfilled, for the cable was the beginning of + the frightful financial collapse of the system, and was torn out in a few + years to make way for the triumphant "trolley in the slot." + </p> + <p> + Incidental glimpses of this work are both amusing and interesting. Hughes, + who was working on the experimental road with Mr. Edison, tells the + following story: "Villard sent J. C. Henderson, one of his mechanical + engineers, to see the road when it was in operation, and we went down one + day—Edison, Henderson, and I—and went on the locomotive. + Edison ran it, and just after we started there was a trestle sixty feet + long and seven feet deep, and Edison put on all the power. When we went + over it we must have been going forty miles an hour, and I could see the + perspiration come out on Henderson. After we got over the trestle and + started on down the track, Henderson said: 'When we go back I will walk. + If there is any more of that kind of running I won't be in it myself.'" To + the correspondence of Grosvenor P. Lowrey we are indebted for a similar + reminiscence, under date of June 5, 1880: "Goddard and I have spent a part + of the day at Menlo, and all is glorious. I have ridden at forty miles an + hour on Mr. Edison's electric railway—and we ran off the track. I + protested at the rate of speed over the sharp curves, designed to show the + power of the engine, but Edison said they had done it often. Finally, when + the last trip was to be taken, I said I did not like it, but would go + along. The train jumped the track on a short curve, throwing Kruesi, who + was driving the engine, with his face down in the dirt, and another man in + a comical somersault through some underbrush. Edison was off in a minute, + jumping and laughing, and declaring it a most beautiful accident. Kruesi + got up, his face bleeding and a good deal shaken; and I shall never forget + the expression of voice and face in which he said, with some foreign + accent: 'Oh! yes, pairfeckly safe.' Fortunately no other hurts were + suffered, and in a few minutes we had the train on the track and running + again." + </p> + <p> + All this rough-and-ready dealing with grades and curves was not mere + horse-play, but had a serious purpose underlying it, every trip having its + record as to some feature of defect or improvement. One particular set of + experiments relating to such work was made on behalf of visitors from + South America, and were doubtless the first tests of the kind made for + that continent, where now many fine electric street and interurban railway + systems are in operation. Mr. Edison himself supplies the following data: + "During the electric-railway experiments at Menlo Park, we had a short + spur of track up one of the steep gullies. The experiment came about in + this way. Bogota, the capital of Columbia, is reached on muleback—or + was—from Honda on the headwaters of the Magdalena River. There were + parties who wanted to know if transportation over the mule route could not + be done by electricity. They said the grades were excessive, and it would + cost too much to do it with steam locomotives, even if they could climb + the grades. I said: 'Well, it can't be much more than 45 per cent.; we + will try that first. If it will do that it will do anything else.' I + started at 45 per cent. I got up an electric locomotive with a grip on the + rail by which it went up the 45 per cent. grade. Then they said the curves + were very short. I put the curves in. We started the locomotive with + nobody on it, and got up to twenty miles an hour, taking those curves of + very short radius; but it was weeks before we could prevent it from + running off. We had to bank the tracks up to an angle of thirty degrees + before we could turn the curve and stay on. These Spanish parties were + perfectly satisfied we could put in an electric railway from Honda to + Bogota successfully, and then they disappeared. I have never seen them + since. As usual, I paid for the experiment." + </p> + <p> + In the spring of 1883 the Electric Railway Company of America was + incorporated in the State of New York with a capital of $2,000,000 to + develop the patents and inventions of Edison and Stephen D. Field, to the + latter of whom the practical work of active development was confided, and + in June of the same year an exhibit was made at the Chicago Railway + Exposition, which attracted attention throughout the country, and did much + to stimulate the growing interest in electric-railway work. With the aid + of Messrs. F. B. Rae, C. L. Healy, and C. O. Mailloux a track and + locomotive were constructed for the company by Mr. Field and put in + service in the gallery of the main exhibition building. The track curved + sharply at either end on a radius of fifty-six feet, and the length was + about one-third of a mile. The locomotive named "The Judge," after Justice + Field, an uncle of Stephen D. Field, took current from a central rail + between the two outer rails, that were the return circuit, the contact + being a rubbing wire brush on each side of the "third rail," answering the + same purpose as the contact shoe of later date. The locomotive weighed + three tons, was twelve feet long, five feet wide, and made a speed of nine + miles an hour with a trailer car for passengers. Starting on June 5th, + when the exhibition closed on June 23d this tiny but typical road had + operated for over 118 hours, had made over 446 miles, and had carried + 26,805 passengers. After the exposition closed the outfit was taken during + the same year to the exposition at Louisville, Kentucky, where it was also + successful, carrying a large number of passengers. It deserves note that + at Chicago regular railway tickets were issued to paying passengers, the + first ever employed on American electric railways. + </p> + <p> + With this modest but brilliant demonstration, to which the illustrious + names of Edison and Field were attached, began the outburst of excitement + over electric railways, very much like the eras of speculation and + exploitation that attended only a few years earlier the introduction of + the telephone and the electric light, but with such significant results + that the capitalization of electric roads in America is now over + $4,000,000,000, or twice as much as that of the other two arts combined. + There was a tremendous rush into the electric-railway field after 1883, + and an outburst of inventive activity that has rarely, if ever, been + equalled. It is remarkable that, except Siemens, no European achieved fame + in this early work, while from America the ideas and appliances of Edison, + Van Depoele, Sprague, Field, Daft, and Short have been carried and adopted + all over the world. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Edison was consulting electrician for the Electric Railway Company, + but neither a director nor an executive officer. Just what the trouble was + as to the internal management of the corporation it is hard to determine a + quarter of a century later; but it was equipped with all essential + elements to dominate an art in which after its first efforts it remained + practically supine and useless, while other interests forged ahead and + reaped both the profit and the glory. Dissensions arose between the + representatives of the Field and Edison interests, and in April, 1890, the + Railway Company assigned its rights to the Edison patents to the Edison + General Electric Company, recently formed by the consolidation of all the + branches of the Edison light, power, and manufacturing industry under one + management. The only patent rights remaining to the Railway Company were + those under three Field patents, one of which, with controlling claims, + was put in suit June, 1890, against the Jamaica & Brooklyn Road + Company, a customer of the Edison General Electric Company. This was, to + say the least, a curious and anomalous situation. Voluminous records were + made by both parties to the suit, and in the spring of 1894 the case was + argued before the late Judge Townsend, who wrote a long opinion dismissing + the bill of complaint. [15] The student will find therein a very complete + and careful study of the early electric-railway art. After this decision + was rendered, the Electric Railway Company remained for several years in a + moribund condition, and on the last day of 1896 its property was placed in + the hands of a receiver. In February of 1897 the receiver sold the three + Field patents to their original owner, and he in turn sold them to the + Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company. The Railway Company then + went into voluntary dissolution, a sad example of failure to seize the + opportunity at the psychological moment, and on the part of the inventor + to secure any adequate return for years of effort and struggle in founding + one of the great arts. Neither of these men was squelched by such a + calamitous result, but if there were not something of bitterness in their + feelings as they survey what has come of their work, they would not be + human. + </p> + <p> + As a matter of fact, Edison retained a very lively interest in + electric-railway progress long after the pregnant days at Menlo Park, one + of the best evidences of which is an article in the New York Electrical + Engineer of November 18, 1891, which describes some important and original + experiments in the direction of adapting electrical conditions to the + larger cities. The overhead trolley had by that time begun its victorious + career, but there was intense hostility displayed toward it in many places + because of the inevitable increase in the number of overhead wires, which, + carrying, as they did, a current of high voltage and large quantity, were + regarded as a menace to life and property. Edison has always manifested a + strong objection to overhead wires in cities, and urged placing them + underground; and the outcry against the overhead "deadly" trolley met with + his instant sympathy. His study of the problem brought him to the + development of the modern "substation," although the twists that later + evolutions have given the idea have left it scarcely recognizable. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 15: See 61 Fed. Rep. 655.] +</pre> + <p> + Mr. Villard, as President of the Edison General Electric Company, + requested Mr. Edison, as electrician of the company, to devise a + street-railway system which should be applicable to the largest cities + where the use of the trolley would not be permitted, where the slot + conduit system would not be used, and where, in general, the details of + construction should be reduced to the simplest form. The limits imposed + practically were such as to require that the system should not cost more + than a cable road to install. Edison reverted to his ingenious lighting + plan of years earlier, and thus settled on a method by which current + should be conveyed from the power plant at high potential to + motor-generators placed below the ground in close proximity to the rails. + These substations would convert the current received at a pressure of, + say, one thousand volts to one of twenty volts available between rail and + rail, with a corresponding increase in the volume of the current. With the + utilization of heavy currents at low voltage it became necessary, of + course, to devise apparatus which should be able to pick up with absolute + certainty one thousand amperes of current at this pressure through two + inches of mud, if necessary. With his wonted activity and fertility Edison + set about devising such a contact, and experimented with metal wheels + under all conditions of speed and track conditions. It was several months + before he could convey one hundred amperes by means of such contacts, but + he worked out at last a satisfactory device which was equal to the task. + The next point was to secure a joint between contiguous rails such as + would permit of the passage of several thousand amperes without + introducing undue resistance. This was also accomplished. + </p> + <p> + Objections were naturally made to rails out in the open on the street + surface carrying large currents at a potential of twenty volts. It was + said that vehicles with iron wheels passing over the tracks and spanning + the two rails would short-circuit the current, "chew" themselves up, and + destroy the dynamos generating the current by choking all that tremendous + amount of energy back into them. Edison tackled the objection squarely and + short-circuited his track with such a vehicle, but succeeded in getting + only about two hundred amperes through the wheels, the low voltage and the + insulating properties of the axle-grease being sufficient to account for + such a result. An iron bar was also used, polished, and with a man + standing on it to insure solid contact; but only one thousand amperes + passed through it—i.e., the amount required by a single car, and, of + course, much less than the capacity of the generators able to operate a + system of several hundred cars. + </p> + <p> + Further interesting experiments showed that the expected large leakage of + current from the rails in wet weather did not materialize. Edison found + that under the worst conditions with a wet and salted track, at a + potential difference of twenty volts between the two rails, the extreme + loss was only two and one-half horse-power. In this respect the phenomenon + followed the same rule as that to which telegraph wires are subject—namely, + that the loss of insulation is greater in damp, murky weather when the + insulators are covered with wet dust than during heavy rains when the + insulators are thoroughly washed by the action of the water. In like + manner a heavy rain-storm cleaned the tracks from the accumulations due + chiefly to the droppings of the horses, which otherwise served largely to + increase the conductivity. Of course, in dry weather the loss of current + was practically nothing, and, under ordinary conditions, Edison held, his + system was in respect to leakage and the problems of electrolytic attack + of the current on adjacent pipes, etc., as fully insulated as the standard + trolley network of the day. The cost of his system Mr. Edison placed at + from $30,000 to $100,000 per mile of double track, in accordance with + local conditions, and in this respect comparing very favorably with the + cable systems then so much in favor for heavy traffic. All the arguments + that could be urged in support of this ingenious system are tenable and + logical at the present moment; but the trolley had its way except on a few + lines where the conduit-and-shoe method was adopted; and in the + intervening years the volume of traffic created and handled by electricity + in centres of dense population has brought into existence the modern + subway. + </p> + <p> + But down to the moment of the preparation of this biography, Edison has + retained an active interest in transportation problems, and his latest + work has been that of reviving the use of the storage battery for + street-car purposes. At one time there were a number of storage-battery + lines and cars in operation in such cities as Washington, New York, + Chicago, and Boston; but the costs of operation and maintenance were found + to be inordinately high as compared with those of the direct-supply + methods, and the battery cars all disappeared. The need for them under + many conditions remained, as, for example, in places in Greater New York + where the overhead trolley wires are forbidden as objectionable, and where + the ground is too wet or too often submerged to permit of the conduit with + the slot. Some of the roads in Greater New York have been anxious to + secure such cars, and, as usual, the most resourceful electrical engineer + and inventor of his times has made the effort. A special experimental + track has been laid at the Orange laboratory, and a car equipped with the + Edison storage battery and other devices has been put under severe and + extended trial there and in New York. + </p> + <p> + Menlo Park, in ruin and decay, affords no traces of the early Edison + electric-railway work, but the crude little locomotive built by Charles T. + Hughes was rescued from destruction, and has become the property of the + Pratt Institute, of Brooklyn, to whose thousands of technical students it + is a constant example and incentive. It was loaned in 1904 to the + Association of Edison Illuminating Companies, and by it exhibited as part + of the historical Edison collection at the St. Louis Exposition. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0019" id="link2HCH0019"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIX + </h2> + <h3> + MAGNETIC ORE MILLING WORK + </h3> + <p> + DURING the Hudson-Fulton celebration of October, 1909, Burgomaster Van + Leeuwen, of Amsterdam, member of the delegation sent officially from + Holland to escort the Half Moon and participate in the functions of the + anniversary, paid a visit to the Edison laboratory at Orange to see the + inventor, who may be regarded as pre-eminent among those of Dutch descent + in this country. Found, as usual, hard at work—this time on his + cement house, of which he showed the iron molds—Edison took occasion + to remark that if he had achieved anything worth while, it was due to the + obstinacy and pertinacity he had inherited from his forefathers. To which + it may be added that not less equally have the nature of inheritance and + the quality of atavism been exhibited in his extraordinary predilection + for the miller's art. While those Batavian ancestors on the low shores of + the Zuyder Zee devoted their energies to grinding grain, he has been not + less assiduous than they in reducing the rocks of the earth itself to + flour. + </p> + <p> + Although this phase of Mr. Edison's diverse activities is not as generally + known to the world as many others of a more popular character, the milling + of low-grade auriferous ores and the magnetic separation of iron ores have + been subjects of engrossing interest and study to him for many years. + Indeed, his comparatively unknown enterprise of separating magnetically + and putting into commercial form low-grade iron ore, as carried on at + Edison, New Jersey, proved to be the most colossal experiment that he has + ever made. + </p> + <p> + If a person qualified to judge were asked to answer categorically as to + whether or not that enterprise was a failure, he could truthfully answer + both yes and no. Yes, in that circumstances over which Mr. Edison had no + control compelled the shutting down of the plant at the very moment of + success; and no, in that the mechanically successful and commercially + practical results obtained, after the exercise of stupendous efforts and + the expenditure of a fortune, are so conclusive that they must inevitably + be the reliance of many future iron-masters. In other words, Mr. Edison + was at least a quarter of a century ahead of the times in the work now to + be considered. + </p> + <p> + Before proceeding to a specific description of this remarkable enterprise, + however, let us glance at an early experiment in separating magnetic iron + sands on the Atlantic sea-shore: "Some years ago I heard one day that down + at Quogue, Long Island, there were immense deposits of black magnetic + sand. This would be very valuable if the iron could be separated from the + sand. So I went down to Quogue with one of my assistants and saw there for + miles large beds of black sand on the beach in layers from one to six + inches thick—hundreds of thousands of tons. My first thought was + that it would be a very easy matter to concentrate this, and I found I + could sell the stuff at a good price. I put up a small plant, but just as + I got it started a tremendous storm came up, and every bit of that black + sand went out to sea. During the twenty-eight years that have intervened + it has never come back." This incident was really the prelude to the + development set forth in this chapter. + </p> + <p> + In the early eighties Edison became familiar with the fact that the + Eastern steel trade was suffering a disastrous change, and that business + was slowly drifting westward, chiefly by reason of the discovery and + opening up of enormous deposits of high-grade iron ore in the upper + peninsula of Michigan. This ore could be excavated very cheaply by means + of improved mining facilities, and transported at low cost to lake ports. + Hence the iron and steel mills east of the Alleghanies—compelled to + rely on limited local deposits of Bessemer ore, and upon foreign ores + which were constantly rising in value—began to sustain a serious + competition with Western mills, even in Eastern markets. + </p> + <p> + Long before this situation arose, it had been recognized by Eastern + iron-masters that sooner or later the deposits of high-grade ore would be + exhausted, and, in consequence, there would ensue a compelling necessity + to fall back on the low-grade magnetic ores. For many years it had been a + much-discussed question how to make these ores available for + transportation to distant furnaces. To pay railroad charges on ores + carrying perhaps 80 to 90 per cent. of useless material would be + prohibitive. Hence the elimination of the worthless "gangue" by + concentration of the iron particles associated with it, seemed to be the + only solution of the problem. + </p> + <p> + Many attempts had been made in by-gone days to concentrate the iron in + such ores by water processes, but with only a partial degree of success. + The impossibility of obtaining a uniform concentrate was a most serious + objection, had there not indeed been other difficulties which rendered + this method commercially impracticable. It is quite natural, therefore, + that the idea of magnetic separation should have occurred to many + inventors. Thus we find numerous instances throughout the last century of + experiments along this line; and particularly in the last forty or fifty + years, during which various attempts have been made by others than Edison + to perfect magnetic separation and bring it up to something like + commercial practice. At the time he took up the matter, however, no one + seems to have realized the full meaning of the tremendous problems + involved. + </p> + <p> + From 1880 to 1885, while still very busy in the development of his + electric-light system, Edison found opportunity to plan crushing and + separating machinery. His first patent on the subject was applied for and + issued early in 1880. He decided, after mature deliberation, that the + magnetic separation of low-grade ores on a colossal scale at a low cost + was the only practical way of supplying the furnace-man with a high + quality of iron ore. It was his opinion that it was cheaper to quarry and + concentrate lean ore in a big way than to attempt to mine, under adverse + circumstances, limited bodies of high-grade ore. He appreciated fully the + serious nature of the gigantic questions involved; and his plans were laid + with a view to exercising the utmost economy in the design and operation + of the plant in which he contemplated the automatic handling of many + thousands of tons of material daily. It may be stated as broadly true that + Edison engineered to handle immense masses of stuff automatically, while + his predecessors aimed chiefly at close separation. + </p> + <p> + Reduced to its barest, crudest terms, the proposition of magnetic + separation is simplicity itself. A piece of the ore (magnetite) may be + reduced to powder and the ore particles separated therefrom by the help of + a simple hand magnet. To elucidate the basic principle of Edison's method, + let the crushed ore fall in a thin stream past such a magnet. The magnetic + particles are attracted out of the straight line of the falling stream, + and being heavy, gravitate inwardly and fall to one side of a partition + placed below. The non-magnetic gangue descends in a straight line to the + other side of the partition. Thus a complete separation is effected. + </p> + <p> + Simple though the principle appears, it was in its application to vast + masses of material and in the solving of great engineering problems + connected therewith that Edison's originality made itself manifest in the + concentrating works that he established in New Jersey, early in the + nineties. Not only did he develop thoroughly the refining of the crushed + ore, so that after it had passed the four hundred and eighty magnets in + the mill, the concentrates came out finally containing 91 to 93 per cent. + of iron oxide, but he also devised collateral machinery, methods and + processes all fundamental in their nature. These are too numerous to + specify in detail, as they extended throughout the various ramifications + of the plant, but the principal ones are worthy of mention, such as: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The giant rolls (for crushing). + Intermediate rolls. + Three-high rolls. + Giant cranes (215 feet long span). + Vertical dryer. + Belt conveyors. + Air separation. + Mechanical separation of phosphorus. + Briquetting. +</pre> + <p> + That Mr. Edison's work was appreciated at the time is made evident by the + following extract from an article describing the Edison plant, published + in The Iron Age of October 28, 1897; in which, after mentioning his + struggle with adverse conditions, it says: "There is very little that is + showy, from the popular point of view, in the gigantic work which Mr. + Edison has done during these years, but to those who are capable of + grasping the difficulties encountered, Mr. Edison appears in the new light + of a brilliant constructing engineer grappling with technical and + commercial problems of the highest order. His genius as an inventor is + revealed in many details of the great concentrating plant.... But to our + mind, originality of the highest type as a constructor and designer + appears in the bold way in which he sweeps aside accepted practice in this + particular field and attains results not hitherto approached. He pursues + methods in ore-dressing at which those who are trained in the usual + practice may well stand aghast. But considering the special features of + the problems to be solved, his methods will be accepted as those + economically wise and expedient." + </p> + <p> + A cursory glance at these problems will reveal their import. Mountains + must be reduced to dust; all this dust must be handled in detail, so to + speak, and from it must be separated the fine particles of iron + constituting only one-fourth or one-fifth of its mass; and then this + iron-ore dust must be put into such shape that it could be commercially + shipped and used. One of the most interesting and striking investigations + made by Edison in this connection is worthy of note, and may be related in + his own words: "I felt certain that there must be large bodies of + magnetite in the East, which if crushed and concentrated would satisfy the + wants of the Eastern furnaces for steel-making. Having determined to + investigate the mountain regions of New Jersey, I constructed a very + sensitive magnetic needle, which would dip toward the earth if brought + over any considerable body of magnetic iron ore. One of my laboratory + assistants went out with me and we visited many of the mines of New + Jersey, but did not find deposits of any magnitude. One day, however, as + we drove over a mountain range, not known as iron-bearing land, I was + astonished to find that the needle was strongly attracted and remained so; + thus indicating that the whole mountain was underlaid with vast bodies of + magnetic ore. + </p> + <p> + "I knew it was a commercial problem to produce high-grade Bessemer ore + from these deposits, and took steps to acquire a large amount of the + property. I also planned a great magnetic survey of the East, and I + believe it remains the most comprehensive of its kind yet performed. I had + a number of men survey a strip reaching from Lower Canada to North + Carolina. The only instrument we used was the special magnetic needle. We + started in Lower Canada and travelled across the line of march twenty-five + miles; then advanced south one thousand feet; then back across the line of + march again twenty-five miles; then south another thousand feet, across + again, and so on. Thus we advanced all the way to North Carolina, varying + our cross-country march from two to twenty-five miles, according to + geological formation. Our magnetic needle indicated the presence and + richness of the invisible deposits of magnetic ore. We kept minute records + of these indications, and when the survey was finished we had exact + information of the deposits in every part of each State we had passed + through. We also knew the width, length, and approximate depth of every + one of these deposits, which were enormous. + </p> + <p> + "The amount of ore disclosed by this survey was simply fabulous. How much + so may be judged from the fact that in the three thousand acres + immediately surrounding the mills that I afterward established at Edison + there were over 200,000,000 tons of low-grade ore. I also secured sixteen + thousand acres in which the deposit was proportionately as large. These + few acres alone contained sufficient ore to supply the whole United States + iron trade, including exports, for seventy years." + </p> + <p> + Given a mountain of rock containing only one-fifth to one-fourth magnetic + iron, the broad problem confronting Edison resolved itself into three + distinct parts—first, to tear down the mountain bodily and grind it + to powder; second, to extract from this powder the particles of iron + mingled in its mass; and, third, to accomplish these results at a cost + sufficiently low to give the product a commercial value. + </p> + <p> + Edison realized from the start that the true solution of this problem lay + in the continuous treatment of the material, with the maximum employment + of natural forces and the minimum of manual labor and generated power. + Hence, all his conceptions followed this general principle so faithfully + and completely that we find in the plant embodying his ideas the forces of + momentum and gravity steadily in harness and keeping the traces taut; + while there was no touch of the human hand upon the material from the + beginning of the treatment to its finish—the staff being employed + mainly to keep watch on the correct working of the various processes. + </p> + <p> + It is hardly necessary to devote space to the beginnings of the + enterprise, although they are full of interest. They served, however, to + convince Edison that if he ever expected to carry out his scheme on the + extensive scale planned, he could not depend upon the market to supply + suitable machinery for important operations, but would be obliged to + devise and build it himself. Thus, outside the steam-shovel and such + staple items as engines, boilers, dynamos, and motors, all of the diverse + and complex machinery of the entire concentrating plant, as subsequently + completed, was devised by him especially for the purpose. The necessity + for this was due to the many radical variations made from accepted + methods. + </p> + <p> + No such departure was as radical as that of the method of crushing the + ore. Existing machinery for this purpose had been designed on the basis of + mining methods then in vogue, by which the rock was thoroughly shattered + by means of high explosives and reduced to pieces of one hundred pounds or + less. These pieces were then crushed by power directly applied. If a + concentrating mill, planned to treat five or six thousand tons per day, + were to be operated on this basis the investment in crushers and the + supply of power would be enormous, to say nothing of the risk of frequent + breakdowns by reason of multiplicity of machinery and parts. From a + consideration of these facts, and with his usual tendency to upset + traditional observances, Edison conceived the bold idea of constructing + gigantic rolls which, by the force of momentum, would be capable of + crushing individual rocks of vastly greater size than ever before + attempted. He reasoned that the advantages thus obtained would be + fourfold: a minimum of machinery and parts; greater compactness; a saving + of power; and greater economy in mining. As this last-named operation + precedes the crushing, let us first consider it as it was projected and + carried on by him. + </p> + <p> + Perhaps quarrying would be a better term than mining in this case, as + Edison's plan was to approach the rock and tear it down bodily. The faith + that "moves mountains" had a new opportunity. In work of this nature it + had been customary, as above stated, to depend upon a high explosive, such + as dynamite, to shatter and break the ore to lumps of one hundred pounds + or less. This, however, he deemed to be a most uneconomical process, for + energy stored as heat units in dynamite at $260 per ton was much more + expensive than that of calories in a ton of coal at $3 per ton. Hence, he + believed that only the minimum of work should be done with the costly + explosive; and, therefore, planned to use dynamite merely to dislodge + great masses of rock, and depended upon the steam-shovel, operated by coal + under the boiler, to displace, handle, and remove the rock in detail. This + was the plan that was subsequently put into practice in the great works at + Edison, New Jersey. A series of three-inch holes twenty feet deep were + drilled eight feet apart, about twelve feet back of the ore-bank, and into + these were inserted dynamite cartridges. The blast would dislodge thirty + to thirty-five thousand tons of rock, which was scooped up by great + steam-shovels and loaded on to skips carried by a line of cars on a + narrow-gauge railroad running to and from the crushing mill. Here the + material was automatically delivered to the giant rolls. The problem + included handling and crushing the "run of the mine," without selection. + The steam-shovel did not discriminate, but picked up handily single pieces + weighing five or six tons and loaded them on the skips with quantities of + smaller lumps. When the skips arrived at the giant rolls, their contents + were dumped automatically into a superimposed hopper. The rolls were well + named, for with ear-splitting noise they broke up in a few seconds the + great pieces of rock tossed in from the skips. + </p> + <p> + It is not easy to appreciate to the full the daring exemplified in these + great crushing rolls, or rather "rock-crackers," without having watched + them in operation delivering their "solar-plexus" blows. It was only as + one might stand in their vicinity and hear the thunderous roar + accompanying the smashing and rending of the massive rocks as they + disappeared from view that the mind was overwhelmed with a sense of the + magnificent proportions of this operation. The enormous force exerted + during this process may be illustrated from the fact that during its + development, in running one of the early forms of rolls, pieces of rock + weighing more than half a ton would be shot up in the air to a height of + twenty or twenty-five feet. + </p> + <p> + The giant rolls were two solid cylinders, six feet in diameter and five + feet long, made of cast iron. To the faces of these rolls were bolted a + series of heavy, chilled-iron plates containing a number of projecting + knobs two inches high. Each roll had also two rows of four-inch knobs, + intended to strike a series of hammer-like blows. The rolls were set face + to face fourteen inches apart, in a heavy frame, and the total weight was + one hundred and thirty tons, of which seventy tons were in moving parts. + The space between these two rolls allowed pieces of rock measuring less + than fourteen inches to descend to other smaller rolls placed below. The + giant rolls were belt-driven, in opposite directions, through friction + clutches, although the belt was not depended upon for the actual crushing. + Previous to the dumping of a skip, the rolls were speeded up to a + circumferential velocity of nearly a mile a minute, thus imparting to them + the terrific momentum that would break up easily in a few seconds boulders + weighing five or six tons each. It was as though a rock of this size had + got in the way of two express trains travelling in opposite directions at + nearly sixty miles an hour. In other words, it was the kinetic energy of + the rolls that crumbled up the rocks with pile-driver effect. This sudden + strain might have tended to stop the engine driving the rolls; but by an + ingenious clutch arrangement the belt was released at the moment of + resistance in the rolls by reason of the rocks falling between them. The + act of breaking and crushing would naturally decrease the tremendous + momentum, but after the rock was reduced and the pieces had passed + through, the belt would again come into play, and once more speed up the + rolls for a repetition of their regular prize-fighter duty. + </p> + <p> + On leaving the giant rolls the rocks, having been reduced to pieces not + larger than fourteen inches, passed into the series of "Intermediate + Rolls" of similar construction and operation, by which they were still + further reduced, and again passed on to three other sets of rolls of + smaller dimensions. These latter rolls were also face-lined with + chilled-iron plates; but, unlike the larger ones, were positively driven, + reducing the rock to pieces of about one-half-inch size, or smaller. The + whole crushing operation of reduction from massive boulders to small + pebbly pieces having been done in less time than the telling has occupied, + the product was conveyed to the "Dryer," a tower nine feet square and + fifty feet high, heated from below by great open furnace fires. All down + the inside walls of this tower were placed cast-iron plates, nine feet + long and seven inches wide, arranged alternately in "fish-ladder" fashion. + The crushed rock, being delivered at the top, would fall down from plate + to plate, constantly exposing different surfaces to the heat, until it + landed completely dried in the lower portion of the tower, where it fell + into conveyors which took it up to the stock-house. + </p> + <p> + This method of drying was original with Edison. At the time this adjunct + to the plant was required, the best dryer on the market was of a rotary + type, which had a capacity of only twenty tons per hour, with the + expenditure of considerable power. As Edison had determined upon treating + two hundred and fifty tons or more per hour, he decided to devise an + entirely new type of great capacity, requiring a minimum of power (for + elevating the material), and depending upon the force of gravity for + handling it during the drying process. A long series of experiments + resulted in the invention of the tower dryer with a capacity of three + hundred tons per hour. + </p> + <p> + The rock, broken up into pieces about the size of marbles, having been + dried and conveyed to the stock-house, the surplusage was automatically + carried out from the other end of the stock-house by conveyors, to pass + through the next process, by which it was reduced to a powder. The + machinery for accomplishing this result represents another interesting and + radical departure of Edison from accepted usage. He had investigated all + the crushing-machines on the market, and tried all he could get. He found + them all greatly lacking in economy of operation; indeed, the highest + results obtainable from the best were 18 per cent. of actual work, + involving a loss of 82 per cent. by friction. His nature revolted at such + an immense loss of power, especially as he proposed the crushing of vast + quantities of ore. Thus, he was obliged to begin again at the foundation, + and he devised a crushing-machine which was subsequently named the + "Three-High Rolls," and which practically reversed the above figures, as + it developed 84 per cent. of work done with only 16 per cent. loss in + friction. + </p> + <p> + A brief description of this remarkable machine will probably interest the + reader. In the two end pieces of a heavy iron frame were set three rolls, + or cylinders—one in the centre, another below, and the other above—all + three being in a vertical line. These rolls were of cast iron three feet + in diameter, having chilled-iron smooth face-plates of considerable + thickness. The lowest roll was set in a fixed bearing at the bottom of the + frame, and, therefore, could only turn around on its axis. The middle and + top rolls were free to move up or down from and toward the lower roll, and + the shafts of the middle and upper rolls were set in a loose bearing which + could slip up and down in the iron frame. It will be apparent, therefore, + that any material which passed in between the top and the middle rolls, + and the middle and bottom rolls, could be ground as fine as might be + desired, depending entirely upon the amount of pressure applied to the + loose rolls. In operation the material passed first through the upper and + middle rolls, and then between the middle and lowest rolls. + </p> + <p> + This pressure was applied in a most ingenious manner. On the ends of the + shafts of the bottom and top rolls there were cylindrical sleeves, or + bearings, having seven sheaves, in which was run a half-inch endless wire + rope. This rope was wound seven times over the sheaves as above, and led + upward and over a single-groove sheave which was operated by the piston of + an air cylinder, and in this manner the pressure was applied to the rolls. + It will be seen, therefore, that the system consisted in a single rope + passed over sheaves and so arranged that it could be varied in length, + thus providing for elasticity in exerting pressure and regulating it as + desired. The efficiency of this system was incomparably greater than that + of any other known crusher or grinder, for while a pressure of one hundred + and twenty-five thousand pounds could be exerted by these rolls, friction + was almost entirely eliminated because the upper and lower roll bearings + turned with the rolls and revolved in the wire rope, which constituted the + bearing proper. + </p> + <p> + The same cautious foresight exercised by Edison in providing a safety + device—the fuse—to prevent fires in his electric-light system, + was again displayed in this concentrating plant, where, to save possible + injury to its expensive operating parts, he devised an analogous factor, + providing all the crushing machinery with closely calculated "safety + pins," which, on being overloaded, would shear off and thus stop the + machine at once. + </p> + <p> + The rocks having thus been reduced to fine powder, the mass was ready for + screening on its way to the magnetic separators. Here again Edison + reversed prior practice by discarding rotary screens and devising a form + of tower screen, which, besides having a very large working capacity by + gravity, eliminated all power except that required to elevate the + material. The screening process allowed the finest part of the crushed + rock to pass on, by conveyor belts, to the magnetic separators, while the + coarser particles were in like manner automatically returned to the rolls + for further reduction. + </p> + <p> + In a narrative not intended to be strictly technical, it would probably + tire the reader to follow this material in detail through the numerous + steps attending the magnetic separation. These may be seen in a diagram + reproduced from the above-named article in the Iron Age, and supplemented + by the following extract from the Electrical Engineer, New York, October + 28, 1897: "At the start the weakest magnet at the top frees the purest + particles, and the second takes care of others; but the third catches + those to which rock adheres, and will extract particles of which only + one-eighth is iron. This batch of material goes back for another crushing, + so that everything is subjected to an equality of refining. We are now in + sight of the real 'concentrates,' which are conveyed to dryer No. 2 for + drying again, and are then delivered to the fifty-mesh screens. Whatever + is fine enough goes through to the eight-inch magnets, and the remainder + goes back for recrushing. Below the eight-inch magnets the dust is blown + out of the particles mechanically, and they then go to the four-inch + magnets for final cleansing and separation.... Obviously, at each step the + percentage of felspar and phosphorus is less and less until in the final + concentrates the percentage of iron oxide is 91 to 93 per cent. As + intimated at the outset, the tailings will be 75 per cent. of the rock + taken from the veins of ore, so that every four tons of crude, raw, + low-grade ore will have yielded roughly one ton of high-grade concentrate + and three tons of sand, the latter also having its value in various ways." + </p> + <p> + This sand was transported automatically by belt conveyors to the rear of + the works to be stored and sold. Being sharp, crystalline, and even in + quality, it was a valuable by-product, finding a ready sale for building + purposes, railway sand-boxes, and various industrial uses. The + concentrate, in fine powdery form, was delivered in similar manner to a + stock-house. + </p> + <p> + As to the next step in the process, we may now quote again from the + article in the Iron Age: "While Mr. Edison and his associates were working + on the problem of cheap concentration of iron ore, an added difficulty + faced them in the preparation of the concentrates for the market. + Furnacemen object to more than a very small proportion of fine ore in + their mixtures, particularly when the ore is magnetic, not easily reduced. + The problem to be solved was to market an agglomerated material so as to + avoid the drawbacks of fine ore. The agglomerated product must be porous + so as to afford access of the furnace-reducing gases to the ore. It must + be hard enough to bear transportation, and to carry the furnace burden + without crumbling to pieces. It must be waterproof, to a certain extent, + because considerations connected with securing low rates of freight make + it necessary to be able to ship the concentrates to market in open coal + cars, exposed to snow and rain. In many respects the attainment of these + somewhat conflicting ends was the most perplexing of the problems which + confronted Mr. Edison. The agglomeration of the concentrates having been + decided upon, two other considerations, not mentioned above, were of + primary importance—first, to find a suitable cheap binding material; + and, second, its nature must be such that very little would be necessary + per ton of concentrates. These severe requirements were staggering, but + Mr. Edison's courage did not falter. Although it seemed a well-nigh + hopeless task, he entered upon the investigation with his usual optimism + and vim. After many months of unremitting toil and research, and the trial + of thousands of experiments, the goal was reached in the completion of a + successful formula for agglomerating the fine ore and pressing it into + briquettes by special machinery." + </p> + <p> + This was the final process requisite for the making of a completed + commercial product. Its practice, of course, necessitated the addition of + an entirely new department of the works, which was carried into effect by + the construction and installation of the novel mixing and briquetting + machinery, together with extensions of the conveyors, with which the plant + had already been liberally provided. + </p> + <p> + Briefly described, the process consisted in mixing the concentrates with + the special binding material in machines of an entirely new type, and in + passing the resultant pasty mass into the briquetting machines, where it + was pressed into cylindrical cakes three inches in diameter and one and a + half inches thick, under successive pressures of 7800, 14,000, and 60,000 + pounds. Each machine made these briquettes at the rate of sixty per + minute, and dropped them into bucket conveyors by which they were carried + into drying furnaces, through which they made five loops, and were then + delivered to cross-conveyors which carried them into the stock-house. At + the end of this process the briquettes were so hard that they would not + break or crumble in loading on the cars or in transportation by rail, + while they were so porous as to be capable of absorbing 26 per cent. of + their own volume in alcohol, but repelling water absolutely—perfect + "old soaks." + </p> + <p> + Thus, with never-failing persistence and patience, coupled with intense + thought and hard work, Edison met and conquered, one by one, the complex + difficulties that confronted him. He succeeded in what he had set out to + do, and it is now to be noted that the product he had striven so + sedulously to obtain was a highly commercial one, for not only did the + briquettes of concentrated ore fulfil the purpose of their creation, but + in use actually tended to increase the working capacity of the furnace, as + the following test, quoted from the Iron Age, October 28, 1897, will + attest: "The only trial of any magnitude of the briquettes in the + blast-furnace was carried through early this year at the Crane Iron Works, + Catasauqua, Pennsylvania, by Leonard Peckitt. + </p> + <p> + "The furnace at which the test was made produces from one hundred to one + hundred and ten tons per day when running on the ordinary mixture. The + charging of briquettes was begun with a percentage of 25 per cent., and + was carried up to 100 per cent. The following is the record of the + results: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + RESULTS OF WORKING BRIQUETTES AT THE CRANE FURNACE +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Quantity of Phos- ManDate + Briquette Tons Silica phorus Sulphur ganese + Working + Per Cent. + January 5th 25 104 2.770 0.830 0.018 0.500 + January 6th 37 1/2 4 1/2 2.620 0 740 0.018 0.350 + January 7th 50 138 1/2 2.572 0.580 0.015 0.200 + January 8th 75 119 1.844 0.264 0.022 0.200 + January 9th 100 138 1/2 1.712 0.147 0.038 0.185 +</pre> + <p> + "On the 9th, at 5 P.M., the briquettes having been nearly exhausted, the + percentage was dropped to 25 per cent., and on the 10th the output dropped + to 120 tons, and on the 11th the furnace had resumed the usual work on the + regular standard ores. + </p> + <p> + "These figures prove that the yield of the furnace is considerably + increased. The Crane trial was too short to settle the question to what + extent the increase in product may be carried. This increase in output, of + course, means a reduction in the cost of labor and of general expenses. + </p> + <p> + "The richness of the ore and its purity of course affect the limestone + consumption. In the case of the Crane trial there was a reduction from 30 + per cent. to 12 per cent. of the ore charge. + </p> + <p> + "Finally, the fuel consumption is reduced, which in the case of the + Eastern plants, with their relatively costly coke, is a very important + consideration. It is regarded as possible that Eastern furnaces will be + able to use a smaller proportion of the costlier coke and correspondingly + increase in anthracite coal, which is a cheaper fuel in that section. So + far as foundry iron is concerned, the experience at Catasauqua, + Pennsylvania, brief as it has been, shows that a stronger and tougher + metal is made." + </p> + <p> + Edison himself tells an interesting little story in this connection, when + he enjoyed the active help of that noble character, John Fritz, the + distinguished inventor and pioneer of the modern steel industry in + America. He says: "When I was struggling along with the iron-ore + concentration, I went to see several blast-furnace men to sell the ore at + the market price. They saw I was very anxious to sell it, and they would + take advantage of my necessity. But I happened to go to Mr. John Fritz, of + the Bethlehem Steel Company, and told him what I was doing. 'Well,' he + said to me, 'Edison, you are doing a good thing for the Eastern furnaces. + They ought to help you, for it will help us out. I am willing to help you. + I mix a little sentiment with business, and I will give you an order for + one hundred thousand tons.' And he sat right down and gave me the order." + </p> + <p> + The Edison concentrating plant has been sketched in the briefest outline + with a view of affording merely a bare idea of the great work of its + projector. To tell the whole story in detail and show its logical + sequence, step by step, would take little less than a volume in itself, + for Edison's methods, always iconoclastic when progress is in sight, were + particularly so at the period in question. It has been said that "Edison's + scrap-heap contains the elements of a liberal education," and this was + essentially true of the "discard" during the ore-milling experience. + Interesting as it might be to follow at length the numerous phases of + ingenious and resourceful development that took place during those busy + years, the limit of present space forbids their relation. It would, + however, be denying the justice that is Edison's due to omit all mention + of two hitherto unnamed items in particular that have added to the world's + store of useful devices. We refer first to the great travelling + hoisting-crane having a span of two hundred and fifteen feet, and used for + hoisting loads equal to ten tons, this being the largest of the kind made + up to that time, and afterward used as a model by many others. The second + item was the ingenious and varied forms of conveyor belt, devised and used + by Edison at the concentrating works, and subsequently developed into a + separate and extensive business by an engineer to whom he gave permission + to use his plans and patterns. + </p> + <p> + Edison's native shrewdness and knowledge of human nature was put to + practical use in the busy days of plant construction. It was found + impossible to keep mechanics on account of indifferent residential + accommodations afforded by the tiny village, remote from civilization, + among the central mountains of New Jersey. This puzzling question was much + discussed between him and his associate, Mr. W. S. Mallory, until finally + he said to the latter: "If we want to keep the men here we must make it + attractive for the women—so let us build some houses that will have + running water and electric lights, and rent at a low rate." He set to + work, and in a day finished a design for a type of house. Fifty were + quickly built and fully described in advertising for mechanics. Three + days' advertisements brought in over six hundred and fifty applications, + and afterward Edison had no trouble in obtaining all the first-class men + he required, as settlers in the artificial Yosemite he was creating. + </p> + <p> + We owe to Mr. Mallory a characteristic story of this period as to an + incidental unbending from toil, which in itself illustrates the + ever-present determination to conquer what is undertaken: "Along in the + latter part of the nineties, when the work on the problem of concentrating + iron ore was in progress, it became necessary when leaving the plant at + Edison to wait over at Lake Hopatcong one hour for a connecting train. + During some of these waits Mr. Edison had seen me play billiards. At the + particular time this incident happened, Mrs. Edison and her family were + away for the summer, and I was staying at the Glenmont home on the Orange + Mountains. + </p> + <p> + "One hot Saturday night, after Mr. Edison had looked over the evening + papers, he said to me: 'Do you want to play a game of billiards?' + Naturally this astonished me very much, as he is a man who cares little or + nothing for the ordinary games, with the single exception of parcheesi, of + which he is very fond. I said I would like to play, so we went up into the + billiard-room of the house. I took off the cloth, got out the balls, + picked out a cue for Mr. Edison, and when we banked for the first shot I + won and started the game. After making two or three shots I missed, and a + long carom shot was left for Mr. Edison, the cue ball and object ball + being within about twelve inches of each other, and the other ball a + distance of nearly the length of the table. Mr. Edison attempted to make + the shot, but missed it and said 'Put the balls back.' So I put them back + in the same position and he missed it the second time. I continued at his + request to put the balls back in the same position for the next fifteen + minutes, until he could make the shot every time—then he said: 'I + don't want to play any more.'" + </p> + <p> + Having taken a somewhat superficial survey of the great enterprise under + consideration; having had a cursory glance at the technical development of + the plant up to the point of its successful culmination in the making of a + marketable, commercial product as exemplified in the test at the Crane + Furnace, let us revert to that demonstration and note the events that + followed. The facts of this actual test are far more eloquent than volumes + of argument would be as a justification of Edison's assiduous labors for + over eight years, and of the expenditure of a fortune in bringing his + broad conception to a concrete possibility. In the patient solving of + tremendous problems he had toiled up the mountain-side of success—scaling + its topmost peak and obtaining a view of the boundless prospect. But, + alas! "The best laid plans o' mice and men gang aft agley." The discovery + of great deposits of rich Bessemer ore in the Mesaba range of mountains in + Minnesota a year or two previous to the completion of his work had been + followed by the opening up of those deposits and the marketing of the ore. + It was of such rich character that, being cheaply mined by greatly + improved and inexpensive methods, the market price of crude ore of like + iron units fell from about $6.50 to $3.50 per ton at the time when Edison + was ready to supply his concentrated product. At the former price he could + have supplied the market and earned a liberal profit on his investment, + but at $3.50 per ton he was left without a reasonable chance of + competition. Thus was swept away the possibility of reaping the reward so + richly earned by years of incessant thought, labor, and care. This great + and notable plant, representing a very large outlay of money, brought to + completion, ready for business, and embracing some of the most brilliant + and remarkable of Edison's inventions and methods, must be abandoned by + force of circumstances over which he had no control, and with it must die + the high hopes that his progressive, conquering march to success had + legitimately engendered. + </p> + <p> + The financial aspect of these enterprises is often overlooked and + forgotten. In this instance it was of more than usual import and + seriousness, as Edison was virtually his own "backer," putting into the + company almost the whole of all the fortune his inventions had brought + him. There is a tendency to deny to the capital that thus takes desperate + chances its full reward if things go right, and to insist that it shall + have barely the legal rate of interest and far less than the return of + over-the-counter retail trade. It is an absolute fact that the great + electrical inventors and the men who stood behind them have had little + return for their foresight and courage. In this instance, when the + inventor was largely his own financier, the difficulties and perils were + redoubled. Let Mr. Mallory give an instance: "During the latter part of + the panic of 1893 there came a period when we were very hard up for ready + cash, due largely to the panicky conditions; and a large pay-roll had been + raised with considerable difficulty. A short time before pay-day our + treasurer called me up by telephone, and said: 'I have just received the + paid checks from the bank, and I am fearful that my assistant, who has + forged my name to some of the checks, has absconded with about $3000.' I + went immediately to Mr. Edison and told him of the forgery and the amount + of money taken, and in what an embarrassing position we were for the next + pay-roll. When I had finished he said: 'It is too bad the money is gone, + but I will tell you what to do. Go and see the president of the bank which + paid the forged checks. Get him to admit the bank's liability, and then + say to him that Mr. Edison does not think the bank should suffer because + he happened to have a dishonest clerk in his employ. Also say to him that + I shall not ask them to make the amount good.' This was done; the bank + admitting its liability and being much pleased with this action. When I + reported to Mr. Edison he said: 'That's all right. We have made a friend + of the bank, and we may need friends later on.' And so it happened that + some time afterward, when we greatly needed help in the way of loans, the + bank willingly gave us the accommodations we required to tide us over a + critical period." + </p> + <p> + This iron-ore concentrating project had lain close to Edison's heart and + ambition—indeed, it had permeated his whole being to the exclusion + of almost all other investigations or inventions for a while. For five + years he had lived and worked steadily at Edison, leaving there only on + Saturday night to spend Sunday at his home in Orange, and returning to the + plant by an early train on Monday morning. Life at Edison was of the + simple kind—work, meals, and a few hours' sleep—day by day. + The little village, called into existence by the concentrating works, was + of the most primitive nature and offered nothing in the way of frivolity + or amusement. Even the scenery is austere. Hence Edison was enabled to + follow his natural bent in being surrounded day and night by his + responsible chosen associates, with whom he worked uninterrupted by + outsiders from early morning away into the late hours of the evening. + Those who were laboring with him, inspired by his unflagging enthusiasm, + followed his example and devoted all their long waking hours to the + furtherance of his plans with a zeal that ultimately bore fruit in the + practical success here recorded. + </p> + <p> + In view of its present status, this colossal enterprise at Edison may well + be likened to the prologue of a play that is to be subsequently enacted + for the benefit of future generations, but before ringing down the curtain + it is desirable to preserve the unities by quoting the words of one of the + principal actors, Mr. Mallory, who says: "The Concentrating Works had been + in operation, and we had produced a considerable quantity of the + briquettes, and had been able to sell only a portion of them, the iron + market being in such condition that blast-furnaces were not making any new + purchases of iron ore, and were having difficulty to receive and consume + the ores which had been previously contracted for, so what sales we were + able to make were at extremely low prices, my recollection being that they + were between $3.50 and $3.80 per ton, whereas when the works had started + we had hoped to obtain $6.00 to $6.50 per ton for the briquettes. We had + also thoroughly investigated the wonderful deposit at Mesaba, and it was + with the greatest possible reluctance that Mr. Edison was able to come + finally to the conclusion that, under existing conditions, the + concentrating plant could not then be made a commercial success. This + decision was reached only after the most careful investigations and + calculations, as Mr. Edison was just as full of fight and ambition to make + it a success as when he first started. + </p> + <p> + "When this decision was reached Mr. Edison and I took the Jersey Central + train from Edison, bound for Orange, and I did not look forward to the + immediate future with any degree of confidence, as the concentrating plant + was heavily in debt, without any early prospect of being able to pay off + its indebtedness. On the train the matter of the future was discussed, and + Mr. Edison said that, inasmuch as we had the knowledge gained from our + experience in the concentrating problem, we must, if possible, apply it to + some practical use, and at the same time we must work out some other plans + by which we could make enough money to pay off the Concentrating Company's + indebtedness, Mr. Edison stating most positively that no company with + which he had personally been actively connected had ever failed to pay its + debts, and he did not propose to have the Concentrating Company any + exception. + </p> + <p> + "In the discussion that followed he suggested several kinds of work which + he had in his mind, and which might prove profitable. We figured carefully + over the probabilities of financial returns from the Phonograph Works and + other enterprises, and after discussing many plans, it was finally decided + that we would apply the knowledge we had gained in the concentrating plant + by building a plant for manufacturing Portland cement, and that Mr. Edison + would devote his attention to the developing of a storage battery which + did not use lead and sulphuric acid. So these two lines of work were taken + up by Mr. Edison with just as much enthusiasm and energy as is usual with + him, the commercial failure of the concentrating plant seeming not to + affect his spirits in any way. In fact, I have often been impressed + strongly with the fact that, during the dark days of the concentrating + problem, Mr. Edison's desire was very strong that the creditors of the + Concentrating Works should be paid in full; and only once did I hear him + make any reference to the financial loss which he himself made, and he + then said: 'As far as I am concerned, I can any time get a job at $75 per + month as a telegrapher, and that will amply take care of all my personal + requirements.' As already stated, however, he started in with the maximum + amount of enthusiasm and ambition, and in the course of about three years + we succeeded in paying off all the indebtedness of the Concentrating + Works, which amounted to several hundred thousand dollars. + </p> + <p> + "As to the state of Mr. Edison's mind when the final decision was reached + to close down, if he was specially disappointed, there was nothing in his + manner to indicate it, his every thought being for the future, and as to + what could be done to pull us out of the financial situation in which we + found ourselves, and to take advantage of the knowledge which we had + acquired at so great a cost." + </p> + <p> + It will have been gathered that the funds for this great experiment were + furnished largely by Edison. In fact, over two million dollars were spent + in the attempt. Edison's philosophic view of affairs is given in the + following anecdote from Mr. Mallory: "During the boom times of 1902, when + the old General Electric stock sold at its high-water mark of about $330, + Mr. Edison and I were on our way from the cement plant at New Village, New + Jersey, to his home at Orange. When we arrived at Dover, New Jersey, we + got a New York newspaper, and I called his attention to the quotation of + that day on General Electric. Mr. Edison then asked: 'If I hadn't sold any + of mine, what would it be worth to-day?' and after some figuring I + replied: 'Over four million dollars.' When Mr. Edison is thinking + seriously over a problem he is in the habit of pulling his right eyebrow, + which he did now for fifteen or twenty seconds. Then his face lighted up, + and he said: 'Well, it's all gone, but we had a hell of a good time + spending it.'" With which revelation of an attitude worthy of Mark Tapley + himself, this chapter may well conclude. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0020" id="link2HCH0020"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XX + </h2> + <h3> + EDISON PORTLAND CEMENT + </h3> + <p> + NEW developments in recent years have been more striking than the general + adoption of cement for structural purposes of all kinds in the United + States; or than the increase in its manufacture here. As a material for + the construction of office buildings, factories, and dwellings, it has + lately enjoyed an extraordinary vogue; yet every indication is + confirmatory of the belief that such use has barely begun. Various reasons + may be cited, such as the growing scarcity of wood, once the favorite + building material in many parts of the country, and the increasing + dearness of brick and stone. The fact remains, indisputable, and + demonstrated flatly by the statistics of production. In 1902 the American + output of cement was placed at about 21,000,000 barrels, valued at over + $17,000,000. In 1907 the production is given as nearly 49,000,000 barrels. + Here then is an industry that doubled in five years. The average rate of + industrial growth in the United States is 10 per cent. a year, or doubling + every ten years. It is a singular fact that electricity also so far + exceeds the normal rate as to double in value and quantity of output and + investment every five years. There is perhaps more than ordinary + coincidence in the association of Edison with two such active departments + of progress. + </p> + <p> + As a purely manufacturing business the general cement industry is one of + even remote antiquity, and if Edison had entered into it merely as a + commercial enterprise by following paths already so well trodden, the fact + would hardly have been worthy of even passing notice. It is not in his + nature, however, to follow a beaten track except in regard to the + recognition of basic principles; so that while the manufacture of Edison + Portland cement embraces the main essentials and familiar processes of + cement-making, such as crushing, drying, mixing, roasting, and grinding, + his versatility and originality, as exemplified in the conception and + introduction of some bold and revolutionary methods and devices, have + resulted in raising his plant from the position of an outsider to the rank + of the fifth largest producer in the United States, in the short space of + five years after starting to manufacture. + </p> + <p> + Long before his advent in cement production, Edison had held very + pronounced views on the value of that material as the one which would + obtain largely for future building purposes on account of its stability. + More than twenty-five years ago one of the writers of this narrative heard + him remark during a discussion on ancient buildings: "Wood will rot, stone + will chip and crumble, bricks disintegrate, but a cement and iron + structure is apparently indestructible. Look at some of the old Roman + baths. They are as solid as when they were built." With such convictions, + and the vast fund of practical knowledge and experience he had gained at + Edison in the crushing and manipulation of large masses of magnetic iron + ore during the preceding nine years, it is not surprising that on that + homeward railway journey, mentioned at the close of the preceding chapter, + he should have decided to go into the manufacture of cement, especially in + view of the enormous growth of its use for structural purposes during + recent times. + </p> + <p> + The field being a new one to him, Edison followed his usual course of + reading up every page of authoritative literature on the subject, and + seeking information from all quarters. In the mean time, while he was busy + also with his new storage battery, Mr. Mallory, who had been hard at work + on the cement plan, announced that he had completed arrangements for + organizing a company with sufficient financial backing to carry on the + business; concluding with the remark that it was now time to engage + engineers to lay out the plant. Edison replied that he intended to do that + himself, and invited Mr. Mallory to go with him to one of the + draughting-rooms on an upper floor of the laboratory. + </p> + <p> + Here he placed a large sheet of paper on a draughting-table, and + immediately began to draw out a plan of the proposed works, continuing all + day and away into the evening, when he finished; thus completing within + the twenty-four hours the full lay-out of the entire plant as it was + subsequently installed, and as it has substantially remained in practical + use to this time. It will be granted that this was a remarkable + engineering feat, especially in view of the fact that Edison was then a + new-comer in the cement business, and also that if the plant were to be + rebuilt to-day, no vital change would be desirable or necessary. In that + one day's planning every part was considered and provided for, from the + crusher to the packing-house. From one end to the other, the distance over + which the plant stretches in length is about half a mile, and through the + various buildings spread over this space there passes, automatically, in + course of treatment, a vast quantity of material resulting in the + production of upward of two and a quarter million pounds of finished + cement every twenty-four hours, seven days in the week. + </p> + <p> + In that one day's designing provision was made not only for all important + parts, but minor details, such, for instance, as the carrying of all + steam, water, and air pipes, and electrical conductors in a large subway + running from one end of the plant to the other; and, an oiling system for + the entire works. This latter deserves special mention, not only because + of its arrangement for thorough lubrication, but also on account of the + resultant economy affecting the cost of manufacture. + </p> + <p> + Edison has strong convictions on the liberal use of lubricants, but argued + that in the ordinary oiling of machinery there is great waste, while much + dirt is conveyed into the bearings. He therefore planned a system by which + the ten thousand bearings in the plant are oiled automatically; requiring + the services of only two men for the entire work. This is accomplished by + a central pumping and filtering plant and the return of the oil from all + parts of the works by gravity. Every bearing is made dust-proof, and is + provided with two interior pipes. One is above and the other below the + bearing. The oil flows in through the upper pipe, and, after lubricating + the shaft, flows out through the lower pipe back to the pumping station, + where any dirt is filtered out and the oil returned to circulation. While + this system of oiling is not unique, it was the first instance of its + adaptation on so large and complete a scale, and illustrates the + far-sightedness of his plans. + </p> + <p> + In connection with the adoption of this lubricating system there occurred + another instance of his knowledge of materials and intuitive insight into + the nature of things. He thought that too frequent circulation of a + comparatively small quantity of oil would, to some extent, impair its + lubricating qualities, and requested his assistants to verify this opinion + by consultation with competent authorities. On making inquiry of the + engineers of the Standard Oil Company, his theory was fully sustained. + Hence, provision was made for carrying a large stock of oil, and for + giving a certain period of rest to that already used. + </p> + <p> + A keen appreciation of ultimate success in the production of a fine + quality of cement led Edison to provide very carefully in his original + scheme for those details that he foresaw would become requisite—such, + for instance, as ample stock capacity for raw materials and their + automatic delivery in the various stages of manufacture, as well as + mixing, weighing, and frequent sampling and analyzing during the progress + through the mills. This provision even included the details of the + packing-house, and his perspicacity in this case is well sustained from + the fact that nine years afterward, in anticipation of building an + additional packing-house, the company sent a representative to different + parts of the country to examine the systems used by manufacturers in the + packing of large quantities of various staple commodities involving + somewhat similar problems, and found that there was none better than that + devised before the cement plant was started. Hence, the order was given to + build the new packing-house on lines similar to those of the old one. + </p> + <p> + Among the many innovations appearing in this plant are two that stand out + in bold relief as indicating the large scale by which Edison measures his + ideas. One of these consists of the crushing and grinding machinery, and + the other of the long kilns. In the preceding chapter there has been given + a description of the giant rolls, by means of which great masses of rock, + of which individual pieces may weigh eight or more tons, are broken and + reduced to about a fourteen-inch size. The economy of this is apparent + when it is considered that in other cement plants the limit of crushing + ability is "one-man size"—that is, pieces not too large for one man + to lift. + </p> + <p> + The story of the kiln, as told by Mr. Mallory, is illustrative of Edison's + tendency to upset tradition and make a radical departure from generally + accepted ideas. "When Mr. Edison first decided to go into the cement + business, it was on the basis of his crushing-rolls and air separation, + and he had every expectation of installing duplicates of the kilns which + were then in common use for burning cement. These kilns were usually made + of boiler iron, riveted, and were about sixty feet long and six feet in + diameter, and had a capacity of about two hundred barrels of cement + clinker in twenty-four hours. + </p> + <p> + "When the detail plans for our plant were being drawn, Mr. Edison and I + figured over the coal capacity and coal economy of the sixty-foot kiln, + and each time thought that both could he materially bettered. After having + gone over this matter several times, he said: 'I believe I can make a kiln + which will give an output of one thousand barrels in twenty-four hours.' + Although I had then been closely associated with him for ten years and was + accustomed to see him accomplish great things, I could not help feeling + the improbability of his being able to jump into an old-established + industry—as a novice—and start by improving the 'heart' of the + production so as to increase its capacity 400 per cent. When I pressed him + for an explanation, he was unable to give any definite reasons, except + that he felt positive it could be done. In this connection let me say that + very many times I have heard Mr. Edison make predictions as to what a + certain mechanical device ought to do in the way of output and costs, when + his statements did not seem to be even among the possibilities. + Subsequently, after more or less experience, these predictions have been + verified, and I cannot help coming to the conclusion that he has a + faculty, not possessed by the average mortal, of intuitively and correctly + sizing up mechanical and commercial possibilities. + </p> + <p> + "But, returning to the kiln, Mr. Edison went to work immediately and very + soon completed the design of a new type which was to be one hundred and + fifty feet long and nine feet in diameter, made up in ten-foot sections of + cast iron bolted together and arranged to be revolved on fifteen bearings. + He had a wooden model made and studied it very carefully, through a series + of experiments. These resulted so satisfactorily that this form was + finally decided upon, and ultimately installed as part of the plant. + </p> + <p> + "Well, for a year or so the kiln problem was a nightmare to me. When we + started up the plant experimentally, and the long kiln was first put in + operation, an output of about four hundred barrels in twenty-four hours + was obtained. Mr. Edison was more than disappointed at this result. His + terse comment on my report was: 'Rotten. Try it again.' When we became a + little more familiar with the operation of the kiln we were able to get + the output up to about five hundred and fifty barrels, and a little later + to six hundred and fifty barrels per day. I would go down to Orange and + report with a great deal of satisfaction the increase in output, but Mr. + Edison would apparently be very much disappointed, and often said to me + that the trouble was not with the kiln, but with our method of operating + it; and he would reiterate his first statement that it would make one + thousand barrels in twenty-four hours. + </p> + <p> + "Each time I would return to the plant with the determination to increase + the output if possible, and we did increase it to seven hundred and fifty, + then to eight hundred and fifty barrels. Every time I reported these + increases Mr. Edison would still be disappointed. I said to him several + times that if he was so sure the kiln could turn out one thousand barrels + in twenty-four hours we would be very glad to have him tell us how to do + it, and that we would run it in any way he directed. He replied that he + did not know what it was that kept the output down, but he was just as + confident as ever that the kiln would make one thousand barrels per day, + and that if he had time to work with and watch the kiln it would not take + him long to find out the reasons why. He had made a number of suggestions + throughout these various trials, however, and, as we continued to operate, + we learned additional points in handling, and were able to get the output + up to nine hundred barrels, then one thousand, and finally to over eleven + hundred barrels per day, thus more than realizing the prediction made by + Mr. Edison before even the plans were drawn. It is only fair to say, + however, that prolonged experience has led us to the conclusion that the + maximum economy in continuous operation of these kilns is obtained by + working them at a little less than their maximum capacity. + </p> + <p> + "It is interesting to note, in connection with the Edison type of kiln, + that when the older cement manufacturers first learned of it, they + ridiculed the idea universally, and were not slow to predict our early + 'finish' as cement manufacturers. The ultimate success of the kiln, + however, proved their criticisms to be unwarranted. Once aware of its + possibility, some of the cement manufacturers proceeded to avail + themselves of the innovation (at first without Mr. Edison's consent), and + to-day more than one-half of the Portland cement produced in this country + is made in kilns of the Edison type. Old plants are lengthening their + kilns wherever practicable, and no wide-awake manufacturer building a + modern plant could afford to install other than these long kilns. This + invention of Mr. Edison has been recognized by the larger cement + manufacturers, and there is every prospect now that the entire trade will + take licenses under his kiln patents." + </p> + <p> + When he decided to go into the cement business, Edison was thoroughly + awake to the fact that he was proposing to "butt into" an old-established + industry, in which the principal manufacturers were concerns of long + standing. He appreciated fully its inherent difficulties, not only in + manufacture, but also in the marketing of the product. These + considerations, together with his long-settled principle of striving + always to make the best, induced him at the outset to study methods of + producing the highest quality of product. Thus he was led to originate + innovations in processes, some of which have been preserved as trade + secrets; but of the others there are two deserving special notice—namely, + the accuracy of mixing and the fineness of grinding. + </p> + <p> + In cement-making, generally speaking, cement rock and limestone in the + rough are mixed together in such relative quantities as may be determined + upon in advance by chemical analysis. In many plants this mixture is made + by barrow or load units, and may be more or less accurate. Rule-of-thumb + methods are never acceptable to Edison, and he devised therefore a system + of weighing each part of the mixture, so that it would be correct to a + pound, and, even at that, made the device "fool-proof," for as he observed + to one of his associates: "The man at the scales might get to thinking of + the other fellow's best girl, so fifty or a hundred pounds of rock, more + or less, wouldn't make much difference to him." The Edison checking plan + embraces two hoppers suspended above two platform scales whose beams are + electrically connected with a hopper-closing device by means of needles + dipping into mercury cups. The scales are set according to the chemist's + weighing orders, and the material is fed into the scales from the hoppers. + The instant the beam tips, the connection is broken and the feed stops + instantly, thus rendering it impossible to introduce any more material + until the charge has been unloaded. + </p> + <p> + The fine grinding of cement clinker is distinctively Edisonian in both + origin and application. As has been already intimated, its author followed + a thorough course of reading on the subject long before reaching the + actual projection or installation of a plant, and he had found all + authorities to agree on one important point—namely, that the value + of cement depends upon the fineness to which it is ground. [16] He also + ascertained that in the trade the standard of fineness was that 75 per + cent. of the whole mass would pass through a 200-mesh screen. Having made + some improvements in his grinding and screening apparatus, and believing + that in the future engineers, builders, and contractors would eventually + require a higher degree of fineness, he determined, in advance of + manufacturing, to raise the standard ten points, so that at least 85 per + cent. of his product should pass through a 200-mesh screen. This was a + bold step to be taken by a new-comer, but his judgment, backed by a full + confidence in ability to live up to this standard, has been fully + justified in its continued maintenance, despite the early incredulity of + older manufacturers as to the possibility of attaining such a high degree + of fineness. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 16: For a proper understanding and full + appreciation of the importance of fine grinding, it may be + explained that Portland cement (as manufactured in the + Lehigh Valley) is made from what is commonly spoken of as + "cement rock," with the addition of sufficient limestone to + give the necessary amount of lime. The rock is broken down + and then ground to a fineness of 80 to 90 per cent. through + a 200-mesh screen. This ground material passes through kilns + and comes out in "clinker." This is ground and that part of + this finely ground clinker that will pass a 200-mesh screen + is cement; the residue is still clinker. These coarse + particles, or clinkers, absorb water very slowly, are + practically inert, and have very feeble cementing + properties. The residue on a 200-mesh screen is useless.] +</pre> + <p> + If Edison measured his happiness, as men often do, by merely commercial or + pecuniary rewards of success, it would seem almost redundant to state that + he has continued to manifest an intense interest in the cement plant. + Ordinarily, his interest as an inventor wanes in proportion to the + approach to mere commercialism—in other words, the keenness of his + pleasure is in overcoming difficulties rather than the mere piling up of a + bank account. He is entirely sensible of the advantages arising from a + good balance at the banker's, but that has not been the goal of his + ambition. Hence, although his cement enterprise reached the commercial + stage a long time ago, he has been firmly convinced of his own ability to + devise still further improvements and economical processes of greater or + less fundamental importance, and has, therefore, made a constant study of + the problem as a whole and in all its parts. By means of frequent reports, + aided by his remarkable memory, he keeps in as close touch with the plant + as if he were there in person every day, and is thus enabled to suggest + improvement in any particular detail. The engineering force has a great + respect for the accuracy of his knowledge of every part of the plant, for + he remembers the dimensions and details of each item of machinery, + sometimes to the discomfiture of those who are around it every day. + </p> + <p> + A noteworthy instance of Edison's memory occurred in connection with this + cement plant. Some years ago, as its installation was nearing completion, + he went up to look it over and satisfy himself as to what needed to be + done. On the arrival of the train at 10.40 in the morning, he went to the + mill, and, with Mr. Mason, the general superintendent, started at the + crusher at one end, and examined every detail all the way through to the + packing-house at the other end. He made neither notes nor memoranda, but + the examination required all the day, which happened to be a Saturday. He + took a train for home at 5.30 in the afternoon, and on arriving at his + residence at Orange, got out some note-books and began to write entirely + from memory each item consecutively. He continued at this task all through + Saturday night, and worked steadily on until Sunday afternoon, when he + completed a list of nearly six hundred items. The nature of this feat is + more appreciable from the fact that a large number of changes included all + the figures of new dimensions he had decided upon for some of the + machinery throughout the plant. + </p> + <p> + As the reader may have a natural curiosity to learn whether or not the + list so made was practical, it may be stated that it was copied and sent + up to the general superintendent with instructions to make the + modifications suggested, and report by numbers as they were attended to. + This was faithfully done, all the changes being made before the plant was + put into operation. Subsequent experience has amply proven the value of + Edison's prescience at this time. + </p> + <p> + Although Edison's achievements in the way of improved processes and + machinery have already made a deep impression in the cement industry, it + is probable that this impression will become still more profoundly stamped + upon it in the near future with the exploitation of his "Poured Cement + House." The broad problem which he set himself was to provide handsome and + practically indestructible detached houses, which could be taken by + wage-earners at very moderate monthly rentals. He turned this question + over in his mind for several years, and arrived at the conclusion that a + house cast in one piece would be the answer. To produce such a house + involved the overcoming of many engineering and other technical + difficulties. These he attacked vigorously and disposed of patiently one + by one. + </p> + <p> + In this connection a short anecdote may be quoted from Edison as + indicative of one of the influences turning his thoughts in this + direction. In the story of the ore-milling work, it has been noted that + the plant was shut down owing to the competition of the cheap ore from the + Mesaba Range. Edison says: "When I shut down, the insurance companies + cancelled my insurance. I asked the reason why. 'Oh,' they said, 'this + thing is a failure. The moral risk is too great.' 'All right; I am glad to + hear it. I will now construct buildings that won't have any moral risk.' I + determined to go into the Portland cement business. I organized a company + and started cement-works which have now been running successfully for + several years. I had so perfected the machinery in trying to get my ore + costs down that the making of cheap cement was an easy matter to me. I + built these works entirely of concrete and steel, so that there is not a + wagon-load of lumber in them; and so that the insurance companies would + not have any possibility of having any 'moral risk.' Since that time I + have put up numerous factory buildings all of steel and concrete, without + any combustible whatever about them—to avoid this 'moral risk.' I am + carrying further the application of this idea in building private houses + for poor people, in which there will be no 'moral risk' at all—nothing + whatever to burn, not even by lightning." + </p> + <p> + As a casting necessitates a mold, together with a mixture sufficiently + fluid in its nature to fill all the interstices completely, Edison devoted + much attention to an extensive series of experiments for producing a + free-flowing combination of necessary materials. His proposition was + against all precedent. All expert testimony pointed to the fact that a + mixture of concrete (cement, sand, crushed stone, and water) could not be + made to flow freely to the smallest parts of an intricate set of molds; + that the heavy parts of the mixture could not be held in suspension, but + would separate out by gravity and make an unevenly balanced structure; + that the surface would be full of imperfections, etc. + </p> + <p> + Undeterred by the unanimity of adverse opinions, however, he pursued his + investigations with the thorough minuteness that characterizes all his + laboratory work, and in due time produced a mixture which on elaborate + test overcame all objections and answered the complex requirements + perfectly, including the making of a surface smooth, even, and entirely + waterproof. All the other engineering problems have received study in like + manner, and have been overcome, until at the present writing the whole + question is practically solved and has been reduced to actual practice. + The Edison poured or cast cement house may be reckoned as a reality. + </p> + <p> + The general scheme, briefly outlined, is to prepare a model and plans of + the house to be cast, and then to design a set of molds in sections of + convenient size. When all is ready, these molds, which are of cast iron + with smooth interior surfaces, are taken to the place where the house is + to be erected. Here there has been provided a solid concrete cellar floor, + technically called "footing." The molds are then locked together so that + they rest on this footing. Hundreds of pieces are necessary for the + complete set. When they have been completely assembled, there will be a + hollow space in the interior, representing the shape of the house. + Reinforcing rods are also placed in the molds, to be left behind in the + finished house. + </p> + <p> + Next comes the pouring of the concrete mixture into this form. Large + mechanical mixers are used, and, as it is made, the mixture is dumped into + tanks, from which it is conveyed to a distributing tank on the top, or + roof, of the form. From this tank a large number of open troughs or pipes + lead the mixture to various openings in the roof, whence it flows down and + fills all parts of the mold from the footing in the basement until it + overflows at the tip of the roof. + </p> + <p> + The pouring of the entire house is accomplished in about six hours, and + then the molds are left undisturbed for six days, in order that the + concrete may set and harden. After that time the work of taking away the + molds is begun. This requires three or four days. When the molds are taken + away an entire house is disclosed, cast in one piece, from cellar to tip + of roof, complete with floors, interior walls, stairways, bath and laundry + tubs, electric-wire conduits, gas, water, and heating pipes. No plaster is + used anywhere; but the exterior and interior walls are smooth and may be + painted or tinted, if desired. All that is now necessary is to put in the + windows, doors, heater, and lighting fixtures, and to connect up the + plumbing and heating arrangements, thus making the house ready for + occupancy. + </p> + <p> + As these iron molds are not ephemeral like the wooden framing now used in + cement construction, but of practically illimitable life, it is obvious + that they can be used a great number of times. A complete set of molds + will cost approximately $25,000, while the necessary plant will cost about + $15,000 more. It is proposed to work as a unit plant for successful + operation at least six sets of molds, to keep the men busy and the + machinery going. Any one, with a sheet of paper, can ascertain the yearly + interest on the investment as a fixed charge to be assessed against each + house, on the basis that one hundred and forty-four houses can be built in + a year with the battery of six sets of molds. Putting the sum at $175,000, + and the interest at 6 per cent. on the cost of the molds and 4 per cent. + for breakage, together with 6 per cent. interest and 15 per cent. + depreciation on machinery, the plant charge is approximately $140 per + house. It does not require a particularly acute prophetic vision to see + "Flower Towns" of "Poured Houses" going up in whole suburbs outside all + our chief centres of population. + </p> + <p> + Edison's conception of the workingman's ideal house has been a broad one + from the very start. He was not content merely to provide a roomy, + moderately priced house that should be fireproof, waterproof, and + vermin-proof, and practically indestructible, but has been solicitous to + get away from the idea of a plain "packing-box" type. He has also provided + for ornamentation of a high class in designing the details of the + structure. As he expressed it: "We will give the workingman and his family + ornamentation in their house. They deserve it, and besides, it costs no + more after the pattern is made to give decorative effects than it would to + make everything plain." The plans have provided for a type of house that + would cost not far from $30,000 if built of cut stone. He gave to Messrs. + Mann & McNaillie, architects, New York, his idea of the type of house + he wanted. On receiving these plans he changed them considerably, and + built a model. After making many more changes in this while in the pattern + shop, he produced a house satisfactory to himself. + </p> + <p> + This one-family house has a floor plan twenty-five by thirty feet, and is + three stories high. The first floor is divided off into two large rooms—parlor + and living-room—and the upper floors contain four large bedrooms, a + roomy bath-room, and wide halls. The front porch extends eight feet, and + the back porch three feet. A cellar seven and a half feet high extends + under the whole house, and will contain the boiler, wash-tubs, and + coal-bunker. It is intended that the house shall be built on lots forty by + sixty feet, giving a lawn and a small garden. + </p> + <p> + It is contemplated that these houses shall be built in industrial + communities, where they can be put up in groups of several hundred. If + erected in this manner, and by an operator buying his materials in large + quantities, Edison believes that these houses can be erected complete, + including heating apparatus and plumbing, for $1200 each. This figure + would also rest on the basis of using in the mixture the gravel excavated + on the site. Comment has been made by persons of artistic taste on the + monotony of a cluster of houses exactly alike in appearance, but this + criticism has been anticipated, and the molds are so made as to be capable + of permutations of arrangement. Thus it will be possible to introduce + almost endless changes in the style of house by variation of the same set + of molds. + </p> + <p> + For more than forty years Edison was avowedly an inventor for purely + commercial purposes; but within the last two years he decided to retire + from that field so far as new inventions were concerned, and to devote + himself to scientific research and experiment in the leisure hours that + might remain after continuing to improve his existing devices. But + although the poured cement house was planned during the commercial period, + the spirit in which it was conceived arose out of an earnest desire to + place within the reach of the wage-earner an opportunity to better his + physical, pecuniary, and mental conditions in so far as that could be done + through the medium of hygienic and beautiful homes at moderate rentals. + From the first Edison has declared that it was not his intention to + benefit pecuniarily through the exploitation of this project. Having + actually demonstrated the practicability and feasibility of his plans, he + will allow responsible concerns to carry them into practice under such + limitations as may be necessary to sustain the basic object, but without + any payment to him except for the actual expense incurred. The + hypercritical may cavil and say that, as a manufacturer of cement, Edison + will be benefited. True, but as ANY good Portland cement can be used, and + no restrictions as to source of supply are enforced, he, or rather his + company, will be merely one of many possible purveyors. + </p> + <p> + This invention is practically a gift to the workingmen of the world and + their families. The net result will be that those who care to avail + themselves of the privilege may, sooner or later, forsake the crowded + apartment or tenement and be comfortably housed in sanitary, substantial, + and roomy homes fitted with modern conveniences, and beautified by + artistic decorations, with no outlay for insurance or repairs; no dread of + fire, and all at a rental which Edison believes will be not more, but + probably less than, $10 per month in any city of the United States. While + his achievement in its present status will bring about substantial and + immediate benefits to wage-earners, his thoughts have already travelled + some years ahead in the formulation of a still further beneficial project + looking toward the individual ownership of these houses on a basis + startling in its practical possibilities. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0021" id="link2HCH0021"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXI + </h2> + <h3> + MOTION PICTURES + </h3> + <p> + THE preceding chapters have treated of Edison in various aspects as an + inventor, some of which are familiar to the public, others of which are + believed to be in the nature of a novel revelation, simply because no one + had taken the trouble before to put the facts together. To those who have + perhaps grown weary of seeing Edison's name in articles of a sensational + character, it may sound strange to say that, after all, justice has not + been done to his versatile and many-sided nature; and that the mere + prosaic facts of his actual achievement outrun the wildest flights of + irrelevant journalistic imagination. Edison hates nothing more than to be + dubbed a genius or played up as a "wizard"; but this fate has dogged him + until he has come at last to resign himself to it with a resentful + indignation only to be appreciated when watching him read the latest + full-page Sunday "spread" that develops a casual conversation into + oracular verbosity, and gives to his shrewd surmise the cast of inspired + prophecy. + </p> + <p> + In other words, Edison's real work has seldom been seriously discussed. + Rather has it been taken as a point of departure into a realm of fancy and + romance, where as a relief from drudgery he is sometimes quite willing to + play the pipe if some one will dance to it. Indeed, the stories woven + around his casual suggestions are tame and vapid alongside his own essays + in fiction, probably never to be published, but which show what a real + inventor can do when he cuts loose to create a new heaven and a new earth, + unrestrained by any formal respect for existing conditions of servitude to + three dimensions and the standard elements. + </p> + <p> + The present chapter, essentially technical in its subject-matter, is + perhaps as significant as any in this biography, because it presents + Edison as the Master Impresario of his age, and maybe of many following + ages also. His phonographs and his motion pictures have more audiences in + a week than all the theatres in America in a year. The "Nickelodeon" is + the central fact in modern amusement, and Edison founded it. All that + millions know of music and drama he furnishes; and the whole study of the + theatrical managers thus reaching the masses is not to ascertain the + limitations of the new art, but to discover its boundless possibilities. + None of the exuberant versions of things Edison has not done could endure + for a moment with the simple narrative of what he has really done as the + world's new Purveyor of Pleasure. And yet it all depends on the toilful + conquest of a subtle and intricate art. The story of the invention of the + phonograph has been told. That of the evolution of motion pictures + follows. It is all one piece of sober, careful analysis, and stubborn, + successful attack on the problem. + </p> + <p> + The possibility of making a record of animate movement, and subsequently + reproducing it, was predicted long before the actual accomplishment. This, + as we have seen, was also the case with the phonograph, the telephone, and + the electric light. As to the phonograph, the prediction went only so far + as the RESULT; the apparent intricacy of the problem being so great that + the MEANS for accomplishing the desired end were seemingly beyond the + grasp of the imagination or the mastery of invention. + </p> + <p> + With the electric light and the telephone the prediction included not only + the result to be accomplished, but, in a rough and general way, the + mechanism itself; that is to say, long before a single sound was + intelligibly transmitted it was recognized that such a thing might be done + by causing a diaphragm, vibrated by original sounds, to communicate its + movements to a distant diaphragm by a suitably controlled electric + current. In the case of the electric light, the heating of a conductor to + incandescence in a highly rarefied atmosphere was suggested as a scheme of + illumination long before its actual accomplishment, and in fact before the + production of a suitable generator for delivering electric current in a + satisfactory and economical manner. + </p> + <p> + It is a curious fact that while the modern art of motion pictures depends + essentially on the development of instantaneous photography, the + suggestion of the possibility of securing a reproduction of animate + motion, as well as, in a general way, of the mechanism for accomplishing + the result, was made many years before the instantaneous photograph became + possible. While the first motion picture was not actually produced until + the summer of 1889, its real birth was almost a century earlier, when + Plateau, in France, constructed an optical toy, to which the impressive + name of "Phenakistoscope" was applied, for producing an illusion of + motion. This toy in turn was the forerunner of the Zoetrope, or so-called + "Wheel of Life," which was introduced into this country about the year + 1845. These devices were essentially toys, depending for their successful + operation (as is the case with motion pictures) upon a physiological + phenomenon known as persistence of vision. If, for instance, a bright + light is moved rapidly in front of the eye in a dark room, it appears not + as an illuminated spark, but as a line of fire; a so-called shooting star, + or a flash of lightning produces the same effect. This result is purely + physiological, and is due to the fact that the retina of the eye may be + considered as practically a sensitized plate of relatively slow speed, and + an image impressed upon it remains, before being effaced, for a period of + from one-tenth to one-seventh of a second, varying according to the + idiosyncrasies of the individual and the intensity of the light. When, + therefore, it is said that we should only believe things we actually see, + we ought to remember that in almost every instance we never see things as + they are. + </p> + <p> + Bearing in mind the fact that when an image is impressed on the human + retina it persists for an appreciable period, varying as stated, with the + individual, and depending also upon the intensity of the illumination, it + will be seen that, if a number of pictures or photographs are successively + presented to the eye, they will appear as a single, continuous photograph, + provided the periods between them are short enough to prevent one of the + photographs from being effaced before its successor is presented. If, for + instance, a series of identical portraits were rapidly presented to the + eye, a single picture would apparently be viewed, or if we presented to + the eye the series of photographs of a moving object, each one + representing a minute successive phase of the movement, the movements + themselves would apparently again take place. + </p> + <p> + With the Zoetrope and similar toys rough drawings were used for depicting + a few broadly outlined successive phases of movement, because in their day + instantaneous photography was unknown, and in addition there were certain + crudities of construction that seriously interfered with the illumination + of the pictures, rendering it necessary to make them practically as + silhouettes on a very conspicuous background. Hence it will be obvious + that these toys produced merely an ILLUSION of THEORETICAL motion. + </p> + <p> + But with the knowledge of even an illusion of motion, and with the + philosophy of persistence of vision fully understood, it would seem that, + upon the development of instantaneous photography, the reproduction of + ACTUAL motion by means of pictures would have followed, almost as a + necessary consequence. Yet such was not the case, and success was + ultimately accomplished by Edison only after persistent experimenting + along lines that could not have been predicted, including the construction + of apparatus for the purpose, which, if it had not been made, would + undoubtedly be considered impossible. In fact, if it were not for Edison's + peculiar mentality, that refuses to recognize anything as impossible until + indubitably demonstrated to be so, the production of motion pictures would + certainly have been delayed for years, if not for all time. + </p> + <p> + One of the earliest suggestions of the possibility of utilizing + photography for exhibiting the illusion of actual movement was made by + Ducos, who, as early as 1864, obtained a patent in France, in which he + said: "My invention consists in substituting rapidly and without confusion + to the eye not only of an individual, but when so desired of a whole + assemblage, the enlarged images of a great number of pictures when taken + instantaneously and successively at very short intervals.... The observer + will believe that he sees only one image, which changes gradually by + reason of the successive changes of form and position of the objects which + occur from one picture to the other. Even supposing that there be a slight + interval of time during which the same object was not shown, the + persistence of the luminous impression upon the eye will fill this gap. + There will be as it were a living representation of nature and . . . the + same scene will be reproduced upon the screen with the same degree of + animation.... By means of my apparatus I am enabled especially to + reproduce the passing of a procession, a review of military manoeuvres, + the movements of a battle, a public fete, a theatrical scene, the + evolution or the dances of one or of several persons, the changing + expression of countenance, or, if one desires, the grimaces of a human + face; a marine view, the motion of waves, the passage of clouds in a + stormy sky, particularly in a mountainous country, the eruption of a + volcano," etc. + </p> + <p> + Other dreamers, contemporaries of Ducos, made similar suggestions; they + recognized the scientific possibility of the problem, but they were + irretrievably handicapped by the shortcomings of photography. Even when + substantially instantaneous photographs were evolved at a somewhat later + date they were limited to the use of wet plates, which have to be prepared + by the photographer and used immediately, and were therefore quite out of + the question for any practical commercial scheme. Besides this, the use of + plates would have been impracticable, because the limitations of their + weight and size would have prevented the taking of a large number of + pictures at a high rate of speed, even if the sensitized surface had been + sufficiently rapid. + </p> + <p> + Nothing ever came of Ducos' suggestions and those of the early dreamers in + this essentially practical and commercial art, and their ideas have made + no greater impress upon the final result than Jules Verne's Nautilus of + our boyhood days has developed the modern submarine. From time to time + further suggestions were made, some in patents, and others in photographic + and scientific publications, all dealing with the fascinating thought of + preserving and representing actual scenes and events. The first serious + attempt to secure an illusion of motion by photography was made in 1878 by + Edward Muybridge as a result of a wager with the late Senator Leland + Stanford, the California pioneer and horse-lover, who had asserted, + contrary to the usual belief, that a trotting-horse at one point in its + gait left the ground entirely. At this time wet plates of very great + rapidity were known, and by arranging a series of cameras along the line + of a track and causing the horse in trotting past them, by striking wires + or strings attached to the shutters, to actuate the cameras at the right + instant, a series of very clear instantaneous photographs was obtained. + From these negatives, when developed, positive prints were made, which + were later mounted on a modified form of Zoetrope and projected upon a + screen. + </p> + <p> + One of these early exhibitions is described in the Scientific American of + June 5, 1880: "While the separate photographs had shown the successive + positions of a trotting or running horse in making a single stride, the + Zoogyroscope threw upon the screen apparently the living animal. Nothing + was wanting but the clatter of hoofs upon the turf, and an occasional + breath of steam from the nostrils, to make the spectator believe that he + had before him genuine flesh-and-blood steeds. In the views of + hurdle-leaping, the simulation was still more admirable, even to the + motion of the tail as the animal gathered for the jump, the raising of his + head, all were there. Views of an ox trotting, a wild bull on the charge, + greyhounds and deer running and birds flying in mid-air were shown, also + athletes in various positions." It must not be assumed from this statement + that even as late as the work of Muybridge anything like a true illusion + of movement had been obtained, because such was not the case. Muybridge + secured only one cycle of movement, because a separate camera had to be + used for each photograph and consequently each cycle was reproduced over + and over again. To have made photographs of a trotting-horse for one + minute at the moderate rate of twelve per second would have required, + under the Muybridge scheme, seven hundred and twenty separate cameras, + whereas with the modern art only a single camera is used. A further defect + with the Muybridge pictures was that since each photograph was secured + when the moving object was in the centre of the plate, the reproduction + showed the object always centrally on the screen with its arms or legs in + violent movement, but not making any progress, and with the scenery + rushing wildly across the field of view! + </p> + <p> + In the early 80's the dry plate was first introduced into general use, and + from that time onward its rapidity and quality were gradually improved; so + much so that after 1882 Prof. E. J. Marey, of the French Academy, who in + 1874 had published a well-known treatise on "Animal Movement," was able by + the use of dry plates to carry forward the experiments of Muybridge on a + greatly refined scale. Marey was, however, handicapped by reason of the + fact that glass plates were still used, although he was able with a single + camera to obtain twelve photographs on successive plates in the space of + one second. Marey, like Muybridge, photographed only one cycle of the + movements of a single object, which was subsequently reproduced over and + over again, and the camera was in the form of a gun, which could follow + the object so that the successive pictures would be always located in the + centre of the plates. + </p> + <p> + The review above given, as briefly as possible, comprises substantially + the sum of the world's knowledge at the time the problem of recording and + reproducing animate movement was first undertaken by Edison. The most that + could be said of the condition of the art when Edison entered the field + was that it had been recognized that if a series of instantaneous + photographs of a moving object could be secured at an enormously high rate + many times per second—they might be passed before the eye either + directly or by projection upon a screen, and thereby result in a + reproduction of the movements. Two very serious difficulties lay in the + way of actual accomplishment, however—first, the production of a + sensitive surface in such form and weight as to be capable of being + successively brought into position and exposed, at the necessarily high + rate; and, second, the production of a camera capable of so taking the + pictures. There were numerous other workers in the field, but they added + nothing to what had already been proposed. Edison himself knew nothing of + Ducos, or that the suggestions had advanced beyond the single centrally + located photographs of Muybridge and Marey. As a matter of public policy, + the law presumes that an inventor must be familiar with all that has gone + before in the field within which he is working, and if a suggestion is + limited to a patent granted in New South Wales, or is described in a + single publication in Brazil, an inventor in America, engaged in the same + field of thought, is by legal fiction presumed to have knowledge not only + of the existence of that patent or publication, but of its contents. We + say this not in the way of an apology for the extent of Edison's + contribution to the motion-picture art, because there can be no question + that he was as much the creator of that art as he was of the phonographic + art; but to show that in a practical sense the suggestion of the art + itself was original with him. He himself says: "In the year 1887 the idea + occurred to me that it was possible to devise an instrument which should + do for the eye what the phonograph does for the ear, and that by a + combination of the two, all motion and sound could be recorded and + reproduced simultaneously. This idea, the germ of which came from the + little toy called the Zoetrope and the work of Muybridge, Marey, and + others, has now been accomplished, so that every change of facial + expression can be recorded and reproduced life-size. The kinetoscope is + only a small model illustrating the present stage of the progress, but + with each succeeding month new possibilities are brought into view. I + believe that in coming years, by my own work and that of Dickson, + Muybridge, Marey, and others who will doubtless enter the field, grand + opera can be given at the Metropolitan Opera House at New York without any + material change from the original, and with artists and musicians long + since dead." + </p> + <p> + In the earliest experiments attempts were made to secure the photographs, + reduced microscopically, arranged spirally on a cylinder about the size of + a phonograph record, and coated with a highly sensitized surface, the + cylinder being given an intermittent movement, so as to be at rest during + each exposure. Reproductions were obtained in the same way, positive + prints being observed through a magnifying glass. Various forms of + apparatus following this general type were made, but they were all open to + the serious objection that the very rapid emulsions employed were + relatively coarse-grained and prevented the securing of sharp pictures of + microscopic size. On the other hand, the enlarging of the apparatus to + permit larger pictures to be obtained would present too much weight to be + stopped and started with the requisite rapidity. In these early + experiments, however, it was recognized that, to secure proper results, a + single camera should be used, so that the objects might move across its + field just as they move across the field of the human eye; and the + important fact was also observed that the rate at which persistence of + vision took place represented the minimum speed at which the pictures + should be obtained. If, for instance, five pictures per second were taken + (half of the time being occupied in exposure and the other half in moving + the exposed portion of the film out of the field of the lens and bringing + a new portion into its place), and the same ratio is observed in + exhibiting the pictures, the interval of time between successive pictures + would be one-tenth of a second; and for a normal eye such an exhibition + would present a substantially continuous photograph. If the angular + movement of the object across the field is very slow, as, for instance, a + distant vessel, the successive positions of the object are so nearly + coincident that when reproduced before the eye an impression of smooth, + continuous movement is secured. If, however, the object is moving rapidly + across the field of view, one picture will be separated from its successor + to a marked extent, and the resulting impression will be jerky and + unnatural. Recognizing this fact, Edison always sought for a very high + speed, so as to give smooth and natural reproductions, and even with his + experimental apparatus obtained upward of forty-eight pictures per second, + whereas, in practice, at the present time, the accepted rate varies + between twenty and thirty per second. In the efforts of the present day to + economize space by using a minimum length of film, pictures are frequently + taken at too slow a rate, and the reproductions are therefore often + objectionable, by reason of more or less jerkiness. + </p> + <p> + During the experimental period and up to the early part of 1889, the kodak + film was being slowly developed by the Eastman Kodak Company. Edison + perceived in this product the solution of the problem on which he had been + working, because the film presented a very light body of tough material on + which relatively large photographs could be taken at rapid intervals. The + surface, however, was not at first sufficiently sensitive to admit of + sharply defined pictures being secured at the necessarily high rates. It + seemed apparent, therefore, that in order to obtain the desired speed + there would have to be sacrificed that fineness of emulsion necessary for + the securing of sharp pictures. But as was subsequently seen, this + sacrifice was in time rendered unnecessary. Much credit is due the Eastman + experts—stimulated and encouraged by Edison, but independently of + him—for the production at last of a highly sensitized, fine-grained + emulsion presenting the highly sensitized surface that Edison sought. + </p> + <p> + Having at last obtained apparently the proper material upon which to + secure the photographs, the problem then remained to devise an apparatus + by means of which from twenty to forty pictures per second could be taken; + the film being stationary during the exposure and, upon the closing of the + shutter, being moved to present a fresh surface. In connection with this + problem it is interesting to note that this question of high speed was + apparently regarded by all Edison's predecessors as the crucial point. + Ducos, for example, expended a great deal of useless ingenuity in devising + a camera by means of which a tape-line film could receive the photographs + while being in continuous movement, necessitating the use of a series of + moving lenses. Another experimenter, Dumont, made use of a single large + plate and a great number of lenses which were successively exposed. + Muybridge, as we have seen, used a series of cameras, one for each plate. + Marey was limited to a very few photographs, because the entire surface + had to be stopped and started in connection with each exposure. + </p> + <p> + After the accomplishment of the fact, it would seem to be the obvious + thing to use a single lens and move the sensitized film with respect to + it, intermittently bringing the surface to rest, then exposing it, then + cutting off the light and moving the surface to a fresh position; but who, + other than Edison, would assume that such a device could be made to repeat + these movements over and over again at the rate of twenty to forty per + second? Users of kodaks and other forms of film cameras will appreciate + perhaps better than others the difficulties of the problem, because in + their work, after an exposure, they have to advance the film forward + painfully to the extent of the next picture before another exposure can + take place, these operations permitting of speeds of but a few pictures + per minute at best. Edison's solution of the problem involved the + production of a kodak in which from twenty to forty pictures should be + taken IN EACH SECOND, and with such fineness of adjustment that each + should exactly coincide with its predecessors even when subjected to the + test of enlargement by projection. This, however, was finally + accomplished, and in the summer of 1889 the first modern motion-picture + camera was made. More than this, the mechanism for operating the film was + so constructed that the movement of the film took place in one-tenth of + the time required for the exposure, giving the film an opportunity to come + to rest prior to the opening of the shutter. From that day to this the + Edison camera has been the accepted standard for securing pictures of + objects in motion, and such changes as have been made in it have been + purely in the nature of detail mechanical refinements. + </p> + <p> + The earliest form of exhibiting apparatus, known as the Kinetoscope, was a + machine in which a positive print from the negative obtained in the camera + was exhibited directly to the eye through a peep-hole; but in 1895 the + films were applied to modified forms of magic lanterns, by which the + images are projected upon a screen. Since that date the industry has + developed very rapidly, and at the present time (1910) all of the + principal American manufacturers of motion pictures are paying a royalty + to Edison under his basic patents. + </p> + <p> + From the early days of pictures representing simple movements, such as a + man sneezing, or a skirt-dance, there has been a gradual evolution, until + now the pictures represent not only actual events in all their palpitating + instantaneity, but highly developed dramas and scenarios enacted in large, + well-equipped glass studios, and the result of infinite pains and expense + of production. These pictures are exhibited in upward of eight thousand + places of amusement in the United States, and are witnessed by millions of + people each year. They constitute a cheap, clean form of amusement for + many persons who cannot spare the money to go to the ordinary theatres, or + they may be exhibited in towns that are too small to support a theatre. + More than this, they offer to the poor man an effective substitute for the + saloon. Probably no invention ever made has afforded more pleasure and + entertainment than the motion picture. + </p> + <p> + Aside from the development of the motion picture as a spectacle, there has + gone on an evolution in its use for educational purposes of wide range, + which must not be overlooked. In fact, this form of utilization has been + carried further in Europe than in this country as a means of demonstration + in the arts and sciences. One may study animal life, watch a surgical + operation, follow the movement of machinery, take lessons in facial + expression or in calisthenics. It seems a pity that in motion pictures + should at last have been found the only competition that the ancient + marionettes cannot withstand. But aside from the disappearance of those + entertaining puppets, all else is gain in the creation of this new art. + </p> + <p> + The work at the Edison laboratory in the development of the motion picture + was as usual intense and concentrated, and, as might be expected, many of + the early experiments were quite primitive in their character until + command had been secured of relatively perfect apparatus. The subjects + registered jerkily by the films were crude and amusing, such as of Fred + Ott's sneeze, Carmencita dancing, Italians and their performing bears, + fencing, trapeze stunts, horsemanship, blacksmithing—just simple + movements without any attempt to portray the silent drama. One curious + incident of this early study occurred when "Jim" Corbett was asked to box + a few rounds in front of the camera, with a "dark un" to be selected + locally. This was agreed to, and a celebrated bruiser was brought over + from Newark. When this "sparring partner" came to face Corbett in the + imitation ring he was so paralyzed with terror he could hardly move. It + was just after Corbett had won one of his big battles as a prize-fighter, + and the dismay of his opponent was excusable. The "boys" at the laboratory + still laugh consumedly when they tell about it. + </p> + <p> + The first motion-picture studio was dubbed by the staff the "Black Maria." + It was an unpretentious oblong wooden structure erected in the laboratory + yard, and had a movable roof in the central part. This roof could be + raised or lowered at will. The building was covered with black roofing + paper, and was also painted black inside. There was no scenery to render + gay this lugubrious environment, but the black interior served as the + common background for the performers, throwing all their actions into high + relief. The whole structure was set on a pivot so that it could be swung + around with the sun; and the movable roof was opened so that the + accentuating sunlight could stream in upon the actor whose gesticulations + were being caught by the camera. These beginnings and crudities are very + remote from the elaborate and expensive paraphernalia and machinery with + which the art is furnished to-day. + </p> + <p> + At the present time the studios in which motion pictures are taken are + expensive and pretentious affairs. An immense building of glass, with all + the properties and stage-settings of a regular theatre, is required. The + Bronx Park studio of the Edison company cost at least one hundred thousand + dollars, while the well-known house of Pathe Freres in France—one of + Edison's licensees—makes use of no fewer than seven of these glass + theatres. All of the larger producers of pictures in this country and + abroad employ regular stock companies of actors, men and women selected + especially for their skill in pantomime, although, as most observers have + perhaps suspected, in the actual taking of the pictures the performers are + required to carry on an animated and prepared dialogue with the same + spirit and animation as on the regular stage. Before setting out on the + preparation of a picture, the book is first written—known in the + business as a scenario—giving a complete statement as to the + scenery, drops and background, and the sequence of events, divided into + scenes as in an ordinary play. These are placed in the hands of a + "producer," corresponding to a stage-director, generally an actor or + theatrical man of experience, with a highly developed dramatic instinct. + The various actors are selected, parts are assigned, and the + scene-painters are set to work on the production of the desired scenery. + Before the photographing of a scene, a long series of rehearsals takes + place, the incidents being gone over and over again until the actors are + "letter perfect." So persistent are the producers in the matter of + rehearsals and the refining and elaboration of details, that frequently a + picture that may be actually photographed and reproduced in fifteen + minutes, may require two or three weeks for its production. After the + rehearsal of a scene has advanced sufficiently to suit the critical + requirements of the producer, the camera man is in requisition, and he is + consulted as to lighting so as to produce the required photographic + effect. Preferably, of course, sunlight is used whenever possible, hence + the glass studios; but on dark days, and when night-work is necessary, + artificial light of enormous candle-power is used, either mercury arcs or + ordinary arc lights of great size and number. + </p> + <p> + Under all conditions the light is properly screened and diffused to suit + the critical eye of the camera man. All being in readiness, the actual + picture is taken, the actors going through their rehearsed parts, the + producer standing out of the range of the camera, and with a megaphone to + his lips yelling out his instructions, imprecations, and approval, and the + camera man grinding at the crank of the camera and securing the pictures + at the rate of twenty or more per second, making a faithful and permanent + record of every movement and every change of facial expression. At the end + of the scene the negative is developed in the ordinary way, and is then + ready for use in the printing of the positives for sale. When a further + scene in the play takes place in the same setting, and without regard to + its position in the plot, it is taken up, rehearsed, and photographed in + the same way, and afterward all the scenes are cemented together in the + proper sequence, and form the complete negative. Frequently, therefore, in + the production of a motion-picture play, the first and the last scene may + be taken successively, the only thing necessary being, of course, that + after all is done the various scenes should be arranged in their proper + order. The frames, having served their purpose, now go back to the + scene-painter for further use. All pictures are not taken in studios, + because when light and weather permit and proper surroundings can be + secured outside, scenes can best be obtained with natural scenery—city + streets, woods, and fields. The great drawback to the taking of pictures + out-of-doors, however, is the inevitable crowd, attracted by the novelty + of the proceedings, which makes the camera man's life a torment by getting + into the field of his instrument. The crowds are patient, however, and in + one Edison picture involving the blowing up of a bridge by the villain of + the piece and the substitution of a pontoon bridge by a company of + engineers just in time to allow the heroine to pass over in her + automobile, more than a thousand people stood around for almost an entire + day waiting for the tedious rehearsals to end and the actual performance + to begin. Frequently large bodies of men are used in pictures, such as + troops of soldiers, and it is an open secret that for weeks during the + Boer War regularly equipped British and Boer armies confronted each other + on the peaceful hills of Orange, New Jersey, ready to enact before the + camera the stirring events told by the cable from the seat of hostilities. + These conflicts were essentially harmless, except in one case during the + battle of Spion Kopje, when "General Cronje," in his efforts to fire a + wooden cannon, inadvertently dropped his fuse into a large glass bottle + containing gunpowder. The effect was certainly most dramatic, and created + great enthusiasm among the many audiences which viewed the completed + production; but the unfortunate general, who is still an employee, was + taken to the hospital, and even now, twelve years afterward, he says with + a grin that whenever he has a moment of leisure he takes the time to pick + a few pieces of glass from his person! + </p> + <p> + Edison's great contribution to the regular stage was the incandescent + electric lamp, which enabled the production of scenic effects never before + even dreamed of, but which we accept now with so much complacency. Yet + with the motion picture, effects are secured that could not be reproduced + to the slightest extent on the real stage. The villain, overcome by a + remorseful conscience, sees on the wall of the room the very crime which + he committed, with HIMSELF as the principal actor; one of the easy effects + of double exposure. The substantial and ofttimes corpulent ghost or spirit + of the real stage has been succeeded by an intangible wraith, as + transparent and unsubstantial as may be demanded in the best book of fairy + tales—more double exposure. A man emerges from the water with a + splash, ascends feet foremost ten yards or more, makes a graceful curve + and lands on a spring-board, runs down it to the bank, and his clothes fly + gently up from the ground and enclose his person—all unthinkable in + real life, but readily possible by running the motion-picture film + backward! The fairy prince commands the princess to appear, consigns the + bad brothers to instant annihilation, turns the witch into a cat, confers + life on inanimate things; and many more startling and apparently + incomprehensible effects are carried out with actual reality, by stop-work + photography. In one case, when the command for the heroine to come forth + is given, the camera is stopped, the young woman walks to the desired + spot, and the camera is again started; the effect to the eye—not + knowing of this little by-play—is as if she had instantly appeared + from space. The other effects are perhaps obvious, and the field and + opportunities are absolutely unlimited. Other curious effects are secured + by taking the pictures at a different speed from that at which they are + exhibited. If, for example, a scene occupying thirty seconds is reproduced + in ten seconds, the movements will be three times as fast, and vice versa. + Many scenes familiar to the reader, showing automobiles tearing along the + road and rounding corners at an apparently reckless speed, are really + pictures of slow and dignified movements reproduced at a high speed. + </p> + <p> + Brief reference has been made to motion pictures of educational subjects, + and in this field there are very great opportunities for development. The + study of geography, scenes and incidents in foreign countries, showing the + lives and customs and surroundings of other peoples, is obviously more + entertaining to the child when actively depicted on the screen than when + merely described in words. The lives of great men, the enacting of + important historical events, the reproduction of great works of + literature, if visually presented to the child must necessarily impress + his mind with greater force than if shown by mere words. We predict that + the time is not far distant when, in many of our public schools, two or + three hours a week will be devoted to this rational and effective form of + education. + </p> + <p> + By applying microphotography to motion pictures an additional field is + opened up, one phase of which may be the study of germ life and bacteria, + so that our future medical students may become as familiar with the habits + and customs of the Anthrax bacillus, for example, as of the domestic cat. + </p> + <p> + From whatever point of view the subject is approached, the fact remains + that in the motion picture, perhaps more than with any other invention, + Edison has created an art that must always make a special appeal to the + mind and emotions of men, and although so far it has not advanced much + beyond the field of amusement, it contains enormous possibilities for + serious development in the future. Let us not think too lightly of the + humble five-cent theatre with its gaping crowd following with breathless + interest the vicissitudes of the beautiful heroine. Before us lies an + undeveloped land of opportunity which is destined to play an important + part in the growth and welfare of the human race. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0022" id="link2HCH0022"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXII + </h2> + <h3> + THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE EDISON STORAGE BATTERY + </h3> + <p> + IT is more than a hundred years since the elementary principle of the + storage battery or "accumulator" was detected by a Frenchman named + Gautherot; it is just fifty years since another Frenchman, named Plante, + discovered that on taking two thin plates of sheet lead, immersing them in + dilute sulphuric acid, and passing an electric current through the cell, + the combination exhibited the ability to give back part of the original + charging current, owing to the chemical changes and reactions set up. + Plante coiled up his sheets into a very handy cell like a little roll of + carpet or pastry; but the trouble was that the battery took a long time to + "form." One sheet becoming coated with lead peroxide and the other with + finely divided or spongy metallic lead, they would receive current, and + then, even after a long period of inaction, furnish or return an + electromotive force of from 1.85 to 2.2 volts. This ability to store up + electrical energy produced by dynamos in hours otherwise idle, whether + driven by steam, wind, or water, was a distinct advance in the art; but + the sensational step was taken about 1880, when Faure in France and Brush + in America broke away from the slow and weary process of "forming" the + plates, and hit on clever methods of furnishing them "ready made," so to + speak, by dabbing red lead onto lead-grid plates, just as butter is spread + on a slice of home-made bread. This brought the storage battery at once + into use as a practical, manufactured piece of apparatus; and the world + was captivated with the idea. The great English scientist, Sir William + Thomson, went wild with enthusiasm when a Faure "box of electricity" was + brought over from Paris to him in 1881 containing a million foot-pounds of + stored energy. His biographer, Dr. Sylvanus P. Thompson, describes him as + lying ill in bed with a wounded leg, and watching results with an + incandescent lamp fastened to his bed curtain by a safety-pin, and lit up + by current from the little Faure cell. Said Sir William: "It is going to + be a most valuable, practical affair—as valuable as water-cisterns + to people whether they had or had not systems of water-pipes and + water-supply." Indeed, in one outburst of panegyric the shrewd physicist + remarked that he saw in it "a realization of the most ardently and + increasingly felt scientific aspiration of his life—an aspiration + which he hardly dared to expect or to see realized." A little later, + however, Sir William, always cautious and canny, began to discover the + inherent defects of the primitive battery, as to disintegration, + inefficiency, costliness, etc., and though offered tempting inducements, + declined to lend his name to its financial introduction. Nevertheless, he + accepted the principle as valuable, and put the battery to actual use. + </p> + <p> + For many years after this episode, the modern lead-lead type of battery + thus brought forward with so great a flourish of trumpets had a hard time + of it. Edison's attitude toward it, even as a useful supplement to his + lighting system, was always one of scepticism, and he remarked + contemptuously that the best storage battery he knew was a ton of coal. + The financial fortunes of the battery, on both sides of the Atlantic, were + as varied and as disastrous as its industrial; but it did at last emerge, + and "made good." By 1905, the production of lead-lead storage batteries in + the United States alone had reached a value for the year of nearly + $3,000,000, and it has increased greatly since that time. The storage + battery is now regarded as an important and indispensable adjunct in + nearly all modern electric-lighting and electric-railway systems of any + magnitude; and in 1909, in spite of its weight, it had found adoption in + over ten thousand automobiles of the truck, delivery wagon, pleasure + carriage, and runabout types in America. + </p> + <p> + Edison watched closely all this earlier development for about fifteen + years, not changing his mind as to what he regarded as the incurable + defects of the lead-lead type, but coming gradually to the conclusion that + if a storage battery of some other and better type could be brought + forward, it would fulfil all the early hopes, however extravagant, of such + men as Kelvin (Sir William Thomson), and would become as necessary and as + universal as the incandescent lamp or the electric motor. The beginning of + the present century found him at his point of new departure. + </p> + <p> + Generally speaking, non-technical and uninitiated persons have a tendency + to regard an invention as being more or less the ultimate result of some + happy inspiration. And, indeed, there is no doubt that such may be the + fact in some instances; but in most cases the inventor has intentionally + set out to accomplish a definite and desired result—mostly through + the application of the known laws of the art in which he happens to be + working. It is rarely, however, that a man will start out deliberately, as + Edison did, to evolve a radically new type of such an intricate device as + the storage battery, with only a meagre clew and a vague starting-point. + </p> + <p> + In view of the successful outcome of the problem which, in 1900, he + undertook to solve, it will be interesting to review his mental attitude + at that period. It has already been noted at the end of a previous chapter + that on closing the magnetic iron-ore concentrating plant at Edison, New + Jersey, he resolved to work on a new type of storage battery. It was about + this time that, in the course of a conversation with Mr. R. H. Beach, then + of the street-railway department of the General Electric Company, he said: + "Beach, I don't think Nature would be so unkind as to withhold the secret + of a GOOD storage battery if a real earnest hunt for it is made. I'm going + to hunt." + </p> + <p> + Frequently Edison has been asked what he considers the secret of + achievement. To this query he has invariably replied: "Hard work, based on + hard thinking." The laboratory records bear the fullest witness that he + has consistently followed out this prescription to the utmost. The + perfection of all his great inventions has been signalized by patient, + persistent, and incessant effort which, recognizing nothing short of + success, has resulted in the ultimate accomplishment of his ideas. + Optimistic and hopeful to a high degree, Edison has the happy faculty of + beginning the day as open-minded as a child—yesterday's + disappointments and failures discarded and discounted by the alluring + possibilities of to-morrow. + </p> + <p> + Of all his inventions, it is doubtful whether any one of them has called + forth more original thought, work, perseverance, ingenuity, and monumental + patience than the one we are now dealing with. One of his associates who + has been through the many years of the storage-battery drudgery with him + said: "If Edison's experiments, investigations, and work on this storage + battery were all that he had ever done, I should say that he was not only + a notable inventor, but also a great man. It is almost impossible to + appreciate the enormous difficulties that have been overcome." + </p> + <p> + From a beginning which was made practically in the dark, it was not until + he had completed more than ten thousand experiments that he obtained any + positive preliminary results whatever. Through all this vast amount of + research there had been no previous signs of the electrical action he was + looking for. These experiments had extended over many months of constant + work by day and night, but there was no breakdown of Edison's faith in + ultimate success—no diminution of his sanguine and confident + expectations. The failure of an experiment simply meant to him that he had + found something else that would not work, thus bringing the possible goal + a little nearer by a process of painstaking elimination. + </p> + <p> + Now, however, after these many months of arduous toil, in which he had + examined and tested practically all the known elements in numerous + chemical combinations, the electric action he sought for had been + obtained, thus affording him the first inkling of the secret that he had + industriously tried to wrest from Nature. It should be borne in mind that + from the very outset Edison had disdained any intention of following in + the only tracks then known by employing lead and sulphuric acid as the + components of a successful storage battery. Impressed with what he + considered the serious inherent defects of batteries made of these + materials, and the tremendously complex nature of the chemical reactions + taking place in all types of such cells, he determined boldly at the start + that he would devise a battery without lead, and one in which an alkaline + solution could be used—a form which would, he firmly believed, be + inherently less subject to decay and dissolution than the standard type, + which after many setbacks had finally won its way to an annual production + of many thousands of cells, worth millions of dollars. + </p> + <p> + Two or three thousand of the first experiments followed the line of his + well-known primary battery in the attempted employment of copper oxide as + an element in a new type of storage cell; but its use offered no + advantages, and the hunt was continued in other directions and pursued + until Edison satisfied himself by a vast number of experiments that nickel + and iron possessed the desirable qualifications he was in search of. + </p> + <p> + This immense amount of investigation which had consumed so many months of + time, and which had culminated in the discovery of a series of reactions + between nickel and iron that bore great promise, brought Edison merely + within sight of a strange and hitherto unexplored country. Slowly but + surely the results of the last few thousands of his preliminary + experiments had pointed inevitably to a new and fruitful region ahead. He + had discovered the hidden passage and held the clew which he had so + industriously sought. And now, having outlined a definite path, Edison was + all afire to push ahead vigorously in order that he might enter in and + possess the land. + </p> + <p> + It is a trite saying that "history repeats itself," and certainly no axiom + carries more truth than this when applied to the history of each of + Edison's important inventions. The development of the storage battery has + been no exception; indeed, far from otherwise, for in the ten years that + have elapsed since the time he set himself and his mechanics, chemists, + machinists, and experimenters at work to develop a practical commercial + cell, the old story of incessant and persistent efforts so manifest in the + working out of other inventions was fully repeated. + </p> + <p> + Very soon after he had decided upon the use of nickel and iron as the + elemental metals for his storage battery, Edison established a chemical + plant at Silver Lake, New Jersey, a few miles from the Orange laboratory, + on land purchased some time previously. This place was the scene of the + further experiments to develop the various chemical forms of nickel and + iron, and to determine by tests what would be best adapted for use in + cells manufactured on a commercial scale. With a little handful of + selected experimenters gathered about him, Edison settled down to one of + his characteristic struggles for supremacy. To some extent it was a + revival of the old Menlo Park days (or, rather, nights). Some of these who + had worked on the preliminary experiments, with the addition of a few + new-comers, toiled together regardless of passing time and often under + most discouraging circumstances, but with that remarkable esprit de corps + that has ever marked Edison's relations with his co-workers, and that has + contributed so largely to the successful carrying out of his ideas. + </p> + <p> + The group that took part in these early years of Edison's arduous labors + included his old-time assistant, Fred Ott, together with his chemist, J. + W. Aylsworth, as well as E. J. Ross, Jr., W. E. Holland, and Ralph + Arbogast, and a little later W. G. Bee, all of whom have grown up with the + battery and still devote their energies to its commercial development. One + of these workers, relating the strenuous experiences of these few years, + says: "It was hard work and long hours, but still there were some things + that made life pleasant. One of them was the supper-hour we enjoyed when + we worked nights. Mr. Edison would have supper sent in about midnight, and + we all sat down together, including himself. Work was forgotten for the + time, and all hands were ready for fun. I have very pleasant recollections + of Mr. Edison at these times. He would always relax and help to make a + good time, and on some occasions I have seen him fairly overflow with + animal spirits, just like a boy let out from school. After the supper-hour + was over, however, he again became the serious, energetic inventor, deeply + immersed in the work at hand. + </p> + <p> + "He was very fond of telling and hearing stories, and always appreciated a + joke. I remember one that he liked to get off on us once in a while. Our + lighting plant was in duplicate, and about 12.30 or 1 o'clock in the + morning, at the close of the supper-hour, a change would be made from one + plant to the other, involving the gradual extinction of the electric + lights and their slowly coming up to candle-power again, the whole change + requiring probably about thirty seconds. Sometimes, as this was taking + place, Edison would fold his hands, compose himself as if he were in sound + sleep, and when the lights were full again would apparently wake up, with + the remark, 'Well, boys, we've had a fine rest; now let's pitch into work + again.'" + </p> + <p> + Another interesting and amusing reminiscence of this period of activity + has been gathered from another of the family of experimenters: "Sometimes, + when Mr. Edison had been working long hours, he would want to have a short + sleep. It was one of the funniest things I ever witnessed to see him crawl + into an ordinary roll-top desk and curl up and take a nap. If there was a + sight that was still more funny, it was to see him turn over on his other + side, all the time remaining in the desk. He would use several volumes of + Watts's Dictionary of Chemistry for a pillow, and we fellows used to say + that he absorbed the contents during his sleep, judging from the flow of + new ideas he had on waking." + </p> + <p> + Such incidents as these serve merely to illustrate the lighter moments + that stand out in relief against the more sombre background of the + strenuous years, for, of all the absorbingly busy periods of Edison's + inventive life, the first five years of the storage-battery era was one of + the very busiest of them all. It was not that there remained any basic + principle to be discovered or simplified, for that had already been done; + but it was in the effort to carry these principles into practice that + there arose the numerous difficulties that at times seemed insurmountable. + But, according to another co-worker, "Edison seemed pleased when he used + to run up against a serious difficulty. It would seem to stiffen his + backbone and make him more prolific of new ideas. For a time I thought I + was foolish to imagine such a thing, but I could never get away from the + impression that he really appeared happy when he ran up against a serious + snag. That was in my green days, and I soon learned that the failure of an + experiment never discourages him unless it is by reason of the + carelessness of the man making it. Then Edison gets disgusted. If it fails + on its merits, he doesn't worry or fret about it, but, on the contrary, + regards it as a useful fact learned; remains cheerful and tries something + else. I have known him to reverse an unsuccessful experiment and come out + all right." + </p> + <p> + To follow Edison's trail in detail through the innumerable twists and + turns of his experimentation and research on the storage battery, during + the past ten years, would not be in keeping with the scope of this + narrative, nor would it serve any useful purpose. Besides, such details + would fill a big volume. The narrative, however, would not be complete + without some mention of the general outline of his work, and reference may + be made briefly to a few of the chief items. And lest the reader think + that the word "innumerable" may have been carelessly or hastily used + above, we would quote the reply of one of the laboratory assistants when + asked how many experiments had been made on the Edison storage battery + since the year 1900: "Goodness only knows! We used to number our + experiments consecutively from 1 to 10,000, and when we got up to 10,000 + we turned back to 1 and ran up to 10,000 again, and so on. We ran through + several series—I don't know how many, and have lost track of them + now, but it was not far from fifty thousand." + </p> + <p> + From the very first, Edison's broad idea of his storage battery was to + make perforated metallic containers having the active materials packed + therein; nickel hydrate for the positive and iron oxide for the negative + plate. This plan has been adhered to throughout, and has found its + consummation in the present form of the completed commercial cell, but in + the middle ground which stands between the early crude beginnings and the + perfected type of to-day there lies a world of original thought, patient + plodding, and achievement. + </p> + <p> + The first necessity was naturally to obtain the best and purest compounds + for active materials. Edison found that comparatively little was known by + manufacturing chemists about nickel and iron oxides of the high grade and + purity he required. Hence it became necessary for him to establish his own + chemical works and put them in charge of men specially trained by himself, + with whom he worked. This was the plant at Silver Lake, above referred to. + Here, for several years, there was ceaseless activity in the preparation + of these chemical compounds by every imaginable process and subsequent + testing. Edison's chief chemist says: "We left no stone unturned to find a + way of making those chemicals so that they would give the highest results. + We carried on the experiments with the two chemicals together. Sometimes + the nickel would be ahead in the tests, and then again it would fall + behind. To stimulate us to greater improvement, Edison hung up a card + which showed the results of tests in milliampere-hours given by the + experimental elements as we tried them with the various grades of nickel + and iron we had made. This stirred up a great deal of ambition among the + boys to push the figures up. Some of our earliest tests showed around 300, + but as we improved the material, they gradually crept up to over 500. Just + about that time Edison made a trip to Canada, and when he came back we had + made such good progress that the figures had crept up to about 1000. I + well remember how greatly he was pleased." + </p> + <p> + In speaking of the development of the negative element of the battery, Mr. + Aylsworth said: "In like manner the iron element had to be developed and + improved; and finally the iron, which had generally enjoyed superiority in + capacity over its companion, the nickel element, had to go in training in + order to retain its lead, which was imperative, in order to produce a + uniform and constant voltage curve. In talking with me one day about the + difficulties under which we were working and contrasting them with the + phonograph experimentation, Edison said: 'In phonographic work we can use + our ears and our eyes, aided with powerful microscopes; but in the battery + our difficulties cannot be seen or heard, but must be observed by our + mind's eye!' And by reason of the employment of such vision in the past, + Edison is now able to see quite clearly through the forest of difficulties + after eliminating them one by one." + </p> + <p> + The size and shape of the containing pockets in the battery plates or + elements and the degree of their perforation were matters that received + many years of close study and experiment; indeed, there is still to-day + constant work expended on their perfection, although their present general + form was decided upon several years ago. The mechanical construction of + the battery, as a whole, in its present form, compels instant admiration + on account of its beauty and completeness. Mr. Edison has spared neither + thought, ingenuity, labor, nor money in the effort to make it the most + complete and efficient storage cell obtainable, and the results show that + his skill, judgment, and foresight have lost nothing of the power that + laid the foundation of, and built up, other great arts at each earlier + stage of his career. + </p> + <p> + Among the complex and numerous problems that presented themselves in the + evolution of the battery was the one concerning the internal conductivity + of the positive unit. The nickel hydrate was a poor electrical conductor, + and although a metallic nickel pocket might be filled with it, there would + not be the desired electrical action unless a conducting substance were + mixed with it, and so incorporated and packed that there would be good + electrical contact throughout. This proved to be a most knotty and + intricate puzzle—tricky and evasive—always leading on and + promising something, and at the last slipping away leaving the work + undone. Edison's remarkable patience and persistence in dealing with this + trying problem and in finally solving it successfully won for him more + than ordinary admiration from his associates. One of them, in speaking of + the seemingly interminable experiments to overcome this trouble, said: "I + guess that question of conductivity of the positive pocket brought lots of + gray hairs to his head. I never dreamed a man could have such patience and + perseverance. Any other man than Edison would have given the whole thing + up a thousand times, but not he! Things looked awfully blue to the whole + bunch of us many a time, but he was always hopeful. I remember one time + things looked so dark to me that I had just about made up my mind to throw + up my job, but some good turn came just then and I didn't. Now I'm glad I + held on, for we've got a great future." + </p> + <p> + The difficulty of obtaining good electrical contact in the positive + element was indeed Edison's chief trouble for many years. After a great + amount of work and experimentation he decided upon a certain form of + graphite, which seemed to be suitable for the purpose, and then proceeded + to the commercial manufacture of the battery at a special factory in Glen + Ridge, New Jersey, installed for the purpose. There was no lack of buyers, + but, on the contrary, the factory was unable to turn out batteries enough. + The newspapers had previously published articles showing the unusual + capacity and performance of the battery, and public interest had thus been + greatly awakened. + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the establishment of a regular routine of manufacture and + sale, Edison did not cease to experiment for improvement. Although the + graphite apparently did the work desired of it, he was not altogether + satisfied with its performance and made extended trials of other + substances, but at that time found nothing that on the whole served the + purpose better. Continuous tests of the commercial cells were carried on + at the laboratory, as well as more practical and heavy tests in + automobiles, which were constantly kept running around the adjoining + country over all kinds of roads. All these tests were very closely watched + by Edison, who demanded rigorously that the various trials of the battery + should be carried on with all strenuousness so as to get the utmost + results and develop any possible weakness. So insistent was he on this, + that if any automobile should run several days without bursting a tire or + breaking some part of the machine, he would accuse the chauffeur of + picking out easy roads. + </p> + <p> + After these tests had been going on for some time, and some thousands of + cells had been sold and were giving satisfactory results to the + purchasers, the test sheets and experience gathered from various sources + pointed to the fact that occasionally a cell here and there would show up + as being short in capacity. Inasmuch as the factory processes were very + exact and carefully guarded, and every cell was made as uniform as human + skill and care could provide, there thus arose a serious problem. Edison + concentrated his powers on the investigation of this trouble, and found + that the chief cause lay in the graphite. Some other minor matters also + attracted his attention. What to do, was the important question that + confronted him. To shut down the factory meant great loss and apparent + failure. He realized this fully, but he also knew that to go on would + simply be to increase the number of defective batteries in circulation, + which would ultimately result in a permanent closure and real failure. + Hence he took the course which one would expect of Edison's common sense + and directness of action. He was not satisfied that the battery was a + complete success, so he shut down and went to experimenting once more. + </p> + <p> + "And then," says one of the laboratory men, "we started on another series + of record-breaking experiments that lasted over five years. I might almost + say heart-breaking, too, for of all the elusive, disappointing things one + ever hunted for that was the worst. But secrets have to be long-winded and + roost high if they want to get away when the 'Old Man' goes hunting for + them. He doesn't get mad when he misses them, but just keeps on smiling + and firing, and usually brings them into camp. That's what he did on the + battery, for after a whole lot of work he perfected the nickel-flake idea + and process, besides making the great improvement of using tubes instead + of flat pockets for the positive. He also added a minor improvement here + and there, and now we have a finer battery than we ever expected." + </p> + <p> + In the interim, while the experimentation of these last five years was in + progress, many customers who had purchased batteries of the original type + came knocking at the door with orders in their hands for additional + outfits wherewith to equip more wagons and trucks. Edison expressed his + regrets, but said he was not satisfied with the old cells and was engaged + in improving them. To which the customers replied that THEY were entirely + satisfied and ready and willing to pay for more batteries of the same + kind; but Edison could not be moved from his determination, although + considerable pressure was at times brought to bear to sway his decision. + </p> + <p> + Experiment was continued beyond the point of peradventure, and after some + new machinery had been built, the manufacture of the new type of cell was + begun in the early summer of 1909, and at the present writing is being + extended as fast as the necessary additional machinery can be made. The + product is shipped out as soon as it is completed. + </p> + <p> + The nickel flake, which is Edison's ingenious solution of the conductivity + problem, is of itself a most interesting product, intensely practical in + its application and fascinating in its manufacture. The flake of nickel is + obtained by electroplating upon a metallic cylinder alternate layers of + copper and nickel, one hundred of each, after which the combined sheet is + stripped from the cylinder. So thin are the layers that this sheet is only + about the thickness of a visiting-card, and yet it is composed of two + hundred layers of metal. The sheet is cut into tiny squares, each about + one-sixteenth of an inch, and these squares are put into a bath where the + copper is dissolved out. This releases the layers of nickel, so that each + of these small squares becomes one hundred tiny sheets, or flakes, of pure + metallic nickel, so thin that when they are dried they will float in the + air, like thistle-down. + </p> + <p> + In their application to the manufacture of batteries, the flakes are used + through the medium of a special machine, so arranged that small charges of + nickel hydrate and nickel flake are alternately fed into the pockets + intended for positives, and tamped down with a pressure equal to about + four tons per square inch. This insures complete and perfect contact and + consequent electrical conductivity throughout the entire unit. + </p> + <p> + The development of the nickel flake contains in itself a history of + patient investigation, labor, and achievement, but we have not space for + it, nor for tracing the great work that has been done in developing and + perfecting the numerous other parts and adjuncts of this remarkable + battery. Suffice it to say that when Edison went boldly out into new + territory, after something entirely unknown, he was quite prepared for + hard work and exploration. He encountered both in unstinted measure, but + kept on going forward until, after long travel, he had found all that he + expected and accomplished something more beside. Nature DID respond to his + whole-hearted appeal, and, by the time the hunt was ended, revealed a good + storage battery of entirely new type. Edison not only recognized and took + advantage of the principles he had discovered, but in adapting them for + commercial use developed most ingenious processes and mechanical + appliances for carrying his discoveries into practical effect. Indeed, it + may be said that the invention of an enormous variety of new machines and + mechanical appliances rendered necessary by each change during the various + stages of development of the battery, from first to last, stands as a + lasting tribute to the range and versatility of his powers. + </p> + <p> + It is not within the scope of this narrative to enter into any description + of the relative merits of the Edison storage battery, that being the + province of a commercial catalogue. It does, however, seem entirely + allowable to say that while at the present writing the tests that have + been made extend over a few years only, their results and the intrinsic + value of this characteristic Edison invention are of such a substantial + nature as to point to the inevitable growth of another great industry + arising from its manufacture, and to its wide-spread application to many + uses. + </p> + <p> + The principal use that Edison has had in mind for his battery is + transportation of freight and passengers by truck, automobile, and + street-car. The greatly increased capacity in proportion to weight of the + Edison cell makes it particularly adaptable for this class of work on + account of the much greater radius of travel that is possible by its use. + The latter point of advantage is the one that appeals most to the + automobilist, as he is thus enabled to travel, it is asserted, more than + three times farther than ever before on a single charge of the battery. + </p> + <p> + Edison believes that there are important advantages possible in the + employment of his storage battery for street-car propulsion. Under the + present system of operation, a plant furnishing the electric power for + street railways must be large enough to supply current for the maximum + load during "rush hours," although much of the machinery may be lying idle + and unproductive in the hours of minimum load. By the use of + storage-battery cars, this immense and uneconomical maximum investment in + plant can be cut down to proportions of true commercial economy, as the + charging of the batteries can be conducted at a uniform rate with a + reasonable expenditure for generating machinery. Not only this, but each + car becomes an independently moving unit, not subject to delay by reason + of a general breakdown of the power plant or of the line. In addition to + these advantages, the streets would be freed from their burden of trolley + wires or conduits. To put his ideas into practice, Edison built a short + railway line at the Orange works in the winter of 1909-10, and, in + co-operation with Mr. R. H. Beach, constructed a special type of + street-car, and equipped it with motor, storage battery, and other + necessary operating devices. This car was subsequently put upon the + street-car lines in New York City, and demonstrated its efficiency so + completely that it was purchased by one of the street-car companies, which + has since ordered additional cars for its lines. The demonstration of this + initial car has been watched with interest by many railroad officials, and + its performance has been of so successful a nature that at the present + writing (the summer of 1910) it has been necessary to organize and equip a + preliminary factory in which to construct many other cars of a similar + type that have been ordered by other street-railway companies. This + enterprise will be conducted by a corporation which has been specially + organized for the purpose. Thus, there has been initiated the development + of a new and important industry whose possible ultimate proportions are + beyond the range of present calculation. Extensive as this industry may + become, however, Edison is firmly convinced that the greatest field for + his storage battery lies in its adaptation to commercial trucking and + hauling, and to pleasure vehicles, in comparison with which the street-car + business even with its great possibilities—will not amount to more + than 1 per cent. + </p> + <p> + Edison has pithily summed up his work and his views in an article on "The + To-Morrows of Electricity and Invention" in Popular Electricity for June, + 1910, in which he says: "For years past I have been trying to perfect a + storage battery, and have now rendered it entirely suitable to automobile + and other work. There is absolutely no reason why horses should be allowed + within city limits; for between the gasoline and the electric car, no room + is left for them. They are not needed. The cow and the pig have gone, and + the horse is still more undesirable. A higher public ideal of health and + cleanliness is working toward such banishment very swiftly; and then we + shall have decent streets, instead of stables made out of strips of + cobblestones bordered by sidewalks. The worst use of money is to make a + fine thoroughfare, and then turn it over to horses. Besides that, the + change will put the humane societies out of business. Many people now + charge their own batteries because of lack of facilities; but I believe + central stations will find in this work very soon the largest part of + their load. The New York Edison Company, or the Chicago Edison Company, + should have as much current going out for storage batteries as for power + motors; and it will be so some near day." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0023" id="link2HCH0023"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIII + </h2> + <h3> + MISCELLANEOUS INVENTIONS + </h3> + <p> + IT has been the endeavor in this narrative to group Edison's inventions + and patents so that his work in the different fields can be studied + independently and separately. The history of his career has therefore + fallen naturally into a series of chapters, each aiming to describe some + particular development or art; and, in a way, the plan has been helpful to + the writers while probably useful to the readers. It happens, however, + that the process has left a vast mass of discovery and invention wholly + untouched, and relegates to a concluding brief chapter some of the most + interesting episodes of a fruitful life. Any one who will turn to the list + of Edison patents at the end of the book will find a large number of + things of which not even casual mention has been made, but which at the + time occupied no small amount of the inventor's time and attention, and + many of which are now part and parcel of modern civilization. Edison has, + indeed, touched nothing that he did not in some way improve. As Thoreau + said: "The laws of the Universe are not indifferent, but are forever on + the side of the most sensitive," and there never was any one more + sensitive to the defects of every art and appliance, nor any one more + active in applying the law of evolution. It is perhaps this many-sidedness + of Edison that has impressed the multitude, and that in the "popular vote" + taken a couple of years ago by the New York Herald placed his name at the + head of the list of ten greatest living Americans. It is curious and + pertinent to note that a similar plebiscite taken by a technical journal + among its expert readers had exactly the same result. Evidently the public + does not agree with the opinion expressed by the eccentric artist Blake in + his "Marriage of Heaven and Hell," when he said: "Improvement makes + strange roads; but the crooked roads without improvements are roads of + Genius." + </p> + <p> + The product of Edison's brain may be divided into three classes. The first + embraces such arts and industries, or such apparatus, as have already been + treated. The second includes devices like the tasimeter, phonomotor, + odoroscope, etc., and others now to be noted. The third embraces a number + of projected inventions, partially completed investigations, inventions in + use but not patented, and a great many caveats filed in the Patent Office + at various times during the last forty years for the purpose of protecting + his ideas pending their contemplated realization in practice. These + caveats served their purpose thoroughly in many instances, but there have + remained a great variety of projects upon which no definite action was + ever taken. One ought to add the contents of an unfinished piece of + extraordinary fiction based wholly on new inventions and devices utterly + unknown to mankind. Some day the novel may be finished, but Edison has no + inclination to go back to it, and says he cannot understand how any man is + able to make a speech or write a book, for he simply can't do it. + </p> + <p> + After what has been said in previous chapters, it will not seem so strange + that Edison should have hundreds of dormant inventions on his hands. There + are human limitations even for such a tireless worker as he is. While the + preparation of data for this chapter was going on, one of the writers in + discussing with him the vast array of unexploited things said: "Don't you + feel a sense of regret in being obliged to leave so many things + uncompleted?" To which he replied: "What's the use? One lifetime is too + short, and I am busy every day improving essential parts of my established + industries." It must suffice to speak briefly of a few leading inventions + that have been worked out, and to dismiss with scant mention all the rest, + taking just a few items, as typical and suggestive, especially when Edison + can himself be quoted as to them. Incidentally it may be noted that + things, not words, are referred to; for Edison, in addition to inventing + the apparatus, has often had to coin the word to describe it. A large + number of the words and phrases in modern electrical parlance owe their + origin to him. Even the "call-word" of the telephone, "Hello!" sent + tingling over the wire a few million times daily was taken from Menlo Park + by men installing telephones in different parts of the world, men who had + just learned it at the laboratory, and thus made it a universal sesame for + telephonic conversation. + </p> + <p> + It is hard to determine where to begin with Edison's miscellaneous + inventions, but perhaps telegraphy has the "right of line," and Edison's + work in that field puts him abreast of the latest wireless developments + that fill the world with wonder. "I perfected a system of train telegraphy + between stations and trains in motion whereby messages could be sent from + the moving train to the central office; and this was the forerunner of + wireless telegraphy. This system was used for a number of years on the + Lehigh Valley Railroad on their construction trains. The electric wave + passed from a piece of metal on top of the car across the air to the + telegraph wires; and then proceeded to the despatcher's office. In my + first experiments with this system I tried it on the Staten Island + Railroad, and employed an operator named King to do the experimenting. He + reported results every day, and received instructions by mail; but for + some reason he could send messages all right when the train went in one + direction, but could not make it go in the contrary direction. I made + suggestions of every kind to get around this phenomenon. Finally I + telegraphed King to find out if he had any suggestions himself; and I + received a reply that the only way he could propose to get around the + difficulty was to put the island on a pivot so it could be turned around! + I found the trouble finally, and the practical introduction on the Lehigh + Valley road was the result. The system was sold to a very wealthy man, and + he would never sell any rights or answer letters. He became a spiritualist + subsequently, which probably explains it." It is interesting to note that + Edison became greatly interested in the later developments by Marconi, and + is an admiring friend and adviser of that well-known inventor. + </p> + <p> + The earlier experiments with wireless telegraphy at Menlo Park were made + at a time when Edison was greatly occupied with his electric-light + interests, and it was not until the beginning of 1886 that he was able to + spare the time to make a public demonstration of the system as applied to + moving trains. Ezra T. Gilliland, of Boston, had become associated with + him in his experiments, and they took out several joint patents + subsequently. The first practical use of the system took place on a + thirteen-mile stretch of the Staten Island Railroad with the results + mentioned by Edison above. + </p> + <p> + A little later, Edison and Gilliland joined forces with Lucius J. Phelps, + another investigator, who had been experimenting along the same lines and + had taken out several patents. The various interests were combined in a + corporation under whose auspices the system was installed on the Lehigh + Valley Railroad, where it was used for several years. The official + demonstration trip on this road took place on October 6, 1887, on a + six-car train running to Easton, Pennsylvania, a distance of fifty-four + miles. A great many telegrams were sent and received while the train was + at full speed, including a despatch to the "cable king," John Pender. + London, England, and a reply from him. [17] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 17: Broadly described in outline, the system + consisted of an induction circuit obtained by laying strips + of tin along the top or roof of a railway car, and the + installation of a special telegraph line running parallel + with the track and strung on poles of only medium height. + The train and also each signalling station were equipped + with regulation telegraphic apparatus, such as battery, key, + relay, and sounder, together with induction-coil and + condenser. In addition, there was a transmitting device in + the shape of a musical reed, or buzzer. In practice, this + buzzer was continuously operated at high speed by a battery. + Its vibrations were broken by means of a key into long and + short periods, representing Morse characters, which were + transmitted inductively from the train circuit to the pole + line, or vice versa, and received by the operator at the + other end through a high-resistance telephone receiver + inserted in the secondary circuit of the induction-coil.] +</pre> + <p> + Although the space between the cars and the pole line was probably not + more than about fifty feet, it is interesting to note that in Edison's + early experiments at Menlo Park he succeeded in transmitting messages + through the air at a distance of 580 feet. Speaking of this and of his + other experiments with induction telegraphy by means of kites, + communicating from one to the other and thus from the kites to instruments + on the earth, Edison said recently: "We only transmitted about two and + one-half miles through the kites. What has always puzzled me since is that + I did not think of using the results of my experiments on 'etheric force' + that I made in 1875. I have never been able to understand how I came to + overlook them. If I had made use of my own work I should have had + long-distance wireless telegraphy." + </p> + <p> + In one of the appendices to this book is given a brief technical account + of Edison's investigations of the phenomena which lie at the root of + modern wireless or "space" telegraphy, and the attention of the reader is + directed particularly to the description and quotations there from the + famous note-books of Edison's experiments in regard to what he called + "etheric force." It will be seen that as early as 1875 Edison detected and + studied certain phenomena—i.e., the production of electrical effects + in non-closed circuits, which for a time made him think he was on the + trail of a new force, as there was no plausible explanation for them by + the then known laws of electricity and magnetism. Later came the + magnificent work of Hertz identifying the phenomena as "electromagnetic + waves" in the ether, and developing a new world of theory and science + based upon them and their production by disruptive discharges. + </p> + <p> + Edison's assertions were treated with scepticism by the scientific world, + which was not then ready for the discovery and not sufficiently furnished + with corroborative data. It is singular, to say the least, to note how + Edison's experiments paralleled and proved in advance those that came + later; and even his apparatus such as the "dark box" for making the tiny + sparks visible (as the waves impinged on the receiver) bears close analogy + with similar apparatus employed by Hertz. Indeed, as Edison sent the + dark-box apparatus to the Paris Exposition in 1881, and let Batchelor + repeat there the puzzling experiments, it seems by no means unlikely that, + either directly or on the report of some friend, Hertz may thus have + received from Edison a most valuable suggestion, the inventor aiding the + physicist in opening up a wonderful new realm. In this connection, indeed, + it is very interesting to quote two great authorities. In May, 1889, at a + meeting of the Institution of Electrical Engineers in London, Dr. (now + Sir) Oliver Lodge remarked in a discussion on a paper of his own on + lightning conductors, embracing the Hertzian waves in its treatment: "Many + of the effects I have shown—sparks in unsuspected places and other + things—have been observed before. Henry observed things of the kind + and Edison noticed some curious phenomena, and said it was not electricity + but 'etheric force' that caused these sparks; and the matter was rather + pooh-poohed. It was a small part of THIS VERY THING; only the time was not + ripe; theoretical knowledge was not ready for it." Again in his + "Signalling without Wires," in giving the history of the coherer + principle, Lodge remarks: "Sparks identical in all respects with those + discovered by Hertz had been seen in recent times both by Edison and by + Sylvanus Thompson, being styled 'etheric force' by the former; but their + theoretic significance had not been perceived, and they were somewhat + sceptically regarded." During the same discussion in London, in 1889, Sir + William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), after citing some experiments by Faraday + with his insulated cage at the Royal Institution, said: "His (Faraday's) + attention was not directed to look for Hertz sparks, or probably he might + have found them in the interior. Edison seems to have noticed something of + the kind in what he called 'etheric force.' His name 'etheric' may + thirteen years ago have seemed to many people absurd. But now we are all + beginning to call these inductive phenomena 'etheric.'" With which + testimony from the great Kelvin as to his priority in determining the + vital fact, and with the evidence that as early as 1875 he built apparatus + that demonstrated the fact, Edison is probably quite content. + </p> + <p> + It should perhaps be noted at this point that a curious effect observed at + the laboratory was shown in connection with Edison lamps at the + Philadelphia Exhibition of 1884. It became known in scientific parlance as + the "Edison effect," showing a curious current condition or discharge in + the vacuum of the bulb. It has since been employed by Fleming in England + and De Forest in this country, and others, as the basis for + wireless-telegraph apparatus. It is in reality a minute rectifier of + alternating current, and analogous to those which have since been made on + a large scale. + </p> + <p> + When Roentgen came forward with his discovery of the new "X"-ray in 1895, + Edison was ready for it, and took up experimentation with it on a large + scale; some of his work being recorded in an article in the Century + Magazine of May, 1896, where a great deal of data may be found. Edison + says with regard to this work: "When the X-ray came up, I made the first + fluoroscope, using tungstate of calcium. I also found that this tungstate + could be put into a vacuum chamber of glass and fused to the inner walls + of the chamber; and if the X-ray electrodes were let into the glass + chamber and a proper vacuum was attained, you could get a fluorescent lamp + of several candle-power. I started in to make a number of these lamps, but + I soon found that the X-ray had affected poisonously my assistant, Mr. + Dally, so that his hair came out and his flesh commenced to ulcerate. I + then concluded it would not do, and that it would not be a very popular + kind of light; so I dropped it. + </p> + <p> + "At the time I selected tungstate of calcium because it was so + fluorescent, I set four men to making all kinds of chemical combinations, + and thus collected upward of 8000 different crystals of various chemical + combinations, discovering several hundred different substances which would + fluoresce to the X-ray. So far little had come of X-ray work, but it added + another letter to the scientific alphabet. I don't know any thing about + radium, and I have lots of company." The Electrical Engineer of June 3, + 1896, contains a photograph of Mr. Edison taken by the light of one of his + fluorescent lamps. The same journal in its issue of April 1, 1896, shows + an Edison fluoroscope in use by an observer, in the now familiar and + universal form somewhat like a stereoscope. This apparatus as invented by + Edison consists of a flaring box, curved at one end to fit closely over + the forehead and eyes, while the other end of the box is closed by a + paste-board cover. On the inside of this is spread a layer of tungstate of + calcium. By placing the object to be observed, such as the hand, between + the vacuum-tube and the fluorescent screen, the "shadow" is formed on the + screen and can be observed at leisure. The apparatus has proved invaluable + in surgery and has become an accepted part of the equipment of modern + surgery. In 1896, at the Electrical Exhibition in the Grand Central + Palace, New York City, given under the auspices of the National Electric + Light Association, thousands and thousands of persons with the use of this + apparatus in Edison's personal exhibit were enabled to see their own + bones; and the resultant public sensation was great. Mr. Mallory tells a + characteristic story of Edison's own share in the memorable exhibit: "The + exhibit was announced for opening on Monday. On the preceding Friday all + the apparatus, which included a large induction-coil, was shipped from + Orange to New York, and on Saturday afternoon Edison, accompanied by Fred + Ott, one of his assistants, and myself, went over to install it so as to + have it ready for Monday morning. Had everything been normal, a few hours + would have sufficed for completion of the work, but on coming to test the + big coil, it was found to be absolutely out of commission, having been so + seriously injured as to necessitate its entire rewinding. It being + summer-time, all the machine shops were closed until Monday morning, and + there were several miles of wire to be wound on the coil. Edison would not + consider a postponement of the exhibition, so there was nothing to do but + go to work and wind it by hand. We managed to find a lathe, but there was + no power; so each of us, including Edison, took turns revolving the lathe + by pulling on the belt, while the other two attended to the winding of the + wire. We worked continuously all through that Saturday night and all day + Sunday until evening, when we finished the job. I don't remember ever + being conscious of more muscles in my life. I guess Edison was tired also, + but he took it very philosophically." This was apparently the first public + demonstration of the X-ray to the American public. + </p> + <p> + Edison's ore-separation work has been already fully described, but the + story would hardly be complete without a reference to similar work in gold + extraction, dating back to the Menlo Park days: "I got up a method," says + Edison, "of separating placer gold by a dry process, in which I could work + economically ore as lean as five cents of gold to the cubic yard. I had + several car-loads of different placer sands sent to me and proved I could + do it. Some parties hearing I had succeeded in doing such a thing went to + work and got hold of what was known as the Ortiz mine grant, twelve miles + from Santa Fe, New Mexico. This mine, according to the reports of several + mining engineers made in the last forty years, was considered one of the + richest placer deposits in the United States, and various schemes had been + put forward to bring water from the mountains forty miles away to work + those immense beds. The reports stated that the Mexicans had been panning + gold for a hundred years out of these deposits. + </p> + <p> + "These parties now made arrangements with the stockholders or owners of + the grant, and with me, to work the deposits by my process. As I had had + some previous experience with the statements of mining men, I concluded I + would just send down a small plant and prospect the field before putting + up a large one. This I did, and I sent two of my assistants, whom I could + trust, down to this place to erect the plant; and started to sink shafts + fifty feet deep all over the area. We soon learned that the rich gravel, + instead of being spread over an area of three by seven miles, and rich + from the grass roots down, was spread over a space of about twenty-five + acres, and that even this did not average more than ten cents to the cubic + yard. The whole placer would not give more than one and one-quarter cents + per cubic yard. As my business arrangements had not been very perfectly + made, I lost the usual amount." + </p> + <p> + Going to another extreme, we find Edison grappling with one of the biggest + problems known to the authorities of New York—the disposal of its + heavy snows. It is needless to say that witnessing the ordinary slow and + costly procedure would put Edison on his mettle. "One time when they had a + snow blockade in New York I started to build a machine with Batchelor—a + big truck with a steam-engine and compressor on it. We would run along the + street, gather all the snow up in front of us, pass it into the + compressor, and deliver little blocks of ice behind us in the gutter, + taking one-tenth the room of the snow, and not inconveniencing anybody. We + could thus take care of a snow-storm by diminishing the bulk of material + to be handled. The preliminary experiment we made was dropped because we + went into other things. The machine would go as fast as a horse could + walk." + </p> + <p> + Edison has always taken a keen interest in aerial flight, and has also + experimented with aeroplanes, his preference inclining to the helicopter + type, as noted in the newspapers and periodicals from time to time. The + following statement from him refers to a type of aeroplane of great + novelty and ingenuity: "James Gordon Bennett came to me and asked that I + try some primary experiments to see if aerial navigation was feasible with + 'heavier-than-air' machines. I got up a motor and put it on the scales and + tried a large number of different things and contrivances connected to the + motor, to see how it would lighten itself on the scales. I got some data + and made up my mind that what was needed was a very powerful engine for + its weight, in small compass. So I conceived of an engine employing + guncotton. I took a lot of ticker paper tape, turned it into guncotton and + got up an engine with an arrangement whereby I could feed this gun-cotton + strip into the cylinder and explode it inside electrically. The feed took + place between two copper rolls. The copper kept the temperature down, so + that it could only explode up to the point where it was in contact with + the feed rolls. It worked pretty well; but once the feed roll didn't save + it, and the flame went through and exploded the whole roll and kicked up + such a bad explosion I abandoned it. But the idea might be made to work." + </p> + <p> + Turning from the air to the earth, it is interesting to note that the + introduction of the underground Edison system in New York made an appeal + to inventive ingenuity and that one of the difficulties was met as + follows: "When we first put the Pearl Street station in operation, in New + York, we had cast-iron junction-boxes at the intersections of all the + streets. One night, or about two o'clock in the morning, a policeman came + in and said that something had exploded at the corner of William and + Nassau streets. I happened to be in the station, and went out to see what + it was. I found that the cover of the manhole, weighing about 200 pounds, + had entirely disappeared, but everything inside was intact. It had even + stripped some of the threads of the bolts, and we could never find that + cover. I concluded it was either leakage of gas into the manhole, or else + the acid used in pickling the casting had given off hydrogen, and air had + leaked in, making an explosive mixture. As this was a pretty serious + problem, and as we had a good many of the manholes, it worried me very + much for fear that it would be repeated and the company might have to pay + a lot of damages, especially in districts like that around William and + Nassau, where there are a good many people about. If an explosion took + place in the daytime it might lift a few of them up. However, I got around + the difficulty by putting a little bottle of chloroform in each box, + corked up, with a slight hole in the cork. The chloroform being volatile + and very heavy, settled in the box and displaced all the air. I have never + heard of an explosion in a manhole where this chloroform had been used. + Carbon tetrachloride, now made electrically at Niagara Falls, is very + cheap and would be ideal for the purpose." + </p> + <p> + Edison has never paid much attention to warfare, and has in general + disdained to develop inventions for the destruction of life and property. + Some years ago, however, he became the joint inventor of the Edison-Sims + torpedo, with Mr. W. Scott Sims, who sought his co-operation. This is a + dirigible submarine torpedo operated by electricity. In the torpedo + proper, which is suspended from a long float so as to be submerged a few + feet under water, are placed the small electric motor for propulsion and + steering, and the explosive charge. The torpedo is controlled from the + shore or ship through an electric cable which it pays out as it goes + along, and all operations of varying the speed, reversing, and steering + are performed at the will of the distant operator by means of currents + sent through the cable. During the Spanish-American War of 1898 Edison + suggested to the Navy Department the adoption of a compound of calcium + carbide and calcium phosphite, which when placed in a shell and fired from + a gun would explode as soon as it struck water and ignite, producing a + blaze that would continue several minutes and make the ships of the enemy + visible for four or five miles at sea. Moreover, the blaze could not be + extinguished. + </p> + <p> + Edison has always been deeply interested in "conservation," and much of + his work has been directed toward the economy of fuel in obtaining + electrical energy directly from the consumption of coal. Indeed, it will + be noted that the example of his handwriting shown in these volumes deals + with the importance of obtaining available energy direct from the + combustible without the enormous loss in the intervening stages that makes + our best modern methods of steam generation and utilization so barbarously + extravagant and wasteful. Several years ago, experimenting in this field, + Edison devised and operated some ingenious pyromagnetic motors and + generators, based, as the name implies, on the direct application of heat + to the machines. The motor is founded upon the principle discovered by the + famous Dr. William Gilbert—court physician to Queen Elizabeth, and + the Father of modern electricity—that the magnetic properties of + iron diminish with heat. At a light-red heat, iron becomes non-magnetic, + so that a strong magnet exerts no influence over it. Edison employed this + peculiar property by constructing a small machine in which a pivoted bar + is alternately heated and cooled. It is thus attracted toward an adjacent + electromagnet when cold and is uninfluenced when hot, and as the result + motion is produced. + </p> + <p> + The pyromagnetic generator is based on the same phenomenon; its aim being + of course to generate electrical energy directly from the heat of the + combustible. The armature, or moving part of the machine, consists in + reality of eight separate armatures all constructed of corrugated sheet + iron covered with asbestos and wound with wire. These armatures are held + in place by two circular iron plates, through the centre of which runs a + shaft, carrying at its lower extremity a semicircular shield of fire-clay, + which covers the ends of four of the armatures. The heat, of whatever + origin, is applied from below, and the shaft being revolved, four of the + armatures lose their magnetism constantly, while the other four gain it, + so to speak. As the moving part revolves, therefore, currents of + electricity are set up in the wires of the armatures and are collected by + a commutator, as in an ordinary dynamo, placed on the upper end of the + central shaft. + </p> + <p> + A great variety of electrical instruments are included in Edison's + inventions, many of these in fundamental or earlier forms being devised + for his systems of light and power, as noted already. There are numerous + others, and it might be said with truth that Edison is hardly ever without + some new device of this kind in hand, as he is by no means satisfied with + the present status of electrical measurements. He holds in general that + the meters of to-day, whether for heavy or for feeble currents, are too + expensive, and that cheaper instruments are a necessity of the times. + These remarks apply more particularly to what may be termed, in general, + circuit meters. In other classes Edison has devised an excellent form of + magnetic bridge, being an ingenious application of the principles of the + familiar Wheatstone bridge, used so extensively for measuring the + electrical resistance of wires; the testing of iron for magnetic qualities + being determined by it in the same way. Another special instrument is a + "dead beat" galvanometer which differs from the ordinary form of + galvanometer in having no coils or magnetic needle. It depends for its + action upon the heating effect of the current, which causes a fine + platinum-iridium wire enclosed in a glass tube to expand; thus allowing a + coiled spring to act on a pivoted shaft carrying a tiny mirror. The mirror + as it moves throws a beam of light upon a scale and the indications are + read by the spot of light. Most novel of all the apparatus of this + measuring kind is the odoroscope, which is like the tasimeter described in + an earlier chapter, except that a strip of gelatine takes the place of + hard rubber, as the sensitive member. Besides being affected by heat, this + device is exceedingly sensitive to moisture. A few drops of water or + perfume thrown on the floor of a room are sufficient to give a very + decided indication on the galvanometer in circuit with the instrument. + Barometers, hygrometers, and similar instruments of great delicacy can be + constructed on the principle of the odoroscope; and it may also be used in + determining the character or pressure of gases and vapors in which it has + been placed. + </p> + <p> + In the list of Edison's patents at the end of this work may be noted many + other of his miscellaneous inventions, covering items such as preserving + fruit in vacuo, making plate-glass, drawing wire, and metallurgical + processes for treatment of nickel, gold, and copper ores; but to mention + these inventions separately would trespass too much on our limited space + here. Hence, we shall leave the interested reader to examine that list for + himself. + </p> + <p> + From first to last Edison has filed in the United States Patent Office—in + addition to more than 1400 applications for patents—some 120 caveats + embracing not less than 1500 inventions. A "caveat" is essentially a + notice filed by an inventor, entitling him to receive warning from the + Office of any application for a patent for an invention that would + "interfere" with his own, during the year, while he is supposed to be + perfecting his device. The old caveat system has now been abolished, but + it served to elicit from Edison a most astounding record of ideas and + possible inventions upon which he was working, and many of which he of + course reduced to practice. As an example of Edison's fertility and the + endless variety of subjects engaging his thoughts, the following list of + matters covered by ONE caveat is given. It is needless to say that all the + caveats are not quite so full of "plums," but this is certainly a wonder. + </p> + <p> + Forty-one distinct inventions relating to the phonograph, covering various + forms of recorders, arrangement of parts, making of records, shaving tool, + adjustments, etc. + </p> + <p> + Eight forms of electric lamps using infusible earthy oxides and brought to + high incandescence in vacuo by high potential current of several thousand + volts; same character as impingement of X-rays on object in bulb. + </p> + <p> + A loud-speaking telephone with quartz cylinder and beam of ultra-violet + light. + </p> + <p> + Four forms of arc light with special carbons. + </p> + <p> + A thermostatic motor. + </p> + <p> + A device for sealing together the inside part and bulb of an incandescent + lamp mechanically. + </p> + <p> + Regulators for dynamos and motors. + </p> + <p> + Three devices for utilizing vibrations beyond the ultra violet. + </p> + <p> + A great variety of methods for coating incandescent lamp filaments with + silicon, titanium, chromium, osmium, boron, etc. + </p> + <p> + Several methods of making porous filaments. + </p> + <p> + Several methods of making squirted filaments of a variety of materials, of + which about thirty are specified. + </p> + <p> + Seventeen different methods and devices for separating magnetic ores. + </p> + <p> + A continuously operative primary battery. + </p> + <p> + A musical instrument operating one of Helmholtz's artificial larynxes. + </p> + <p> + A siren worked by explosion of small quantities of oxygen and hydrogen + mixed. + </p> + <p> + Three other sirens made to give vocal sounds or articulate speech. + </p> + <p> + A device for projecting sound-waves to a distance without spreading and in + a straight line, on the principle of smoke rings. + </p> + <p> + A device for continuously indicating on a galvanometer the depths of the + ocean. + </p> + <p> + A method of preventing in a great measure friction of water against the + hull of a ship and incidentally preventing fouling by barnacles. + </p> + <p> + A telephone receiver whereby the vibrations of the diaphragm are + considerably amplified. + </p> + <p> + Two methods of "space" telegraphy at sea. + </p> + <p> + An improved and extended string telephone. + </p> + <p> + Devices and method of talking through water for considerable distances. + </p> + <p> + An audiphone for deaf people. + </p> + <p> + Sound-bridge for measuring resistance of tubes and other materials for + conveying sound. + </p> + <p> + A method of testing a magnet to ascertain the existence of flaws in the + iron or steel composing the same. + </p> + <p> + Method of distilling liquids by incandescent conductor immersed in the + liquid. + </p> + <p> + Method of obtaining electricity direct from coal. + </p> + <p> + An engine operated by steam produced by the hydration and dehydration of + metallic salts. + </p> + <p> + Device and method for telegraphing photographically. + </p> + <p> + Carbon crucible kept brilliantly incandescent by current in vacuo, for + obtaining reaction with refractory metals. + </p> + <p> + Device for examining combinations of odors and their changes by rotation + at different speeds. + </p> + <p> + From one of the preceding items it will be noted that even in the eighties + Edison perceived much advantage to be gained in the line of economy by the + use of lamp filaments employing refractory metals in their construction. + From another caveat, filed in 1889, we extract the following, which shows + that he realized the value of tungsten also for this purpose. "Filaments + of carbon placed in a combustion tube with a little chloride ammonium. + Chloride tungsten or titanium passed through hot tube, depositing a film + of metal on the carbon; or filaments of zirconia oxide, or alumina or + magnesia, thoria or other infusible oxides mixed or separate, and obtained + by moistening and squirting through a die, are thus coated with above + metals and used for incandescent lamps. Osmium from a volatile compound of + same thus deposited makes a filament as good as carbon when in vacuo." + </p> + <p> + In 1888, long before there arose the actual necessity of duplicating + phonograph records so as to produce replicas in great numbers, Edison + described in one of his caveats a method and process much similar to the + one which was put into practice by him in later years. In the same caveat + he describes an invention whereby the power to indent on a phonograph + cylinder, instead of coming directly from the voice, is caused by power + derived from the rotation or movement of the phonogram surface itself. He + did not, however, follow up this invention and put it into practice. Some + twenty years later it was independently invented and patented by another + inventor. A further instance of this kind is a method of telegraphy at sea + by means of a diaphragm in a closed port-hole flush with the side of the + vessel, and actuated by a steam-whistle which is controlled by a lever, + similarly to a Morse key. A receiving diaphragm is placed in another and + near-by chamber, which is provided with very sensitive stethoscopic + ear-pieces, by which the Morse characters sent from another vessel may be + received. This was also invented later by another inventor, and is in use + to-day, but will naturally be rivalled by wireless telegraphy. Still + another instance is seen in one of Edison's caveats, where he describes a + method of distilling liquids by means of internally applied heat through + electric conductors. Although Edison did not follow up the idea and take + out a patent, this system of distillation was later hit upon by others and + is in use at the present time. + </p> + <p> + In the foregoing pages of this chapter the authors have endeavored to + present very briefly a sketchy notion of the astounding range of Edison's + practical ideas, but they feel a sense of impotence in being unable to + deal adequately with the subject in the space that can be devoted to it. + To those who, like the authors, have had the privilege of examining the + voluminous records which show the flights of his imagination, there comes + a feeling of utter inadequacy to convey to others the full extent of the + story they reveal. + </p> + <p> + The few specific instances above related, although not representing a + tithe of Edison's work, will probably be sufficient to enable the reader + to appreciate to some extent his great wealth of ideas and fertility of + imagination, and also to realize that this imagination is not only + intensely practical, but that it works prophetically along lines of + natural progress. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0024" id="link2HCH0024"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIV + </h2> + <h3> + EDISON'S METHOD IN INVENTING + </h3> + <p> + WHILE the world's progress depends largely upon their ingenuity, inventors + are not usually persons who have adopted invention as a distinct + profession, but, generally speaking, are otherwise engaged in various + walks of life. By reason of more or less inherent native genius they + either make improvements along lines of present occupation, or else evolve + new methods and means of accomplishing results in fields for which they + may have personal predilections. + </p> + <p> + Now and then, however, there arises a man so greatly endowed with natural + powers and originality that the creative faculty within him is too strong + to endure the humdrum routine of affairs, and manifests itself in a life + devoted entirely to the evolution of methods and devices calculated to + further the world's welfare. In other words, he becomes an inventor by + profession. Such a man is Edison. Notwithstanding the fact that nearly + forty years ago (not a great while after he had emerged from the ranks of + peripatetic telegraph operators) he was the owner of a large and + profitable business as a manufacturer of the telegraphic apparatus + invented by him, the call of his nature was too strong to allow of profits + being laid away in the bank to accumulate. As he himself has said, he has + "too sanguine a temperament to allow money to stay in solitary + confinement." Hence, all superfluous cash was devoted to experimentation. + In the course of years he grew more and more impatient of the shackles + that bound him to business routine, and, realizing the powers within him, + he drew away gradually from purely manufacturing occupations, determining + deliberately to devote his life to inventive work, and to depend upon its + results as a means of subsistence. + </p> + <p> + All persons who make inventions will necessarily be more or less original + in character, but to the man who chooses to become an inventor by + profession must be conceded a mind more than ordinarily replete with + virility and originality. That these qualities in Edison are superabundant + is well known to all who have worked with him, and, indeed, are apparent + to every one from his multiplied achievements within the period of one + generation. + </p> + <p> + If one were allowed only two words with which to describe Edison, it is + doubtful whether a close examination of the entire dictionary would + disclose any others more suitable than "experimenter—inventor." + These would express the overruling characteristics of his eventful career. + It is as an "inventor" that he sets himself down in the membership list of + the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. To attempt the strict + placing of these words in relation to each other (except alphabetically) + would be equal to an endeavor to solve the old problem as to which came + first, the egg or the chicken; for although all his inventions have been + evolved through experiment, many of his notable experiments have called + forth the exercise of highly inventive faculties in their very inception. + Investigation and experiment have been a consuming passion, an impelling + force from within, as it were, from his petticoat days when he collected + goose-eggs and tried to hatch them out by sitting over them himself. One + might be inclined to dismiss this trivial incident smilingly, as a mere + childish, thoughtless prank, had not subsequent development as a child, + boy, and man revealed a born investigator with original reasoning powers + that, disdaining crooks and bends, always aimed at the centre, and, like + the flight of the bee, were accurate and direct. + </p> + <p> + It is not surprising, therefore, that a man of this kind should exhibit a + ceaseless, absorbing desire for knowledge, and an apparently + uncontrollable tendency to experiment on every possible occasion, even + though his last cent were spent in thus satisfying the insatiate cravings + of an inquiring mind. + </p> + <p> + During Edison's immature years, when he was flitting about from place to + place as a telegraph operator, his experimentation was of a desultory, + hand-to-mouth character, although it was always notable for originality, + as expressed in a number of minor useful devices produced during this + period. Small wonder, then, that at the end of these wanderings, when he + had found a place to "rest the sole of his foot," he established a + laboratory in which to carry on his researches in a more methodical and + practical manner. In this was the beginning of the work which has since + made such a profound impression on contemporary life. + </p> + <p> + There is nothing of the helter-skelter, slap-dash style in Edison's + experiments. Although all the laboratory experimenters agree in the + opinion that he "tries everything," it is not merely the mixing of a + little of this, some of that, and a few drops of the other, in the HOPE + that SOMETHING will come of it. Nor is the spirit of the laboratory work + represented in the following dialogue overheard between two alleged + carpenters picked up at random to help on a hurry job. + </p> + <p> + "How near does she fit, Mike?" + </p> + <p> + "About an inch." + </p> + <p> + "Nail her!" + </p> + <p> + A most casual examination of any of the laboratory records will reveal + evidence of the minutest exactitude insisted on in the conduct of + experiments, irrespective of the length of time they occupied. Edison's + instructions, always clear cut and direct, followed by his keen oversight, + admit of nothing less than implicit observance in all details, no matter + where they may lead, and impel to the utmost minuteness and accuracy. + </p> + <p> + To some extent there has been a popular notion that many of Edison's + successes have been due to mere dumb fool luck—to blind, fortuitous + "happenings." Nothing could be further from the truth, for, on the + contrary, it is owing almost entirely to the comprehensive scope of his + knowledge, the breadth of his conception, the daring originality of his + methods, and minuteness and extent of experiment, combined with unwavering + pertinacity, that new arts have been created and additions made to others + already in existence. Indeed, without this tireless minutiae, and + methodical, searching spirit, it would have been practically impossible to + have produced many of the most important of these inventions. + </p> + <p> + Needless to say, mastery of its literature is regarded by him as a most + important preliminary in taking up any line of investigation. What others + may have done, bearing directly or collaterally on the subject, in print, + is carefully considered and sifted to the point of exhaustion. Not that he + takes it for granted that the conclusions are correct, for he frequently + obtains vastly different results by repeating in his own way experiments + made by others as detailed in books. + </p> + <p> + "Edison can travel along a well-used road and still find virgin soil," + remarked recently one of his most practical experimenters, who had been + working along a certain line without attaining the desired result. "He + wanted to get a particular compound having definite qualities, and I had + tried in all sorts of ways to produce it but with only partial success. He + was confident that it could be done, and said he would try it himself. In + doing so he followed the same path in which I had travelled, but, by + making an undreamed-of change in one of the operations, succeeded in + producing a compound that virtually came up to his specifications. It is + not the only time I have known this sort of thing to happen." + </p> + <p> + In speaking of Edison's method of experimenting, another of his laboratory + staff says: "He is never hindered by theory, but resorts to actual + experiment for proof. For instance, when he conceived the idea of pouring + a complete concrete house it was universally held that it would be + impossible because the pieces of stone in the mixture would not rise to + the level of the pouring-point, but would gravitate to a lower plane in + the soft cement. This, however, did not hinder him from making a series of + experiments which resulted in an invention that proved conclusively the + contrary." + </p> + <p> + Having conceived some new idea and read everything obtainable relating to + the subject in general, Edison's fertility of resource and originality + come into play. Taking one of the laboratory note-books, he will write in + it a memorandum of the experiments to be tried, illustrated, if necessary, + by sketches. This book is then passed on to that member of the + experimental staff whose special training and experience are best adapted + to the work. Here strenuousness is expected; and an immediate commencement + of investigation and prompt report are required. Sometimes the subject may + be such as to call for a long line of frequent tests which necessitate + patient and accurate attention to minute details. Results must be reported + often—daily, or possibly with still greater frequency. Edison does + not forget what is going on; but in his daily tours through the laboratory + keeps in touch with all the work that is under the hands of his various + assistants, showing by an instant grasp of the present conditions of any + experiment that he has a full consciousness of its meaning and its + reference to his original conception. + </p> + <p> + The year 1869 saw the beginning of Edison's career as an acknowledged + inventor of commercial devices. From the outset, an innate recognition of + system dictated the desirability and wisdom of preserving records of his + experiments and inventions. The primitive records, covering the earliest + years, were mainly jotted down on loose sheets of paper covered with + sketches, notes, and data, pasted into large scrap-books, or preserved in + packages; but with the passing of years and enlargement of his interests, + it became the practice to make all original laboratory notes in large, + uniform books. This course was pursued until the Menlo Park period, when + he instituted a new regime that has been continued down to the present + day. A standard form of note-book, about eight and a half by six inches, + containing about two hundred pages, was adopted. A number of these books + were (and are now) always to be found scattered around in the different + sections of the laboratory, and in them have been noted by Edison all his + ideas, sketches, and memoranda. Details of the various experiments + concerning them have been set down by his assistants from time to time. + </p> + <p> + These later laboratory note-books, of which there are now over one + thousand in the series, are eloquent in the history they reveal of the + strenuous labors of Edison and his assistants and the vast fields of + research he has covered during the last thirty years. They are + overwhelmingly rich in biographic material, but analysis would be a + prohibitive task for one person, and perhaps interesting only to technical + readers. Their pages cover practically every department of science. The + countless thousands of separate experiments recorded exhibit the + operations of a master mind seeking to surprise Nature into a betrayal of + her secrets by asking her the same question in a hundred different ways. + For instance, when Edison was investigating a certain problem of + importance many years ago, the note-books show that on this point alone + about fifteen thousand experiments and tests were made by one of his + assistants. + </p> + <p> + A most casual glance over these note-books will illustrate the following + remark, which was made to one of the writers not long ago by a member of + the laboratory staff who has been experimenting there for twenty years: + "Edison can think of more ways of doing a thing than any man I ever saw or + heard of. He tries everything and never lets up, even though failure is + apparently staring him in the face. He only stops when he simply can't go + any further on that particular line. When he decides on any mode of + procedure he gives his notes to the experimenter and lets him alone, only + stepping in from time to time to look at the operations and receive + reports of progress." + </p> + <p> + The history of the development of the telephone transmitter, phonograph, + incandescent lamp, dynamo, electrical distributing systems from central + stations, electric railway, ore-milling, cement, motion pictures, and a + host of minor inventions may be found embedded in the laboratory + note-books. A passing glance at a few pages of these written records will + serve to illustrate, though only to a limited extent, the thoroughness of + Edison's method. It is to be observed that these references can be but of + the most meagre kind, and must be regarded as merely throwing a side-light + on the subject itself. For instance, the complex problem of a practical + telephone transmitter gave rise to a series of most exhaustive + experiments. Combinations in almost infinite variety, including gums, + chemical compounds, oils, minerals, and metals were suggested by Edison; + and his assistants were given long lists of materials to try with + reference to predetermined standards of articulation, degrees of loudness, + and perfection of hissing sounds. The note-books contain hundreds of pages + showing that a great many thousands of experiments were tried and passed + upon. Such remarks as "N. G."; "Pretty good"; "Whistling good, but no + articulation"; "Rattly"; "Articulation, whispering, and whistling good"; + "Best to-night so far"; and others are noted opposite the various + combinations as they were tried. Thus, one may follow the investigation + through a maze of experiments which led up to the successful invention of + the carbon button transmitter, the vital device to give the telephone its + needed articulation and perfection. + </p> + <p> + The two hundred and odd note-books, covering the strenuous period during + which Edison was carrying on his electric-light experiments, tell on their + forty thousand pages or more a fascinating story of the evolution of a new + art in its entirety. From the crude beginnings, through all the varied + phases of this evolution, the operations of a master mind are apparent + from the contents of these pages, in which are recorded the innumerable + experiments, calculations, and tests that ultimately brought light out of + darkness. + </p> + <p> + The early work on a metallic conductor for lamps gave rise to some very + thorough research on melting and alloying metals, the preparation of + metallic oxides, the coating of fine wires by immersing them in a great + variety of chemical solutions. Following his usual custom, Edison would + indicate the lines of experiment to be followed, which were carried out + and recorded in the note-books. He himself, in January, 1879, made + personally a most minute and searching investigation into the properties + and behavior of plating-iridium, boron, rutile, zircon, chromium, + molybdenum, and nickel, under varying degrees of current strength, on + which there may be found in the notes about forty pages of detailed + experiments and deductions in his own handwriting, concluding with the + remark (about nickel): "This is a great discovery for electric light in + the way of economy." + </p> + <p> + This period of research on nickel, etc., was evidently a trying one, for + after nearly a month's close application he writes, on January 27, 1879: + "Owing to the enormous power of the light my eyes commenced to pain after + seven hours' work, and I had to quit." On the next day appears the + following entry: "Suffered the pains of hell with my eyes last night from + 10 P.M. till 4 A.M., when got to sleep with a big dose of morphine. Eyes + getting better, and do not pain much at 4 P.M.; but I lose to-day." + </p> + <p> + The "try everything" spirit of Edison's method is well illustrated in this + early period by a series of about sixteen hundred resistance tests of + various ores, minerals, earths, etc., occupying over fifty pages of one of + the note-books relating to the metallic filament for his lamps. + </p> + <p> + But, as the reader has already learned, the metallic filament was soon + laid aside in favor of carbon, and we find in the laboratory notes an + amazing record of research and experiment conducted in the minute and + searching manner peculiar to Edison's method. His inquiries were directed + along all the various roads leading to the desired goal, for long before + he had completed the invention of a practical lamp he realized broadly the + fundamental requirements of a successful system of electrical + distribution, and had given instructions for the making of a great variety + of calculations which, although far in advance of the time, were clearly + foreseen by him to be vitally important in the ultimate solution of the + complicated problem. Thus we find many hundreds of pages of the note-books + covered with computations and calculations by Mr. Upton, not only on the + numerous ramifications of the projected system and comparisons with gas, + but also on proposed forms of dynamos and the proposed station in New + York. A mere recital by titles of the vast number of experiments and tests + on carbons, lamps, dynamos, armatures, commutators, windings, systems, + regulators, sockets, vacuum-pumps, and the thousand and one details + relating to the subject in general, originated by Edison, and methodically + and systematically carried on under his general direction, would fill a + great many pages here, and even then would serve only to convey a confused + impression of ceaseless probing. + </p> + <p> + It is possible only to a broad, comprehensive mind well stored with + knowledge, and backed with resistless, boundless energy, that such a + diversified series of experiments and investigations could be carried on + simultaneously and assimilated, even though they should relate to a class + of phenomena already understood and well defined. But if we pause to + consider that the commercial subdivision of the electric current (which + was virtually an invention made to order) involved the solution of + problems so unprecedented that even they themselves had to be created, we + cannot but conclude that the afflatus of innate genius played an important + part in the unique methods of investigation instituted by Edison at that + and other times. + </p> + <p> + The idea of attributing great successes to "genius" has always been + repudiated by Edison, as evidenced by his historic remark that "Genius is + 1 per cent. inspiration and 99 per cent. perspiration." Again, in a + conversation many years ago at the laboratory between Edison, Batchelor, + and E. H. Johnson, the latter made allusion to Edison's genius as + evidenced by some of his achievements, when Edison replied: + </p> + <p> + "Stuff! I tell you genius is hard work, stick-to-it-iveness, and common + sense." + </p> + <p> + "Yes," said Johnson, "I admit there is all that to it, but there's still + more. Batch and I have those qualifications, but although we knew quite a + lot about telephones, and worked hard, we couldn't invent a brand-new + non-infringing telephone receiver as you did when Gouraud cabled for one. + Then, how about the subdivision of the electric light?" + </p> + <p> + "Electric current," corrected Edison. + </p> + <p> + "True," continued Johnson; "you were the one to make that very + distinction. The scientific world had been working hard on subdivision for + years, using what appeared to be common sense. Results worse than nil. + Then you come along, and about the first thing you do, after looking the + ground over, is to start off in the opposite direction, which subsequently + proves to be the only possible way to reach the goal. It seems to me that + this is pretty close to the dictionary definition of genius." + </p> + <p> + It is said that Edison replied rather incoherently and changed the topic + of conversation. + </p> + <p> + This innate modesty, however, does not prevent Edison from recognizing and + classifying his own methods of investigation. In a conversation with two + old associates recently (April, 1909), he remarked: "It has been said of + me that my methods are empirical. That is true only so far as chemistry is + concerned. Did you ever realize that practically all industrial chemistry + is colloidal in its nature? Hard rubber, celluloid, glass, soap, paper, + and lots of others, all have to deal with amorphous substances, as to + which comparatively little has been really settled. My methods are similar + to those followed by Luther Burbank. He plants an acre, and when this is + in bloom he inspects it. He has a sharp eye, and can pick out of thousands + a single plant that has promise of what he wants. From this he gets the + seed, and uses his skill and knowledge in producing from it a number of + new plants which, on development, furnish the means of propagating an + improved variety in large quantity. So, when I am after a chemical result + that I have in mind, I may make hundreds or thousands of experiments out + of which there may be one that promises results in the right direction. + This I follow up to its legitimate conclusion, discarding the others, and + usually get what I am after. There is no doubt about this being empirical; + but when it comes to problems of a mechanical nature, I want to tell you + that all I've ever tackled and solved have been done by hard, logical + thinking." The intense earnestness and emphasis with which this was said + were very impressive to the auditors. This empirical method may perhaps be + better illustrated by a specific example. During the latter part of the + storage battery investigations, after the form of positive element had + been determined upon, it became necessary to ascertain what definite + proportions and what quality of nickel hydrate and nickel flake would give + the best results. A series of positive tubes were filled with the two + materials in different proportions—say, nine parts hydrate to one of + flake; eight parts hydrate to two of flake; seven parts hydrate to three + of flake, and so on through varying proportions. Three sets of each of + these positives were made, and all put into separate test tubes with a + uniform type of negative element. These were carried through a long series + of charges and discharges under strict test conditions. From the tabulated + results of hundreds of tests there were selected three that showed the + best results. These, however, showed only the superiority of certain + PROPORTIONS of the materials. The next step would be to find out the best + QUALITY. Now, as there are several hundred variations in the quality of + nickel flake, and perhaps a thousand ways to make the hydrate, it will be + realized that Edison's methods led to stupendous detail, for these tests + embraced a trial of all the qualities of both materials in the three + proportions found to be most suitable. Among these many thousands of + experiments any that showed extraordinary results were again elaborated by + still further series of tests, until Edison was satisfied that he had + obtained the best result in that particular line. + </p> + <p> + The laboratory note-books do not always tell the whole story or meaning of + an experiment that may be briefly outlined on one of their pages. For + example, the early filament made of a mixture of lampblack and tar is + merely a suggestion in the notes, but its making afforded an example of + Edison's pertinacity. These materials, when mixed, became a friable mass, + which he had found could be brought into such a cohesive, putty-like state + by manipulation, as to be capable of being rolled out into filaments as + fine as seven-thousandths of an inch in cross-section. One of the + laboratory assistants was told to make some of this mixture, knead it, and + roll some filaments. After a time he brought the mass to Edison, and said: + </p> + <p> + "There's something wrong about this, for it crumbles even after + manipulating it with my fingers." + </p> + <p> + "How long did you knead it?" said Edison. + </p> + <p> + "Oh! more than an hour," replied the assistant. + </p> + <p> + "Well, just keep on for a few hours more and it will come out all right," + was the rejoinder. And this proved to be correct, for, after a prolonged + kneading and rolling, the mass changed into a cohesive, stringy, + homogeneous putty. It was from a mixture of this kind that spiral + filaments were made and used in some of the earliest forms of successful + incandescent lamps; indeed, they are described and illustrated in Edison's + fundamental lamp patent (No. 223,898). + </p> + <p> + The present narrative would assume the proportions of a history of the + incandescent lamp, should the authors attempt to follow Edison's + investigations through the thousands of pages of note-books away back in + the eighties and early nineties. Improvement of the lamp was constantly in + his mind all those years, and besides the vast amount of detail + experimental work he laid out for his assistants, he carried on a great + deal of research personally. Sometimes whole books are filled in his own + handwriting with records of experiments showing every conceivable + variation of some particular line of inquiry; each trial bearing some + terse comment expressive of results. In one book appear the details of one + of these experiments on September 3, 1891, at 4.30 A.M., with the comment: + "Brought up lamp higher than a 16-c.p. 240 was ever brought before—Hurrah!" + Notwithstanding the late hour, he turns over to the next page and goes on + to write his deductions from this result as compared with those previously + obtained. Proceeding day by day, as appears by this same book, he follows + up another line of investigation on lamps, apparently full of difficulty, + for after one hundred and thirty-two other recorded experiments we find + this note: "Saturday 3.30 went home disgusted with incandescent lamps." + This feeling was evidently evanescent, for on the succeeding Monday the + work was continued and carried on by him as keenly as before, as shown by + the next batch of notes. + </p> + <p> + This is the only instance showing any indication of impatience that the + authors have found in looking through the enormous mass of laboratory + notes. All his assistants agree that Edison is the most patient, tireless + experimenter that could be conceived of. Failures do not distress him; + indeed, he regards them as always useful, as may be gathered from the + following, related by Dr. E. G. Acheson, formerly one of his staff: "I + once made an experiment in Edison's laboratory at Menlo Park during the + latter part of 1880, and the results were not as looked for. I considered + the experiment a perfect failure, and while bemoaning the results of this + apparent failure Mr. Edison entered, and, after learning the facts of the + case, cheerfully remarked that I should not look upon it as a failure, for + he considered every experiment a success, as in all cases it cleared up + the atmosphere, and even though it failed to accomplish the results sought + for, it should prove a valuable lesson for guidance in future work. I + believe that Mr. Edison's success as an experimenter was, to a large + extent, due to this happy view of all experiments." + </p> + <p> + Edison has frequently remarked that out of a hundred experiments he does + not expect more than one to be successful, and as to that one he is always + suspicious until frequent repetition has verified the original results. + </p> + <p> + This patient, optimistic view of the outcome of experiments has remained + part of his character down to this day, just as his painstaking, minute, + incisive methods are still unchanged. But to the careless, stupid, or lazy + person he is a terror for the short time they remain around him. Honest + mistakes may be tolerated, but not carelessness, incompetence, or lack of + attention to business. In such cases Edison is apt to express himself + freely and forcibly, as when he was asked why he had parted with a certain + man, he said: "Oh, he was so slow that it would take him half an hour to + get out of the field of a microscope." Another instance will be + illustrative. Soon after the Brockton (Massachusetts) central station was + started in operation many years ago, he wrote a note to Mr. W. S. Andrews, + containing suggestions as to future stations, part of which related to the + various employees and their duties. After outlining the duties of the + meter man, Edison says: "I should not take too young a man for this, say, + a man from twenty-three to thirty years old, bright and businesslike. + Don't want any one who yearns to enter a laboratory and experiment. We + have a bad case of that at Brockton; he neglects business to potter. What + we want is a good lamp average and no unprofitable customer. You should + have these men on probation and subject to passing an examination by me. + This will wake them up." + </p> + <p> + Edison's examinations are no joke, according to Mr. J. H. Vail, formerly + one of the Menlo Park staff. "I wanted a job," he said, "and was ambitious + to take charge of the dynamo-room. Mr. Edison led me to a heap of junk in + a corner and said: 'Put that together and let me know when it's running.' + I didn't know what it was, but received a liberal education in finding + out. It proved to be a dynamo, which I finally succeeded in assembling and + running. I got the job." Another man who succeeded in winning a place as + assistant was Mr. John F. Ott, who has remained in his employ for over + forty years. In 1869, when Edison was occupying his first manufacturing + shop (the third floor of a small building in Newark), he wanted a + first-class mechanician, and Mr. Ott was sent to him. "He was then an + ordinary-looking young fellow," says Mr. Ott, "dirty as any of the other + workmen, unkempt, and not much better dressed than a tramp, but I + immediately felt that there was a great deal in him." This is the + conversation that ensued, led by Mr. Edison's question: + </p> + <p> + "What do you want?" + </p> + <p> + "Work." + </p> + <p> + "Can you make this machine work?" (exhibiting it and explaining its + details). + </p> + <p> + "Yes." + </p> + <p> + "Are you sure?" + </p> + <p> + "Well, you needn't pay me if I don't." + </p> + <p> + And thus Mr. Ott went to work and succeeded in accomplishing the results + desired. Two weeks afterward Mr. Edison put him in charge of the shop. + </p> + <p> + Edison's life fairly teems with instances of unruffled patience in the + pursuit of experiments. When he feels thoroughly impressed with the + possibility of accomplishing a certain thing, he will settle down + composedly to investigate it to the end. + </p> + <p> + This is well illustrated in a story relating to his invention of the type + of storage battery bearing his name. Mr. W. S. Mallory, one of his closest + associates for many years, is the authority for the following: "When Mr. + Edison decided to shut down the ore-milling plant at Edison, New Jersey, + in which I had been associated with him, it became a problem as to what he + could profitably take up next, and we had several discussions about it. He + finally thought that a good storage battery was a great requisite, and + decided to try and devise a new type, for he declared emphatically he + would make no battery requiring sulphuric acid. After a little thought he + conceived the nickel-iron idea, and started to work at once with + characteristic energy. About 7 or 7.30 A.M. he would go down to the + laboratory and experiment, only stopping for a short time at noon to eat a + lunch sent down from the house. About 6 o'clock the carriage would call to + take him to dinner, from which he would return by 7.30 or 8 o'clock to + resume work. The carriage came again at midnight to take him home, but + frequently had to wait until 2 or 3 o'clock, and sometimes return without + him, as he had decided to continue all night. + </p> + <p> + "This had been going on more than five months, seven days a week, when I + was called down to the laboratory to see him. I found him at a bench about + three feet wide and twelve to fifteen feet long, on which there were + hundreds of little test cells that had been made up by his corps of + chemists and experimenters. He was seated at this bench testing, figuring, + and planning. I then learned that he had thus made over nine thousand + experiments in trying to devise this new type of storage battery, but had + not produced a single thing that promised to solve the question. In view + of this immense amount of thought and labor, my sympathy got the better of + my judgment, and I said: 'Isn't it a shame that with the tremendous amount + of work you have done you haven't been able to get any results?' Edison + turned on me like a flash, and with a smile replied: 'Results! Why, man, I + have gotten a lot of results! I know several thousand things that won't + work.' + </p> + <p> + "At that time he sent me out West on a special mission. On my return, a + few weeks later, his experiments had run up to over ten thousand, but he + had discovered the missing link in the combination sought for. Of course, + we all remember how the battery was completed and put on the market. Then, + because he was dissatisfied with it, he stopped the sales and commenced a + new line of investigation, which has recently culminated successfully. I + shouldn't wonder if his experiments on the battery ran up pretty near to + fifty thousand, for they fill more than one hundred and fifty of the + note-books, to say nothing of some thousands of tests in curve sheets." + </p> + <p> + Although Edison has an absolute disregard for the total outlay of money in + investigation, he is particular to keep down the cost of individual + experiments to a minimum, for, as he observed to one of his assistants: "A + good many inventors try to develop things life-size, and thus spend all + their money, instead of first experimenting more freely on a small scale." + To Edison life is not only a grand opportunity to find out things by + experiment, but, when found, to improve them by further experiment. One + night, after receiving a satisfactory report of progress from Mr. Mason, + superintendent of the cement plant, he said: "The only way to keep ahead + of the procession is to experiment. If you don't, the other fellow will. + When there's no experimenting there's no progress. Stop experimenting and + you go backward. If anything goes wrong, experiment until you get to the + very bottom of the trouble." + </p> + <p> + It is easy to realize, therefore, that a character so thoroughly permeated + with these ideas is not apt to stop and figure out expense when in hot + pursuit of some desired object. When that object has been attained, + however, and it passes from the experimental to the commercial stage, + Edison's monetary views again come into strong play, but they take a + diametrically opposite position, for he then begins immediately to plan + the extreme of economy in the production of the article. A thousand and + one instances could be quoted in illustration; but as they would tend to + change the form of this narrative into a history of economy in + manufacture, it will suffice to mention but one, and that a recent + occurrence, which serves to illustrate how closely he keeps in touch with + everything, and also how the inventive faculty and instinct of commercial + economy run close together. It was during Edison's winter stay in Florida, + in March, 1909. He had reports sent to him daily from various places, and + studied them carefully, for he would write frequently with comments, + instructions, and suggestions; and in one case, commenting on the oiling + system at the cement plant, he wrote: "Your oil losses are now getting + lower, I see." Then, after suggesting some changes to reduce them still + further, he went on to say: "Here is a chance to save a mill per barrel + based on your regular daily output." + </p> + <p> + This thorough consideration of the smallest detail is essentially + characteristic of Edison, not only in economy of manufacture, but in all + his work, no matter of what kind, whether it be experimenting, + investigating, testing, or engineering. To follow him through the + labyrinthine paths of investigation contained in the great array of + laboratory note-books is to become involved in a mass of minutely detailed + searches which seek to penetrate the inmost recesses of nature by an + ultimate analysis of an infinite variety of parts. As the reader will + obtain a fuller comprehension of this idea, and of Edison's methods, by + concrete illustration rather than by generalization, the authors have + thought it well to select at random two typical instances of specific + investigations out of the thousands that are scattered through the + notebooks. These will be found in the following extracts from one of the + note-books, and consist of Edison's instructions to be carried out in + detail by his experimenters: + </p> + <p> + "Take, say, 25 lbs. hard Cuban asphalt and separate all the different + hydrocarbons, etc., as far as possible by means of solvents. It will be + necessary first to dissolve everything out by, say, hot turpentine, then + successively treat the residue with bisulphide carbon, benzol, ether, + chloroform, naphtha, toluol, alcohol, and other probable solvents. After + you can go no further, distil off all the solvents so the asphalt material + has a tar-like consistency. Be sure all the ash is out of the turpentine + portion; now, after distilling the turpentine off, act on the residue with + all the solvents that were used on the residue, using for the first the + solvent which is least likely to dissolve a great part of it. By thus + manipulating the various solvents you will be enabled probably to separate + the crude asphalt into several distinct hydrocarbons. Put each in a bottle + after it has been dried, and label the bottle with the process, etc., so + we may be able to duplicate it; also give bottle a number and describe + everything fully in note-book." + </p> + <p> + "Destructively distil the following substances down to a point just short + of carbonization, so that the residuum can be taken out of the retort, + powdered, and acted on by all the solvents just as the asphalt in previous + page. The distillation should be carried to, say, 600 degrees or 700 + degrees Fahr., but not continued long enough to wholly reduce mass to + charcoal, but always run to blackness. Separate the residuum in as many + definite parts as possible, bottle and label, and keep accurate records as + to process, weights, etc., so a reproduction of the experiment can at any + time be made: Gelatine, 4 lbs.; asphalt, hard Cuban, 10 lbs.; coal-tar or + pitch, 10 lbs.; wood-pitch, 10 lbs.; Syrian asphalt, 10 lbs.; bituminous + coal, 10 lbs.; cane-sugar, 10 lbs.; glucose, 10 lbs.; dextrine, 10 lbs.; + glycerine, 10 lbs.; tartaric acid, 5 lbs.; gum guiac, 5 lbs.; gum amber, 3 + lbs.; gum tragacanth, 3 Lbs.; aniline red, 1 lb.; aniline oil, 1 lb.; + crude anthracene, 5 lbs.; petroleum pitch, 10 lbs.; albumen from eggs, 2 + lbs.; tar from passing chlorine through aniline oil, 2 lbs.; citric acid, + 5 lbs.; sawdust of boxwood, 3 lbs.; starch, 5 lbs.; shellac, 3 lbs.; gum + Arabic, 5 lbs.; castor oil, 5 lbs." + </p> + <p> + The empirical nature of his method will be apparent from an examination of + the above items; but in pursuing it he leaves all uncertainty behind and, + trusting nothing to theory, he acquires absolute knowledge. Whatever may + be the mental processes by which he arrives at the starting-point of any + specific line of research, the final results almost invariably prove that + he does not plunge in at random; indeed, as an old associate remarked: + "When Edison takes up any proposition in natural science, his perceptions + seem to be elementally broad and analytical, that is to say, in addition + to the knowledge he has acquired from books and observation, he appears to + have an intuitive apprehension of the general order of things, as they + might be supposed to exist in natural relation to each other. It has + always seemed to me that he goes to the core of things at once." + </p> + <p> + Although nothing less than results from actual experiments are acceptable + to him as established facts, this view of Edison may also account for his + peculiar and somewhat weird ability to "guess" correctly, a faculty which + has frequently enabled him to take short cuts to lines of investigation + whose outcome has verified in a most remarkable degree statements + apparently made offhand and without calculation. Mr. Upton says: "One of + the main impressions left upon me, after knowing Mr. Edison for many + years, is the marvellous accuracy of his guesses. He will see the general + nature of a result long before it can be reached by mathematical + calculation." This was supplemented by one of his engineering staff, who + remarked: "Mr. Edison can guess better than a good many men can figure, + and so far as my experience goes, I have found that he is almost + invariably correct. His guess is more than a mere starting-point, and + often turns out to be the final solution of a problem. I can only account + for it by his remarkable insight and wonderful natural sense of the + proportion of things, in addition to which he seems to carry in his head + determining factors of all kinds, and has the ability to apply them + instantly in considering any mechanical problem." + </p> + <p> + While this mysterious intuitive power has been of the greatest advantage + in connection with the vast number of technical problems that have entered + into his life-work, there have been many remarkable instances in which it + has seemed little less than prophecy, and it is deemed worth while to + digress to the extent of relating two of them. One day in the summer of + 1881, when the incandescent lamp-industry was still in swaddling clothes, + Edison was seated in the room of Major Eaton, vice-president of the Edison + Electric Light Company, talking over business matters, when Mr. Upton came + in from the lamp factory at Menlo Park, and said: "Well, Mr. Edison, we + completed a thousand lamps to-day." Edison looked up and said "Good," then + relapsed into a thoughtful mood. In about two minutes he raised his head, + and said: "Upton, in fifteen years you will be making forty thousand lamps + a day." None of those present ventured to make any remark on this + assertion, although all felt that it was merely a random guess, based on + the sanguine dream of an inventor. The business had not then really made a + start, and being entirely new was without precedent upon which to base any + such statement, but, as a matter of fact, the records of the lamp factory + show that in 1896 its daily output of lamps was actually about forty + thousand. + </p> + <p> + The other instance referred to occurred shortly after the Edison Machine + Works was moved up to Schenectady, in 1886. One day, when he was at the + works, Edison sat down and wrote on a sheet of paper fifteen separate + predictions of the growth and future of the electrical business. + Notwithstanding the fact that the industry was then in an immature state, + and that the great boom did not set in until a few years afterward, twelve + of these predictions have been fully verified by the enormous growth and + development in all branches of the art. + </p> + <p> + What the explanation of this gift, power, or intuition may be, is perhaps + better left to the psychologist to speculate upon. If one were to ask + Edison, he would probably say, "Hard work, not too much sleep, and free + use of the imagination." Whether or not it would be possible for the + average mortal to arrive at such perfection of "guessing" by faithfully + following this formula, even reinforced by the Edison recipe for + stimulating a slow imagination with pastry, is open for demonstration. + </p> + <p> + Somewhat allied to this curious faculty is another no less remarkable, and + that is, the ability to point out instantly an error in a mass of reported + experimental results. While many instances could be definitely named, a + typical one, related by Mr. J. D. Flack, formerly master mechanic at the + lamp factory, may be quoted: "During the many years of lamp + experimentation, batches of lamps were sent to the photometer department + for test, and Edison would examine the tabulated test sheets. He ran over + every item of the tabulations rapidly, and, apparently without any + calculation whatever, would check off errors as fast as he came to them, + saying: 'You have made a mistake; try this one over.' In every case the + second test proved that he was right. This wonderful aptitude for + infallibly locating an error without an instant's hesitation for mental + calculation, has always appealed to me very forcibly." + </p> + <p> + The ability to detect errors quickly in a series of experiments is one of + the things that has enabled Edison to accomplish such a vast amount of + work as the records show. Examples of the minuteness of detail into which + his researches extend have already been mentioned, and as there are always + a number of such investigations in progress at the laboratory, this + ability stands Edison in good stead, for he is thus enabled to follow, + and, if necessary, correct each one step by step. In this he is aided by + the great powers of a mind that is able to free itself from absorbed + concentration on the details of one problem, and instantly to shift over + and become deeply and intelligently concentrated in another and entirely + different one. For instance, he may have been busy for hours on chemical + experiments, and be called upon suddenly to determine some mechanical + questions. The complete and easy transition is the constant wonder of his + associates, for there is no confusion of ideas resulting from these quick + changes, no hesitation or apparent effort, but a plunge into the midst of + the new subject, and an instant acquaintance with all its details, as if + he had been studying it for hours. + </p> + <p> + A good stiff difficulty—one which may, perhaps, appear to be an + unsurmountable obstacle—only serves to make Edison cheerful, and + brings out variations of his methods in experimenting. Such an occurrence + will start him thinking, which soon gives rise to a line of suggestions + for approaching the trouble from various sides; or he will sit down and + write out a series of eliminations, additions, or changes to be worked out + and reported upon, with such variations as may suggest themselves during + their progress. It is at such times as these that his unfailing patience + and tremendous resourcefulness are in evidence. Ideas and expedients are + poured forth in a torrent, and although some of them have temporarily + appeared to the staff to be ridiculous or irrelevant, they have frequently + turned out to be the ones leading to a correct solution of the trouble. + </p> + <p> + Edison's inexhaustible resourcefulness and fertility of ideas have + contributed largely to his great success, and have ever been a cause of + amazement to those around him. Frequently, when it would seem to others + that the extreme end of an apparently blind alley had been reached, and + that it was impossible to proceed further, he has shown that there were + several ways out of it. Examples without number could be quoted, but one + must suffice by way of illustration. During the progress of the + ore-milling work at Edison, it became desirable to carry on a certain + operation by some special machinery. He requested the proper person on his + engineering staff to think this matter up and submit a few sketches of + what he would propose to do. He brought three drawings to Edison, who + examined them and said none of them would answer. The engineer remarked + that it was too bad, for there was no other way to do it. Mr. Edison + turned to him quickly, and said: "Do you mean to say that these drawings + represent the only way to do this work?" To which he received the reply: + "I certainly do." Edison said nothing. This happened on a Saturday. He + followed his usual custom of spending Sunday at home in Orange. When he + returned to the works on Monday morning, he took with him sketches he had + made, showing FORTY-EIGHT other ways of accomplishing the desired + operation, and laid them on the engineer's desk without a word. + Subsequently one of these ideas, with modifications suggested by some of + the others, was put into successful practice. + </p> + <p> + Difficulties seem to have a peculiar charm for Edison, whether they relate + to large or small things; and although the larger matters have contributed + most to the history of the arts, the same carefulness of thought has often + been the means of leading to improvements of permanent advantage even in + minor details. For instance, in the very earliest days of electric + lighting, the safe insulation of two bare wires fastened together was a + serious problem that was solved by him. An iron pot over a fire, some + insulating material melted therein, and narrow strips of linen drawn + through it by means of a wooden clamp, furnished a readily applied and + adhesive insulation, which was just as perfect for the purpose as the + regular and now well-known insulating tape, of which it was the + forerunner. + </p> + <p> + Dubious results are not tolerated for a moment in Edison's experimental + work. Rather than pass upon an uncertainty, the experiment will be + dissected and checked minutely in order to obtain absolute knowledge, pro + and con. This searching method is followed not only in chemical or other + investigations, into which complexities might naturally enter, but also in + more mechanical questions, where simplicity of construction might + naturally seem to preclude possibilities of uncertainty. For instance, at + the time when he was making strenuous endeavors to obtain copper wire of + high conductivity, strict laboratory tests were made of samples sent by + manufacturers. One of these samples tested out poorer than a previous lot + furnished from the same factory. A report of this to Edison brought the + following note: "Perhaps the —— wire had a bad spot in it. + Please cut it up into lengths and test each one and send results to me + immediately." Possibly the electrical fraternity does not realize that + this earnest work of Edison, twenty-eight years ago, resulted in the + establishment of the high quality of copper wire that has been the + recognized standard since that time. Says Edison on this point: "I + furnished the expert and apparatus to the Ansonia Brass and Copper Company + in 1883, and he is there yet. It was this expert and this company who + pioneered high-conductivity copper for the electrical trade." + </p> + <p> + Nor is it generally appreciated in the industry that the adoption of what + is now regarded as a most obvious proposition—the high-economy + incandescent lamp—was the result of that characteristic foresight + which there has been occasion to mention frequently in the course of this + narrative, together with the courage and "horse-sense" which have always + been displayed by the inventor in his persistent pushing out with + far-reaching ideas, in the face of pessimistic opinions. As is well known, + the lamps of the first ten or twelve years of incandescent lighting were + of low economy, but had long life. Edison's study of the subject had led + him to the conviction that the greatest growth of the electric-lighting + industry would be favored by a lamp taking less current, but having + shorter, though commercially economical life; and after gradually making + improvements along this line he developed, finally, a type of high-economy + lamp which would introduce a most radical change in existing conditions, + and lead ultimately to highly advantageous results. His start on this + lamp, and an expressed desire to have it manufactured for regular use, + filled even some of his business associates with dismay, for they could + see nothing but disaster ahead in forcing such a lamp on the market. His + persistence and profound conviction of the ultimate results were so strong + and his arguments so sound, however, that the campaign was entered upon. + Although it took two or three years to convince the public of the + correctness of his views, the idea gradually took strong root, and has now + become an integral principle of the business. + </p> + <p> + In this connection it may be noted that with remarkable prescience Edison + saw the coming of the modern lamps of to-day, which, by reason of their + small consumption of energy to produce a given candle-power, have dismayed + central-station managers. A few years ago a consumption of 3.1 watts per + candle-power might safely be assumed as an excellent average, and many + stations fixed their rates and business on such a basis. The results on + income when the consumption, as in the new metallic-filament lamps, drops + to 1.25 watts per candle can readily be imagined. Edison has insisted that + central stations are selling light and not current; and he points to the + predicament now confronting them as truth of his assertion that when + selling light they share in all the benefits of improvement, but that when + they sell current the consumer gets all those benefits without division. + The dilemma is encountered by central stations in a bewildered way, as a + novel and unexpected experience; but Edison foresaw the situation and + warned against it long ago. It is one of the greatest gifts of + statesmanship to see new social problems years before they arise and solve + them in advance. It is one of the greatest attributes of invention to + foresee and meet its own problems in exactly the same way. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0025" id="link2HCH0025"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXV + </h2> + <h3> + THE LABORATORY AT ORANGE AND THE STAFF + </h3> + <p> + A LIVING interrogation-point and a born investigator from childhood, + Edison has never been without a laboratory of some kind for upward of half + a century. + </p> + <p> + In youthful years, as already described in this book, he became ardently + interested in chemistry, and even at the early age of twelve felt the + necessity for a special nook of his own, where he could satisfy his + unconvinced mind of the correctness or inaccuracy of statements and + experiments contained in the few technical books then at his command. + </p> + <p> + Ordinarily he was like other normal lads of his age—full of boyish, + hearty enjoyments—but withal possessed of an unquenchable spirit of + inquiry and an insatiable desire for knowledge. Being blessed with a wise + and discerning mother, his aspirations were encouraged; and he was allowed + a corner in her cellar. It is fair to offer tribute here to her bravery as + well as to her wisdom, for at times she was in mortal terror lest the + precocious experimenter below should, in his inexperience, make some awful + combination that would explode and bring down the house in ruins on + himself and the rest of the family. + </p> + <p> + Fortunately no such catastrophe happened, but young Edison worked away in + his embryonic laboratory, satisfying his soul and incidentally depleting + his limited pocket-money to the vanishing-point. It was, indeed, owing to + this latter circumstance that in a year or two his aspirations + necessitated an increase of revenue; and a consequent determination to + earn some money for himself led to his first real commercial enterprise as + "candy butcher" on the Grand Trunk Railroad, already mentioned in a + previous chapter. It has also been related how his precious laboratory was + transferred to the train; how he and it were subsequently expelled; and + how it was re-established in his home, where he continued studies and + experiments until the beginning of his career as a telegraph operator. + </p> + <p> + The nomadic life of the next few years did not lessen his devotion to + study; but it stood seriously in the way of satisfying the ever-present + craving for a laboratory. The lack of such a place never prevented + experimentation, however, as long as he had a dollar in his pocket and + some available "hole in the wall." With the turning of the tide of fortune + that suddenly carried him, in New York in 1869, from poverty to the + opulence of $300 a month, he drew nearer to a realization of his cherished + ambition in having money, place, and some time (stolen from sleep) for + more serious experimenting. Thus matters continued until, at about the age + of twenty-two, Edison's inventions had brought him a relatively large sum + of money, and he became a very busy manufacturer, and lessee of a large + shop in Newark, New Jersey. + </p> + <p> + Now, for the first time since leaving that boyish laboratory in the old + home at Port Huron, Edison had a place of his own to work in, to think in; + but no one in any way acquainted with Newark as a swarming centre of + miscellaneous and multitudinous industries would recommend it as a + cloistered retreat for brooding reverie and introspection, favorable to + creative effort. Some people revel in surroundings of hustle and bustle, + and find therein no hindrance to great accomplishment. The electrical + genius of Newark is Edward Weston, who has thriven amid its turmoil and + there has developed his beautiful instruments of precision; just as Brush + worked out his arc-lighting system in Cleveland; or even as Faraday, + surrounded by the din and roar of London, laid the intellectual + foundations of the whole modern science of dynamic electricity. But + Edison, though deaf, could not make too hurried a retreat from Newark to + Menlo Park, where, as if to justify his change of base, vital inventions + soon came thick and fast, year after year. The story of Menlo has been + told in another chapter, but the point was not emphasized that Edison + then, as later, tried hard to drop manufacturing. He would infinitely + rather be philosopher than producer; but somehow the necessity of + manufacturing is constantly thrust back upon him by a profound—perhaps + finical—sense of dissatisfaction with what other people make for + him. The world never saw a man more deeply and desperately convinced that + nothing in it approaches perfection. Edison is the doctrine of evolution + incarnate, applied to mechanics. As to the removal from Newark, he may be + allowed to tell his own story: "I had a shop at Newark in which I + manufactured stock tickers and such things. When I moved to Menlo Park I + took out only the machinery that would be necessary for experimental + purposes and left the manufacturing machinery in the place. It consisted + of many milling machines and other tools for duplicating. I rented this to + a man who had formerly been my bookkeeper, and who thought he could make + money out of manufacturing. There was about $10,000 worth of machinery. He + was to pay me $2000 a year for the rent of the machinery and keep it in + good order. After I moved to Menlo Park, I was very busy with the + telephone and phonograph, and I paid no attention to this little + arrangement. About three years afterward, it occurred to me that I had not + heard at all from the man who had rented this machinery, so I thought I + would go over to Newark and see how things were going. When I got there, I + found that instead of being a machine shop it was a hotel! I have since + been utterly unable to find out what became of the man or the machinery." + Such incidents tend to justify Edison in his rather cynical remark that he + has always been able to improve machinery much quicker than men. All the + way up he has had discouraging experiences. "One day while I was carrying + on my work in Newark, a Wall Street broker came from the city and said he + was tired of the 'Street,' and wanted to go into something real. He said + he had plenty of money. He wanted some kind of a job to keep his mind off + Wall Street. So we gave him a job as a 'mucker' in chemical experiments. + The second night he was there he could not stand the long hours and fell + asleep on a sofa. One of the boys took a bottle of bromine and opened it + under the sofa. It floated up and produced a violent effect on the mucous + membrane. The broker was taken with such a fit of coughing he burst a + blood-vessel, and the man who let the bromine out got away and never came + back. I suppose he thought there was going to be a death. But the broker + lived, and left the next day; and I have never seen him since, either." + Edison tells also of another foolhardy laboratory trick of the same kind: + "Some of my assistants in those days were very green in the business, as I + did not care whether they had had any experience or not. I generally tried + to turn them loose. One day I got a new man, and told him to conduct a + certain experiment. He got a quart of ether and started to boil it over a + naked flame. Of course it caught fire. The flame was about four feet in + diameter and eleven feet high. We had to call out the fire department; and + they came down and put a stream through the window. That let all the fumes + and chemicals out and overcame the firemen; and there was the devil to + pay. Another time we experimented with a tub full of soapy water, and put + hydrogen into it to make large bubbles. One of the boys, who was washing + bottles in the place, had read in some book that hydrogen was explosive, + so he proceeded to blow the tub up. There was about four inches of soap in + the bottom of the tub, fourteen inches high; and he filled it with soap + bubbles up to the brim. Then he took a bamboo fish-pole, put a piece of + paper at the end, and touched it off. It blew every window out of the + place." + </p> + <p> + Always a shrewd, observant, and kindly critic of character, Edison tells + many anecdotes of the men who gathered around him in various capacities at + that quiet corner of New Jersey—Menlo Park—and later at + Orange, in the Llewellyn Park laboratory; and these serve to supplement + the main narrative by throwing vivid side-lights on the whole scene. Here, + for example, is a picture drawn by Edison of a laboratory interlude—just + a bit Rabelaisian: "When experimenting at Menlo Park we had all the way + from forty to fifty men. They worked all the time. Each man was allowed + from four to six hours' sleep. We had a man who kept tally, and when the + time came for one to sleep, he was notified. At midnight we had lunch + brought in and served at a long table at which the experimenters sat down. + I also had an organ which I procured from Hilbourne Roosevelt—uncle + of the ex-President—and we had a man play this organ while we ate + our lunch. During the summertime, after we had made something which was + successful, I used to engage a brick-sloop at Perth Amboy and take the + whole crowd down to the fishing-banks on the Atlantic for two days. On one + occasion we got outside Sandy Hook on the banks and anchored. A breeze + came up, the sea became rough, and a large number of the men were sick. + There was straw in the bottom of the boat, which we all slept on. Most of + the men adjourned to this straw very sick. Those who were not got a piece + of rancid salt pork from the skipper, and cut a large, thick slice out of + it. This was put on the end of a fish-hook and drawn across the men's + faces. The smell was terrific, and the effect added to the hilarity of the + excursion. + </p> + <p> + "I went down once with my father and two assistants for a little fishing + inside Sandy Hook. For some reason or other the fishing was very poor. We + anchored, and I started in to fish. After fishing for several hours there + was not a single bite. The others wanted to pull up anchor, but I fished + two days and two nights without a bite, until they pulled up anchor and + went away. I would not give up. I was going to catch that fish if it took + a week." + </p> + <p> + This is general. Let us quote one or two piquant personal observations of + a more specific nature as to the odd characters Edison drew around him in + his experimenting. "Down at Menlo Park a man came in one day and wanted a + job. He was a sailor. I hadn't any particular work to give him, but I had + a number of small induction coils, and to give him something to do I told + him to fix them up and sell them among his sailor friends. They were fixed + up, and he went over to New York and sold them all. He was an + extraordinary fellow. His name was Adams. One day I asked him how long it + was since he had been to sea, and he replied two or three years. I asked + him how he had made a living in the mean time, before he came to Menlo + Park. He said he made a pretty good living by going around to different + clinics and getting $10 at each clinic, because of having the worst case + of heart-disease on record. I told him if that was the case he would have + to be very careful around the laboratory. I had him there to help in + experimenting, and the heart-disease did not seem to bother him at all. + </p> + <p> + "It appeared that he had once been a slaver; and altogether he was a tough + character. Having no other man I could spare at that time, I sent him over + with my carbon transmitter telephone to exhibit it in England. It was + exhibited before the Post-Office authorities. Professor Hughes spent an + afternoon in examining the apparatus, and in about a month came out with + his microphone, which was absolutely nothing more nor less than my exact + invention. But no mention was made of the fact that, just previously, he + had seen the whole of my apparatus. Adams stayed over in Europe connected + with the telephone for several years, and finally died of too much whiskey—but + not of heart-disease. This shows how whiskey is the more dangerous of the + two. + </p> + <p> + "Adams said that at one time he was aboard a coffee-ship in the harbor of + Santos, Brazil. He fell down a hatchway and broke his arm. They took him + up to the hospital—a Portuguese one—where he could not speak + the language, and they did not understand English. They treated him for + two weeks for yellow fever! He was certainly the most profane man we ever + had around the laboratory. He stood high in his class." + </p> + <p> + And there were others of a different stripe. "We had a man with us at + Menlo called Segredor. He was a queer kind of fellow. The men got in the + habit of plaguing him; and, finally, one day he said to the assembled + experimenters in the top room of the laboratory: 'The next man that does + it, I will kill him.' They paid no attention to this, and next day one of + them made some sarcastic remark to him. Segredor made a start for his + boarding-house, and when they saw him coming back up the hill with a gun, + they knew there would be trouble, so they all made for the woods. One of + the men went back and mollified him. He returned to his work; but he was + not teased any more. At last, when I sent men out hunting for bamboo, I + dispatched Segredor to Cuba. He arrived in Havana on Tuesday, and on the + Friday following he was buried, having died of the black vomit. On the + receipt of the news of his death, half a dozen of the men wanted his job, + but my searcher in the Astor Library reported that the chances of finding + the right kind of bamboo for lamps in Cuba were very small; so I did not + send a substitute." + </p> + <p> + Another thumb-nail sketch made of one of his associates is this: "When + experimenting with vacuum-pumps to exhaust the incandescent lamps, I + required some very delicate and close manipulation of glass, and hired a + German glass-blower who was said to be the most expert man of his kind in + the United States. He was the only one who could make clinical + thermometers. He was the most extraordinarily conceited man I have ever + come across. His conceit was so enormous, life was made a burden to him by + all the boys around the laboratory. He once said that he was educated in a + university where all the students belonged to families of the aristocracy; + and the highest class in the university all wore little red caps. He said + HE wore one." + </p> + <p> + Of somewhat different caliber was "honest" John Kruesi, who first made his + mark at Menlo Park, and of whom Edison says: "One of the workmen I had at + Menlo Park was John Kruesi, who afterward became, from his experience, + engineer of the lighting station, and subsequently engineer of the Edison + General Electric Works at Schenectady. Kruesi was very exact in his + expressions. At the time we were promoting and putting up electric-light + stations in Pennsylvania, New York, and New England, there would be + delegations of different people who proposed to pay for these stations. + They would come to our office in New York, at '65,' to talk over the + specifications, the cost, and other things. At first, Mr. Kruesi was + brought in, but whenever a statement was made which he could not + understand or did not believe could be substantiated, he would blurt right + out among these prospects that he didn't believe it. Finally it disturbed + these committees so much, and raised so many doubts in their minds, that + one of my chief associates said: 'Here, Kruesi, we don't want you to come + to these meetings any longer. You are too painfully honest.' I said to + him: 'We always tell the truth. It may be deferred truth, but it is the + truth.' He could not understand that." + </p> + <p> + Various reasons conspired to cause the departure from Menlo Park midway in + the eighties. For Edison, in spite of the achievement with which its name + will forever be connected, it had lost all its attractions and all its + possibilities. It had been outgrown in many ways, and strange as the + remark may seem, it was not until he had left it behind and had settled in + Orange, New Jersey, that he can be said to have given definite shape to + his life. He was only forty in 1887, and all that he had done up to that + time, tremendous as much of it was, had worn a haphazard, Bohemian air, + with all the inconsequential freedom and crudeness somehow attaching to + pioneer life. The development of the new laboratory in West Orange, just + at the foot of Llewellyn Park, on the Orange Mountains, not only marked + the happy beginning of a period of perfect domestic and family life, but + saw in the planning and equipment of a model laboratory plant the + consummation of youthful dreams, and of the keen desire to enjoy resources + adequate at any moment to whatever strain the fierce fervor of research + might put upon them. Curiously enough, while hitherto Edison had sought to + dissociate his experimenting from his manufacturing, here he determined to + develop a large industry to which a thoroughly practical laboratory would + be a central feature, and ever a source of suggestion and inspiration. + Edison's standpoint to-day is that an evil to be dreaded in manufacture is + that of over-standardization, and that as soon as an article is perfect + that is the time to begin improving it. But he who would improve must + experiment. + </p> + <p> + The Orange laboratory, as originally planned, consisted of a main building + two hundred and fifty feet long and three stories in height, together with + four other structures, each one hundred by twenty-five feet, and only one + story in height. All these were substantially built of brick. The main + building was divided into five chief divisions—the library, office, + machine shops, experimental and chemical rooms, and stock-room. The use of + the smaller buildings will be presently indicated. + </p> + <p> + Surrounding the whole was erected a high picket fence with a gate placed + on Valley Road. At this point a gate-house was provided and put in charge + of a keeper, for then, as at the present time, Edison was greatly sought + after; and, in order to accomplish any work at all, he was obliged to deny + himself to all but the most important callers. The keeper of the gate was + usually chosen with reference to his capacity for stony-hearted + implacability and adherence to instructions; and this choice was admirably + made in one instance when a new gateman, not yet thoroughly initiated, + refused admittance to Edison himself. It was of no use to try and explain. + To the gateman EVERY ONE was persona non grata without proper credentials, + and Edison had to wait outside until he could get some one to identify + him. + </p> + <p> + On entering the main building the first doorway from the ample passage + leads the visitor into a handsome library finished throughout in yellow + pine, occupying the entire width of the building, and almost as broad as + long. The centre of this spacious room is an open rectangular space about + forty by twenty-five feet, rising clear about forty feet from the main + floor to a panelled ceiling. Around the sides of the room, bounding this + open space, run two tiers of gallery, divided, as is the main floor + beneath them; into alcoves of liberal dimensions. These alcoves are formed + by racks extending from floor to ceiling, fitted with shelves, except on + two sides of both galleries, where they are formed by a series of + glass-fronted cabinets containing extensive collections of curious and + beautiful mineralogical and geological specimens, among which is the + notable Tiffany-Kunz collection of minerals acquired by Edison some years + ago. Here and there in these cabinets may also be found a few models which + he has used at times in his studies of anatomy and physiology. + </p> + <p> + The shelves on the remainder of the upper gallery and part of those on the + first gallery are filled with countless thousands of specimens of ores and + minerals of every conceivable kind gathered from all parts of the world, + and all tagged and numbered. The remaining shelves of the first gallery + are filled with current numbers (and some back numbers) of the numerous + periodicals to which Edison subscribes. Here may be found the popular + magazines, together with those of a technical nature relating to + electricity, chemistry, engineering, mechanics, building, cement, building + materials, drugs, water and gas, power, automobiles, railroads, + aeronautics, philosophy, hygiene, physics, telegraphy, mining, metallurgy, + metals, music, and others; also theatrical weeklies, as well as the + proceedings and transactions of various learned and technical societies. + </p> + <p> + The first impression received as one enters on the main floor of the + library and looks around is that of noble proportions and symmetry as a + whole. The open central space of liberal dimensions and height, flanked by + the galleries and relieved by four handsome electric-lighting fixtures + suspended from the ceiling by long chains, conveys an idea of lofty + spaciousness; while the huge open fireplace, surmounted by a great clock + built into the wall, at one end of the room, the large rugs, the + arm-chairs scattered around, the tables and chairs in the alcoves, give a + general air of comfort combined with utility. In one of the larger + alcoves, at the sunny end of the main hall, is Edison's own desk, where he + may usually be seen for a while in the early morning hours looking over + his mail or otherwise busily working on matters requiring his attention. + </p> + <p> + At the opposite end of the room, not far from the open fireplace, is a + long table surrounded by swivel desk-chairs. It is here that directors' + meetings are sometimes held, and also where weighty matters are often + discussed by Edison at conference with his closer associates. It has been + the privilege of the writers to be present at some of these conferences, + not only as participants, but in some cases as lookers-on while awaiting + their turn. On such occasions an interesting opportunity is offered to + study Edison in his intense and constructive moods. Apparently oblivious + to everything else, he will listen with concentrated mind and close + attention, and then pour forth a perfect torrent of ideas and plans, and, + if the occasion calls for it, will turn around to the table, seize a + writing-pad and make sketch after sketch with lightning-like rapidity, + tearing off each sheet as filled and tossing it aside to the floor. It is + an ordinary indication that there has been an interesting meeting when the + caretaker about fills a waste-basket with these discarded sketches. + </p> + <p> + Directly opposite the main door is a beautiful marble statue purchased by + Edison at the Paris Exposition in 1889, on the occasion of his visit + there. The statue, mounted on a base three feet high, is an allegorical + representation of the supremacy of electric light over all other forms of + illumination, carried out by the life-size figure of a youth with + half-spread wings seated upon the ruins of a street gas-lamp, holding + triumphantly high above his head an electric incandescent lamp. Grouped + about his feet are a gear-wheel, voltaic pile, telegraph key, and + telephone. This work of art was executed by A. Bordiga, of Rome, held a + prominent place in the department devoted to Italian art at the Paris + Exposition, and naturally appealed to Edison as soon as he saw it. + </p> + <p> + In the middle distance, between the entrance door and this statue, has + long stood a magnificent palm, but at the present writing it has been set + aside to give place to a fine model of the first type of the Edison poured + cement house, which stands in a miniature artificial lawn upon a special + table prepared for it; while on the floor at the foot of the table are + specimens of the full-size molds in which the house will be cast. + </p> + <p> + The balustrades of the galleries and all other available places are filled + with portraits of great scientists and men of achievement, as well as with + pictures of historic and scientific interest. Over the fireplace hangs a + large photograph showing the Edison cement plant in its entire length, + flanked on one end of the mantel by a bust of Humboldt, and on the other + by a statuette of Sandow, the latter having been presented to Edison by + the celebrated athlete after the visit he made to Orange to pose for the + motion pictures in the earliest days of their development. On looking up + under the second gallery at this end is seen a great roll resting in + sockets placed on each side of the room. This is a huge screen or curtain + which may be drawn down to the floor to provide a means of projection for + lantern slides or motion pictures, for the entertainment or instruction of + Edison and his guests. In one of the larger alcoves is a large terrestrial + globe pivoted in its special stand, together with a relief map of the + United States; and here and there are handsomely mounted specimens of + underground conductors and electric welds that were made at the Edison + Machine Works at Schenectady before it was merged into the General + Electric Company. On two pedestals stand, respectively, two other + mementoes of the works, one a fifteen-light dynamo of the Edison type, and + the other an elaborate electric fan—both of them gifts from + associates or employees. + </p> + <p> + In noting these various objects of interest one must not lose sight of the + fact that this part of the building is primarily a library, if indeed that + fact did not at once impress itself by a glance at the well-filled + unglazed book-shelves in the alcoves of the main floor. Here Edison's + catholic taste in reading becomes apparent as one scans the titles of + thousands of volumes ranged upon the shelves, for they include astronomy, + botany, chemistry, dynamics, electricity, engineering, forestry, geology, + geography, mechanics, mining, medicine, metallurgy, magnetism, philosophy, + psychology, physics, steam, steam-engines, telegraphy, telephony, and many + others. Besides these there are the journals and proceedings of numerous + technical societies; encyclopaedias of various kinds; bound series of + important technical magazines; a collection of United States and foreign + patents, embracing some hundreds of volumes, together with an extensive + assortment of miscellaneous books of special and general interest. There + is another big library up in the house on the hill—in fact, there + are books upon books all over the home. And wherever they are, those books + are read. + </p> + <p> + As one is about to pass out of the library attention is arrested by an + incongruity in the form of a cot, which stands in an alcove near the door. + Here Edison, throwing himself down, sometimes seeks a short rest during + specially long working tours. Sleep is practically instantaneous and + profound, and he awakes in immediate and full possession of his faculties, + arising from the cot and going directly "back to the job" without a + moment's hesitation, just as a person wide awake would arise from a chair + and proceed to attend to something previously determined upon. + </p> + <p> + Immediately outside the library is the famous stock-room, about which much + has been written and invented. Its fame arose from the fact that Edison + planned it to be a repository of some quantity, great or small, of every + known and possibly useful substance not readily perishable, together with + the most complete assortment of chemicals and drugs that experience and + knowledge could suggest. Always strenuous in his experimentation, and the + living embodiment of the spirit of the song, I Want What I Want When I + Want It, Edison had known for years what it was to be obliged to wait, and + sometimes lack, for some substance or chemical that he thought necessary + to the success of an experiment. Naturally impatient at any delay which + interposed in his insistent and searching methods, and realizing the + necessity of maintaining the inspiration attending his work at any time, + he determined to have within his immediate reach the natural resources of + the world. + </p> + <p> + Hence it is not surprising to find the stock-room not only a museum, but a + sample-room of nature, as well as a supply department. To a casual visitor + the first view of this heterogeneous collection is quite bewildering, but + on more mature examination it resolves itself into a natural + classification—as, for instance, objects pertaining to various + animals, birds, and fishes, such as skins, hides, hair, fur, feathers, + wool, quills, down, bristles, teeth, bones, hoofs, horns, tusks, shells; + natural products, such as woods, barks, roots, leaves, nuts, seeds, herbs, + gums, grains, flours, meals, bran; also minerals in great assortment; + mineral and vegetable oils, clay, mica, ozokerite, etc. In the line of + textiles, cotton and silk threads in great variety, with woven goods of + all kinds from cheese-cloth to silk plush. As for paper, there is + everything in white and colored, from thinnest tissue up to the heaviest + asbestos, even a few newspapers being always on hand. Twines of all sizes, + inks, waxes, cork, tar, resin, pitch, turpentine, asphalt, plumbago, glass + in sheets and tubes; and a host of miscellaneous articles revealed on + looking around the shelves, as well as an interminable collection of + chemicals, including acids, alkalies, salts, reagents, every conceivable + essential oil and all the thinkable extracts. It may be remarked that this + collection includes the eighteen hundred or more fluorescent salts made by + Edison during his experimental search for the best material for a + fluoroscope in the initial X-ray period. All known metals in form of + sheet, rod and tube, and of great variety in thickness, are here found + also, together with a most complete assortment of tools and accessories + for machine shop and laboratory work. + </p> + <p> + The list is confined to the merest general mention of the scope of this + remarkable and interesting collection, as specific details would stretch + out into a catalogue of no small proportions. When it is stated, however, + that a stock clerk is kept exceedingly busy all day answering the numerous + and various demands upon him, the reader will appreciate that this + comprehensive assortment is not merely a fad of Edison's, but stands + rather as a substantial tribute to his wide-angled view of possible + requirements as his various investigations take him far afield. It has no + counterpart in the world! + </p> + <p> + Beyond the stock-room, and occupying about half the building on the same + floor, lie a machine shop, engine-room, and boiler-room. This machine shop + is well equipped, and in it is constantly employed a large force of + mechanics whose time is occupied in constructing the heavier class of + models and mechanical devices called for by the varied experiments and + inventions always going on. + </p> + <p> + Immediately above, on the second floor, is found another machine shop in + which is maintained a corps of expert mechanics who are called upon to do + work of greater precision and fineness, in the construction of tools and + experimental models. This is the realm presided over lovingly by John F. + Ott, who has been Edison's designer of mechanical devices for over forty + years. He still continues to ply his craft with unabated skill and + oversees the work of the mechanics as his productions are wrought into + concrete shape. + </p> + <p> + In one of the many experimental-rooms lining the sides of the second floor + may usually be seen his younger brother, Fred Ott, whose skill as a + dexterous manipulator and ingenious mechanic has found ample scope for + exercise during the thirty-two years of his service with Edison, not only + at the regular laboratories, but also at that connected with the + inventor's winter home in Florida. Still another of the Ott family, the + son of John F., for some years past has been on the experimental staff of + the Orange laboratory. Although possessing in no small degree the + mechanical and manipulative skill of the family, he has chosen chemistry + as his special domain, and may be found with the other chemists in one of + the chemical-rooms. + </p> + <p> + On this same floor is the vacuum-pump room with a glass-blowers' room + adjoining, both of them historic by reason of the strenuous work done on + incandescent lamps and X-ray tubes within their walls. The tools and + appliances are kept intact, for Edison calls occasionally for their use in + some of his later experiments, and there is a suspicion among the + laboratory staff that some day he may resume work on incandescent lamps. + Adjacent to these rooms are several others devoted to physical and + mechanical experiments, together with a draughting-room. + </p> + <p> + Last to be mentioned, but the first in order as one leaves the head of the + stairs leading up to this floor, is No. 12, Edison's favorite room, where + he will frequently be found. Plain of aspect, being merely a space boarded + off with tongued-and-grooved planks—as all the other rooms are—without + ornament or floor covering, and containing only a few articles of cheap + furniture, this room seems to exercise a nameless charm for him. The door + is always open, and often he can be seen seated at a plain table in the + centre of the room, deeply intent on some of the numerous problems in + which he is interested. The table is usually pretty well filled with + specimens or data of experimental results which have been put there for + his examination. At the time of this writing these specimens consist + largely of sections of positive elements of the storage battery, together + with many samples of nickel hydrate, to which Edison devotes deep study. + Close at hand is a microscope which is in frequent use by him in these + investigations. Around the room, on shelves, are hundreds of bottles each + containing a small quantity of nickel hydrate made in as many different + ways, each labelled correspondingly. Always at hand will be found one or + two of the laboratory note-books, with frequent entries or comments in the + handwriting which once seen is never forgotten. + </p> + <p> + No. 12 is at times a chemical, a physical, or a mechanical room—occasionally + a combination of all, while sometimes it might be called a + consultation-room or clinic—for often Edison may be seen there in + animated conference with a group of his assistants; but its chief + distinction lies in its being one of his favorite haunts, and in the fact + that within its walls have been settled many of the perplexing problems + and momentous questions that have brought about great changes in + electrical and engineering arts during the twenty-odd years that have + elapsed since the Orange laboratory was built. + </p> + <p> + Passing now to the top floor the visitor finds himself at the head of a + broad hall running almost the entire length of the building, and lined + mostly with glass-fronted cabinets containing a multitude of experimental + incandescent lamps and an immense variety of models of phonographs, + motors, telegraph and telephone apparatus, meters, and a host of other + inventions upon which Edison's energies have at one time and another been + bent. Here also are other cabinets containing old papers and records, + while further along the wall are piled up boxes of historical models and + instruments. In fact, this hallway, with its conglomerate contents, may + well be considered a scientific attic. It is to be hoped that at no + distant day these Edisoniana will be assembled and arranged in a fireproof + museum for the benefit of posterity. + </p> + <p> + In the front end of the building, and extending over the library, is a + large room intended originally and used for a time as the phonograph + music-hall for record-making, but now used only as an experimental-room + for phonograph work, as the growth of the industry has necessitated a very + much larger and more central place where records can be made on a + commercial scale. Even the experimental work imposes no slight burden on + it. On each side of the hallway above mentioned, rooms are partitioned off + and used for experimental work of various kinds, mostly phonographic, + although on this floor are also located the storage-battery testing-room, + a chemical and physical room and Edison's private office, where all his + personal correspondence and business affairs are conducted by his personal + secretary, Mr. H. F. Miller. A visitor to this upper floor of the + laboratory building cannot but be impressed with a consciousness of the + incessant efforts that are being made to improve the reproducing qualities + of the phonograph, as he hears from all sides the sounds of vocal and + instrumental music constantly varying in volume and timbre, due to changes + in the experimental devices under trial. + </p> + <p> + The traditions of the laboratory include cots placed in many of the rooms + of these upper floors, but that was in the earlier years when the + strenuous scenes of Menlo Park were repeated in the new quarters. Edison + and his closest associates were accustomed to carry their labors far into + the wee sma' hours, and when physical nature demanded a respite from work, + a short rest would be obtained by going to bed on a cot. One would + naturally think that the wear and tear of this intense application, day + after day and night after night, would have tended to induce a heaviness + and gravity of demeanor in these busy men; but on the contrary, the old + spirit of good-humor and prankishness was ever present, as its frequent + outbursts manifested from time to time. One instance will serve as an + illustration. One morning, about 2.30, the late Charles Batchelor + announced that he was tired and would go to bed. Leaving Edison and the + others busily working, he went out and returned quietly in slippered feet, + with his nightgown on, the handle of a feather duster stuck down his back + with the feathers waving over his head, and his face marked. With + unearthly howls and shrieks, a l'Indien, he pranced about the room, + incidentally giving Edison a scare that made him jump up from his work. He + saw the joke quickly, however, and joined in the general merriment caused + by this prank. + </p> + <p> + Leaving the main building with its corps of busy experimenters, and coming + out into the spacious yard, one notes the four long single-story brick + structures mentioned above. The one nearest the Valley Road is called the + galvanometer-room, and was originally intended by Edison to be used for + the most delicate and minute electrical measurements. In order to provide + rigid resting-places for the numerous and elaborate instruments he had + purchased for this purpose, the building was equipped along three-quarters + of its length with solid pillars, or tables, of brick set deep in the + earth. These were built up to a height of about two and a half feet, and + each was surmounted with a single heavy slab of black marble. A cement + floor was laid, and every precaution was taken to render the building free + from all magnetic influences, so that it would be suitable for electrical + work of the utmost accuracy and precision. Hence, iron and steel were + entirely eliminated in its construction, copper being used for fixtures + for steam and water piping, and, indeed, for all other purposes where + metal was employed. + </p> + <p> + This room was for many years the headquarters of Edison's able assistant, + Dr. A. E. Kennelly, now professor of electrical engineering in Harvard + University to whose energetic and capable management were intrusted many + scientific investigations during his long sojourn at the laboratory. + Unfortunately, however, for the continued success of Edison's elaborate + plans, he had not been many years established in the laboratory before a + trolley road through West Orange was projected and built, the line passing + in front of the plant and within seventy-five feet of the + galvanometer-room, thus making it practically impossible to use it for the + delicate purposes for which it was originally intended. + </p> + <p> + For some time past it has been used for photography and some special + experiments on motion pictures as well as for demonstrations connected + with physical research; but some reminders of its old-time glory still + remain in evidence. In lofty and capacious glass-enclosed cabinets, in + company with numerous models of Edison's inventions, repose many of the + costly and elaborate instruments rendered useless by the ubiquitous + trolley. Instruments are all about, on walls, tables, and shelves, the + photometer is covered up; induction coils of various capacities, with + other electrical paraphernalia, lie around, almost as if the experimenter + were absent for a few days but would soon return and resume his work. + </p> + <p> + In numbering the group of buildings, the galvanometer-room is No. 1, while + the other single-story structures are numbered respectively 2, 3, and 4. + On passing out of No. 1 and proceeding to the succeeding building is + noticed, between the two, a garage of ample dimensions and a smaller + structure, at the door of which stands a concrete-mixer. In this small + building Edison has made some of his most important experiments in the + process of working out his plans for the poured house. It is in this + little place that there was developed the remarkable mixture which is to + play so vital a part in the successful construction of these everlasting + homes for living millions. + </p> + <p> + Drawing near to building No. 2, olfactory evidence presents itself of the + immediate vicinity of a chemical laboratory. This is confirmed as one + enters the door and finds that the entire building is devoted to + chemistry. Long rows of shelves and cabinets filled with chemicals line + the room; a profusion of retorts, alembics, filters, and other chemical + apparatus on numerous tables and stands, greet the eye, while a corps of + experimenters may be seen busy in the preparation of various combinations, + some of which are boiling or otherwise cooking under their dexterous + manipulation. + </p> + <p> + It would not require many visits to discover that in this room, also, + Edison has a favorite nook. Down at the far end in a corner are a plain + little table and chair, and here he is often to be found deeply immersed + in a study of the many experiments that are being conducted. Not + infrequently he is actively engaged in the manipulation of some compound + of special intricacy, whose results might be illuminative of obscure facts + not patent to others than himself. Here, too, is a select little library + of chemical literature. + </p> + <p> + The next building, No. 3, has a double mission—the farther half + being partitioned off for a pattern-making shop, while the other half is + used as a store-room for chemicals in quantity and for chemical apparatus + and utensils. A grimly humorous incident, as related by one of the + laboratory staff, attaches to No. 3. It seems that some time ago one of + the helpers in the chemical department, an excitable foreigner, became + dissatisfied with his wages, and after making an unsuccessful application + for an increase, rushed in desperation to Edison, and said "Eef I not get + more money I go to take ze cyanide potassia." Edison gave him one quick, + searching glance and, detecting a bluff, replied in an offhand manner: + "There's a five-pound bottle in No. 3," and turned to his work again. The + foreigner did not go to get the cyanide, but gave up his job. + </p> + <p> + The last of these original buildings, No. 4, was used for many years in + Edison's ore-concentrating experiments, and also for rough-and-ready + operations of other kinds, such as furnace work and the like. At the + present writing it is used as a general stock-room. + </p> + <p> + In the foregoing details, the reader has been afforded but a passing + glance at the great practical working equipment which constitutes the + theatre of Edison's activities, for, in taking a general view of such a + unique and comprehensive laboratory plant, its salient features only can + be touched upon to advantage. It would be but repetition to enumerate here + the practical results of the laboratory work during the past two decades, + as they appear on other pages of this work. Nor can one assume for a + moment that the history of Edison's laboratory is a closed book. On the + contrary, its territorial boundaries have been increasing step by step + with the enlargement of its labors, until now it has been obliged to go + outside its own proper domains to occupy some space in and about the great + Edison industrial buildings and space immediately adjacent. It must be + borne in mind that the laboratory is only the core of a group of buildings + devoted to production on a huge scale by hundreds of artisans. + </p> + <p> + Incidental mention has already been made of the laboratory at Edison's + winter residence in Florida, where he goes annually to spend a month or + six weeks. This is a miniature copy of the Orange laboratory, with its + machine shop, chemical-room, and general experimental department. While it + is only in use during his sojourn there, and carries no extensive corps of + assistants, the work done in it is not of a perfunctory nature, but is a + continuation of his regular activities, and serves to keep him in touch + with the progress of experiments at Orange, and enables him to give + instructions for their variation and continuance as their scope is + expanded by his own investigations made while enjoying what he calls + "vacation." What Edison in Florida speaks of as "loafing" would be for + most of us extreme and healthy activity in the cooler Far North. + </p> + <p> + A word or two may be devoted to the visitors received at the laboratory, + and to the correspondence. It might be injudicious to gauge the greatness + of a man by the number of his callers or his letters; but they are at + least an indication of the degree to which he interests the world. In both + respects, for these forty years, Edison has been a striking example of the + manner in which the sentiment of hero-worship can manifest itself, and of + the deep desire of curiosity to get satisfaction by personal observation + or contact. Edison's mail, like that of most well-known men, is extremely + large, but composed in no small degree of letters—thousands of them + yearly—that concern only the writers, and might well go to the + waste-paper basket without prolonged consideration. The serious and + important part of the mail, some personal and some business, occupies the + attention of several men; all such letters finding their way promptly into + the proper channels, often with a pithy endorsement by Edison scribbled on + the margin. What to do with a host of others it is often difficult to + decide, even when written by "cranks," who imagine themselves subject to + strange electrical ailments from which Edison alone can relieve them. Many + people write asking his opinion as to a certain invention, or offering him + an interest in it if he will work it out. Other people abroad ask help in + locating lost relatives; and many want advice as to what they shall do + with their sons, frequently budding geniuses whose ability to wire a bell + has demonstrated unusual qualities. A great many persons want autographs, + and some would like photographs. The amazing thing about it all is that + this flood of miscellaneous letters flows on in one steady, uninterrupted + stream, year in and year out; always a curious psychological study in its + variety and volume; and ever a proof of the fact that once a man has + become established as a personality in the public eye and mind, nothing + can stop the tide of correspondence that will deluge him. + </p> + <p> + It is generally, in the nature of things, easier to write a letter than to + make a call; and the semi-retirement of Edison at a distance of an hour by + train from New York stands as a means of protection to him against those + who would certainly present their respects in person, if he could be got + at without trouble. But it may be seriously questioned whether in the + aggregate Edison's visitors are less numerous or less time-consuming than + his epistolary besiegers. It is the common experience of any visitor to + the laboratory that there are usually several persons ahead of him, no + matter what the hour of the day, and some whose business has been + sufficiently vital to get them inside the porter's gate, or even into the + big library and lounging-room. Celebrities of all kinds and distinguished + foreigners are numerous—princes, noblemen, ambassadors, artists, + litterateurs, scientists, financiers, women. A very large part of the + visiting is done by scientific bodies and societies; and then the whole + place will be turned over to hundreds of eager, well-dressed men and + women, anxious to see everything and to be photographed in the big + courtyard around the central hero. Nor are these groups and delegations + limited to this country, for even large parties of English, Dutch, + Italian, or Japanese visitors come from time to time, and are greeted with + the same ready hospitality, although Edison, it is easy to see, is torn + between the conflicting emotions of a desire to be courteous, and an + anxiety to guard the precious hours of work, or watch the critical stage + of a new experiment. + </p> + <p> + One distinct group of visitors has always been constituted by the + "newspaper men." Hardly a day goes by that the journals do not contain + some reference to Edison's work or remarks; and the items are generally + based on an interview. The reporters are never away from the laboratory + very long; for if they have no actual mission of inquiry, there is always + the chance of a good story being secured offhand; and the easy, inveterate + good-nature of Edison toward reporters is proverbial in the craft. Indeed, + it must be stated here that once in a while this confidence has been + abused; that stories have been published utterly without foundation; that + interviews have been printed which never took place; that articles with + Edison's name as author have been widely circulated, although he never saw + them; and that in such ways he has suffered directly. But such occasional + incidents tend in no wise to lessen Edison's warm admiration of the press + or his readiness to avail himself of it whenever a representative goes + over to Orange to get the truth or the real facts in regard to any matter + of public importance. As for the newspaper clippings containing such + articles, or others in which Edison's name appears—they are + literally like sands of the sea-shore for number; and the archives of the + laboratory that preserve only a very minute percentage of them are a + further demonstration of what publicity means, where a figure like Edison + is concerned. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0026" id="link2HCH0026"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVI + </h2> + <h3> + EDISON IN COMMERCE AND MANUFACTURE + </h3> + <p> + AN applicant for membership in the Engineers' Club of Philadelphia is + required to give a brief statement of the professional work he has done. + Some years ago a certain application was made, and contained the following + terse and modest sentence: + </p> + <p> + "I have designed a concentrating plant and built a machine shop, etc., + etc. THOMAS A. EDISON." + </p> + <p> + Although in the foregoing pages the reader has been made acquainted with + the tremendous import of the actualities lying behind those "etc., etc.," + the narrative up to this point has revealed Edison chiefly in the light of + inventor, experimenter, and investigator. There have been some side + glimpses of the industries he has set on foot, and of their financial + aspects, and a later chapter will endeavor to sum up the intrinsic value + of Edison's work to the world. But there are some other interesting points + that may be touched on now in regard to a few of Edison's financial and + commercial ventures not generally known or appreciated. + </p> + <p> + It is a popular idea founded on experience that an inventor is not usually + a business man. One of the exceptions proving the rule may perhaps be met + in Edison, though all depends on the point of view. All his life he has + had a great deal to do with finance and commerce, and as one looks at the + magnitude of the vast industries he has helped to create, it would not be + at all unreasonable to expect him to be among the multi-millionaires. That + he is not is due to the absence of certain qualities, the lack of which + Edison is himself the first to admit. Those qualities may not be amiable, + but great wealth is hardly ever accumulated without them. If he had not + been so intent on inventing he would have made more of his great + opportunities for getting rich. If this utter detachment from any love of + money for its own sake has not already been illustrated in some of the + incidents narrated, one or two stories are available to emphasize the + point. They do not involve any want of the higher business acumen that + goes to the proper conduct of affairs. It was said of Gladstone that he + was the greatest Chancellor of the Exchequer England ever saw, but that as + a retail merchant he would soon have ruined himself by his bookkeeping. + </p> + <p> + Edison confesses that he has never made a cent out of his patents in + electric light and power—in fact, that they have been an expense to + him, and thus a free gift to the world. [18] This was true of the European + patents as well as the American. "I endeavored to sell my lighting patents + in different countries of Europe, and made a contract with a couple of + men. On account of their poor business capacity and lack of practicality, + they conveyed under the patents all rights to different corporations but + in such a way and with such confused wording of the contracts that I never + got a cent. One of the companies started was the German Edison, now the + great Allgemeine Elektricitaets Gesellschaft. The English company I never + got anything for, because a lawyer had originally advised Drexel, Morgan + & Co. as to the signing of a certain document, and said it was all + right for me to sign. I signed, and I never got a cent because there was a + clause in it which prevented me from ever getting anything." A certain + easy-going belief in human nature, and even a certain carelessness of + attitude toward business affairs, are here revealed. We have already + pointed out two instances where in his dealings with the Western Union + Company he stipulated that payments of $6000 per year for seventeen years + were to be made instead of $100,000 in cash, evidently forgetful of the + fact that the annual sum so received was nothing more than legal interest, + which could have been earned indefinitely if the capital had been only + insisted upon. In later life Edison has been more circumspect, but + throughout his early career he was constantly getting into some kind of + scrape. Of one experience he says: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 18: Edison received some stock from the parent + lighting company, but as the capital stock of that company + was increased from time to time, his proportion grew + smaller, and he ultimately used it to obtain ready money + with which to create and finance the various "shops" in + which were manufactured the various items of electric- + lighting apparatus necessary to exploit his system. Besides, + he was obliged to raise additional large sums of money from + other sources for this purpose. He thus became a + manufacturer with capital raised by himself, and the stock + that he received later, on the formation of the General + Electric Company, was not for his electric-light patents, + but was in payment for his manufacturing establishments, + which had then grown to be of great commercial importance.] +</pre> + <p> + "In the early days I was experimenting with metallic filaments for the + incandescent light, and sent a certain man out to California in search of + platinum. He found a considerable quantity in the sluice-boxes of the + Cherokee Valley Mining Company; but just then he found also that + fruit-gardening was the thing, and dropped the subject. He then came to me + and said that if he could raise $4000 he could go into some kind of + orchard arrangement out there, and would give me half the profits. I was + unwilling to do it, not having very much money just then, but his + persistence was such that I raised the money and gave it to him. He went + back to California, and got into mining claims and into fruit-growing, and + became one of the politicians of the Coast, and, I believe, was on the + staff of the Governor of the State. A couple of years ago he wounded his + daughter and shot himself because he had become ruined financially. I + never heard from him after he got the money." + </p> + <p> + Edison tells of another similar episode. "I had two men working for me—one + a German, the other a Jew. They wanted me to put up a little money and + start them in a shop in New York to make repairs, etc. I put up $800, and + was to get half of the profits, and each of them one-quarter. I never got + anything for it. A few years afterward I went to see them, and asked what + they were doing, and said I would like to sell my interest. They said: + 'Sell out what?' 'Why,' I said, 'my interest in the machinery.' They said: + 'You don't own this machinery. This is our machinery. You have no papers + to show anything. You had better get out.' I am inclined to think that the + percentage of crooked people was smaller when I was young. It has been + steadily rising, and has got up to a very respectable figure now. I hope + it will never reach par." To which lugubrious episode so provocative of + cynicism, Edison adds: "When I was a young fellow the first thing I did + when I went to a town was to put something into the savings-bank and start + an account. When I came to New York I put $30 into a savings-bank under + the New York Sun office. After the money had been in about two weeks the + bank busted. That was in 1870. In 1909 I got back $6.40, with a charge for + $1.75 for law expenses. That shows the beauty of New York receiverships." + </p> + <p> + It is hardly to be wondered at that Edison is rather frank and unsparing + in some of his criticisms of shady modern business methods, and the + mention of the following incident always provokes him to a fine scorn. "I + had an interview with one of the wealthiest men in New York. He wanted me + to sell out my associates in the electric lighting business, and offered + me all I was going to get and $100,000 besides. Of course I would not do + it. I found out that the reason for this offer was that he had had trouble + with Mr. Morgan, and wanted to get even with him." Wall Street is, in + fact, a frequent object of rather sarcastic reference, applying even to + its regular and probably correct methods of banking. "When I was running + my ore-mine," he says, "and got up to the point of making shipments to + John Fritz, I didn't have capital enough to carry the ore, so I went to J. + P. Morgan & Co. and said I wanted them to give me a letter to the City + Bank. I wanted to raise some money. I got a letter to Mr. Stillman; and + went over and told him I wanted to open an account and get some loans and + discounts. He turned me down, and would not do it. 'Well,' I said, 'isn't + it banking to help a man in this way?' He said: 'What you want is a + partner.' I felt very much crestfallen. I went over to a bank in Newark—the + Merchants'—and told them what I wanted. They said: 'Certainly, you + can have the money.' I made my deposit, and they pulled me through all + right. My idea of Wall Street banking has been very poor since that time. + Merchant banking seems to be different." + </p> + <p> + As a general thing, Edison has had no trouble in raising money when he + needed it, the reason being that people have faith in him as soon as they + come to know him. A little incident bears on this point. "In operating the + Schenectady works Mr. Insull and I had a terrible burden. We had enormous + orders and little money, and had great difficulty to meet our payrolls and + buy supplies. At one time we had so many orders on hand we wanted $200,000 + worth of copper, and didn't have a cent to buy it. We went down to the + Ansonia Brass and Copper Company, and told Mr. Cowles just how we stood. + He said: 'I will see what I can do. Will you let my bookkeeper look at + your books?' We said: 'Come right up and look them over.' He sent his man + up and found we had the orders and were all right, although we didn't have + the money. He said: 'I will let you have the copper.' And for years he + trusted us for all the copper we wanted, even if we didn't have the money + to pay for it." + </p> + <p> + It is not generally known that Edison, in addition to being a newsboy and + a contributor to the technical press, has also been a backer and an + "angel" for various publications. This is perhaps the right place at which + to refer to the matter, as it belongs in the list of his financial or + commercial enterprises. Edison sums up this chapter of his life very + pithily. "I was interested, as a telegrapher, in journalism, and started + the Telegraph Journal, and got out about a dozen numbers when it was taken + over by W. J. Johnston, who afterward founded the Electrical World on it + as an offshoot from the Operator. I also started Science, and ran it for a + year and a half. It cost me too much money to maintain, and I sold it to + Gardiner Hubbard, the father-in-law of Alexander Graham Bell. He carried + it along for years." Both these papers are still in prosperous existence, + particularly the Electrical World, as the recognized exponent of + electrical development in America, where now the public spends as much + annually for electricity as it does for daily bread. + </p> + <p> + From all that has been said above it will be understood that Edison's real + and remarkable capacity for business does not lie in ability to "take care + of himself," nor in the direction of routine office practice, nor even in + ordinary administrative affairs. In short, he would and does regard it as + a foolish waste of his time to give attention to the mere occupancy of a + desk. + </p> + <p> + His commercial strength manifests itself rather in the outlining of + matters relating to organization and broad policy with a sagacity arising + from a shrewd perception and appreciation of general business requirements + and conditions, to which should be added his intensely comprehensive grasp + of manufacturing possibilities and details, and an unceasing vigilance in + devising means of improving the quality of products and increasing the + economy of their manufacture. + </p> + <p> + Like other successful commanders, Edison also possesses the happy faculty + of choosing suitable lieutenants to carry out his policies and to manage + the industries he has created, such, for instance, as those with which + this chapter has to deal—namely, the phonograph, motion picture, + primary battery, and storage battery enterprises. + </p> + <p> + The Portland cement business has already been dealt with separately, and + although the above remarks are appropriate to it also, Edison being its + head and informing spirit, the following pages are intended to be devoted + to those industries that are grouped around the laboratory at Orange, and + that may be taken as typical of Edison's methods on the manufacturing + side. + </p> + <p> + Within a few months after establishing himself at the present laboratory, + in 1887, Edison entered upon one of those intensely active periods of work + that have been so characteristic of his methods in commercializing his + other inventions. In this case his labors were directed toward improving + the phonograph so as to put it into thoroughly practicable form, capable + of ordinary use by the public at large. The net result of this work was + the general type of machine of which the well-known phonograph of today is + a refinement evolved through many years of sustained experiment and + improvement. + </p> + <p> + After a considerable period of strenuous activity in the eighties, the + phonograph and its wax records were developed to a sufficient degree of + perfection to warrant him in making arrangements for their manufacture and + commercial introduction. At this time the surroundings of the Orange + laboratory were distinctly rural in character. Immediately adjacent to the + main building and the four smaller structures, constituting the laboratory + plant, were grass meadows that stretched away for some considerable + distance in all directions, and at its back door, so to speak, ducks + paddled around and quacked in a pond undisturbed. Being now ready for + manufacturing, but requiring more facilities, Edison increased his + real-estate holdings by purchasing a large tract of land lying contiguous + to what he already owned. At one end of the newly acquired land two + unpretentious brick structures were erected, equipped with first-class + machinery, and put into commission as shops for manufacturing phonographs + and their record blanks; while the capacious hall forming the third story + of the laboratory, over the library, was fitted up and used as a + music-room where records were made. + </p> + <p> + Thus the modern Edison phonograph made its modest debut in 1888, in what + was then called the "Improved" form to distinguish it from the original + style of machine he invented in 1877, in which the record was made on a + sheet of tin-foil held in place upon a metallic cylinder. The "Improved" + form is the general type so well known for many years and sold at the + present day—viz., the spring or electric motor-driven machine with + the cylindrical wax record—in fact, the regulation Edison + phonograph. + </p> + <p> + It did not take a long time to find a market for the products of the newly + established factory, for a world-wide public interest in the machine had + been created by the appearance of newspaper articles from time to time, + announcing the approaching completion by Edison of his improved + phonograph. The original (tin-foil) machine had been sufficient to + illustrate the fact that the human voice and other sounds could be + recorded and reproduced, but such a type of machine had sharp limitations + in general use; hence the coming into being of a type that any ordinary + person could handle was sufficient of itself to insure a market. Thus the + demand for the new machines and wax records grew apace as the corporations + organized to handle the business extended their lines. An examination of + the newspaper files of the years 1888, 1889, and 1890 will reveal the + great excitement caused by the bringing out of the new phonograph, and how + frequently and successfully it was employed in public entertainments, + either for the whole or part of an evening. In this and other ways it + became popularized to a still further extent. This led to the demand for a + nickel-in-the-slot machine, which, when established, became immensely + popular over the whole country. In its earlier forms the "Improved" + phonograph was not capable of such general non-expert handling as is the + machine of the present day, and consequently there was a constant endeavor + on Edison's part to simplify the construction of the machine and its + manner of operation. Experimentation was incessantly going on with this in + view, and in the processes of evolution changes were made here and there + that resulted in a still greater measure of perfection. + </p> + <p> + In various ways there was a continual slow and steady growth of the + industry thus created, necessitating the erection of many additional + buildings as the years passed by. During part of the last decade there was + a lull, caused mostly from the failure of corporate interests to carry out + their contract relations with Edison, and he was thereby compelled to + resort to legal proceedings, at the end of which he bought in the + outstanding contracts and assumed command of the business personally. + </p> + <p> + Being thus freed from many irksome restrictions that had hung heavily upon + him, Edison now proceeded to push the phonograph business under a broader + policy than that which obtained under his previous contractual relations. + With the ever-increasing simplification and efficiency of the machine and + a broadening of its application, the results of this policy were + manifested in a still more rapid growth of the business that necessitated + further additions to the manufacturing plant. And thus matters went on + until the early part of the present decade, when the factory facilities + were becoming so rapidly outgrown as to render radical changes necessary. + It was in these circumstances that Edison's sagacity and breadth of + business capacity came to the front. With characteristic boldness and + foresight he planned the erection of the series of magnificent concrete + buildings that now stand adjacent to and around the laboratory, and in + which the manufacturing plant is at present housed. + </p> + <p> + There was no narrowness in his views in designing these buildings, but, on + the contrary, great faith in the future, for his plans included not only + the phonograph industry, but provided also for the coming development of + motion pictures and of the primary and storage battery enterprises. + </p> + <p> + In the aggregate there are twelve structures (including the administration + building), of which six are of imposing dimensions, running from 200 feet + long by 50 feet wide to 440 feet in length by 115 feet in width, all these + larger buildings, except one, being five stories in height. They are + constructed entirely of reinforced concrete with Edison cement, including + walls, floors, and stairways, thus eliminating fire hazard to the utmost + extent, and insuring a high degree of protection, cleanliness, and + sanitation. As fully three-fourths of the area of their exterior framework + consists of windows, an abundance of daylight is secured. These many + advantages, combined with lofty ceilings on every floor, provide ideal + conditions for the thousands of working people engaged in this immense + plant. + </p> + <p> + In addition to these twelve concrete structures there are a few smaller + brick and wooden buildings on the grounds, in which some special + operations are conducted. These, however, are few in number, and at some + future time will be concentrated in one or more additional concrete + buildings. It will afford a clearer idea of the extent of the industries + clustered immediately around the laboratory when it is stated that the + combined floor space which is occupied by them in all these buildings is + equivalent in the aggregate to over fourteen acres. + </p> + <p> + It would be instructive, but scarcely within the scope of the narrative, + to conduct the reader through this extensive plant and see its many + interesting operations in detail. It must suffice, however, to note its + complete and ample equipment with modern machinery of every kind + applicable to the work; its numerous (and some of them wonderfully + ingenious) methods, processes, machines, and tools specially designed or + invented for the manufacture of special parts and supplemental appliances + for the phonograph or other Edison products; and also to note the + interesting variety of trades represented in the different departments, in + which are included chemists, electricians, electrical mechanicians, + machinists, mechanics, pattern-makers, carpenters, cabinet-makers, + varnishers, japanners, tool-makers, lapidaries, wax experts, photographic + developers and printers, opticians, electroplaters, furnacemen, and + others, together with factory experimenters and a host of general + employees, who by careful training have become specialists and experts in + numerous branches of these industries. + </p> + <p> + Edison's plans for this manufacturing plant were sufficiently well + outlined to provide ample capacity for the natural growth of the business; + and although that capacity (so far as phonographs is concerned) has + actually reached an output of over 6000 complete phonographs PER WEEK, and + upward of 130,000 molded records PER DAY—with a pay-roll embracing + over 3500 employees, including office force—and amounting to about + $45,000 per week—the limits of production have not yet been reached. + </p> + <p> + The constant outpouring of products in such large quantities bespeaks the + unremitting activities of an extensive and busy selling organization to + provide for their marketing and distribution. This important department + (the National Phonograph Company), in all its branches, from president to + office-boy, includes about two hundred employees on its office pay-roll, + and makes its headquarters in the administration building, which is one of + the large concrete structures above referred to. The policy of the company + is to dispose of its wares through regular trade channels rather than to + deal direct with the public, trusting to local activity as stimulated by a + liberal policy of national advertising. Thus, there has been gradually + built up a very extensive business until at the present time an enormous + output of phonographs and records is distributed to retail customers in + the United States and Canada through the medium of about one hundred and + fifty jobbers and over thirteen thousand dealers. The Edison phonograph + industry thus organized is helped by frequent conventions of this large + commercial force. + </p> + <p> + Besides this, the National Phonograph Company maintains a special staff + for carrying on the business with foreign countries. While the aggregate + transactions of this department are not as extensive as those for the + United States and Canada, they are of considerable volume, as the foreign + office distributes in bulk a very large number of phonographs and records + to selling companies and agencies in Europe, Asia, Australia, Japan, and, + indeed, to all the countries of the civilized world. [19] Like England's + drumbeat, the voice of the Edison phonograph is heard around the world in + undying strains throughout the twenty-four hours. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 19: It may be of interest to the reader to note + some parts of the globe to which shipments of phonographs + and records are made: + + Samoan Islands Falkland Islands Siam Corea Crete Island + Paraguay Chile Canary Islands Egypt British East Africa Cape + Colony Portuguese East Africa Liberia Java Straits + Settlements Madagascar Fanning Islands New Zealand French + Indo-China Morocco Ecuador Brazil Madeira South Africa + Azores Manchuria Ceylon Sierra Leone] +</pre> + <p> + In addition to the main manufacturing plant at Orange, another important + adjunct must not be forgotten, and that is, the Recording Department in + New York City, where the master records are made under the superintendence + of experts who have studied the intricacies of the art with Edison + himself. This department occupies an upper story in a lofty building, and + in its various rooms may be seen and heard many prominent musicians, + vocalists, speakers, and vaudeville artists studiously and busily engaged + in making the original records, which are afterward sent to Orange, and + which, if approved by the expert committee, are passed on to the proper + department for reproduction in large quantities. + </p> + <p> + When we consider the subject of motion pictures we find a similarity in + general business methods, for while the projecting machines and copies of + picture films are made in quantity at the Orange works (just as + phonographs and duplicate records are so made), the original picture, or + film, like the master record, is made elsewhere. There is this difference, + however: that, from the particular nature of the work, practically ALL + master records are made at one convenient place, while the essential + interest in SOME motion pictures lies in the fact that they are taken in + various parts of the world, often under exceptional circumstances. The + "silent drama," however, calls also for many representations which employ + conventional acting, staging, and the varied appliances of stagecraft. + Hence, Edison saw early the necessity of providing a place especially + devised and arranged for the production of dramatic performances in + pantomime. + </p> + <p> + It is a far cry from the crude structure of early days—the "Black + Maria" of 1891, swung around on its pivot in the Orange laboratory yard—to + the well-appointed Edison theatres, or pantomime studios, in New York + City. The largest of these is located in the suburban Borough of the + Bronx, and consists of a three-story-and-basement building of reinforced + concrete, in which are the offices, dressing-rooms, wardrobe and + property-rooms, library and developing department. Contiguous to this + building, and connected with it, is the theatre proper, a large and lofty + structure whose sides and roof are of glass, and whose floor space is + sufficiently ample for six different sets of scenery at one time, with + plenty of room left for a profusion of accessories, such as tables, + chairs, pianos, bunch-lights, search-lights, cameras, and a host of varied + paraphernalia pertaining to stage effects. + </p> + <p> + The second Edison theatre, or studio, is located not far from the shopping + district in New York City. In all essential features, except size and + capacity, it is a duplicate of the one in the Bronx, of which it is a + supplement. + </p> + <p> + To a visitor coming on the floor of such a theatre for the first time + there is a sense of confusion in beholding the heterogeneous "sets" of + scenery and the motley assemblage of characters represented in the various + plays in the process of "taking," or rehearsal. While each set constitutes + virtually a separate stage, they are all on the same floor, without wings + or proscenium-arches, and separated only by a few feet. Thus, for + instance, a Japanese house interior may be seen cheek by jowl with an + ordinary prison cell, flanked by a mining-camp, which in turn stands next + to a drawing-room set, and in each a set of appropriate characters in + pantomimic motion. The action is incessant, for in any dramatic + representation intended for the motion-picture film every second counts. + </p> + <p> + The production of several completed plays per week necessitates the + employment of a considerable staff of people of miscellaneous trades and + abilities. At each of these two studios there is employed a number of + stage-directors, scene-painters, carpenters, property-men, photographers, + costumers, electricians, clerks, and general assistants, besides a capable + stock company of actors and actresses, whose generous numbers are + frequently augmented by the addition of a special star, or by a number of + extra performers, such as Rough Riders or other specialists. It may be, + occasionally, that the exigencies of the occasion require the work of a + performing horse, dog, or other animal. No matter what the object required + may be, whether animate or inanimate, if it is necessary for the play it + is found and pressed into service. + </p> + <p> + These two studios, while separated from the main plant, are under the same + general management, and their original negative films are forwarded as + made to the Orange works, where the large copying department is located in + one of the concrete buildings. Here, after the film has been passed upon + by a committee, a considerable number of positive copies are made by + ingenious processes, and after each one is separately tested, or "run + off," in one or other of the three motion-picture theatres in the + building, they are shipped out to film exchanges in every part of the + country. How extensive this business has become may be appreciated when it + is stated that at the Orange plant there are produced at this time over + eight million feet of motion-picture film per year. And Edison's company + is only one of many producers. + </p> + <p> + Another of the industries at the Orange works is the manufacture of + projecting kinetoscopes, by means of which the motion pictures are shown. + While this of itself is also a business of considerable magnitude in its + aggregate yearly transactions, it calls for no special comment in regard + to commercial production, except to note that a corps of experimenters is + constantly employed refining and perfecting details of the machine. Its + basic features of operation as conceived by Edison remain unchanged. + </p> + <p> + On coming to consider the Edison battery enterprises, we must perforce + extend the territorial view to include a special chemical-manufacturing + plant, which is in reality a branch of the laboratory and the Orange + works, although actually situated about three miles away. + </p> + <p> + Both the primary and the storage battery employ certain chemical products + as essential parts of their elements, and indeed owe their very existence + to the peculiar preparation and quality of such products, as exemplified + by Edison's years of experimentation and research. Hence the establishment + of his own chemical works at Silver Lake, where, under his personal + supervision, the manufacture of these products is carried on in charge of + specially trained experts. At the present writing the plant covers about + seven acres of ground; but there is ample room for expansion, as Edison, + with wise forethought, secured over forty acres of land, so as to be + prepared for developments. + </p> + <p> + Not only is the Silver Lake works used for the manufacture of the chemical + substances employed in the batteries, but it is the plant at which the + Edison primary battery is wholly assembled and made up for distribution to + customers. This in itself is a business of no small magnitude, having + grown steadily on its merits year by year until it has now arrived at a + point where its sales run into the hundreds of thousands of cells per + annum, furnished largely to the steam railroads of the country for their + signal service. + </p> + <p> + As to the storage battery, the plant at Silver Lake is responsible only + for the production of the chemical compounds, nickel-hydrate and iron + oxide, which enter into its construction. All the mechanical parts, the + nickel plating, the manufacture of nickel flake, the assembling and + testing, are carried on at the Orange works in two of the large concrete + buildings above referred to. A visit to this part of the plant reveals an + amazing fertility of resourcefulness and ingenuity in the devising of the + special machines and appliances employed in constructing the mechanical + parts of these cells, for it is practically impossible to fashion them by + means of machinery and tools to be found in the open market, + notwithstanding the immense variety that may be there obtained. + </p> + <p> + Since Edison completed his final series of investigations on his storage + battery and brought it to its present state of perfection, the commercial + values have increased by leaps and bounds. The battery, as it was + originally put out some years ago, made for itself an enviable reputation; + but with its improved form there has come a vast increase of business. + Although the largest of the concrete buildings where its manufacture is + carried on is over four hundred feet long and four stories in height, it + has already become necessary to plan extensions and enlargements of the + plant in order to provide for the production of batteries to fill the + present demands. It was not until the summer of 1909 that Edison was + willing to pronounce the final verdict of satisfaction with regard to this + improved form of storage battery; but subsequent commercial results have + justified his judgment, and it is not too much to predict that in all + probability the business will assume gigantic proportions within a very + few years. At the present time (1910) the Edison storage-battery + enterprise is in its early stages of growth, and its status may be + compared with that of the electric-light system about the year 1881. + </p> + <p> + There is one more industry, though of comparatively small extent, that is + included in the activities of the Orange works, namely, the manufacture + and sale of the Bates numbering machine. This is a well-known article of + commerce, used in mercantile establishments for the stamping of + consecutive, duplicate, and manifold numbers on checks and other + documents. It is not an invention of Edison, but the organization owning + it, together with the patent rights, were acquired by him some years ago, + and he has since continued and enlarged the business both in scope and + volume, besides, of course, improving and perfecting the apparatus itself. + These machines are known everywhere throughout the country, and while the + annual sales are of comparatively moderate amount in comparison with the + totals of the other Edison industries at Orange, they represent in the + aggregate a comfortable and encouraging business. + </p> + <p> + In this brief outline review of the flourishing and extensive commercial + enterprises centred around the Orange laboratory, the facts, it is + believed, contain a complete refutation of the idea that an inventor + cannot be a business man. They also bear abundant evidence of the + compatibility of these two widely divergent gifts existing, even to a high + degree, in the same person. A striking example of the correctness of this + proposition is afforded in the present case, when it is borne in mind that + these various industries above described (whose annual sales run into many + millions of dollars) owe not only their very creation (except the Bates + machine) and existence to Edison's inventive originality and commercial + initiative, but also their continued growth and prosperity to his + incessant activities in dealing with their multifarious business problems. + In publishing a portrait of Edison this year, one of the popular magazines + placed under it this caption: "Were the Age called upon to pay Thomas A. + Edison all it owes to him, the Age would have to make an assignment." The + present chapter will have thrown some light on the idiosyncrasies of + Edison as financier and as manufacturer, and will have shown that while + the claim thus suggested may be quite good, it will certainly never be + pressed or collected. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0027" id="link2HCH0027"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVII + </h2> + <h3> + THE VALUE OF EDISON'S INVENTIONS TO THE WORLD + </h3> + <p> + IF the world were to take an account of stock, so to speak, and proceed in + orderly fashion to marshal its tangible assets in relation to dollars and + cents, the natural resources of our globe, from centre to circumference, + would head the list. Next would come inventors, whose value to the world + as an asset could be readily estimated from an increase of its wealth + resulting from the actual transformations of these resources into items of + convenience and comfort through the exercise of their inventive ingenuity. + </p> + <p> + Inventors of practical devices may be broadly divided into two classes—first, + those who may be said to have made two blades of grass grow where only one + grew before; and, second, great inventors, who have made grass grow + plentifully on hitherto unproductive ground. The vast majority of + practical inventors belong to and remain in the first of these divisions, + but there have been, and probably always will be, a less number who, by + reason of their greater achievements, are entitled to be included in both + classes. Of these latter, Thomas Alva Edison is one, but in the pages of + history he stands conspicuously pre-eminent—a commanding towering + figure, even among giants. + </p> + <p> + The activities of Edison have been of such great range, and his conquests + in the domains of practical arts so extensive and varied, that it is + somewhat difficult to estimate with any satisfactory degree of accuracy + the money value of his inventions to the world of to-day, even after + making due allowance for the work of other great inventors and the + propulsive effect of large amounts of capital thrown into the enterprises + which took root, wholly or in part, through the productions of his genius + and energies. This difficulty will be apparent, for instance, when we + consider his telegraph and telephone inventions. These were absorbed in + enterprises already existing, and were the means of assisting their rapid + growth and expansion, particularly the telephone industry. Again, in + considering the fact that Edison was one of the first in the field to + design and perfect a practical and operative electric railway, the main + features of which are used in all electric roads of to-day, we are + confronted with the problem as to what proportion of their colossal + investment and earnings should be ascribed to him. + </p> + <p> + Difficulties are multiplied when we pause for a moment to think of + Edison's influence on collateral branches of business. In the public mind + he is credited with the invention of the incandescent electric light, the + phonograph, and other widely known devices; but how few realize his actual + influence on other trades that are not generally thought of in connection + with these things. For instance, let us note what a prominent engine + builder, the late Gardiner C. Sims, has said: "Watt, Corliss, and Porter + brought forward steam-engines to a high state of proficiency, yet it + remained for Mr. Edison to force better proportions, workmanship, designs, + use of metals, regulation, the solving of the complex problems of high + speed and endurance, and the successful development of the shaft governor. + Mr. Edison is preeminent in the realm of engineering." + </p> + <p> + The phenomenal growth of the copper industry was due to a rapid and + ever-increasing demand, owing to the exploitation of the telephone, + electric light, electric motor, and electric railway industries. Without + these there might never have been the romance of "Coppers" and the rise + and fall of countless fortunes. And although one cannot estimate in + definite figures the extent of Edison's influence in the enormous increase + of copper production, it is to be remembered that his basic inventions + constitute a most important factor in the demand for the metal. Besides, + one must also give him the credit, as already noted, for having recognized + the necessity for a pure quality of copper for electric conductors, and + for his persistence in having compelled the manufacturers of that period + to introduce new and additional methods of refinement so as to bring about + that result, which is now a sine qua non. + </p> + <p> + Still considering his influence on other staples and collateral trades, + let us enumerate briefly and in a general manner some of the more + important and additional ones that have been not merely stimulated, but in + many cases the business and sales have been directly increased and new + arts established through the inventions of this one man—namely, + iron, steel, brass, zinc, nickel, platinum ($5 per ounce in 1878, now $26 + an ounce), rubber, oils, wax, bitumen, various chemical compounds, + belting, boilers, injectors, structural steel, iron tubing, glass, silk, + cotton, porcelain, fine woods, slate, marble, electrical measuring + instruments, miscellaneous machinery, coal, wire, paper, building + materials, sapphires, and many others. + </p> + <p> + The question before us is, To what extent has Edison added to the wealth + of the world by his inventions and his energy and perseverance? It will be + noted from the foregoing that no categorical answer can be offered to such + a question, but sufficient material can be gathered from a statistical + review of the commercial arts directly influenced to afford an approximate + idea of the increase in national wealth that has been affected by or has + come into being through the practical application of his ideas. + </p> + <p> + First of all, as to inventions capable of fairly definite estimate, let us + mention the incandescent electric light and systems of distribution of + electric light, heat, and power, which may justly be considered as the + crowning inventions of Edison's life. Until October 21, 1879, there was + nothing in existence resembling our modern incandescent lamp. On that + date, as we have seen in a previous chapter, Edison's labors culminated in + his invention of a practical incandescent electric lamp embodying + absolutely all the essentials of the lamp of to-day, thus opening to the + world the doors of a new art and industry. To-day there are in the United + States more than 41,000,000 of these lamps, connected to existing + central-station circuits in active operation. + </p> + <p> + Such circuits necessarily imply the existence of central stations with + their equipment. Until the beginning of 1882 there were only a few + arc-lighting stations in existence for the limited distribution of + current. At the present time there are over 6000 central stations in this + country for the distribution of electric current for light, heat, and + power, with capital obligations amounting to not less than $1,000,000,000. + Besides the above-named 41,000,000 incandescent lamps connected to their + mains, there are about 500,000 arc lamps and 150,000 motors, using 750,000 + horse-power, besides countless fan motors and electric heating and cooking + appliances. + </p> + <p> + When it is stated that the gross earnings of these central stations + approximate the sum of $225,000,000 yearly, the significant import of + these statistics of an art that came so largely from Edison's laboratory + about thirty years ago will undoubtedly be apparent. + </p> + <p> + But the above are not by any means all the facts relating to incandescent + electric lighting in the United States, for in addition to central + stations there are upward of 100,000 isolated or private plants in mills, + factories, steamships, hotels, theatres, etc., owned by the persons or + concerns who operate them. These plants represent an approximate + investment of $500,000,000, and the connection of not less than 25,000,000 + incandescent lamps or their equivalent. + </p> + <p> + Then there are the factories where these incandescent lamps are made, + about forty in number, representing a total investment that may be + approximated at $25,000,000. It is true that many of these factories are + operated by other than the interests which came into control of the Edison + patents (General Electric Company), but the 150,000,000 incandescent + electric lamps now annually made are broadly covered in principle by + Edison's fundamental ideas and patents. + </p> + <p> + It will be noted that these figures are all in round numbers, but they are + believed to be well within the mark, being primarily founded upon the + special reports of the Census Bureau issued in 1902 and 1907, with the + natural increase from that time computed by experts who are in position to + obtain the facts. It would be manifestly impossible to give exact figures + of such a gigantic and swiftly moving industry, whose totals increase from + week to week. + </p> + <p> + The reader will naturally be disposed to ask whether it is intended to + claim that Edison has brought about all this magnificent growth of the + electric-lighting art. The answer to this is decidedly in the negative, + for the fact is that he laid some of the foundation and erected a building + thereon, and in the natural progressive order of things other inventors of + more or less fame have laid substructures or added a wing here and a story + there until the resultant great structure has attained such proportions as + to evoke the admiration of the beholder; but the old foundation and the + fundamental building still remain to support other parts. In other words, + Edison created the incandescent electric lamp, and invented certain broad + and fundamental systems of distribution of current, with all the essential + devices of detail necessary for successful operation. These formed a + foundation. He also spent great sums of money and devoted several years of + patient labor in the early practical exploitation of the dynamo and + central station and isolated plants, often under, adverse and depressing + circumstances, with a dogged determination that outlived an opposition + steadily threatening defeat. These efforts resulted in the firm commercial + establishment of modern electric lighting. It is true that many important + inventions of others have a distinguished place in the art as it is + exploited today, but the fact remains that the broad essentials, such as + the incandescent lamp, systems of distribution, and some important + details, are not only universally used, but are as necessary to-day for + successful commercial practice as they were when Edison invented them many + years ago. + </p> + <p> + The electric railway next claims our consideration, but we are immediately + confronted by a difficulty which seems insurmountable when we attempt to + formulate any definite estimate of the value and influence of Edison's + pioneer work and inventions. There is one incontrovertible fact—namely, + that he was the first man to devise, construct, and operate from a central + station a practicable, life-size electric railroad, which was capable of + transporting and did transport passengers and freight at variable speeds + over varying grades, and under complete control of the operator. These are + the essential elements in all electric railroading of the present day; but + while Edison's original broad ideas are embodied in present practice, the + perfection of the modern electric railway is greatly due to the labors and + inventions of a large number of other well-known inventors. There was no + reason why Edison could not have continued the commercial development of + the electric railway after he had helped to show its practicability in + 1880, 1881, and 1882, just as he had completed his lighting system, had it + not been that his financial allies of the period lacked faith in the + possibilities of electric railroads, and therefore declined to furnish the + money necessary for the purpose of carrying on the work. + </p> + <p> + With these facts in mind, we shall ask the reader to assign to Edison a + due proportion of credit for his pioneer and basic work in relation to the + prodigious development of electric railroading that has since taken place. + The statistics of 1908 for American street and elevated railways show that + within twenty-five years the electric-railway industry has grown to + embrace 38,812 miles of track on streets and for elevated railways, + operated under the ownership of 1238 separate companies, whose total + capitalization amounted to the enormous sum of $4,123,834,598. In the + equipments owned by such companies there are included 68,636 electric cars + and 17,568 trailers and others, making a total of 86,204 of such vehicles. + These cars and equipments earned over $425,000,000 in 1907, in giving the + public transportation, at a cost, including transfers, of a little over + three cents per passenger, for whom a fifteen-mile ride would be possible. + It is the cheapest transportation in the world. + </p> + <p> + Some mention should also be made of the great electrical works of the + country, in which the dynamos, motors, and other varied paraphernalia are + made for electric lighting, electric railway, and other purposes. The + largest of these works is undoubtedly that of the General Electric Company + at Schenectady, New York, a continuation and enormous enlargement of the + shops which Edison established there in 1886. This plant at the present + time embraces over 275 acres, of which sixty acres are covered by fifty + large and over one hundred small buildings; besides which the company also + owns other large plants elsewhere, representing a total investment + approximating the sum of $34,850,000 up to 1908. The productions of the + General Electric Company alone average annual sales of nearly $75,000,000, + but they do not comprise the total of the country's manufactures in these + lines. + </p> + <p> + Turning our attention now to the telephone, we again meet a condition that + calls for thoughtful consideration before we can properly appreciate how + much the growth of this industry owes to Edison's inventive genius. In + another place there has already been told the story of the telephone, from + which we have seen that to Alexander Graham Bell is due the broad idea of + transmission of speech by means of an electrical circuit; also that he + invented appropriate instruments and devices through which he accomplished + this result, although not to that extent which gave promise of any great + commercial practicability for the telephone as it then existed. While the + art was in this inefficient condition, Edison went to work on the subject, + and in due time, as we have already learned, invented and brought out the + carbon transmitter, which is universally acknowledged to have been the + needed device that gave to the telephone the element of commercial + practicability, and has since led to its phenomenally rapid adoption and + world-wide use. It matters not that others were working in the same + direction, Edison was legally adjudicated to have been the first to + succeed in point of time, and his inventions were put into actual use, and + may be found in principle in every one of the 7,000,000 telephones which + are estimated to be employed in the country at the present day. Basing the + statements upon facts shown by the Census reports of 1902 and 1907, and + adding thereto the growth of the industry since that time, we find on a + conservative estimate that at this writing the investment has been not + less than $800,000,000 in now existing telephone systems, while no fewer + than 10,500,000,000 talks went over the lines during the year 1908. These + figures relate only to telephone systems, and do not include any details + regarding the great manufacturing establishments engaged in the + construction of telephone apparatus, of which there is a production + amounting to at least $15,000,000 per annum. + </p> + <p> + Leaving the telephone, let us now turn our attention to the telegraph, and + endeavor to show as best we can some idea of the measure to which it has + been affected by Edison's inventions. Although, as we have seen in a + previous part of this book, his earliest fame arose from his great + practical work in telegraphic inventions and improvements, there is no way + in which any definite computation can be made of the value of his + contributions in the art except, perhaps, in the case of his quadruplex, + through which alone it is estimated that there has been saved from + $15,000,000 to $20,000,000 in the cost of line construction in this + country. If this were the only thing that he had ever accomplished, it + would entitle him to consideration as an inventor of note. The quadruplex, + however, has other material advantages, but how far they and the natural + growth of the business have contributed to the investment and earnings of + the telegraph companies, is beyond practicable computation. + </p> + <p> + It would, perhaps, be interesting to speculate upon what might have been + the growth of the telegraph and the resultant benefit to the community had + Edison's automatic telegraph inventions been allowed to take their + legitimate place in the art, but we shall not allow ourselves to indulge + in flights of fancy, as the value of this chapter rests not upon + conjecture, but only upon actual fact. Nor shall we attempt to offer any + statistics regarding Edison's numerous inventions relating to telegraphs + and kindred devices, such as stock tickers, relays, magnets, rheotomes, + repeaters, printing telegraphs, messenger calls, etc., on which he was so + busily occupied as an inventor and manufacturer during the ten years that + began with January, 1869. The principles of many of these devices are + still used in the arts, but have become so incorporated in other devices + as to be inseparable, and cannot now be dealt with separately. To show + what they mean, however, it might be noted that New York City alone has + 3000 stock "tickers," consuming 50,000 miles of record tape every year. + </p> + <p> + Turning now to other important arts and industries which have been created + by Edison's inventions, and in which he is at this time taking an active + personal interest, let us visit Orange, New Jersey. When his present + laboratory was nearing completion in 1887, he wrote to Mr. J. Hood Wright, + a partner in the firm of Drexel, Morgan & Co.: "My ambition is to + build up a great industrial works in the Orange Valley, starting in a + small way and gradually working up." + </p> + <p> + In this plant, which represents an investment approximating the sum of + $4,000,000, are grouped a number of industrial enterprises of which Edison + is either the sole or controlling owner and the guiding spirit. These + enterprises are the National Phonograph Company, the Edison Business + Phonograph Company, the Edison Phonograph Works, the Edison Manufacturing + Company, the Edison Storage Battery Company, and the Bates Manufacturing + Company. The importance of these industries will be apparent when it is + stated that at this plant the maximum pay-roll shows the employment of + over 4200 persons, with annual earnings in salaries and wages of more than + $2,750,000. + </p> + <p> + In considering the phonograph in its commercial aspect, and endeavoring to + arrive at some idea of the world's estimate of the value of this + invention, we feel the ground more firm under our feet, for Edison has in + later years controlled its manufacture and sale. It will be remembered + that the phonograph lay dormant, commercially speaking, for about ten + years after it came into being, and then later invention reduced it to a + device capable of more popular utility. A few years of rather + unsatisfactory commercial experience brought about a reorganization, + through which Edison resumed possession of the business. It has since been + continued under his general direction and ownership, and he has made a + great many additional inventions tending to improve the machine in all its + parts. + </p> + <p> + The uses made of the phonograph up to this time have been of four kinds, + generally speaking—first, and principally, for amusement; second, + for instruction in languages; third, for business, in the dictation of + correspondence; and fourth, for sentimental reasons in preserving the + voices of friends. No separate figures are available to show the extent of + its employment in the second and fourth classes, as they are probably + included in machines coming under the first subdivision. Under this head + we find that there have been upward of 1,310,000 phonographs sold during + the last twenty years, with and for which there have been made and sold no + fewer than 97,845,000 records of a musical or other character. + Phonographic records are now being manufactured at Orange at the rate of + 75,000 a day, the annual sale of phonographs and records being + approximately $7,000,000, including business phonographs. This does not + include blank records, of which large numbers have also been supplied to + the public. + </p> + <p> + The adoption of the business phonograph has not been characterized by the + unanimity that obtained in the case of the one used merely for amusement, + as its use involves some changes in methods that business men are slow to + adopt until they realize the resulting convenience and economy. Although + it is only a few years since the business phonograph has begun to make + some headway, it is not difficult to appreciate that Edison's prediction + in 1878 as to the value of such an appliance is being realized, when we + find that up to this time the sales run up to 12,695 in number. At the + present time the annual sales of the business phonographs and supplies, + cylinders, etc., are not less than $350,000. + </p> + <p> + We must not forget that the basic patent of Edison on the phonograph has + long since expired, thus throwing open to the world the wonderful art of + reproducing human speech and other sounds. The world was not slow to take + advantage of the fact, hence there are in the field numerous other + concerns in the same business. It is conservatively estimated by those who + know the trade and are in position to form an opinion, that the figures + above given represent only about one-half of the entire business of the + country in phonographs, records, cylinders, and supplies. + </p> + <p> + Taking next his inventions that pertain to a more recently established but + rapidly expanding branch of business that provides for the amusement of + the public, popularly known as "motion pictures," we also find a general + recognition of value created. Referring the reader to a previous chapter + for a discussion of Edison's standing as a pioneer inventor in this art, + let us glance at the commercial proportions of this young but lusty + business, whose ramifications extend to all but the most remote and + primitive hamlets of our country. + </p> + <p> + The manufacture of the projecting machines and accessories, together with + the reproduction of films, is carried on at the Orange Valley plant, and + from the inception of the motion-picture business to the present time + there have been made upward of 16,000 projecting machines and many million + feet of films carrying small photographs of moving objects. Although the + motion-picture business, as a commercial enterprise, is still in its + youth, it is of sufficient moment to call for the annual production of + thousands of machines and many million feet of films in Edison's shops, + having a sale value of not less than $750,000. To produce the originals + from which these Edison films are made, there have been established two + "studios," the largest of which is in the Bronx, New York City. + </p> + <p> + In this, as well as in the phonograph business, there are many other + manufacturers in the field. Indeed, the annual product of the Edison + Manufacturing Company in this line is only a fractional part of the total + that is absorbed by the 8000 or more motion-picture theatres and + exhibitions that are in operation in the United States at the present + time, and which represent an investment of some $45,000,000. Licensees + under Edison patents in this country alone produce upward of 60,000,000 + feet of films annually, containing more than a billion and a half separate + photographs. To what extent the motion-picture business may grow in the + not remote future it is impossible to conjecture, for it has taken a place + in the front rank of rapidly increasing enterprises. + </p> + <p> + The manufacture and sale of the Edison-Lalande primary battery, conducted + by the Edison Manufacturing Company at the Orange Valley plant, is a + business of no mean importance. Beginning about twenty years ago with a + battery that, without polarizing, would furnish large currents specially + adapted for gas-engine ignition and other important purposes, the business + has steadily grown in magnitude until the present output amounts to about + 125,000 cells annually; the total number of cells put into the hands of + the public up to date being approximately 1,500,000. It will be readily + conceded that to most men this alone would be an enterprise of a lifetime, + and sufficient in itself to satisfy a moderate ambition. But, although it + has yielded a considerable profit to Edison and gives employment to many + people, it is only one of the many smaller enterprises that owe an + existence to his inventive ability and commercial activity. + </p> + <p> + So it also is in regard to the mimeograph, whose forerunner, the electric + pen, was born of Edison's brain in 1877. He had been long impressed by the + desirability of the rapid production of copies of written documents, and, + as we have seen by a previous chapter, he invented the electric pen for + this purpose, only to improve upon it later with a more desirable device + which he called the mimeograph, that is in use, in various forms, at this + time. Although the electric pen had a large sale and use in its time, the + statistics relating to it are not available. The mimeograph, however, is, + and has been for many years, a standard office appliance, and is entitled + to consideration, as the total number put into use up to this time is + approximately 180,000, valued at $3,500,000, while the annual output is in + the neighborhood of 9000 machines, sold for about $150,000, besides the + vast quantity of special paper and supplies which its use entails in the + production of the many millions of facsimile letters and documents. The + extent of production and sale of supplies for the mimeograph may be + appreciated when it is stated that they bring annually an equivalent of + three times the amount realized from sales of machines. The manufacture + and sale of the mimeograph does not come within the enterprises conducted + under Edison's personal direction, as he sold out the whole thing some + years ago to Mr. A. B. Dick, of Chicago. + </p> + <p> + In making a somewhat radical change of subject, from duplicating machines + to cement, we find ourselves in a field in which Edison has made a most + decided impression. The reader has already learned that his entry into + this field was, in a manner, accidental, although logically in line with + pronounced convictions of many years' standing, and following up the fund + of knowledge gained in the magnetic ore-milling business. From being a + new-comer in the cement business, his corporation in five years has grown + to be the fifth largest producer in the United States, with a still + increasing capacity. From the inception of this business there has been a + steady and rapid development, resulting in the production of a grand total + of over 7,300,000 barrels of cement up to the present date, having a value + of about $6,000,000, exclusive of package. At the time of this writing, + the rate of production is over 8000 barrels of cement per day, or, say, + 2,500,000 barrels per year, having an approximate selling value of a + little less than $2,000,000, with prospects of increasing in the near + future to a daily output of 10,000 barrels. This enterprise is carried on + by a corporation called the Edison Portland Cement Company, in which he is + very largely interested, and of which he is the active head and guiding + spirit. + </p> + <p> + Had not Edison suspended the manufacture and sale of his storage battery a + few years ago because he was not satisfied with it, there might have been + given here some noteworthy figures of an extensive business, for the + company's books show an astonishing number of orders that were received + during the time of the shut-down. He was implored for batteries, but in + spite of the fact that good results had been obtained from the 18,000 or + 20,000 cells sold some years ago, he adhered firmly to his determination + to perfect them to a still higher standard before resuming and continuing + their manufacture as a regular commodity. As we have noted in a previous + chapter, however, deliveries of the perfected type were begun in the + summer of 1909, and since that time the business has continued to grow in + the measure indicated by the earlier experience. + </p> + <p> + Thus far we have concerned ourselves chiefly with those figures which + exhibit the extent of investment and production, but there is another and + humanly important side that presents itself for consideration namely, the + employment of a vast industrial army of men and women, who earn a living + through their connection with some of the arts and industries to which our + narrative has direct reference. To this the reader's attention will now be + drawn. + </p> + <p> + The following figures are based upon the Special Reports of the Census + Bureau, 1902 and 1907, with additions computed upon the increase that has + subsequently taken place. In the totals following is included the + compensation paid to salaried officials and clerks. Details relating to + telegraph systems are omitted. + </p> + <p> + Taking the electric light into consideration first, we find that in the + central stations of the United States there are not less than an average + of 50,000 persons employed, requiring an aggregate yearly payroll of over + $40,000,000. This does not include the 100,000 or more isolated + electric-light plants scattered throughout the land. Many of these are + quite large, and at least one-third of them require one additional helper, + thus adding, say, 33,000 employees to the number already mentioned. If we + assume as low a wage as $10 per week for each of these helpers, we must + add to the foregoing an additional sum of over $17,000,000 paid annually + for wages, almost entirely in the isolated incandescent electric lighting + field. + </p> + <p> + Central stations and isolated plants consume over 100,000,000 incandescent + electric lamps annually, and in the production of these there are engaged + about forty factories, on whose pay-rolls appear an average of 14,000 + employees, earning an aggregate yearly sum of $8,000,000. + </p> + <p> + Following the incandescent lamp we must not forget an industry exclusively + arising from it and absolutely dependent upon it—namely, that of + making fixtures for such lamps, the manufacture of which gives employment + to upward of 6000 persons, who annually receive at least $3,750,000 in + compensation. + </p> + <p> + The detail devices of the incandescent electric lighting system also + contribute a large quota to the country's wealth in the millions of + dollars paid out in salaries and wages to many thousands of persons who + are engaged in their manufacture. + </p> + <p> + The electric railways of our country show even larger figures than the + lighting stations and plants, as they employ on the average over 250,000 + persons, whose annual compensation amounts to not less than $155,000,000. + </p> + <p> + In the manufacture of about $50,000,000 worth of dynamos and motors + annually, for central-station equipment, isolated plants, electric + railways, and other purposes, the manufacturers of the country employ an + average of not less than 30,000 people, whose yearly pay-roll amounts to + no less a sum than $20,000,000. + </p> + <p> + The growth of the telephone systems of the United States also furnishes us + with statistics of an analogous nature, for we find that the average + number of employees engaged in this industry is at least 140,000, whose + annual earnings aggregate a minimum of $75,000,000; besides which the + manufacturers of telephone apparatus employ over 12,000 persons, to whom + is paid annually about $5,500,000. + </p> + <p> + No attempt is made to include figures of collateral industries, such, for + instance, as copper, which is very closely allied with the electrical + arts, and the great bulk of which is refined electrically. + </p> + <p> + The 8000 or so motion-picture theatres of the country employ no fewer than + 40,000 people, whose aggregate annual income amounts to not less than + $37,000,000. + </p> + <p> + Coming now to the Orange Valley plant, we take a drop from these figures + to the comparatively modest ones which give us an average of 3600 + employees and calling for an annual pay-roll of about $2,250,000. It must + be remembered, however, that the sums mentioned above represent industries + operated by great aggregations of capital, while the Orange Valley plant, + as well as the Edison Portland Cement Company, with an average daily + number of 530 employees and over $400,000 annual pay-roll, represent in a + large measure industries that are more in the nature of closely held + enterprises and practically under the direction of one mind. + </p> + <p> + The table herewith given summarizes the figures that have just been + presented, and affords an idea of the totals affected by the genius of + this one man. It is well known that many other men and many other + inventions have been needed for the perfection of these arts; but it is + equally true that, as already noted, some of these industries are directly + the creation of Edison, while in every one of the rest his impress has + been deep and significant. Before he began inventing, only two of them + were known at all as arts—telegraphy and the manufacture of cement. + Moreover, these figures deal only with the United States, and take no + account of the development of many of the Edison inventions in Europe or + of their adoption throughout the world at large. Let it suffice + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + STATISTICAL RESUME (APPROXIMATE) OF SOME OF THE INDUSTRIES + IN THE UNITED STATES DIRECTLY FOUNDED UPON OR + AFFECTED BY INVENTIONS OF THOMAS A. EDISON +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Annual + Gross Rev- Number Annual + Class of Industry Investment enue or of Em- Pay-Rolls + sales + Central station lighting + and power $1,000,000,000 $125,000,000 50,000 $40,000,000 + Isolated incandescent + lighting 500,000,000 — 33,000 17,000 000 + Incandescent lamps 25,000,000 20,000,000 14,000 8,000 000 + Electric fixtures 8,000,000 5,000,000 6,000 3,750,000 + Dynamos and motors 60,000,000 50,000,000 30,000 20,000,000 + Electric railways 4,000,000,000 430,000,000 250,000 155,000,000 + Telephone systems 800,000,000 175,000,000 140,000 75,000,000 + Telephone apparatus 30,000,000 15,000,000 12,000 5,500,000 + Phonograph and motion + pictures 10,000,000 15,000,000 5,000 6,000,000 + Motion picture theatres 40,000,000 80,000,000 40,000 37,000,000 + Edison Portland cement 4,000,000 2,000,000 530 400,000 + Telegraphy 250,000,000 60,000,000 100,000 30,000,000 +--------------------------------------------------------------------------Totals + 6,727,000,000 1,077,000,000 680,530 397,650,000 +</pre> + <p> + that in America alone the work of Edison has been one of the most potent + factors in bringing into existence new industries now capitalized at + nearly $ 7,000,000,000, earning annually over $1,000,000,000, and giving + employment to an army of more than six hundred thousand people. + </p> + <p> + A single diamond, prismatically flashing from its many facets the beauties + of reflected light, comes well within the limits of comprehension of the + human mind and appeals to appreciation by the finer sensibilities; but in + viewing an exhibition of thousands of these beautiful gems, the eye and + brain are simply bewildered with the richness of a display which tends to + confuse the intellect until the function of analysis comes into play and + leads to more adequate apprehension. + </p> + <p> + So, in presenting the mass of statistics contained in this chapter, we + fear that the result may have been the bewilderment of the reader to some + extent. Nevertheless, in writing a biography of Edison, the main object is + to present the facts as they are, and leave it to the intelligent reader + to classify, apply, and analyze them in such manner as appeals most + forcibly to his intellectual processes. If in the foregoing pages there + has appeared to be a tendency to attribute to Edison the entire credit for + the growth to which many of the above-named great enterprises have in + these latter days attained, we must especially disclaim any intention of + giving rise to such a deduction. No one who has carefully followed the + course of this narrative can deny, however, that Edison is the father of + some of the arts and industries that have been mentioned, and that as to + some of the others it was the magic of his touch that helped make them + practicable. Not only to his work and ingenuity is due the present + magnitude of these arts and industries, but it is attributable also to the + splendid work and numerous contributions of other great inventors, such as + Brush, Bell, Elihu Thomson, Weston, Sprague, and many others, as well as + to the financiers and investors who in the past thirty years have + furnished the vast sums of money that were necessary to exploit and push + forward these enterprises. + </p> + <p> + The reader may have noticed in a perusal of this chapter the lack of + autobiographical quotations, such as have appeared in other parts of this + narrative. Edison's modesty has allowed us but one remark on the subject. + This was made by him to one of the writers a short time ago, when, after + an interesting indulgence in reminiscences of old times and early + inventions, he leaned back in his chair, and with a broad smile on his + face, said, reflectively: "Say, I HAVE been mixed up in a whole lot of + things, haven't I?" + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0028" id="link2HCH0028"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVIII + </h2> + <h3> + THE BLACK FLAG + </h3> + <p> + THROUGHOUT the forty-odd years of his creative life, Edison has realized + by costly experience the truth of the cynical proverb that "A patent is + merely a title to a lawsuit." It is not intended, however, by this + statement to lead to any inference on the part of the reader that HE + stands peculiarly alone in any such experience, for it has been and still + is the common lot of every successful inventor, sooner or later. + </p> + <p> + To attribute dishonesty or cupidity as the root of the defence in all + patent litigation would be aiming very wide of the mark, for in no class + of suits that come before the courts are there any that present a greater + variety of complex, finely shaded questions, or that require more delicacy + of interpretation, than those that involve the construction of patents, + particularly those relating to electrical devices. Indeed, a careful study + of legal procedure of this character could not be carried far without + discovery of the fact that in numerous instances the differences of + opinion between litigants were marked by the utmost bona fides. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, such study would reveal many cases of undoubted + fraudulent intent, as well as many bold attempts to deprive the inventor + of the fruits of his endeavors by those who have sought to evade, through + subtle technicalities of the law, the penalty justly due them for + trickery, evasion, or open contempt of the rights of others. + </p> + <p> + In the history of science and of the arts to which the world has owed its + continued progress from year to year there is disclosed one remarkable + fact, and that is, that whenever any important discovery or invention has + been made and announced by one man, it has almost always been disclosed + later that other men—possibly widely separated and knowing nothing + of the other's work—have been following up the same general lines of + investigation, independently, with the same object in mind. Their + respective methods might be dissimilar while tending to the same end, but + it does not necessarily follow that any one of these other experimenters + might ever have achieved the result aimed at, although, after the + proclamation of success by one, it is easy to believe that each of the + other independent investigators might readily persuade himself that he + would ultimately have reached the goal in just that same way. + </p> + <p> + This peculiar coincidence of simultaneous but separate work not only comes + to light on the bringing out of great and important discoveries or + inventions, but becomes more apparent if a new art is disclosed, for then + the imagination of previous experimenters is stimulated through wide + dissemination of the tidings, sometimes resulting in more or less effort + to enter the newly opened field with devices or methods that resemble + closely the original and fundamental ones in principle and application. In + this and other ways there arises constantly in the United States Patent + Office a large number of contested cases, called "Interferences," where + applications for patents covering the invention of a similar device have + been independently filed by two or even more persons. In such cases only + one patent can be issued, and that to the inventor who on the taking of + testimony shows priority in date of invention. [20] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 20: A most remarkable instance of contemporaneous + invention and without a parallel in the annals of the United + States Patent Office, occurred when, on the same day, + February 15, 1876, two separate descriptions were filed in + that office, one a complete application and the other a + caveat, but each covering an invention for "transmitting + vocal sounds telegraphically." The application was made by + Alexander Graham Bell, of Salem, Massachusetts, and the + caveat by Elisha Gray, of Chicago, Illinois. On examination + of the two papers it was found that both of them covered + practically the same ground, hence, as only one patent could + be granted, it became necessary to ascertain the precise + hour at which the documents were respectively filed, and put + the parties in interference. This was done, with the result + that the patent was ultimately awarded to Bell.] +</pre> + <p> + In the opening up and development of any new art based upon a fundamental + discovery or invention, there ensues naturally an era of supplemental or + collateral inventive activity—the legitimate outcome of the basic + original ideas. Part of this development may be due to the inventive skill + and knowledge of the original inventor and his associates, who, by reason + of prior investigation, would be in better position to follow up the art + in its earliest details than others, who might be regarded as mere + outsiders. Thus a new enterprise may be presented before the world by its + promoters in the belief that they are strongly fortified by patent rights + which will protect them in a degree commensurate with the risks they have + assumed. + </p> + <p> + Supplemental inventions, however, in any art, new or old, are not limited + to those which emanate from the original workers, for the ingenuity of + man, influenced by the spirit of the times, seizes upon any novel line of + action and seeks to improve or enlarge upon it, or, at any rate, to + produce more or less variation of its phases. Consequently, there is a + constant endeavor on the part of a countless host of men possessing some + degree of technical skill and inventive ability, to win fame and money by + entering into the already opened fields of endeavor with devices and + methods of their own, for which subsidiary patents may be obtainable. Some + of such patents may prove to be valuable, while it is quite certain that + in the natural order of things others will be commercially worthless, but + none may be entirely disregarded in the history and development of the + art. + </p> + <p> + It will be quite obvious, therefore, that the advent of any useful + invention or discovery, great or small, is followed by a clashing of many + interests which become complex in their interpretation by reason of the + many conflicting claims that cluster around the main principle. Nor is the + confusion less confounded through efforts made on the part of dishonest + persons, who, like vultures, follow closely on the trail of successful + inventors and (sometimes through information derived by underhand methods) + obtain patents on alleged inventions, closely approximating the real ones, + solely for the purpose of harassing the original patentee until they are + bought up, or else, with the intent of competing boldly in the new + business, trust in the delays of legal proceedings to obtain a sure + foothold in their questionable enterprise. + </p> + <p> + Then again there are still others who, having no patent rights, but waving + aside all compunction and in downright fraud, simply enter the commercial + field against the whole world, using ruthlessly whatever inventive skill + and knowledge the original patentee may have disclosed, and trusting to + the power of money, rapid movement, and mendacious advertising to build up + a business which shall presently assume such formidable proportions as to + force a compromise, or stave off an injunction until the patent has + expired. In nine cases out of ten such a course can be followed with + relative impunity; and guided by skilful experts who may suggest really + trivial changes here and there over the patented structure, and with the + aid of keen and able counsel, hardly a patent exists that could not be + invaded by such infringers. Such is the condition of our laws and practice + that the patentee in seeking to enforce his rights labors under a terrible + handicap. + </p> + <p> + And, finally, in this recital of perplexing conditions confronting the + inventor, there must not be forgotten the commercial "shark," whose + predatory instincts are ever keenly alert for tender victims. In the wake + of every newly developed art of world-wide importance there is sure to + follow a number of unscrupulous adventurers, who hasten to take advantage + of general public ignorance of the true inwardness of affairs. Basing + their operations on this lack of knowledge, and upon the tendency of human + nature to give credence to widely advertised and high-sounding + descriptions and specious promises of vast profits, these men find little + difficulty in conjuring money out of the pockets of the unsophisticated + and gullible, who rush to become stockholders in concerns that have "airy + nothings" for a foundation, and that collapse quickly when the bubble is + pricked. [21] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 21: A notable instance of the fleecing of + unsuspecting and credulous persons occurred in the early + eighties, during the furor occasioned by the introduction of + Mr. Edison's electric-light system. A corporation claiming + to have a self-generating dynamo (practically perpetual + motion) advertised its preposterous claims extensively, and + actually succeeded in selling a large amount of stock, + which, of course, proved to be absolutely worthless.] +</pre> + <p> + To one who is unacquainted with the trying circumstances attending the + introduction and marketing of patented devices, it might seem unnecessary + that an inventor and his business associates should be obliged to take + into account the unlawful or ostensible competition of pirates or + schemers, who, in the absence of legal decision, may run a free course for + a long time. Nevertheless, as public patronage is the element vitally + requisite for commercial success, and as the public is not usually in full + possession of all the facts and therefore cannot discriminate between the + genuine and the false, the legitimate inventor must avail himself of every + possible means of proclaiming and asserting his rights if he desires to + derive any benefit from the results of his skill and labor. Not only must + he be prepared to fight in the Patent Office and pursue a regular course + of patent litigation against those who may honestly deem themselves to be + protected by other inventions or patents of similar character, and also + proceed against more palpable infringers who are openly, defiantly, and + illegitimately engaged in competitive business operations, but he must, as + well, endeavor to protect himself against the assaults of impudent fraud + by educating the public mind to a point of intelligent apprehension of the + true status of his invention and the conflicting claims involved. + </p> + <p> + When the nature of a patent right is considered it is difficult to see why + this should be so. The inventor creates a new thing—an invention of + utility—and the people, represented by the Federal Government, say + to him in effect: "Disclose your invention to us in a patent so that we + may know how to practice it, and we will agree to give you a monopoly for + seventeen years, after which we shall be free to use it. If the right thus + granted is invaded, apply to a Federal Court and the infringer will be + enjoined and required to settle in damages." Fair and false promise! Is it + generally realized that no matter how flagrant the infringement nor how + barefaced and impudent the infringer, no Federal Court will grant an + injunction UNTIL THE PATENT SHALL HAVE BEEN FIRST LITIGATED TO FINAL + HEARING AND SUSTAINED? A procedure, it may be stated, requiring years of + time and thousands of dollars, during which other infringers have + generally entered the field, and all have grown fat. + </p> + <p> + Thus Edison and his business associates have been forced into a veritable + maelstrom of litigation during the major part of the last forty years, in + the effort to procure for themselves a small measure of protection for + their interests under the numerous inventions of note that he has made at + various times in that period. The earlier years of his inventive activity, + while productive of many important contributions to electrical industries, + such as stock tickers and printers, duplex, quadruplex, and automatic + telegraphs, were not marked by the turmoil of interminable legal conflicts + that arose after the beginning of the telephone and electric-light epochs. + In fact, his inventions; up to and including his telephone improvements + (which entered into already existing arts), had been mostly purchased by + the Western Union and other companies, and while there was more or less + contesting of his claims (especially in respect of the telephone), the + extent of such litigation was not so conspicuously great as that which + centred subsequently around his patents covering incandescent electric + lighting and power systems. + </p> + <p> + Through these inventions there came into being an entirely new art, + complete in its practicability evolved by Edison after protracted + experiments founded upon most patient, thorough, and original methods of + investigation extending over several years. Long before attaining the + goal, he had realized with characteristic insight the underlying + principles of the great and comprehensive problem he had started out to + solve, and plodded steadily along the path that he had marked out, + ignoring the almost universal scientific disbelief in his ultimate + success. "Dreamer," "fool," "boaster" were among the appellations bestowed + upon him by unbelieving critics. Ridicule was heaped upon him in the + public prints, and mathematics were called into service by learned men to + settle the point forever that he was attempting the utterly impossible. + </p> + <p> + But, presto! no sooner had he accomplished the task and shown concrete + results to the world than he found himself in the anomalous position of + being at once surrounded by the conditions which inevitably confront every + inventor. The path through the trackless forest had been blazed, and now + every one could find the way. At the end of the road was a rich prize + belonging rightfully to the man who had opened a way to it, but the + struggles of others to reach it by more or less honest methods now began + and continued for many years. If, as a former commissioner once said, + "Edison was the man who kept the path to the Patent Office hot with his + footsteps," there were other great inventors abreast or immediately on his + heels, some, to be sure, with legitimate, original methods and vital + improvements representing independent work; while there were also those + who did not trouble to invent, but simply helped themselves to whatever + ideas were available, and coming from any source. + </p> + <p> + Possibly events might have happened differently had Edison been able to + prevent the announcement of his electric-light inventions until he was + entirely prepared to bring out the system as a whole, ready for commercial + exploitation, but the news of his production of a practical and successful + incandescent lamp became known and spread like wild-fire to all corners of + the globe. It took more than a year after the evolution of the lamp for + Edison to get into position to do actual business, and during that time + his laboratory was the natural Mecca of every inquiring person. Small + wonder, then, that when he was prepared to market his invention he should + find others entering that market, at home and abroad, at the same time, + and with substantially similar merchandise. + </p> + <p> + Edison narrates two incidents that may be taken as characteristic of a + good deal that had to be contended with, coming in the shape of nefarious + attack. "In the early days of my electric light," he says, "curiosity and + interest brought a great many people to Menlo Park to see it. Some of them + did not come with the best of intentions. I remember the visit of one + expert, a well-known electrician, a graduate of Johns Hopkins University, + and who then represented a Baltimore gas company. We had the lamps + exhibited in a large room, and so arranged on a table as to illustrate the + regular layout of circuits for houses and streets. Sixty of the men + employed at the laboratory were used as watchers, each to keep an eye on a + certain section of the exhibit, and see there was no monkeying with it. + This man had a length of insulated No. 10 wire passing through his sleeves + and around his back, so that his hands would conceal the ends and no one + would know he had it. His idea, of course, was to put this wire across the + ends of the supplying circuits, and short-circuit the whole thing—put + it all out of business without being detected. Then he could report how + easily the electric light went out, and a false impression would be + conveyed to the public. He did not know that we had already worked out the + safety-fuse, and that every group of lights was thus protected + independently. He put this jumper slyly in contact with the wires—and + just four lamps went out on the section he tampered with. The watchers saw + him do it, however, and got hold of him and just led him out of the place + with language that made the recording angels jump for their typewriters." + </p> + <p> + The other incident is as follows: "Soon after I had got out the + incandescent light I had an interference in the Patent Office with a man + from Wisconsin. He filed an application for a patent and entered into a + conspiracy to 'swear back' of the date of my invention, so as to deprive + me of it. Detectives were put on the case, and we found he was a 'faker,' + and we took means to break the thing up. Eugene Lewis, of Eaton & + Lewis, had this in hand for me. Several years later this same man + attempted to defraud a leading firm of manufacturing chemists in New York, + and was sent to State prison. A short time after that a syndicate took up + a man named Goebel and tried to do the same thing, but again our + detective-work was too much for them. This was along the same line as the + attempt of Drawbaugh to deprive Bell of his telephone. Whenever an + invention of large prospective value comes out, these cases always occur. + The lamp patent was sustained in the New York Federal Court. I thought + that was final and would end the matter, but another Federal judge out in + St. Louis did not sustain it. The result is I have never enjoyed any + benefits from my lamp patents, although I fought for many years." The + Goebel case will be referred to later in this chapter. + </p> + <p> + The original owner of the patents and inventions covering his + electric-lighting system, the Edison Electric Light Company (in which + Edison was largely interested as a stockholder), thus found at the outset + that its commercial position was imperilled by the activity of competitors + who had sprung up like mushrooms. It became necessary to take proper + preliminary legal steps to protect the interests which had been acquired + at the cost of so much money and such incessant toil and experiment. + During the first few years in which the business of the introduction of + the light was carried on with such strenuous and concentrated effort, the + attention of Edison and his original associates was constantly focused + upon the commercial exploitation and the further development of the system + at home and abroad. The difficult and perplexing situation at that time is + thus described by Major S. B. Eaton: + </p> + <p> + "The reason for the delay in beginning and pushing suits for infringements + of the lamp patent has never been generally understood. In my official + position as president of the Edison Electric Light Company I became the + target, along with Mr. Edison, for censure from the stockholders and + others on account of this delay, and I well remember how deep the feeling + was. In view of the facts that a final injunction on the lamp patent was + not obtained until the life of the patent was near its end, and, next, + that no damages in money were ever paid by the guilty infringers, it has + been generally believed that Mr. Edison sacrificed the interest of his + stockholders selfishly when he delayed the prosecution of patent suits and + gave all his time and energies to manufacturing. This belief was the + stronger because the manufacturing enterprises belonged personally to Mr. + Edison and not to his company. But the facts render it easy to dispel this + false belief. The Edison inventions were not only a lamp; they comprised + also an entire system of central stations. Such a thing was new to the + world, and the apparatus, as well as the manufacture thereof, was equally + new. Boilers, engines, dynamos, motors, distribution mains, meters, + house-wiring, safety-devices, lamps, and lamp-fixtures—all were + vital parts of the whole system. Most of them were utterly novel and + unknown to the arts, and all of them required quick, and, I may say, + revolutionary thought and invention. The firm of Babcock & Wilcox gave + aid on the boilers, Armington & Sims undertook the engines, but + everything else was abnormal. No factories in the land would take up the + manufacture. I remember, for instance, our interviews with Messrs. + Mitchell, Vance & Co., the leading manufacturers of house gas-lighting + fixtures, such as brackets and chandeliers. They had no faith in electric + lighting, and rejected all our overtures to induce them to take up the new + business of making electric-light fixtures. As regards other parts of the + Edison system, notably the Edison dynamo, no such machines had ever + existed; there was no factory in the world equipped to make them, and, + most discouraging of all, the very scientific principles of their + construction were still vague and experimental. + </p> + <p> + "What was to be done? Mr. Edison has never been greater than when he met + and solved this crisis. 'If there are no factories,' he said, 'to make my + inventions, I will build the factories myself. Since capital is timid, I + will raise and supply it. The issue is factories or death.' Mr. Edison + invited the cooperation of his leading stockholders. They lacked + confidence or did not care to increase their investments. He was forced to + go on alone. The chain of Edison shops was then created. By far the most + perplexing of these new manufacturing problems was the lamp. Not only was + it a new industry, one without shadow of prototype, but the mechanical + devices for making the lamps, and to some extent the very machines to make + those devices, were to be invented. All of this was done by the courage, + capital, and invincible energy and genius of the great inventor. But Mr. + Edison could not create these great and diverse industries and at the same + time give requisite attention to litigation. He could not start and + develop the new and hard business of electric lighting and yet spare one + hour to pursue infringers. One thing or the other must wait. All agreed + that it must be the litigation. And right there a lasting blow was given + to the prestige of the Edison patents. The delay was translated as meaning + lack of confidence; and the alert infringer grew strong in courage and + capital. Moreover, and what was the heaviest blow of all, he had time, + thus unmolested, to get a good start. + </p> + <p> + "In looking back on those days and scrutinizing them through the years, I + am impressed by the greatness, the solitary greatness I may say, of Mr. + Edison. We all felt then that we were of importance, and that our + contribution of effort and zeal were vital. I can see now, however, that + the best of us was nothing but the fly on the wheel. Suppose anything had + happened to Edison? All would have been chaos and ruin.. To him, + therefore, be the glory, if not the profit." + </p> + <p> + The foregoing remarks of Major Eaton show authoritatively how the + much-discussed delay in litigating the Edison patents was so greatly + misunderstood at the time, and also how imperatively necessary it was for + Edison and his associates to devote their entire time and energies to the + commercial development of the art. As the lighting business increased, + however, and a great number of additional men were initiated into its + mysteries, Edison and his experts were able to spare some time to legal + matters, and an era of active patent litigation against infringers was + opened about the year 1885 by the Edison company, and thereafter continued + for many years. + </p> + <p> + While the history of this vast array of legal proceedings possesses a + fascinating interest for those involved, as well as for professional men, + legal and scientific, it could not be expected that it would excite any + such feeling on the part of a casual reader. Hence, it is not proposed to + encumber this narrative with any detailed record of the numerous suits + that were brought and conducted through their complicated ramifications by + eminent counsel. Suffice it to say that within about sixteen years after + the commencement of active patent litigation, there had been spent by the + owners of the Edison lighting patents upward of two million dollars in + prosecuting more than two hundred lawsuits brought against persons who + were infringing many of the patents of Edison on the incandescent electric + lamp and component parts of his system. Over fifty separate patents were + involved in these suits, including the basic one on the lamp (ordinarily + called the "Filament" patent), other detail lamp patents, as well as those + on sockets, switches, dynamos, motors, and distributing systems. + </p> + <p> + The principal, or "test," suit on the "Filament" patent was that brought + against "The United States Electric Lighting Company," which became a + cause celebre in the annals of American jurisprudence. Edison's claims + were strenuously and stubbornly contested throughout a series of intense + legal conflicts that raged in the courts for a great many years. Both + sides of the controversy were represented by legal talent of the highest + order, under whose examination and cross-examination volumes of testimony + were taken, until the printed record (including exhibits) amounted to more + than six thousand pages. Scientific and technical literature and records + in all parts of the civilized world were subjected to the most minute + scrutiny of opposing experts in the endeavor to prove Edison to be merely + an adapter of methods and devices already projected or suggested by + others. The world was ransacked for anything that might be claimed as an + anticipation of what he had done. Every conceivable phase of ingenuity + that could be devised by technical experts was exercised in the attempt to + show that Edison had accomplished nothing new. Everything that legal + acumen could suggest—every subtle technicality of the law—all + the complicated variations of phraseology that the novel nomenclature of a + young art would allow—all were pressed into service and availed of + by the contestors of the Edison invention in their desperate effort to + defeat his claims. It was all in vain, however, for the decision of the + court was in favor of Edison, and his lamp patent was sustained not only + by the tribunal of the first resort, but also by the Appellate Court some + time afterward. + </p> + <p> + The first trial was had before Judge Wallace in the United States Circuit + Court for the Southern District of New York, and the appeal was heard by + Judges Lacombe and Shipman, of the United States Circuit Court of Appeals. + Before both tribunals the cause had been fully represented by counsel + chosen from among the most eminent representatives of the bar at that + time, those representing the Edison interests being the late Clarence A. + Seward and Grosvenor P. Lowrey, together with Sherburne Blake Eaton, + Albert H. Walker, and Richard N. Dyer. The presentation of the case to the + courts had in both instances been marked by masterly and able arguments, + elucidated by experiments and demonstrations to educate the judges on + technical points. Some appreciation of the magnitude of this case may be + gained from the fact that the argument on its first trial employed a great + many days, and the minutes covered hundreds of pages of closely + typewritten matter, while the argument on appeal required eight days, and + was set forth in eight hundred and fifty pages of typewriting. Eliminating + all purely forensic eloquence and exparte statements, the addresses of + counsel in this celebrated suit are worthy of deep study by an earnest + student, for, taken together, they comprise the most concise, authentic, + and complete history of the prior state of the art and the development of + the incandescent lamp that had been made up to that time. [22] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 22: The argument on appeal was conducted with the dignity + and decorum that characterize such a proceeding in that + court. There is usually little that savors of humor in the + ordinary conduct of a case of this kind, but in the present + instance a pertinent story was related by Mr. Lowrey, and it + is now reproduced. In the course of his address to the + court, Mr. Lowrey said: + + "I have to mention the name of one expert whose testimony + will, I believe, be found as accurate, as sincere, as + straightforward as if it were the preaching of the gospel. I + do it with great pleasure, and I ask you to read the + testimony of Charles L. Clarke along with that of Thomas A. + Edison. He had rather a hard row to hoe. He is a young + gentleman; he is a very well-instructed man in his + profession; he is not what I have called in the argument + below an expert in the art of testifying, like some of the + others, he has not yet become expert; what he may descend to + later cannot be known; he entered upon his first experience, + I think, with my brother Duncan, who is no trifler when he + comes to deal with these questions, and for several months + Mr. Clarke was pursued up and down, over a range of + suggestions of what he would have thought if he had thought + something else had been said at some time when something + else was not said." + + Mr. Duncan—"I got three pages a day out of him, too." + + Mr. Lowrey—"Well, it was a good result. It always recalled + to me what I venture now, since my friend breaks in upon me + in this rude manner, to tell the court as well illustrative + of what happened there. It is the story of the pickerel and + the roach. My friend, Professor Von Reisenberg, of the + University of Ghent, pursued a series of investigations into + the capacity of various animals to receive ideas. Among the + rest he put a pickerel into a tank containing water, and + separated across its middle by a transparent glass plate, + and on the other side he put a red roach. Now your Honors + both know how a pickerel loves a red roach, and I have no + doubt you will remember that he is a fish of a very low + forehead and an unlimited appetite. When this pickerel saw + the red roach through the glass, he made one of those awful + dashes which is usually the ruin of whatever stands in its + way; but he didn't reach the red roach. He received an + impression, doubtless. It was not sufficient, however, to + discourage him, and he immediately tried again, and he + continued to try for three-quarters of an hour. At the end + of three-quarters of an hour he seemed a little shaken and + discouraged, and stopped, and the red roach was taken out + for that day and the pickerel left. On the succeeding day + the red roach was restored, and the pickerel had forgotten + the impressions of the first day, and he repeated this + again. At the end of the second day the roach was taken out. + This was continued, not through so long a period as the + effort to take my friend Clarke and devour him, but for a + period of about three weeks. At the end of the three weeks, + the time during which the pickerel persisted each day had + been shortened and shortened, until it was at last + discovered that he didn't try at all. The plate glass was + then removed, and the pickerel and the red roach sailed + around together in perfect peace ever afterward. The + pickerel doubtless attributed to the roach all this shaking, + the rebuff which he had received. And that is about the + condition in which my brother Duncan and my friend Clarke + were at the end of this examination." + + Mr. Duncan—"I notice on the redirect that Mr. Clarke + changed his color." + + Mr. Lowrey—"Well, perhaps he was a different kind of a + roach then; but you didn't succeed in taking him. + + "I beg your Honors to read the testimony of Mr. Clarke in + the light of the anecdote of the pickerel and the roach." +</pre> + <p> + Owing to long-protracted delays incident to the taking of testimony and + preparation for trial, the argument before the United States Circuit Court + of Appeals was not had until the late spring of 1892, and its decision in + favor of the Edison Lamp patent was filed on October 4, 1892, MORE THAN + TWELVE YEARS AFTER THE ISSUANCE OF THE PATENT ITSELF. + </p> + <p> + As the term of the patent had been limited under the law, because certain + foreign patents had been issued to Edison before that in this country, + there was now but a short time left for enjoyment of the exclusive rights + contemplated by the statute and granted to Edison and his assigns by the + terms of the patent itself. A vigorous and aggressive legal campaign was + therefore inaugurated by the Edison Electric Light Company against the + numerous infringing companies and individuals that had sprung up while the + main suit was pending. Old suits were revived and new ones instituted. + Injunctions were obtained against many old offenders, and it seemed as + though the Edison interests were about to come into their own for the + brief unexpired term of the fundamental patent, when a new bombshell was + dropped into the Edison camp in the shape of an alleged anticipation of + the invention forty years previously by one Henry Goebel. Thus, in 1893, + the litigation was reopened, and a protracted series of stubbornly + contested conflicts was fought in the courts. + </p> + <p> + Goebel's claims were not unknown to the Edison Company, for as far back as + 1882 they had been officially brought to its notice coupled with an offer + of sale for a few thousand dollars. A very brief examination into their + merits, however, sufficed to demonstrate most emphatically that Goebel had + never made a practical incandescent lamp, nor had he ever contributed a + single idea or device bearing, remotely or directly, on the development of + the art. Edison and his company, therefore, rejected the offer + unconditionally and declined to enter into any arrangements whatever with + Goebel. During the prosecution of the suits in 1893 it transpired that the + Goebel claims had also been investigated by the counsel of the defendant + company in the principal litigation already related, but although every + conceivable defence and anticipation had been dragged into the case during + the many years of its progress, the alleged Goebel anticipation was not + even touched upon therein. From this fact it is quite apparent that they + placed no credence on its bona fides. + </p> + <p> + But desperate cases call for desperate remedies. Some of the infringing + lamp-manufacturing concerns, which during the long litigation had grown + strong and lusty, and thus far had not been enjoined by the court, now saw + injunctions staring them in the face, and in desperation set up the Goebel + so-called anticipation as a defence in the suits brought against them. + </p> + <p> + This German watchmaker, Goebel, located in the East Side of New York City, + had undoubtedly been interested, in a desultory kind of way, in simple + physical phenomena, and a few trifling experiments made by him some forty + or forty-five years previously were magnified and distorted into brilliant + and all-comprehensive discoveries and inventions. Avalanches of affidavits + of himself, "his sisters and his cousins and his aunts," practically all + persons in ordinary walks of life, and of old friends, contributed a host + of recollections that seemed little short of miraculous in their detailed + accounts of events of a scientific nature that were said to have occurred + so many years before. According to affidavits of Goebel himself and some + of his family, nothing that would anticipate Edison's claim had been + omitted from his work, for he (Goebel) claimed to have employed the + all-glass globe, into which were sealed platinum wires carrying a tenuous + carbon filament, from which the occluded gases had been liberated during + the process of high exhaustion. He had even determined upon bamboo as the + best material for filaments. On the face of it he was seemingly gifted + with more than human prescience, for in at least one of his exhibit lamps, + said to have been made twenty years previously, he claimed to have + employed processes which Edison and his associates had only developed by + several years of experience in making thousands of lamps! + </p> + <p> + The Goebel story was told by the affidavits in an ingenuous manner, with a + wealth of simple homely detail that carried on its face an appearance of + truth calculated to deceive the elect, had not the elect been somewhat + prepared by their investigation made some eleven years before. + </p> + <p> + The story was met by the Edison interests with counter-affidavits, showing + its utter improbabilities and absurdities from the standpoint of men of + science and others versed in the history and practice of the art; also + affidavits of other acquaintances and neighbors of Goebel flatly denying + the exhibitions he claimed to have made. The issue thus being joined, the + legal battle raged over different sections of the country. A number of + contumeliously defiant infringers in various cities based fond hopes of + immunity upon the success of this Goebel evidence, but were defeated. The + attitude of the courts is well represented in the opinion of Judge Colt, + rendered in a motion for injunction against the Beacon Vacuum Pump and + Electrical Company. The defence alleged the Goebel anticipation, in + support of which it offered in evidence four lamps, Nos. 1, 2, and 3 + purporting to have been made before 1854, and No. 4 before 1872. After a + very full review of the facts in the case, and a fair consideration of the + defendants' affidavits, Judge Colt in his opinion goes on to say: + </p> + <p> + "It is extremely improbable that Henry Goebel constructed a practical + incandescent lamp in 1854. This is manifest from the history of the art + for the past fifty years, the electrical laws which since that time have + been discovered as applicable to the incandescent lamp, the imperfect + means which then existed for obtaining a vacuum, the high degree of skill + necessary in the construction of all its parts, and the crude instruments + with which Goebel worked. + </p> + <p> + "Whether Goebel made the fiddle-bow lamps, 1, 2, and 3, is not necessary + to determine. The weight of evidence on this motion is in the direction + that he made these lamp or lamps similar in general appearance, though it + is manifest that few, if any, of the many witnesses who saw the Goebel + lamp could form an accurate judgment of the size of the filament or + burner. But assuming they were made, they do not anticipate the invention + of Edison. At most they were experimental toys used to advertise his + telescope, or to flash a light upon his clock, or to attract customers to + his shop. They were crudely constructed, and their life was brief. They + could not be used for domestic purposes. They were in no proper sense the + practical commercial lamp of Edison. The literature of the art is full of + better lamps, all of which are held not to anticipate the Edison patent. + </p> + <p> + "As for Lamp No. 4, I cannot but view it with suspicion. It presents a new + appearance. The reason given for not introducing it before the hearing is + unsatisfactory. This lamp, to my mind, envelops with a cloud of distrust + the whole Goebel story. It is simply impossible under the circumstances to + believe that a lamp so constructed could have been made by Goebel before + 1872. Nothing in the evidence warrants such a supposition, and other + things show it to be untrue. This lamp has a carbon filament, platinum + leading-in wires, a good vacuum, and is well sealed and highly finished. + It is said that this lamp shows no traces of mercury in the bulb because + the mercury was distilled, but Goebel says nothing about distilled mercury + in his first affidavit, and twice he speaks of the particles of mercury + clinging to the inside of the chamber, and for that reason he constructed + a Geissler pump after he moved to 468 Grand Street, which was in 1877. + Again, if this lamp has been in his possession since before 1872, as he + and his son swear, why was it not shown to Mr. Crosby, of the American + Company, when he visited his shop in 1881 and was much interested in his + lamps? Why was it not shown to Mr. Curtis, the leading counsel for the + defendants in the New York cases, when he was asked to produce a lamp and + promised to do so? Why did not his son take this lamp to Mr. Bull's office + in 1892, when he took the old fiddle-bow lamps, 1, 2, and 3? Why did not + his son take this lamp to Mr. Eaton's office in 1882, when he tried to + negotiate the sale of his father's inventions to the Edison Company? A + lamp so constructed and made before 1872 was worth a large sum of money to + those interested in defeating the Edison patent like the American Company, + and Goebel was not a rich man. Both he and one of his sons were employed + in 1881 by the American Company. Why did he not show this lamp to McMahon + when he called in the interest of the American Company and talked over the + electrical matters? When Mr. Dreyer tried to organize a company in 1882, + and procured an option from him of all his inventions relating to electric + lighting for which $925 was paid, and when an old lamp of this kind was of + vital consequence and would have insured a fortune, why was it not + forthcoming? Mr. Dreyer asked Goebel to produce an old lamp, and was + especially anxious to find one pending his negotiations with the Edison + Company for the sale of Goebel's inventions. Why did he not produce this + lamp in his interviews with Bohm, of the American Company, or Moses, of + the Edison Company, when it was for his interest to do so? The value of + such an anticipation of the Edison lamp was made known to him. He was + desirous of realizing upon his inventions. He was proud of his + incandescent lamps, and was pleased to talk about them with anybody who + would listen. Is it conceivable under all these circumstances, that he + should have had this all-important lamp in his possession from 1872 to + 1893, and yet no one have heard of it or seen it except his son? It cannot + be said that ignorance of the English language offers an excuse. He knew + English very well although Bohm and Dreyer conversed with him in German. + His children spoke English. Neither his ignorance nor his simplicity + prevented him from taking out three patents: the first in 1865 for a + sewing-machine hemmer, and the last in 1882 for an improvement in + incandescent lamps. If he made Lamp No. 4 previous to 1872, why was it not + also patented? + </p> + <p> + "There are other circumstances which throw doubt on this alleged Goebel + anticipation. The suit against the United States Electric Lighting Company + was brought in the Southern District of New York in 1885. Large interests + were at stake, and the main defence to the Edison patent was based on + prior inventions. This Goebel claim was then investigated by the leading + counsel for the defence, Mr. Curtis. It was further inquired into in 1892, + in the case against the Sawyer-Man Company. It was brought to the + attention and considered by the Edison Company in 1882. It was at that + time known to the American Company, who hoped by this means to defeat the + monopoly under the Edison patent. Dreyer tried to organize a company for + its purchase. Young Goebel tried to sell it. It must have been known to + hundreds of people. And now when the Edison Company after years of + litigation, leaving but a short time for the patent to run, have obtained + a final adjudication establishing its validity, this claim is again + resurrected to defeat the operation of the judgment so obtained. A court + in equity should not look with favor on such a defence. Upon the evidence + here presented, I agree with the first impression of Mr. Curtis and with + the opinion of Mr. Dickerson that whatever Goebel did must be considered + as an abandoned experiment. + </p> + <p> + "It has often been laid down that a meritorious invention is not to be + defeated by something which rests in speculation or experiment, or which + is rudimentary or incomplete. + </p> + <p> + "The law requires not conjecture, but certainty. It is easy after an + important invention has gone into public use for persons to come forward + with claims that they invented the same thing years before, and to + endeavor to establish this by the recollection of witnesses as to events + long past. Such evidence is to be received with great caution, and the + presumption of novelty arising from the grant of the patent is not to be + overcome except upon clear and convincing proof. + </p> + <p> + "When the defendant company entered upon the manufacture of incandescent + lamps in May, 1891, it well knew the consequences which must follow a + favorable decision for the Edison Company in the New York case." + </p> + <p> + The injunction was granted. + </p> + <p> + Other courts took practically the same view of the Goebel story as was + taken by Judge Colt, and the injunctions asked in behalf of the Edison + interests were granted on all applications except one in St. Louis, + Missouri, in proceedings instituted against a strong local concern of that + city. + </p> + <p> + Thus, at the eleventh hour in the life of this important patent, after a + long period of costly litigation, Edison and his associates were compelled + to assume the defensive against a claimant whose utterly baseless + pretensions had already been thoroughly investigated and rejected years + before by every interested party, and ultimately, on examination by the + courts, pronounced legally untenable, if not indeed actually fraudulent. + Irritating as it was to be forced into the position of combating a + proposition so well known to be preposterous and insincere, there was + nothing else to do but to fight this fabrication with all the strenuous + and deadly earnestness that would have been brought to bear on a really + meritorious defence. Not only did this Goebel episode divert for a long + time the energies of the Edison interests from activities in other + directions, but the cost of overcoming the extravagantly absurd claims ran + up into hundreds of thousands of dollars. + </p> + <p> + Another quotation from Major Eaton is of interest in this connection: + </p> + <p> + "Now a word about the Goebel case. I took personal charge of running down + this man and his pretensions in the section of the city where he lived and + among his old neighbors. They were a typical East Side lot—ignorant, + generally stupid, incapable of long memory, but ready to oblige a neighbor + and to turn an easy dollar by putting a cross-mark at the bottom of a + forthcoming friendly affidavit. I can say in all truth and justice that + their testimony was utterly false, and that the lawyers who took it must + have known it. + </p> + <p> + "The Goebel case emphasizes two defects in the court procedure in patent + cases. One is that they may be spun out almost interminably, even, + possibly, to the end of the life of the patent; the other is that the + judge who decides the case does not see the witnesses. That adverse + decision at St. Louis would never have been made if the court could have + seen the men who swore for Goebel. When I met Mr. F. P. Fish on his return + from St. Louis, after he had argued the Edison side, he felt keenly that + disadvantage, to say nothing of the hopeless difficulty of educating the + court." + </p> + <p> + In the earliest days of the art, when it was apparent that incandescent + lighting had come to stay, the Edison Company was a shining mark at which + the shafts of the dishonest were aimed. Many there were who stood ready to + furnish affidavits that they or some one else whom they controlled had + really invented the lamp, but would obligingly withdraw and leave Edison + in possession of the field on payment of money. Investigation of these + cases, however, revealed invariably the purely fraudulent nature of all + such offers, which were uniformly declined. + </p> + <p> + As the incandescent light began to advance rapidly in public favor, the + immense proportions of the future market became sufficiently obvious to + tempt unauthorized persons to enter the field and become manufacturers. + When the lamp became a thoroughly established article it was not a + difficult matter to copy it, especially when there were employees to be + hired away at increased pay, and their knowledge utilized by the more + unscrupulous of these new competitors. This is not conjecture but known to + be a fact, and the practice continued many years, during which new lamp + companies sprang up on every side. Hence, it is not surprising that, on + the whole, the Edison lamp litigation was not less remarkable for quantity + than quality. Between eighty and ninety separate suits upon Edison's + fundamental lamp and detail patents were brought in the courts of the + United States and prosecuted to completion. + </p> + <p> + In passing it may be mentioned that in England France, and Germany also + the Edison fundamental lamp patent was stubbornly fought in the judicial + arena, and his claim to be the first inventor of practical incandescent + lighting was uniformly sustained in all those countries. + </p> + <p> + Infringement was not, however, confined to the lamp alone, but, in + America, extended all along the line of Edison's patents relating to the + production and distribution of electric light, including those on dynamos, + motors, distributing systems, sockets, switches, and other details which + he had from time to time invented. Consequently, in order to protect its + interests at all points, the Edison Company had found it necessary to + pursue a vigorous policy of instituting legal proceedings against the + infringers of these various patents, and, in addition to the large number + of suits on the lamp alone, not less than one hundred and twenty-five + other separate actions, involving some fifty or more of Edison's principal + electric-lighting patents, were brought against concerns which were + wrongfully appropriating his ideas and actively competing with his + companies in the market. + </p> + <p> + The ramifications of this litigation became so extensive and complex as to + render it necessary to institute a special bureau, or department, through + which the immense detail could be systematically sifted, analyzed, and + arranged in collaboration with the numerous experts and counsel + responsible for the conduct of the various cases. This department was + organized in 1889 by Major Eaton, who was at this time and for some years + afterward its general counsel. + </p> + <p> + In the selection of the head of this department a man of methodical and + analytical habit of mind was necessary, capable of clear reasoning, and at + the same time one who had gained a thoroughly practical experience in + electric light and power fields, and the choice fell upon Mr. W. J. Jenks, + the manager of the Edison central station at Brockton, Massachusetts. He + had resigned that position in 1885, and had spent the intervening period + in exploiting the Edison municipal system of lighting, as well as taking + an active part in various other branches of the Edison enterprises. + </p> + <p> + Thus, throughout the life of Edison's patents on electric light, power, + and distribution, the interminable legal strife has continued from day to + day, from year to year. Other inventors, some of them great and notable, + have been coming into the field since the foundation of the art, patents + have multiplied exceedingly, improvement has succeeded improvement, great + companies have grown greater, new concerns have come into existence, + coalitions and mergers have taken place, all tending to produce changes in + methods, but not much in diminution of patent litigation. While Edison has + not for a long time past interested himself particularly in electric light + and power inventions, the bureau which was initiated under the old regime + in 1889 still continues, enlarged in scope, directed by its original + chief, but now conducted under the auspices of several allied companies + whose great volumes of combined patents (including those of Edison) cover + a very wide range of the electrical field. + </p> + <p> + As the general conception and theory of a lawsuit is the recovery of some + material benefit, the lay mind is apt to conceive of great sums of money + being awarded to a complainant by way of damages upon a favorable decision + in an important patent case. It might, therefore, be natural to ask how + far Edison or his companies have benefited pecuniarily by reason of the + many belated victories they have scored in the courts. To this question a + strict regard for truth compels the answer that they have not been + benefited at all, not to the extent of a single dollar, so far as cash + damages are concerned. + </p> + <p> + It is not to be denied, however, that substantial advantages have accrued + to them more or less directly through the numerous favorable decisions + obtained by them as a result of the enormous amount of litigation, in the + prosecution of which so great a sum of money has been spent and so + concentrated an amount of effort and time lavished. Indeed, it would be + strange and unaccountable were the results otherwise. While the benefits + derived were not directly pecuniary in their nature, they were such as + tended to strengthen commercially the position of the rightful owners of + the patents. Many irresponsible and purely piratical concerns were closed + altogether; others were compelled to take out royalty licenses; + consolidations of large interests were brought about; the public was + gradually educated to a more correct view of the true merits of + conflicting claims, and, generally speaking, the business has been greatly + unified and brought within well-defined and controllable lines. + </p> + <p> + Not only in relation to his electric light and power inventions has the + progress of Edison and his associates been attended by legal controversy + all through the years of their exploitation, but also in respect to other + inventions, notably those relating to the phonograph and to motion + pictures. + </p> + <p> + The increasing endeavors of infringers to divert into their own pockets + some of the proceeds arising from the marketing of the devices covered by + Edison's inventions on these latter lines, necessitated the institution by + him, some years ago, of a legal department which, as in the case of the + light inventions, was designed to consolidate all law and expert work and + place it under the management of a general counsel. The department is of + considerable extent, including a number of resident and other associate + counsel, and a general office staff, all of whom are constantly engaged + from day to day in patent litigation and other legal work necessary to + protect the Edison interests. Through their labors the old story is + reiterated in the contesting of approximate but conflicting claims, the + never-ending effort to suppress infringement, and the destruction as far + as possible of the commercial pirates who set sail upon the seas of all + successful enterprises. The details, circumstances, and technical + questions are, of course, different from those relating to other classes + of inventions, and although there has been no cause celebre concerning the + phonograph and motion-picture patents, the contention is as sharp and + strenuous as it was in the cases relating to electric lighting and heavy + current technics. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Edison's storage battery and the poured cement house have not yet + reached the stage of great commercial enterprises, and therefore have not + yet risen to the dignity of patent litigation. If, however, the experience + of past years is any criterion, there will probably come a time in the + future when, despite present widely expressed incredulity and contemptuous + sniffs of unbelief in the practicability of his ideas in these directions, + ultimate success will give rise to a series of hotly contested legal + conflicts such as have signalized the practical outcome of his past + efforts in other lines. + </p> + <p> + When it is considered what Edison has done, what the sum and substance of + his contributions to human comfort and happiness have been, the results, + as measured by legal success, have been pitiable. With the exception of + the favorable decision on the incandescent lamp filament patent, coming so + late, however, that but little practical good was accomplished, the reader + may search the law-books in vain for a single decision squarely and fairly + sustaining a single patent of first order. There never was a monopoly in + incandescent electric lighting, and even from the earliest days + competitors and infringers were in the field reaping the benefits, and + though defeated in the end, paying not a cent of tribute. The market was + practically as free and open as if no patent existed. There never was a + monopoly in the phonograph; practically all of the vital inventions were + deliberately appropriated by others, and the inventor was laughed at for + his pains. Even so beautiful a process as that for the duplication of + phonograph records was solemnly held by a Federal judge as lacking + invention—as being obvious to any one. The mere fact that Edison + spent years of his life in developing that process counted for nothing. + </p> + <p> + The invention of the three-wire system, which, when it was first announced + as saving over 60 per cent. of copper in the circuits, was regarded as an + utter impossibility—this patent was likewise held by a Federal judge + to be lacking in invention. In the motion-picture art, infringements began + with its very birth, and before the inevitable litigation could be + terminated no less than ten competitors were in the field, with whom + compromises had to be made. + </p> + <p> + In a foreign country, Edison would have undoubtedly received signal + honors; in his own country he has won the respect and admiration of + millions; but in his chosen field as an inventor and as a patentee his + reward has been empty. The courts abroad have considered his patents in a + liberal spirit and given him his due; the decisions in this country have + fallen wide of the mark. We make no criticism of our Federal judges; as a + body they are fair, able, and hard-working; but they operate under a + system of procedure that stifles absolutely the development of inventive + genius. + </p> + <p> + Until that system is changed and an opportunity offered for a final, + swift, and economical adjudication of patent rights, American inventors + may well hesitate before openly disclosing their inventions to the public, + and may seriously consider the advisability of retaining them as "trade + secrets." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0029" id="link2HCH0029"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIX + </h2> + <h3> + THE SOCIAL SIDE OF EDISON + </h3> + <p> + THE title of this chapter might imply that there is an unsocial side to + Edison. In a sense this is true, for no one is more impatient or + intolerant of interruption when deeply engaged in some line of experiment. + Then the caller, no matter how important or what his mission, is likely to + realize his utter insignificance and be sent away without accomplishing + his object. But, generally speaking, Edison is easy tolerance itself, with + a peculiar weakness toward those who have the least right to make any + demands on his time. Man is a social animal, and that describes Edison; + but it does not describe accurately the inventor asking to be let alone. + </p> + <p> + Edison never sought Society; but "Society" has never ceased to seek him, + and to-day, as ever, the pressure upon him to give up his work and receive + honors, meet distinguished people, or attend public functions, is intense. + Only two or three years ago, a flattering invitation came from one of the + great English universities to receive a degree, but at that moment he was + deep in experiments on his new storage battery, and nothing could budge + him. He would not drop the work, and while highly appreciative of the + proposed honor, let it go by rather than quit for a week or two the stern + drudgery of probing for the fact and the truth. Whether one approves or + not, it is at least admirable stoicism, of which the world has too little. + A similar instance is that of a visit paid to the laboratory by some one + bringing a gold medal from a foreign society. It was a very hot day in + summer, the visitor was in full social regalia of silk hat and frock-coat, + and insisted that he could deliver the medal only into Edison's hands. At + that moment Edison, stripped pretty nearly down to the buff, was at the + very crisis of an important experiment, and refused absolutely to be + interrupted. He had neither sought nor expected the medal; and if the + delegate didn't care to leave it he could take it away. At last Edison was + overpersuaded, and, all dirty and perspiring as he was, received the medal + rather than cause the visitor to come again. On one occasion, receiving a + medal in New York, Edison forgot it on the ferry-boat and left it behind + him. A few years ago, when Edison had received the Albert medal of the + Royal Society of Arts, one of the present authors called at the laboratory + to see it. Nobody knew where it was; hours passed before it could be + found; and when at last the accompanying letter was produced, it had an + office date stamp right over the signature of the royal president. A + visitor to the laboratory with one of these medallic awards asked Edison + if he had any others. "Oh yes," he said, "I have a couple of quarts more + up at the house!" All this sounds like lack of appreciation, but it is + anything else than that. While in Paris, in 1889, he wore the decoration + of the Legion of Honor whenever occasion required, but at all other times + turned the badge under his lapel "because he hated to have + fellow-Americans think he was showing off." And any one who knows Edison + will bear testimony to his utter absence of ostentation. It may be added + that, in addition to the two quarts of medals up at the house, there will + be found at Glenmont many other signal tokens of esteem and good-will—a + beautiful cigar-case from the late Tsar of Russia, bronzes from the + Government of Japan, steel trophies from Krupp, and a host of other + mementos, to one of which he thus refers: "When the experiments with the + light were going on at Menlo Park, Sarah Bernhardt came to America. One + evening, Robert L. Cutting, of New York, brought her out to see the light. + She was a terrific 'rubberneck.' She jumped all over the machinery, and I + had one man especially to guard her dress. She wanted to know everything. + She would speak in French, and Cutting would translate into English. She + stayed there about an hour and a half. Bernhardt gave me two pictures, + painted by herself, which she sent me from Paris." + </p> + <p> + Reference has already been made to the callers upon Edison; and to give + simply the names of persons of distinction would fill many pages of this + record. Some were mere consumers of time; others were gladly welcomed, + like Lord Kelvin, the greatest physicist of the last century, with whom + Edison was always in friendly communication. "The first time I saw Lord + Kelvin, he came to my laboratory at Menlo Park in 1876." (He reported most + favorably on Edison's automatic telegraph system at the Philadelphia + Exposition of 1876.) "I was then experimenting with sending eight messages + simultaneously over a wire by means of synchronizing tuning-forks. I would + take a wire with similar apparatus at both ends, and would throw it over + on one set of instruments, take it away, and get it back so quickly that + you would not miss it, thereby taking advantage of the rapidity of + electricity to perform operations. On my local wire I got it to work very + nicely. When Sir William Thomson (Kelvin) came in the room, he was + introduced to me, and had a number of friends with him. He said: 'What + have you here?' I told him briefly what it was. He then turned around, and + to my great surprise explained the whole thing to his friends. Quite a + different exhibition was given two weeks later by another well-known + Englishman, also an electrician, who came in with his friends, and I was + trying for two hours to explain it to him and failed." + </p> + <p> + After the introduction of the electric light, Edison was more than ever in + demand socially, but he shunned functions like the plague, not only + because of the serious interference with work, but because of his + deafness. Some dinners he had to attend, but a man who ate little and + heard less could derive practically no pleasure from them. "George + Washington Childs was very anxious I should go down to Philadelphia to + dine with him. I seldom went to dinners. He insisted I should go—that + a special car would leave New York. It was for me to meet Mr. Joseph + Chamberlain. We had the private car of Mr. Roberts, President of the + Pennsylvania Railroad. We had one of those celebrated dinners that only + Mr. Childs could give, and I heard speeches from Charles Francis Adams and + different people. When I came back to the depot, Mr. Roberts was there, + and insisted on carrying my satchel for me. I never could understand + that." + </p> + <p> + Among the more distinguished visitors of the electric-lighting period was + President Diaz, with whom Edison became quite intimate. "President Diaz, + of Mexico, visited this country with Mrs. Diaz, a highly educated and + beautiful woman. She spoke very good English. They both took a deep + interest in all they saw. I don't know how it ever came about, as it is + not in my line, but I seemed to be delegated to show them around. I took + them to railroad buildings, electric-light plants, fire departments, and + showed them a great variety of things. It lasted two days." Of another + visit Edison says: "Sitting Bull and fifteen Sioux Indians came to + Washington to see the Great Father, and then to New York, and went to the + Goerck Street works. We could make some very good pyrotechnics there, so + we determined to give the Indians a scare. But it didn't work. We had an + arc there of a most terrifying character, but they never moved a muscle." + Another episode at Goerck Street did not find the visitors quite so + stoical. "In testing dynamos at Goerck Street we had a long flat belt + running parallel with the floor, about four inches above it, and + travelling four thousand feet a minute. One day one of the directors + brought in three or four ladies to the works to see the new electric-light + system. One of the ladies had a little poodle led by a string. The belt + was running so smoothly and evenly, the poodle did not notice the + difference between it and the floor, and got into the belt before we could + do anything. The dog was whirled around forty or fifty times, and a little + flat piece of leather came out—and the ladies fainted." + </p> + <p> + A very interesting period, on the social side, was the visit paid by + Edison and his family to Europe in 1889, when he had made a splendid + exhibit of his inventions and apparatus at the great Paris Centennial + Exposition of that year, to the extreme delight of the French, who + welcomed him with open arms. The political sentiments that the Exposition + celebrated were not such as to find general sympathy in monarchical + Europe, so that the "crowned heads" were conspicuous by their absence. It + was not, of course, by way of theatrical antithesis that Edison appeared + in Paris at such a time. But the contrast was none the less striking and + effective. It was felt that, after all, that which the great exposition + exemplified at its best—the triumph of genius over matter, over + ignorance, over superstition—met with its due recognition when + Edison came to participate, and to felicitate a noble nation that could + show so much in the victories of civilization and the arts, despite its + long trials and its long struggle for liberty. It is no exaggeration to + say that Edison was greeted with the enthusiastic homage of the whole + French people. They could find no praise warm enough for the man who had + "organized the echoes" and "tamed the lightning," and whose career was so + picturesque with eventful and romantic development. In fact, for weeks + together it seemed as though no Parisian paper was considered complete and + up to date without an article on Edison. The exuberant wit and fancy of + the feuilletonists seized upon his various inventions evolving from them + others of the most extraordinary nature with which to bedazzle and + bewilder the reader. At the close of the Exposition Edison was created a + Commander of the Legion of Honor. His own exhibit, made at a personal + expense of over $100,000, covered several thousand square feet in the vast + Machinery Hall, and was centred around a huge Edison lamp built of myriads + of smaller lamps of the ordinary size. The great attraction, however, was + the display of the perfected phonograph. Several instruments were + provided, and every day, all day long, while the Exposition lasted, queues + of eager visitors from every quarter of the globe were waiting to hear the + little machine talk and sing and reproduce their own voices. Never before + was such a collection of the languages of the world made. It was the first + linguistic concourse since Babel times. We must let Edison tell the story + of some of his experiences: + </p> + <p> + "At the Universal Exposition at Paris, in 1889, I made a personal exhibit + covering about an acre. As I had no intention of offering to sell anything + I was showing, and was pushing no companies, the whole exhibition was made + for honor, and without any hope of profit. But the Paris newspapers came + around and wanted pay for notices of it, which we promptly refused; + whereupon there was rather a stormy time for a while, but nothing was + published about it. + </p> + <p> + "While at the Exposition I visited the Opera-House. The President of + France lent me his private box. The Opera-House was one of the first to be + lighted by the incandescent lamp, and the managers took great pleasure in + showing me down through the labyrinth containing the wiring, dynamos, etc. + When I came into the box, the orchestra played the 'Star-Spangled Banner,' + and all the people in the house arose; whereupon I was very much + embarrassed. After I had been an hour at the play, the manager came around + and asked me to go underneath the stage, as they were putting on a ballet + of 300 girls, the finest ballet in Europe. It seems there is a little hole + on the stage with a hood over it, in which the prompter sits when opera is + given. In this instance it was not occupied, and I was given the position + in the prompter's seat, and saw the whole ballet at close range. + </p> + <p> + "The city of Paris gave me a dinner at the new Hotel de Ville, which was + also lighted with the Edison system. They had a very fine installation of + machinery. As I could not understand or speak a word of French, I went to + see our minister, Mr. Whitelaw Reid, and got him to send a deputy to + answer for me, which he did, with my grateful thanks. Then the telephone + company gave me a dinner, and the engineers of France; and I attended the + dinner celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of the discovery of + photography. Then they sent to Reid my decoration, and they tried to put a + sash on me, but I could not stand for that. My wife had me wear the little + red button, but when I saw Americans coming I would slip it out of my + lapel, as I thought they would jolly me for wearing it." + </p> + <p> + Nor was this all. Edison naturally met many of the celebrities of France: + "I visited the Eiffel Tower at the invitation of Eiffel. We went to the + top, where there was an extension and a small place in which was Eiffel's + private office. In this was a piano. When my wife and I arrived at the + top, we found that Gounod, the composer, was there. We stayed a couple of + hours, and Gounod sang and played for us. We spent a day at Meudon, an old + palace given by the government to Jansen, the astronomer. He occupied + three rooms, and there were 300. He had the grand dining-room for his + laboratory. He showed me a gyroscope he had got up which made the + incredible number of 4000 revolutions in a second. A modification of this + was afterward used on the French Atlantic lines for making an artificial + horizon to take observations for position at sea. In connection with this + a gentleman came to me a number of years afterward, and I got out a part + of some plans for him. He wanted to make a gigantic gyroscope weighing + several tons, to be run by an electric motor and put on a sailing ship. He + wanted this gyroscope to keep a platform perfectly horizontal, no matter + how rough the sea was. Upon this platform he was going to mount a + telescope to observe an eclipse off the Gold Coast of Africa. But for some + reason it was never completed. + </p> + <p> + "Pasteur invited me to come down to the Institute, and I went and had + quite a chat with him. I saw a large number of persons being inoculated, + and also the whole modus operandi, which was very interesting. I saw one + beautiful boy about ten, the son of an English lord. His father was with + him. He had been bitten in the face, and was taking the treatment. I said + to Pasteur, 'Will he live?' 'No,' said he, 'the boy will be dead in six + days. He was bitten too near the top of the spinal column, and came too + late!'" + </p> + <p> + Edison has no opinion to offer as an expert on art, but has his own + standard of taste: "Of course I visited the Louvre and saw the Old + Masters, which I could not enjoy. And I attended the Luxembourg, with + modern masters, which I enjoyed greatly. To my mind, the Old Masters are + not art, and I suspect that many others are of the same opinion; and that + their value is in their scarcity and in the variety of men with lots of + money." Somewhat akin to this is a shrewd comment on one feature of the + Exposition: "I spent several days in the Exposition at Paris. I remember + going to the exhibit of the Kimberley diamond mines, and they kindly + permitted me to take diamonds from some of the blue earth which they were + washing by machinery to exhibit the mine operations. I found several + beautiful diamonds, but they seemed a little light weight to me when I was + picking them out. They were diamonds for exhibition purposes —probably + glass." + </p> + <p> + This did not altogether complete the European trip of 1889, for Edison + wished to see Helmholtz. "After leaving Paris we went to Berlin. The + French papers then came out and attacked me because I went to Germany; and + said I was now going over to the enemy. I visited all the things of + interest in Berlin; and then on my way home I went with Helmholtz and + Siemens in a private compartment to the meeting of the German Association + of Science at Heidelberg, and spent two days there. When I started from + Berlin on the trip, I began to tell American stories. Siemens was very + fond of these stories and would laugh immensely at them, and could see the + points and the humor, by his imagination; but Helmholtz could not see one + of them. Siemens would quickly, in German, explain the point, but + Helmholtz could not see it, although he understood English, which Siemens + could speak. Still the explanations were made in German. I always wished I + could have understood Siemens's explanations of the points of those + stories. At Heidelberg, my assistant, Mr. Wangemann, an accomplished + German-American, showed the phonograph before the Association." + </p> + <p> + Then came the trip from the Continent to England, of which this will + certainly pass as a graphic picture: "When I crossed over to England I had + heard a good deal about the terrors of the English Channel as regards + seasickness. I had been over the ocean three times and did not know what + seasickness was, so far as I was concerned myself. I was told that while a + man might not get seasick on the ocean, if he met a good storm on the + Channel it would do for him. When we arrived at Calais to cross over, + everybody made for the restaurant. I did not care about eating, and did + not go to the restaurant, but my family did. I walked out and tried to + find the boat. Going along the dock I saw two small smokestacks sticking + up, and looking down saw a little boat. 'Where is the steamer that goes + across the Channel?' 'This is the boat.' There had been a storm in the + North Sea that had carried away some of the boats on the German steamer, + and it certainly looked awful tough outside. I said to the man: 'Will that + boat live in that sea?' 'Oh yes,' he said, 'but we've had a bad storm.' So + I made up my mind that perhaps I would get sick this time. The managing + director of the English railroad owning this line was Forbes, who heard I + was coming over, and placed the private saloon at my disposal. The moment + my family got in the room with the French lady's maid and the rest, they + commenced to get sick, so I felt pretty sure I was in for it. We started + out of the little inlet and got into the Channel, and that boat went in + seventeen directions simultaneously. I waited awhile to see what was going + to occur, and then went into the smoking-compartment. Nobody was there. + By-and-by the fun began. Sounds of all kinds and varieties were heard in + every direction. They were all sick. There must have been 100 people + aboard. I didn't see a single exception except the waiters and myself. I + asked one of the waiters concerning the boat itself, and was taken to see + the engineer, and went down to look at the engines, and saw the captain. + But I kept mostly in the smoking-room. I was smoking a big cigar, and when + a man looked in I would give a big puff, and every time they saw that they + would go away and begin again. The English Channel is a holy terror, all + right, but it didn't affect me. I must be out of balance." + </p> + <p> + While in Paris, Edison had met Sir John Pender, the English "cable king," + and had received an invitation from him to make a visit to his country + residence: "Sir John Pender, the master of the cable system of the world + at that time, I met in Paris. I think he must have lived among a lot of + people who were very solemn, because I went out riding with him in the + Bois de Boulogne and started in to tell him American stories. Although he + was a Scotchman he laughed immoderately. He had the faculty of + understanding and quickly seeing the point of the stories; and for three + days after I could not get rid of him. Finally I made him a promise that I + would go to his country house at Foot's Cray, near London. So I went + there, and spent two or three days telling him stories. + </p> + <p> + "While at Foot's Cray, I met some of the backers of Ferranti, then putting + up a gigantic alternating-current dynamo near London to send ten or + fifteen thousand volts up into the main district of the city for electric + lighting. I think Pender was interested. At any rate the people invited to + dinner were very much interested, and they questioned me as to what I + thought of the proposition. I said I hadn't any thought about it, and + could not give any opinion until I saw it. So I was taken up to London to + see the dynamo in course of construction and the methods employed; and + they insisted I should give them some expression of my views. While I gave + them my opinion, it was reluctantly; I did not want to do so. I thought + that commercially the thing was too ambitious, that Ferranti's ideas were + too big, just then; that he ought to have started a little smaller until + he was sure. I understand that this installation was not commercially + successful, as there were a great many troubles. But Ferranti had good + ideas, and he was no small man." + </p> + <p> + Incidentally it may be noted here that during the same year (1889) the + various manufacturing Edison lighting interests in America were brought + together, under the leadership of Mr. Henry Villard, and consolidated in + the Edison General Electric Company with a capital of no less than + $12,000,000 on an eight-per-cent.-dividend basis. The numerous Edison + central stations all over the country represented much more than that sum, + and made a splendid outlet for the product of the factories. A few years + later came the consolidation with the Thomson-Houston interests in the + General Electric Company, which under the brilliant and vigorous + management of President C. A. Coffin has become one of the greatest + manufacturing institutions of the country, with an output of apparatus + reaching toward $75,000,000 annually. The net result of both financial + operations was, however, to detach Edison from the special field of + invention to which he had given so many of his most fruitful years; and to + close very definitely that chapter of his life, leaving him free to + develop other ideas and interests as set forth in these volumes. + </p> + <p> + It might appear strange on the surface, but one of the reasons that most + influenced Edison to regrets in connection with the "big trade" of 1889 + was that it separated him from his old friend and ally, Bergmann, who, on + selling out, saw a great future for himself in Germany, went there, and + realized it. Edison has always had an amused admiration for Bergmann, and + his "social side" is often made evident by his love of telling stories + about those days of struggle. Some of the stories were told for this + volume. "Bergmann came to work for me as a boy," says Edison. "He started + in on stock-quotation printers. As he was a rapid workman and paid no + attention to the clock, I took a fancy to him, and gave him piece-work. He + contrived so many little tools to cheapen the work that he made lots of + money. I even helped him get up tools until it occurred to me that this + was too rapid a process of getting rid of my money, as I hadn't the heart + to cut the price when it was originally fair. After a year or so, Bergmann + got enough money to start a small shop in Wooster Street, New York, and it + was at this shop that the first phonographs were made for sale. Then came + the carbon telephone transmitter, a large number of which were made by + Bergmann for the Western Union. Finally came the electric light. A dynamo + was installed in Bergmann's shop to permit him to test the various small + devices which he was then making for the system. He rented power from a + Jew who owned the building. Power was supplied from a fifty-horse-power + engine to other tenants on the several floors. Soon after the introduction + of the big dynamo machine, the landlord appeared in the shop and insisted + that Bergmann was using more power than he was paying for, and said that + lately the belt on the engine was slipping and squealing. Bergmann + maintained that he must be mistaken. The landlord kept going among his + tenants and finally discovered the dynamo. 'Oh! Mr. Bergmann, now I know + where my power goes to,' pointing to the dynamo. Bergmann gave him a + withering look of scorn, and said, 'Come here and I will show you.' + Throwing off the belt and disconnecting the wires, he spun the armature + around by hand. 'There,' said Bergmann, 'you see it's not here that you + must look for your loss.' This satisfied the landlord, and he started off + to his other tenants. He did not know that that machine, when the wires + were connected, could stop his engine. + </p> + <p> + "Soon after, the business had grown so large that E. H. Johnson and I went + in as partners, and Bergmann rented an immense factory building at the + corner of Avenue B and East Seventeenth Street, New York, six stories high + and covering a quarter of a block. Here were made all the small things + used on the electric-lighting system, such as sockets, chandeliers, + switches, meters, etc. In addition, stock tickers, telephones, telephone + switchboards, and typewriters were made the Hammond typewriters were + perfected and made there. Over 1500 men were finally employed. This shop + was very successful both scientifically and financially. Bergmann was a + man of great executive ability and carried economy of manufacture to the + limit. Among all the men I have had associated with me, he had the + commercial instinct most highly developed." + </p> + <p> + One need not wonder at Edison's reminiscent remark that, "In any trade any + of my 'boys' made with Bergmann he always got the best of them, no matter + what it was. One time there was to be a convention of the managers of + Edison illuminating companies at Chicago. There were a lot of + representatives from the East, and a private car was hired. At Jersey City + a poker game was started by one of the delegates. Bergmann was induced to + enter the game. This was played right through to Chicago without any + sleep, but the boys didn't mind that. I had gotten them immune to it. + Bergmann had won all the money, and when the porter came in and said + 'Chicago,' Bergmann jumped up and said: 'What! Chicago! I thought it was + only Philadelphia!'" + </p> + <p> + But perhaps this further story is a better indication of developed humor + and shrewdness: "A man by the name of Epstein had been in the habit of + buying brass chips and trimmings from the lathes, and in some way Bergmann + found out that he had been cheated. This hurt his pride, and he determined + to get even. One day Epstein appeared and said: 'Good-morning, Mr. + Bergmann, have you any chips to-day?' 'No,' said Bergmann, 'I have none.' + 'That's strange, Mr. Bergmann; won't you look?' No, he wouldn't look; he + knew he had none. Finally Epstein was so persistent that Bergmann called + an assistant and told him to go and see if he had any chips. He returned + and said they had the largest and finest lot they ever had. Epstein went + up to several boxes piled full of chips, and so heavy that he could not + lift even one end of a box. 'Now, Mr. Bergmann,' said Epstein, 'how much + for the lot?' 'Epstein,' said Bergmann, 'you have cheated me, and I will + no longer sell by the lot, but will sell only by the pound.' No amount of + argument would apparently change Bergmann's determination to sell by the + pound, but finally Epstein got up to $250 for the lot, and Bergmann, + appearing as if disgusted, accepted and made him count out the money. Then + he said: 'Well, Epstein, good-bye, I've got to go down to Wall Street.' + Epstein and his assistant then attempted to lift the boxes to carry them + out, but couldn't; and then discovered that calculations as to quantity + had been thrown out because the boxes had all been screwed down to the + floor and mostly filled with boards with a veneer of brass chips. He made + such a scene that he had to be removed by the police. I met him several + days afterward and he said he had forgiven Mr. Bergmann, as he was such a + smart business man, and the scheme was so ingenious. + </p> + <p> + "One day as a joke I filled three or four sheets of foolscap paper with a + jumble of figures and told Bergmann they were calculations showing the + great loss of power from blowing the factory whistle. Bergmann thought it + real, and never after that would he permit the whistle to blow." + </p> + <p> + Another glimpse of the "social side" is afforded in the following little + series of pen-pictures of the same place and time: "I had my laboratory at + the top of the Bergmann works, after moving from Menlo Park. The building + was six stories high. My father came there when he was eighty years of + age. The old man had powerful lungs. In fact, when I was examined by the + Mutual Life Insurance Company, in 1873, my lung expansion was taken by the + doctor, and the old gentleman was there at the time. He said to the + doctor: 'I wish you would take my lung expansion, too.' The doctor took + it, and his surprise was very great, as it was one of the largest on + record. I think it was five and one-half inches. There were only three or + four could beat it. Little Bergmann hadn't much lung power. The old man + said to him, one day: 'Let's run up-stairs.' Bergmann agreed and ran up. + When they got there Bergmann was all done up, but my father never showed a + sign of it. There was an elevator there, and each day while it was + travelling up I held the stem of my Waterbury watch up against the column + in the elevator shaft and it finished the winding by the time I got up the + six stories." This original method of reducing the amount of physical + labor involved in watch-winding brings to mind another instance of + shrewdness mentioned by Edison, with regard to his newsboy days. Being + asked whether he did not get imposed upon with bad bank-bills, he replied + that he subscribed to a bank-note detector and consulted it closely + whenever a note of any size fell into his hands. He was then less than + fourteen years old. + </p> + <p> + The conversations with Edison that elicited these stories brought out some + details as to peril that attends experimentation. He has confronted many a + serious physical risk, and counts himself lucky to have come through + without a scratch or scar. Four instances of personal danger may be noted + in his own language: "When I started at Menlo, I had an electric furnace + for welding rare metals that I did not know about very clearly. I was in + the dark-room, where I had a lot of chloride of sulphur, a very corrosive + liquid. I did not know that it would decompose by water. I poured in a + beakerful of water, and the whole thing exploded and threw a lot of it + into my eyes. I ran to the hydrant, leaned over backward, opened my eyes, + and ran the hydrant water right into them. But it was two weeks before I + could see. + </p> + <p> + "The next time we just saved ourselves. I was making some stuff to squirt + into filaments for the incandescent lamp. I made about a pound of it. I + had used ammonia and bromine. I did not know it at the time, but I had + made bromide of nitrogen. I put the large bulk of it in three filters, and + after it had been washed and all the water had come through the filter, I + opened the three filters and laid them on a hot steam plate to dry with + the stuff. While I and Mr. Sadler, one of my assistants, were working near + it, there was a sudden flash of light, and a very smart explosion. I said + to Sadler: 'What is that?' 'I don't know,' he said, and we paid no + attention. In about half a minute there was a sharp concussion, and Sadler + said: 'See, it is that stuff on the steam plate.' I grabbed the whole + thing and threw it in the sink, and poured water on it. I saved a little + of it and found it was a terrific explosive. The reason why those little + preliminary explosions took place was that a little had spattered out on + the edge of the filter paper, and had dried first and exploded. Had the + main body exploded there would have been nothing left of the laboratory I + was working in. + </p> + <p> + "At another time, I had a briquetting machine for briquetting iron ore. I + had a lever held down by a powerful spring, and a rod one inch in diameter + and four feet long. While I was experimenting with it, and standing beside + it, a washer broke, and that spring threw the rod right up to the ceiling + with a blast; and it came down again just within an inch of my nose, and + went clear through a two-inch plank. That was 'within an inch of your + life,' as they say. + </p> + <p> + "In my experimental plant for concentrating iron ore in the northern part + of New Jersey, we had a vertical drier, a column about nine feet square + and eighty feet high. At the bottom there was a space where two men could + go through a hole; and then all the rest of the column was filled with + baffle plates. One day this drier got blocked, and the ore would not run + down. So I and the vice-president of the company, Mr. Mallory, crowded + through the manhole to see why the ore would not come down. After we got + in, the ore did come down and there were fourteen tons of it above us. The + men outside knew we were in there, and they had a great time digging us + out and getting air to us." + </p> + <p> + Such incidents brought out in narration the fact that many of the men + working with him had been less fortunate, particularly those who had + experimented with the Roentgen X-ray, whose ravages, like those of + leprosy, were responsible for the mutilation and death of at least one + expert assistant. In the early days of work on the incandescent lamp, + also, there was considerable trouble with mercury. "I had a series of + vacuum-pumps worked by mercury and used for exhausting experimental + incandescent lamps. The main pipe, which was full of mercury, was about + seven and one-half feet from the floor. Along the length of the pipe were + outlets to which thick rubber tubing was connected, each tube to a pump. + One day, while experimenting with the mercury pump, my assistant, an + awkward country lad from a farm on Staten Island, who had adenoids in his + nose and breathed through his mouth, which was always wide open, was + looking up at this pipe, at a small leak of mercury, when the rubber tube + came off and probably two pounds of mercury went into his mouth and down + his throat, and got through his system somehow. In a short time he became + salivated, and his teeth got loose. He went home, and shortly his mother + appeared at the laboratory with a horsewhip, which she proposed to use on + the proprietor. I was fortunately absent, and she was mollified somehow by + my other assistants. I had given the boy considerable iodide of potassium + to prevent salivation, but it did no good in this case. + </p> + <p> + "When the first lamp-works were started at Menlo Park, one of my + experiments seemed to show that hot mercury gave a better vacuum in the + lamp than cold mercury. I thereupon started to heat it. Soon all the men + got salivated, and things looked serious; but I found that in the mirror + factories, where mercury was used extensively, the French Government made + the giving of iodide of potassium compulsory to prevent salivation. I + carried out this idea, and made every man take a dose every day, but there + was great opposition, and hot mercury was finally abandoned." + </p> + <p> + It will have been gathered that Edison has owed his special immunity from + "occupational diseases" not only to luck but to unusual powers of + endurance, and a strong physique, inherited, no doubt, from his father. + Mr. Mallory mentions a little fact that bears on this exceptional quality + of bodily powers. "I have often been surprised at Edison's wonderful + capacity for the instant visual perception of differences in materials + that were invisible to others until he would patiently point them out. + This had puzzled me for years, but one day I was unexpectedly let into + part of the secret. For some little time past Mr. Edison had noticed that + he was bothered somewhat in reading print, and I asked him to have an + oculist give him reading-glasses. He partially promised, but never took + time to attend to it. One day he and I were in the city, and as Mrs. + Edison had spoken to me about it, and as we happened to have an hour to + spare, I persuaded him to go to an oculist with me. Using no names, I + asked the latter to examine the gentleman's eyes. He did so very + conscientiously, and it was an interesting experience, for he was kept + busy answering Mr. Edison's numerous questions. When the oculist finished, + he turned to me and said: 'I have been many years in the business, but + have never seen an optic nerve like that of this gentleman. An ordinary + optic nerve is about the thickness of a thread, but his is like a cord. He + must be a remarkable man in some walk of life. Who is he?'" + </p> + <p> + It has certainly required great bodily vigor and physical capacity to + sustain such fatigue as Edison has all his life imposed upon himself, to + the extent on one occasion of going five days without sleep. In a + conversation during 1909, he remarked, as though it were nothing out of + the way, that up to seven years previously his average of daily working + hours was nineteen and one-half, but that since then he figured it at + eighteen. He said he stood it easily, because he was interested in + everything, and was reading and studying all the time. For instance, he + had gone to bed the night before exactly at twelve and had arisen at 4.30 + A. M. to read some New York law reports. It was suggested that the secret + of it might be that he did not live in the past, but was always looking + forward to a greater future, to which he replied: "Yes, that's it. I don't + live with the past; I am living for to-day and to-morrow. I am interested + in every department of science, arts, and manufacture. I read all the time + on astronomy, chemistry, biology, physics, music, metaphysics, mechanics, + and other branches—political economy, electricity, and, in fact, all + things that are making for progress in the world. I get all the + proceedings of the scientific societies, the principal scientific and + trade journals, and read them. I also read The Clipper, The Police + Gazette, The Billboard, The Dramatic Mirror, and a lot of similar + publications, for I like to know what is going on. In this way I keep up + to date, and live in a great moving world of my own, and, what's more, I + enjoy every minute of it." Referring to some event of the past, he said: + "Spilt milk doesn't interest me. I have spilt lots of it, and while I have + always felt it for a few days, it is quickly forgotten, and I turn again + to the future." During another talk on kindred affairs it was suggested to + Edison that, as he had worked so hard all his life, it was about time for + him to think somewhat of the pleasures of travel and the social side of + life. To which he replied laughingly: "I already have a schedule worked + out. From now until I am seventy-five years of age, I expect to keep more + or less busy with my regular work, not, however, working as many hours or + as hard as I have in the past. At seventy five I expect to wear loud + waistcoats with fancy buttons; also gaiter tops; at eighty I expect to + learn how to play bridge whist and talk foolishly to the ladies. At + eighty-five I expect to wear a full-dress suit every evening at dinner, + and at ninety—well, I never plan more than thirty years ahead." + </p> + <p> + The reference to clothes is interesting, as it is one of the few subjects + in which Edison has no interest. It rather bores him. His dress is always + of the plainest; in fact, so plain that, at the Bergmann shops in New + York, the children attending a parochial Catholic school were wont to + salute him with the finger to the head, every time he went by. Upon + inquiring, he found that they took him for a priest, with his dark garb, + smooth-shaven face, and serious expression. Edison says: "I get a suit + that fits me; then I compel the tailors to use that as a jig or pattern or + blue-print to make others by. For many years a suit was used as a + measurement; once or twice they took fresh measurements, but these didn't + fit and they had to go back. I eat to keep my weight constant, hence I + need never change measurements." In regard to this, Mr. Mallory furnishes + a bit of chat as follows: "In a lawsuit in which I was a witness, I went + out to lunch with the lawyers on both sides, and the lawyer who had been + cross-examining me stated that he had for a client a Fifth Avenue tailor, + who had told him that he had made all of Mr. Edison's clothes for the last + twenty years, and that he had never seen him. He said that some twenty + years ago a suit was sent to him from Orange, and measurements were made + from it, and that every suit since had been made from these measurements. + I may add, from my own personal observation, that in Mr. Edison's clothes + there is no evidence but that every new suit that he has worn in that time + looks as if he had been specially measured for it, which shows how very + little he has changed physically in the last twenty years." + </p> + <p> + Edison has never had any taste for amusements, although he will indulge in + the game of "Parchesi" and has a billiard-table in his house. The coming + of the automobile was a great boon to him, because it gave him a form of + outdoor sport in which he could indulge in a spirit of observation, + without the guilty feeling that he was wasting valuable time. In his + automobile he has made long tours, and with his family has particularly + indulged his taste for botany. That he has had the usual experience in + running machines will be evidenced by the following little story from Mr. + Mallory: "About three years ago I had a motor-car of a make of which Mr. + Edison had already two cars; and when the car was received I made inquiry + as to whether any repair parts were carried by any of the various garages + in Easton, Pennsylvania, near our cement works. I learned that this + particular car was the only one in Easton. Knowing that Mr. Edison had had + an experience lasting two or three years with this particular make of car, + I determined to ask him for information relative to repair parts; so the + next time I was at the laboratory I told him I was unable to get any + repair parts in Easton, and that I wished to order some of the most + necessary, so that, in case of breakdowns, I would not be compelled to + lose the use of the car for several days until the parts came from the + automobile factory. I asked his advice as to what I should order, to which + he replied: 'I don't think it will be necessary to order an extra top.'" + Since that episode, which will probably be appreciated by most + automobilists, Edison has taken up the electric automobile, and is now + using it as well as developing it. One of the cars equipped with his + battery is the Bailey, and Mr. Bee tells the following story in regard to + it: "One day Colonel Bailey, of Amesbury, Massachusetts, who was visiting + the Automobile Show in New York, came out to the laboratory to see Mr. + Edison, as the latter had expressed a desire to talk with him on his next + visit to the metropolis. When he arrived at the laboratory, Mr. Edison, + who had been up all night experimenting, was asleep on the cot in the + library. As a rule we never wake Mr. Edison from sleep, but as he wanted + to see Colonel Bailey, who had to go, I felt that an exception should be + made, so I went and tapped him on the shoulder. He awoke at once, smiling, + jumped up, was instantly himself as usual, and advanced and greeted the + visitor. His very first question was: 'Well, Colonel, how did you come out + on that experiment?'—referring to some suggestions he had made at + their last meeting a year before. For a minute Colonel Bailey did not + recall what was referred to; but a few words from Mr. Edison brought it + back to his remembrance, and he reported that the results had justified + Mr. Edison's expectations." + </p> + <p> + It might be expected that Edison would have extreme and even radical ideas + on the subject of education—and he has, as well as a perfect + readiness to express them, because he considers that time is wasted on + things that are not essential: "What we need," he has said, "are men + capable of doing work. I wouldn't give a penny for the ordinary college + graduate, except those from the institutes of technology. Those coming up + from the ranks are a darned sight better than the others. They aren't + filled up with Latin, philosophy, and the rest of that ninny stuff." A + further remark of his is: "What the country needs now is the practical + skilled engineer, who is capable of doing everything. In three or four + centuries, when the country is settled, and commercialism is diminished, + there will be time for the literary men. At present we want engineers, + industrial men, good business-like managers, and railroad men." It is + hardly to be marvelled at that such views should elicit warm protest, + summed up in the comment: "Mr. Edison and many like him see in reverse the + course of human progress. Invention does not smooth the way for the + practical men and make them possible. There is always too much danger of + neglecting thoughts for things, ideas for machinery. No theory of + education that aggravates this danger is consistent with national + well-being." + </p> + <p> + Edison is slow to discuss the great mysteries of life, but is of + reverential attitude of mind, and ever tolerant of others' beliefs. He is + not a religious man in the sense of turning to forms and creeds, but, as + might be expected, is inclined as an inventor and creator to argue from + the basis of "design" and thence to infer a designer. "After years of + watching the processes of nature," he says, "I can no more doubt the + existence of an Intelligence that is running things than I do of the + existence of myself. Take, for example, the substance water that forms the + crystals known as ice. Now, there are hundreds of combinations that form + crystals, and every one of them, save ice, sinks in water. Ice, I say, + doesn't, and it is rather lucky for us mortals, for if it had done so, we + would all be dead. Why? Simply because if ice sank to the bottoms of + rivers, lakes, and oceans as fast as it froze, those places would be + frozen up and there would be no water left. That is only one example out + of thousands that to me prove beyond the possibility of a doubt that some + vast Intelligence is governing this and other planets." + </p> + <p> + A few words as to the domestic and personal side of Edison's life, to + which many incidental references have already been made in these pages. He + was married in 1873 to Miss Mary Stillwell, who died in 1884, leaving + three children—Thomas Alva, William Leslie, and Marion Estelle. + </p> + <p> + Mr. Edison was married again in 1886 to Miss Mina Miller, daughter of Mr. + Lewis Miller, a distinguished pioneer inventor and manufacturer in the + field of agricultural machinery, and equally entitled to fame as the + father of the "Chautauqua idea," and the founder with Bishop Vincent of + the original Chautauqua, which now has so many replicas all over the + country, and which started in motion one of the great modern educational + and moral forces in America. By this marriage there are three children—Charles, + Madeline, and Theodore. + </p> + <p> + For over a score of years, dating from his marriage to Miss Miller, + Edison's happy and perfect domestic life has been spent at Glenmont, a + beautiful property acquired at that time in Llewellyn Park, on the higher + slopes of Orange Mountain, New Jersey, within easy walking distance of the + laboratory at the foot of the hill in West Orange. As noted already, the + latter part of each winter is spent at Fort Myers, Florida, where Edison + has, on the banks of the Calahoutchie River, a plantation home that is in + many ways a miniature copy of the home and laboratory up North. Glenmont + is a rather elaborate and florid building in Queen Anne English style, of + brick, stone, and wooden beams showing on the exterior, with an abundance + of gables and balconies. It is set in an environment of woods and sweeps + of lawn, flanked by unusually large conservatories, and always bright in + summer with glowing flower beds. It would be difficult to imagine Edison + in a stiffly formal house, and this big, cozy, three-story, rambling + mansion has an easy freedom about it, without and within, quite in keeping + with the genius of the inventor, but revealing at every turn traces of + feminine taste and culture. The ground floor, consisting chiefly of broad + drawing-rooms, parlors, and dining-hall, is chiefly noteworthy for the + "den," or lounging-room, at the end of the main axis, where the family and + friends are likely to be found in the evening hours, unless the party has + withdrawn for more intimate social intercourse to the interesting and + fascinating private library on the floor above. The lounging-room on the + ground floor is more or less of an Edison museum, for it is littered with + souvenirs from great people, and with mementos of travel, all related to + some event or episode. A large cabinet contains awards, decorations, and + medals presented to Edison, accumulating in the course of a long career, + some of which may be seen in the illustration opposite. Near by may be + noticed a bronze replica of the Edison gold medal which was founded in the + American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the first award of which was + made to Elihu Thomson during the present year (1910). There are statues of + serpentine marble, gifts of the late Tsar of Russia, whose admiration is + also represented by a gorgeous inlaid and enamelled cigar-case. + </p> + <p> + There are typical bronze vases from the Society of Engineers of Japan, and + a striking desk-set of writing apparatus from Krupp, all the pieces being + made out of tiny but massive guns and shells of Krupp steel. In addition + to such bric-a-brac and bibelots of all kinds are many pictures and + photographs, including the original sketches of the reception given to + Edison in 1889 by the Paris Figaro, and a letter from Madame Carnot, + placing the Presidential opera-box at the disposal of Mr. and Mrs. Edison. + One of the most conspicuous features of the room is a phonograph equipment + on which the latest and best productions by the greatest singers and + musicians can always be heard, but which Edison himself is everlastingly + experimenting with, under the incurable delusion that this domestic + retreat is but an extension of his laboratory. + </p> + <p> + The big library—semi-boudoir—up-stairs is also very expressive + of the home life of Edison, but again typical of his nature and + disposition, for it is difficult to overlay his many technical books and + scientific periodicals with a sufficiently thick crust of popular + magazines or current literature to prevent their outcropping into + evidence. In like manner the chat and conversation here, however lightly + it may begin, turns invariably to large questions and deep problems, + especially in the fields of discovery and invention; and Edison, in an + easy-chair, will sit through the long evenings till one or two in the + morning, pulling meditatively at his eyebrows, quoting something he has + just read pertinent to the discussion, hearing and telling new stories + with gusto, offering all kinds of ingenious suggestions, and without fail + getting hold of pads and sheets of paper on which to make illustrative + sketches. He is wonderfully handy with the pencil, and will sometimes + amuse himself, while chatting, with making all kinds of fancy bits of + penmanship, twisting his signature into circles and squares, but always + writing straight lines—so straight they could not be ruled truer. + Many a night it is a question of getting Edison to bed, for he would much + rather probe a problem than eat or sleep; but at whatever hour the visitor + retires or gets up, he is sure to find the master of the house on hand, + serene and reposeful, and just as brisk at dawn as when he allowed the + conversation to break up at midnight. The ordinary routine of daily family + life is of course often interrupted by receptions and parties, visits to + the billiard-room, the entertainment of visitors, the departure to and + return from college, at vacation periods, of the young people, and matters + relating to the many social and philanthropic causes in which Mrs. Edison + is actively interested; but, as a matter of fact, Edison's round of toil + and relaxation is singularly uniform and free from agitation, and that is + the way he would rather have it. + </p> + <p> + Edison at sixty-three has a fine physique, and being free from serious + ailments of any kind, should carry on the traditions of his long-lived + ancestors as to a vigorous old age. His hair has whitened, but is still + thick and abundant, and though he uses glasses for certain work, his + gray-blue eyes are as keen and bright and deeply lustrous as ever, with + the direct, searching look in them that they have ever worn. He stands + five feet nine and one-half inches high, weighs one hundred and + seventy-five pounds, and has not varied as to weight in a quarter of a + century, although as a young man he was slim to gauntness. He is very + abstemious, hardly ever touching alcohol, caring little for meat, but fond + of fruit, and never averse to a strong cup of coffee or a good cigar. He + takes extremely little exercise, although his good color and quickness of + step would suggest to those who do not know better that he is in the best + of training, and one who lives in the open air. + </p> + <p> + His simplicity as to clothes has already been described. One would be + startled to see him with a bright tie, a loud checked suit, or a fancy + waistcoat, and yet there is a curious sense of fastidiousness about the + plain things he delights in. Perhaps he is not wholly responsible + personally for this state of affairs. In conversation Edison is direct, + courteous, ready to discuss a topic with anybody worth talking to, and, in + spite of his sore deafness, an excellent listener. No one ever goes away + from Edison in doubt as to what he thinks or means, but he is ever shy and + diffident to a degree if the talk turns on himself rather than on his + work. + </p> + <p> + If the authors were asked, after having written the foregoing pages, to + explain here the reason for Edison's success, based upon their + observations so far made, they would first answer that he combines with a + vigorous and normal physical structure a mind capable of clear and logical + thinking, and an imagination of unusual activity. But this would by no + means offer a complete explanation. There are many men of equal bodily and + mental vigor who have not achieved a tithe of his accomplishment. What + other factors are there to be taken into consideration to explain this + phenomenon? First, a stolid, almost phlegmatic, nervous system which takes + absolutely no notice of ennui—a system like that of a Chinese + ivory-carver who works day after day and month after month on a piece of + material no larger than your hand. No better illustration of this + characteristic can be found than in the development of the nickel pocket + for the storage battery, an element the size of a short lead-pencil, on + which upward of five years were spent in experiments, costing over a + million dollars, day after day, always apparently with the same tubes but + with small variations carefully tabulated in the note-books. To an + ordinary person the mere sight of such a tube would have been as + distasteful, certainly after a week or so, as the smell of a quail to a + man striving to eat one every day for a month, near the end of his + gastronomic ordeal. But to Edison these small perforated steel tubes held + out as much of a fascination at the end of five years as when the search + was first begun, and every morning found him as eager to begin the + investigation anew as if the battery was an absolutely novel problem to + which his thoughts had just been directed. + </p> + <p> + Another and second characteristic of Edison's personality contributing so + strongly to his achievements is an intense, not to say courageous, + optimism in which no thought of failure can enter, an optimism born of + self-confidence, and becoming—after forty or fifty years of + experience more and more a sense of certainty in the accomplishment of + success. In the overcoming of difficulties he has the same intellectual + pleasure as the chess-master when confronted with a problem requiring all + the efforts of his skill and experience to solve. To advance along smooth + and pleasant paths, to encounter no obstacles, to wrestle with no + difficulties and hardships—such has absolutely no fascination to + him. He meets obstruction with the keen delight of a strong man battling + with the waves and opposing them in sheer enjoyment, and the greater and + more apparently overwhelming the forces that may tend to sweep him back, + the more vigorous his own efforts to forge through them. At the conclusion + of the ore-milling experiments, when practically his entire fortune was + sunk in an enterprise that had to be considered an impossibility, when at + the age of fifty he looked back upon five or six years of intense activity + expended apparently for naught, when everything seemed most black and the + financial clouds were quickly gathering on the horizon, not the slightest + idea of repining entered his mind. The main experiment had succeeded—he + had accomplished what he sought for. Nature at another point had + outstripped him, yet he had broadened his own sum of knowledge to a + prodigious extent. It was only during the past summer (1910) that one of + the writers spent a Sunday with him riding over the beautiful New Jersey + roads in an automobile, Edison in the highest spirits and pointing out + with the keenest enjoyment the many beautiful views of valley and wood. + The wanderings led to the old ore-milling plant at Edison, now practically + a mass of deserted buildings all going to decay. It was a depressing + sight, marking such titanic but futile struggles with nature. To Edison, + however, no trace of sentiment or regret occurred, and the whole ruins + were apparently as much a matter of unconcern as if he were viewing the + remains of Pompeii. Sitting on the porch of the White House, where he + lived during that period, in the light of the setting sun, his fine face + in repose, he looked as placidly over the scene as a happy farmer over a + field of ripening corn. All that he said was: "I never felt better in my + life than during the five years I worked here. Hard work, nothing to + divert my thought, clear air and simple food made my life very pleasant. + We learned a great deal. It will be of benefit to some one some time." + Similarly, in connection with the storage battery, after having + experimented continuously for three years, it was found to fall below his + expectations, and its manufacture had to be stopped. Hundreds of thousands + of dollars had been spent on the experiments, and, largely without + Edison's consent, the battery had been very generally exploited in the + press. To stop meant not only to pocket a great loss already incurred, + facing a dark and uncertain future, but to most men animated by ordinary + human feelings, it meant more than anything else, an injury to personal + pride. Pride? Pooh! that had nothing to do with the really serious + practical problem, and the writers can testify that at the moment when his + decision was reached, work stopped and the long vista ahead was peered + into, Edison was as little concerned as if he had concluded that, after + all, perhaps peach-pie might be better for present diet than apple-pie. He + has often said that time meant very little to him, that he had but a small + realization of its passage, and that ten or twenty years were as nothing + when considering the development of a vital invention. + </p> + <p> + These references to personal pride recall another characteristic of Edison + wherein he differs from most men. There are many individuals who derive an + intense and not improper pleasure in regalia or military garments, with + plenty of gold braid and brass buttons, and thus arrayed, in appearing + before their friends and neighbors. Putting at the head of the procession + the man who makes his appeal to public attention solely because of the + brilliancy of his plumage, and passing down the ranks through the + multitudes having a gradually decreasing sense of vanity in their personal + accomplishment, Edison would be placed at the very end. Reference herein + has been made to the fact that one of the two great English universities + wished to confer a degree upon him, but that he was unable to leave his + work for the brief time necessary to accept the honor. At that occasion it + was pointed out to him that he should make every possible sacrifice to go, + that the compliment was great, and that but few Americans had been so + recognized. It was hopeless—an appeal based on sentiment. Before him + was something real—work to be accomplished—a problem to be + solved. Beyond, was a prize as intangible as the button of the Legion of + Honor, which he concealed from his friends that they might not feel he was + "showing off." The fact is that Edison cares little for the approval of + the world, but that he cares everything for the approval of himself. + Difficult as it may be—perhaps impossible—to trace its origin, + Edison possesses what he would probably call a well-developed case of New + England conscience, for whose approval he is incessantly occupied. + </p> + <p> + These, then, may be taken as the characteristics of Edison that have + enabled him to accomplish more than most men—a strong body, a clear + and active mind, a developed imagination, a capacity of great mental and + physical concentration, an iron-clad nervous system that knows no ennui, + intense optimism, and courageous self-confidence. Any one having these + capacities developed to the same extent, with the same opportunities for + use, would probably accomplish as much. And yet there is a peculiarity + about him that so far as is known has never been referred to before in + print. He seems to be conscientiously afraid of appearing indolent, and in + consequence subjects himself regularly to unnecessary hardship. Working + all night is seldom necessary, or until two or three o'clock in the + morning, yet even now he persists in such tests upon his strength. + Recently one of the writers had occasion to present to him a long + typewritten document of upward of thirty pages for his approval. It was + taken home to Glenmont. Edison had a few minor corrections to make, + probably not more than a dozen all told. They could have been embodied by + interlineations and marginal notes in the ordinary way, and certainly + would not have required more than ten or fifteen minutes of his time. Yet + what did he do? HE COPIED OUT PAINSTAKINGLY THE ENTIRE PAPER IN LONG HAND, + embodying the corrections as he went along, and presented the result of + his work the following morning. At the very least such a task must have + occupied several hours. How can such a trait—and scores of similar + experiences could be given—be explained except by the fact that, + evidently, he felt the need of special schooling in industry—that + under no circumstances must he allow a thought of indolence to enter his + mind? + </p> + <p> + Undoubtedly in the days to come Edison will not only be recognized as an + intellectual prodigy, but as a prodigy of industry—of hard work. In + his field as inventor and man of science he stands as clear-cut and secure + as the lighthouse on a rock, and as indifferent to the tumult around. But + as the "old man"—and before he was thirty years old he was + affectionately so called by his laboratory associates—he is a + normal, fun-loving, typical American. His sense of humor is intense, but + not of the hothouse, overdeveloped variety. One of his favorite jokes is + to enter the legal department with an air of great humility and apply for + a job as an inventor! Never is he so preoccupied or fretted with cares as + not to drop all thought of his work for a few moments to listen to a new + story, with a ready smile all the while, and a hearty, boyish laugh at the + end. His laugh, in fact, is sometimes almost aboriginal; slapping his + hands delightedly on his knees, he rocks back and forth and fairly shouts + his pleasure. Recently a daily report of one of his companies that had + just been started contained a large order amounting to several thousand + dollars, and was returned by him with a miniature sketch of a small + individual viewing that particular item through a telescope! His facility + in making hasty but intensely graphic sketches is proverbial. He takes + great delight in imitating the lingo of the New York street gamin. A + dignified person named James may be greeted with: "Hully Gee! Chimmy, when + did youse blow in?" He likes to mimic and imitate types, generally, that + are distasteful to him. The sanctimonious hypocrite, the sleek speculator, + and others whom he has probably encountered in life are done "to the + queen's taste." + </p> + <p> + One very cold winter's day he entered the laboratory library in fine + spirits, "doing" the decayed dandy, with imaginary cane under his arm, + struggling to put on a pair of tattered imaginary gloves, with a + self-satisfied smirk and leer that would have done credit to a real + comedian. This particular bit of acting was heightened by the fact that + even in the coldest weather he wears thin summer clothes, generally + acid-worn and more or less disreputable. For protection he varies the + number of his suits of underclothing, sometimes wearing three or four + sets, according to the thermometer. + </p> + <p> + If one could divorce Edison from the idea of work, and could regard him + separate and apart from his embodiment as an inventor and man of science, + it might truly be asserted that his temperament is essentially mercurial. + Often he is in the highest spirits, with all the spontaneity of youth, and + again he is depressed, moody, and violently angry. Anger with him, + however, is a good deal like the story attributed to Napoleon: + </p> + <p> + "Sire, how is it that your judgment is not affected by your great rage?" + asked one of his courtiers. + </p> + <p> + "Because," said the Emperor, "I never allow it to rise above this line," + drawing his hand across his throat. Edison has been seen sometimes almost + beside himself with anger at a stupid mistake or inexcusable oversight on + the part of an assistant, his voice raised to a high pitch, sneeringly + expressing his feelings of contempt for the offender; and yet when the + culprit, like a bad school-boy, has left the room, Edison has immediately + returned to his normal poise, and the incident is a thing of the past. At + other times the unsettled condition persists, and his spleen is vented not + only on the original instigator but upon others who may have occasion to + see him, sometimes hours afterward. When such a fit is on him the word is + quickly passed around, and but few of his associates find it necessary to + consult with him at the time. The genuine anger can generally be + distinguished from the imitation article by those who know him intimately + by the fact that when really enraged his forehead between the eyes + partakes of a curious rotary movement that cannot be adequately described + in words. It is as if the storm-clouds within are moving like a whirling + cyclone. As a general rule, Edison does not get genuinely angry at + mistakes and other human weaknesses of his subordinates; at best he merely + simulates anger. But woe betide the one who has committed an act of bad + faith, treachery, dishonesty, or ingratitude; THEN Edison can show what it + is for a strong man to get downright mad. But in this respect he is + singularly free, and his spells of anger are really few. In fact, those + who know him best are continually surprised at his moderation and + patience, often when there has been great provocation. People who come in + contact with him and who may have occasion to oppose his views, may leave + with the impression that he is hot-tempered; nothing could be further from + the truth. He argues his point with great vehemence, pounds on the table + to emphasize his views, and illustrates his theme with a wealth of apt + similes; but, on account of his deafness, it is difficult to make the + argument really two-sided. Before the visitor can fully explain his side + of the matter some point is brought up that starts Edison off again, and + new arguments from his viewpoint are poured forth. This constant + interruption is taken by many to mean that Edison has a small opinion of + any arguments that oppose him; but he is only intensely in earnest in + presenting his own side. If the visitor persists until Edison has seen + both sides of the controversy, he is always willing to frankly admit that + his own views may be unsound and that his opponent is right. In fact, + after such a controversy, both parties going after each other hammer and + tongs, the arguments TO HIM being carried on at the very top of one's + voice to enable him to hear, and FROM HIM being equally loud in the + excitement of the discussion, he has often said: "I see now that my + position was absolutely rotten." + </p> + <p> + Obviously, however, all of these personal characteristics have nothing to + do with Edison's position in the world of affairs. They show him to be a + plain, easy-going, placid American, with no sense of self-importance, and + ready at all times to have his mind turned into a lighter channel. In + private life they show him to be a good citizen, a good family man, + absolutely moral, temperate in all things, and of great charitableness to + all mankind. But what of his position in the age in which he lives? Where + does he rank in the mountain range of great Americans? + </p> + <p> + It is believed that from the other chapters of this book the reader can + formulate his own answer to the question. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_APPE" id="link2H_APPE"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + INTRODUCTION TO THE APPENDIX + </h2> + <p> + THE reader who has followed the foregoing narrative may feel that inasmuch + as it is intended to be an historical document, an appropriate addendum + thereto would be a digest of all the inventions of Edison. The + desirability of such a digest is not to be denied, but as there are some + twenty-five hundred or more inventions to be considered (including those + covered by caveats), the task of its preparation would be stupendous. + Besides, the resultant data would extend this book into several additional + volumes, thereby rendering it of value chiefly to the technical student, + but taking it beyond the bounds of biography. + </p> + <p> + We should, however, deem our presentation of Mr. Edison's work to be + imperfectly executed if we neglected to include an intelligible exposition + of the broader theoretical principles of his more important inventions. In + the following Appendix we have therefore endeavored to present a few brief + statements regarding Mr. Edison's principal inventions, classified as to + subject-matter and explained in language as free from technicalities as is + possible. No attempt has been made to conform with strictly scientific + terminology, but, for the benefit of the general reader, well-understood + conventional expressions, such as "flow of current," etc., have been + employed. It should be borne in mind that each of the following items has + been treated as a whole or class, generally speaking, and not as a digest + of all the individual patents relating to it. Any one who is sufficiently + interested can obtain copies of any of the patents referred to for five + cents each by addressing the Commissioner of Patents, Washington, D. C. + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + APPENDIX + </h2> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0035" id="link2H_4_0035"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + I. THE STOCK PRINTER + </h2> + <p> + IN these modern days, when the Stock Ticker is in universal use, one + seldom, if ever, hears the name of Edison coupled with the little + instrument whose chatterings have such tremendous import to the whole + world. It is of much interest, however, to remember the fact that it was + by reason of his notable work in connection with this device that he first + became known as an inventor. Indeed, it was through the intrinsic merits + of his improvements in stock tickers that he made his real entree into + commercial life. + </p> + <p> + The idea of the ticker did not originate with Edison, as we have already + seen in Chapter VII of the preceding narrative, but at the time of his + employment with the Western Union, in Boston, in 1868, the crudities of + the earlier forms made an impression on his practical mind, and he got out + an improved instrument of his own, which he introduced in Boston through + the aid of a professional promoter. Edison, then only twenty-one, had less + business experience than the promoter, through whose manipulation he soon + lost his financial interest in this early ticker enterprise. The narrative + tells of his coming to New York in 1869, and immediately plunging into the + business of gold and stock reporting. It was at this period that his real + work on stock printers commenced, first individually, and later as a + co-worker with F. L. Pope. This inventive period extended over a number of + years, during which time he took out forty-six patents on stock-printing + instruments and devices, two of such patents being issued to Edison and + Pope as joint inventors. These various inventions were mostly in the line + of development of the art as it progressed during those early years, but + out of it all came the Edison universal printer, which entered into very + extensive use, and which is still used throughout the United States and in + some foreign countries to a considerable extent at this very day. + </p> + <p> + Edison's inventive work on stock printers has left its mark upon the art + as it exists at the present time. In his earlier work he directed his + attention to the employment of a single-circuit system, in which only one + wire was required, the two operations of setting the type-wheels and of + printing being controlled by separate electromagnets which were actuated + through polarized relays, as occasion required, one polarity energizing + the electromagnet controlling the type-wheels, and the opposite polarity + energizing the electromagnet controlling the printing. Later on, however, + he changed over to a two-wire circuit, such as shown in Fig. 2 of this + article in connection with the universal stock printer. In the earliest + days of the stock printer, Edison realized the vital commercial importance + of having all instruments recording precisely alike at the same moment, + and it was he who first devised (in 1869) the "unison stop," by means of + which all connected instruments could at any moment be brought to zero + from the central transmitting station, and thus be made to work in + correspondence with the central instrument and with one another. He also + originated the idea of using only one inking-pad and shifting it from side + to side to ink the type-wheels. It was also in Edison's stock printer that + the principle of shifting type-wheels was first employed. Hence it will be + seen that, as in many other arts, he made a lasting impression in this one + by the intrinsic merits of the improvements resulting from his work + therein. + </p> + <p> + We shall not attempt to digest the forty-six patents above named, nor to + follow Edison through the progressive steps which led to the completion of + his universal printer, but shall simply present a sketch of the instrument + itself, and follow with a very brief and general explanation of its + theory. The Edison universal printer, as it virtually appears in practice, + is illustrated in Fig. 1 below, from which it will be seen that the most + prominent parts are the two type-wheels, the inking-pad, and the paper + tape feeding from the reel, all appropriately placed in a substantial + framework. + </p> + <p> + The electromagnets and other actuating mechanism cannot be seen plainly in + this figure, but are produced diagrammatically in Fig. 2, and somewhat + enlarged for convenience of explanation. + </p> + <p> + It will be seen that there are two electromagnets, one of which, TM, is + known as the "type-magnet," and the other, PM, as the "press-magnet," the + former having to do with the operation of the type-wheels, and the latter + with the pressing of the paper tape against them. As will be seen from the + diagram, the armature, A, of the type-magnet has an extension arm, on the + end of which is an escapement engaging with a toothed wheel placed at the + extremity of the shaft carrying the type-wheels. This extension arm is + pivoted at B. Hence, as the armature is alternately attracted when current + passes around its electromagnet, and drawn up by the spring on cessation + of current, it moves up and down, thus actuating the escapement and + causing a rotation of the toothed wheel in the direction of the arrow. + This, in turn, brings any desired letters or figures on the type-wheels to + a central point, where they may be impressed upon the paper tape. One + type-wheel carries letters, and the other one figures. These two wheels + are mounted rigidly on a sleeve carried by the wheel-shaft. As it is + desired to print from only one type-wheel at a time, it becomes necessary + to shift them back and forth from time to time, in order to bring the + desired characters in line with the paper tape. This is accomplished + through the movements of a three-arm rocking-lever attached to the + wheel-sleeve at the end of the shaft. This lever is actuated through the + agency of two small pins carried by an arm projecting from the + press-lever, PL. As the latter moves up and down the pins play upon the + under side of the lower arm of the rocking-lever, thus canting it and + pushing the type-wheels to the right or left, as the case may be. The + operation of shifting the type-wheels will be given further on. + </p> + <p> + The press-lever is actuated by the press-magnet. From the diagram it will + be seen that the armature of the latter has a long, pivoted extension arm, + or platen, trough-like in shape, in which the paper tape runs. It has + already been noted that the object of the press-lever is to press this + tape against that character of the type-wheel centrally located above it + at the moment. It will at once be perceived that this action takes place + when current flows through the electromagnet and its armature is attracted + downward, the platen again dropping away from the type-wheel as the + armature is released upon cessation of current. The paper "feed" is shown + at the end of the press-lever, and consists of a push "dog," or pawl, + which operates to urge the paper forward as the press-lever descends. + </p> + <p> + The worm-gear which appears in the diagram on the shaft, near the toothed + wheel, forms part of the unison stop above referred to, but this device is + not shown in full, in order to avoid unnecessary complications of the + drawing. + </p> + <p> + At the right-hand side of the diagram (Fig. 2) is shown a portion of the + transmitting apparatus at a central office. Generally speaking, this + consists of a motor-driven cylinder having metallic pins placed at + intervals, and arranged spirally, around its periphery. These pins + correspond in number to the characters on the type-wheels. A keyboard (not + shown) is arranged above the cylinder, having keys lettered and numbered + corresponding to the letters and figures on the type-wheels. Upon + depressing any one of these keys the motion of the cylinder is arrested + when one of its pins is caught and held by the depressed key. When the key + is released the cylinder continues in motion. Hence, it is evident that + the revolution of the cylinder may be interrupted as often as desired by + manipulation of the various keys in transmitting the letters and figures + which are to be recorded by the printing instrument. The method of + transmission will presently appear. + </p> + <p> + In the sketch (Fig. 2) there will be seen, mounted upon the cylinder + shaft, two wheels made up of metallic segments insulated from each other, + and upon the hubs of these wheels are two brushes which connect with the + main battery. Resting upon the periphery of these two segmental wheels + there are two brushes to which are connected the wires which carry the + battery current to the type-magnet and press-magnet, respectively, as the + brushes make circuit by coming in contact with the metallic segments. It + will be remembered that upon the cylinder there are as many pins as there + are characters on the type-wheels of the ticker, and one of the segmental + wheels, W, has a like number of metallic segments, while upon the other + wheel, W', there are only one-half that number. The wheel W controls the + supply of current to the press-magnet, and the wheel W' to the + type-magnet. The type-magnet advances the letter and figure wheels one + step when the magnet is energized, and a succeeding step when the circuit + is broken. Hence, the metallic contact surfaces on wheel W' are, as + stated, only half as many as on the wheel W, which controls the + press-magnet. + </p> + <p> + It should be borne in mind, however, that the contact surfaces and + insulated surfaces on wheel W' are together equal in number to the + characters on the type-wheels, but the retractile spring of TM does half + the work of operating the escapement. On the other hand, the wheel W has + the full number of contact surfaces, because it must provide for the + operative closure of the press-magnet circuit whether the brush B' is in + engagement with a metallic segment or an insulated segment of the wheel + W'. As the cylinder revolves, the wheels are carried around with its shaft + and current impulses flow through the wires to the magnets as the brushes + make contact with the metallic segments of these wheels. + </p> + <p> + One example will be sufficient to convey to the reader an idea of the + operation of the apparatus. Assuming, for instance, that it is desired to + send out the letters AM to the printer, let us suppose that the pin + corresponding to the letter A is at one end of the cylinder and near the + upper part of its periphery, and that the letter M is about the centre of + the cylinder and near the lower part of its periphery. The operator at the + keyboard would depress the letter A, whereupon the cylinder would in its + revolution bring the first-named pin against the key. During the rotation + of the cylinder a current would pass through wheel W' and actuate TM, + drawing down the armature and operating the escapement, which would bring + the type-wheel to a point where the letter A would be central as regards + the paper tape When the cylinder came to rest, current would flow through + the brush of wheel W to PM, and its armature would be attracted, causing + the platen to be lifted and thus bringing the paper tape in contact with + the type-wheel and printing the letter A. The operator next sends the + letter M by depressing the appropriate key. On account of the position of + the corresponding pin, the cylinder would make nearly half a revolution + before bringing the pin to the key. During this half revolution the + segmental wheels have also been turning, and the brushes have transmitted + a number of current impulses to TM, which have caused it to operate the + escapement a corresponding number of times, thus turning the type-wheels + around to the letter M. When the cylinder stops, current once more goes to + the press-magnet, and the operation of lifting and printing is repeated. + As a matter of fact, current flows over both circuits as the cylinder is + rotated, but the press-magnet is purposely made to be comparatively + "sluggish" and the narrowness of the segments on wheel W tends to diminish + the flow of current in the press circuit until the cylinder comes to rest, + when the current continuously flows over that circuit without interruption + and fully energizes the press-magnet. The shifting of the type-wheels is + brought about as follows: On the keyboard of the transmitter there are two + characters known as "dots"—namely, the letter dot and the figure + dot. If the operator presses one of these dot keys, it is engaged by an + appropriate pin on the revolving cylinder. Meanwhile the type-wheels are + rotating, carrying with them the rocking-lever, and current is pulsating + over both circuits. When the type-wheels have arrived at the proper point + the rocking-lever has been carried to a position where its lower arm is + directly over one of the pins on the arm extending from the platen of the + press-lever. The cylinder stops, and current operates the sluggish + press-magnet, causing its armature to be attracted, thus lifting the + platen and its projecting arm. As the arm lifts upward, the pin moves + along the under side of the lower arm of the rocking-lever, thus causing + it to cant and shift the type-wheels to the right or left, as desired. The + principles of operation of this apparatus have been confined to a very + brief and general description, but it is believed to be sufficient for the + scope of this article. + </p> + <p> + NOTE.—The illustrations in this article are reproduced from American + Telegraphy and Encyclopedia of the Telegraph, by William Maver, Jr., by + permission of Maver Publishing Company, New York. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0036" id="link2H_4_0036"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + II. THE QUADRUPLEX AND PHONOPLEX + </h2> + <p> + EDISON'S work in stock printers and telegraphy had marked him as a rising + man in the electrical art of the period but his invention of quadruplex + telegraphy in 1874 was what brought him very prominently before the notice + of the public. Duplex telegraphy, or the sending of two separate messages + in opposite directions at the same time over one line was known and + practiced previous to this time, but quadruplex telegraphy, or the + simultaneous sending of four separate messages, two in each direction, + over a single line had not been successfully accomplished, although it had + been the subject of many an inventor's dream and the object of anxious + efforts for many long years. + </p> + <p> + In the early part of 1873, and for some time afterward, the system + invented by Joseph Stearns was the duplex in practical use. In April of + that year, however, Edison took up the study of the subject and filed two + applications for patents. One of these applications [23] embraced an + invention by which two messages could be sent not only duplex, or in + opposite directions as above explained, but could also be sent "diplex"—that + is to say, in one direction, simultaneously, as separate and distinct + messages, over the one line. Thus there was introduced a new feature into + the art of multiplex telegraphy, for, whereas duplexing (accomplished by + varying the strength of the current) permitted messages to be sent + simultaneously from opposite stations, diplexing (achieved by also varying + the direction of the current) permitted the simultaneous transmission of + two messages from the same station and their separate reception at the + distant station. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 23: Afterward issued as Patent No. 162,633, April + 27, 1875.] +</pre> + <p> + The quadruplex was the tempting goal toward which Edison now constantly + turned, and after more than a year's strenuous work he filed a number of + applications for patents in the late summer of 1874. Among them was one + which was issued some years afterward as Patent No. 480,567, covering his + well-known quadruplex. He had improved his own diplex, combined it with + the Stearns duplex and thereby produced a system by means of which four + messages could be sent over a single line at the same time, two in each + direction. + </p> + <p> + As the reader will probably be interested to learn something of the + theoretical principles of this fascinating invention, we shall endeavor to + offer a brief and condensed explanation thereof with as little + technicality as the subject will permit. This explanation will necessarily + be of somewhat elementary character for the benefit of the lay reader, + whose indulgence is asked for an occasional reiteration introduced for the + sake of clearness of comprehension. While the apparatus and the circuits + are seemingly very intricate, the principles are really quite simple, and + the difficulty of comprehension is more apparent than real if the + underlying phenomena are studied attentively. + </p> + <p> + At the root of all systems of telegraphy, including multiplex systems, + there lies the single basic principle upon which their performance depends—namely, + the obtaining of a slight mechanical movement at the more or less distant + end of a telegraph line. This is accomplished through the utilization of + the phenomena of electromagnetism. These phenomena are easy of + comprehension and demonstration. If a rod of soft iron be wound around + with a number of turns of insulated wire, and a current of electricity be + sent through the wire, the rod will be instantly magnetized and will + remain a magnet as long as the current flows; but when the current is cut + off the magnetic effect instantly ceases. This device is known as an + electromagnet, and the charging and discharging of such a magnet may, of + course, be repeated indefinitely. Inasmuch as a magnet has the power of + attracting to itself pieces of iron or steel, the basic importance of an + electromagnet in telegraphy will be at once apparent when we consider the + sounder, whose clicks are familiar to every ear. This instrument consists + essentially of an electro-magnet of horseshoe form with its two poles + close together, and with its armature, a bar of iron, maintained in close + proximity to the poles, but kept normally in a retracted position by a + spring. When the distant operator presses down his key the circuit is + closed and a current passes along the line and through the (generally two) + coils of the electromagnet, thus magnetizing the iron core. Its attractive + power draws the armature toward the poles. When the operator releases the + pressure on his key the circuit is broken, current does not flow, the + magnetic effect ceases, and the armature is drawn back by its spring. + These movements give rise to the clicking sounds which represent the dots + and dashes of the Morse or other alphabet as transmitted by the operator. + Similar movements, produced in like manner, are availed of in another + instrument known as the relay, whose office is to act practically as an + automatic transmitter key, repeating the messages received in its coils, + and sending them on to the next section of the line, equipped with its own + battery; or, when the message is intended for its own station, sending the + message to an adjacent sounder included in a local battery circuit. With a + simple circuit, therefore, between two stations and where an intermediate + battery is not necessary, a relay is not used. + </p> + <p> + Passing on to the consideration of another phase of the phenomena of + electromagnetism, the reader's attention is called to Fig. 1, in which + will be seen on the left a simple form of electromagnet consisting of a + bar of soft iron wound around with insulated wire, through which a current + is flowing from a battery. The arrows indicate the direction of flow. + </p> + <p> + All magnets have two poles, north and south. A permanent magnet (made of + steel, which, as distinguished from soft iron, retains its magnetism for + long periods) is so called because it is permanently magnetized and its + polarity remains fixed. In an electromagnet the magnetism exists only as + long as current is flowing through the wire, and the polarity of the + soft-iron bar is determined by the DIRECTION of flow of current around it + for the time being. If the direction is reversed, the polarity will also + be reversed. Assuming, for instance, the bar to be end-on toward the + observer, that end will be a south pole if the current is flowing from + left to right, clockwise, around the bar; or a north pole if flowing in + the other direction, as illustrated at the right of the figure. It is + immaterial which way the wire is wound around the bar, the determining + factor of polarity being the DIRECTION of the current. It will be clear, + therefore, that if two EQUAL currents be passed around a bar in opposite + directions (Fig. 3) they will tend to produce exactly opposite polarities + and thus neutralize each other. Hence, the bar would remain non-magnetic. + </p> + <p> + As the path to the quadruplex passes through the duplex, let us consider + the Stearns system, after noting one other principle—namely, that if + more than one path is presented in which an electric current may complete + its circuit, it divides in proportion to the resistance of each path. + Hence, if we connect one pole of a battery with the earth, and from the + other pole run to the earth two wires of equal resistance as illustrated + in Fig. 2, equal currents will traverse the wires. + </p> + <p> + The above principles were employed in the Stearns differential duplex + system in the following manner: Referring to Fig. 3, suppose a wire, A, is + led from a battery around a bar of soft iron from left to right, and + another wire of equal resistance and equal number of turns, B, around from + right to left. The flow of current will cause two equal opposing actions + to be set up in the bar; one will exactly offset the other, and no + magnetic effect will be produced. A relay thus wound is known as a + differential relay—more generally called a neutral relay. + </p> + <p> + The non-technical reader may wonder what use can possibly be made of an + apparently non-operative piece of apparatus. It must be borne in mind, + however, in considering a duplex system, that a differential relay is used + AT EACH END of the line and forms part of the circuit; and that while each + relay must be absolutely unresponsive to the signals SENT OUT FROM ITS + HOME OFFICE, it must respond to signals transmitted by a DISTANT OFFICE. + Hence, the next figure (4), with its accompanying explanation, will + probably make the matter clear. If another battery, D, be introduced at + the distant end of the wire A the differential or neutral relay becomes + actively operative as follows: Battery C supplies wires A and B with an + equal current, but battery D doubles the strength of the current + traversing wire A. This is sufficient to not only neutralize the magnetism + which the current in wire B would tend to set up, but also—by reason + of the excess of current in wire A—to make the bar a magnet whose + polarity would be determined by the direction of the flow of current + around it. + </p> + <p> + In the arrangement shown in Fig. 4 the batteries are so connected that + current flow is in the same direction, thus doubling the amount of current + flowing through wire A. But suppose the batteries were so connected that + the current from each set flowed in an opposite direction? The result + would be that these currents would oppose and neutralize each other, and, + therefore, none would flow in wire A. Inasmuch, however, as there is + nothing to hinder, current would flow from battery C through wire B, and + the bar would therefore be magnetized. Hence, assuming that the relay is + to be actuated from the distant end, D, it is in a sense immaterial + whether the batteries connected with wire A assist or oppose each other, + as, in either case, the bar would be magnetized only through the operation + of the distant key. + </p> + <p> + A slight elaboration of Fig. 4 will further illustrate the principle of + the differential duplex. In Fig. 5 are two stations, A the home end, and B + the distant station to which a message is to be sent. The relay at each + end has two coils, 1 and 2, No. 1 in each case being known as the + "main-line coil" and 2 as the "artificial-line coil." The latter, in each + case, has in its circuit a resistance, R, to compensate for the resistance + of the main line, so that there shall be no inequalities in the circuits. + The artificial line, as well as that to which the two coils are joined, + are connected to earth. There is a battery, C, and a key, K. When the key + is depressed, current flows through the relay coils at A, but no magnetism + is produced, as they oppose each other. The current, however, flows out + through the main-line coil over the line and through the main-line coil 1 + at B, completing its circuit to earth and magnetizing the bar of the + relay, thus causing its armature to be attracted. On releasing the key the + circuit is broken and magnetism instantly ceases. + </p> + <p> + It will be evident, therefore, that the operator at A may cause the relay + at B to act without affecting his own relay. Similar effects would be + produced from B to A if the battery and key were placed at the B end. + </p> + <p> + If, therefore, like instruments are placed at each end of the line, as in + Fig. 6, we have a differential duplex arrangement by means of which two + operators may actuate relays at the ends distant from them, without + causing the operation of the relays at their home ends. In practice this + is done by means of a special instrument known as a continuity preserving + transmitter, or, usually, as a transmitter. This consists of an + electromagnet, T, operated by a key, K, and separate battery. The armature + lever, L, is long, pivoted in the centre, and is bent over at the end. At + a point a little beyond its centre is a small piece of insulating material + to which is screwed a strip of spring metal, S. Conveniently placed with + reference to the end of the lever is a bent metallic piece, P, having a + contact screw in its upper horizontal arm, and attached to the lower end + of this bent piece is a post, or standard, to which the main battery is + electrically connected. The relay coils are connected by wire to the + spring piece, S, and the armature lever is connected to earth. If the key + is depressed, the armature is attracted and its bent end is moved upward, + depressing the spring which makes contact with the upper screw, which + places the battery to the line, and simultaneously breaks the ground + connection between the spring and the upturned end of the lever, as shown + at the left. When the key is released the battery is again connected to + earth. The compensating resistances and condensers necessary for a duplex + arrangement are shown in the diagram. + </p> + <p> + In Fig. 6 one transmitter is shown as closed, at A, while the other one is + open. From our previous illustrations and explanations it will be readily + seen that, with the transmitter closed at station A, current flows via + post P, through S, and to both relay coils at A, thence over the main line + to main-line coil at B, and down to earth through S and the armature lever + with its grounded wire. The relay at A would be unresponsive, but the core + of the relay at B would be magnetized and its armature respond to signals + from A. In like manner, if the transmitter at B be closed, current would + flow through similar parts and thus cause the relay at A to respond. If + both transmitters be closed simultaneously, both batteries will be placed + to the line, which would practically result in doubling the current in + each of the main-line coils, in consequence of which both relays are + energized and their armatures attracted through the operation of the keys + at the distant ends. Hence, two messages can be sent in opposite + directions over the same line simultaneously. + </p> + <p> + The reader will undoubtedly see quite clearly from the above system, which + rests upon varying the STRENGTH of the current, that two messages could + not be sent in the same direction over the one line at the same time. To + accomplish this object Edison introduced another and distinct feature—namely, + the using of the same current, but ALSO varying its DIRECTION of flow; + that is to say, alternately reversing the POLARITY of the batteries as + applied to the line and thus producing corresponding changes in the + polarity of another specially constructed type of relay, called a + polarized relay. To afford the reader a clear conception of such a relay + we would refer again to Fig. 1 and its explanation, from which it appears + that the polarity of a soft-iron bar is determined not by the strength of + the current flowing around it but by the direction thereof. + </p> + <p> + With this idea clearly in mind, the theory of the polarized relay, + generally called "polar" relay, as presented in the diagram (Fig. 7), will + be readily understood. + </p> + <p> + A is a bar of soft iron, bent as shown, and wound around with insulated + copper wire, the ends of which are connected with a battery, B, thus + forming an electromagnet. An essential part of this relay consists of a + swinging PERMANENT magnet, C, whose polarity remains fixed, that end + between the terminals of the electromagnet being a north pole. Inasmuch as + unlike poles of magnets are attracted to each other and like poles + repelled, it follows that this north pole will be repelled by the north + pole of the electromagnet, but will swing over and be attracted by its + south pole. If the direction of flow of current be reversed, by reversing + the battery, the electromagnetic polarity also reverses and the end of the + permanent magnet swings over to the other side. This is shown in the two + figures of Fig. 7. This device being a relay, its purpose is to repeat + transmitted signals into a local circuit, as before explained. For this + purpose there are provided at D and E a contact and a back stop, the + former of which is opened and closed by the swinging permanent magnet, + thus opening and closing the local circuit. + </p> + <p> + Manifestly there must be provided some convenient way for rapidly + transposing the direction of the current flow if such a device as the + polar relay is to be used for the reception of telegraph messages, and + this is accomplished by means of an instrument called a pole-changer, + which consists essentially of a movable contact piece connected + permanently to the earth, or grounded, and arranged to connect one or the + other pole of a battery to the line and simultaneously ground the other + pole. This action of the pole-changer is effected by movements of the + armature of an electromagnet through the manipulation of an ordinary + telegraph key by an operator at the home station, as in the operation of + the "transmitter," above referred to. + </p> + <p> + By a combination of the neutral relay and the polar relay two operators, + by manipulating two telegraph keys in the ordinary way, can simultaneously + send two messages over one line in the SAME direction with the SAME + current, one operator varying its strength and the other operator varying + its polarity or direction of flow. This principle was covered by Edison's + Patent No. 162,633, and was known as the "diplex" system, although, in the + patent referred to, Edison showed and claimed the adaptation of the + principle to duplex telegraphy. Indeed, as a matter of fact, it was found + that by winding the polar relay differentially and arranging the circuits + and collateral appliances appropriately, the polar duplex system was more + highly efficient than the neutral system, and it is extensively used to + the present day. + </p> + <p> + Thus far we have referred to two systems, one the neutral or differential + duplex, and the other the combination of the neutral and polar relays, + making a diplex system. By one of these two systems a single wire could be + used for sending two messages in opposite directions, and by the other in + the same direction or in opposite directions. Edison followed up his work + on the diplex and combined the two systems into the quadruplex, by means + of which FOUR messages could be sent and received simultaneously over the + one wire, two in each direction, thus employing eight operators—four + at each end—two sending and two receiving. The general principles of + quadruplex telegraphy are based upon the phenomena which we have briefly + outlined in connection with the neutral relay and the polar relay. The + equipment of such a system at each end of the line consists of these two + instruments, together with the special form of transmitter and the + pole-changer and their keys for actuating the neutral and polar relays at + the other, or distant, end. Besides these there are the compensating + resistances and condensers. All of these will be seen in the diagram (Fig. + 8). It will be understood, of course, that the polar relay, as used in the + quadruplex system, is wound differentially, and therefore its operation is + somewhat similar in principle to that of the differentially wound neutral + relay, in that it does not respond to the operation of the key at the home + office, but only operates in response to the movements of the distant key. + </p> + <p> + Our explanation has merely aimed to show the underlying phenomena and + principles in broad outline without entering into more detail than was + deemed absolutely necessary. It should be stated, however, that between + the outline and the filling in of the details there was an enormous amount + of hard work, study, patient plodding, and endless experiments before + Edison finally perfected his quadruplex system in the year 1874. + </p> + <p> + If it were attempted to offer here a detailed explanation of the varied + and numerous operations of the quadruplex, this article would assume the + proportions of a treatise. An idea of their complexity may be gathered + from the following, which is quoted from American Telegraphy and + Encyclopedia of the Telegraph, by William Maver, Jr.: + </p> + <p> + "It may well be doubted whether in the whole range of applied electricity + there occur such beautiful combinations, so quickly made, broken up, and + others reformed, as in the operation of the Edison quadruplex. For + example, it is quite demonstrable that during the making of a simple dash + of the Morse alphabet by the neutral relay at the home station the distant + pole-changer may reverse its battery several times; the home pole-changer + may do likewise, and the home transmitter may increase and decrease the + electromotive force of the home battery repeatedly. Simultaneously, and, + of course, as a consequence of the foregoing actions, the home neutral + relay itself may have had its magnetism reversed several times, and the + SIGNAL, that is, the dash, will have been made, partly by the home + battery, partly by the distant and home batteries combined, partly by + current on the main line, partly by current on the artificial line, partly + by the main-line 'static' current, partly by the condenser static current, + and yet, on a well-adjusted circuit the dash will have been produced on + the quadruplex sounder as clearly as any dash on an ordinary single-wire + sounder." + </p> + <p> + We present a diagrammatic illustration of the Edison quadruplex, battery + key system, in Fig. 8, and refer the reader to the above or other + text-books if he desires to make a close study of its intricate + operations. Before finally dismissing the quadruplex, and for the benefit + of the inquiring reader who may vainly puzzle over the intricacies of the + circuits shown in Fig. 8, a hint as to an essential difference between the + neutral relay, as used in the duplex and as used in the quadruplex, may be + given. With the duplex, as we have seen, the current on the main line is + changed in strength only when both keys at OPPOSITE stations are closed + together, so that a current due to both batteries flows over the main + line. When a single message is sent from one station to the other, or when + both stations are sending messages that do not conflict, only one battery + or the other is connected to the main line; but with the quadruplex, + suppose one of the operators, in New York for instance, is sending + reversals of current to Chicago; we can readily see how these changes in + polarity will operate the polar relay at the distant station, but why will + they not also operate the neutral relay at the distant station as well? + This difficulty was solved by dividing the battery at each station into + two unequal parts, the smaller battery being always in circuit with the + pole-changer ready to have its polarity reversed on the main line to + operate the distant polar relay, but the spring retracting the armature of + the neutral relay is made so stiff as to resist these weak currents. If, + however, the transmitter is operated at the same end, the entire battery + is connected to the main line, and the strength of this current is + sufficient to operate the neutral relay. Whether the part or all the + battery is alternately connected to or disconnected from the main line by + the transmitter, the current so varied in strength is subject to reversal + of polarity by the pole-changer; but the variations in strength have no + effect upon the distant polar relay, because that relay being responsive + to changes in polarity of a weak current is obviously responsive to + corresponding changes in polarity of a powerful current. With this + distinction before him, the reader will have no difficulty in following + the circuits of Fig. 8, bearing always in mind that by reason of the + differential winding of the polar and neutral relays, neither of the + relays at one station will respond to the home battery, and can only + respond to the distant battery—the polar relay responding when the + polarity of the current is reversed, whether the current be strong or + weak, and the neutral relay responding when the line-current is increased, + regardless of its polarity. It should be added that besides the system + illustrated in Fig. 8, which is known as the differential principle, the + quadruplex was also arranged to operate on the Wheatstone bridge + principle; but it is not deemed necessary to enter into its details. The + underlying phenomena were similar, the difference consisting largely in + the arrangement of the circuits and apparatus. [24] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 24: Many of the illustrations in this article are + reproduced from American Telegraphy and Encyclopedia of the + Telegraph, by William Maver, Jr., by permission of Maver + Publishing Company, New York.] +</pre> + <p> + Edison made another notable contribution to multiplex telegraphy some + years later in the Phonoplex. The name suggests the use of the telephone, + and such indeed is the case. The necessity for this invention arose out of + the problem of increasing the capacity of telegraph lines employed in + "through" and "way" service, such as upon railroads. In a railroad system + there are usually two terminal stations and a number of way stations. + There is naturally much intercommunication, which would be greatly + curtailed by a system having the capacity of only a single message at a + time. The duplexes above described could not be used on a railroad + telegraph system, because of the necessity of electrically balancing the + line, which, while entirely feasible on a through line, would not be + practicable between a number of intercommunicating points. Edison's + phonoplex normally doubled the capacity of telegraph lines, whether + employed on way business or through traffic, but in actual practice made + it possible to obtain more than double service. It has been in practical + use for many years on some of the leading railroads of the United States. + </p> + <p> + The system is a combination of telegraphic apparatus and telephone + receiver, although in this case the latter instrument is not used in the + generally understood manner. It is well known that the diaphragm of a + telephone vibrates with the fluctuations of the current energizing the + magnet beneath it. If the make and break of the magnetizing current be + rapid, the vibrations being within the limits of the human ear, the + diaphragm will produce an audible sound; but if the make and break be as + slow as with ordinary Morse transmission, the diaphragm will be merely + flexed and return to its original form without producing a sound. If, + therefore, there be placed in the same circuit a regular telegraph relay + and a special telephone, an operator may, by manipulating a key, operate + the relay (and its sounder) without producing a sound in the telephone, as + the makes and breaks of the key are far below the limit of audibility. But + if through the same circuit, by means of another key suitably connected + there is sent the rapid changes in current from an induction-coil, it will + cause a series of loud clicks in the telephone, corresponding to the + signals transmitted; but this current is too weak to affect the telegraph + relay. It will be seen, therefore, that this method of duplexing is + practiced, not by varying the strength or polarity, but by sending TWO + KINDS OF CURRENT over the wire. Thus, two sets of Morse signals can be + transmitted by two operators over one line at the same time without + interfering with each other, and not only between terminal offices, but + also between a terminal office and any intermediate office, or between two + intermediate offices alone. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0037" id="link2H_4_0037"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + III + </h2> + <h3> + AUTOMATIC TELEGRAPHY + </h3> + <p> + FROM the year 1848, when a Scotchman, Alexander Bain, first devised a + scheme for rapid telegraphy by automatic methods, down to the beginning of + the seventies, many other inventors had also applied themselves to the + solution of this difficult problem, with only indifferent success. "Cheap + telegraphy" being the slogan of the time, Edison became arduously + interested in the subject, and at the end of three years of hard work + produced an entirely successful system, a public test of which was made on + December 11, 1873 when about twelve thousand (12,000) words were + transmitted over a single wire from Washington to New York. in twenty-two + and one-half minutes. Edison's system was commercially exploited for + several years by the Automatic Telegraph Company, as related in the + preceding narrative. + </p> + <p> + As a premise to an explanation of the principles involved it should be + noted that the transmission of telegraph messages by hand at a rate of + fifty words per minute is considered a good average speed; hence, the + availability of a telegraph line, as thus operated, is limited to this + capacity except as it may be multiplied by two with the use of the duplex, + or by four, with the quadruplex. Increased rapidity of transmission may, + however, be accomplished by automatic methods, by means of which, through + the employment of suitable devices, messages may be stamped in or upon a + paper tape, transmitted through automatically acting instruments, and be + received at distant points in visible characters, upon a similar tape, at + a rate twenty or more times greater—a speed far beyond the + possibilities of the human hand to transmit or the ear to receive. + </p> + <p> + In Edison's system of automatic telegraphy a paper tape was perforated + with a series of round holes, so arranged and spaced as to represent Morse + characters, forming the words of the message to be transmitted. This was + done in a special machine of Edison's invention, called a perforator, + consisting of a series of punches operated by a bank of keys—typewriter + fashion. The paper tape passed over a cylinder, and was kept in regular + motion so as to receive the perforations in proper sequence. + </p> + <p> + The perforated tape was then placed in the transmitting instrument, the + essential parts of which were a metallic drum and a projecting arm + carrying two small wheels, which, by means of a spring, were maintained in + constant pressure on the drum. The wheels and drum were electrically + connected in the line over which the message was to be sent. current being + supplied by batteries in the ordinary manner. + </p> + <p> + When the transmitting instrument was in operation, the perforated tape was + passed over the drum in continuous, progressive motion. Thus, the paper + passed between the drum and the two small wheels, and, as dry paper is a + non-conductor, current was prevented from passing until a perforation was + reached. As the paper passed along, the wheels dropped into the + perforations, making momentary contacts with the drum beneath and causing + momentary impulses of current to be transmitted over the line in the same + way that they would be produced by the manipulation of the telegraph key, + but with much greater rapidity. The perforations being so arranged as to + regulate the length of the contact, the result would be the transmission + of long and short impulses corresponding with the dots and dashes of the + Morse alphabet. + </p> + <p> + The receiving instrument at the other end of the line was constructed upon + much the same general lines as the transmitter, consisting of a metallic + drum and reels for the paper tape. Instead of the two small contact + wheels, however, a projecting arm carried an iron pin or stylus, so + arranged that its point would normally impinge upon the periphery of the + drum. The iron pin and the drum were respectively connected so as to be in + circuit with the transmission line and batteries. As the principle + involved in the receiving operation was electrochemical decomposition, the + paper tape upon which the incoming message was to be received was + moistened with a chemical solution readily decomposable by the electric + current. This paper, while still in a damp condition, was passed between + the drum and stylus in continuous, progressive motion. When an electrical + impulse came over the line from the transmitting end, current passed + through the moistened paper from the iron pin, causing chemical + decomposition, by reason of which the iron would be attacked and would + mark a line on the paper. Such a line would be long or short, according to + the duration of the electric impulse. Inasmuch as a succession of such + impulses coming over the line owed their origin to the perforations in the + transmitting tape, it followed that the resulting marks upon the receiving + tape would correspond thereto in their respective lengths. Hence, the + transmitted message was received on the tape in visible dots and dashes + representing characters of the Morse alphabet. + </p> + <p> + The system will, perhaps, be better understood by reference to the + following diagrammatic sketch of its general principles: + </p> + <p> + Some idea of the rapidity of automatic telegraphy may be obtained when we + consider the fact that with the use of Edison's system in the early + seventies it was common practice to transmit and receive from three to + four thousand words a minute over a single line between New York and + Philadelphia. This system was exploited through the use of a moderately + paid clerical force. + </p> + <p> + In practice, there was employed such a number of perforating machines as + the exigencies of business demanded. Each machine was operated by a clerk, + who translated the message into telegraphic characters and prepared the + transmitting tape by punching the necessary perforations therein. An + expert clerk could perforate such a tape at the rate of fifty to sixty + words per minute. At the receiving end the tape was taken by other clerks + who translated the Morse characters into ordinary words, which were + written on message blanks for delivery to persons for whom the messages + were intended. + </p> + <p> + This latter operation—"copying." as it was called—was not + consistent with truly economical business practice. Edison therefore + undertook the task of devising an improved system whereby the message when + received would not require translation and rewriting, but would + automatically appear on the tape in plain letters and words, ready for + instant delivery. + </p> + <p> + The result was his automatic Roman letter system, the basis for which + included the above-named general principles of perforated transmission + tape and electrochemical decomposition. Instead of punching Morse + characters in the transmission tape however, it was perforated with a + series of small round holes forming Roman letters. The verticals of these + letters were originally five holes high. The transmitting instrument had + five small wheels or rollers, instead of two, for making contacts through + the perforations and causing short electric impulses to pass over the + lines. At first five lines were used to carry these impulses to the + receiving instrument, where there were five iron pins impinging on the + drum. By means of these pins the chemically prepared tape was marked with + dots corresponding to the impulses as received, leaving upon it a legible + record of the letters and words transmitted. + </p> + <p> + For purposes of economy in investment and maintenance, Edison devised + subsequently a plan by which the number of conducting lines was reduced to + two, instead of five. The verticals of the letters were perforated only + four holes high, and the four rollers were arranged in pairs, one pair + being slightly in advance of the other. There were, of course, only four + pins at the receiving instrument. Two were of iron and two of tellurium, + it being the gist of Edison's plan to effect the marking of the chemical + paper by one metal with a positive current, and by the other metal with a + negative current. In the following diagram, which shows the theory of this + arrangement, it will be seen that both the transmitting rollers and the + receiving pins are arranged in pairs, one pair in each case being slightly + in advance of the other. Of these receiving pins, one pair—1 and 3—are + of iron, and the other pair—2 and 4—of tellurium. Pins 1-2 and + 3-4 are electrically connected together in other pairs, and then each of + these pairs is connected with one of the main lines that run respectively + to the middle of two groups of batteries at the transmitting end. The + terminals of these groups of batteries are connected respectively to the + four rollers which impinge upon the transmitting drum, the negatives being + connected to 5 and 7, and the positives to 6 and 8, as denoted by the + letters N and P. The transmitting and receiving drums are respectively + connected to earth. + </p> + <p> + In operation the perforated tape is placed on the transmission drum, and + the chemically prepared tape on the receiving drum. As the perforated tape + passes over the transmission drum the advanced rollers 6 or 8 first close + the circuit through the perforations, and a positive current passes from + the batteries through the drum and down to the ground; thence through the + earth at the receiving end up to the other drum and back to the batteries + via the tellurium pins 2 or 4 and the line wire. With this positive + current the tellurium pins make marks upon the paper tape, but the iron + pins make no mark. In the merest fraction of a second, as the perforated + paper continues to pass over the transmission drum, the rollers 5 or 7 + close the circuit through other perforations and t e current passes in the + opposite direction, over the line wire, through pins 1 or 3, and returns + through the earth. In this case the iron pins mark the paper tape, but the + tellurium pins make no mark. It will be obvious, therefore, that as the + rollers are set so as to allow of currents of opposite polarity to be + alternately and rapidly sent by means of the perforations, the marks upon + the tape at the receiving station will occupy their proper relative + positions, and the aggregate result will be letters corresponding to those + perforated in the transmission tape. + </p> + <p> + Edison subsequently made still further improvements in this direction, by + which he reduced the number of conducting wires to one, but the principles + involved were analogous to the one just described. + </p> + <p> + This Roman letter system was in use for several years on lines between New + York, Philadelphia, and Washington, and was so efficient that a speed of + three thousand words a minute was attained on the line between the two + first-named cities. + </p> + <p> + Inasmuch as there were several proposed systems of rapid automatic + telegraphy in existence at the time Edison entered the field, but none of + them in practical commercial use, it becomes a matter of interest to + inquire wherein they were deficient, and what constituted the elements of + Edison's success. + </p> + <p> + The chief difficulties in the transmission of Morse characters had been + two in number, the most serious of which was that on the receiving tape + the characters would be prolonged and run into one another, forming a + draggled line and thus rendering the message unintelligible. This arose + from the fact that, on account of the rapid succession of the electric + impulses, there was not sufficient time between them for the electric + action to cease entirely. Consequently the line could not clear itself, + and became surcharged, as it were; the effect being an attenuated + prolongation of each impulse as manifested in a weaker continuation of the + mark on the tape, thus making the whole message indistinct. These + secondary marks were called "tailings." + </p> + <p> + For many years electricians had tried in vain to overcome this difficulty. + Edison devoted a great deal of thought and energy to the question, in the + course of which he experimented through one hundred and twenty consecutive + nights, in the year 1873, on the line between New York and Washington. His + solution of the problem was simple but effectual. It involved the + principle of inductive compensation. In a shunt circuit with the receiving + instrument he introduced electromagnets. The pulsations of current passed + through the helices of these magnets, producing an augmented marking + effect upon the receiving tape, but upon the breaking of the current, the + magnet, in discharging itself of the induced magnetism, would set up + momentarily a counter-current of opposite polarity. This neutralized the + "tailing" effect by clearing the line between pulsations, thus allowing + the telegraphic characters to be clearly and distinctly outlined upon the + tape. Further elaboration of this method was made later by the addition of + rheostats, condensers, and local opposition batteries on long lines. + </p> + <p> + The other difficulty above referred to was one that had also occupied + considerable thought and attention of many workers in the field, and + related to the perforating of the dash in the transmission tape. It + involved mechanical complications that seemed to be insurmountable, and up + to the time Edison invented his perforating machine no really good method + was available. He abandoned the attempt to cut dashes as such, in the + paper tape, but instead punched three round holes so arranged as to form a + triangle. A concrete example is presented in the illustration below, which + shows a piece of tape with perforations representing the word "same." + </p> + <p> + The philosophy of this will be at once perceived when it is remembered + that the two little wheels running upon the drum of the transmitting + instrument were situated side by side, corresponding in distance to the + two rows of holes. When a triangle of three holes, intended to form the + dash, reached the wheels, one of them dropped into a lower hole. Before it + could get out, the other wheel dropped into the hole at the apex of the + triangle, thus continuing the connection, which was still further + prolonged by the first wheel dropping into the third hole. Thus, an + extended contact was made, which, by transmitting a long impulse, resulted + in the marking of a dash upon the receiving tape. + </p> + <p> + This method was in successful commercial use for some time in the early + seventies, giving a speed of from three to four thousand words a minute + over a single line, but later on was superseded by Edison's Roman letter + system, above referred to. + </p> + <p> + The subject of automatic telegraphy received a vast amount of attention + from inventors at the time it was in vogue. None was more earnest or + indefatigable than Edison, who, during the progress of his investigations, + took out thirty-eight patents on various inventions relating thereto, some + of them covering chemical solutions for the receiving paper. This of + itself was a subject of much importance and a vast amount of research and + labor was expended upon it. In the laboratory note-books there are + recorded thousands of experiments showing that Edison's investigations not + only included an enormous number of chemical salts and compounds, but also + an exhaustive variety of plants, flowers, roots, herbs, and barks. + </p> + <p> + It seems inexplicable at first view that a system of telegraphy + sufficiently rapid and economical to be practically available for + important business correspondence should have fallen into disuse. This, + however, is made clear—so far as concerns Edison's invention at any + rate—in Chapter VIII of the preceding narrative. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0038" id="link2H_4_0038"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + IV. WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY + </h2> + <p> + ALTHOUGH Mr. Edison has taken no active part in the development of the + more modern wireless telegraphy, and his name has not occurred in + connection therewith, the underlying phenomena had been noted by him many + years in advance of the art, as will presently be explained. The authors + believe that this explanation will reveal a status of Edison in relation + to the subject that has thus far been unknown to the public. + </p> + <p> + While the term "wireless telegraphy," as now applied to the modern method + of electrical communication between distant points without intervening + conductors, is self-explanatory, it was also applicable, strictly + speaking, to the previous art of telegraphing to and from moving trains, + and between points not greatly remote from each other, and not connected + together with wires. + </p> + <p> + The latter system (described in Chapter XXIII and in a succeeding article + of this Appendix) was based upon the phenomena of electromagnetic or + electrostatic induction between conductors separated by more or less + space, whereby electric impulses of relatively low potential and low + frequency set up in. one conductor were transmitted inductively across the + air to another conductor, and there received through the medium of + appropriate instruments connected therewith. + </p> + <p> + As distinguished from this system, however, modern wireless telegraphy—so + called—has its basis in the utilization of electric or ether waves + in free space, such waves being set up by electric oscillations, or + surgings, of comparatively high potential and high frequency, produced by + the operation of suitable electrical apparatus. Broadly speaking, these + oscillations arise from disruptive discharges of an induction coil, or + other form of oscillator, across an air-gap, and their character is + controlled by the manipulation of a special type of circuit-breaking key, + by means of which long and short discharges are produced. The electric or + etheric waves thereby set up are detected and received by another special + form of apparatus more or less distant, without any intervening wires or + conductors. + </p> + <p> + In November, 1875, Edison, while experimenting in his Newark laboratory, + discovered a new manifestation of electricity through mysterious sparks + which could be produced under conditions unknown up to that time. + Recognizing at once the absolutely unique character of the phenomena, he + continued his investigations enthusiastically over two mouths, finally + arriving at a correct conclusion as to the oscillatory nature of the + hitherto unknown manifestations. Strange to say, however, the true import + and practical applicability of these phenomena did not occur to his mind. + Indeed, it was not until more than TWELVE YEARS AFTERWARD, in 1887, upon + the publication of the notable work of Prof. H. Hertz proving the + existence of electric waves in free space, that Edison realized the fact + that the fundamental principle of aerial telegraphy had been within his + grasp in the winter of 1875; for although the work of Hertz was more + profound and mathematical than that of Edison, the principle involved and + the phenomena observed were practically identical—in fact, it may be + remarked that some of the methods and experimental apparatus were quite + similar, especially the "dark box" with micrometer adjustment, used by + both in observing the spark. [25] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 25: During the period in which Edison exhibited + his lighting system at the Paris Exposition in 1881, his + representative, Mr. Charles Batchelor, repeated Edison's + remarkable experiments of the winter of 1875 for the benefit + of a great number of European savants, using with other + apparatus the original "dark box" with micrometer + adjustment.] +</pre> + <p> + There is not the slightest intention on the part of the authors to detract + in the least degree from the brilliant work of Hertz, but, on the + contrary, to ascribe to him the honor that is his due in having given + mathematical direction and certainty to so important a discovery. The + adaptation of the principles thus elucidated and the subsequent + development of the present wonderful art by Marconi, Branly, Lodge, Slaby, + and others are now too well known to call for further remark at this + place. + </p> + <p> + Strange to say, that although Edison's early experiments in "etheric + force" called forth extensive comment and discussion in the public prints + of the period, they seemed to have been generally overlooked when the work + of Hertz was published. At a meeting of the Institution of Electrical + Engineers, held in London on May 16, 1889, at which there was a discussion + on the celebrated paper of Prof. (Sir) Oliver Lodge on "Lightning + Conductors," however; the chairman, Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), + made the following remarks: + </p> + <p> + "We all know how Faraday made himself a cage six feet in diameter, hung it + up in mid-air in the theatre of the Royal Institution, went into it, and, + as he said, lived in it and made experiments. It was a cage with tin-foil + hanging all round it; it was not a complete metallic enclosing shell. + Faraday had a powerful machine working in the neighborhood, giving all + varieties of gradual working-up and discharges by 'impulsive rush'; and + whether it was a sudden discharge of ordinary insulated conductors, or of + Leyden jars in the neighborhood outside the cage, or electrification and + discharge of the cage itself, he saw no effects on his most delicate + gold-leaf electroscopes in the interior. His attention was not directed to + look for Hertz sparks, or probably he might have found them in the + interior. Edison seems to have noticed something of the kind in what he + called the etheric force. His name 'etheric' may, thirteen years ago, have + seemed to many people absurd. But now we are all beginning to call these + inductive phenomena 'etheric.'" + </p> + <p> + With these preliminary observations, let us now glance briefly at Edison's + laboratory experiments, of which mention has been made. + </p> + <p> + Oh the first manifestation of the unusual phenomena in November, 1875, + Edison's keenness of perception led him at once to believe that he had + discovered a new force. Indeed, the earliest entry of this discovery in + the laboratory note-book bore that caption. After a few days of further + experiment and observation, however, he changed it to "Etheric Force," and + the further records thereof (all in Mr. Batchelor's handwriting) were + under that heading. + </p> + <p> + The publication of Edison's discovery created considerable attention at + the time, calling forth a storm of general ridicule and incredulity. But a + few scientific men of the period, whose experimental methods were careful + and exact, corroborated his deductions after obtaining similar phenomena + by repeating his experiments with intelligent precision. Among these was + the late Dr. George M. Beard, a noted physicist, who entered + enthusiastically into the investigation, and, in addition to a great deal + of independent experiment, spent much time with Edison at his laboratory. + Doctor Beard wrote a treatise of some length on the subject, in which he + concurred with Edison's deduction that the phenomena were the + manifestation of oscillations, or rapidly reversing waves of electricity, + which did not respond to the usual tests. Edison had observed the tendency + of this force to diffuse itself in various directions through the air and + through matter, hence the name "Etheric" that he had provisionally applied + to it. + </p> + <p> + Edison's laboratory notes on this striking investigation are fascinating + and voluminous, but cannot be reproduced in full for lack of space. In + view of the later practical application of the principles involved, + however, the reader will probably be interested in perusing a few extracts + therefrom as illustrated by facsimiles of the original sketches from the + laboratory note-book. + </p> + <p> + As the full significance of the experiments shown by these extracts may + not be apparent to a lay reader, it may be stated by way of premise that, + ordinarily, a current only follows a closed circuit. An electric bell or + electric light is a familiar instance of this rule. There is in each case + an open (wire) circuit which is closed by pressing the button or turning + the switch, thus making a complete and uninterrupted path in which the + current may travel and do its work. Until the time of Edison's + investigations of 1875, now under consideration, electricity had never + been known to manifest itself except through a closed circuit. But, as the + reader will see from the following excerpts, Edison discovered a hitherto + unknown phenomenon—namely, that under certain conditions the rule + would be reversed and electricity would pass through space and through + matter entirely unconnected with its point of origin. In other words, he + had found the forerunner of wireless telegraphy. Had he then realized the + full import of his discovery, all he needed was to increase the strength + of the waves and to provide a very sensitive detector, like the coherer, + in order to have anticipated the principal developments that came many + years afterward. With these explanatory observations, we will now turn to + the excerpts referred to, which are as follows: + </p> + <p> + "November 22, 1875. New Force.—In experimenting with a vibrator + magnet consisting of a bar of Stubb's steel fastened at one end and made + to vibrate by means of a magnet, we noticed a spark coming from the cores + of the magnet. This we have noticed often in relays, in stock-printers, + when there were a little iron filings between the armature and core, and + more often in our new electric pen, and we have always come to the + conclusion that it was caused by strong induction. But when we noticed it + on this vibrator it seemed so strong that it struck us forcibly there + might be something more than induction. We now found that if we touched + any metallic part of the vibrator or magnet we got the spark. The larger + the body of iron touched to the vibrator the larger the spark. We now + connected a wire to X, the end of the vibrating rod, and we found we could + get a spark from it by touching a piece of iron to it, and one of the most + curious phenomena is that if you turn the wire around on itself and let + the point of the wire touch any other portion of itself you get a spark. + By connecting X to the gas-pipe we drew sparks from the gas-pipes in any + part of the room by drawing an iron wire over the brass jet of the cock. + This is simply wonderful, and a good proof that the cause of the spark is + a TRUE UNKNOWN FORCE." + </p> + <p> + "November 23, 1815. New Force.—The following very curious result was + obtained with it. The vibrator shown in Fig. 1 and battery were placed on + insulated stands; and a wire connected to X (tried both copper and iron) + carried over to the stove about twenty feet distant. When the end of the + wire was rubbed on the stove it gave out splendid sparks. When permanently + connected to the stove, sparks could be drawn from the stove by a piece of + wire held in the hand. The point X of vibrator was now connected to the + gas-pipe and still the sparks could be drawn from the stove." + </p> + <p> + . . . . . . . . . + </p> + <p> + "Put a coil of wire over the end of rod X and passed the ends of spool + through galvanometer without affecting it in any way. Tried a 6-ohm spool + add a 200-ohm. We now tried all the metals, touching each one in turn to + the point X." [Here follows a list of metals and the character of spark + obtained with each.] + </p> + <p> + . . . . . . . . . + </p> + <p> + "By increasing the battery from eight to twelve cells we get a spark when + the vibrating magnet is shunted with 3 ohms. Cannot taste the least shock + at B, yet between carbon points the spark is very vivid. As will be seen, + X has no connection with anything. With a glass rod four feet long, well + rubbed with a piece of silk over a hot stove, with a piece of battery + carbon secured to one end, we received vivid sparks into the carbon when + the other end was held in the hand with the handkerchief, yet the + galvanometer, chemical paper, the sense of shock in the tongue, and a + gold-leaf electroscope which would diverge at two feet from a half-inch + spark plate-glass machine were not affected in the least by it. + </p> + <p> + "A piece of coal held to the wire showed faint sparks. + </p> + <p> + "We had a box made thus: whereby two points could be brought together + within a dark box provided with an eyepiece. The points were iron, and we + found the sparks were very irregular. After testing some time two + lead-pencils found more regular and very much more vivid. We then + substituted the graphite points instead of iron." [26] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 26: The dark box had micrometer screws for + delicate adjustment of the carbon points, and was thereafter + largely used in this series of investigations for better + study of the spark. When Mr. Edison's experiments were + repeated by Mr. Batchelor, who represented him at the Paris + Exposition of 1881, the dark box was employed for a similar + purpose.] +</pre> + <p> + . . . . . . . . . + </p> + <p> + After recording a considerable number of other experiments, the laboratory + notes go on to state: + </p> + <p> + "November 30, 1875. Etheric Force.—We found the addition of battery + to the Stubb's wire vibrator greatly increased the volume of spark. + Several persons could obtain sparks from the gas-pipes at once, each spark + being equal in volume and brilliancy to the spark drawn by a single + person.... Edison now grasped the (gas) pipe, and with the other hand + holding a piece of metal, he touched several other metallic substances, + obtained sparks, showing that the force passed through his body." + </p> + <p> + . . . . . . . . . + </p> + <p> + "December 3, 1875. Etheric Force.—Charley Edison hung to the + gas-pipe with feet above the floor, and with a knife got a spark from the + pipe he was hanging on. We now took the wire from the vibrator in one hand + and stood on a block of paraffin eighteen inches square and six inches + thick; holding a knife in the other hand, we drew sparks from the + stove-pipe. We now tried the crucial test of passing the etheric current + through the sciatic nerve of a frog just killed. Previous to trying, we + tested its sensibility by the current from a single Bunsen cell. We put in + resistance up to 500,000 ohms, and the twitching was still perceptible. We + tried the induced current from our induction coil having one cell on + primary,, the spark jumping about one-fiftieth of an inch, the terminal of + the secondary connected to the frog and it straightened out with violence. + We arranged frog's legs to pass etheric force through. We placed legs on + an inverted beaker, and held the two ends of the wires on glass rods eight + inches long. On connecting one to the sciatic nerve and the other to the + fleshy part of the leg no movement could be discerned, although brilliant + sparks could be obtained on the graphite points when the frog was in + circuit. Doctor Beard was present when this was tried." + </p> + <p> + . . . . . . . . . + </p> + <p> + "December 5, 1875. Etheric Force.—Three persons grasping hands and + standing upon blocks of paraffin twelve inches square and six thick drew + sparks from the adjoining stove when another person touched the sounder + with any piece of metal.... A galvanoscopic frog giving contractions with + one cell through two water rheostats was then placed in circuit. When the + wires from the vibrator and the gas-pipe were connected, slight + contractions were noted, sometimes very plain and marked, showing the + apparent presence of electricity, which from the high insulation seemed + improbable. Doctor Beard, who was present, inferred from the way the leg + contracted that it moved on both opening and closing the circuit. To test + this we disconnected the wire between the frog and battery, and placed, + instead of a vibrating sounder, a simple Morse key and a sounder taking + the 'etheric' from armature. The spark was now tested in dark box and + found to be very strong. It was then connected to the nerves of the frog, + BUT NO MOVEMENT OF ANY KIND COULD BE DETECTED UPON WORKING THE KEY, + although the brilliancy and power of the spark were undiminished. The + thought then occurred to Edison that the movement of the frog was due to + mechanical vibrations from the vibrator (which gives probably two hundred + and fifty vibrations per second), passing through the wires and irritating + the sensitive nerves of the frog. Upon disconnecting the battery wires and + holding a tuning-fork giving three hundred and twenty-six vibrations per + second to the base of the sounder, the vibrations over the wire made the + frog contract nearly every time.... The contraction of the frog's legs may + with considerable safety be said to be caused by these mechanical + vibrations being transmitted through the conducting wires." + </p> + <p> + Edison thought that the longitudinal vibrations caused by the sounder + produced a more marked effect, and proceeded to try out his theory. The + very next entry in the laboratory note-book bears the same date as the + above (December 5, 1875), and is entitled "Longitudinal Vibrations," and + reads as follows: + </p> + <p> + "We took a long iron wire one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter and rubbed + it lengthways with a piece of leather with resin on for about three feet, + backward and forward. About ten feet away we applied the wire to the back + of the neck and it gives a horrible sensation, showing the vibrations + conducted through the wire." + </p> + <p> + . . . . . . . . . + </p> + <p> + The following experiment illustrates notably the movement of the electric + waves through free space: + </p> + <p> + "December 26, 1875. Etheric Force.—An experiment tried to-night + gives a curious result. A is a vibrator, B, C, D, E are sheets of tin-foil + hung on insulating stands. The sheets are about twelve by eight inches. B + and C are twenty-six inches apart, C and D forty-eight inches and D and E + twenty-six inches. B is connected to the vibrator and E to point in dark + box, the other point to ground. We received sparks at intervals, although + insulated by such space." + </p> + <p> + With the above our extracts must close, although we have given but a few + of the interesting experiments tried at the time. It will be noticed, + however, that these records show much progression in a little over a + month. Just after the item last above extracted, the Edison shop became + greatly rushed on telegraphic inventions, and not many months afterward + came the removal to Menlo Park; hence the etheric-force investigations + were side-tracked for other matters deemed to be more important at that + time. + </p> + <p> + Doctor Beard in his previously mentioned treatise refers, on page 27, to + the views of others who have repeated Edison's experiments and observed + the phenomena, and in a foot-note says: + </p> + <p> + "Professor Houston, of Philadelphia, among others, has repeated some of + these physical experiments, has adopted in full and after but a partial + study of the subject, the hypothesis of rapidly reversed electricity as + suggested in my letter to the Tribune of December 8th, and further claims + priority of discovery, because he observed the spark of this when + experimenting with a Ruhmkorff coil four years ago. To this claim, if it + be seriously entertained, the obvious reply is that thousands of persons, + probably, had seen this spark before it was DISCOVERED by Mr. Edison; it + had been seen by Professor Nipher, who supposed, and still supposes, it is + the spark of the extra current; it has been seen by my friend, Prof. J. E. + Smith, who assumed, as he tells me, without examination, that it was + inductive electricity breaking through bad insulation; it had been seen, + as has been stated, by Mr. Edison many times before he thought it worthy + of study, it was undoubtedly seen by Professor Houston, who, like so many + others, failed to even suspect its meaning and thus missed an important + discovery. The honor of a scientific discovery belongs, not to him who + first sees a thing, but to him who first sees it with expert eyes; not to + him even who drops an original suggestion, but to him who first makes, + that suggestion fruitful of results. If to see with the eyes a phenomenon + is to discover the law of which that phenomenon is a part, then every + schoolboy who, before the time of Newton, ever saw an apple fall, was a + discoverer of the law of gravitation...." + </p> + <p> + Edison took out only one patent on long-distance telegraphy without wires. + While the principle involved therein (induction) was not precisely + analogous to the above, or to the present system of wireless telegraphy, + it was a step forward in the progress of the art. The application was + filed May 23, 1885, at the time he was working on induction telegraphy + (two years before the publication of the work of Hertz), but the patent + (No. 465,971) was not issued until December 29, 1891. In 1903 it was + purchased from him by the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company. Edison has + always had a great admiration for Marconi and his work, and a warm + friendship exists between the two men. During the formative period of the + Marconi Company attempts were made to influence Edison to sell this patent + to an opposing concern, but his regard for Marconi and belief in the + fundamental nature of his work were so strong that he refused flatly, + because in the hands of an enemy the patent might be used inimically to + Marconi's interests. + </p> + <p> + Edison's ideas, as expressed in the specifications of this patent, show + very clearly the close analogy of his system to that now in vogue. As they + were filed in the Patent Office several years before the possibility of + wireless telegraphy was suspected, it will undoubtedly be of interest to + give the following extract therefrom: + </p> + <p> + "I have discovered that if sufficient elevation be obtained to overcome + the curvature of the earth's surface and to reduce to the minimum the + earth's absorption, electric telegraphing or signalling between distant + points can be carried on by induction without the use of wires connecting + such distant points. This discovery is especially applicable to + telegraphing across bodies of water, thus avoiding the use of submarine + cables, or for communicating between vessels at sea, or between vessels at + sea and points on land, but it is also applicable to electric + communication between distant points on land, it being necessary, however, + on land (with the exception of communication over open prairie) to + increase the elevation in order to reduce to the minimum the + induction-absorbing effect of houses, trees, and elevations in the land + itself. At sea from an elevation of one hundred feet I can communicate + electrically a great distance, and since this elevation or one + sufficiently high can be had by utilizing the masts of ships, signals can + be sent and received between ships separated a considerable distance, and + by repeating the signals from ship to ship communication can be + established between points at any distance apart or across the largest + seas and even oceans. The collision of ships in fogs can be prevented by + this character of signalling, by the use of which, also, the safety of a + ship in approaching a dangerous coast in foggy weather can be assured. In + communicating between points on land, poles of great height can be used, + or captive balloons. At these elevated points, whether upon the masts of + ships, upon poles or balloons, condensing surfaces of metal or other + conductor of electricity are located. Each condensing surface is connected + with earth by an electrical conducting wire. On land this earth connection + would be one of usual character in telegraphy. At sea the wire would run + to one or more metal plates on the bottom of the vessel, where the earth + connection would be made with the water. The high-resistance secondary + circuit of an induction coil is located in circuit between the condensing + surface and the ground. The primary circuit of the induction coil includes + a battery and a device for transmitting signals, which may be a revolving + circuit-breaker operated continually by a motor of any suitable kind, + either electrical or mechanical, and a key normally short-circuiting the + circuit-breaker or secondary coil. For receiving signals I locate in said + circuit between the condensing surface and the ground a diaphragm sounder, + which is preferably one of my electromotograph telephone receivers. The + key normally short-circuiting the revolving circuit-breaker, no impulses + are produced in the induction coil until the key is depressed, when a + large number of impulses are produced in the primary, and by means of the + secondary corresponding impulses or variations in tension are produced at + the elevated condensing surface, producing thereat electrostatic impulses. + These electrostatic impulses are transmitted inductively to the elevated + condensing surface at the distant point, and are made audible by the + electromotograph connected in the ground circuit with such distant + condensing surface." + </p> + <p> + The accompanying illustrations are reduced facsimiles of the drawings + attached to the above patent, No. 465,971. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0039" id="link2H_4_0039"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + V. THE ELECTROMOTOGRAPH + </h2> + <p> + IN solving a problem that at the time was thought to be insurmountable, + and in the adaptability of its principles to the successful overcoming of + apparently insuperable difficulties subsequently arising in other lines of + work, this invention is one of the most remarkable of the many that Edison + has made in his long career as an inventor. + </p> + <p> + The object primarily sought to be accomplished was the repeating of + telegraphic signals from a distance without the aid of a galvanometer or + an electromagnetic relay, to overcome the claims of the Page patent + referred to in the preceding narrative. This object was achieved in the + device described in Edison's basic patent No. 158,787, issued January 19, + 1875, by the substitution of friction and anti-friction for the presence + and absence of magnetism in a regulation relay. + </p> + <p> + It may be observed, parenthetically, for the benefit of the lay reader, + that in telegraphy the device known as the relay is a receiving instrument + containing an electromagnet adapted to respond to the weak line-current. + Its armature moves in accordance with electrical impulses, or signals, + transmitted from a distance, and, in so responding, operates mechanically + to alternately close and open a separate local circuit in which there is a + sounder and a powerful battery. When used for true relaying purposes the + signals received from a distance are in turn repeated over the next + section of the line, the powerful local battery furnishing current for + this purpose. As this causes a loud repetition of the original signals, it + will be seen that relaying is an economic method of extending a telegraph + circuit beyond the natural limits of its battery power. + </p> + <p> + At the time of Edison's invention, as related in Chapter IX of the + preceding narrative, there existed no other known method than the one just + described for the repetition of transmitted signals, thus limiting the + application of telegraphy to the pleasure of those who might own any + patent controlling the relay, except on simple circuits where a single + battery was sufficient. Edison's previous discovery of differential + friction of surfaces through electrochemical decomposition was now adapted + by him to produce motion at the end of a circuit without the intervention + of an electromagnet. In other words, he invented a telegraph instrument + having a vibrator controlled by electrochemical decomposition, to take the + place of a vibrating armature operated by an electromagnet, and thus + opened an entirely new and unsuspected avenue in the art. + </p> + <p> + Edison's electromotograph comprised an ingeniously arranged apparatus in + which two surfaces, normally in contact with each other, were caused to + alternately adhere by friction or slip by reason of electrochemical + decomposition. One of these surfaces consisted of a small drum or cylinder + of chalk, which was kept in a moistened condition with a suitable chemical + solution, and adapted to revolve continuously by clockwork. The other + surface consisted of a small pad which rested with frictional pressure on + the periphery of the drum. This pad was carried on the end of a vibrating + arm whose lateral movement was limited between two adjustable points. + Normally, the frictional pressure between the drum and pad would carry the + latter with the former as it revolved, but if the friction were removed a + spring on the end of the vibrator arm would draw it back to its + starting-place. + </p> + <p> + In practice, the chalk drum was electrically connected with one pole of an + incoming telegraph circuit, and the vibrating arm and pad with the other + pole. When the drum rotated, the friction of the pad carried the vibrating + arm forward, but an electrical impulse coming over the line would + decompose the chemical solution with which the drum was moistened, causing + an effect similar to lubrication, and thus allowing the pad to slip + backward freely in response to the pull of its retractile spring. The + frictional movements of the pad with the drum were comparatively long or + short, and corresponded with the length of the impulses sent in over the + line. Thus, the transmission of Morse dots and dashes by the distant + operator resulted in movements of corresponding length by the frictional + pad and vibrating arm. + </p> + <p> + This brings us to the gist of the ingenious way in which Edison + substituted the action of electrochemical decomposition for that of the + electromagnet to operate a relay. The actual relaying was accomplished + through the medium of two contacts making connection with the local or + relay circuit. One of these contacts was fixed, while the other was + carried by the vibrating arm; and, as the latter made its forward and + backward movements, these contacts were alternately brought together or + separated, thus throwing in and out of circuit the battery and sounder in + the local circuit and causing a repetition of the incoming signals. The + other side of the local circuit was permanently connected to an insulated + block on the vibrator. This device not only worked with great rapidity, + but was extremely sensitive, and would respond to currents too weak to + affect the most delicate electromagnetic relay. It should be stated that + Edison did not confine himself to the working of the electromotograph by + the slipping of surfaces through the action of incoming current, but by + varying the character of the surfaces in contact the frictional effect + might be intensified by the electrical current. In such a case the + movements would be the reverse of those above indicated, but the end + sought—namely, the relaying of messages—would be attained with + the same certainty. + </p> + <p> + While the principal object of this invention was to accomplish the + repetition of signals without the aid of an electromagnetic relay, the + instrument devised by Edison was capable of use as a recorder also, by + employing a small wheel inked by a fountain wheel and attached to the + vibrating arm through suitable mechanism. By means of this adjunct the + dashes and dots of the transmitted impulses could be recorded upon a paper + ribbon passing continuously over the drum. + </p> + <p> + The electromotograph is shown diagrammatically in Figs. 1 and 2, in plan + and vertical section respectively. The reference letters in each case + indicate identical parts: A being the chalk drum, B the paper tape, C the + auxiliary cylinder, D the vibrating arm, E the frictional pad, F the + spring, G and H the two contacts, I and J the two wires leading to local + circuit, K a battery, and L an ordinary telegraph key. The two last named, + K and L, are shown to make the sketch complete but in practice would be at + the transmitting end, which might be hundreds of miles away. It will be + understood, of course, that the electromotograph is a receiving and + relaying instrument. + </p> + <p> + Another notable use of the electromotograph principle was in its + adaptation to the receiver in Edison's loud-speaking telephone, on which + United States Patent No. 221,957 was issued November 25, 1879. A chalk + cylinder moistened with a chemical solution was revolved by hand or a + small motor. Resting on the cylinder was a palladium-faced pen or spring, + which was attached to a mica diaphragm in a resonator. The current passed + from the main line through the pen to the chalk and to the battery. The + sound-waves impinging upon the distant transmitter varied the resistance + of the carbon button therein, thus causing corresponding variations in the + strength of the battery current. These variations, passing through the + chalk cylinder produced more or less electrochemical decomposition, which + in turn caused differences of adhesion between the pen and cylinder and + hence gave rise to mechanical vibrations of the diaphragm by reason of + which the speaker's words were reproduced. Telephones so operated repeated + speaking and singing in very loud tones. In one instance, spoken words and + the singing of songs originating at a distance were heard perfectly by an + audience of over five thousand people. + </p> + <p> + The loud-speaking telephone is shown in section, diagrammatically, in the + sketch (Fig. 3), in which A is the chalk cylinder mounted on a shaft, B. + The palladium-faced pen or spring, C, is connected to diaphragm D. The + instrument in its commercial form is shown in Fig. 4. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0040" id="link2H_4_0040"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VI. THE TELEPHONE + </h2> + <p> + ON April 27, 1877, Edison filed in the United States Patent Office an + application for a patent on a telephone, and on May 3, 1892, more than + fifteen years afterward, Patent No. 474,230 was granted thereon. Numerous + other patents have been issued to him for improvements in telephones, but + the one above specified may be considered as the most important of them, + since it is the one that first discloses the principle of the carbon + transmitter. + </p> + <p> + This patent embodies but two claims, which are as follows: + </p> + <p> + "1. In a speaking-telegraph transmitter, the combination of a metallic + diaphragm and disk of plumbago or equivalent material, the contiguous + faces of said disk and diaphragm being in contact, substantially as + described. + </p> + <p> + "2. As a means for effecting a varying surface contact in the circuit of a + speaking-telegraph transmitter, the combination of two electrodes, one of + plumbago or similar material, and both having broad surfaces in vibratory + contact with each other, substantially as described." + </p> + <p> + The advance that was brought about by Edison's carbon transmitter will be + more apparent if we glance first at the state of the art of telephony + prior to his invention. + </p> + <p> + Bell was undoubtedly the first inventor of the art of transmitting speech + over an electric circuit, but, with his particular form of telephone, the + field was circumscribed. Bell's telephone is shown in the diagrammatic + sectional sketch (Fig. 1). + </p> + <p> + In the drawing M is a bar magnet contained in the rubber case, L. A + bobbin, or coil of wire, B, surrounds one end of the magnet. A diaphragm + of soft iron is shown at D, and E is the mouthpiece. The wire terminals of + the coil, B, connect with the binding screws, C C. + </p> + <p> + The next illustration shows a pair of such telephones connected for use, + the working parts only being designated by the above reference letters. + </p> + <p> + It will be noted that the wire terminals are here put to their proper + uses, two being joined together to form a line of communication, and the + other two being respectively connected to "ground." + </p> + <p> + Now, if we imagine a person at each one of the instruments (Fig. 2) we + shall find that when one of them speaks the sound vibrations impinge upon + the diaphragm and cause it to act as a vibrating armature. By reason of + its vibrations, this diaphragm induces very weak electric impulses in the + magnetic coil. These impulses, according to Bell's theory, correspond in + form to the sound-waves, and, passing over the line, energize the magnet + coil at the receiving end, thus giving rise to corresponding variations in + magnetism by reason of which the receiving diaphragm is similarly vibrated + so as to reproduce the sounds. A single apparatus at each end is therefore + sufficient, performing the double function of transmitter and receiver. It + will be noticed that in this arrangement no battery is used The strength + of the impulses transmitted is therefore limited to that of the + necessarily weak induction currents generated by the original sounds minus + any loss arising by reason of resistance in the line. + </p> + <p> + Edison's carbon transmitter overcame this vital or limiting weakness by + providing for independent power on the transmission circuit, and by + introducing the principle of varying the resistance of that circuit with + changes in the pressure. With Edison's telephone there is used a closed + circuit on which a battery current constantly flows, and in that circuit + is a pair of electrodes, one or both of which is carbon. These electrodes + are always in contact with a certain initial pressure, so that current + will be always flowing over the circuit. One of the electrodes is + connected with the diaphragm on which the sound-waves impinge, and the + vibrations of this diaphragm cause corresponding variations in pressure + between the electrodes, and thereby effect similar variations in the + current which is passing over the line to the receiving end. This current, + flowing around the receiving magnet, causes corresponding impulses + therein, which, acting upon its diaphragm, effect a reproduction of the + original vibrations and hence of the original sounds. + </p> + <p> + In other words, the essential difference is that with Bell's telephone the + sound-waves themselves generate the electric impulses, which are therefore + extremely faint. With Edison's telephone the sound-waves simply actuate an + electric valve, so to speak, and permit variations in a current of any + desired strength. + </p> + <p> + A second distinction between the two telephones is this: With the Bell + apparatus the very weak electric impulses generated by the vibration of + the transmitting diaphragm pass over the entire line to the receiving end, + and, in consequence, the possible length of line is limited to a few + miles, even under ideal conditions. With Edison's telephone the battery + current does not flow on the main line, but passes through the primary + circuit of an induction-coil, from the secondary of which corresponding + impulses of enormously higher potential are sent out on the main line to + the receiving end. In consequence, the line may be hundreds of miles in + length. No modern telephone system is in use to-day that does not use + these characteristic features: the varying resistance and the + induction-coil. The system inaugurated by Edison is shown by the diagram + (Fig. 3), in which the carbon transmitter, the induction-coil, the line, + and the distant receiver are respectively indicated. + </p> + <p> + In Fig. 4 an early form of the Edison carbon transmitter is represented in + sectional view. + </p> + <p> + The carbon disk is represented by the black portion, E, near the + diaphragm, A, placed between two platinum plates D and G, which are + connected in the battery circuit, as shown by the lines. A small piece of + rubber tubing, B, is attached to the centre of the metallic diaphragm, and + presses lightly against an ivory piece, F, which is placed directly over + one of the platinum plates. Whenever, therefore, any motion is given to + the diaphragm, it is immediately followed by a corresponding pressure upon + the carbon, and by a change of resistance in the latter, as described + above. + </p> + <p> + It is interesting to note the position which Edison occupies in the + telephone art from a legal standpoint. To this end the reader's attention + is called to a few extracts from a decision of Judge Brown in two suits + brought in the United States Circuit Court, District of Massachusetts, by + the American Bell Telephone Company against the National Telephone + Manufacturing Company, et al., and Century Telephone Company, et al., + reported in Federal Reporter, 109, page 976, et seq. These suits were + brought on the Berliner patent, which, it was claimed, covered broadly the + electrical transmission of speech by variations of pressure between + opposing electrodes in constant contact. The Berliner patent was declared + invalid, and in the course of a long and exhaustive opinion, in which the + state of art and the work of Bell, Edison, Berliner, and others was fully + discussed, the learned Judge made the following remarks: "The carbon + electrode was the invention of Edison.... Edison preceded Berliner in the + transmission of speech.... The carbon transmitter was an experimental + invention of a very high order of merit.... Edison, by countless + experiments, succeeded in advancing the art. . . . That Edison did produce + speech with solid electrodes before Berliner is clearly proven.... The use + of carbon in a transmitter is, beyond controversy, the invention of + Edison. Edison was the first to make apparatus in which carbon was used as + one of the electrodes.... The carbon transmitter displaced Bell's magnetic + transmitter, and, under several forms of construction, remains the only + commercial instrument.... The advance in the art was due to the carbon + electrode of Edison.... It is conceded that the Edison transmitter as + apparatus is a very important invention.... An immense amount of + painstaking and highly ingenious experiment preceded Edison's successful + result. The discovery of the availability of carbon was unquestionably + invention, and it resulted in the 'first practical success in the art.'" + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0041" id="link2H_4_0041"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VII. EDISON'S TASIMETER + </h2> + <p> + THIS interesting and remarkable device is one of Edison's many inventions + not generally known to the public at large, chiefly because the range of + its application has been limited to the higher branches of science. He + never applied for a patent on the instrument, but dedicated it to the + public. + </p> + <p> + The device was primarily intended for use in detecting and measuring + infinitesimal degrees of temperature, however remote, and its conception + followed Edison's researches on the carbon telephone transmitter. Its + principle depends upon the variable resistance of carbon in accordance + with the degree of pressure to which it is subjected. By means of this + instrument, pressures that are otherwise inappreciable and undiscoverable + may be observed and indicated. + </p> + <p> + The detection of small variations of temperatures is brought about through + the changes which heat or cold will produce in a sensitive material placed + in contact with a carbon button, which is put in circuit with a battery + and delicate galvanometer. In the sketch (Fig. 1) there is illustrated, + partly in section, the form of tasimeter which Edison took with him to + Rawlins, Wyoming, in July, 1878, on the expedition to observe the total + eclipse of the sun. + </p> + <p> + The substance on whose expansion the working of the instrument depends is + a strip of some material extremely sensitive to heat, such as vulcanite. + shown at A, and firmly clamped at B. Its lower end fits into a slot in a + metal plate, C, which in turn rests upon a carbon button. This latter and + the metal plate are connected in an electric circuit which includes a + battery and a sensitive galvanometer. A vulcanite or other strip is easily + affected by differences of temperature, expanding and contracting by + reason of the minutest changes. Thus, an infinitesimal variation in its + length through expansion or contraction changes the pressure on the carbon + and affects the resistance of the circuit to a corresponding degree, + thereby causing a deflection of the galvanometer; a movement of the needle + in one direction denoting expansion, and in the other contraction. The + strip, A, is first put under a slight pressure, deflecting the needle a + few degrees from zero. Any subsequent expansion or contraction of the + strip may readily be noted by further movements of the needle. In + practice, and for measurements of a very delicate nature, the tasimeter is + inserted in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge, as shown at A in the diagram + (Fig. 2). The galvanometer is shown at B in the bridge wire, and at C, D, + and E there are shown the resistances in the other arms of the bridge, + which are adjusted to equal the resistance of the tasimeter circuit. The + battery is shown at F. This arrangement tends to obviate any misleading + deflections that might arise through changes in the battery. + </p> + <p> + The dial on the front of the instrument is intended to indicate the exact + amount of physical expansion or contraction of the strip. This is + ascertained by means of a micrometer screw, S, which moves a needle, T, in + front of the dial. This screw engages with a second and similar screw + which is so arranged as to move the strip of vulcanite up or down. After a + galvanometer deflection has been obtained through the expansion or + contraction of the strip by reason of a change of temperature, a similar + deflection is obtained mechanically by turning the screw, S, one way or + the other. This causes the vulcanite strip to press more or less upon the + carbon button, and thus produces the desired change in the resistance of + the circuit. When the galvanometer shows the desired deflection, the + needle, T, will indicate upon the dial, in decimal fractions of an inch, + the exact distance through which the strip has been moved. + </p> + <p> + With such an instrument as the above, Edison demonstrated the existence of + heat in the corona at the above-mentioned total eclipse of the sun, but + exact determinations could not be made at that time, because the tasimeter + adjustment was too delicate, and at the best the galvanometer deflections + were so marked that they could not be kept within the limits of the scale. + The sensitiveness of the instrument may be easily comprehended when it is + stated that the heat of the hand thirty feet away from the cone-like + funnel of the tasimeter will so affect the galvanometer as to cause the + spot of light to leave the scale. + </p> + <p> + This instrument can also be used to indicate minute changes of moisture in + the air by substituting a strip of gelatine in place of the vulcanite. + When so arranged a moistened piece of paper held several feet away will + cause a minute expansion of the gelatine strip, which effects a pressure + on the carbon, and causes a variation in the circuit sufficient to throw + the spot of light from the galvanometer mirror off the scale. + </p> + <p> + The tasimeter has been used to demonstrate heat from remote stars (suns), + such as Arcturus. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0042" id="link2H_4_0042"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + VIII. THE EDISON PHONOGRAPH + </h2> + <p> + THE first patent that was ever granted on a device for permanently + recording the human voice and other sounds, and for reproducing the same + audibly at any future time, was United States Patent No. 200,251, issued + to Thomas A. Edison on February 19, 1878, the application having been + filed December 24, 1877. It is worthy of note that no references whatever + were cited against the application while under examination in the Patent + Office. This invention therefore, marked the very beginning of an entirely + new art, which, with the new industries attendant upon its development, + has since grown to occupy a position of worldwide reputation. + </p> + <p> + That the invention was of a truly fundamental character is also evident + from the fact that although all "talking-machines" of to-day differ very + widely in refinement from the first crude but successful phonograph of + Edison, their performance is absolutely dependent upon the employment of + the principles stated by him in his Patent No. 200,251. Quoting from the + specification attached to this patent, we find that Edison said: + </p> + <p> + "The invention consists in arranging a plate, diaphragm or other flexible + body capable of being vibrated by the human voice or other sounds, in + conjunction with a material capable of registering the movements of such + vibrating body by embossing or indenting or altering such material, in + such a manner that such register marks will be sufficient to cause a + second vibrating plate or body to be set in motion by them, and thus + reproduce the motions of the first vibrating body." + </p> + <p> + It will be at once obvious that these words describe perfectly the basic + principle of every modern phonograph or other talking-machine, + irrespective of its manufacture or trade name. + </p> + <p> + Edison's first model of the phonograph is shown in the following + illustration. + </p> + <p> + It consisted of a metallic cylinder having a helical indenting groove cut + upon it from end to end. This cylinder was mounted on a shaft supported on + two standards. This shaft at one end was fitted with a handle, by means of + which the cylinder was rotated. There were two diaphragms, one on each + side of the cylinder, one being for recording and the other for + reproducing speech or other sounds. Each diaphragm had attached to it a + needle. By means of the needle attached to the recording diaphragm, + indentations were made in a sheet of tin-foil stretched over the + peripheral surface of the cylinder when the diaphragm was vibrated by + reason of speech or other sounds. The needle on the other diaphragm + subsequently followed these indentations, thus reproducing the original + sounds. + </p> + <p> + Crude as this first model appears in comparison with machines of later + development and refinement, it embodied their fundamental essentials, and + was in fact a complete, practical phonograph from the first moment of its + operation. + </p> + <p> + The next step toward the evolution of the improved phonograph of to-day + was another form of tin-foil machine, as seen in the illustration. + </p> + <p> + It will be noted that this was merely an elaborated form of the first + model, and embodied several mechanical modifications, among which was the + employment of only one diaphragm for recording and reproducing. Such was + the general type of phonograph used for exhibition purposes in America and + other countries in the three or four years immediately succeeding the date + of this invention. + </p> + <p> + In operating the machine the recording diaphragm was advanced nearly to + the cylinder, so that as the diaphragm was vibrated by the voice the + needle would prick or indent a wave-like record in the tin-foil that was + on the cylinder. The cylinder was constantly turned during the recording, + and in turning, was simultaneously moved forward. Thus the record would be + formed on the tin-foil in a continuous spiral line. To reproduce this + record it was only necessary to again start at the beginning and cause the + needle to retrace its path in the spiral line. The needle, in passing + rapidly in contact with the recorded waves, was vibrated up and down, + causing corresponding vibrations of the diaphragm. In this way sound-waves + similar to those caused by the original sounds would be set up in the air, + thus reproducing the original speech. + </p> + <p> + The modern phonograph operates in a precisely similar way, the only + difference being in details of refinement. Instead of tin-foil, a wax + cylinder is employed, the record being cut thereon by a cutting-tool + attached to a diaphragm, while the reproduction is effected by means of a + blunt stylus similarly attached. + </p> + <p> + The cutting-tool and stylus are devices made of sapphire, a gem next in + hardness to a diamond, and they have to be cut and formed to an exact + nicety by means of diamond dust, most of the work being performed under + high-powered microscopes. The minute proportions of these devices will be + apparent by a glance at the accompanying illustrations, in which the + object on the left represents a common pin, and the objects on the right + the cutting-tool and reproducing stylus, all actual sizes. + </p> + <p> + In the next illustration (Fig. 4) there is shown in the upper sketch, + greatly magnified, the cutting or recording tool in the act of forming the + record, being vibrated rapidly by the diaphragm; and in the lower sketch, + similarly enlarged, a representation of the stylus travelling over the + record thus made, in the act of effecting a reproduction. + </p> + <p> + From the late summer of 1878 and to the fall of 1887 Edison was intensely + busy on the electric light, electric railway, and other problems, and + virtually gave no attention to the phonograph. Hence, just prior to the + latter-named period the instrument was still in its tin-foil age; but he + then began to devote serious attention to the development of an improved + type that should be of greater commercial importance. The practical + results are too well known to call for further comment. That his efforts + were not limited in extent may be inferred from the fact that since the + fall of 1887 to the present writing he has been granted in the United + States one hundred and four patents relating to the phonograph and its + accessories. + </p> + <p> + Interesting as the numerous inventions are, it would be a work of + supererogation to digest all these patents in the present pages, as they + represent not only the inception but also the gradual development and + growth of the wax-record type of phonograph from its infancy to the + present perfected machine and records now so widely known all over the + world. From among these many inventions, however, we will select two or + three as examples of ingenuity and importance in their bearing upon + present perfection of results. + </p> + <p> + One of the difficulties of reproduction for many years was the trouble + experienced in keeping the stylus in perfect engagement with the wave-like + record, so that every minute vibration would be reproduced. It should be + remembered that the deepest cut of the recording tool is only about + one-third the thickness of tissue-paper. Hence, it will be quite apparent + that the slightest inequality in the surface of the wax would be + sufficient to cause false vibration, and thus give rise to distorted + effects in such music or other sounds as were being reproduced. To remedy + this, Edison added an attachment which is called a "floating weight," and + is shown at A in the illustration above. + </p> + <p> + The function of the floating weight is to automatically keep the stylus in + close engagement with the record, thus insuring accuracy of reproduction. + The weight presses the stylus to its work, but because of its mass it + cannot respond to the extremely rapid vibrations of the stylus. They are + therefore communicated to the diaphragm. + </p> + <p> + Some of Edison's most remarkable inventions are revealed in a number of + interesting patents relating to the duplication of phonograph records. It + would be obviously impossible, from a commercial standpoint, to obtain a + musical record from a high-class artist and sell such an original to the + public, as its cost might be from one hundred to several thousand dollars. + Consequently, it is necessary to provide some way by which duplicates may + be made cheaply enough to permit their purchase by the public at a + reasonable price. + </p> + <p> + The making of a perfect original musical or other record is a matter of no + small difficulty, as it requires special technical knowledge and skill + gathered from many years of actual experience; but in the exact copying, + or duplication, of such a record, with its many millions of microscopic + waves and sub-waves, the difficulties are enormously increased. The + duplicates must be microscopically identical with the original, they must + be free from false vibrations or other defects, although both original and + duplicates are of such easily defacable material as wax; and the process + must be cheap and commercial not a scientific laboratory possibility. + </p> + <p> + For making duplicates it was obviously necessary to first secure a mold + carrying the record in negative or reversed form. From this could be + molded, or cast, positive copies which would be identical with the + original. While the art of electroplating would naturally suggest itself + as the means of making such a mold, an apparently insurmountable obstacle + appeared on the very threshold. Wax, being a non-conductor, cannot be + electroplated unless a conducting surface be first applied. The coatings + ordinarily used in electro-deposition were entirely out of the question on + account of coarseness, the deepest waves of the record being less than + one-thousandth of an inch in depth, and many of them probably ten to one + hundred times as shallow. Edison finally decided to apply a preliminary + metallic coating of infinitesimal thinness, and accomplished this object + by a remarkable process known as the vacuous deposit. With this he applied + to the original record a film of gold probably no thicker than one + three-hundred-thousandth of an inch, or several hundred times less than + the depth of an average wave. Three hundred such layers placed one on top + of the other would make a sheet no thicker than tissue-paper. + </p> + <p> + The process consists in placing in a vacuum two leaves, or electrodes, of + gold, and between them the original record. A constant discharge of + electricity of high tension between the electrodes is effected by means of + an induction-coil. The metal is vaporized by this discharge, and is + carried by it directly toward and deposited upon the original record, thus + forming the minute film of gold above mentioned. The record is constantly + rotated until its entire surface is coated. A sectional diagram of the + apparatus (Fig. 6.) will aid to a clearer understanding of this ingenious + process. + </p> + <p> + After the gold film is formed in the manner described above, a heavy + backing of baser metal is electroplated upon it, thus forming a + substantial mold, from which the original record is extracted by breakage + or shrinkage. + </p> + <p> + Duplicate records in any quantity may now be made from this mold by + surrounding it with a cold-water jacket and dipping it in a molten + wax-like material. This congeals on the record surface just as melted + butter would collect on a cold knife, and when the mold is removed the + surplus wax falls out, leaving a heavy deposit of the material which forms + the duplicate record. Numerous ingenious inventions have been made by + Edison providing for a variety of rapid and economical methods of + duplication, including methods of shrinking a newly made copy to + facilitate its quick removal from the mold; methods of reaming, of forming + ribs on the interior, and for many other important and essential details, + which limits of space will not permit of elaboration. Those mentioned + above are but fair examples of the persistent and effective work he has + done to bring the phonograph to its present state of perfection. + </p> + <p> + In perusing Chapter X of the foregoing narrative, the reader undoubtedly + noted Edison's clear apprehension of the practical uses of the phonograph, + as evidenced by his prophetic utterances in the article written by him for + the North American Review in June, 1878. In view of the crudity of the + instrument at that time, it must be acknowledged that Edison's foresight, + as vindicated by later events was most remarkable. No less remarkable was + his intensely practical grasp of mechanical possibilities of future types + of the machine, for we find in one of his early English patents (No. 1644 + of 1878) the disk form of phonograph which, some ten to fifteen years + later, was supposed to be a new development in the art. This disk form was + also covered by Edison's application for a United States patent, filed in + 1879. This application met with some merely minor technical objections in + the Patent Office, and seems to have passed into the "abandoned" class for + want of prosecution, probably because of being overlooked in the + tremendous pressure arising from his development of his electric-lighting + system. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +</pre> + <p> + IX. THE INCANDESCENT LAMP + </p> + <p> + ALTHOUGH Edison's contributions to human comfort and progress are + extensive in number and extraordinarily vast and comprehensive in scope + and variety, the universal verdict of the world points to his incandescent + lamp and system of distribution of electrical current as the central and + crowning achievements of his life up to this time. This view would seem + entirely justifiable when we consider the wonderful changes in the + conditions of modern life that have been brought about by the wide-spread + employment of these inventions, and the gigantic industries that have + grown up and been nourished by their world-wide application. That he was + in this instance a true pioneer and creator is evident as we consider the + subject, for the United States Patent No. 223,898, issued to Edison on + January 27, 1880, for an incandescent lamp, was of such fundamental + character that it opened up an entirely new and tremendously important art—the + art of incandescent electric lighting. This statement cannot be + successfully controverted, for it has been abundantly verified after many + years of costly litigation. If further proof were desired, it is only + necessary to point to the fact that, after thirty years of most strenuous + and practical application in the art by the keenest intellects of the + world, every incandescent lamp that has ever since been made, including + those of modern days, is still dependent upon the employment of the + essentials disclosed in the above-named patent—namely, a filament of + high resistance enclosed in a sealed glass globe exhausted of air, with + conducting wires passing through the glass. + </p> + <p> + An incandescent lamp is such a simple-appearing article—merely a + filament sealed into a glass globe—that its intrinsic relation to + the art of electric lighting is far from being apparent at sight. To the + lay mind it would seem that this must have been THE obvious device to make + in order to obtain electric light by incandescence of carbon or other + material. But the reader has already learned from the preceding narrative + that prior to its invention by Edison such a device was NOT obvious, even + to the most highly trained experts of the world at that period; indeed, it + was so far from being obvious that, for some time after he had completed + practical lamps and was actually lighting them up twenty-four hours a day, + such a device and such a result were declared by these same experts to be + an utter impossibility. For a short while the world outside of Menlo Park + held Edison's claims in derision. His lamp was pronounced a fake, a myth, + possibly a momentary success magnified to the dignity of a permanent + device by an overenthusiastic inventor. + </p> + <p> + Such criticism, however, did not disturb Edison. He KNEW that he had + reached the goal. Long ago, by a close process of reasoning, he had + clearly seen that the only road to it was through the path he had + travelled, and which was now embodied in the philosophy of his + incandescent lamp—namely, a filament, or carbon, of high resistance + and small radiating surface, sealed into a glass globe exhausted of air to + a high degree of vacuum. In originally committing himself to this line of + investigation he was well aware that he was going in a direction + diametrically opposite to that followed by previous investigators. Their + efforts had been confined to low-resistance burners of large radiating + surface for their lamps, but he realized the utter futility of such + devices. The tremendous problems of heat and the prohibitive quantities of + copper that would be required for conductors for such lamps would be + absolutely out of the question in commercial practice. + </p> + <p> + He was convinced from the first that the true solution of the problem lay + in a lamp which should have as its illuminating body a strip of material + which would offer such a resistance to the flow of electric current that + it could be raised to a high temperature—incandescence—and be + of such small cross-section that it would radiate but little heat. At the + same time such a lamp must require a relatively small amount of current, + in order that comparatively small conductors could be used, and its burner + must be capable of withstanding the necessarily high temperatures without + disintegration. + </p> + <p> + It is interesting to note that these conceptions were in Edison's mind at + an early period of his investigations, when the best expert opinion was + that the subdivision of the electric current was an ignis fatuus. Hence we + quote the following notes he made, November 15, 1878, in one of the + laboratory note-books: + </p> + <p> + "A given straight wire having 1 ohm resistance and certain length is + brought to a given degree of temperature by given battery. If the same + wire be coiled in such a manner that but one-quarter of its surface + radiates, its temperature will be increased four times with the same + battery, or, one-quarter of this battery will bring it to the temperature + of straight wire. Or the same given battery will bring a wire whose total + resistance is 4 ohms to the same temperature as straight wire. + </p> + <p> + "This was actually determined by trial. + </p> + <p> + "The amount of heat lost by a body is in proportion to the radiating + surface of that body. If one square inch of platina be heated to 100 + degrees it will fall to, say, zero in one second, whereas, if it was at + 200 degrees it would require two seconds. + </p> + <p> + "Hence, in the case of incandescent conductors, if the radiating surface + be twelve inches and the temperature on each inch be 100, or 1200 for all, + if it is so coiled or arranged that there is but one-quarter, or three + inches, of radiating surface, then the temperature on each inch will be + 400. If reduced to three-quarters of an inch it will have on that + three-quarters of an inch 1600 degrees Fahr., notwithstanding the original + total amount was but 1200, because the radiation has been reduced to + three-quarters, or 75 units; hence, the effect of the lessening of the + radiation is to raise the temperature of each remaining inch not radiating + to 125 degrees. If the radiating surface should be reduced to + three-thirty-seconds of an inch, the temperature would reach 6400 degrees + Fahr. To carry out this law to the best advantage in regard to platina, + etc., then with a given length of wire to quadruple the heat we must + lessen the radiating surface to one-quarter, and to do this in a spiral, + three-quarters must be within the spiral and one-quarter outside for + radiating; hence, a square wire or other means, such as a spiral within a + spiral, must be used. These results account for the enormous temperature + of the Electric Arc with one horse-power; as, for instance, if one + horse-power will heat twelve inches of wire to 1000 degrees Fahr., and + this is concentrated to have one-quarter of the radiating surface, it + would reach a temperature of 4000 degrees or sufficient to melt it; but, + supposing it infusible, the further concentration to one-eighth its + surface, it would reach a temperature of 16,000 degrees, and to + one-thirty-second its surface, which would be about the radiating surface + of the Electric Arc, it would reach 64,000 degrees Fahr. Of course, when + Light is radiated in great quantities not quite these temperatures would + be reached. + </p> + <p> + "Another curious law is this: It will require a greater initial battery to + bring an iron wire of the same size and resistance to a given temperature + than it will a platina wire in proportion to their specific heats, and in + the case of Carbon, a piece of Carbon three inches long and one-eighth + diameter, with a resistance of 1 ohm, will require a greater battery power + to bring it to a given temperature than a cylinder of thin platina foil of + the same length, diameter, and resistance, because the specific heat of + Carbon is many times greater; besides, if I am not mistaken, the radiation + of a roughened body for heat is greater than a polished one like platina." + </p> + <p> + Proceeding logically upon these lines of thought and following them out + through many ramifications, we have seen how he at length made a filament + of carbon of high resistance and small radiating surface, and through a + concurrent investigation of the phenomena of high vacua and occluded gases + was able to produce a true incandescent lamp. Not only was it a lamp as a + mere article—a device to give light—but it was also an + integral part of his great and complete system of lighting, to every part + of which it bore a fixed and definite ratio, and in relation to which it + was the keystone that held the structure firmly in place. + </p> + <p> + The work of Edison on incandescent lamps did not stop at this fundamental + invention, but extended through more than eighteen years of a most intense + portion of his busy life. During that period he was granted one hundred + and forty-nine other patents on the lamp and its manufacture. Although + very many of these inventions were of the utmost importance and value, we + cannot attempt to offer a detailed exposition of them in this necessarily + brief article, but must refer the reader, if interested, to the patents + themselves, a full list being given at the end of this Appendix. The + outline sketch will indicate the principal patents covering the basic + features of the lamp. + </p> + <p> + The litigation on the Edison lamp patents was one of the most determined + and stubbornly fought contests in the history of modern jurisprudence. + Vast interests were at stake. All of the technical, expert, and + professional skill and knowledge that money could procure or experience + devise were availed of in the bitter fights that raged in the courts for + many years. And although the Edison interests had spent from first to last + nearly $2,000,000, and had only about three years left in the life of the + fundamental patent, Edison was thoroughly sustained as to priority by the + decisions in the various suits. We shall offer a few brief extracts from + some of these decisions. + </p> + <p> + In a suit against the United States Electric Lighting Company, United + States Circuit Court for the Southern District of New York, July 14, 1891, + Judge Wallace said, in his opinion: "The futility of hoping to maintain a + burner in vacuo with any permanency had discouraged prior inventors, and + Mr. Edison is entitled to the credit of obviating the mechanical + difficulties which disheartened them.... He was the first to make a carbon + of materials, and by a process which was especially designed to impart + high specific resistance to it; the first to make a carbon in the special + form for the special purpose of imparting to it high total resistance; and + the first to combine such a burner with the necessary adjuncts of lamp + construction to prevent its disintegration and give it sufficiently long + life. By doing these things he made a lamp which was practically operative + and successful, the embryo of the best lamps now in commercial use, and + but for which the subdivision of the electric light by incandescence would + still be nothing but the ignis fatuus which it was proclaimed to be in + 1879 by some of the reamed experts who are now witnesses to belittle his + achievement and show that it did not rise to the dignity of an + invention.... It is impossible to resist the conclusion that the invention + of the slender thread of carbon as a substitute for the burners previously + employed opened the path to the practical subdivision of the electric + light." + </p> + <p> + An appeal was taken in the above suit to the United States Circuit Court + of Appeals, and on October 4, 1892, the decree of the lower court was + affirmed. The judges (Lacombe and Shipman), in a long opinion reviewed the + facts and the art, and said, inter alia: "Edison's invention was + practically made when he ascertained the theretofore unknown fact that + carbon would stand high temperature, even when very attenuated, if + operated in a high vacuum, without the phenomenon of disintegration. This + fact he utilized by the means which he has described, a lamp having a + filamentary carbon burner in a nearly perfect vacuum." + </p> + <p> + In a suit against the Boston Incandescent Lamp Company et al., in the + United States Circuit Court for the District of Massachusetts, decided in + favor of Edison on June 11, 1894, Judge Colt, in his opinion, said, among + other things: "Edison made an important invention; he produced the first + practical incandescent electric lamp; the patent is a pioneer in the sense + of the patent law; it may be said that his invention created the art of + incandescent electric lighting." + </p> + <p> + Opinions of other courts, similar in tenor to the foregoing, might be + cited, but it would be merely in the nature of reiteration. The above are + sufficient to illustrate the direct clearness of judicial decision on + Edison's position as the founder of the art of electric lighting by + incandescence. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0043" id="link2H_4_0043"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + X. EDISON'S DYNAMO WORK + </h2> + <p> + AT the present writing, when, after the phenomenally rapid electrical + development of thirty years, we find on the market a great variety of + modern forms of efficient current generators advertised under the names of + different inventors (none, however, bearing the name of Edison), a young + electrical engineer of the present generation might well inquire whether + the great inventor had ever contributed anything to the art beyond a mere + TYPE of machine formerly made and bearing his name, but not now marketed + except second hand. + </p> + <p> + For adequate information he might search in vain the books usually + regarded as authorities on the subject of dynamo-electric machinery, for + with slight exceptions there has been a singular unanimity in the omission + of writers to give Edison credit for his great and basic contributions to + heavy-current technics, although they have been universally acknowledged + by scientific and practical men to have laid the foundation for the + efficiency of, and to be embodied in all modern generators of current. + </p> + <p> + It might naturally be expected that the essential facts of Edison's work + would appear on the face of his numerous patents on dynamo-electric + machinery, but such is not necessarily the case, unless they are carefully + studied in the light of the state of the art as it existed at the time. + While some of these patents (especially the earlier ones) cover specific + devices embodying fundamental principles that not only survive to the + present day, but actually lie at the foundation of the art as it now + exists, there is no revelation therein of Edison's preceding studies of + magnets, which extended over many years, nor of his later systematic + investigations and deductions. + </p> + <p> + Dynamo-electric machines of a primitive kind had been invented and were in + use to a very limited extent for arc lighting and electroplating for some + years prior to the summer of 1819, when Edison, with an embryonic lighting + SYSTEM in mind, cast about for a type of machine technically and + commercially suitable for the successful carrying out of his plans. He + found absolutely none. On the contrary, all of the few types then + obtainable were uneconomical, indeed wasteful, in regard to efficiency. + The art, if indeed there can be said to have been an art at that time, was + in chaotic confusion, and only because of Edison's many years' study of + the magnet was he enabled to conclude that insufficiency in quantity of + iron in the magnets of such machines, together with poor surface contacts, + rendered the cost of magnetization abnormally high. The heating of solid + armatures, the only kind then known, and poor insulation in the + commutators, also gave rise to serious losses. But perhaps the most + serious drawback lay in the high-resistance armature, based upon the + highest scientific dictum of the time that in order to obtain the maximum + amount of work from a machine, the internal resistance of the armature + must equal the resistance of the exterior circuit, although the + application of this principle entailed the useless expenditure of at least + 50 per cent. of the applied energy. + </p> + <p> + It seems almost incredible that only a little over thirty years ago the + sum of scientific knowledge in regard to dynamo-electric machines was so + meagre that the experts of the period should settle upon such a dictum as + this, but such was the fact, as will presently appear. Mechanical + generators of electricity were comparatively new at that time; their + theory and practice were very imperfectly understood; indeed, it is quite + within the bounds of truth to say that the correct principles were + befogged by reason of the lack of practical knowledge of their actual use. + Electricians and scientists of the period had been accustomed for many + years past to look to the chemical battery as the source from which to + obtain electrical energy; and in the practical application of such energy + to telegraphy and kindred uses, much thought and ingenuity had been + expended in studying combinations of connecting such cells so as to get + the best results. In the text-books of the period it was stated as a + settled principle that, in order to obtain the maximum work out of a set + of batteries, the internal resistance must approximately equal the + resistance of the exterior circuit. This principle and its application in + practice were quite correct as regards chemical batteries, but not as + regards dynamo machines. Both were generators of electrical current, but + so different in construction and operation, that rules applicable to the + practical use of the one did not apply with proper commercial efficiency + to the other. At the period under consideration, which may be said to have + been just before dawn of the day of electric light, the philosophy of the + dynamo was seen only in mysterious, hazy outlines—just emerging from + the darkness of departing night. Perhaps it is not surprising, then, that + the dynamo was loosely regarded by electricians as the practical + equivalent of a chemical battery; that many of the characteristics of + performance of the chemical cell were also attributed to it, and that if + the maximum work could be gotten out of a set of batteries when the + internal and external resistances were equal (and this was commercially + the best thing to do), so must it be also with a dynamo. + </p> + <p> + It was by no miracle that Edison was far and away ahead of his time when + he undertook to improve the dynamo. He was possessed of absolute KNOWLEDGE + far beyond that of his contemporaries. This he ad acquired by the hardest + kind of work and incessant experiment with magnets of all kinds during + several years preceding, particularly in connection with his study of + automatic telegraphy. His knowledge of magnets was tremendous. He had + studied and experimented with electromagnets in enormous variety, and knew + their peculiarities in charge and discharge, lag, self-induction, static + effects, condenser effects, and the various other phenomena connected + therewith. He had also made collateral studies of iron, steel, and copper, + insulation, winding, etc. Hence, by reason of this extensive work and + knowledge, Edison was naturally in a position to realize the utter + commercial impossibility of the then best dynamo machine in existence, + which had an efficiency of only about 40 per cent., and was constructed on + the "cut-and-try" principle. + </p> + <p> + He was also naturally in a position to assume the task he set out to + accomplish, of undertaking to plan and-build an improved type of machine + that should be commercial in having an efficiency of at least 90 per cent. + Truly a prodigious undertaking in those dark days, when from the + standpoint of Edison's large experience the most practical and correct + electrical treatise was contained in the Encyclopaedia Britannica, and in + a German publication which Mr. Upton had brought with him after he had + finished his studies with the illustrious Helmholtz. It was at this period + that Mr. Upton commenced his association with Edison, bringing to the + great work the very latest scientific views and the assistance of the + higher mathematics, to which he had devoted his attention for several + years previously. + </p> + <p> + As some account of Edison's investigations in this connection has already + been given in Chapter XII of the narrative, we shall not enlarge upon them + here, but quote from An Historical Review, by Charles L. Clarke, + Laboratory Assistant at Menlo Park, 1880-81; Chief Engineer of the Edison + Electric Light Company, 1881-84: + </p> + <p> + "In June, 1879, was published the account of the Edison dynamo-electric + machine that survived in the art. This machine went into extensive + commercial use, and was notable for its very massive and powerful + field-magnets and armature of extremely low resistance as compared with + the combined external resistance of the supply-mains and lamps. By means + of the large masses of iron in the field-magnets, and closely fitted + joints between the several parts thereof, the magnetic resistance + (reluctance) of the iron parts of the magnetic circuit was reduced to a + minimum, and the required magnetization effected with the maximum economy. + At the same time Mr. Edison announced the commercial necessity of having + the armature of the dynamo of low resistance, as compared with the + external resistance, in order that a large percentage of the electrical + energy developed should be utilized in the lamps, and only a small + percentage lost in the armature, albeit this procedure reduced the total + generating capacity of the machine. He also proposed to make the + resistance of the supply-mains small, as compared with the combined + resistance of the lamps in multiple arc, in order to still further + increase the percentage of energy utilized in the lamps. And likewise to + this end the combined resistance of the generator armatures in multiple + arc was kept relatively small by adjusting the number of generators + operating in multiple at any time to the number of lamps then in use. The + field-magnet circuits of the dynamos were connected in multiple with a + separate energizing source; and the field-current; and strength of field, + were regulated to maintain the required amount of electromotive force upon + the supply-mains under all conditions of load from the maximum to the + minimum number of lamps in use, and to keep the electromotive force of all + machines alike." + </p> + <p> + Among the earliest of Edison's dynamo experiments were those relating to + the core of the armature. He realized at once that the heat generated in a + solid core was a prolific source of loss. He experimented with bundles of + iron wires variously insulated, also with sheet-iron rolled cylindrically + and covered with iron wire wound concentrically. These experiments and + many others were tried in a great variety of ways, until, as the result of + all this work, Edison arrived at the principle which has remained in the + art to this day. He split up the iron core of the armature into thin + laminations, separated by paper, thus practically suppressing Foucault + currents therein and resulting heating effect. It was in his machine also + that mica was used for the first time as an insulating medium in a + commutator. [27] + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 27: The commercial manufacture of built-up sheets + of mica for electrical purposes was first established at the + Edison Machine Works, Goerck Street, New York, in 1881.] +</pre> + <p> + Elementary as these principles will appear to the modern student or + engineer, they were denounced as nothing short of absurdity at the time of + their promulgation—especially so with regard to Edison's proposal to + upset the then settled dictum that the armature resistance should be equal + to the external resistance. His proposition was derided in the technical + press of the period, both at home and abroad. As public opinion can be + best illustrated by actual quotation, we shall present a characteristic + instance. + </p> + <p> + In the Scientific American of October 18, 1879, there appeared an + illustrated article by Mr. Upton on Edison's dynamo machine, in which + Edison's views and claims were set forth. A subsequent issue contained a + somewhat acrimonious letter of criticism by a well-known maker of dynamo + machines. At the risk of being lengthy, we must quote nearly all this + letter: "I can scarcely conceive it as possible that the article on the + above subject '(Edison's Electric Generator)' in last week's Scientific + American could have been written from statements derived from Mr. Edison + himself, inasmuch as so many of the advantages claimed for the machine + described and statements of the results obtained are so manifestly absurd + as to indicate on the part of both writer and prompter a positive want of + knowledge of the electric circuit and the principles governing the + construction and operation of electric machines. + </p> + <p> + "It is not my intention to criticise the design or construction of the + machine (not because they are not open to criticism), as I am now and have + been for many years engaged in the manufacture of electric machines, but + rather to call attention to the impossibility of obtaining the described + results without destroying the doctrine of the conservation and + correlation of forces. + </p> + <p> + . . . . . + </p> + <p> + "It is stated that 'the internal resistance of the armature' of this + machine 'is only 1/2 ohm.' On this fact and the disproportion between this + resistance and that of the external circuit, the theory of the alleged + efficiency of the machine is stated to be based, for we are informed that, + 'while this generator in general principle is the same as in the best + well-known forms, still there is an all-important difference, which is + that it will convert and deliver for useful work nearly double the number + of foot-pounds that any other machine will under like conditions.'" The + writer of this critical letter then proceeds to quote Mr. Upton's + statement of this efficiency: "'Now the energy converted is distributed + over the whole resistance, hence if the resistance of the machine be + represented by 1 and the exterior circuit by 9, then of the total energy + converted nine-tenths will be useful, as it is outside of the machine, and + one-tenth is lost in the resistance of the machine.'" + </p> + <p> + After this the critic goes on to say: + </p> + <p> + "How any one acquainted with the laws of the electric circuit can make + such statements is what I cannot understand. The statement last quoted is + mathematically absurd. It implies either that the machine is CAPABLE OF + INCREASING ITS OWN ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE NINE TIMES WITHOUT AN INCREASED + EXPENDITURE OF POWER, or that external resistance is NOT resistance to the + current induced in the Edison machine. + </p> + <p> + "Does Mr. Edison, or any one for him, mean to say that r/n enables him to + obtain nE, and that C IS NOT = E / (r/n + R)? If so Mr. Edison has + discovered something MORE than perpetual motion, and Mr. Keely had better + retire from the field. + </p> + <p> + "Further on the writer (Mr. Upton) gives us another example of this mode + of reasoning when, emboldened and satisfied with the absurd theory above + exposed, he endeavors to prove the cause of the inefficiency of the + Siemens and other machines. Couldn't the writer of the article see that + since C = E/(r + R) that by R/n or by making R = r, the machine would, + according to his theory, have returned more useful current to the circuit + than could be due to the power employed (and in the ratio indicated), so + that there would actually be a creation of force! . . . . + </p> + <p> + "In conclusion allow me to say that if Mr Edison thinks he has + accomplished so much by the REDUCTION OF THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE of his + machine, that he has much more to do in this direction before his machine + will equal IN THIS RESPECT others already in the market." + </p> + <p> + Another participant in the controversy on Edison's generator was a + scientific gentleman, who in a long article published in the Scientific + American, in November, 1879, gravely undertook to instruct Edison in the A + B C of electrical principles, and then proceeded to demonstrate + mathematically the IMPOSSIBILITY of doing WHAT EDISON HAD ACTUALLY DONE. + This critic concludes with a gentle rebuke to the inventor for ill-timed + jesting, and a suggestion to furnish AUTHENTIC information! + </p> + <p> + In the light of facts, as they were and are, this article is so full of + humor that we shall indulge in a few quotations It commences in A B C + fashion as follows: "Electric machines convert mechanical into electrical + energy.... The ratio of yield to consumption is the expression of the + efficiency of the machine.... How many foot-pounds of electricity can be + got out of 100 foot-pounds of mechanical energy? Certainly not more than + 100: certainly less.... The facts and laws of physics, with the assistance + of mathematical logic, never fail to furnish precious answers to such + questions." + </p> + <p> + The would-be critic then goes on to tabulate tests of certain other dynamo + machines by a committee of the Franklin Institute in 1879, the results of + which showed that these machines returned about 50 per cent. of the + applied mechanical energy, ingenuously remarking: "Why is it that when we + have produced the electricity, half of it must slip away? Some persons + will be content if they are told simply that it is a way which electricity + has of behaving. But there is a satisfactory rational explanation which I + believe can be made plain to persons of ordinary intelligence. It ought to + be known to all those who are making or using machines. I am grieved to + observe that many persons who talk and write glibly about electricity do + not understand it; some even ignore or deny the fact to be explained." + </p> + <p> + Here follows HIS explanation, after which he goes on to say: "At this + point plausibly comes in a suggestion that the internal part of the + circuit be made very small and the external part very large. Why not (say) + make the internal part 1 and the external 9, thus saving nine-tenths and + losing only one-tenth? Unfortunately, the suggestion is not practical; a + fallacy is concealed in it." + </p> + <p> + He then goes on to prove his case mathematically, to his own satisfaction, + following it sadly by condoling with and a warning to Edison: "But about + Edison's electric generator! . . . No one capable of making the + improvements in the telegraph and telephone, for which we are indebted to + Mr. Edison, could be other than an accomplished electrician. His + reputation as a scientist, indeed, is smirched by the newspaper + exaggerations, and no doubt he will be more careful in future. But there + is a danger nearer home, indeed, among his own friends and in his very + household. + </p> + <p> + ". . . The writer of page 242" (the original article) "is probably a + friend of Mr. Edison, but possibly, alas! a wicked partner. Why does he + say such things as these? 'Mr. Edison claims that he realizes 90 per cent. + of the power applied to this machine in external work.' . . . Perhaps the + writer is a humorist, and had in his mind Colonel Sellers, etc., which he + could not keep out of a serious discussion; but such jests are not good. + </p> + <p> + "Mr. Edison has built a very interesting machine, and he has the + opportunity of making a valuable contribution to the electrical arts by + furnishing authentic accounts of its capabilities." + </p> + <p> + The foregoing extracts are unavoidably lengthy, but, viewed in the light + of facts, serve to illustrate most clearly that Edison's conceptions and + work were far and away ahead of the comprehension of his contemporaries in + the art, and that his achievements in the line of efficient dynamo design + and construction were indeed truly fundamental and revolutionary in + character. Much more of similar nature to the above could be quoted from + other articles published elsewhere, but the foregoing will serve as + instances generally representing all. In the controversy which appeared in + the columns of the Scientific American, Mr. Upton, Edison's mathematician, + took up the question on his side, and answered the critics by further + elucidations of the principles on which Edison had founded such remarkable + and radical improvements in the art. The type of Edison's first + dynamo-electric machine, the description of which gave rise to the above + controversy, is shown in Fig. 1. + </p> + <p> + Any account of Edison's work on the dynamo would be incomplete did it omit + to relate his conception and construction of the great direct-connected + steam-driven generator that was the prototype of the colossal units which + are used throughout the world to-day. + </p> + <p> + In the demonstrating plant installed and operated by him at Menlo Park in + 1880 ten dynamos of eight horse-power each were driven by a slow-speed + engine through a complicated system of counter-shafting, and, to quote + from Mr. Clarke's Historical Review, "it was found that a considerable + percentage of the power of the engine was necessarily wasted in friction + by this method of driving, and to prevent this waste and thus increase the + economy of his system, Mr. Edison conceived the idea of substituting a + single large dynamo for the several small dynamos, and directly coupling + it with the driving engine, and at the same time preserve the requisite + high armature speed by using an engine of the high-speed type. He also + expected to realize still further gains in economy from the use of a large + dynamo in place of several small machines by a more than correspondingly + lower armature resistance, less energy for magnetizing the field, and for + other minor reasons. To the same end, he intended to supply steam to the + engine under a much higher boiler pressure than was customary in + stationary-engine driving at that time." + </p> + <p> + The construction of the first one of these large machines was commenced + late in the year 1880. Early in 1881 it was completed and tested, but some + radical defects in armature construction were developed, and it was also + demonstrated that a rate of engine speed too high for continuously safe + and economical operation had been chosen. The machine was laid aside. An + accurate illustration of this machine, as it stood in the engine-room at + Menlo Park, is given in Van Nostrand's Engineering Magazine, Vol. XXV, + opposite page 439, and a brief description is given on page 450. + </p> + <p> + With the experience thus gained, Edison began, in the spring of 1881, at + the Edison Machine Works, Goerck Street, New York City, the construction + of the first successful machine of this type. This was the great machine + known as "Jumbo No. 1," which is referred to in the narrative as having + been exhibited at the Paris International Electrical Exposition, where it + was regarded as the wonder of the electrical world. An intimation of some + of the tremendous difficulties encountered in the construction of this + machine has already been given in preceding pages, hence we shall not now + enlarge on the subject, except to note in passing that the terribly + destructive effects of the spark of self-induction and the arcing + following it were first manifested in this powerful machine, but were + finally overcome by Edison after a strenuous application of his powers to + the solution of the problem. + </p> + <p> + It may be of interest, however, to mention some of its dimensions and + electrical characteristics, quoting again from Mr. Clarke: "The + field-magnet had eight solid cylindrical cores, 8 inches in diameter and + 57 inches long, upon each of which was wound an exciting-coil of 3.2 ohms + resistance, consisting of 2184 turns of No. 10 B. W. G. insulated copper + wire, disposed in six layers. The laminated iron core of the armature, + formed of thin iron disks, was 33 3/4 inches long, and had an internal + diameter of 12 1/2 inches, and an external diameter of 26 7/16 inches. It + was mounted on a 6-inch shaft. The field-poles were 33 3/4 inches long, + and 27 1/2 inches inside diameter The armature winding consisted of 146 + copper bars on the face of the core, connected into a closed-coil winding + by means of 73 copper disks at each end of the core. The cross-sectional + area of each bar was 0.2 square inch their average length was 42.7 inches, + and the copper end-disks were 0.065 inch thick. The commutator had 73 + sections. The armature resistance was 0.0092 ohm, [28] of which 0.0055 ohm + was in the armature bars and 0.0037 ohm in the end-disks." An illustration + of the next latest type of this machine is presented in Fig. 2. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 28: Had Edison in Upton's Scientific American + article in 1879 proposed such an exceedingly low armature + resistance for this immense generator (although its ratio + was proportionate to the original machine), his critics + might probably have been sufficiently indignant as to be + unable to express themselves coherently.] +</pre> + <p> + The student may find it interesting to look up Edison's United States + Patents Nos. 242,898, 263,133, 263,146, and 246,647, bearing upon the + construction of the "Jumbo"; also illustrated articles in the technical + journals of the time, among which may be mentioned: Scientific American, + Vol. XLV, page 367; Engineering, London, Vol. XXXII, pages 409 and 419, + The Telegraphic Journal and Electrical Review, London, Vol. IX, pages + 431-433, 436-446; La Nature, Paris, 9th year, Part II, pages 408-409; + Zeitschrift fur Angewandte Elektricitaatslehre, Munich and Leipsic, Vol. + IV, pages 4-14; and Dredge's Electric Illumination, 1882, Vol. I, page + 261. + </p> + <p> + The further development of these great machines later on, and their + extensive practical use, are well known and need no further comment, + except in passing it may be noted that subsequent machines had each a + capacity of 1200 lamps of 16 candle-power, and that the armature + resistance was still further reduced to 0.0039 ohm. + </p> + <p> + Edison's clear insight into the future, as illustrated by his persistent + advocacy of large direct-connected generating units, is abundantly + vindicated by present-day practice. His Jumbo machines, of 175 + horse-power, so enormous for their time, have served as prototypes, and + have been succeeded by generators which have constantly grown in size and + capacity until at this time (1910) it is not uncommon to employ such + generating units of a capacity of 14,000 kilowatts, or about 18,666 + horse-power. + </p> + <p> + We have not entered into specific descriptions of the many other forms of + dynamo machines invented by Edison, such as the multipolar, the disk + dynamo, and the armature with two windings, for sub-station distribution; + indeed, it is not possible within our limited space to present even a + brief digest of Edison's great and comprehensive work on the + dynamo-electric machine, as embodied in his extensive experiments and in + over one hundred patents granted to him. We have, therefore, confined + ourselves to the indication of a few salient and basic features, leaving + it to the interested student to examine the patents and the technical + literature of the long period of time over which Edison's labors were + extended. + </p> + <p> + Although he has not given any attention to the subject of generators for + many years, an interesting instance of his incisive method of overcoming + minor difficulties occurred while the present volumes were under + preparation (1909). Carbon for commutator brushes has been superseded by + graphite in some cases, the latter material being found much more + advantageous, electrically. Trouble developed, however, for the reason + that while carbon was hard and would wear away the mica insulation + simultaneously with the copper, graphite, being softer, would wear away + only the copper, leaving ridges of mica and thus causing sparking through + unequal contact. At this point Edison was asked to diagnose the trouble + and provide a remedy. He suggested the cutting out of the mica pieces + almost to the bottom, leaving the commutator bars separated by air-spaces. + This scheme was objected to on the ground that particles of graphite would + fill these air-spaces and cause a short-circuit. His answer was that the + air-spaces constituted the value of his plan, as the particles of graphite + falling into them would be thrown out by the action of centrifugal force + as the commutator revolved. And thus it occurred as a matter of fact, and + the trouble was remedied. This idea was subsequently adopted by a great + manufacturer of generators. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0044" id="link2H_4_0044"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XI. THE EDISON FEEDER SYSTEM + </h2> + <p> + TO quote from the preamble of the specifications of United States Patent + No. 264,642, issued to Thomas A. Edison September 19, 1882: "This + invention relates to a method of equalizing the tension or 'pressure' of + the current through an entire system of electric lighting or other + translation of electric force, preventing what is ordinarily known as a + 'drop' in those portions of the system the more remote from the central + station...." + </p> + <p> + The problem which was solved by the Edison feeder system was that relating + to the equal distribution of current on a large scale over extended areas, + in order that a constant and uniform electrical pressure could be + maintained in every part of the distribution area without prohibitory + expenditure for copper for mains and conductors. + </p> + <p> + This problem had a twofold aspect, although each side was inseparably + bound up in the other. On the one hand it was obviously necessary in a + lighting system that each lamp should be of standard candle-power, and + capable of interchangeable use on any part of the system, giving the same + degree of illumination at every point, whether near to or remote from the + source of electrical energy. On the other hand, this must be accomplished + by means of a system of conductors so devised and arranged that while they + would insure the equal pressure thus demanded, their mass and consequent + cost would not exceed the bounds of practical and commercially economical + investment. + </p> + <p> + The great importance of this invention can be better understood and + appreciated by a brief glance at the state of the art in 1878-79, when + Edison was conducting the final series of investigations which culminated + in his invention of the incandescent lamp and SYSTEM of lighting. At this + time, and for some years previously, the scientific world had been working + on the "subdivision of the electric light," as it was then termed. Some + leading authorities pronounced it absolutely impossible of achievement on + any extended scale, while a very few others, of more optimistic mind, + could see no gleam of light through the darkness, but confidently hoped + for future developments by such workers as Edison. + </p> + <p> + The earlier investigators, including those up to the period above named, + thought of the problem as involving the subdivision of a FIXED UNIT of + current, which, being sufficient to cause illumination by one large lamp, + might be divided into a number of small units whose aggregate light would + equal the candle-power of this large lamp. It was found, however, in their + experiments that the contrary effect was produced, for with every + additional lamp introduced in the circuit the total candle-power decreased + instead of increasing. If they were placed in series the light varied + inversely as the SQUARE of the number of lamps in circuit; while if they + were inserted in multiple arc, the light diminished as the CUBE of the + number in circuit. [29] The idea of maintaining a constant potential and + of PROPORTIONING THE CURRENT to the number of lamps in circuit did not + occur to most of these early investigators as a feasible method of + overcoming the supposed difficulty. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 29: M. Fontaine, in his book on Electric Lighting + (1877), showed that with the current of a battery composed + of sixteen elements, one lamp gave an illumination equal to + 54 burners; whereas two similar lamps, if introduced in + parallel or multiple arc, gave the light of only 6 1/2 + burners in all; three lamps of only 2 burners in all; four + lamps of only 3/4 of one burner, and five lamps of 1/4 of a + burner.] +</pre> + <p> + It would also seem that although the general method of placing + experimental lamps in multiple arc was known at this period, the idea of + "drop" of electrical pressure was imperfectly understood, if, indeed, + realized at all, as a most important item to be considered in attempting + the solution of the problem. As a matter of fact, the investigators + preceding Edison do not seem to have conceived the idea of a "system" at + all; hence it is not surprising to find them far astray from the correct + theory of subdivision of the electric current. It may easily be believed + that the term "subdivision" was a misleading one to these early + experimenters. For a very short time Edison also was thus misled, but as + soon as he perceived that the problem was one involving the MULTIPLICATION + OF CURRENT UNITS, his broad conception of a "system" was born. + </p> + <p> + Generally speaking, all conductors of electricity offer more or less + resistance to the passage of current through them and in the technical + terminology of electrical science the word "drop" (when used in reference + to a system of distribution) is used to indicate a fall or loss of initial + electrical pressure arising from the resistance offered by the copper + conductors leading from the source of energy to the lamps. The result of + this resistance is to convert or translate a portion of the electrical + energy into another form—namely, heat, which in the conductors is + USELESS and wasteful and to some extent inevitable in practice, but is to + be avoided and remedied as far as possible. + </p> + <p> + It is true that in an electric-lighting system there is also a fall or + loss of electrical pressure which occurs in overcoming the much greater + resistance of the filament in an incandescent lamp. In this case there is + also a translation of the energy, but here it accomplishes a USEFUL + purpose, as the energy is converted into the form of light through the + incandescence of the filament. Such a conversion is called "work" as + distinguished from "drop," although a fall of initial electrical pressure + is involved in each case. + </p> + <p> + The percentage of "drop" varies according to the quantity of copper used + in conductors, both as to cross-section and length. The smaller the + cross-sectional area, the greater the percentage of drop. The practical + effect of this drop would be a loss of illumination in the lamps as we go + farther away from the source of energy. This may be illustrated by a + simple diagram in which G is a generator, or source of energy, furnishing + current at a potential or electrical pressure of 110 volts; 1 and 2 are + main conductors, from which 110-volt lamps, L, are taken in derived + circuits. It will be understood that the circuits represented in Fig. 1 + are theoretically supposed to extend over a large area. The main + conductors are sufficiently large in cross-section to offer but little + resistance in those parts which are comparatively near the generator, but + as the current traverses their extended length there is a gradual increase + of resistance to overcome, and consequently the drop increases, as shown + by the figures. The result of the drop in such a case would be that while + the two lamps, or groups, nearest the generator would be burning at their + proper degree of illumination, those beyond would give lower and lower + candle-power, successively, until the last lamp, or group, would be giving + only about two-thirds the light of the first two. In other words, a very + slight drop in voltage means a disproportionately great loss in + illumination. Hence, by using a primitive system of distribution, such as + that shown by Fig. 1, the initial voltage would have to be so high, in + order to obtain the proper candle-power at the end of the circuit, that + the lamps nearest the generator would be dangerously overheated. It might + be suggested as a solution of this problem that lamps of different + voltages could be used. But, as we are considering systems of extended + distribution employing vast numbers of lamps (as in New York City, where + millions are in use), it will be seen that such a method would lead to + inextricable confusion, and therefore be absolutely out of the question. + Inasmuch as the percentage of drop decreases in proportion to the + increased cross-section of the conductors, the only feasible plan would + seem to be to increase their size to such dimensions as to eliminate the + drop altogether, beginning with conductors of large cross-section and + tapering off as necessary. This would, indeed, obviate the trouble, but, + on the other hand, would give rise to a much more serious difficulty—namely, + the enormous outlay for copper; an outlay so great as to be absolutely + prohibitory in considering the electric lighting of large districts, as + now practiced. + </p> + <p> + Another diagram will probably make this more clear. The reference figures + are used as before, except that the horizontal lines extending from square + marked G represent the main conductors. As each lamp requires and takes + its own proportion of the total current generated, it is obvious that the + size of the conductors to carry the current for a number of lamps must be + as large as the sum of ALL the separate conductors which would be required + to carry the necessary amount of current to each lamp separately. Hence, + in a primitive multiple-arc system, it was found that the system must have + conductors of a size equal to the aggregate of the individual conductors + necessary for every lamp. Such conductors might either be separate, as + shown above (Fig. 2), or be bunched together, or made into a solid + tapering conductor, as shown in the following figure: + </p> + <p> + The enormous mass of copper needed in such a system can be better + appreciated by a concrete example. Some years ago Mr. W. J. Jenks made a + comparative calculation which showed that such a system of conductors + (known as the "Tree" system), to supply 8640 lamps in a territory + extending over so small an area as nine city blocks, would require 803,250 + pounds of copper, which at the then price of 25 cents per pound would cost + $200,812.50! + </p> + <p> + Such, in brief, was the state of the art, generally speaking, at the + period above named (1878-79). As early in the art as the latter end of the + year 1878, Edison had developed his ideas sufficiently to determine that + the problem of electric illumination by small units could be solved by + using incandescent lamps of high resistance and small radiating surface, + and by distributing currents of constant potential thereto in multiple arc + by means of a ramification of conductors, starting from a central source + and branching therefrom in every direction. This was an equivalent of the + method illustrated in Fig. 3, known as the "Tree" system, and was, in + fact, the system used by Edison in the first and famous exhibition of his + electric light at Menlo Park around the Christmas period of 1879. He + realized, however, that the enormous investment for copper would militate + against the commercial adoption of electric lighting on an extended scale. + His next inventive step covered the division of a large city district into + a number of small sub-stations supplying current through an interconnected + network of conductors, thus reducing expenditure for copper to some + extent, because each distribution unit was small and limited the drop. + </p> + <p> + His next development was the radical advancement of the state of the art + to the feeder system, covered by the patent now under discussion. This + invention swept away the tree and other systems, and at one bound brought + into being the possibility of effectively distributing large currents over + extended areas with a commercially reasonable investment for copper. + </p> + <p> + The fundamental principles of this invention were, first, to sever + entirely any direct connection of the main conductors with the source of + energy; and, second, to feed current at a constant potential to central + points in such main conductors by means of other conductors, called + "feeders," which were to be connected directly with the source of energy + at the central station. This idea will be made more clear by reference to + the following simple diagram, in which the same letters are used as + before, with additions: + </p> + <p> + In further elucidation of the diagram, it may be considered that the mains + are laid in the street along a city block, more or less distant from the + station, while the feeders are connected at one end with the source of + energy at the station, their other extremities being connected to the + mains at central points of distribution. Of course, this system was + intended to be applied in every part of a district to be supplied with + current, separate sets of feeders running out from the station to the + various centres. The distribution mains were to be of sufficiently large + size that between their most extreme points the loss would not be more + than 3 volts. Such a slight difference would not make an appreciable + variation in the candle-power of the lamps. + </p> + <p> + By the application of these principles, the inevitable but useless loss, + or "drop," required by economy might be incurred, but was LOCALIZED IN THE + FEEDERS, where it would not affect the uniformity of illumination of the + lamps in any of the circuits, whether near to or remote from the station, + because any variations of loss in the feeders would not give rise to + similar fluctuations in any lamp circuit. The feeders might be operated at + any desired percentage of loss that would realize economy in copper, so + long as they delivered current to the main conductors at the potential + represented by the average voltage of the lamps. + </p> + <p> + Thus the feeders could be made comparatively small in cross-section. It + will be at once appreciated that, inasmuch as the mains required to be + laid ONLY along the blocks to be lighted, and were not required to be run + all the way to the central station (which might be half a mile or more + away), the saving of copper by Edison's feeder system was enormous. + Indeed, the comparative calculation of Mr. Jenks, above referred to, shows + that to operate the same number of lights in the same extended area of + territory, the feeder system would require only 128,739 pounds of copper, + which, at the then price of 25 cents per pound, would cost only $39,185, + or A SAVING of $168,627.50 for copper in this very small district of only + nine blocks. + </p> + <p> + An additional illustration, appealing to the eye, is presented in the + following sketch, in which the comparative masses of copper of the tree + and feeder systems for carrying the same current are shown side by side: + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0045" id="link2H_4_0045"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XII. THE THREE-WIRE SYSTEM + </h2> + <p> + THIS invention is covered by United States Patent No. 274,290, issued to + Edison on March 20, 1883. The object of the invention was to provide for + increased economy in the quantity of copper employed for the main + conductors in electric light and power installations of considerable + extent at the same time preserving separate and independent control of + each lamp, motor, or other translating device, upon any one of the various + distribution circuits. + </p> + <p> + Immediately prior to this invention the highest state of the art of + electrical distribution was represented by Edison's feeder system, which + has already been described as a straight parallel or multiple-arc system + wherein economy of copper was obtained by using separate sets of + conductors—minus load—feeding current at standard potential or + electrical pressure into the mains at centres of distribution. + </p> + <p> + It should be borne in mind that the incandescent lamp which was accepted + at the time as a standard (and has so remained to the present day) was a + lamp of 110 volts or thereabouts. In using the word "standard," therefore, + it is intended that the same shall apply to lamps of about that voltage, + as well as to electrical circuits of the approximate potential to operate + them. + </p> + <p> + Briefly stated, the principle involved in the three-wire system is to + provide main circuits of double the standard potential, so as to operate + standard lamps, or other translating devices, in multiple series of two to + each series; and for the purpose of securing independent, individual + control of each unit, to divide each main circuit into any desired number + of derived circuits of standard potential (properly balanced) by means of + a central compensating conductor which would be normally neutral, but + designed to carry any minor excess of current that might flow by reason of + any temporary unbalancing of either side of the main circuit. + </p> + <p> + Reference to the following diagrams will elucidate this principle more + clearly than words alone can do. For the purpose of increased lucidity we + will first show a plain multiple-series system. + </p> + <p> + In this diagram G<1S> and G<2S> represent two generators, each + producing current at a potential of 110 volts. By connecting them in + series this potential is doubled, thus providing a main circuit (P and N) + of 220 volts. The figures marked L represent eight lamps of 110 volts + each, in multiple series of two, in four derived circuits. The arrows + indicate the flow of current. By this method each pair of lamps takes, + together, only the same quantity or volume of current required by a single + lamp in a simple multiple-arc system; and, as the cross-section of a + conductor depends upon the quantity of current carried, such an + arrangement as the above would allow the use of conductors of only + one-fourth the cross-section that would be otherwise required. From the + standpoint of economy of investment such an arrangement would be highly + desirable, but considered commercially it is impracticable because the + principle of independent control of each unit would be lost, as the + turning out of a lamp in any series would mean the extinguishment of its + companion also. By referring to the diagram it will be seen that each + series of two forms one continuous path between the main conductors, and + if this path be broken at any one point current will immediately cease to + flow in that particular series. + </p> + <p> + Edison, by his invention of the three-wire system, overcame this + difficulty entirely, and at the same time conserved approximately, the + saving of copper, as will be apparent from the following illustration of + that system, in its simplest form. + </p> + <p> + The reference figures are similar to those in the preceding diagram, and + all conditions are also alike except that a central compensating, or + balancing, conductor, PN, is here introduced. This is technically termed + the "neutral" wire, and in the discharge of its functions lies the + solution of the problem of economical distribution. Theoretically, a + three-wire installation is evenly balanced by wiring for an equal number + of lamps on both sides. If all these lamps were always lighted, burned, + and extinguished simultaneously the central conductor would, in fact, + remain neutral, as there would be no current passing through it, except + from lamp to lamp. In practice, however, no such perfect conditions can + obtain, hence the necessity of the provision for balancing in order to + maintain the principle of independent control of each unit. + </p> + <p> + It will be apparent that the arrangement shown in Fig. 2 comprises + practically two circuits combined in one system, in which the central + conductor, PN, in case of emergency, serves in two capacities—namely, + as negative to generator G<1S> or as positive to generator G<2S>, + although normally neutral. There are two sides to the system, the positive + side being represented by the conductors P and PN, and the negative side + by the conductors PN and N. Each side, if considered separately, has a + potential of about 110 volts, yet the potential of the two outside + conductors, P and N, is 220 volts. The lamps are 110 volts. + </p> + <p> + In practical use the operation of the system is as follows: If all the + lamps were lighted the current would flow along P and through each pair of + lamps to N, and so back to the source of energy. In this case the balance + is preserved and the central wire remains neutral, as no return current + flows through it to the source of energy. But let us suppose that one lamp + on the positive side is extinguished. None of the other lamps is affected + thereby, but the system is immediately thrown out of balance, and on the + positive side there is an excess of current to this extent which flows + along or through the central conductor and returns to the generator, the + central conductor thus becoming the negative of that side of the system + for the time being. If the lamp extinguished had been one of those on the + negative side of the system results of a similar nature would obtain, + except that the central conductor would for the time being become the + positive of that side, and the excess of current would flow through the + negative, N, back to the source of energy. Thus it will be seen that a + three-wire system, considered as a whole, is elastic in that it may + operate as one when in balance and as two when unbalanced, but in either + event giving independent control of each unit. + </p> + <p> + For simplicity of illustration a limited number of circuits, shown in Fig. + 2, has been employed. In practice, however, where great numbers of lamps + are in use (as, for instance, in New York City, where about 7,000,000 + lamps are operated from various central stations), there is constantly + occurring more or less change in the balance of many circuits extending + over considerable distances, but of course there is a net result which is + always on one side of the system or the other for the time being, and this + is met by proper adjustment at the appropriate generator in the station. + </p> + <p> + In order to make the explanation complete, there is presented another + diagram showing a three-wire system unbalanced: + </p> + <p> + The reference figures are used as before, but in this case the vertical + lines represent branches taken from the main conductors into buildings or + other spaces to be lighted, and the loops between these branch wires + represent lamps in operation. It will be seen from this sketch that there + are ten lamps on the positive side and twelve on the negative side. Hence, + the net result is an excess of current equal to that required by two lamps + flowing through the central or compensating conductor, which is now acting + as positive to generator G<2S> The arrows show the assumed direction of + flow of current throughout the system, and the small figures at the + arrow-heads the volume of that current expressed in the number of lamps + which it supplies. + </p> + <p> + The commercial value of this invention may be appreciated from the fact + that by the application of its principles there is effected a saving of 62 + 1/2 per cent. of the amount of copper over that which would be required + for conductors in any previously devised two-wire system carrying the same + load. This arises from the fact that by the doubling of potential the two + outside mains are reduced to one-quarter the cross-section otherwise + necessary. A saving of 75 per cent. would thus be assured, but the + addition of a third, or compensating, conductor of the same cross-section + as one of the outside mains reduces the total saving to 62 1/2 per cent. + </p> + <p> + The three-wire system is in universal use throughout the world at the + present day. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0046" id="link2H_4_0046"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XIII. EDISON'S ELECTRIC RAILWAY + </h2> + <p> + AS narrated in Chapter XVIII, there were two electric railroads installed + by Edison at Menlo Park—one in 1880, originally a third of a mile + long, but subsequently increased to about a mile in length, and the other + in 1882, about three miles long. As the 1880 road was built very soon + after Edison's notable improvements in dynamo machines, and as the art of + operating them to the best advantage was then being developed, this early + road was somewhat crude as compared with the railroad of 1882; but both + were practicable and serviceable for the purpose of hauling passengers and + freight. The scope of the present article will be confined to a + description of the technical details of these two installations. + </p> + <p> + The illustration opposite page 454 of the preceding narrative shows the + first Edison locomotive and train of 1880 at Menlo Park. + </p> + <p> + For the locomotive a four-wheel iron truck was used, and upon it was + mounted one of the long "Z" type 110-volt Edison dynamos, with a capacity + of 75 amperes, which was to be used as a motor. This machine was laid on + its side, its armature being horizontal and located toward the front of + the locomotive. + </p> + <p> + We now quote from an article by Mr. E. W. Hammer, published in the + Electrical World, New York, June 10, 1899, and afterward elaborated and + reprinted in a volume entitled Edisonia, compiled and published under the + auspices of a committee of the Association of Edison Illuminating + Companies, in 1904: "The gearing originally employed consisted of a + friction-pulley upon the armature shaft, another friction-pulley upon the + driven axle, and a third friction-pulley which could be brought in contact + with the other two by a suitable lever. Each wheel of the locomotive was + made with metallic rim and a centre portion made of wood or papier-mache. + A three-legged spider connected the metal rim of each front wheel to a + brass hub, upon which rested a collecting brush. The other wheels were + subsequently so equipped. It was the intention, therefore, that the + current should enter the locomotive wheels at one side, and after passing + through the metal spiders, collecting brushes and motor, would pass out + through the corresponding brushes, spiders, and wheels to the other rail." + </p> + <p> + As to the road: "The rails were light and were spiked to ordinary + sleepers, with a gauge of about three and one-half feet. The sleepers were + laid upon the natural grade, and there was comparatively no effort made to + ballast the road. . . . No special precautions were taken to insulate the + rails from the earth or from each other." + </p> + <p> + The road started about fifty feet away from the generating station, which + in this case was the machine shop. Two of the "Z" type dynamos were used + for generating the current, which was conveyed to the two rails of the + road by underground conductors. + </p> + <p> + On Thursday, May 13, 1880, at 4 o'clock in the afternoon, this historic + locomotive made its first trip, packed with as many of the "boys" as could + possibly find a place to hang on. "Everything worked to a charm, until, in + starting up at one end of the road, the friction gearing was brought into + action too suddenly and it was wrecked. This accident demonstrated that + some other method of connecting the armature with the driven axle should + be arranged. + </p> + <p> + "As thus originally operated, the motor had its field circuit in permanent + connection as a shunt across the rails, and this field circuit was + protected by a safety-catch made by turning up two bare ends of the wire + in its circuit and winding a piece of fine copper wire across from one + bare end to the other. The armature circuit had a switch in it which + permitted the locomotive to be reversed by reversing the direction of + current flow through the armature. + </p> + <p> + "After some consideration of the gearing question, it was decided to + employ belts instead of the friction-pulleys." Accordingly, Edison + installed on the locomotive a system of belting, including an idler-pulley + which was used by means of a lever to tighten the main driving-belt, and + thus power was applied to the driven axle. This involved some slipping and + consequent burning of belts; also, if the belt were prematurely tightened, + the burning-out of the armature. This latter event happened a number of + times, "and proved to be such a serious annoyance that resistance-boxes + were brought out from the laboratory and placed upon the locomotive in + series with the armature. This solved the difficulty. The locomotive would + be started with these resistance-boxes in circuit, and after reaching full + speed the operator could plug the various boxes out of circuit, and in + that way increase the speed." To stop, the armature circuit was opened by + the main switch and the brake applied. + </p> + <p> + This arrangement was generally satisfactory, but the resistance-boxes + scattered about the platform and foot-rests being in the way, Edison + directed that some No. 8 B. & S. copper wire be wound on the lower leg + of the motor field-magnet. "By doing this the resistance was put where it + would take up the least room, and where it would serve as an additional + field-coil when starting the motor, and it replaced all the + resistance-boxes which had heretofore been in plain sight. The boxes under + the seat were still retained in service. The coil of coarse wire was in + series with the armature, just as the resistance-boxes had been, and could + be plugged in or out of circuit at the will of the locomotive driver. The + general arrangement thus secured was operated as long as this road was in + commission." + </p> + <p> + On this short stretch of road there were many sharp curves and steep + grades, and in consequence of the high speed attained (as high as + forty-two miles an hour) several derailments took place, but fortunately + without serious results. Three cars were in service during the entire time + of operating this 1880 railroad: one a flat-car for freight; one an open + car with two benches placed back to back; and the third a box-car, + familiarly known as the "Pullman." This latter car had an interesting + adjunct in an electric braking system (covered by Edison's Patent No. + 248,430). "Each car axle had a large iron disk mounted on and revolving + with it between the poles of a powerful horseshoe electromagnet. The + pole-pieces of the magnet were movable, and would be attracted to the + revolving disk when the magnet was energized, grasping the same and acting + to retard the revolution of the car axle." + </p> + <p> + Interesting articles on Edison's first electric railroad were published in + the technical and other papers, among which may be mentioned the New York + Herald, May 15 and July 23, 1880; the New York Graphic, July 27, 1880; and + the Scientific American, June 6, 1880. + </p> + <p> + Edison's second electric railroad of 1882 was more pretentious as regards + length, construction, and equipment. It was about three miles long, of + nearly standard gauge, and substantially constructed. Curves were + modified, and grades eliminated where possible by the erection of numerous + trestles. This road also had some features of conventional railroads, such + as sidings, turn-tables, freight platform, and car-house. "Current was + supplied to the road by underground feeder cables from the dynamo-room of + the laboratory. The rails were insulated from the ties by giving them two + coats of japan, baking them in the oven, and then placing them on pads of + tar-impregnated muslin laid on the ties. The ends of the rails were not + japanned, but were electroplated, to give good contact surfaces for + fish-plates and copper bonds." + </p> + <p> + The following notes of Mr. Frederick A. Scheffler, who designed the + passenger locomotive for the 1882 road, throw an interesting light on its + technical details: + </p> + <p> + "In May, 1881, I was engaged by Mr. M. F. Moore, who was the first General + Manager of the Edison Company for Isolated Lighting, as a draftsman to + undertake the work of designing and building Edison's electric locomotive + No. 2. + </p> + <p> + "Previous to that time I had been employed in the engineering department + of Grant Locomotive Works, Paterson, New Jersey, and the Rhode Island + Locomotive Works, Providence, Rhode Island.... + </p> + <p> + "It was Mr. Edison's idea, as I understood it at that time, to build a + locomotive along the general lines of steam locomotives (at least, in + outward appearance), and to combine in that respect the framework, truck, + and other parts known to be satisfactory in steam locomotives at the same + time. + </p> + <p> + "This naturally required the services of a draftsman accustomed to + steam-locomotive practice.... Mr. Moore was a man of great railroad and + locomotive experience, and his knowledge in that direction was of great + assistance in the designing and building of this locomotive. + </p> + <p> + "At that time I had no knowledge of electricity.... One could count + so-called electrical engineers on his fingers then, and have some fingers + left over. + </p> + <p> + "Consequently, the ELECTRICAL equipment was designed by Mr. Edison and his + assistants. The data and parts, such as motor, rheostat, switches, etc., + were given to me, and my work was to design the supporting frame, axles, + countershafts, driving mechanism, speed control, wheels and boxes, cab, + running board, pilot (or 'cow-catcher'), buffers, and even supports for + the headlight. I believe I also designed a bell and supports. From this it + will be seen that the locomotive had all the essential paraphernalia to + make it LOOK like a steam locomotive. + </p> + <p> + "The principal part of the outfit was the electric motor. At that time + motors were curiosities. There were no electric motors even for stationary + purposes, except freaks built for experimental uses. This motor was made + from the parts—such as fields, armature, commutator, shaft and + bearings, etc., of an Edison 'Z,' or 60-light dynamo. It was the only size + of dynamo that the Edison Company had marketed at that time.... As a + motor, it was wound to run at maximum speed to develop a torque equal to + about fifteen horse-power with 220 volts. At the generating station at + Menlo Park four Z dynamos of 110 volts were used, connected two in series, + in multiple arc, giving a line voltage of 220. + </p> + <p> + "The motor was located in the front part of the locomotive, on its side, + with the armature shaft across the frames, or parallel with the driving + axles. + </p> + <p> + "On account of the high speed of the armature shaft it was not possible to + connect with driving-axles direct, but this was an advantage in one way, + as by introducing an intermediate counter-shaft (corresponding to the + well-known type of double-reduction motor used on trolley-cars since + 1885), a fairly good arrangement was obtained to regulate the speed of the + locomotive, exclusive of resistance in the electric circuit. + </p> + <p> + "Endless leather belting was used to transmit the power from the motor to + the counter-shaft, and from the latter to the driving-wheels, which were + the front pair. A vertical idler-pulley was mounted in a frame over the + belt from motor to counter-shaft, terminating in a vertical screw and + hand-wheel for tightening the belt to increase speed, or the reverse to + lower speed. This hand-wheel was located in the cab, where it was easily + accessible.... + </p> + <p> + "The rough outline sketched below shows the location of motor in relation + to counter-shaft, belting, driving-wheels, idler, etc.: + </p> + <p> + "On account of both rails being used for circuits, . . . the + driving-wheels had to be split circumferentially and completely insulated + from the axles. This was accomplished by means of heavy wood blocks well + shellacked or otherwise treated to make them water and weather proof, + placed radially on the inside of the wheels, and then substantially bolted + to the hubs and rims of the latter. + </p> + <p> + "The weight of the locomotive was distributed over the driving-wheels in + the usual locomotive practice by means of springs and equalizers. + </p> + <p> + "The current was taken from the rims of the driving-wheels by a + three-pronged collector of brass, against which flexible copper brushes + were pressed—a simple manner of overcoming any inequalities of the + road-bed. + </p> + <p> + "The late Mr. Charles T. Hughes was in charge of the track construction at + Menlo Park.... His work was excellent throughout, and the results were + highly satisfactory so far as they could possibly be with the arrangement + originally planned by Mr. Edison and his assistants. + </p> + <p> + "Mr. Charles L. Clarke, one of the earliest electrical engineers employed + by Mr. Edison, made a number of tests on this 1882 railroad. I believe + that the engine driving the four Z generators at the power-house indicated + as high as seventy horse-power at the time the locomotive was actually in + service." + </p> + <p> + The electrical features of the 1882 locomotive were very similar to those + of the earlier one, already described. Shunt and series field-windings + were added to the motor, and the series windings could be plugged in and + out of circuit as desired. The series winding was supplemented by + resistance-boxes, also capable of being plugged in or out of circuit. + These various electrical features are diagrammatically shown in Fig. 2, + which also illustrates the connection with the generating plant. + </p> + <p> + We quote again from Mr. Hammer, who says: "The freight-locomotive had + single reduction gears, as is the modern practice, but the power was + applied through a friction-clutch The passenger-locomotive was very + speedy, and ninety passengers have been carried at a time by it; the + freight-locomotive was not so fast, but could pull heavy trains at a good + speed. Many thousand people were carried on this road during 1882." The + general appearance of Edison's electric locomotive of 1882 is shown in the + illustration opposite page 462 of the preceding narrative. In the picture + Mr. Edison may be seen in the cab, and Mr. Insull on the front platform of + the passenger-car. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0047" id="link2H_4_0047"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XIV. TRAIN TELEGRAPHY + </h2> + <p> + WHILE the one-time art of telegraphing to and from moving trains was + essentially a wireless system, and allied in some of its principles to the + art of modern wireless telegraphy through space, the two systems cannot, + strictly speaking be regarded as identical, as the practice of the former + was based entirely on the phenomenon of induction. + </p> + <p> + Briefly described in outline, the train telegraph system consisted of an + induction circuit obtained by laying strips of metal along the top or roof + of a railway-car, and the installation of a special telegraph line running + parallel with the track and strung on poles of only medium height. The + train, and also each signalling station, was equipped with regulation + telegraph apparatus, such as battery, key, relay, and sounder, together + with induction-coil and condenser. In addition, there was a special + transmitting device in the shape of a musical reed, or "buzzer." In + practice, this buzzer was continuously operated at a speed of about five + hundred vibrations per second by an auxiliary battery. Its vibrations were + broken by means of a telegraph key into long and short periods, + representing Morse characters, which were transmitted inductively from the + train circuit to the pole line or vice versa, and received by the operator + at the other end through a high-resistance telephone receiver inserted in + the secondary circuit of the induction-coil. + </p> + <p> + The accompanying diagrammatic sketch of a simple form of the system, as + installed on a car, will probably serve to make this more clear. + </p> + <p> + An insulated wire runs from the metallic layers on the roof of the car to + switch S, which is shown open in the sketch. When a message is to be + received on the car from a station more or less remote, the switch is + thrown to the left to connect with a wire running to the telephone + receiver, T. The other wire from this receiver is run down to one of the + axles and there permanently connected, thus making a ground. The operator + puts the receiver to his ear and listens for the message, which the + telephone renders audible in the Morse characters. + </p> + <p> + If a message is to be transmitted from the car to a receiving station, + near or distant, the switch, S, is thrown to the other side, thus + connecting with a wire leading to one end of the secondary of + induction-coil C. The other end of the secondary is connected with the + grounding wire. The primary of the induction-coil is connected as shown, + one end going to key K and the other to the buzzer circuit. The other side + of the key is connected to the transmitting battery, while the opposite + pole of this battery is connected in the buzzer circuit. The buzzer, R, is + maintained in rapid vibration by its independent auxiliary battery, B<1S>. + </p> + <p> + When the key is pressed down the circuit is closed, and current from the + transmitting battery, B, passes through primary of the coil, C, and + induces a current of greatly increased potential in the secondary. The + current as it passes into the primary, being broken up into short impulses + by the tremendously rapid vibrations of the buzzer, induces similarly + rapid waves of high potential in the secondary, and these in turn pass to + the roof and thence through the intervening air by induction to the + telegraph wire. By a continued lifting and depression of the key in the + regular manner, these waves are broken up into long and short periods, and + are thus transmitted to the station, via the wire, in Morse characters, + dots and dashes. + </p> + <p> + The receiving stations along the line of the railway were similarly + equipped as to apparatus, and, generally speaking the operations of + sending and receiving messages were substantially the same as above + described. + </p> + <p> + The equipment of an operator on a car was quite simple consisting merely + of a small lap-board, on which were mounted the key, coil, and buzzer, + leaving room for telegraph blanks. To this board were also attached + flexible conductors having spring clips, by means of which connections + could be made quickly with conveniently placed terminals of the ground, + roof, and battery wires. The telephone receiver was held on the head with + a spring, the flexible connecting wire being attached to the lap board, + thus leaving the operator with both hands free. + </p> + <p> + The system, as shown in the sketch and elucidated by the text, represents + the operation of train telegraphy in a simple form, but combining the main + essentials of the art as it was successfully and commercially practiced + for a number of years after Edison and Gilliland entered the field. They + elaborated the system in various ways, making it more complete; but it has + not been deemed necessary to enlarge further upon the technical minutiae + of the art for the purpose of this work. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0048" id="link2H_4_0048"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XV. KINETOGRAPH AND PROJECTING KINETOSCOPE + </h2> + <p> + ALTHOUGH many of the arts in which Edison has been a pioneer have been + enriched by his numerous inventions and patents, which were subsequent to + those of a fundamental nature, the (so-called) motion-picture art is an + exception, as the following, together with three other additional patents + [30] comprise all that he has taken out on this subject: United States + Patent No. 589,168, issued August 31, 1897, reissued in two parts—namely, + No. 12,037, under date of September 30,1902, and No. 12,192, under date of + January 12, 1904. Application filed August 24, 1891. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 30: Not 491,993, issued February 21, 1893; No. + 493,426, issued March 14, 1893; No. 772,647, issued October + 18, 1904.] +</pre> + <p> + There is nothing surprising in this, however, as the possibility of + photographing and reproducing actual scenes of animate life are so + thoroughly exemplified and rendered practicable by the apparatus and + methods disclosed in the patents above cited, that these basic inventions + in themselves practically constitute the art—its development + proceeding mainly along the line of manufacturing details. That such a + view of his work is correct, the highest criterion—commercial + expediency—bears witness; for in spite of the fact that the courts + have somewhat narrowed the broad claims of Edison's patents by reason of + the investigations of earlier experimenters, practically all the immense + amount of commercial work that is done in the motion-picture field to-day + is accomplished through the use of apparatus and methods licensed under + the Edison patents. + </p> + <p> + The philosophy of this invention having already been described in Chapter + XXI, it will be unnecessary to repeat it here. Suffice it to say by way of + reminder that it is founded upon the physiological phenomenon known as the + persistence of vision, through which a series of sequential photographic + pictures of animate motion projected upon a screen in rapid succession + will reproduce to the eye all the appearance of the original movements. + </p> + <p> + Edison's work in this direction comprised the invention not only of a + special form of camera for making original photographic exposures from a + single point of view with very great rapidity, and of a machine adapted to + effect the reproduction of such pictures in somewhat similar manner but + also of the conception and invention of a continuous uniform, and evenly + spaced tape-like film, so absolutely essential for both the above objects. + </p> + <p> + The mechanism of such a camera, as now used, consists of many parts + assembled in such contiguous proximity to each other that an illustration + from an actual machine would not help to clearness of explanation to the + general reader. Hence a diagram showing a sectional view of a simple form + of such a camera is presented below. + </p> + <p> + In this diagram, A represents an outer light-tight box containing a lens, + C, and the other necessary mechanism for making the photographic + exposures, H<1S> and H<2S> being cases for holding reels of film + before and after exposure, F the long, tape-like film, G a sprocket whose + teeth engage in perforations on the edges of the film, such sprocket being + adapted to be revolved with an intermittent or step-by-step movement by + hand or by motor, and B a revolving shutter having an opening and + connected by gears with G, and arranged to expose the film during the + periods of rest. A full view of this shutter is also represented, with its + opening, D, in the small illustration to the right. + </p> + <p> + In practice, the operation would be somewhat as follows, generally + speaking: The lens would first be focussed on the animate scene to be + photographed. On turning the main shaft of the camera the sprocket, G, is + moved intermittently, and its teeth, catching in the holes in the + sensitized film, draws it downward, bringing a new portion of its length + in front of the lens, the film then remaining stationary for an instant. + In the mean time, through gearing connecting the main shaft with the + shutter, the latter is rotated, bringing its opening, D, coincident with + the lens, and therefore exposing the film while it is stationary, after + which the film again moves forward. So long as the action is continued + these movements are repeated, resulting in a succession of enormously + rapid exposures upon the film during its progress from reel H<1S> to + its automatic rewinding on reel H<2S>. While the film is passing + through the various parts of the machine it is guided and kept straight by + various sets of rollers between which it runs, as indicated in the + diagram. + </p> + <p> + By an ingenious arrangement of the mechanism, the film moves + intermittently so that it may have a much longer period of rest than of + motion. As in practice the pictures are taken at a rate of twenty or more + per second, it will be quite obvious that each period of rest is + infinitesimally brief, being generally one-thirtieth of a second or less. + Still it is sufficient to bring the film to a momentary condition of + complete rest, and to allow for a maximum time of exposure, comparatively + speaking, thus providing means for taking clearly defined pictures. The + negatives so obtained are developed in the regular way, and the positive + prints subsequently made from them are used for reproduction. + </p> + <p> + The reproducing machine, or, as it is called in practice, the Projecting + Kinetoscope, is quite similar so far as its general operations in handling + the film are concerned. In appearance it is somewhat different; indeed, it + is in two parts, the one containing the lighting arrangements and + condensing lens, and the other embracing the mechanism and objective lens. + The "taking" camera must have its parts enclosed in a light-tight box, + because of the undeveloped, sensitized film, but the projecting + kinetoscope, using only a fully developed positive film, may, and, for + purposes of convenient operation, must be accessibly open. The + illustration (Fig. 2) will show the projecting apparatus as used in + practice. + </p> + <p> + The philosophy of reproduction is very simple, and is illustrated + diagrammatically in Fig. 3, reference letters being the same as in Fig. 1. + As to the additional reference letters, I is a condenser J the source of + light, and K a reflector. + </p> + <p> + The positive film is moved intermittently but swiftly throughout its + length between the objective lens and a beam of light coming through the + condenser, being exposed by the shutter during the periods of rest. This + results in a projection of the photographs upon a screen in such rapid + succession as to present an apparently continuous photograph of the + successive positions of the moving objects, which, therefore, appear to + the human eye to be in motion. + </p> + <p> + The first claim of Reissue Patent No. 12,192 describes the film. It reads + as follows: + </p> + <p> + "An unbroken transparent or translucent tape-like photographic film having + thereon uniform, sharply defined, equidistant photographs of successive + positions of an object in motion as observed from a single point of view + at rapidly recurring intervals of time, such photographs being arranged in + a continuous straight-line sequence, unlimited in number save by the + length of the film, and sufficient in number to represent the movements of + the object throughout an extended period of time." + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0049" id="link2H_4_0049"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XVI. EDISON'S ORE-MILLING INVENTIONS + </h2> + <p> + THE wide range of Edison's activities in this department of the arts is + well represented in the diversity of the numerous patents that have been + issued to him from time to time. These patents are between fifty and sixty + in number, and include magnetic ore separators of ten distinct types; also + breaking, crushing, and grinding rolls, conveyors, dust-proof bearings, + screens, driers, mixers, bricking apparatus and machines, ovens, and + processes of various kinds. + </p> + <p> + A description of the many devices in each of these divisions would require + more space than is available; hence, we shall confine ourselves to a few + items of predominating importance, already referred to in the narrative, + commencing with the fundamental magnetic ore separator, which was covered + by United States Patent No. 228,329, issued June 1, 1880. + </p> + <p> + The illustration here presented is copied from the drawing forming part of + this patent. A hopper with adjustable feed is supported several feet above + a bin having a central partition. Almost midway between the hopper and the + bin is placed an electromagnet whose polar extension is so arranged as to + be a little to one side of a stream of material falling from the hopper. + Normally, a stream of finely divided ore falling from the hopper would + fall into that portion of the bin lying to the left of the partition. If, + however, the magnet is energized from a source of current, the magnetic + particles in the falling stream are attracted by and move toward the + magnet, which is so placed with relation to the falling material that the + magnetic particles cannot be attracted entirely to the magnet before + gravity has carried them past. Hence, their trajectory is altered, and + they fall on the right-hand side of the partition in the bin, while the + non-magnetic portion of the stream continues in a straight line and falls + on the other side, thus effecting a complete separation. + </p> + <p> + This simple but effective principle was the one employed by Edison in his + great concentrating plant already described. In practice, the numerous + hoppers, magnets, and bins were many feet in length; and they were + arranged in batteries of varied magnetic strength, in order that the + intermingled mass of crushed rock and iron ore might be more thoroughly + separated by being passed through magnetic fields of successively + increasing degrees of attracting power. Altogether there were about four + hundred and eighty of these immense magnets in the plant, distributed in + various buildings in batteries as above mentioned, the crushed rock + containing the iron ore being delivered to them by conveyors, and the + gangue and ore being taken away after separation by two other conveyors + and delivered elsewhere. The magnetic separators at first used by Edison + at this plant were of the same generality as the ones employed some years + previously in the separation of sea-shore sand, but greatly enlarged and + improved. The varied experiences gained in the concentration of vast + quantities of ore led naturally to a greater development, and several new + types and arrangements of magnetic separators were evolved and elaborated + by him from first to last, during the progress of the work at the + concentrating plant. + </p> + <p> + The magnetic separation of iron from its ore being the foundation idea of + the inventions now under discussion, a consideration of the separator has + naturally taken precedence over those of collateral but inseparable + interest. The ore-bearing rock, however, must first be ground to powder + before it can be separated; hence, we will now begin at the root of this + operation and consider the "giant rolls," which Edison devised for + breaking huge masses of rock. In his application for United States Patent + No. 672,616, issued April 23, 1901, applied for on July 16, 1897, he says: + "The object of my invention is to produce a method for the breaking of + rock which will be simple and effective, will not require the + hand-sledging or blasting of the rock down to pieces of moderate size, and + will involve the consumption of a small amount of power." + </p> + <p> + While this quotation refers to the method as "simple," the patent under + consideration covers one of the most bold and daring projects that Edison + has ever evolved. He proposed to eliminate the slow and expensive method + of breaking large boulders manually, and to substitute therefor momentum + and kinetic energy applied through the medium of massive machinery, which, + in a few seconds, would break into small pieces a rock as big as an + ordinary upright cottage piano, and weighing as much as six tons. + Engineers to whom Edison communicated his ideas were unanimous in + declaring the thing an impossibility; it was like driving two + express-trains into each other at full speed to crack a great rock placed + between them; that no practical machinery could be built to stand the + terrific impact and strains. Edison's convictions were strong, however, + and he persisted. The experiments were of heroic size, physically and + financially, but after a struggle of several years and an expenditure of + about $100,000, he realized the correctness and practicability of his + plans in the success of the giant rolls, which were the outcome of his + labors. + </p> + <p> + The giant rolls consist of a pair of iron cylinders of massive size and + weight, with removable wearing plates having irregular surfaces formed by + projecting knobs. These rolls are mounted side by side in a very heavy + frame (leaving a gap of about fourteen inches between them), and are so + belted up with the source of power that they run in opposite directions. + The giant rolls described by Edison in the above-named patent as having + been built and operated by him had a combined weight of 167,000 pounds, + including all moving parts, which of themselves weighed about seventy + tons, each roll being six feet in diameter and five feet long. A top view + of the rolls is shown in the sketch, one roll and one of its bearings + being shown in section. + </p> + <p> + In Fig. 2 the rolls are illustrated diagrammatically. As a sketch of this + nature, even if given with a definite scale, does not always carry an + adequate idea of relative dimensions to a non-technical reader, we present + in Fig. 3 a perspective illustration of the giant rolls as installed in + the concentrating plant. + </p> + <p> + In practice, a small amount of power is applied to run the giant rolls + gradually up to a surface speed of several thousand feet a minute. When + this high speed is attained, masses of rock weighing several tons in one + or more pieces are dumped into a hopper which guides them into the gap + between the rapidly revolving rolls. The effect is to partially arrest the + swift motion of the rolls instantaneously, and thereby develop and expend + an enormous amount of kinetic energy, which with pile-driver effect cracks + the rocks and breaks them into pieces small enough to pass through the + fourteen-inch gap. As the power is applied to the rolls through slipping + friction-clutches, the speed of the driving-pulleys is not materially + reduced; hence the rolls may again be quickly speeded up to their highest + velocity while another load of rock is being hoisted in position to be + dumped into the hopper. It will be obvious from the foregoing that if it + were attempted to supply the great energy necessary for this operation by + direct application of steam-power, an engine of enormous horse-power would + be required, and even then it is doubtful if one could be constructed of + sufficient strength to withstand the terrific strains that would ensue. + But the work is done by the great momentum and kinetic energy obtained by + speeding up these tremendous masses of metal, and then suddenly opposing + their progress, the engine being relieved of all strain through the medium + of the slipping friction-clutches. Thus, this cyclopean operation may be + continuously conducted with an amount of power prodigiously inferior, in + proportion, to the results accomplished. + </p> + <p> + The sketch (Fig. 4) showing a large boulder being dumped into the hopper, + or roll-pit, will serve to illustrate the method of feeding these great + masses of rock to the rolls, and will also enable the reader to form an + idea of the rapidity of the breaking operation, when it is stated that a + boulder of the size represented would be reduced by the giant rolls to + pieces a trifle larger than a man's head in a few seconds. + </p> + <p> + After leaving the giant rolls the broken rock passed on through other + crushing-rolls of somewhat similar construction. These also were invented + by Edison, but antedated those previously described; being covered by + Patent No. 567,187, issued September 8, 1896. These rolls were intended + for the reducing of "one-man-size" rocks to small pieces, which at the + time of their original inception was about the standard size of similar + machines. At the Edison concentrating plant the broken rock, after passing + through these rolls, was further reduced in size by other rolls, and was + then ready to be crushed to a fine powder through the medium of another + remarkable machine devised by Edison to meet his ever-recurring and + well-defined ideas of the utmost economy and efficiency. + </p> + <p> + NOTE.—Figs. 3 and 4 are reproduced from similar sketches on pages 84 + and 85 of McClure's Magazine for November, 1897, by permission of S. S. + McClure Co. + </p> + <p> + The best fine grinding-machines that it was then possible to obtain were + so inefficient as to involve a loss of 82 per cent. of the power applied. + The thought of such an enormous loss was unbearable, and he did not rest + until he had invented and put into use an entirely new grinding-machine, + which was called the "three-high" rolls. The device was covered by a + patent issued to him on November 21, 1899, No. 637,327. It was a most + noteworthy invention, for it brought into the art not only a greater + efficiency of grinding than had ever been dreamed of before, but also a + tremendous economy by the saving of power; for whereas the previous + efficiency had been 18 per cent. and the loss 82 per cent., Edison + reversed these figures, and in his three-high rolls produced a working + efficiency of 84 per cent., thus reducing the loss of power by friction to + 16 per cent. A diagrammatic sketch of this remarkable machine is shown in + Fig. 5, which shows a front elevation with the casings, hopper, etc., + removed, and also shows above the rolls the rope and pulleys, the supports + for which are also removed for the sake of clearness in the illustration. + </p> + <p> + For the convenience of the reader, in referring to Fig. 5, we will repeat + the description of the three-high rolls, which is given on pages 487 and + 488 of the preceding narrative. + </p> + <p> + In the two end-pieces of a heavy iron frame were set three rolls, or + cylinders—one in the centre, another below, and the other above—all + three being in a vertical line. These rolls were about three feet in + diameter, made of cast-iron, and had face-plates of chilled-iron. [31] The + lowest roll was set in a fixed bearing at the bottom of the frame, and, + therefore, could only turn around on its axis. The middle and top rolls + were free to move up or down from and toward the lower roll, and the + shafts of the middle and upper rolls were set in a loose bearing which + could slip up and down in the iron frame. It will be apparent, therefore, + that any material which passed in between the top and the middle rolls, + and the middle and bottom rolls, could be ground as fine as might be + desired, depending entirely upon the amount of pressure applied to the + loose rolls. In operation the material passed first through the upper and + middle rolls, and then between the middle and lowest rolls. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + [Footnote 31: The faces of these rolls were smooth, but as + three-high rolls came into use later in Edison's Portland + cement operations the faces were corrugated so as to fit + into each other, gear-fashion, to provide for a high rate of + feed] +</pre> + <p> + This pressure was applied in a most ingenious manner. On the ends of the + shafts of the bottom and top rolls there were cylindrical sleeves, or + bearings, having seven sheaves in which was run a half-inch endless wire + rope. This rope was wound seven times over the sheaves as above, and led + upward and over a single-groove sheave, which was operated by the piston + of an air-cylinder, and in this manner the pressure was applied to the + rolls. It will be seen, therefore that the system consisted in a single + rope passed over sheaves and so arranged that it could be varied in + length, thus providing for elasticity in exerting pressure and regulating + it as desired. The efficiency of this system was incomparably greater than + that of any other known crusher or grinder, for while a pressure of one + hundred and twenty-five thousand pounds could be exerted by these rolls, + friction was almost entirely eliminated, because the upper and lower roll + bearings turned with the rolls and revolved in the wire rope, which + constituted the bearing proper. + </p> + <p> + Several other important patents have been issued to Edison for crushing + and grinding rolls, some of them being for elaborations and improvements + of those above described but all covering methods of greater economy and + effectiveness in rock-grinding. + </p> + <p> + Edison's work on conveyors during the period of his ore-concentrating + labors was distinctively original, ingenious and far in advance of the + times. His conception of the concentrating problem was broad and embraced + an entire system, of which a principal item was the continuous transfer of + enormous quantities of material from place to place at the lowest possible + cost. As he contemplated the concentration of six thousand tons daily, the + expense of manual labor to move such an immense quantity of rock, sand, + and ore would be absolutely prohibitive. Hence, it became necessary to + invent a system of conveyors that would be capable of transferring this + mass of material from one place to another. And not only must these + conveyors be capable of carrying the material, but they must also be + devised so that they would automatically receive and discharge their + respective loads at appointed places. Edison's ingenuity, engineering + ability, and inventive skill were equal to the task, however, and were + displayed in a system and variety of conveyors that in practice seemed to + act with almost human discrimination. When fully installed throughout the + plant, they automatically transferred daily a mass of material equal to + about one hundred thousand cubic feet, from mill to mill, covering about a + mile in the transit. Up and down, winding in and out, turning corners, + delivering material from one to another, making a number of loops in the + drying-oven, filling up bins and passing on to the next when they were + full, these conveyors in automatic action seemingly played their part with + human intelligence, which was in reality the reflection of the + intelligence and ingenuity that had originally devised them and set them + in motion. + </p> + <p> + Six of Edison's patents on conveyors include a variety of devices that + have since came into broad general use for similar work, and have been the + means of effecting great economies in numerous industries of widely + varying kinds. Interesting as they are, however, we shall not attempt to + describe them in detail, as the space required would be too great. They + are specified in the list of patents following this Appendix, and may be + examined in detail by any interested student. + </p> + <p> + In the same list will also be found a large number of Edison's patents on + apparatus and methods of screening, drying, mixing, and briquetting, as + well as for dust-proof bearings, and various types and groupings of + separators, all of which were called forth by the exigencies and magnitude + of his great undertaking, and without which he could not possibly have + attained the successful physical results that crowned his labors. Edison's + persistence in reducing the cost of his operations is noteworthy in + connection with his screening and drying inventions, in which the utmost + advantage is taken of the law of gravitation. With its assistance, which + cost nothing, these operations were performed perfectly. It was only + necessary to deliver the material at the top of the chambers, and during + its natural descent it was screened or dried as the case might be. + </p> + <p> + All these inventions and devices, as well as those described in detail + above (except magnetic separators and mixing and briquetting machines), + are being used by him to-day in the manufacture of Portland cement, as + that industry presents many of the identical problems which presented + themselves in relation to the concentration of iron ore. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0050" id="link2H_4_0050"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XVII. THE LONG CEMENT KILN + </h2> + <p> + IN this remarkable invention, which has brought about a striking + innovation in a long-established business, we see another characteristic + instance of Edison's incisive reasoning and boldness of conception carried + into practical effect in face of universal opinions to the contrary. + </p> + <p> + For the information of those unacquainted with the process of + manufacturing Portland cement, it may be stated that the material consists + preliminarily of an intimate mixture of cement rock and limestone, ground + to a very fine powder. This powder is technically known in the trade as + "chalk," and is fed into rotary kilns and "burned"; that is to say, it is + subjected to a high degree of heat obtained by the combustion of + pulverized coal, which is injected into the interior of the kiln. This + combustion effects a chemical decomposition of the chalk, and causes it to + assume a plastic consistency and to collect together in the form of small + spherical balls, which are known as "clinker." Kilns are usually arranged + with a slight incline, at the upper end of which the chalk is fed in and + gradually works its way down to the interior flame of burning fuel at the + other end. When it arrives at the lower end, the material has been + "burned," and the clinker drops out into a receiving chamber below. The + operation is continuous, a constant supply of chalk passing in at one end + of the kiln and a continuous dribble of clinker-balls dropping out at the + other. After cooling, the clinker is ground into very fine powder, which + is the Portland cement of commerce. + </p> + <p> + It is self-evident that an ideal kiln would be one that produced the + maximum quantity of thoroughly clinkered material with a minimum amount of + fuel, labor, and investment. When Edison was preparing to go into the + cement business, he looked the ground over thoroughly, and, after + considerable investigation and experiment, came to the conclusion that + prevailing conditions as to kilns were far from ideal. + </p> + <p> + The standard kilns then in use were about sixty feet in length, with an + internal diameter of about five feet. In all rotary kilns for burning + cement, the true clinkering operation takes place only within a limited + portion of their total length, where the heat is greatest; hence the + interior of the kiln may be considered as being divided longitudinally + into two parts or zones—namely, the combustion, or clinkering, zone, + and the zone of oncoming raw material. In the sixty-foot kiln the length + of the combustion zone was about ten feet, extending from a point six or + eight feet from the lower, or discharge, end to a point about eighteen + feet from that end. Consequently, beyond that point there was a zone of + only about forty feet, through which the heated gases passed and came in + contact with the oncoming material, which was in movement down toward the + clinkering zone. Since the bulk of oncoming material was small, the gases + were not called upon to part with much of their heat, and therefore passed + on up the stack at very high temperatures, ranging from 1500 degrees to + 1800 degrees Fahr. Obviously, this heat was entirely lost. + </p> + <p> + An additional loss of efficiency arose from the fact that the material + moved so rapidly toward the combustion zone that it had not given up all + its carbon dioxide on reaching there; and by the giving off of large + quantities of that gas within the combustion zone, perfect and economical + combustion of coal could not be effected. + </p> + <p> + The comparatively short length of the sixty-foot kiln not only limited the + amount of material that could be fed into it, but the limitation in length + of the combustion zone militated against a thorough clinkering of the + material, this operation being one in which the elements of time and + proper heat are prime considerations. Thus the quantity of good clinker + obtainable was unfavorably affected. By reason of these and other + limitations and losses, it had been possible, in practice, to obtain only + about two hundred and fifty barrels of clinker per day of twenty-four + hours; and that with an expenditure for coal proportionately equal to + about 29 to 33 per cent. of the quantity of clinker produced, even + assuming that all the clinker was of good quality. + </p> + <p> + Edison realized that the secret of greater commercial efficiency and + improvement of quality lay in the ability to handle larger quantities of + material within a given time, and to produce a more perfect product + without increasing cost or investment in proportion. His reasoning led him + to the conclusion that this result could only be obtained through the use + of a kiln of comparatively great length, and his investigations and + experiments enabled him to decide upon a length of one hundred and fifty + feet, but with an increase in diameter of only six inches to a foot over + that of the sixty-foot kiln. + </p> + <p> + The principal considerations that influenced Edison in making this radical + innovation may be briefly stated as follows: + </p> + <p> + First. The ability to maintain in the kiln a load from five to seven times + greater than ordinarily employed, thereby tending to a more economical + output. + </p> + <p> + Second. The combustion of a vastly increased bulk of pulverized coal and a + greatly enlarged combustion zone, extending about forty feet + longitudinally into the kiln—thus providing an area within which the + material might be maintained in a clinkering temperature for a + sufficiently long period to insure its being thoroughly clinkered from + periphery to centre. + </p> + <p> + Third. By reason of such a greatly extended length of the zone of oncoming + material (and consequently much greater bulk), the gases and other + products of combustion would be cooled sufficiently between the combustion + zone and the stack so as to leave the kiln at a comparatively low + temperature. Besides, the oncoming material would thus be gradually raised + in temperature instead of being heated abruptly, as in the shorter kilns. + </p> + <p> + Fourth. The material having thus been greatly raised in temperature before + reaching the combustion zone would have parted with substantially all its + carbon dioxide, and therefore would not introduce into the combustion zone + sufficient of that gas to disturb the perfect character of the combustion. + </p> + <p> + Fifth. On account of the great weight of the heavy load in a long kiln, + there would result the formation of a continuous plastic coating on that + portion of the inner surface of the kiln where temperatures are highest. + This would effectively protect the fire-brick lining from the destructive + effects of the heat. + </p> + <p> + Such, in brief, were the essential principles upon which Edison based his + conception and invention of the long kiln, which has since become so well + known in the cement business. + </p> + <p> + Many other considerations of a minor and mechanical nature, but which were + important factors in his solution of this difficult problem, are worthy of + study by those intimately associated with or interested in the art. Not + the least of the mechanical questions was settled by Edison's decision to + make this tremendously long kiln in sections of cast-iron, with flanges, + bolted together, and supported on rollers rotated by electric motors. + Longitudinal expansion and thrust were also important factors to be + provided for, as well as special devices to prevent the packing of the + mass of material as it passed in and out of the kiln. Special provision + was also made for injecting streams of pulverized coal in such manner as + to create the largely extended zone of combustion. As to the details of + these and many other ingenious devices, we must refer the curious reader + to the patents, as it is merely intended in these pages to indicate in a + brief manner the main principles of Edison's notable inventions. The + principal United States patent on the long kiln was issued October 24, + 1905, No. 802,631. + </p> + <p> + That his reasonings and deductions were correct in this case have been + indubitably proven by some years of experience with the long kiln in its + ability to produce from eight hundred to one thousand barrels of good + clinker every twenty-four hours, with an expenditure for coal + proportionately equal to about only 20 per cent. of the quantity of + clinker produced. + </p> + <p> + To illustrate the long cement kiln by diagram would convey but little to + the lay mind, and we therefore present an illustration (Fig. 1) of actual + kilns in perspective, from which sense of their proportions may be + gathered. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0051" id="link2H_4_0051"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XVIII. EDISON'S NEW STORAGE BATTERY + </h2> + <p> + GENERICALLY considered, a "battery" is a device which generates electric + current. There are two distinct species of battery, one being known as + "primary," and the other as "storage," although the latter is sometimes + referred to as a "secondary battery" or "accumulator." Every type of each + of these two species is essentially alike in its general make-up; that is + to say, every cell of battery of any kind contains at least two elements + of different nature immersed in a more or less liquid electrolyte of + chemical character. On closing the circuit of a primary battery an + electric current is generated by reason of the chemical action which is + set up between the electrolyte and the elements. This involves a gradual + consumption of one of the elements and a corresponding exhaustion of the + active properties of the electrolyte. By reason of this, both the element + and the electrolyte that have been used up must be renewed from time to + time, in order to obtain a continued supply of electric current. + </p> + <p> + The storage battery also generates electric current through chemical + action, but without involving the constant repriming with active materials + to replace those consumed and exhausted as above mentioned. The term + "storage," as applied to this species of battery, is, however, a misnomer, + and has been the cause of much misunderstanding to nontechnical persons. + To the lay mind a "storage" battery presents itself in the aspect of a + device in which electric energy is STORED, just as compressed air is + stored or accumulated in a tank. This view, however, is not in accordance + with facts. It is exactly like the primary battery in the fundamental + circumstance that its ability for generating electric current depends upon + chemical action. In strict terminology it is a "reversible" battery, as + will be quite obvious if we glance briefly at its philosophy. When a + storage battery is "charged," by having an electric current passed through + it, the electric energy produces a chemical effect, adding oxygen to the + positive plate, and taking oxygen away from the negative plate. Thus, the + positive plate becomes oxidized, and the negative plate reduced. After the + charging operation is concluded the battery is ready for use, and upon its + circuit being closed through a translating device, such as a lamp or + motor, a reversion ("discharge") takes place, the positive plate giving up + its oxygen, and the negative plate being oxidized. These chemical actions + result in the generation of an electric current as in a primary battery. + As a matter of fact, the chemical actions and reactions in a storage + battery are much more complex, but the above will serve to afford the lay + reader a rather simple idea of the general result arrived at through the + chemical activity referred to. + </p> + <p> + The storage battery, as a commercial article, was introduced into the + market in the year 1881. At that time, and all through the succeeding + years, until about 1905, there was only one type that was recognized as + commercially practicable—namely, that known as the + lead-sulphuric-acid cell, consisting of lead plates immersed in an + electrolyte of dilute sulphuric acid. In the year last named Edison first + brought out his new form of nickel-iron cell with alkaline electrolyte, as + we have related in the preceding narrative. Early in the eighties, at + Menlo Park, he had given much thought to the lead type of storage battery, + and during the course of three years had made a prodigious number of + experiments in the direction of improving it, probably performing more + experiments in that time than the aggregate of those of all other + investigators. Even in those early days he arrived at the conclusion that + the lead-sulphuric-acid combination was intrinsically wrong, and did not + embrace the elements of a permanent commercial device. He did not at that + time, however, engage in a serious search for another form of storage + battery, being tremendously occupied with his lighting system and other + matters. + </p> + <p> + It may here be noted, for the information of the lay reader, that the + lead-acid type of storage battery consists of two or more lead plates + immersed in dilute sulphuric acid and contained in a receptacle of glass, + hard rubber, or other special material not acted upon by acid. The plates + are prepared and "formed" in various ways, and the chemical actions are + similar to those above stated, the positive plate being oxidized and the + negative reduced during "charge," and reversed during "discharge." This + type of cell, however, has many serious disadvantages inherent to its very + nature. We will name a few of them briefly. Constant dropping of fine + particles of active material often causes short-circuiting of the plates, + and always necessitates occasional washing out of cells; deterioration + through "sulphation" if discharge is continued too far or if recharging is + not commenced quickly enough; destruction of adjacent metalwork by the + corrosive fumes given out during charge and discharge; the tendency of + lead plates to "buckle" under certain conditions; the limitation to the + use of glass, hard rubber, or similar containers on account of the action + of the acid; and the immense weight for electrical capacity. The + tremendously complex nature of the chemical reactions which take place in + the lead-acid storage battery also renders it an easy prey to many + troublesome diseases. + </p> + <p> + In the year 1900, when Edison undertook to invent a storage battery, he + declared it should be a new type into which neither sulphuric nor any + other acid should enter. He said that the intimate and continued + companionship of an acid and a metal was unnatural, and incompatible with + the idea of durability and simplicity. He furthermore stated that lead was + an unmechanical metal for a battery, being heavy and lacking stability and + elasticity, and that as most metals were unaffected by alkaline solutions, + he was going to experiment in that direction. The soundness of his + reasoning is amply justified by the perfection of results obtained in the + new type of storage battery bearing his name, and now to be described. + </p> + <p> + The essential technical details of this battery are fully described in an + article written by one of Edison's laboratory staff, Walter E. Holland, + who for many years has been closely identified with the inventor's work on + this cell The article was published in the Electrical World, New York, + April 28, 1910; and the following extracts therefrom will afford an + intelligent comprehension of this invention: + </p> + <p> + "The 'A' type Edison cell is the outcome of nine years of costly + experimentation and persistent toil on the part of its inventor and his + associates.... + </p> + <p> + "The Edison invention involves the use of an entirely new voltaic + combination in an alkaline electrolyte, in place of the lead-lead-peroxide + combination and acid electrolyte, characteristic of all other commercial + storage batteries. Experience has proven that this not only secures + durability and greater output per unit-weight of battery, but in addition + there is eliminated a long list of troubles and diseases inherent in the + lead-acid combination.... + </p> + <p> + "The principle on which the action of this new battery is based is the + oxidation and reduction of metals in an electrolyte which does not combine + with, and will not dissolve, either the metals or their oxides; and an + electrolyte, furthermore, which, although decomposed by the action of the + battery, is immediately re-formed in equal quantity; and therefore in + effect is a CONSTANT element, not changing in density or in conductivity. + </p> + <p> + "A battery embodying this basic principle will have features of great + value where lightness and durability are desiderata. For instance, the + electrolyte, being a constant factor, as explained, is not required in any + fixed and large amount, as is the case with sulphuric acid in the lead + battery; thus the cell may be designed with minimum distancing of plates + and with the greatest economy of space that is consistent with safe + insulation and good mechanical design. Again, the active materials of the + electrodes being insoluble in, and absolutely unaffected by, the + electrolyte, are not liable to any sort of chemical deterioration by + action of the electrolyte—no matter how long continued.... + </p> + <p> + "The electrolyte of the Edison battery is a 21 per cent. solution of + potassium hydrate having, in addition, a small amount of lithium hydrate. + The active metals of the electrodes—which will oxidize and reduce in + this electrolyte without dissolution or chemical deterioration—are + nickel and iron. These active elements are not put in the plates AS + METALS; but one, nickel, in the form of a hydrate, and the other, iron, as + an oxide. + </p> + <p> + "The containing cases of both kinds of active material (Fig. 1), and their + supporting grids (Fig. 2), as well as the bolts, washers, and nuts used in + assembling (Fig. 3), and even the retaining can and its cover (Fig. 4), + are all made of nickel-plated steel—a material in which lightness, + durability and mechanical strength are most happily combined, and a + material beyond suspicion as to corrosion in an alkaline electrolyte.... + </p> + <p> + "An essential part of Edison's discovery of active masetials for an + alkaline storage battery was the PREPARATION of these materials. Metallic + powder of iron and nickel, or even oxides of these metals, prepared in the + ordinary way, are not chemically active in a sufficient degree to work in + a battery. It is only when specially prepared iron oxide of exceeding + fineness, and nickel hydrate conforming to certain physical, as well as + chemical, standards can be made that the alkaline battery is practicable. + Needless to say, the working out of the conditions and processes of + manufacture of the materials has involved great ingenuity and endless + experimentation." + </p> + <p> + The article then treats of Edison's investigations into means for + supporting and making electrical connection with the active materials, + showing some of the difficulties encountered and the various discoveries + made in developing the perfected cell, after which the writer continues + his description of the "A" type cell, as follows: + </p> + <p> + "It will be seen at once that the construction of the two kinds of plate + is radically different. The negative or iron plate (Fig. 5) has the + familiar flat-pocket construction. Each negative contains twenty-four + pockets—a pocket being 1/2 inch wide by 3 inches long, and having a + maximum thickness of a little more than 1/8 inch. The positive or nickel + plate (Fig. 6) is seen to consist of two rows of round rods or pencils, + thirty in number, held in a vertical position by a steel support-frame. + The pencils have flat flanges at the ends (formed by closing in the metal + case), by which they are supported and electrical connection is made. The + frame is slit at the inner horizontal edges, and then folded in such a way + as to make individual clamping-jaws for each end-flange. The clamping-in + is done at great pressure, and the resultant plate has great rigidity and + strength. + </p> + <p> + "The perforated tubes into which the nickel active material is loaded are + made of nickel-plated steel of high quality. They are put together with a + double-lapped spiral seam to give expansion-resisting qualities, and as an + additional precaution small metal rings are slipped on the outside. Each + tube is 1/4 inch in diameter by 4 1/8 inches long, add has eight of the + reinforcing rings. + </p> + <p> + "It will be seen that the 'A' positive plate has been given the + theoretically best design to prevent expansion and overcome trouble from + that cause. Actual tests, long continued under very severe conditions, + have shown that the construction is right, and fulfils the most sanguine + expectations." + </p> + <p> + Mr. Holland in his article then goes on to explain the development of the + nickel flakes as the conducting factor in the positive element, but as + this has already been described in Chapter XXII, we shall pass on to a + later point, where he says: + </p> + <p> + "An idea of the conditions inside a loaded tube can best be had by + microscopic examination. Fig. 7 shows a magnified section of a regularly + loaded tube which has been sawed lengthwise. The vertical bounding walls + are edges of the perforated metal containing tube; the dark horizontal + lines are layers of nickel flake, while the light-colored thicker layers + represent the nickel hydrate. It should be noted that the layers of flake + nickel extend practically unbroken across the tube and make contact with + the metal wall at both sides. These metal layers conduct current to or + from the active nickel hydrate in all parts of the tube very efficiently. + There are about three hundred and fifty layers of each kind of material in + a 4 1/8-inch tube, each layer of nickel hydrate being about 0.01 inch + thick; so it will be seen that the current does not have to penetrate very + far into the nickel hydrate—one-half a layer's thickness being the + maximum distance. The perforations of the containing tube, through which + the electrolyte reaches the active material, are also shown in Fig. 7." + </p> + <p> + In conclusion, the article enumerates the chief characteristics of the + Edison storage battery which fit it preeminently for transportation + service, as follows: 1. No loss of active material, hence no sediment + short-circuits. 2. No jar breakage. 3. Possibility of quick disconnection + or replacement of any cell without employment of skilled labor. 4. + Impossibility of "buckling" and harmlessness of a dead short-circuit. 5. + Simplicity of care required. 6. Durability of materials and construction. + 7. Impossibility of "sulphation." 8. Entire absence of corrosive fumes. 9. + Commercial advantages of light weight. 10. Duration on account of its + dependability. 11. Its high practical efficiency. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0052" id="link2H_4_0052"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + XIX. EDISON'S POURED CEMENT HOUSE + </h2> + <p> + THE inventions that have been thus far described fall into two classes—first, + those that were fundamental in the great arts and industries which have + been founded and established upon them, and, second, those that have + entered into and enlarged other arts that were previously in existence. On + coming to consider the subject now under discussion, however, we find + ourselves, at this writing, on the threshold of an entirely new and + undeveloped art of such boundless possibilities that its ultimate extent + can only be a matter of conjecture. + </p> + <p> + Edison's concrete house, however, involves two main considerations, first + of which was the conception or creation of the IDEA—vast and + comprehensive—of providing imperishable and sanitary homes for the + wage-earner by molding an entire house in one piece in a single operation, + so to speak, and so simply that extensive groups of such dwellings could + be constructed rapidly and at very reasonable cost. With this idea + suggested, one might suppose that it would be a simple matter to make + molds and pour in a concrete mixture. Not so, however. And here the second + consideration presents itself. An ordinary cement mixture is composed of + crushed stone, sand, cement, and water. If such a mixture be poured into + deep molds the heavy stone and sand settle to the bottom. Should the + mixture be poured into a horizontal mold, like the floor of a house, the + stone and sand settle, forming an ununiform mass. It was at this point + that invention commenced, in order to produce a concrete mixture which + would overcome this crucial difficulty. Edison, with characteristic + thoroughness, took up a line of investigation, and after a prolonged + series of experiments succeeded in inventing a mixture that upon hardening + remained uniform throughout its mass. In the beginning of his + experimentation he had made the conditions of test very severe by the + construction of forms similar to that shown in the sketch below. + </p> + <p> + This consisted of a hollow wooden form of the dimensions indicated. The + mixture was to be poured into the hopper until the entire form was filled, + such mixture flowing down and along the horizontal legs and up the + vertical members. It was to be left until the mixture was hard, and the + requirement of the test was that there should be absolute uniformity of + mixture and mass throughout. This was finally accomplished, and further + invention then proceeded along engineering lines looking toward the + devising of a system of molds with which practicable dwellings might be + cast. + </p> + <p> + Edison's boldness and breadth of conception are well illustrated in his + idea of a poured house, in which he displays his accustomed tendency to + reverse accepted methods. In fact, it is this very reversal of usual + procedure that renders it difficult for the average mind to instantly + grasp the full significance of the principles involved and the results + attained. + </p> + <p> + Up to this time we have been accustomed to see the erection of a house + begun at the foundation and built up slowly, piece by piece, of solid + materials: first the outer frame, then the floors and inner walls, + followed by the stairways, and so on up to the putting on of the roof. + Hence, it requires a complete rearrangement of mental conceptions to + appreciate Edison's proposal to build a house FROM THE TOP DOWNWARD, in a + few hours, with a freely flowing material poured into molds, and in a few + days to take away the molds and find a complete indestructible sanitary + house, including foundation, frame, floors, walls, stairways, chimneys, + sanitary arrangements, and roof, with artistic ornamentation inside and + out, all in one solid piece, as if it were graven or bored out of a rock. + </p> + <p> + To bring about the accomplishment of a project so extraordinarily broad + involves engineering and mechanical conceptions of a high order, and, as + we have seen, these have been brought to bear on the subject by Edison, + together with an intimate knowledge of compounded materials. + </p> + <p> + The main features of this invention are easily comprehensible with the aid + of the following diagrammatic sectional sketch: + </p> + <p> + It should be first understood that the above sketch is in broad outline, + without elaboration, merely to illustrate the working principle; and while + the upright structure on the right is intended to represent a set of molds + in position to form a three-story house, with cellar, no regular details + of such a building (such as windows, doors, stairways, etc.) are here + shown, as they would only tend to complicate an explanation. + </p> + <p> + It will be noted that there are really two sets of molds, an inside and an + outside set, leaving a space between them throughout. Although not shown + in the sketch, there is in practice a number of bolts passing through + these two sets of molds at various places to hold them together in their + relative positions. In the open space between the molds there are placed + steel rods for the purpose of reinforcement; while all through the entire + structure provision is made for water and steam pipes, gas-pipes and + electric-light wires being placed in appropriate positions as the molds + are assembled. + </p> + <p> + At the centre of the roof there will be noted a funnel-shaped opening. + Into this there is delivered by the endless chain of buckets shown on the + left a continuous stream of a special free-flowing concrete mixture. This + mixture descends by gravity, and gradually fills the entire space between + the two sets of molds. The delivery of the material—or "pouring," as + it is called—is continued until every part of the space is filled + and the mixture is even with the tip of the roof, thus completing the + pouring, or casting, of the house. In a few days afterward the concrete + will have hardened sufficiently to allow the molds to be taken away + leaving an entire house, from cellar floor to the peak of the roof, + complete in all its parts, even to mantels and picture molding, and + requiring only windows and doors, plumbing, heating, and lighting fixtures + to make it ready for habitation. + </p> + <p> + In the above sketch the concrete mixers, A, B, are driven by the electric + motor, C. As the material is mixed it descends into the tank, D, and flows + through a trough into a lower tank, E, in which it is constantly stirred, + and from which it is taken by the endless chain of buckets and dumped into + the funnel-shaped opening at the top of the molds, as above described. + </p> + <p> + The molds are made of cast-iron in sections of such size and weight as + will be most convenient for handling, mostly in pieces not exceeding two + by four feet in rectangular dimensions. The subjoined sketch shows an + exterior view of several of these molds as they appear when bolted + together, the intersecting central portions representing ribs, which are + included as part of the casting for purposes of strength and rigidity. + </p> + <p> + The molds represented above are those for straight work, such as walls and + floors. Those intended for stairways, eaves, cornices, windows, doorways, + etc., are much more complicated in design, although the same general + principles are employed in their construction. + </p> + <p> + While the philosophy of pouring or casting a complete house in its + entirety is apparently quite simple, the development of the engineering + and mechanical questions involves the solution of a vast number of most + intricate and complicated problems covering not only the building as a + whole, but its numerous parts, down to the minutest detail. Safety, + convenience, duration, and the practical impossibility of altering a + one-piece solid dwelling are questions that must be met before its + construction, and therefore Edison has proceeded calmly on his way toward + the goal he has ever had clearly in mind, with utter indifference to the + criticisms and jeers of those who, as "experts," have professed positive + knowledge of the impossibility of his carrying out this daring scheme. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_LIST" id="link2H_LIST"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + LIST OF UNITED STATES PATENTS + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +List of United States patents granted to Thomas A. Edison, arranged +according to dates of execution of applications for such patents. This +list shows the inventions as Mr. Edison has worked upon them from year +to year + + 1868 + + NO. TITLE OF PATENT DATE EXECUTED DATE EXECUTED + 90,646, Electrographic Vote Recorder . . . . .Oct. 13, 1868 + + 1869 + + 91,527 Printing Telegraph (reissued October + 25, 1870, numbered 4166, and August + 5, 1873, numbered 5519). . . . . . . .Jan. 25, 1869 + 96,567 Apparatus for Printing Telegraph (reissued + February 1, 1870, numbered + 3820). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 17, 1869 + 96,681 Electrical Switch for Telegraph Apparatus Aug. 27, 1869 + 102,320 Printing Telegraph—Pope and Edison + (reissued April 17, 1877, numbered + 7621, and December 9, 1884, numbered + 10,542). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 16, 1869 + 103,924 Printing Telegraphs—Pope and Edison + (reissued August 5, 1873) + + 1870 + + 103,035 Electromotor Escapement. . . . . . . . Feb. 5, 1870 + 128,608 Printing Telegraph Instruments . . . . .May 4, 1870 + 114,656 Telegraph Transmitting Instruments . .June 22, 1870 + 114,658 Electro Magnets for Telegraph + Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 22, 1870 + 114,657 Relay Magnets for Telegraph + Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 6, 1870 + 111,112 Electric Motor Governors . . . . . . .June 29, 1870 + 113,033 Printing Telegraph Apparatus . . . . .Nov. 17, 1870 + + 1871 + + 113,034 Printing Telegraph Apparatus . . . . .Jan. 10, 1871 + 123,005 Telegraph Apparatus. . . . . . . . . .July 26, 1871 + 123,006 Printing Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .July 26, 1871 + 123,984 Telegraph Apparatus. . . . . . . . . .July 26, 1871 + 124,800 Telegraphic Recording Instruments. . .Aug. 12, 1871 + 121,601 Machinery for Perforating Paper for + Telegraph Purposes . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 16, 1871 + 126,535 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1871 + 133,841 Typewriting Machine. . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1871 + + 1872 + 126,532 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 3 1872 + 126,531 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Jan. 17, 1872 + 126,534 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Jan. 17, 1872 + 126,528 Type Wheels for Printing Telegraphs. .Jan. 23, 1872 + 126,529 Type Wheels for Printing Telegraphs. .Jan. 23, 1872 + 126,530 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 14, 1872 + 126,533 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 14, 1872 + 132,456 Apparatus for Perforating Paper for + Telegraphic Use. . . . . . . . . . . March 15, 1872 + 132,455 Improvement in Paper for Chemical + Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 10, 1872 + 133,019 Electrical Printing Machine. . . . . April 18, 1872 + 128,131 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 26, 1872 + 128,604 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 26, 1872 + 128,605 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 26, 1872 + 128,606 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 26, 1872 + 128,607 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 26, 1872 + 131,334 Rheotomes or Circuit Directors . . . . .May 6, 1872 + 134,867 Automatic Telegraph Instruments. . . . .May 8, 1872 + 134,868 Electro Magnetic Adjusters . . . . . . .May 8, 1872 + 130,795 Electro Magnets. . . . . . . . . . . . .May 9, 1872 + 131,342 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .May 9, 1872 + 131,341 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . May 28, 1872 + 131,337 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1872 + 131,340 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1872 + 131,343 Transmitters and Circuits for Printing + Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1872 + 131,335 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1872 + 131,336 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1872 + 131,338 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 29, 1872 + 131,339 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .June 29, 1872 + 131,344 Unison Stops for Printing Telegraphs .June 29, 1872 + 134,866 Printing and Telegraph Instruments . .Oct. 16, 1872 + 138,869 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Oct. 16, 1872 + 142,999 Galvanic Batteries . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 31, 1872 + 141,772 Automatic or Chemical Telegraphs . . . Nov. 5, 1872 + 135,531 Circuits for Chemical Telegraphs . . . Nov. 9, 1872 + 146,812 Telegraph Signal Boxes . . . . . . . .Nov. 26, 1872 + 141,773 Circuits for Automatic Telegraphs. . .Dec. 12, 1872 + 141,776 Circuits for Automatic Telegraphs. . .Dec. 12, 1872 + 150,848 Chemical or Automatic Telegraphs . . .Dec. 12, 1872 +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 1873 + + 139,128 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Jan. 21, 1873 + 139,129 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 13, 1873 + 140,487 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 13, 1873 + 140,489 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 13, 1873 + 138,870 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1873 + 141,774 Chemical Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1873 + 141,775 Perforator for Automatic Telegraphs. .March 7, 1873 + 141,777 Relay Magnets. . . . . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1873 + 142,688 Electric Regulators for Transmitting + Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1873 + 156,843 Duplex Chemical Telegraphs . . . . . .March 7, 1873 + 147,312 Perforators for Automatic Telegraphy March 24, 1873 + 147,314 Circuits for Chemical Telegraphs . . March 24, 1873 + 150,847 Receiving Instruments for Chemical + Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 24, 1873 + 140,488 Printing Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 + 147,311 Electric Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 + 147,313 Chemical Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 + 147,917 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 + 150,846 Telegraph Relays . . . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 + 160,405 Adjustable Electro Magnets for + Relays, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . April 23, 1873 + 162,633 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . April 22, 1873 + 151,209 Automatic Telegraphy and Perforators + Therefor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1873 + 160,402 Solutions for Chemical Telegraph PaperSept. 29, 1873 + 160,404 Solutions for Chemical Telegraph PaperSept. 29, 1873 + 160,580 Solutions for Chemical Telegraph PaperOct. 14, 1873 + 160,403 Solutions for Chemical Telegraph PaperOct. 29, 1873 + + 1874 +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 154,788 District Telegraph Signal Box. . . . .April 2, 1874 + 168,004 Printing Telegraph . . . . . . . . . . May 22, 1874 + 166,859 Chemical Telegraphy. . . . . . . . . . June 1, 1874 + 166,860 Chemical Telegraphy. . . . . . . . . . June 1, 1874 + 166,861 Chemical Telegraphy. . . . . . . . . . June 1, 1874 + 158,787 Telegraph Apparatus. . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1874 + 172,305 Automatic Roman Character + Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1874 + 173,718 Automatic Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1874 + 178,221 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . Aug. 19, 1874 + 178,222 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 19, 1874 + 178,223 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 19, 1874 + 180,858 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 19, 1874 + 207,723 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 19, 1874 + 480,567 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 19, 1874 + 207,724 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 14, 1874 +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 1875 + + 168,242 Transmitter and Receiver for Automatic + Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 18, 1875 + 168,243 Automatic Telegraphs . . . . . . . . .Jan. 18, 1875 + 168,385 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 18, 1875 + 168,466 Solution for Chemical Telegraphs . . .Jan. 18, 1875 + 168,467 Recording Point for Chemical Telegraph Jan. 18, 1875 + 195,751 Automatic Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . Jan. 18 1875 + 195,752 Automatic Telegraphs . . . . . . . . .Jan. 19, 1875 + 171,273 Telegraph Apparatus. . . . . . . . . . Feb 11, 1875 + 169,972 Electric Signalling Instrument . . . . Feb 24, 1875 + 209,241 Quadruplex Telegraph Repeaters (reissued + September 23, 1879, numbered + 8906). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb 24, 1875 + + 1876 + + 180,857 Autographic Printing . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1876 + 198,088 Telephonic Telegraphs. . . . . . . . .April 3, 1876 + 198,089 Telephonic or Electro Harmonic + Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .April 3, 1876 + 182,996 Acoustic Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .May 9, 1876 + 186,330 Acoustic Electric Telegraphs . . . . . .May 9, 1876 + 186,548 Telegraph Alarm and Signal Apparatus . .May 9, 1876 + 198,087 Telephonic Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . .May 9, 1876 + 185,507 Electro Harmonic Multiplex Telegraph .Aug. 16, 1876 + 200,993 Acoustic Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 26, 1876 + 235,142 Acoustic Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 26, 1876 + 200,032 Synchronous Movements for Electric + Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 30, 1876 + 200,994 Automatic Telegraph Perforator and + Transmitter. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 30, 1876 + + 1877 + 205,370 Pneumatic Stencil Pens . . . . . . . . Feb. 3, 1877 + 213,554 Automatic Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . Feb. 3, 1877 + 196,747 Stencil Pens . . . . . . . . . . . . April 18, 1877 + 203,329 Perforating Pens . . . . . . . . . . April 18, 1877 + 474,230 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . April 18, 1877 + 217,781 Sextuplex Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . .May 8, 1877 + 230,621 Addressing Machine . . . . . . . . . . .May 8, 1877 + 377,374 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 8, 1877 + 453,601 Sextuplex Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . May 31, 1877 + 452,913 Sextuplex Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . May 31, 1877 + 512,872 Sextuplex Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . May 31, 1877 + 474,231 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . . July 9, 1877 + 203,014 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .July 16, 1877 + 208,299 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .July 16, 1877 + 203,015 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 16, 1877 + 420,594 Quadruplex Telegraph . . . . . . . . .Aug. 16, 1877 + 492,789 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 31, 1877 + 203,013 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 8, 1877 + 203 018 Telephone or Speaking Telegraph. . . . Dec. 8, 1877 + 200 521 Phonograph or Speaking Machine . . . .Dec. 15, 1877 + + 1878 + + 203,019 Circuit for Acoustic or Telephonic + Telegraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 13, 1878 + 201,760 Speaking Machines. . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1878 + 203,016 Speaking Machines. . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1878 + 203,017 Telephone Call Signals . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1878 + 214,636 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 5, 1878 + 222,390 Carbon Telephones. . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 8, 1878 + 217,782 Duplex Telegraphs. . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 11, 1878 + 214,637 Thermal Regulator for Electric Lights.Nov. 14, 1878 + 210,767 Vocal Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 31, 1878 + 218,166 Magneto Electric Machines. . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1878 + 218,866 Electric Lighting Apparatus. . . . . . Dec. 3, 1878 + 219,628 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1878 + 295,990 Typewriter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 4, 1878 + 218,167 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 31, 1878 + + 1879 + + 224,329 Electric Lighting Apparatus. . . . . .Jan. 23, 1879 + 227,229 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 28, 1879 + 227,227 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 6, 1879 + 224.665 Autographic Stencils for Printing. . March 10, 1879 + 227.679 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 19, 1879 + 221,957 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 24, 1879 + 227,229 Electric Lights. . . . . . . . . . . April 12, 1879 + 264,643 Magneto Electric Machines. . . . . . April 21, 1879 + 219,393 Dynamo Electric Machines . . . . . . . July 7, 1879 + 231,704 Electro Chemical Receiving Telephone .July 17, 1879 + 266,022 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 1, 1879 + 252,442 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 4, 1879 + 222,881 Magneto Electric Machines. . . . . . .Sept. 4, 1879 + 223,898 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 1, 1879 + + 1880 + + 230,255 Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 28, 1880 + 248,425 Apparatus for Producing High Vacuums Jan.28 1880 + 265,311 Electric Lamp and Holder for Same. . . Jan. 28 1880 + 369,280 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Jan. 28, 1880 + 227,226 Safety Conductor for Electric Lights .March 10,1880 + 228,617 Brake for Electro Magnetic Motors. . March 10, 1880 + 251,545 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . March 10, 1880 + 525,888 Manufacture of Carbons for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 10, 1880 + 264,649 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machines. March 11, + 1880 + 228,329 Magnetic Ore Separator . . . . . . . .April 3, 1880 + 238,868 Manufacture of Carbons for Incandescent + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . April 25, 1880 + 237,732 Electric Light . . . . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1880 + 248,417 Manufacturing Carbons for Electric + Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1880 + 298,679 Treating Carbons for Electric Lights .June 15, 1880 + 248,430 Electro Magnetic Brake . . . . . . . . July 2, 1880 + 265,778 Electro Magnetic Railway Engine. . . . July 3, 1880 + 248,432 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . .July 26, 1880 + 239,150 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . .July 27, 1880 + 239,372 Testing Electric Light Carbons—Edison + and Batchelor. . . . . . . . . . . . .July 28, 1880 + 251,540 Carbon Electric Lamps. . . . . . . . .July 28, 1880 + 263,139 Manufacture of Carbons for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 28, 1880 + 434,585 Telegraph Relay. . . . . . . . . . . .July 29, 1880 + 248 423 Carbonizer . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 30, 1880 + 263 140 Dynamo Electric Machines . . . . . . .July 30, 1880 + 248,434 Governor for Electric Engines. . . . .July 31, 1880 + 239,147 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .July 31, 1880 + 264,642 Electric Distribution and Translation + System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 4, 1880 + 293,433 Insulation of Railroad Tracks used for + Electric Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 6, 1880 + 239,373 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1880 + 239,745 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1880 + 263,135 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 7, 1880 + 251,546 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 10, 1880 + 239,153 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 11, 1880 + 351,855 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 11, 1880 + 248,435 Utilizing Electricity as Motive Power.Aug. 12, 1880 + 263,132 Electro Magnetic Roller. . . . . . . .Aug. 14, 1880 + 264,645 System of Conductors for the Distribution + of Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 1, 1880 + 240,678 Webermeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 22, 1880 + 239,152 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .Oct. 14, 1880 + 239,148 Treating Carbons for Electric Lights .Oct. 15, 1880 + 238,098 Magneto Signalling Apparatus—Edison + and Johnson. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 21, 1880 + 242,900 Manufacturing Carbons for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 21, 1880 + 251,556 Regulator for Magneto or Dynamo + Electric Machines. . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 21, 1880 + 248,426 Apparatus for Treating Carbons for + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 5, 1880 + 239,151 Forming Enlarged Ends on Carbon + Filaments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 19, 1880 + 12,631 Design Patent—Incandescent Electric + Lamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 23, 1880 + 239,149 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1880 + 242,896 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1880 + 242,897 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1880 + 248,565 Webermeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1880 + 263,878 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1880 + 239,154 Relay for Telegraphs . . . . . . . . .Dec. 11, 1880 + 242,898 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .Dec. 11, 1880 + 248,431 Preserving Fruit . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 11, 1880 + 265,777 Treating Carbons for Electric Lamps. .Dec. 11, 1880 + 239,374 Regulating the Generation of Electric + Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 16, 1880 + 248,428 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 16, 1880 + 248,427 Apparatus for Treating Carbons for + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 21, 1880 + 248,437 Apparatus for Treating Carbons for + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 21, 1880 + 248,416 Manufacture of Carbons for Electric + Lights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 30, 1880 + + 1881 + + 242,899 Electric Lighting. . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 19, 1881 + 248,418 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . Jan. 19 1881 + 248,433 Vacuum Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . Jan. 19 1881 + 251,548 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . .Jan. 19, 1881 + 406,824 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 19, 1881 + 248,422 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .Jan. 20, 1881 + 431,018 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machine . . Feb. 3, 1881 + 242,901 Electric Motor . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 24, 1881 + 248,429 Electric Motor . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 24, 1881 + 248,421 Current Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 25, 1881 + 251,550 Magneto or Dynamo Electric Machines. .Feb. 26, 1881 + 251,555 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 26, 1881 + 482,549 Means for Controlling Electric + Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .March 2, 1881 + 248,420 Fixture and Attachment for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1881 + 251,553 Electric Chandeliers . . . . . . . . .March 7, 1881 + 251,554 Electric Lamp and Socket or Holder . .March 7, 1881 + 248,424 Fitting and Fixtures for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .March 8, 1881 + 248,419 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . March 30, 1881 + 251,542 System of Electric Light . . . . . . April 19, 1881 + 263,145 Making Incandescents . . . . . . . . April 19, 1881 + 266,447 Electric Incandescent Lamp . . . . . April 21, 1881 + 251,552 Underground Conductors . . . . . . . April 22, 1881 + 476,531 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . April 22, 1881 + 248,436 Depositing Cell for Plating the Connections + of Electric Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . May 17, 1881 + 251,539 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . May 17, 1881 + 263,136 Regulator for Dynamo or Magneto + Electric Machine . . . . . . . . . . . May 17, 1881 + 251,557 Webermeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 19, 1881 + 263,134 Regulator for Magneto Electric + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 19, 1881 + 251,541 Electro Magnetic Motor . . . . . . . . May 20, 1881 + 251,544 Manufacture of Electric Lamps. . . . . May 20, 1881 + 251,549 Electric Lamp and the Manufacture + thereof. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 20, 1881 + 251,558 Webermeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 20, 1881 + 341,644 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . May 20, 1881 + 251,551 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . . May 21, 1881 + 263,137 Electric Chandelier. . . . . . . . . . May 21, 1881 + 263,141 Straightening Carbons for Incandescent + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 21, 1881 + 264,657 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . . May 21, 1881 + 251,543 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . . May 24, 1881 + 251,538 Electric Light . . . . . . . . . . . . May 27, 1881 + 425,760 Measurement of Electricity in Distribution + System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 3 1, 1881 + 251,547 Electrical Governor. . . . . . . . . . June 2, 1881 + 263,150 Magneto or Dynamo Electric Machines. June 3, 1881 + 263,131 Magnetic Ore Separator . . . . . . . . June 4, 1881 + 435,687 Means for Charging and Using Secondary + Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 21, 1881 + 263,143 Magneto or Dynamo Electric Machines. .June 24, 1881 + 251,537 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .June 25, 1881 + 263,147 Vacuum Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . .July 1, 188 1 + 439,389 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . . July 1, 1881 + 263,149 Commutator for Dynamo or Magneto + Electric Machines. . . . . . . . . . .July 22, 1881 + 479,184 Facsimile Telegraph—Edison and Kenny.July 26, 1881 + 400,317 Ore Separator. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 11, 1881 + 425,763 Commutator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 20, 1881 + 263,133 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machine . .Aug. 24, 1881 + 263,142 Electrical Distribution System . . . .Aug. 24, 1881 + 264,647 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machines. .Aug. 24, 1881 + 404,902 Electrical Distribution System . . . .Aug. 24, 1881 + 257,677 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 7, 1881 + 266,021 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 7, 1881 + 263,144 Mold for Carbonizing Incandescents . Sept. 19, 1881 + 265,774 Maintaining Temperatures in + Webermeters. . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 21, 1881 + 264,648 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machines. Sept. 23, 1881 + 265,776 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . Sept. 27, 1881 + 524,136 Regulator for Dynamo Electrical + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 27, 1881 + 273,715 Malleableizing Iron. . . . . . . . . . Oct. 4, 1881 + 281,352 Webermeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 5, 1881 + 446,667 Locomotives for Electric Railways. . .Oct. 11, 1881 + 288,318 Regulator for Dynamo or Magneto + Electric Machines. . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 17, 1881 + 263,148 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machines. Oct. 25, 1881 + 264,646 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machines. Oct. 25, 1881 + 251,559 Electrical Drop Light. . . . . . . . .Oct. 25, 1881 + 266,793 Electric Distribution System . . . . .Oct. 25, 1881 + 358,599 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Oct. 29, 1881 + 264,673 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machine. Nov. 3, 1881 + 263,138 Electric Arc Light . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 7, 1881 + 265,775 Electric Arc Light . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 7 1881 + 297,580 Electric Arc Light . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 7 1881 + 263,146 Dynamo Magneto Electric Machines . . .Nov. 22, 1881 + 266,588 Vacuum Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 25, 1881 + 251,536 Vacuum Pump. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 + 264,650 Manufacturing Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 + 264,660 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 + 379,770 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 + 293,434 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 + 439,391 Junction Box for Electric Wires. . . . Dec. 5, 1881 + 454,558 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1881 + 264,653 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1881 + 358,600 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1881 + 264,652 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Dec. 15, 1881 + 278,419 Dynamo Electric Machines . . . . . . .Dec. 15, 1881 + + 1882 + + 265,779 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 17, 1882 + 264,654 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . .Feb. 10, 1882 + 264,661 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines Feb. 10, 1882 + 264,664 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines Feb. 10, 1882 + 264,668 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines Feb. 10, 1882 + 264,669 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 10, 1882 + 264,671 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 10, 1882 + 275,613 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . .Feb. 10, 1882 + 401,646 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . .Feb. 10, 1882 + 264,658 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 + 264,659 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 + 265,780 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 + 265,781 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 + 278,416 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 + 379,771 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 28, 1882 + 272,034 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 30, 1882 + 274,576 Transmitting Telephone . . . . . . . March 30, 1882 + 274,577 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 30, 1882 + 264,662 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 + 264,663 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 + 264,665 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 + 264,666 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 + 268,205 Dynamo or Magneto Electric + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 + 273,488 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 1, 1882 + 273,492 Secondary Battery. . . . . . . . . . . May 19, 1882 + 460,122 Process of and Apparatus for + Generating Electricity . . . . . . . . May 19, 1882 + 466,460 Electrolytic Decomposition . . . . . .May 19,. 1882 + 264,672 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 22, 1882 + 264,667 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 22, 1882 + 265,786 Apparatus for Electrical Transmission + of Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 22, 1882 + 273,828 System of Underground Conductors of + Electric Distribution. . . . . . . . . May 22, 1882 + 379,772 System of Electrical Distribution. . . May 22, 1882 + 274,292 Secondary Battery. . . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1882 + 281,353 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machine . . June 3, 1882 + 287,523 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machine . . June 3, 1882 + 365,509 Filament for Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 3 1882 + 446,668 Electric Are Light . . . . . . . . . . .June 3 1882 + 543,985 Incandescent Conductor for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1882 + 264,651 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . . June 9, 1882 + 264,655 Incandescing Electric Lamps. . . . . . June 9, 1882 + 264,670 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 9, 1882 + 273,489 Turn-Table for Electric Railway. . . . June 9, 1882 + 273,490 Electro Magnetic Railway System. . . . June 9, 1882 + 401,486 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .June 12, 1882 + 476,527 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .June 12, 1882 + 439,390 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . .June 19, 1882 + 446,666 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .June 19, 1882 + 464,822 System of Distributing Electricity . .June 19, 1882 + 304,082 Electrical Meter . . . . . . . . . . .June 24, 1882 + 274,296 Manufacture of Incandescents . . . . . July 5, 1882 + 264,656 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . July 7, 1882 + 265,782 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines July 7, 1882 + 265,783 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines July 7, 1882 + 265,784 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines July 7, 1882 + 265,785 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 + 273,494 Electrical Railroad. . . . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 + 278,418 Translating Electric Currents from High + to Low Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 + 293,435 Electrical Meter . . . . . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 + 334,853 Mold for Carbonizing . . . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 + 339,278 Electric Railway . . . . . . . . . . . July 7, 1882 + 273,714 Magnetic Electric Signalling + Apparatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 5, 1882 + 282,287 Magnetic Electric Signalling + Apparatus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 5, 1882 + 448,778 Electric Railway . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 5, 1882 + 439,392 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . .Aug. 12, 1882 + 271,613 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1882 + 287,518 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1882 + 406,825 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1882 + 439,393 Carbonizing Chamber. . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1882 + 273,487 Regulator for Dynamo Electric Machines Sept. 12, 1882 + 297,581 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . Sept. 12, 1882 + 395,962 Manufacturing Electric Lamps . . . . Sept. 16, 1882 + 287,525 Regulator for Systems of Electrical + Distribution—Edison and C. L. + Clarke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 4, 1882 + 365,465 Valve Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 5, 1882 + 317,631 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Oct. 7, 1882 + 307,029 Filament for Incandescent Lamp . . . . Oct. 9, 1882 + 268,206 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . .Oct. 10, 1882 + 273,486 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . .Oct. 12, 1882 + 274,293 Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 14, 1882 + 275,612 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 14, 1882 + 430,932 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 14, 1882 + 271,616 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 16, 1882 + 543,986 Process for Treating Products Derived + from Vegetable Fibres. . . . . . . . .Oct. 17, 1882 + 543,987 Filament for Incandescent Lamps. . . .Oct. 17, 1882 + 271,614 Shafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 + 271,615 Governor for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 + 273,491 Regulator for Driving Engines of + Electrical Generators. . . . . . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 + 273,493 Valve Gear for Electrical Generator + Engines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 + 411,016 Manufacturing Carbon Filaments . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 + 492,150 Coating Conductors for Incandescent + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 19, 1882 + 273,485 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . .Oct. 26, 1882 + 317,632 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . .Oct. 26, 1882 + 317,633 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . .Oct. 26, 1882 + 287,520 Incandescing Conductor for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 3, 1882 + 353,783 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . Nov. 3, 1882 + 430,933 Filament for Incandescent Lamps. . . . Nov. 3, 1882 + 274,294 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1882 + 281,350 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1882 + 274,295 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Nov. 14, 1882 + 276,233 Electrical Generator and Motor . . . .Nov. 14, 1882 + 274,290 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Nov. 20, 1882 + 274,291 Mold for Carbonizer. . . . . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1882 + 278,413 Regulator for Dynamo Electric MachinesNov. 28, 1882 + 278,414 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1882 + 287,519 Manufacturing Incandescing Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1882 + 287,524 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1882 + 438,298 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1882 + 276,232 Operating and Regulating Electrical + Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 20, 1882 + + 1883 + + 278,415 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 13, 1883 + 278,417 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 13, 1883 + 281,349 Regulator for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 13, 1883 + 283,985 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Jan. 13 1883 + 283,986 System o' Electrical Distribution. . . Jan. 13 1883 + 459,835 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 13, 1883 + 13,940 Design Patent—Incandescing Electric + Lamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 13 1883 + 280,727 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Feb. 13 1883 + 395,123 Circuit Controller for Dynamo Machine.Feb. 13, 1883 + 287,521 Dynamo or Magneto Electric Machine . .Feb. 17, 1883 + 287,522 Molds for Carbonizing. . . . . . . . .Feb. 17, 1883 + 438,299 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . .Feb. 17, 1883 + 446,669 Manufacture of Filaments for Incandescent + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 17, 1883 + 476,528 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Feb. 17, 1883 + 281,351 Electrical Generator . . . . . . . . .March 5, 1883 + 283,984 System of Electrical Distribution. . .March 5, 1883 + 287,517 System of Electrical Distribution. . .March 14,1883 + 283,983 System of Electrical Distribution. . .April 5, 1883 + 354,310 Manufacture of Carbon Conductors . . .April 6, 1883 + 370,123 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . .April 6, 1883 + 411,017 Carbonizing Flask. . . . . . . . . . .April 6, 1883 + 370,124 Manufacture of Filament for Incandescing + Electric Lamp. . . . . . . . . . . . April 12, 1883 + 287,516 System of Electrical Distribution. . . .May 8, 1883 + 341,839 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . .May 8, 1883 + 398,774 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . .May 8, 1883 + 370,125 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 + 370,126 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 + 370,127 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 + 370,128 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 + 370,129 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 + 370,130 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 + 370,131 Electrical Transmission of Power . . . June 1, 1883 + 438,300 Gauge for Testing Fibres for + Incandescent Lamp Carbons. . . . . . . June 1, 1883 + 287,511 Electric Regulator . . . . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 + 287,512 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 + 287,513 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 + 287,514 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 + 287,515 System of Electrical Distribution. . .June 25, 1883 + 297,582 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 + 328,572 Commutator for Dynamo Electric Machines June 25, 1883 + 430,934 Electric Lighting System . . . . . . .June 25, 1883 + 438,301 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .June 25, 1883 + 297,583 Dynamo Electric Machines . . . . . . .July 27, 1883 + 304,083 Dynamo Electric Machines . . . . . . .July 27; 1883 + 304,084 Device for Protecting Electric Light + Systems from Lightning . . . . . . . .July 27, 1883 + 438,302 Commutator for Dynamo Electric + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 27, 1883 + 476,529 System of Electrical Distribution. . .July 27, 1883 + 297,584 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . . Aug. 8, 1883 + 307,030 Electrical Meter . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 8, 1883 + 297,585 Incandescing Conductor for Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 14, 1883 + 297,586 Electrical Conductor . . . . . . . . Sept. 14, 1883 + 435,688 Process and Apparatus for Generating + Electricity. . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 14, 1883 + 470,922 Manufacture of Filaments for + Incandescent Lamps . . . . . . . . . Sept. 14, 1883 + 490,953 Generating Electricity . . . . . . . . Oct. 9, 1883 + 293,432 Electrical Generator or Motor. . . . .Oct. 17, 1883 + 307,031 Electrical Indicator . . . . . . . . . Nov. 2, 1883 + 337,254 Telephone—Edison and Bergmann . . . .Nov. 10, 1883 + 297,587 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .Nov. 16, 1883 + 298,954 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .Nov. 15, 1883 + 298,955 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .Nov. 15, 1883 + 304,085 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Nov. 15, 1883 + 509,517 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Nov. 15, 1883 + 425,761 Incandescent Lamp. . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 20, 1883 + 304,086 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Dec. 15, 1883 + + 1884 + + 298,956 Operating Dynamo Electric Machine. . . Jan. 5, 1884 + 304,087 Electrical Conductor . . . . . . . . .Jan. 12, 1884 + 395,963 Incandescent Lamp Filament . . . . . .Jan. 22, 1884 + 526,147 Plating One Material with Another. . .Jan. 22, 1884 + 339,279 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Feb. 8, 1884 + 314,115 Chemical Stock Quotation Telegraph— + Edison and Kenny . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 9, 1884 + 436,968 Method and Apparatus for Drawing + Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 2, 1884 + 436,969 Apparatus for Drawing Wire . . . . . . June 2, 1884 + 438,303 Arc Lamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 2, 1884 + 343,017 System of Electrical Distribution. . .June 27, 1884 + 391,595 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . .July 16, 1884 + 328,573 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . Sept. 12, 1884 + 328,574 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . Sept. 12, 1884 + 328,575 System of Electric Lighting. . . . . Sept. 12, 1884 + 391,596 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . Sept. 24, 1884 + 438,304 Electric Signalling Apparatus. . . . Sept. 24, 1884 + 422,577 Apparatus for Speaking Telephones— + Edison and Gilliland . . . . . . . . .Oct. 21, 1884 + 329,030 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 3, 1884 + 422,578 Telephone Repeater . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 9, 1884 + 422,579 Telephone Repeater . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 9, 1884 + 340,707 Telephonic Repeater. . . . . . . . . . Dec. 9, 1884 + 340,708 Electrical Signalling Apparatus. . . .Dec. 19, 1884 + 347,097 Electrical Signalling Apparatus. . . .Dec. 19, 1884 + 478,743 Telephone Repeater . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 31, 1884 + + 1885 + + 340,709 Telephone Circuit—Edison and + Gilliland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jan. 2, 1885 + 378,044 Telephone Transmitter. . . . . . . . . Jan. 9, 1885 + 348,114 Electrode for Telephone Transmitters .Jan. 12, 1885 + 438,305 Fuse Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 14, 1885 + 350,234 System of Railway Signalling—Edison + and Gilliland. . . . . . . . . . . . .March 27,1885 + 486,634 System of Railway Signalling—Edison + and Gilliland. . . . . . . . . . . . .March 27,1885 + 333,289 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 27, 1885 + 333,290 Duplex Telegraphy. . . . . . . . . . April 30, 1885 + 333,291 Way Station Quadruplex Telegraph . . . .May 6, 1885 + 465,971 Means for Transmitting Signals Electrically May 14, 1885 + 422 072 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 7, 1885 + 437 422 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct. 7, 1885 + 422,073 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. I 2, 1885 + 422,074 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 24, 1885 + 435,689 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 30, 1885 + 438,306 Telephone - Edison and Gilliland . . .Dec. 22, 1885 + 350,235 Railway Telegraphy—Edison and + Gilliland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 28, 1885 + + 1886 + + 406,567 Telephone. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 28, 1886 + 474,232 Speaking Telegraph . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 17, 1886 + 370 132 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 11, 1886 + 411,018 Manufacture of Incandescent Lamps. . .July 15, 1886 + 438,307 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July I 5, 1886 + 448,779 Telegraph. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July IS, 1886 + 411,019 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 20, 1886 + 406,130 Manufacture of Incandescent Electric + Lamps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 6, 1886 + 351,856 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . Sept. 30, 1886 + 454,262 Incandescent Lamp Filaments. . . . . .Oct. 26, 1886 + 466,400 Cut-Out for Incandescent Lamps—Edison + and J. F. Ott. . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 26, 1886 + 484,184 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . .Oct. 26, 1886 + 490,954 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments for + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 2, 1886 + 438,308 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Nov. 9, 1886 + 524,378 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Nov. 9, 1886 + 365,978 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Nov. 22, 1886 + 369 439 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Nov. 22, 1886 + 384 830 Railway Signalling—Edison and Gilliland Nov. 24, 1886 + 379,944 Commutator for Dynamo Electric MachinesNov. 26, 1886 + 411,020 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . .Nov. 26, 1886 + 485,616 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . . .Dec 6, 1886 + 485,615 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . . .Dec 6, 1886 + 525,007 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . . Dec. 6, 1886 + 369,441 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Dec. 10, 1886 + 369,442 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Dec. 16, 1886 + 369,443 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Dec. 16, 1886 + 484,185 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . .Dec. 20, 1886 + 534,207 Manufacture of Carbon Filaments. . . .Dec. 20, 1886 + 373,584 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . .Dec. 21, 1886 + + 1887 + + 468,949 Converter System for Electric + Railways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 7, 1887 + 380,100 Pyromagnetic Motor . . . . . . . . . . May 24, 1887 + 476,983 Pyromagnetic Generator . . . . . . . . .May 24 1887 + 476,530 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . . June 1, 1887 + 377,518 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . .June 30, 1887 + 470,923 Railway Signalling . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 9, 1887 + 545,405 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Aug. 26, 1887 + 380,101 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Sept. 13 1887 + 380,102 System of Electrical Distribution. . .Sept. 14 1887 + 470,924 Electric Conductor . . . . . . . . . Sept. 26, 1887 + 563,462 Method of and Apparatus for Drawing + Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 17, 1887 + 385,173 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Nov. 5, 1887 + 506,215 Making Plate Glass . . . . . . . . . . Nov. 9, 1887 + 382,414 Burnishing Attachments for PhonographsNov. 22, 1887 + 386,974 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 22, 1887 + 430,570 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 22, 1887 + 382,416 Feed and Return Mechanism for PhonographsNov. 29, 1887 + 382,415 System of Electrical Distribution. . . Dec. 4, 1887 + 382,462 Phonogram Blanks . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 5, 1887 + + 1888 + + 484,582 Duplicating Phonograms . . . . . . . .Jan. 17, 1888 + 434,586 Electric Generator . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 21, 1888 + 434,587 Thermo Electric Battery. . . . . . . .Jan. 21, 1888 + 382,417 Making Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . .Jan. 30, 1888 + 389,369 Incandescing Electric Lamp . . . . . . Feb. 2, 1888 + 382,418 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 20, 1888 + 390,462 Making Carbon Filaments. . . . . . . .Feb. 20, 1888 + 394,105 Phonograph Recorder. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 20, 1888 + 394,106 Phonograph Reproducer. . . . . . . . .Feb. 20, 1888 + 382,419 Duplicating Phonograms . . . . . . . .March 3, 1888 + 425,762 Cut-Out for Incandescent Lamps . . . .March 3, 1888 + 396,356 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . .March 19,1888 + 393,462 Making Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . April 28, 1888 + 393,463 Machine for Making Phonogram Blanks. April 28, 1888 + 393,464 Machine for Making Phonogram Blanks. April 28, 1888 + 534,208 Induction Converter. . . . . . . . . . .May 7, 1888 + 476,991 Method of and Apparatus for Separating + Ores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .May 9, 1888 + 400,646 Phonograph Recorder and Reproducer . . May 22, 1888 + 488,190 Phonograph Reproducer. . . . . . . . . May 22, 1888 + 488,189 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 26, 1888 + 470,925 Manufacture of Filaments for Incandescent + Electric Lamps . . . . . . . . . . . .June 21, 1888 + 393,465 Preparing Phonograph Recording Surfaces June 30, 1888 + 400,647 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 30, 1888 + 448,780 Device for Turning Off Phonogram Blanks June 30, 1888 + 393,466 Phonograph Recorder. . . . . . . . . .July 14, 1888 + 393,966 Recording and Reproducing Sounds . . .July 14, 1888 + 393,967 Recording and Reproducing Sounds . . .July 14, 1888 + 430,274 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .July 14, 1888 + 437,423 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 14, 1888 + 450,740 Phonograph Recorder. . . . . . . . . .July 14, 1888 + 485,617 Incandescent Lamp Filament . . . . . .July 14, 1888 + 448,781 Turning-Off Device for Phonographs . .July 16, 1888 + 400,648 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .July 27, 1888 + 499,879 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 27, 1888 + 397,705 Winding Field Magnets. . . . . . . . .Aug. 31, 1888 + 435,690 Making Armatures for Dynamo Electric + Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 31, 1888 + 430,275 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . Sept. 12, 1888 + 474,591 Extracting Gold from Sulphide Ores . Sept. 12, 1888 + 397,280 Phonograph Recorder and Reproducer . Sept. 19, 1888 + 397,706 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 29, 1888 + 400,649 Making Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . Sept. 29, 1888 + 400,650 Making Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . .Oct. 15, 1888 + 406,568 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 15, 1888 + 437,424 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 15, 1888 + 393,968 Phonograph Recorder. . . . . . . . . .Oct. 31, 1888 + + 1889 + + 406,569 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 10, 1889 + 488,191 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 10, 1889 + 430,276 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 12, 1889 + 406,570 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 406,571 Treating Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 406,572 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 406,573 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 406,574 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 406,575 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 406,576 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 430,277 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 437,425 Phonograph Recorder. . . . . . . . . . Feb. 1, 1889 + 414,759 Phonogram Blanks . . . . . . . . . . March 22, 1889 + 414,760 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 22, 1889 + 462,540 Incandescent Electric Lamps. . . . . March 22, 1889 + 430,278 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .April 8, 1889 + 438,309 Insulating Electrical Conductors . . April 25, 1889 + 423,039 Phonograph Doll or Other Toys. . . . .June 15, 1889 + 426,527 Automatic Determining Device for + Phonographs. . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1889 + 430,279 Voltaic Battery. . . . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1889 + 506,216 Apparatus for Making Glass . . . . . .June 29, 1889 + 414,761 Phonogram Blanks . . . . . . . . . . .July 16, 1889 + 430,280 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . .July 20, 1889 + 437,426 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 20, 1889 + 465,972 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 14, 1889 + 443,507 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 11 1889 + 513,095 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 11 1889 + + 1890 + + 434,588 Magnetic Ore Separator—Edison and + W. K. L. Dickson . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 16, 1890 + 437,427 Making Phonogram Blanks. . . . . . . . Feb. 8, 1890 + 465,250 Extracting Copper Pyrites. . . . . . . Feb. 8, 1890 + 434,589 Propelling Mechanism for Electric Vehicles Feb. 14, 1890 + 438,310 Lamp Base. . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 25, 1890 + 437,428 Propelling Device for Electric Cars. April 29, 1890 + 437,429 Phonogram Blank. . . . . . . . . . . April 29, 1890 + 454,941 Phonograph Recorder and Reproducer . . .May 6, 1890 + 436,127 Electric Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . May 17, 1890 + 484,583 Phonograph Cutting Tool. . . . . . . . May 24, 1890 + 484,584 Phonograph Reproducer. . . . . . . . . May 24, 1890 + 436,970 Apparatus for Transmitting Power . . . June 2, 1890 + 453,741 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July 5, 1890 + 454,942 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July 5, 1890 + 456,301 Phonograph Doll. . . . . . . . . . . . July 5, 1890 + 484,585 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July 5, 1890 + 456,302 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 4, 1890 + 476,984 Expansible Pulley. . . . . . . . . . . Aug. 9, 1890 + 493,858 Transmission of Power. . . . . . . . . Aug. 9, 1890 + 457,343 Magnetic Belting . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 6, 1890 + 444,530 Leading-in Wires for Incandescent Electric + Lamps (reissued October 10, 1905, + No. 12,393). . . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 12, 1890 + 534 209 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . Sept. 13, 1890 + 476 985 Trolley for Electric Railways. . . . .Oct. 27, 1890 + 500,280 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 27, 1890 + 541,923 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 27, 1890 + 457,344 Smoothing Tool for Phonogram + Blanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 17, 1890 + 460,123 Phonogram Blank Carrier. . . . . . . .Nov. 17, 1890 + 500,281 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 17, 1890 + 541,924 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 17, 1890 + 500,282 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 1, 1890 + 575,151 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 1, 1890 + 605,667 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 1, 1890 + 610,706 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 1, 1890 + 622,843 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 1, 1890 + 609,268 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 6, 1890 + 493,425 Electric Locomotive. . . . . . . . . .Dec. 20, 1890 + + 1891 + + 476,992 Incandescent Electric Lamp . . . . . .Jan. 20, 1891 + 470,926 Dynamo Electric Machine or Motor . . . Feb. 4, 1891 + 496,191 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 4, 1891 + 476,986 Means for Propelling Electric Cars . .Feb. 24, 1891 + 476,987 Electric Locomotive. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 24, 1891 + 465,973 Armatures for Dynamos or Motors. . . .March 4, 1891 + 470,927 Driving Mechanism for Cars . . . . . .March 4, 1891 + 465,970 Armature Connection for Motors or + Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 20, 1891 + 468,950 Commutator Brush for Electric Motors + and Dynamos. . . . . . . . . . . . . March 20, 1891 + 475,491 Electric Locomotive. . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1891 + 475,492 Electric Locomotive. . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1891 + 475,493 Electric Locomotive. . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1891 + 475,494 Electric Railway . . . . . . . . . . . June 3, 1891 + 463,251 Bricking Fine Ores . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 470,928 Alternating Current Generator. . . . .July 31, 1891 + 476,988 Lightning Arrester . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 476,989 Conductor for Electric Railways. . . .July 31, 1891 + 476,990 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 476,993 Electric Arc . . . . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 484,183 Electrical Depositing Meter. . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 485,840 Bricking Fine Iron Ores. . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 493,426 Apparatus for Exhibiting Photographs + of Moving Objects. . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 509,518 Electric Railway . . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 589,168 Kinetographic Camera (reissued September + 30, 1902, numbered 12,037 + and 12,038, and January 12, 1904, + numbered 12,192) . . . . . . . . . . .July 31, 1891 + 470,929 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 + 471,268 Ore Conveyor and Method of Arranging + Ore Thereon. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 + 472,288 Dust-Proof Bearings for Shafts . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 + 472,752 Dust-Proof Journal Bearings. . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 + 472,753 Ore-Screening Apparatus. . . . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 + 474,592 Ore-Conveying Apparatus. . . . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 + 474,593 Dust-Proof Swivel Shaft Bearing. . . .Aug. 28, 1891 + 498,385 Rollers for Ore-Crushing or Other + Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 28, 1891 + 470,930 Dynamo Electric Machine. . . . . . . . .Oct 8, 1891 + 476,532 Ore-Screening Apparatus. . . . . . . . .Oct 8, 1891 + 491,992 Cut-Out for Incandescent Electric Lamps Nov. 10, 1891 + + 1892 + + 491,993 Stop Device. . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 5 1892 + 564,423 Separating Ores. . . . . . . . . . . .June 2;, 1892 + 485,842 Magnetic Ore Separation. . . . . . . . July 9, 1892 + 485,841 Mechanically Separating Ores . . . . . July 9, 1892 + 513,096 Method of and Apparatus for Mixing + Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 24, 1892 + + 1893 + + 509,428 Composition Brick and Making Same. . March 15, 1893 + 513,097 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 22, 1893 + 567,187 Crushing Rolls . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1893 + 602 064 Conveyor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 13, 1893 + 534 206 Filament for Incandescent Lamps. . . .Dec. 15, 1893 + + 1896 + + 865,367 Fluorescent Electric Lamp. . . . . . . May 16, 1896 + + 1897 + + 604.740 Governor for Motors. . . . . . . . . .Jan. 25, 1897 + 607,588 Phonograph . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 25, 1897 + 637,327 Rolls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 14, 1897 + 672,616 Breaking Rock. . . . . . . . . . . . . May 14, 1897 + 675,056 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . . May 14, 1897 + 676,618 Magnetic Separator . . . . . . . . . . May 14, 1897 + 605,475 Drying Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1897 + 605,668 Mixer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1897 + 667,201 Flight Conveyor. . . . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1897 + 671,314 Lubricating Journal Bearings . . . . .June 10, 1897 + 671,315 Conveyor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 10, 1897 + 675,057 Screening Pulverized Material. . . . .June 10, 1897 + + 1898 + + 713,209 Duplicating Phonograms . . . . . . . .Feb. 21, 1898 + 703,774 Reproducer for Phonographs . . . . . March 21, 1898 + 626,460 Filament for Incandescent Lamps and + Manufacturing Same . . . . . . . . . .March 29,1898 + 648,933 Dryer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 11, 1898 + 661,238 Machine for Forming Pulverized + Material in Briquettes . . . . . . . April 11, 1898 + 674,057 Crushing Rolls . . . . . . . . . . . April 11, 1898 + 703,562 Apparatus for Bricking Pulverized Material April 11, 1898 + 704,010 Apparatus for Concentrating Magnetic + Iron Ores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . April 11, 1898 + 659,389 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 19, 1898 + + 1899 + + 648,934 Screening or Sizing Very Fine Materials Feb. 6, 1899 + 663,015 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 6, 1899 + 688,610 Phonographic Recording Apparatus . . .Feb. 10, 1899 + 643,764 Reheating Compressed Air for + Industrial Purposes. . . . . . . . . .Feb. 24, 1899 + 660,293 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . .March 23,1899 + 641,281 Expanding Pulley—Edison and Johnson .March 28,1899 + 727,116 Grinding Rolls . . . . . . . . . . . .June 15, 1899 + 652,457 Phonograph (reissued September 25, + 1900, numbered 11,857) . . . . . . . Sept. 12, 1899 + 648,935 Apparatus for Duplicating Phonograph + Records. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 27, 1899 + 685,911 Apparatus for Reheating Compressed + Air for Industrial Purposes. . . . . .Nov. 24, 1899 + 657,922 Apparatus for Reheating Compressed + Air for Industrial Purposes. . . . . . Dec. 9, 1899 + + 1900 + + 676,840 Magnetic Separating Apparatus. . . . . Jan. 3, 1900 + 660,845 Apparatus for Sampling, Averaging, + Mixing, and Storing Materials in Bulk Jan. 9, 1900 + 662,063 Process of Sampling, Averaging, Mixing, + and Storing Materials in Bulk. . . . . Jan. 9, 1900 + 679,500 Apparatus for Screening Fine Materials Jan. 24, 1900 + 671,316 Apparatus for Screening Fine Materials Feb. 23, 1900 + 671,317 Apparatus for Screening Fine Materials March 28, 1900 + 759,356 Burning Portland Cement Clinker, etc April 10, 1900 + 759,357 Apparatus for Burning Portland Cement + Clinker, etc . . . . . . . . . . . . .April 10 1900 + 655,480 Phonographic Reproducing Device. . . .April 30 1900 + 657,527 Making Metallic Phonograph Records . April 30, 1900 + 667,202 Duplicating Phonograph Records . . . April 30, 1900 + 667,662 Duplicating Phonograph Records . . . April 30, 1900 + 713,863 Coating Phonograph Records . . . . . . May IS, 1900 + 676,841 Magnetic Separating Apparatus. . . . . June 11 1900 + 759,358 Magnetic Separating Apparatus. . . . . June 11 1900 + 680,520 Phonograph Records . . . . . . . . . .July 23, 1900 + 672,617 Apparatus for Breaking Rock. . . . . . Aug. 1, 1900 + 676,225 Phonographic Recording Apparatus . . .Aug. 10, 1900 + 703,051 Electric Meter . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 28, 1900 + 684,204 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . . Oct. IS 1900 + 871,214 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . . Oct. IS 1900 + 704,303 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Dec. 22, 1900 + + 1901 + + 700,136 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . . Feb. 18 1901 + 700,137 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . . Feb. 23 1901 + 704,304 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Feb. 23, 1901 + 704,305 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . . May 10, 1901 + 678,722 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .June 17, 1901 + 684,205 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .June 17, 1901 + 692,507 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .June 17, 1901 + 701,804 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .June 17, 1901 + 704,306 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .June 17, 1901 + 705,829 Reproducer for Sound Records . . . . .Oct. 24, 1901 + 831,606 Sound Recording Apparatus. . . . . . .Oct. 24, 1901 + 827,089 Calcining Furnaces . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 24, 1901 +</pre> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + 1902 + + 734,522 Process of Nickel-Plating. . . . . . .Feb. 11, 1902 + 727,117 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . Sept. 29, 1902 + + 727,118 Manufacturing Electrolytically Active + Finely Divided Iron. . . . . . . . . .Oct. 13, 1902 + 721,682 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 721,870 Funnel for Filling Storage Battery Jars Nov. 13, 1902 + 723,449 Electrode for Storage Batteries. . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 723,450 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 754,755 Compressing Dies . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 754,858 Storage Battery Tray . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 754,859 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 764,183 Separating Mechanically Entrained + Globules from Gases. . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 802,631 Apparatus for Burning Portland Cement + Clinker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 852,424 Secondary Batteries. . . . . . . . . .Nov. 13, 1902 + 722,502 Handling Cable Drawn Cars on Inclines. Dec. 18, + 1902 + 724,089 Operating Motors in Dust Laden + Atmospheres. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 18, 1902 + 750,102 Electrical Automobile. . . . . . . . .Dec. 18, 1902 + 758,432 Stock House Conveyor . . . . . . . . .Dec. 18, 1902 + 873,219 Feed Regulators for Grinding Machines. Dec. 18, + 1902 + 832,046 Automatic Weighing and Mixing Apparatus Dec. 18, 1902 + + 1903 + + 772,647 Photographic Film for Moving Picture + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 13, 1903 + 841,677 Apparatus for Separating and Grinding + Fine Materials . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 22, 1903 + 790,351 Duplicating Phonograph Records . . . .Jan. 30. 1903 + 831,269 Storage Battery Electrode Plate. . . .Jan. 30, 1903 + 775,965 Dry Separator. . . . . . . . . . . . April 27, 1903 + 754,756 Process of Treating Ores from Magnetic + Gangue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . May 25, 1903 + 775,600 Rotary Cement Kilns. . . . . . . . . .July 20, 1903 + 767,216 Apparatus for Vacuously Depositing + Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July 30 1903 + 796,629 Lamp Guard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . July 30 1903 + 772,648 Vehicle Wheel. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 25, 1903 + 850,912 Making Articles by Electro-Plating . . .Oct 3, 1903 + 857,041 Can or Receptacle for Storage Batteries.Oct 3, 1903 + 766,815 Primary Battery. . . . . . . . . . . .Nov. 16, 1903 + 943,664 Sound Recording Apparatus. . . . . . .Nov. 16, 1903 + 873,220 Reversible Galvanic Battery. . . . . .Nov. 20, 1903 + 898,633 Filling Apparatus for Storage Battery + Jars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 8, 1903 + + 1904 + + 767,554 Rendering Storage Battery Gases Non- + Explosive. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . June 8, 1904 + 861,241 Portland Cement and Manufacturing Same June 20, 1904 + 800,800 Phonograph Records and Making Same . .June 24, 1904 + 821,622 Cleaning Metallic Surfaces . . . . . .June 24, 1904 + 879,612 Alkaline Storage Batteries . . . . . .June 24, 1904 + 880,484 Process of Producing Very Thin Sheet + Metal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 24, 1904 + 827,297 Alkaline Batteries . . . . . . . . . .July 12, 1904 + 797,845 Sheet Metal for Perforated Pockets of + Storage Batteries. . . . . . . . . . .July 12, 1904 + 847,746 Electrical Welding Apparatus . . . . .July 12, 1904 + 821,032 Storage Battery. . . . . . . . . . . . Aug 10, 1904 + 861,242 Can or Receptacle for Storage Battery. Aug 10, 1904 + 970,615 Methods and Apparatus for Making + Sound Records. . . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 23, 1904 + 817,162 Treating Alkaline Storage Batteries. Sept. 26, 1904 + 948,542 Method of Treating Cans of Alkaline + Storage Batteries. . . . . . . . . . Sept. 28, 1904 + 813,490 Cement Kiln. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oct 29, 1904 + 821,625 Treating Alkaline Storage Batteries. . Oct 29, 1904 + 821,623 Storage Battery Filling Apparatus. . . Nov. 1, 1904 + 821,624 Gas Separator for Storage Battery. . .Oct. 29, 1904 + + 1905 + + 879,859 Apparatus for Producing Very Thin + Sheet Metal. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 16, 1905 + 804,799 Apparatus for Perforating Sheet Metal March 17, 1905 + 870,024 Apparatus for Producing Perforated + Strips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . March 23, 1905 + 882,144 Secondary Battery Electrodes . . . . March 29, 1905 + 821,626 Process of Making Metallic Films or + Flakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .March 29,1905 + 821,627 Making Metallic Flakes or Scales . . .March 29,1905 + 827,717 Making Composite Metal . . . . . . . .March 29,1905 + 839,371 Coating Active Material with Flake-like + Conducting Material. . . . . . . . . .March 29,1905 + 854,200 Making Storage Battery Electrodes. . .March 29,1905 + 857,929 Storage Battery Electrodes . . . . . March 29, 1905 + 860,195 Storage Battery Electrodes . . . . . April 26, 1905 + 862,145 Process of Making Seamless Tubular + Pockets or Receptacles for Storage + Battery Electrodes . . . . . . . . . April 26, 1905 + 839,372 Phonograph Records or Blanks . . . . April 28, 1905 + 813,491 Pocket Filling Machine . . . . . . . . May 15, 1905 + 821,628 Making Conducting Films. . . . . . . . May 20, 1905 + 943,663 Horns for Talking Machines . . . . . . May 20, 1905 + 950 226 Phonograph Recording Apparatus . . . . May 20, 1905 + 785 297 Gas Separator for Storage Batteries. .July 18, 1905 + 950,227 Apparatus for Making Metallic Films + or Flakes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 10, 1905 + 936,433 Tube Filling and Tamping Machine . . .Oct. 12, 1905 + 967,178 Tube Forming Machines—Edison and + John F. Ott. . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 16, 1905 + 880,978 Electrode Elements for Storage + Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 31, 1905 + 880,979 Method of Making Storage Battery + Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Oct. 31, 1905 + 850,913 Secondary Batteries. . . . . . . . . . Dec. 6, 1905 + 914,342 Storage Battery. . . . . . . . . . . . Dec. 6, 1905 + + 1906 + + 858,862 Primary and Secondary Batteries. . . . Jan. 9, 1906 + 850,881 Composite Metal. . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 19, 1906 + 964,096 Processes of Electro-Plating . . . . .Feb. 24, 1906 + 914,372 Making Thin Metallic Flakes. . . . . .July 13, 1906 + 962,822 Crushing Rolls . . . . . . . . . . . .Sept. 4, 1906 + 923,633 Shaft Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 11, 1906 + 962,823 Crushing Rolls . . . . . . . . . . . Sept. 11, 1906 + 930,946 Apparatus for Burning Portland Cement. Oct. 22,1906 + 898 404 Making Articles by Electro-Plating . . Nov. 2, 1906 + 930,948 Apparatus for Burning Portland Cement.Nov. 16, 1906 + 930,949 Apparatus for Burning Portland Cement. Nov. 26 1906 + 890,625 Apparatus for Grinding Coal. . . . . . Nov, 33 1906 + 948,558 Storage Battery Electrodes . . . . . .Nov. 28, 1906 + 964,221 Sound Records. . . . . . . . . . . . .Dec. 28, 1906 + + 1907 + + 865,688 Making Metallic Films or Flakes. . . .Jan. 11, 1907 + 936,267 Feed Mechanism for Phonographs and + Other Machines . . . . . . . . . . . .Jan. 11, 1907 + 936,525 Making Metallic Films or Flakes. . . .Jan. 17, 1907 + 865,687 Making Nickel Films. . . . . . . . . .Jan. 18, 1907 + 939,817 Cement Kiln. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 8, 1907 + 855,562 Diaphragm for Talking Machines . . . .Feb. 23, 1907 + 939,992 Phonographic Recording and Reproducing + Machine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 25, 1907 + 941,630 Process and Apparatus for Artificially + Aging or Seasoning Portland Cement . .Feb. 25, 1907 + 876,445 Electrolyte for Alkaline Storage Batteries May 8, 1907 + 914,343 Making Storage Battery Electrodes. . . May 15, 1907 + 861,819 Discharging Apparatus for Belt Conveyors June 11, 1907 + 954,789 Sprocket Chain Drives. . . . . . . . .June 11, 1907 + 909,877 Telegraphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .June 18, 1907 + + 1908 + + 896,811 Metallic Film for Use with Storage Batteries + and Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 4, 1908 + 940,635 Electrode Element for Storage Batteries Feb. 4, + 1908 + 909,167 Water-Proofing Paint for Portland + Cement Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . Feb. 4, 1908 + 896,812 Storage Batteries. . . . . . . . . . March 13, 1908 + 944,481 Processes and Apparatus for Artificially + Aging or Seasoning Portland Cement. March 13,1908 + 947,806 Automobiles. . . . . . . . . . . . . March 13,-1908 + 909,168 Water-Proofing Fibres and Fabrics. . . May 27, 1908 + 909,169 Water-Proofing Paint for Portland + Cement Structures. . . . . . . . . . . May 27, 1908 + 970,616 Flying Machines. . . . . . . . . . . .Aug. 20, 1908 + + 1909 + 930,947 Gas Purifier . . . . . . . . . . . . .Feb. 15, 1909 + 40,527 Design Patent for Phonograph Cabinet. Sept. 13, 1909 +</pre> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <br /> <a name="linkforeign" id="linkforeign"></a> <br /> <br /> + </p> + <h2> + FOREIGN PATENTS + </h2> + <p> + In addition to the United States patents issued to Edison, as above + enumerated, there have been granted to him (up to October, 1910) by + foreign governments 1239 patents, as follows: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Argentine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 + Australia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6 + Austria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101 + Belgium. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 + Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 + Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129 + Cape of Good Hope. . . . . . . . . . . . .5 + Ceylon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 + Cuba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 + Denmark. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9 + France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111 + Germany. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .130 + Great Britain. . . . . . . . . . . . . .131 + Hungary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 + India. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 + Italy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 + Japan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 + Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 + Natal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5 + New South Wales. . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 + New Zealand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 + Norway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 + Orange Free State. . . . . . . . . . . . .2 + Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 + Queensland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 + Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 + South African Republic . . . . . . . . . .4 + South Australia. . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 + Spain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 + Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 + Switzerland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 + Tasmania . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8 + Victoria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 + West Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4 + + Total of Edison's Foreign Patents. . . 1239 +</pre> + <div style="height: 6em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Edison, His Life and Inventions, by +Frank Lewis Dyer and Thomas Commerford Martin + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EDISON, HIS LIFE AND INVENTIONS *** + +***** This file should be named 820-h.htm or 820-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/8/2/820/ + +Produced by Charles Keller and David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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