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diff --git a/old/7027510.txt b/old/7027510.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c3d98c4 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/7027510.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5142 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Scientific American Supplement No. 275, by Various + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Scientific American Supplement No. 275 + +Author: Various + +Release Date: May, 2005 [EBook #8195] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on June 30, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN, SUP. 275 *** + + + + +Produced by Olaf Voss, Don Kretz, Juliet Sutherland, +Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team. + + + + +[Illustration] + + + + +SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT NO. 275 + + + + +NEW YORK, APRIL 9, 1881 + +Scientific American Supplement. Vol. XI, No. 275. + +Scientific American established 1845 + +Scientific American Supplement, $5 a year. + +Scientific American and Supplement, $7 a year. + + * * * * * + + TABLE OF CONTENTS. + +I. ENGINEERING AND MECHANICS.--The Various Modes of + Transmitting Power to a Distance. (Continued from No. 274.) + By ARTHUR ARCHARD. of Geneva.--II. Compressed Air.--III. + Transmission by Pressure Water.--IV. Transmission by + Electricity.--General Results + + The Hotchkiss Revolving Gun + + Floating Pontoon Dock. 2 figures.--Improved floating pontoon dock + +II. TECHNOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY.--Wheat and Wheat Bread. By H. MEGE + MOURIES.--Color in bread.--Anatomical structure and chemical + composition of wheat.--Embryo and coating of the embryo.-- + Cerealine--Phosphate of calcium.--1 figure, section of a grain + of wheat, magnified. + + Origin of New Process Milling.--Special report to the Census + Bureau. By ALBERT HOPPIN.--Present status of milling structures + and machinery in Minneapolis by Special Census Agent C. W. + JOHNSON.--Communication from GEORGE T. SMITH. + + Tap for Effervescing Liquids. 1 figure. + + London Chemical Society.--Notes.--Pentathionic acid, Mr. + VIVIAN LEWES.--Hydrocarbons from Rosin Spirit. Dr. + ARMSTRONG.--On the Determination of the Relative Weight of Single + Molecules. E. VOGEL.--On the Synthetical Production of Ammonia + by the Combination of Hydrogen and Nitrogen in the Presence of + Heated Spongy Platinum, G. S. JOHNSON.--On the Oxidation of + Organic Matter in Water, A. DOWNS. + + Rose Oil, or Otto of Roses. By CHAS. G. WARNFORD LOCK.--Sources + of rose oil.--History--Where rose gardens are now cultivated + for oil.--Methods of cultivation.--Processes of + distillation.--Adulterations + + A New Method of Preparing Metatoluidine. By OSCAR WIDMAN. + +III. AGRICULTURE, HORTICULTURE, ETC.--The Guenon Milk Mirror. 1 figure. + Escutcheon of the Jersey Bull Calf, Grand Mirror. + + Two Good Lawn Trees + + Cutting Sods for Lawns + + Horticultural Notes: New apples, pears, grapes, etc.--Discussion + on Grapes. Western New York Society.--New peaches.--Insects + affecting horticulture.--Insect destroyers. + + Observations on the Salmon of the Pacific. By DAVID S. JORDAN + and CHARLES B. GILBERT. Valuable census report. + +IV. LIGHT, ELECTRICITY ETC.--Relation between Electricity + and Light. Dr. O. T. Lodge's lecture before the London Institute. + + Interesting Electrical Researches by Dr. Warren de La Rue and + Dr. Hugo Miller. + + Telephony by Thermic Currents + + The Telectroscope. By Moxs. SENLECQ. 5 figures. A successful + apparatus for transmitting and reproducing camera pictures by + electricity. + +V. HYGIENE, MEDICINE, ETC.--Rapid Breathing as a Pain Obtunde in + Minor Surgery, Obstetrics, the General Practice of Medicine, and + of Dentistry. Dr. W. G. A. Bonwill's paper before the + Philadelphia County Medical Society. 8 figures. Sphygmographic + tracings. + +VI. ARCHITECTURE, ART, ETC.--Artist's Homes. No. 11. "Weirleigh." + Residence of Harrison Weir. Perspective and plans. + + * * * * * + + + + +WHEAT AND WHEAT BREAD. + +By H. MEGE-MOURIES. + + +In consequence of the interest that has been recently excited on the +subject of bread reform, we have, says the London _Miller_, translated the +interesting contribution of H. Mege-Mouries to the Imperial and Central +Society of Agriculture of France, and subsequently published in a separate +form in 1860, on "Wheat and Wheat Bread," with the illustration prepared +by the author for the contribution. The author says: "I repeat in this +pamphlet the principal facts put forth in the notes issued by me, and in +the reports furnished by Mr. Chevreul to the Academy of Science, from 1853 +up to 1860." + +The study of the structure of the wheat berry, its chemical composition, +its alimentary value, its preservation, etc., is not alone of interest to +science, agriculture, and industry, but it is worthy of attracting the +attention of governments, for this study, in its connection to political +economy, is bound up with the fate and the prosperity of nations. Wheat has +been cultivated from time immemorial. At first it was roughly crushed and +consumed in the form of a thick soup, or in cakes baked on an ordinary +hearth. Many centuries before the Christian era the Egyptians were +acquainted with the means of making fermented or leavened bread; afterwards +this practice spread into Greece, and it is found in esteem at Rome two +centuries B.C.; from Rome the new method was introduced among the Gauls, +and it is found to-day to exist almost the same as it was practiced at that +period, with the exception, of course, of the considerable improvements +introduced in the baking and grinding. + +Since the fortunate idea was formed of transforming the wheat into bread, +this grain has always produced white bread, and dark or brown bread, from +which the conclusion was drawn that it must necessarily make white bread +and brown bread; on the other hand, the flours, mixed with bran, made a +brownish, doughy, and badly risen bread, and it was therefore concluded +that the bran, by its color, produced this inferior bread. From this error, +accepted as a truth, the most contradictory opinions of the most opposite +processes have arisen, which are repeated at the present day in the art of +separating as completely as possible all the tissues of the wheat, and of +extracting from the grain only 70 per cent of flour fit for making white +bread. It is, however, difficult for the observer to admit that a small +quantity of the thin yellow envelope can, by a simple mingling with the +crumb of the loaf, color it brown, and it is still more difficult to admit +that the actual presence of these envelopes can without decomposition +render bread doughy, badly raised, sticky, and incapable of swelling in +water. On the other hand, although some distinguished chemists deny or +exalt the nutritive properties of bran, agriculturists, taking practical +observation as proof, attribute to that portion of the grain a +physiological action which has nothing in common with plastic alimentation, +and prove that animals weakened by a too long usage of dry fodder, are +restored to health by the use of bran, which only seems to act by its +presence, since the greater portion of it, as already demonstrated by Mr. +Poggiale, is passed through with the excrement. + +With these opinions, apparently so opposed, it evidently results that there +is an unknown factor at the bottom of the question; it is the nature of +this factor I wish to find out, and it was after the discovery that I +was able to explain the nature of brown bread, and its _role_ in the +alimentation of animals. We have then to examine the causes of the +production of brown bread, to state why white bread kills animals fed +exclusively on it, while bread mixed with bran makes them live. We have to +explain the phenomena of panification, the operations of grinding, and to +explain the means of preparing a bread more economical and more favorable +to health. To explain this question clearly and briefly we must first be +acquainted with the various substances forming the berry, their nature, +their position, and their properties. This we shall do with the aid of the +illustration given. + +[Illustration: SECTION OF A GRAIN OF WHEAT MAGNIFIED.] + +EXPLANATION OF DIAGRAM. + +1.--Superficial Coating of the Epidermis, severed at the Crease of + the Kernel. +2.--Section of Epidermis, Averages of the Weight of the Whole Grain, 1/2 %. +3.--Epicarp, do. do. do. 1 %. +4.--Endocarp, do. do. do. 1 1/2 %. +5.--Testa or Episperm, do. do. do. 2 %. +6.--Embryo Membrane (with imaginary spaces in white on both sides + to make it distinct). +7.\ / Glutonous Cells \ +8. > Endosperm < containing > do. do. 90 %. +9./ \ Farinaccous Matter / + + +ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE AND CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF WHEAT. + +The figure represents the longitudinal cut of a grain of wheat; it was made +by taking, with the aid of the microscope and of photography, the drawing +of a large quantity of fragments, which, joined together at last, produced +the figure of the entire cut. These multiplied results were necessary to +appreciate the insertion of the teguments and their nature in every part +of the berry; in this long and difficult work I have been aided by the +co-operation of Mr. Bertsch, who, as is known, has discovered a means of +fixing rapidly by photography any image from the microscope. I must state, +in the first place, that even in 1837 Mr. Payen studied and published the +structure and the composition of a fragment of a grain of wheat; that +this learned chemist, whose authority in such matters is known, perfectly +described the envelopes or coverings, and indicated the presence of various +immediate principles (especially of azote, fatty and mineral substances +which fill up the range of contiguous cells between them and the periphery +of the perisperm, to the exclusion of the gluten and the starchy granules), +as well as to the mode of insertion of the granules of starch in the gluten +contained in the cells, with narrow divisions from the perisperm, and in +such a manner that up to the point of working indicated by the figure 1 +this study was complete. However, I have been obliged to recommence it, to +study the special facts bearing on the alimentary question, and I must say +that all the results obtained by Mr. Bertsch, Mr. Trecul, and myself agree +with those given by Mr. Payen. + + +ENVELOPES OF THE BERRY. + +No. 1 represents a superficial side of the crease. + +No. 2 indicates the epidermis or cuticle. This covering is extremely light, +and offers nothing remarkable; 100 lb. of wheat contain 1/2 lb. of it. + +No. 3 indicates the epicarp. This envelope is distinguished by a double +row of long and pointed vessels; it is, like the first one, very light and +without action; 100 lb. of wheat contain 1 lb. of it. + +No. 4 represents the endocarp, or last tegument of the berry; the +sarcocarp, which should be found between the numbers 2 and 3, no longer +exists, having been absorbed. The endocarp is remarkable by its row of +round and regular cells, which appear in the cut like a continuous string +of beads; 100 lb. of wheat contain 11/2 lb. of it. + +These three envelopes are colorless, light, and spongy; their elementary +composition is that of straw; they are easily removed besides with the aid +of damp and friction. This property has given rise to an operation called +decortication, the results of which we shall examine later on from an +industrial point of view. The whole of the envelopes of the berry of wheat +amount to 3 lb. in 100 lb. of wheat. + + +ENVELOPES AND TISSUES OF THE BERRY PROPER. + +No. 5 indicates the testa or episperm. This external tegument of the berry +is closer than the preceding ones; it contains in the very small cells +two coloring matters, the one of a palish yellow, the other of an orange +yellow, and according as the one or the other matter predominates, the +wheat is of a more or less intense yellow color; hence come all the +varieties of wheat known in commerce as white, reddish, or red wheats. +Under this tegument is found a very thin, colorless membrane, which, with +the testa or episperm, forms two per cent. of the weight of the wheat. + +No. 6 indicates the embryous membrane, which is only an expansion of the +germ or embryo No. 10. This membrane is seen purposely removed from its +contiguous parts, so as to render more visible its form and insertions. +Under this tissue is found with the Nos. 7, 8, and 9, the endosperm or +perisperm, containing the gluten and the starch; soluble and insoluble +albuminoids, that is to say, the flour. + +The endosperm and the embryous membrane are the most interesting parts of +the berry; the first is one of the depots of the plastic aliments, the +second contains agents capable of dissolving these aliments during the +germination, of determining their absorption in the digestive organs of +animals, and of producing in the dough a decomposition strong enough to +make dark bread. We shall proceed to examine separately these two parts of +the berry. + + +ENDOSPERM OR FLOURY PORTION, NOS. 7, 8, 9. + +This portion is composed of large glutinous cells, in which the granules +of starch are found. The composition of these different layers offers a +particular interest; the center, No. 9, is the softest part; it contains +the least gluten and the most starch; it is the part which first pulverizes +under the stone, and gives, after the first bolting, the fine flour. As +this flour is poorest in gluten, it makes a dough with little consistency, +and incapable of making an open bread, well raised. The first layer, No. +8, which surrounds the center, produces small white middlings, harder and +richer in gluten than the center; it bakes very well, and weighs 20 lb. in +100, and it is these 20 parts in 100 which, when mixed with the 50 parts in +the center, form the finest quality flour, used for making white bread. + +The layer No. 7, which surrounds the preceding one, is still harder and +richer in gluten; unfortunately in the reduction it becomes mixed with some +hundredth parts of the bran, which render it unsuitable for making bread +of the finest quality; it produces in the regrinding lower grade and +dark flours, together weighing 7 per cent. The external layer, naturally +adhering to the membrane, No. 6, becomes mixed in the grinding with bran, +to the extent of about 20 per cent., which renders it unsuitable even +for making brown bread; it serves to form the regrindings and the offals +destined for the nourishment of animals; this layer is, however, the +hardest, and contains the largest quantity of gluten, and it is by +consequence the most nutritive. We now see the endosperm increasing from +the center, formed of floury layers, which augment in richness in gluten, +in proportion as they are removed from the center. Now, as the flours make +more bread in proportion to the quantity of gluten they contain, and the +gluten gives more bread in proportion to its being more developed, or +having more consistence, it follows that the flour belonging to the parts +of the berry nearest the envelopes or coverings should produce the greatest +portion of bread, and this is what takes place in effect. The product of +the different layers of the endosperm is given below, and it will be seen +that the quantity of bread increases in a proportion relatively greater +than that of the gluten, which proves once more that the gluten of the +center or last formation has less consistence than that of the other layers +of older formation. + +The following are the results obtained from the same wheat: + + Gluten. Bread. +100 parts of flour in center contain.. 8 and produce 128 + " " first layer " .. 9,2 " 136 + " " second " " .. 11 " 140 + " " external " " .. 13 " 145 + +On the whole, it is seen, according to the composition of the floury part +of the grain, that the berry contains on an average 90 parts in 100 of +flour fit for making bread of the first quality, and that the inevitable +mixing in of a small quantity of bran reduces these 90 to 70 parts with +the ordinary processes; but the loss is not alone there, for the foregoing +table shows that the best portion of the grain is rejected from the food +of man that brown or dark bread is made of flour of very good quality, and +that the first quality bread is made from the portion of the endosperm +containing the gluten in the smallest quantity and in the least developed +form. + +This is a consideration not to be passed over lightly; assuredly the gluten +of the center contains as much azote as the gluten of the circumference, +but it must not be admitted in a general way that the alimentary power of +a body is in connection with the amount of azote it contains, and without +entering into considerations which would carry us too wide of the subject, +we shall simply state that if the flesh of young animals, as, for instance, +the calf, has a debilitating action, while the developed flesh of +full-grown animals--of a heifer, for example--has really nourishing +properties, although the flesh of each animal contains the same quantity of +azote, we must conclude that the proportion of elements is not everything, +and that the azotic or nitrogenous elements are more nourishing in +proportion as they are more developed. This is why the gluten of the layers +nearest the bran is of quite a special interest from the point of view of +alimentation and in the preparation of bread. + + +THE EMBRYO AND THE COATING OF THE EMBRYO. + +To be intelligible, I must commence by some very brief remarks on the +tissues of vegetables. There are two sorts distinguished among plants; +some seem of no importance in the phenomena of nutrition; others, on the +contrary, tend to the assimilation of the organic or inorganic components +which should nourish and develop all the parts of the plant. The latter +have a striking analogy with ferments; their composition is almost similar, +and their action is increased or diminished by the same causes. + +These tissues, formed in a state of repose in vegetables as in grain, have +special properties; thus the berry possesses a pericarp whose tissues +should remain foreign to the phenomena of germination, and these tissues +show no particularity worthy of remark, but the coating of the embryo, +which should play an active part, possesses, on the contrary, properties +that may be compared to those of ferments. With regard to these ferments, +I must further remark that I have not been able, nor am I yet able, to +express in formula my opinion of the nature of these bodies, but little +known as yet; I have only made use of the language mostly employed, without +wishing to touch on questions raised by the effects of the presence, and +by the more complex effects of living bodies, which exercise analogous +actions. + +With these reservations I shall proceed to examine the tissues in the berry +which help toward the germination. + +THE EMBRYO (10, see woodcut) is composed of the root of the plant, with +which we have nothing to do here. This root of the plant which is to grow +is embedded in a mass of cells full of fatty bodies. These bodies present +this remarkable particularity, that they contain among their elements +sulphur and phosphorus. When you dehydrate by alcohol 100 grammes of the +embryo of wheat, obtained by the same means as the membrane (a process +indicated later on), this embryo, treated with ether, produces 20 grammes +of oils composed elementarily of hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, azote, sulphur, +and phosphorus. This analysis, made according to the means indicated by M. +Fremy, shows that the fatty bodies of the embryo are composed like those of +the germ of an egg, like those of the brain and of the nervous system of +animals. It is necessary for us to stop an instant at this fact: in the +first place, because it proves that vegetables are designed to form the +phosphoric as well as the nitrogenous and ternary aliments, and finally, +because it indicates how important it is to mix the embryo and its +dependents with the bread in the most complete manner possible, seeing that +a large portion of these phosphoric bodies always become decomposed during +the baking. + +COATING OF THE EMBRYO.--This membrane (6), which is only an expansion of +the embryo, surrounds the endosperm; it is composed of beautiful irregular +cubic cells, diminishing according as they come nearer to the embryo. These +cells are composed, first, of the insoluble cellular tissue; second, +of phosphate of chalk and fatty phosphoric bodies; third, of soluble +cerealine. In order to study the composition and the nature of this +tissue, it must be completely isolated, and this result is obtained in the +following manner. + +The wheat should be damped with water containing 10 parts in 100 of +alcoholized caustic soda; at the expiration of one hour the envelopes of +the pericarp, and of the testa Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, should be separated by +friction in a coarse cloth, having been reduced by the action of the alkali +to a pulpy state; each berry should then be opened separately to remove the +portion of the envelope held in the fold of the crease, and then all the +berries divided in two are put into three parts of water charged with +one-hundredth of caustic potash. This liquid dissolves the gluten, divides +the starch, and at the expiration of twenty-four hours the parts of the +berries are kneaded between the fingers, collected in pure water, and +washed until the water issues clear; these membranes with their embryos, +which are often detached by this operation, are cast into water acidulated +with one-hundredth of hydrochloric acid, and at the end of several hours +they should be completely washed. The product obtained consists of +beautiful white membranes, insoluble in alkalies and diluted acids, which +show under the microscope beautiful cells joined in a tissue following the +embryo, with which it has indeed a striking analogy in its properties and +composition. This membrane, exhausted by the alcohol and ether, gives, by +an elementary analysis, hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and azote. Unfortunately, +under the action of the tests this membrane has been killed, and it no +longer possesses the special properties of active tissues. Among these +properties three may be especially mentioned: + +1st. Its resistance to water charged with a mineral salt, such as sea salt +for instance + +2d. Its action through its presence. + +3d. Its action as a ferment. + +The action of saltwater is explained as follows: When the berry is plunged +into pure water it will be observed that the water penetrates in the course +of a few hours to the very center of the endosperm, but if water charged +or saturated with sea salt be used, it will be seen that the liquid +immediately passes through the teguments Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5, and stops +abruptly before the embryo membrane No. 6, which will remain quite dry and +brittle for several days, the berry remaining all the time in the +water. Should the water penetrate further after several days, it can be +ascertained that the entrance was gained through the part No 10 free of +this tissue, and this notwithstanding the cells are full of fatty bodies. +This membrane alone produces this action, for if the coatings Nos. 2, 3, 4, +and 5 be removed, the resistance to the liquid remains the same, while if +the whole, or a portion of it, be divided, either by friction between two +millstones or by simple incisions, the liquid penetrates the berry within +a few hours. This property is analogous to that of the radicules of roots, +which take up the bodies most suitable for the nourishment of the plant. It +proves, besides, that this membrane, like all those endowed with life, does +not obey more the ordinary laws of permeability than those of chemical +affinity, and this property can be turned to advantage in the preservation +of grain in decortication and grinding. + +To determine the action of this tissue through its presence, take 100 +grammes of wheat, wash it and remove the first coating by decortication; +then immerse it for several hours in lukewarm water, and dry afterwards in +an ordinary temperature. It should then be reduced in a small coffee mill, +the flour and middlings separated by sifting and the bran repassed through +a machine that will crush it without breaking it; then dress it again, and +repeat the operation six times at least. The bran now obtained is composed +of the embryous membrane, a little flour adhering to it, and some traces +of the teguments Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5. This coarse tissue-weighs about 14 +grammes, and to determine its action through its presence, place it in 200 +grammes of water at a temperature of 86 deg.; afterwards press it. The liquid +that escapes contains chiefly the flour and cerealine. Filter this liquid, +and put it in a test glass marked No. 1, which will serve to determine the +action of the cerealine. + +The bran should now be washed until the water issues pure, and until it +shows no bluish color when iodized water and sulphuric acid are added; when +the washing is finished the bran swollen by the water is placed under a +press, and the liquid extracted is placed, after being filtered, in a test +tube. This test tube serves to show that all cerealine has been removed +from the blades of the tissue. Finally, these small blades of bran, washed +and pressed, are cast, with 50 grammes of lukewarm water, into a test tube, +marked No. 3; 100 grammes of diluted starch to one-tenth of dry starch +are then added in each test tube, and they are put into a water bath at +a temperature of 104 deg. Fahrenheit, being stirred lightly every fifteen +minutes. At the expiration of an hour, or at the most an hour and a half, +No. 1 glass no longer contains any starch, as it has been converted into +dextrine and glucose by the cerealine, and the iodized water only produces +a purple color. No. 2 glass, with the same addition, produces a bluish +color, and preserves the starch intact, which proves that the bran was well +freed from the cerealine contained. No. 3 glass, like No. 1, shows a purple +coloring, and the liquid only contains, in place of the starch, dextrine +and glucose, _i. e_, the tissue has had the same action as the cerealine +deprived of the tissue, and the cerealine as the tissue freed from +cerealine. The same membrane rewashed can again transform the diluted +starch several times. This action is due to the presence of the embryous +membrane, for after four consecutive operations it still preserves its +original weight. As regards the remains of the other segments, they have +no influence on this phenomenon, for the coating Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5, +separated by the water and friction, have no action whatever on the diluted +starch. Besides its action through its presence, which is immediate, +the embryous membrane may also act as a ferment, active only after a +development, varying in duration according to the conditions of temperature +and the presence or absence of ferments in acting. + +I make a distinction here as is seen, between the action through being +present, and the action of real ferments, but it is not my intention to +approve or disapprove of the different opinions expressed on this subject. +I make use of these expressions only to explain more clearly the phenomena +I have to speak of, for it is our duty to bear in mind that the real +ferments only act after a longer or shorter period of development, while, +on the other hand, the effects through presence are immediate. + +I now return to the embryous membrane. Various causes increase or decrease +the action of this tissue, but it may be said in general that all the +agents that kill the embryous membrane will also kill the cerealine. This +was the reason why I at first attributed the production of dark bread +exclusively to the latter ferment, but it was easy to observe that during +the baking, decompositions resulted at over 158 deg. Fah., while the cerealine +was still coagulated, and that bread containing bran, submitted to 212 deg. of +heat, became liquefied in water at 104 deg.. It was now easy to determine +that dark flours, from which the cerealine had been removed by repeated +washings, still produced dark bread. It was at this time, in remembering +my experiences with organic bodies, I determined the properties of the +insoluble tissue, deprived of the soluble cerealine, with analogous +properties, but distinguished not alone by its solid organization and state +of insolubility, but also by its resistance to heat, which acts as on +yeast. There exists, in reality, I repeat, a resemblance between the +embryous membrane and the yeast; they have the same immediate composition; +they are destroyed by the same poisons, deadened by the same temperatures, +annihilated by the same agents, propagated in an analogous manner, and +it might be said that the organic tissues endowed with life are only an +agglomeration of fixed cells of ferments. At all events, when the blades of +the embryous membrane, prepared as already stated, are exposed to a water +bath at 212 deg., this tissue, in contact with the diluted starch, produces +the same decomposition; the contact, however, should continue two or three +hours in place of one. If, instead of placing these membranes in the water +bath, they are enveloped in two pounds of dough, and this dough put in the +oven, after the baking the washed membranes produce the same results, which +especially proves that this membrane can support a temperature of 212 deg. Fah. +without disorganization. We shall refer to this property in speaking of the +phenomena of panification. + +CEREALINE.--The cells composing the embryous membrane contain, as already +stated, the cerealine, but after the germination they contain cerealine and +diastase, that is to say, a portion of the cerealine changed into diastase, +with which it has the greatest analogy. It is known how difficult it is to +isolate and study albuminous substances. The following is the method of +obtaining and studying cerealine. Take the raw embryous membrane, prepared +as stated, steep it for an hour in spirits of wine diluted with twice its +volume of water, and renew this liquid several times until the dextrine, +glucose, coloring matters, etc., have been completely removed. The +membranes should now be pressed and cast into a quantity of water +sufficient to make a fluid paste of them, squeeze out the mixture, +filter the liquid obtained, and this liquid will contain the cerealine +sufficiently pure to be studied in its effects. Its principal properties +are: The liquid evaporated at a low temperature produces an amorphous, +rough mass nearly colorless, and almost entirely soluble in distilled +water; this solution coagulates between 158 deg. and 167 deg. Fah., and the +coagulum is insoluble in acids and weak alkalies; the solution is +precipitated by all diluted acids, by phosphoric acid at all the degrees of +hydration, and even by a current of carbonic acid. All these precipitates +redissolve with an excess of acid, sulphuric acid excepted. Concentrated +sulphuric acid forms an insoluble downy white precipitate, and the +concentrated vegetable acids, with the exception of tannic acid, do not +determine any precipitate. Cerealine coagulated by an acid redissolves in +an excess of the same acid, but it has become dead and has no more action +on the starch. The alkalies do not form any precipitate, but they kill the +cerealine as if it had been precipitated The neutral rennet does not make +any precipitate in a solution of cerealine--5 centigrammes of dry cerealine +transform in twenty-five minutes 10 grammes of starch, reduced to a paste +by 100 grammes of water at 113 deg. Fah. It will be seen that cerealine has a +grand analogy with albumen and legumine, but it is distinguished from them +by the action of the rennet, of the heat of acids, alcohol, and above all +by its property of transforming the starch into glucose and dextrine. + +It may be said that some albuminous substances have this property, but it +must be borne in mind that these bodies, like gluten, for example, only +possess it after the commencement of the decomposition. The albuminous +matter approaching nearest to cerealine is the diastase, for it is only a +transformation of the cerealine during the germination, the proof of which +may be had in analyzing the embryous membrane, which shows more diastase +and less cerealine in proportion to the advancement of the germination: it +differs, however, from the diastase by the action of heat, alcohol, etc. +It is seen that in every case the cerealine and the embryous membrane +act together, and in an analogous manner; we shall shortly examine their +effects on the digestion and in the phenomena of panification. + +PHOSPHATE OF CALCIUM.--Mr. Payen was the first to make the observation +that the greatest amount of phosphate of chalk is found in the teguments +adjoining the farinaceous or floury mass. This observation is important +from two points of view; in the first place, it shows us that this mineral +aliment, necessary to the life of animals, is rejected from ordinary bread; +and in the next place, it brings a new proof that phosphate of chalk is +found, and ought to be found, in everyplace where there are membranes +susceptible of exercising vital functions among animals as well as +vegetables. + +Phosphate of chalk is not in reality (as I wished to prove in another work) +a plastic matter suitable for forming bones, for the bones of infants are +three times more solid than those of old men, which contain three times +as much of it. The quantity of phosphate of chalk necessary to the +constitution of animals is in proportion to the temperature of those +animals, and often in the inverse ratio of the weight of their bones, for +vegetables, although they have no bones, require phosphate of chalk. This +is because this salt is the natural stimulant of living membranes, and the +bony tissue is only a depot of phosphate of chalk, analogous to the adipose +tissue, the fat of which is absorbed when the alimentation coming from the +exterior becomes insufficient. Now, as we know all the parts constituting +the berry of wheat, it will be easy to explain the phenomena of +panification, and to conclude from the present moment that it is not +indifferent to reject from the bread this embryous membrane where the +agents of digestion are found, viz., the phosphoric bodies and the +phosphate of chalk. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE ORIGIN OF NEW PROCESS MILLING. + + +The following article was written by Albert Hoppin, editor of the +_Northwestern Miller_, at the request of Special Agent Chas. W. Johnson, +and forms a part of his report to the census bureau on the manufacturing +industries of Minneapolis. + +"The development of the milling industry in this city has been so +intimately connected with the growth and prosperity of the city itself, +that the steps by which the art of milling has reached its present high +state of perfection are worthy of note, especially as Minneapolis may +rightly claim the honor of having brought the improvements, which have +within the last decade so thoroughly revolutionized the art of making +flour, first into public notice, and of having contributed the largest +share of capital and inventive skill to their full development. So much is +this the case that the cluster of mills around the Falls of St. Anthony is +to-day looked upon as the head-center of the milling industry not only of +this country, but of the world. An exception to this broad statement may +possibly be made in favor of the city of Buda Pest, in Austro-Hungary, from +the leading mills in which the millers in this country have obtained many +valuable ideas. To the credit of American millers and millwrights it must, +however, be said that they have in all cases improved upon the information +they have thus obtained. + +"To rightly understand the change that has taken place in milling methods +during the last ten years, it is necessary to compare the old way with the +new, and to observe wherein they differ. From the days of Oliver Evans, the +first American mechanic to make any improvement in milling machinery, until +1870, there was, if we may except some grain cleaning or smut machines, +no very strongly marked advance in milling machinery or in the methods of +manufacturing flour. It is true that the reel covered with finely-woven +silk bolting cloth had taken the place of the muslin or woolen covered hand +sieve, and that the old granite millstones have given place to the French +burr; but these did not affect the essential parts of the _modus operandi_, +although the quality of the product was, no doubt, materially improved. The +processes employed in all the mills in the United States ten years ago were +identical, or very nearly so, with those in use in the Brandywine Mills in +Evans's day. They were very simple, and may be divided into two distinct +operations. + +"First. Grinding (literally) the wheat. + +"Second. Bolting or separating the flour or interior portion of the berry +from the outer husk, or bran. It may seem to some a rash assertion, but +this primitive way of making flour is still in vogue in over one-half of +the mills of the United States. This does not, however, affect the truth of +the statement that the greater part of the flour now made in this country +is made on an entirely different and vastly-improved system, which has come +to be known to the trade as the new process. + +"In looking for a reason for the sudden activity and spirit of progress +which had its culmination in the new process, the character of the +wheat raised in the different sections of the Union must be taken into +consideration. Wheat may be divided into two classes, spring and winter, +the latter generally being more starchy and easily pulverized, and at the +same time having a very tough bran or husk, which does not readily crumble +or cut to pieces in the process of grinding. It was with this wheat that +the mills of the country had chiefly to do, and the defects of the old +system of milling were not then so apparent. With the settlement of +Minnesota, and the development of its capacities as a wheat-growing State, +a new factor in the milling problem was introduced, which for a time bid +fair to ruin every miller who undertook to solve it. The wheat raised in +this State was, from the climatic conditions, a spring wheat, hard in +structure and having a thin, tender, and friable bran. In milling this +wheat, if an attempt was made to grind it as fine as was then customary to +grind winter wheat, the bran was ground almost as fine as the flour, and +passed as readily through the meshes of the bolting reels or sieves, +rendering the flour dark, specky, and altogether unfit to enter the Eastern +markets in competition with flour from the winter wheat sections. On the +other hand, if the grinding was not so fine as to break up the bran, +the interior of the berry being harder to pulverize, was not rendered +sufficiently fine, and there remained after the flour was bolted out a +large percentage of shorts or middlings, which, while containing the +strongest and best flour in the berry, were so full of dirt and impurities +as to render them unfit for any further grinding except for the very lowest +grade of flour, technically known as 'red dog.' The flour produced from +the first grinding was also more or less specky and discolored, and, in +everything but strength, inferior to that made from winter wheat, while the +'yield' was so small, or, in other words, the amount of wheat which it took +to make a barrel of flour was so large, that milling in Minnesota and other +spring wheat sections was anything but profitable. + +"The problem which ten years since confronted the millers of this city was +how to obtain from the wheat which they had to grind a white, clear flour, +and to so increase the yield as to leave some margin for profit. The first +step in the solution of this problem was the invention by E. N. La Croix +of the machine which has since been called the purifier, which removed the +dirt and light impurities from the refuse middlings in the same manner that +dust and chaff are removed from wheat by a fanning mill. The middlings thus +purified were then reground, and the result was a much whiter and cleaner +flour than it had been possible to obtain under the old process of low +close grinding. This flour was called 'patent' or 'fancy,' and at once took +a high position in the market. The first machine built by La Croix was +immediately improved by George T. Smith, and has since then been the +subject of numberless variations, changes, and improvements; and over the +principles embodied in its construction there has been fought one of the +longest and most bitter battles recorded in the annals of patent litigation +in this country. The purifier is to-day the most important machine in use +in the manufacture of flour in this country, and may with propriety be +called the corner-stone of new process milling. The earliest experiments in +its use in this country were made in what was then known as the 'big mill' +in this city, owned by Washburn, Stephens & Co., and now known as the +Washburn Mill B. + +"The next step in the development of the new process, also originating +in Minneapolis, was the abandonment of the old system of cracking the +millstone, and substituting in its stead the use of smooth surfaces on the +millstones, thus in a large measure doing away with the abrasion of the +bran, and raising the quality of the flour produced at the first grinding. +So far as we know, Mr. E. R. Stephens, a Minneapolis miller, then employed +in the mill owned by Messrs. Pillsbury, Crocker & Fish, and now a member of +the prominent milling firm of Freeman & Stephens, River Falls, Wisconsin, +was the first to venture on this innovation. He also first practiced the +widening of the furrows in the millstones and increasing their number, thus +adding largely to the amount of middlings made at the first grinding, and +raising the percentage of patent flour. He was warmly supported by Amasa K. +Ostrander, since deceased, the founder and for a number of years the editor +of the _North-Western Miller_, a trade newspaper. The new ideas were for a +time vigorously combated by the millers, but their worth was so plain that +they were soon adopted, not only in Minneapolis, but by progressive millers +throughout the country. The truth was the 'new process' in its entirety, +which may be summarized in four steps--first, grinding or, more properly, +granulating the berry; second, bolting or separating the 'chop' or meal +into first flour, middlings, and bran; third, purifying the middlings, +fourth, regrinding and rebolting the middlings to produce the higher grade, +or 'patent' flour. This higher grade flour drove the best winter wheat +flours out of the Eastern markets, and placed milling in Minnesota upon a +firm basis. The development of the 'new process' cannot be claimed by any +one man. Hundreds of millers all over the country have contributed to its +advance, but the millers of Minneapolis have always taken the lead. + +"Within the past two or three years what may be distinctively called the +'new process' has, in the mills of Minneapolis and some few other leading +mills in the country, been giving place to a new system, or rather, a +refinement of the processes above described. This latest system is known to +the trade as the 'gradual reduction' or high-grinding system, as the 'new +process' is the medium high-grinding system, and the old way is the low or +close grinding system. In using the gradual reduction in making flour the +millstones are abandoned, except for finishing some of the inferior grades +of flour, and the work is done by means of grooved and plain rollers, made +of chilled iron or porcelain. In some cases disks of chilled iron, suitably +furrowed, are used, and in others concave mills, consisting of a cylinder +running against a concave plate. In Minneapolis the chilled iron rolls take +the precedence of all other means. + +"The system of gradual reduction is much more complicated than either of +those which preceded it; but the results obtained are a marked advance over +the 'new process.' The percentage of high-grade flour is increased, several +grades of different degrees of excellence being produced, and the yield +is also greater from a given quantity of wheat. The system consists in +reducing the wheat to flour, not at one operation, as in the old system, +nor in two grindings, as in the 'new process,' but in several successive +reductions, four, five, or six, as the case may be. The wheat is first +passed through a pair of corrugated chilled iron rollers, which merely +split it open along the crease of the berry, liberating the dirt which lies +in the crease so that it can be removed by bolting. A very small percentage +of low-grade flour is also made in this reduction. After passing through +what is technically called a 'scalping reel' to remove the dirt and flour, +the broken wheat is passed through a second set of corrugated rollers, by +which it is further broken up, and then passes through a second separating +reel, which removes the flour and middlings. This operation is repeated +successively until the flour portion of the berry is entirely removed from +the bran, the necessary separation being made after each reduction. The +middlings from the several reductions are passed through the purifiers, +and, after being purified, are reduced to flour by successive reductions +on smooth iron or porcelain rollers. In some cases, as stated above, iron +disks and concave mills are substituted for the roller mill, but the +operation is substantially the same. One of the principal objects sought to +be attained by this high-grinding system is to avoid all abrasion of the +bran, another is to take out the dirt in the crease of the berry at the +beginning of the process, and still another to thoroughly free the bran +from flour, so as to obtain as large a yield as possible. Incidental to the +improved methods of milling, as now practiced in this country, is a marked +improvement in the cleaning of the grain and preparing it for flouring. The +earliest grain-cleaning machine was the 'smutter,' the office of which was +to break the smut balls, and scour the outside of the bran to remove any +adhering dust, the scouring machine being too harsh in its action, breaking +the kernels of wheat, and so scratching and weakening the bran that it +broke up readily in the grinding. The scouring process was therefore +lessened, and was followed by brush machines, which brushed the dirt, +loosened up and left by the scourer, from the berry. Other machines for +removing the fuzzy and germ ends of the berry have also been introduced, +and everything possible is done to free the grain from extraneous +impurities before the process of reduction is commenced. In all the minor +details of the mill there has been the same marked change, until the modern +merchant mill of to-day no more resembles that of twenty-five years ago +than does the modern cotton mill the old-fashioned distaff. The change has +extended into the winter wheat sections, and no mill in the United States +can hope to hold its place in the markets unless it is provided with the +many improvements in machinery and processes which have resulted from the +experiments begun in this city only ten years since, and which have +made the name of Minneapolis and the products of her many mills famous +throughout the world. The relative merits of the flour made by the new +process and the old have been warmly discussed, but the general verdict +of the great body of consumers is that the patent or new process flour is +better in every way for bread making purposes, being clearer, whiter, more +evenly granulated, and possessing more strength. Careful chemical analysis +has confirmed this. As between winter and spring wheat flours made by the +new process and gradual reduction systems, it maybe remarked that the +former contain more starch and are whiter in color, while the latter, +having more gluten, excel in strength. In milling all varieties of wheat, +whether winter or spring, the new processes are in every way superior to +the old, and, in aiding their inception and development, the millers of +Minneapolis have conferred a lasting benefit on the country. + +"Minneapolis, Minn., December 1, 1880." + + +THE MILLING STRUCTURES AND MACHINERY. + + +Mr. Johnson added the following, showing the present status of the milling +industry in Minneapolis: + +"The description of the process of the manufacture of flour so well +given above, conveys no idea of the extent and magnitude of the milling +structures, machinery, and buildings employed in the business. Many of the +leading millers and millwrights have personally visited and studied the +best mills in England, France, Hungary, and Germany, and are as familiar +with their theory, methods, and construction as of their own, and no +expense or labor has been spared in introducing the most approved features +of the improvements in the foreign mills. Experimenting is constantly going +on, and the path behind the successful millers is strewn with the wrecks of +failures. A very large proportion of the machinery is imported, though the +American machinists are fast outstripping their European rivals in the +quality and efficiency of the machinery needed for the new mills constantly +going up. + +"There are twenty-eight of these mills now constructed and at work, +operating an equivalent of 412 runs of stone, consuming over sixteen +million bushels of wheat, and manufacturing over three million barrels of +flour annually. Their capacities range from 250 to 1,500 barrels of flour +per day. Great as these capacities are, there is now one in process of +construction, the Pillsbury A Mill, which at the beginning of the harvest +of 1881 will have a capacity of 4,000 barrels daily. The Washburn A Mill, +whose capacity is now 1,500 barrels, is being enlarged to make 8,500 +barrels a day, and the Crown Roller Mill, owned by Christian Bros. & Co., +is also being enlarged to produce 3,000 barrels a day. The largest mill in +Europe has a daily capacity of but 2,800 barrels, and no European mill is +fitted with the exquisite perfection of machinery and apparatus to be found +in the mills of this city. + +"The buildings are mainly built of blue limestone, found so abundant in the +quarries of this city, range and line work, and rest on the solid ledge. +The earlier built mills are severely plain, but the newer ones are greatly +improved by the taste of the architect, and are imposing and beautiful in +appearance." + + +DIRECT FOREIGN TRADE. + +The flour of Minneapolis, holding so high a rank in the markets of the +world, is always in active demand, especially the best grades, and brings +from $1.00 to $1.60 per barrel more than flour of the best qualities of +southern, eastern, or foreign wheat. During the year nearly a million +barrels were shipped direct to European and other foreign ports, on through +bills of lading, and drawn for by banks here having special foreign +exchange arrangements, at sight, on the day of shipment. This trade +is constantly increasing, and the amount of flour handled by eastern +commission men is decreasing in proportion. + + * * * * * + +Referring to the foregoing, the following letter from Mr. Geo. T. Smith to +the editor of the _London Miller_ is of interest: + +SIR: I find published in the _North-western Miller_ of December 24, 1880, +extracts from an article on the origin of new process milling, prepared by +Albert Hoppin, Esq., editor of the above-named journal, for the use of one +of the statistical divisions of the United States census, which is so at +variance, in at least one important particular, with the facts set forth in +the paper read by me before the British and Irish millers, at their meeting +in May last, that I think I ought to take notice of its statements, more +especially as the _North-Western Miller_ has quite a circulation on this +side of the water. + +As stated in the paper read by me above-mentioned, I was engaged in +February, 1871, by Mr. Christian, who was then operating the "big," or +Washburn Mill at Minneapolis, to take charge of the stones in that mill. At +this time Mr. Christian was very much interested in the improvement of the +quality of his flour, which in common with the flour of Minneapolis mills, +without exception, was very poor indeed. For some time previous to this I +had insisted to him most strenuously that the beginning of any improvement +must be found in smooth, true, and well balanced stones, and it was because +he was at last convinced that my ideas were at least worthy of a practical +test I was placed in charge of his mill. Nearly two months were consumed in +truing and smoothing the stone, as all millers in the mill had struck +at once when they became acquainted with the character of the changes I +proposed to make. + +I remained with Mr. Christian until the latter part of 1871, in all about +eight months. During this time the flour from the Washburn Mill attained a +celebrity that made it known and sought after all over the United States. +It commanded attention as an event of the very greatest importance, from +the fact that it was justly felt that if a mill grinding spring wheat +exclusively was capable of producing a flour infinitely superior in every +way to the best that could be made from the finest varieties of winter +wheats, the new North Western territory, with its peculiar adaptation to +the growing of spring grain, and its boundless capacity for production, +must at once become one of the most important sections of the country. + +Mr. Christian's appreciation of the improvements I had made in his mill +was attested by doubly-locked and guarded entrances, and by the stringent +regulations which were adopted to prevent any of his employes carrying +information with regard to the process to his competitors. + +All this time other Minneapolis mills were doing such work and only such as +they had done previously. Ought not the writer of an article on the origin +of new process milling--which article is intended to become historical, and +to have its authenticity indorsed by the government--to have known whether +Mr. Christian, in the Washburn Mill, did or did not make a grade of +flour which has hardly been excelled since for months before any other +Minneapolis mill approached his product in any degree? And should he not +be well enough acquainted with the milling of that period--1871-2--to know +that such results as were obtained in the Washburn Mill could only be +secured by the use of _smooth_ and _true_ stones? Mr. Stephens--whom I +shall mention again presently--did _not_ work in the Washburn Mill while I +was in charge of it. + +In the fall of 1871 I entered into a contract with Mr. C. A. Pillsbury, +owner of the Taylor Mill and senior partner in the firm by whom the +Minneapolis Mill was operated, to put both those mills into condition to +make the same grade of flour as Mr. Christian was making. The consideration +in the contract was 5,000 dols. At the above mills I met to some extent the +same obstruction in regard to millers striking as had greeted me at Mr. +Christian's mill earlier in the year; but among those who did not strike at +the Minneapolis Mill I saw, for the first time, Mr. Stephens--then still +in his apprenticeship--whom Mr. Hoppin declares to have been, "so far as I +know," the first miller to use smooth stones. If Mr. Hoppin is right in his +assertion, perhaps he will explain why, during the eight months I was at +the Washburn Mill, Mr. Stephens did not make a corresponding improvement +in the product of the Minneapolis Mill. That he did not do this is amply +proved by the fact of Mr. Pillsbury giving me 5,000 dols. to introduce +improvements into his mills, when, supposing Mr. Hoppin's statement to +be correct, he might have had the same alterations carried out under Mr. +Stephens' direction at a mere nominal cost. As a matter of fact, the stones +in both the Taylor and Minneapolis Mills were as rough as any in the +Washburn Mill when I took charge of them. + +Thus it appears (1) that the flour made by the mill in which Stephens was +employed was not improved in quality, while that of the Washburn Mill, +where he was not employed, became the finest that had ever been made in the +United States at that time. That (2) the owner of the mill in which Mr. +Stephens was employed, as he was not making good flour, engaged me at a +large cost to introduce into his mills the alterations by which only, both +Mr. Hoppin and myself agree, could any material improvement in the milling +of that period be effected, .viz., smooth, true, and well-balanced +stones.--GEO. T. SMITH. + + * * * * * + +For breachy animals do not use barbed fences. To see the lacerations that +these fences have produced upon the innocent animals should be sufficient +testimony against them. Many use pokes and blinders on cattle and goats, +but as a rule such things fail. The better way is to separate breachy +animals from the lot, as others will imitate their habits sooner or later, +and then, if not curable, _sell them_. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE GUENON MILK-MIRROR. + + +The name of the simple Bordeaux peasant is, and should be, permanently +associated with his discovery that the milking qualities of cows were, to a +considerable extent, indicated by certain external marks easily observed. +We had long known that capacious udders and large milk veins, combined with +good digestive capacity and a general preponderance of the alimentary over +the locomotive system, were indications that rarely misled in regard to the +ability of a cow to give much milk; but to judge of the amount of milk a +cow would yield, and the length of time she would hold out in her flow, two +or three years before she could be called a cow--this was Guenon's great +accomplishment, and the one for which he was awarded a gold medal by the +Agricultural Society of his native district. This was the first of many +honors with which he was rewarded, and it is much to say that no committee +of agriculturists who have ever investigated the merits of the system +have ever spoken disparagingly of it. Those who most closely study it, +especially following Guenon's original system, which has never been +essentially improved upon, are most positive in regard to its truth, +enthusiastic in regard to its value. + +The fine, soft hair upon the hinder part of a cow's udder for the most part +turns upward. This upward-growing hair extends in most cases all over that +part of the udder visible between the hind legs, but is occasionally marked +by spots or mere lines, usually slender ovals, in which the hair grows +down. This tendency of the hair to grow upward is not confined to the udder +proper; but extends out upon the thighs and upward to the tail. The edges +of this space over which the hair turns up are usually distinctly marked, +and, as a rule, the larger the area of this space, which is called the +"mirror" or "escutcheon," the more milk the cow will give, and the longer +she will continue in milk. + +[Illustration: ESCUTCHEON OF THE JERSEY BULL-CALF, GRAND MIRROR, 4,904.] + +That portion of the escutcheon which covers the udder and extends out on +the inside of each thigh, has been designated as the udder or mammary +mirror; that which runs upward towards the setting on of the tail, the +rising or placental mirror. The mammary mirror is of the greater value, +yet the rising mirror is not to be disregarded. It is regarded of especial +moment that the mirror, taken as a whole, be symmetrical, and especially +that the mammary mirror be so; yet it often occurs that it is far +otherwise, its outline being often very fantastical--exhibiting deep +_bays_, so to speak, and islands of downward growing hair. There are also +certain "ovals," never very large, yet distinct, which do not detract from +the estimated value of an escutcheon; notably those occurring on the lobes +of the udder just above the hind teats. These are supposed to be points of +value, though for what reason it would be hard to tell, yet they do occur +upon some of the very best milch cows, and those whose mirrors correspond +most closely to their performances. + +Mr. Guenon's discovery enables breeders to determine which of their calves +are most promising, and in purchasing young stock it affords indications +which rarely fail as to their comparative milk yield. These indications +occasionally prove utterly fallacious, and Mr. Guenon gives rules for +determining this class, which he calls "bastards," without waiting for them +to fail in their milk. The signs are, however, rarely so distinct that one +would be willing to sell a twenty-quart cow, whose yield confirmed the +prediction of her mirror at first calving, because of the possibility of +the going dry in two months, or so, as indicated by her bastardy marks. + +It is an interesting fact that the mirrors of bulls (which are much like +those of cows, but less extensive in every direction) are reflected in +their daughters. This gives rise to the dangerous custom of breeding for +mirrors, rather than for milk. What the results may be after a few years it +is easy to see. The mirror, being valued for its own sake--that is, because +it sells the heifers--will be likely to lose its practical significance and +value as a _milk_ mirror. + +We have a striking photograph of a young Jersey bull, the property of Mr. +John L. Hopkins, of Atlanta, Ga., and called "Grand Mirror." This we have +caused to be engraved and the mirror is clearly shown. A larger mirror is +rarely seen upon a bull. We hope in a future number to exhibit some cows' +mirrors of different forms and degrees of excellence.--_Rural New Yorker_. + + * * * * * + + + + +TWO GOOD LAWN TREES. + + +The negundo, or ash-leaved maple, as it is called in the Eastern States, +better known at the West as a box elder, is a tree that is not known as +extensively as it deserves. It is a hard maple, that grows as rapidly as +the soft maple; is hardy, possesses a beautiful foliage of black green +leaves, and is symmetrical in shape. Through eastern Iowa I found it +growing wild, and a favorite tree with the early settlers, who wanted +something that gave shade and protection to their homes quickly on their +prairie farms. Brought east, its growth is rapid, and it loses none of the +characteristics it possessed in its western home. Those who have planted it +are well pleased with it. It is a tree that transplants easily, and I know +of no reason why it should not be more popular. + +For ornamental lawn planting, I give pre-eminence to the cut-leaf weeping +birch. Possessing all the good qualities of the white birch, it combines +with them a beauty and delicate grace yielded by no other tree. It is an +upright grower, with slender, drooping branches, adorned with leaves of +deep rich green, each leaf being delicately cut, as with a knife, into +semi-skeletons. It holds its foliage and color till quite late in the fall. +The bark, with age, becomes white, resembling the white birch, and the +beauty of the tree increases with its age. It is a free grower, and +requires no trimming. Nature has given it a symmetry which art cannot +improve. + +H.T.J. + + * * * * * + + + + +CUTTING SODS FOR LAWNS. + + +I am a very good sod layer, and used to lay very large lawns--half to +three-quarters of an acre. I cut the sods as follows: Take a board eight to +nine inches wide, four, five, or six feet long, and cut downward all around +the board, then turn the board over and cut again alongside the edge of the +board, and so on as many sods as needed. Then cut the turf with a sharp +spade, all the same lengths. Begin on one end, and roll together. Eight +inches by five feet is about as much as a man can handle conveniently. It +is very easy to load them on a wagon, cart, or barrow, and they can be +quickly laid. After laying a good piece, sprinkle a little with a watering +pot, if the sods are dry; then use the back of the spade to smooth them a +little. If a very fine effect is wanted, throw a shovelful or two of good +earth over each square yard, and smooth it with the back of a steel rake. + +F.H. + + * * * * * + + + + +[COUNTRY GENTLEMAN.] + +HORTICULTURAL NOTES. + + +The Western New York Society met at Rochester, January 26. + +_New Apples, Pears, Grapes, etc._--Wm. C Barry, secretary of the committee +on native fruits, read a full report. Among the older varieties of the +apple, he strongly recommended Button Beauty, which had proved so excellent +in Massachusetts, and which had been equally successful at the Mount +Hope Nurseries at Rochester; the fine growth of the tree and its great +productiveness being strongly in its favor. The Wagener and Northern Spy +are among the finer sorts. The Melon is one of the best among the older +sorts; the fruit being quite tender will not bear long shipment, but it +possesses great value for home use, and being a poor grower, it had been +thrown aside by nurserymen and orchardists. It should be top-grafted on +more vigorous sorts. The Jonathan is another fine sort of slender growth, +which should be top-grafted. + +Among new pears, Hoosic and Frederic Clapp were highly commended for their +excellence. Some of the older peaches of fine quality had of late been +neglected, and among them Druid Hill and Brevoort. + +Among the many new peaches highly recommended for their early ripening, +there was great resemblance to each other, and some had proved earlier than +Alexander. + +Of the new grapes, Lady Washington was the most promising. The Secretary +was a failure. The Jefferson was a fine sort, of high promise. + +Among the new white grapes, Niagara, Prentiss, and Duchess stood +pre-eminent, and were worthy of the attention of cultivators. The +Vergennes, from Vermont, a light amber colored sort, was also highly +commended. The Elvira, so highly valued in Missouri, does not succeed well +here. Several facts were stated in relation to the Delaware grape, showing +its reliability and excellence. + +Several new varieties of the raspberry were named, but few of them were +found equal to the best old sorts. If Brinckle's Orange were taken as a +standard for quality, it would show that none had proved its equal in fine +quality. The Caroline was like it in color, but inferior in flavor. The New +Rochelle was of second quality. Turner was a good berry, but too soft for +distant carriage. + +Of the many new strawberries named, each seemed to have some special +drawback. The Bidwell, however, was a new sort of particular excellence, +and Charles Downing thinks it the most promising of the new berries. + +_Discussion on Grapes._--C. W. Beadle, of Ontario, in allusion to Moore's +Early grape, finds it much earlier than the Concord, and equal to it in +quality, ripening even before the Hartford. S. D. Willard, of Geneva, +thought it inferior to the Concord, and not nearly so good as the Worden. +The last named was both earlier and better than the Concord, and sold for +seven cents per pound when the Concord brought only four cents. C. A. +Green, of Monroe County, said the Lady Washington proved to be a very fine +grape, slightly later than Concord. P. L. Perry, of Canandaigua, said +that the Vergennes ripens with Hartford, and possesses remarkable keeping +qualities, and is of excellent quality and free from pulp. He presented +specimens which had been kept in good condition. He added, in relation to +the Worden grape, that some years ago it brought 18 cents per pound in New +York when the Concord sold three days later for only 8 cents. [In such +comparisons, however, it should be borne in mind that new varieties usually +receive more attention and better culture, giving them an additional +advantage.] + +The Niagara grape received special attention from members. A. C. Younglove, +of Yates County, thought it superior to any other white grape for its many +good qualities. It was a vigorous and healthy grower, and the clusters were +full and handsome. W. J. Fowler, of Monroe County, saw the vine in October, +with the leaves still hanging well, a great bearer and the grape of fine +quality. C. L. Hoag, of Lockport, said he began to pick the Niagara on the +26th of August, but its quality improved by hanging on the vine. J. Harris, +of Niagara County, was well acquainted with the Niagara, and indorsed all +the commendation which had been uttered in its favor. T. C. Maxwell said +there was one fault--we could not get it, as it was not in market. W. C. +Barry, of Rochester, spoke highly of the Niagara, and its slight foxiness +would be no objection to those who like that peculiarity. C. L. Hoag +thought this was the same quality that Col. Wilder described as "a little +aromatic." A. C. Younglove found the Niagara to ripen with the Delaware. +Inquiry being made relative to the Pockington grape, H. E. Hooker said it +ripened as early as the Concord. C. A. Green was surprised that it had not +attracted more attention, as he regarded it as a very promising grape. J. +Charlton, of Rochester, said that the fruit had been cut for market on the +29th of August, and on the 6th of September it was fully ripe; but he has +known it to hang as late as November. J. S. Stone had found that when it +hung as late as November it became sweet and very rich in flavor. + +_New Peaches._--A. C. Younglove had found such very early sorts as +Alexander and Amsden excellent for home use, but not profitable for market. +The insects and birds made heavy depredations on them. While nearly all +very early and high-colored sorts suffer largely from the birds, the +Rivers, a white peach, does not attract them, and hence it may be +profitable for market if skillfully packed; rough and careless handling +will spoil the fruit. He added that the Wheatland peach sustains its high +reputation, and he thought it the best of all sorts for market, ripening +with Late Crawford. It is a great bearer, but carries a crop of remarkably +uniform size, so that it is not often necessary to throw out a bad +specimen. This is the result of experience with it by Mr. Rogers at +Wheatland, in Monroe County, and at his own residence in Vine Valley. S. D. +Willard confirmed all that Mr. Younglove had said of the excellence of the +Rivers peach. He had ripened the Amsden for several years, and found it +about two weeks earlier than the Rivers, and he thought if the Amsden were +properly thinned, it would prevent the common trouble of its rotting; such +had been his experience. E. A. Bronson, of Geneva, objected to making very +early peaches prominent for marketing, as purchasers would prefer waiting +a few days to paying high prices for the earliest, and he would caution +people against planting the Amsden too largely, and its free recommendation +might mislead. May's Choice was named by H. E. Hooker as a beautiful yellow +peach, having no superior in quality, but perhaps it may not be found +to have more general value than Early and Late Crawford. It is scarcely +distinguishable in appearance from fine specimens of Early Crawford. W. C. +Barry was called on for the most recent experience with the Waterloo, +but said he was not at home when it ripened, but he learned that it had +sustained its reputation. A. C. Younglove said that the Salway is the best +late peach, ripening eight or ten days after the Smock. S. D. Willard +mentioned an orchard near Geneva, consisting of 25 Salway trees, which for +four years had ripened their crop and had sold for $4 per bushel in the +Philadelphia market, or for $3 at Geneva--a higher price than for any other +sort--and the owner intends to plant 200 more trees. W. C. Barry said the +Salway will not ripen at Rochester. Hill's Chili was named by some members +as a good peach for canning and drying, some stating that it ripens before +and others after Late Crawford. It requires thinning on the tree, or +the fruit will be poor. The Allen was pronounced by Mr. Younglove as an +excellent, intensely high-colored late peach. + +_Insects Affecting Horticulture_.--Mr. Zimmerman spoke of the importance +of all cultivators knowing so much of insects and their habits as to +distinguish their friends from their enemies. When unchecked they increase +in an immense ratio, and he mentioned as an instance that the green fly +(_Aphis_) in five generations may become the parent of six thousand million +descendants. It is necessary, then, to know what other insects are employed +in holding them in check, by feeding on them. Some of our most formidable +insects have been accidentally imported from Europe, such as the codling +moth, asparagus beetle, cabbage butterfly, currant worm and borer, elm-tree +beetle, hessian fly, etc.; but in nearly every instance these have come +over without bringing their insect enemies with them, and in consequence +they have spread more extensively here than in Europe. It was therefore +urged that the Agricultural Department at Washington be requested to +import, as far as practicable, such parasites as are positively known to +prey on noxious insects. The cabbage fly eluded our keen custom-house +officials in 1866, and has enjoyed free citizenship ever since. By +accident, one of its insect enemies (a small black fly) was brought over +with it, and is now doing excellent work by keeping the cabbage fly in +check. + +The codling moth, one of the most formidable fruit destroyers, may be +reduced in number by the well-known paper bands; but a more efficient +remedy is to shower them early in the season with Paris green, mixed in +water at the rate of only one pound to one hundred gallons of water, with +a forcing pump, soon after blossoming. After all the experiments made and +repellents used for the plum curculio, the jarring method is found the most +efficient and reliable, if properly performed. Various remedies for insects +sometimes have the credit of doing the work, if used in those seasons +when the insects happen to be few. With some insects, the use of oil is +advantageous, as it always closes up their breathing holes and suffocates +them. The oil should be mixed with milk, and then diluted as required, as +the oil alone cannot be mixed with the water. As a general remedy, +Paris green is the strongest that can be applied. A teaspoonful to a +tablespoonful, in a barrel of water, is enough. Hot water is the best +remedy for house plants. Place one hand over the soil, invert the pot, and +plunge the foliage for a second only at a time in water heated to from 150 deg. +to 200 deg.F, according to the plants; or apply with a fine rose. The yeast +remedy has not proved successful in all cases. + +Among beneficial insects, there are about one hundred species of lady bugs, +and, so far as known, all are beneficial. Cultivators should know them. +They destroy vast quantities of plant lice. The ground beetles are mostly +cannibals, and should not be destroyed. The large black beetle, with +coppery dots, makes short work with the Colorado potato beetles; and +a bright green beetle will climb trees to get a meal of canker worms. +Ichneumon flies are among our most useful insects. The much-abused dragon +flies are perfectly harmless to us, but destroy many mosquitoes and flies. + +Among insects that attack large fruits is the codling moth, to be destroyed +by paper bands, or with Paris green showered in water. The round-headed +apple-tree borer is to be cut out, and the eggs excluded with a sheet of +tarred paper around the stem, and slightly sunk in the earth. For the +oyster-shell bark louse, apply linseed oil. Paris green, in water, +will kill the canker worm. Tobacco water does the work for plant lice. +Peach-tree borers are excluded with tarred or felt paper, and cut out with +a knife. Jar the grape flea beetle on an inverted umbrella early in the +morning. Among small-fruit insects, the strawberry worms are readily +destroyed with hellebore, an ounce to a gallon of warm water. The same +remedy destroys the imported currant worm. + +_Insect Destroyers_.--Prof. W. Saunders, of the Province of Ontario, +followed Mr. Zimmerman with a paper on other departments of the same +general subject, which contained much information and many suggestions of +great value to cultivators. He had found Paris green an efficient remedy +for the bud-moth on pear and other trees. He also recommends Paris green +for the grapevine flea beetle. Hellebore is much better for the pear slug +than dusting with sand, as these slugs, as soon as their skin is spoiled +by being sanded, cast it off and go on with their work of destruction as +freely as ever, and this they repeat. He remarked that it is a common error +that all insects are pests to the cultivator. There are many parasites, +or useful ones, which prey on our insect enemies. Out of 7,000 described +insects in this country, only about 50 have proved destructive to our +crops. Parasites are much more numerous. Among lepidopterous insects +(butterflies, etc.), there are very few noxious species; many active +friends are found among the Hymenoptera (wasps, etc.), the ichneumon flies +pre-eminently so; and in the order Hemiptera (bugs proper) are several that +destroy our enemies. Hence the very common error that birds which destroy +insects are beneficial to us, as they are more likely to destroy our insect +friends than the fewer enemies. Those known as _flycatchers_ may do neither +harm nor good; so far as they eat the wheat-midge and Hessian fly they +confer a positive benefit; in other instances they destroy both friends and +enemies. Birds that are only partly insectivorous, and which eat grain and +fruit, may need further inquiry. Prof. S. had examined the stomachs of many +such birds, and particularly of the American robin, and the only curculio +he ever found in any of these was a single one in a whole cherry which the +bird had bolted entire. Robins had proved very destructive to his grapes, +but had not assisted at all in protecting his cabbages growing alongside +his fruit garden. These vegetables were nearly destroyed by the larvae of +the cabbage fly, which would have afforded the birds many fine, rich meals. +This comparatively feeble insect has been allowed by the throngs of birds +to spread over the whole continent. A naturalist in one of the Western +States had examined several species of the thrush, and found they had eaten +mostly that class of insects known as our friends. + +Prof. S. spoke of the remedies for root lice, among which were hot water +and bisulphide of carbon. Hot water will get cold before it can reach the +smaller roots, however efficient it may be showered on leaves. Bisulphide +of carbon is very volatile, inflammable, and sometimes explosive, and must +be handled with great care. It permeates the soil, and if in sufficient +quantity may be effective in destroying the phylloxera; but its cost and +dangerous character prevent it from being generally recommended. + +Paris green is most generally useful for destroying insects. As sold to +purchasers, it is of various grades of purity. The highest in price is +commonly the purest, and really the cheapest. A difficulty with this +variable quality is that it cannot be properly diluted with water, and +those who buy and use a poor article and try its efficacy, will burn or +kill their plants when they happen to use a stronger, purer, and more +efficient one. Or, if the reverse is done, they may pronounce it a humbug +from the resulting failure. One teaspoonful, if pure, is enough for a large +pail of water; or if mixed with flour, there should be forty or fifty times +as much. Water is best, as the operator will not inhale the dust. London +purple is another form of the arsenic, and has very variable qualities +of the poison, being merely refuse matter from manufactories. It is more +soluble than Paris green, and hence more likely to scorch plants. On the +whole, Paris green is much the best and most reliable for common use. + +At the close of Prof. Saunders' remarks some objections were made by +members present to the use of Paris green on fruit soon after blossoming, +and Prof. S. sustained the objection, in that the knowledge that the fruit +had been showered with it would deter purchasers from receiving it, even if +no poison could remain on it from spring to autumn. A man had brought to +him potatoes to analyze for arsenic, on which Paris green had been used, +and although it was shown to him that the poison did not reach the roots +beneath the soil, and if it did it was insoluble and could not enter them, +he was not satisfied until a careful analysis was made and no arsenic at +all found in them. A member said that in mixing with plaster there should +be 100 or 150 pounds of plaster to one of the Paris green, and that a +smaller quantity, by weight, of flour would answer, as that is a more bulky +article for the same weight. + + * * * * * + + + + +OBSERVATIONS ON THE SALMON OF THE PACIFIC. + +By DAVID S. JORDAN and CHAS. H. GILBERT. + + +During the most of the present year, the writers have been engaged in the +study of the fishes of the Pacific coast of the United States, in the +interest of the U.S. Fish Commission and the U.S. Census Bureau. The +following pages contain the principal facts ascertained concerning the +salmon of the Pacific coast. It is condensed from our report to the U.S. +Census Bureau, by permission of Professor Goode, assistant in charge of +fishery investigations. + +There are five species of salmon (Oncorhynchus) in the waters of the North +Pacific. We have at present no evidence of the existence of any more on +either the American or the Asiatic side. + +These species may be called the quinnat or king salmon, the blue-back +salmon or red-fish, the silver salmon, the dog salmon, and the hump-back +salmon, or _Oncorhynchus chouicha, nerka, kisutch, keta_, and _gorbuscha_. +All these species are now known to occur in the waters of Kamtschatka as +well as in those of Alaska and Oregon. + +As vernacular names of definite application, the following are on record: + +a. Quinnat--Chouicha, king salmon, e'quinna, saw-kwey, Chinnook salmon, +Columbia River salmon, Sacramento salmon, tyee salmon, Monterey salmon, +deep-water salmon, spring salmon, ek-ul-ba ("ekewan") (fall run). + +b. Blue-bock--krasnaya ryba, Alaska red-fish, Idaho red fish, sukkegh, +Frazer's River salmon, rascal, oo-chooy-ha. + +c. Silver salmon--kisutch, winter salmon, hoopid, skowitz, coho, bielaya +ryba, o-o-wun. + +d. Dog salmon--kayko, lekai, ktlawhy, qualoch, fall salmon, o-le-a-rah. The +males of _all_ the species in the fall are usually known as dog salmon, or +fall salmon. + +e. Hump-back--gorbuscha, haddo, hone, holia, lost salmon, Puget Sound +salmon, dog salmon (of Alaska). + +Of these species, the blue-back predominates in Frazer's River, the silver +salmon in Puget Sound, the quinnat in the Columbia and the Sacramento, and +the silver salmon in most of the small streams along the coast. All the +species have been seen by us in the Columbia and in Frazer's River; all +but the blue-back in the Sacramento, and all but the blue-back in waters +tributary to Puget Sound. Only the quinnat has been noticed south of San +Francisco, and its range has been traced as far as Ventura River, which is +the southernmost stream in California which is not muddy and alkaline at +its mouth. + +Of these species, the quinnat and blue-back salmon habitually "run" in the +spring, the others in the fall. The usual order of running in the rivers is +as follows: _nerka, chouicha, kisutch, gorbuscha, keta_. + +The economic value of the spring running salmon is far greater than that of +the other species, because they can be captured in numbers when at their +best, while the others are usually taken only after deterioration. + +The habits of the salmon in the ocean are not easily studied. Quinnat and +silver salmon of every size are taken with the seine at almost any season +in Puget Sound. The quinnat takes the hook freely in Monterey bay, both +near the shore and at a distance of six or eight miles out. We have reason +to believe that these two species do not necessarily seek great depths, but +probably remain not very far from the mouth of the rivers in which they +were spawned. + +The blue-back and the dog salmon probably seek deeper water, as the former +is seldom or never taken with the seine in the ocean, and the latter is +known to enter the Straits of Fuca at the spawning season. + +The great majority of the quinnat salmon and nearly all blue-back salmon +enter the rivers in the spring. The run of both begins generally the last +of March; it lasts, with various modifications and interruptions, until +the actual spawning season in November; the time of running and the +proportionate amount of each of the subordinate runs, varying with each +different river. In general, the runs are slack in the summer and increase +with the first high water of autumn. By the last of August only straggling +blue-backs can be found in the lower course of any stream, but both in the +Columbia and the Sacramento the quinnat runs in considerable numbers till +October at least. In the Sacramento the run is greatest in the fall, and +more run in the summer than in spring. In the Sacramento and the smaller +rivers southward, there is a winter run, beginning in December. + +The spring salmon ascend only those rivers which are fed by the melting +snows from the mountains, and which have sufficient volume to send their +waters well out to sea. Such rivers are the Sacramento, Rogue, Klamath, +Columbia, and Frazer's rivers. + +Those salmon which run in the spring are chiefly adults (supposed to be at +least three years old). Their milt and spawn are no more developed than at +the same time in others of the same species which will not enter the rivers +until fall. It would appear that the contact with cold fresh water, when in +the ocean, in some way caused them to turn toward it and to "run," before +there is any special influence to that end exerted by the development of +the organs of generation. + +High water on any of these rivers in the spring is always followed by an +increased run of salmon. The canners think, and this is probably true, that +salmon which would not have run till later are brought up by the contact +with the cold water. The cause of this effect of cold fresh water is not +understood. We may call it an instinct of the salmon, which is another way +of expressing our ignorance. In general, it seems to be true that in those +rivers and during those years when the spring run is greatest, the fall run +is least to be depended on. + +As the season advances, smaller and younger salmon of these two species +(quinnat and blue-back) enter the rivers to spawn, and in the fall these +young specimens are very numerous. We have thus far failed to notice any +gradations in size or appearance of these young fish by which their ages +could be ascertained. It is, however, probable that some of both sexes +reproduce at the age of one year. In Frazer's River, in the fall, quinnat +male grilse of every size, from eight inches upward, were running, the milt +fully developed, but usually not showing the hooked jaws and dark colors +of the older males. Females less than eighteen inches in length were rare. +All, large and small, then in the river, of either sex, had the ovaries or +milt well developed. + +Little blue-backs of every size down to six inches are also found in +the Upper Columbia in the fall, with their organs of generation fully +developed. Nineteen twentieths of these young fish are males, and some of +them have the hooked jaws and red color of the old males. + +The average weight of the quinnat in the Columbia in the spring is +twenty-two pounds; in the Sacramento about sixteen. Individuals weighing +from forty to sixty pounds are frequently found in both rivers, and some as +high as eighty pounds are reported. It is questioned whether these large +fishes are: + +(_a_.) Those which, of the same age, have grown more rapidly; + +(_b_.) Those which are older but have, for some reason, failed to spawn; +or, + +(_c_.) Those which have survived one or more spawning seasons. + +All of these origins may be possible in individual cases; we are, however, +of the opinion that the majority of these large fish are those which have +hitherto run in the fall and so may have survived the spawning season +previous. + +Those fish which enter the rivers in the spring continue their ascent until +death or the spawning season overtakes them. Probably none of them ever +return to the ocean, and a large proportion fail to spawn. They are known +to ascend the Sacramento as far as the base of Mount Shasta, or to its +extreme head-waters, about four hundred miles. In the Columbia they are +known to ascend as far as the Bitter Root Mountains, and as far as the +Spokan Falls, and their extreme limit is not known. This is a distance of +six to eight hundred miles. + +At these great distances, when the fish have reached the spawning grounds, +besides the usual changes of the breeding season, their bodies are covered +with bruises on which patches of white fungus develop. The fins become +mutilated, their eyes are often injured or destroyed; parasitic worms +gather in their gills, they become extremely emaciated, their flesh +becomes white from the loss of the oil, and as soon as the spawning act +is accomplished, and sometimes before, all of them die. The ascent of the +Cascades and the Dalles probably causes the injury or death of a great many +salmon. + +When the salmon enter the river they refuse bait, and their stomachs are +always found empty and contracted. In the rivers they do not feed, and when +they reach the spawning grounds their stomachs, pyloric coeca and all, are +said to be no larger than one's finger. They will sometimes take the +fly, or a hook baited with salmon roe, in the clear waters of the upper +tributaries, but there is no other evidence known to us that they feed when +there. Only the quinnat and blue-back (then called red-fish) have been +found in the fall at any great distance from the sea. + +The spawning season is probably about the same for all the species. It +varies for all in different rivers and in different parts of the same +river, and doubtless extends from July to December. + +The manner of spawning is probably similar for all the species, but we have +no data for any except the quinnat. In this species the fish pair off, the +male, with tail and snout, excavates a broad shallow "nest" in the gravelly +bed of the stream, in rapid water, at a depth of one to four feet; the +female deposits her eggs in it, and after the exclusion of the milt, they +cover them with stones and gravel. They then float down the stream tail +foremost. A great majority of them die. In the head-waters of the large +streams all die, unquestionably. In the small streams, and near the sea, an +unknown percentage probably survive. The young hatch in about sixty days, +and most of them return to the ocean during the high water of the spring. + +The salmon of all kinds in the spring are silvery, spotted or not according +to the species, and with the mouth about equally symmetrical in both sexes. + +As the spawning season approaches the female loses her silvery color, +becomes more slimy, the scales on the back partly sink into the skin, and +the flesh changes from salmon red and becomes variously paler, from the +loss of the oil, the degree of paleness varying much with individuals and +with inhabitants of different rivers. + +In the lower Sacramento the flesh of the quinnat in either spring or fall +is rarely pale. In the Columbia, a few with pale flesh are sometimes taken +in spring, and a good many in the fall. In Frazer's River the fall run of +the quinnat is nearly worthless for canning purposes, because so many are +white meated. In the spring very few are white meated, but the number +increases towards fall, when there is every variation, some having red +streaks running through them, others being red toward the head and pale +toward the tail. The red and pale ones cannot be distinguished externally, +and the color is dependent neither on age nor sex. There is said to be no +difference in the taste, but there is no market for canned salmon not of +the conventional orange color. + +As the season advances, the differences between the males and the females +become more and more marked, and keep pace with the development of the +milt, as is shown by dissection. + +The males have: (_a_.) The premaxillaries and the tip of the lower jaw +more and more prolonged; both of them becoming finally strongly and often +extravagantly hooked, so that either they shut by the side of each other +like shears, or else the mouth cannot be closed. (_b_.) The front teeth +become very long and canine-like, their growth proceeding very rapidly, +until they are often half an inch long. (_c_.) The teeth on the vomer and +tongue often disappear. (_d_.) The body grows more compressed and deeper +at the shoulders, so that a very distinct hump is formed; this is more +developed in _0. gorbuscha_, but is found in all. (_e_.) The scales +disappear, especially on the back, by the growth of spongy skin. (_f_.) The +color changes from silvery to various shades of black and red or blotchy, +according to the species. The blue-back turns rosy red, the dog salmon a +dull, blotchy red, and the quiunat generally blackish. + +These distorted males are commonly considered worthless, rejected by the +canners and salmon-salters, but preserved by the Indians. These changes are +due solely to influences connected with the growth of the testes. They are +not in any way due to the action of fresh water. They take place at about +the same time in the adult males of all species, whether in the ocean or +in the rivers. At the time of the spring runs all are symmetrical. In the +fall, all males of whatever species are more or less distorted. Among the +dog salmon, which run only in the fall, the males are hooked-jawed and +red-blotched when they first enter the Straits of Fuca from the outside. +The hump-back, taken in salt water about Seattle, shows the same +peculiarities. The male is slab-sided, hook-billed, and distorted, and is +rejected by the canners. No hook-jawed _females_ of any species have been +seen. + +It is not positively known that any hook-jawed male survives the +reproductive act. If any do, their jaws must resume the normal form. + +On first entering a stream the salmon swim about as if playing: they always +head toward the current, and this "playing" may be simply due to facing the +flood tide. Afterwards they enter the deepest parts of the stream and swim +straight up, with few interruptions. Their rate of travel on the Sacramento +is estimated by Stone at about two miles per day; on the Columbia at about +three miles per day. + +As already stated, the economic value of any species depends in great part +on its being a "spring salmon." It is not generally possible to capture +salmon of any species in large numbers until they have entered the rivers, +and the spring salmon enter the rivers long before the growth of the organs +of reproduction has reduced the richness of the flesh. The fall salmon +cannot be taken in quantity until their flesh has deteriorated: hence the +"dog salmon" is practically almost worthless, except to the Indians, and +the hump-back salmon is little better. The silver salmon, with the same +breeding habits as the dog salmon, is more valuable, as it is found in +Puget Sound for a considerable time before the fall rains cause the fall +runs, and it may be taken in large numbers with seines before the season +for entering the rivers. The quinnat salmon, from its great size and +abundance, is more valuable than all other fishes on our Pacific coast +together. The blue back, similar in flesh but much smaller and less +abundant, is worth much more than the combined value of the three remaining +species. + +The fall salmon of all species, but especially the dog salmon, ascend +streams but a short distance before spawning. They seem to be in great +anxiety to find fresh water, and many of them work their way up little +brooks only a few inches deep, where they soon perish miserably, +floundering about on the stones. Every stream, of whatever kind, has more +or less of these fall salmon. + +It is the prevailing impression that the salmon have some special instinct +which leads them to return to spawn in the same spawning grounds where they +were originally hatched. We fail to find any evidence of this in the case +of the Pacific coast salmon, and we do not believe it to be true. It seems +more probable that the young salmon, hatched in any river, mostly remain in +the ocean within a radius of twenty, thirty, or forty miles of its mouth. +These, in their movements about in the ocean, may come into contact with +the cold waters of their parent rivers, or perhaps of any other river, at +a considerable distance from the shore. In the case of the quinnat and the +blue-back, their "instinct" leads them to ascend these fresh waters, and +in a majority of cases these waters will be those in which the fishes in +question were originally spawned. Later in the season the growth of the +reproductive organs leads them to approach the shore and to search for +fresh waters, and still the chances are that they may find the original +stream. But undoubtedly many fall salmon ascend, or try to ascend, streams +in which no salmon was ever hatched. + +It is said of the Russian River and other California rivers, that their +mouths in the time of low water in summer generally become entirely closed +by sand bars, and that the salmon, in their eagerness to ascend them, +frequently fling themselves entirely out of water on the beach. But this +does not prove that the salmon are guided by a marvelous geographical +instinct which leads them to their parent river. The waters of Russian +River soak through these sand bars, and the salmon "instinct," we think, +leads them merely to search for fresh waters. + +This matter is much in need of further investigation; at present, however, +we find no reason to believe that the salmon enter the Rogue River simply +because they were spawned there, or that a salmon hatched in the Clackamas +River is any the more likely on that account to return to the Clackamas +than to go up the Cowlitz or the Deschutes. + +"At the hatchery on Rogue River, the fish are stripped, marked and set +free, and every year since the hatchery has been in operation some of the +marked fish have been re-caught. The young fry are also marked, but none of +them have been recaught." + +This year the run of silver salmon in Frazer's River was very light, while +on Puget Sound the run was said by the Indians to be greater than ever +known before. Both these cases may be due to the same cause, the dry +summer, low water, and consequent failure of the salmon to find the rivers. +The run in the Sound is much more irregular than in the large rivers. One +year they will abound in one bay and its tributary stream and hardly be +seen in another, while the next year the condition will be reversed. At +Cape Flattery the run of silver salmon for the present year was very small, +which fact was generally attributed by the Indians to the birth of twins at +Neah Bay. + +In regard to the diminution of the number of salmon on the coast. In +Puget's Sound, Frazer's River, and the smaller streams, there appears to be +little or no evidence of this. In the Columbia River the evidence appears +somewhat conflicting; the catch during the present year (1880) has been +considerably greater than ever before (nearly 540,000 cases of 48 lb. each +having been packed), although the fishing for three or four years has been +very extensive. On the other hand, the high water of the present spring has +undoubtedly caused many fish to become spring salmon which would otherwise +have run in the fall. Moreover, it is urged that a few years ago, when the +number caught was about half as great as now, the amount of netting used +was perhaps one-eighth as much. With a comparatively small outfit the +canners caught half the fish, now with nets much larger and more numerous, +they catch them all, scarcely any escaping during the fishing season (April +1 to August 1). Whether an actual reduction in the number of fish running +can be proven or not, there can be no question that the present rate of +destruction of the salmon will deplete the river before many years. A +considerable number of quinnat salmon run in August and September, and some +stragglers even later; these now are all which keep up the supply of +fish in the river. The non-molestation of this fall run, therefore, does +something to atone for the almost total destruction of the spring run. + +This, however, is insufficient. A well-ordered salmon hatchery is the only +means by which the destruction of the salmon in the river can be prevented. +This hatchery should be under the control of Oregon and Washington, and +should be supported by a tax levied on the canned fish. It should be placed +on a stream where the quinnat salmon actually come to spawn. + +It has been questioned whether the present hatchery on the Clackamas River +actually receives the quinnat salmon in any numbers. It is asserted, in +fact, that the eggs of the silver salmon and dog salmon, with scattering +quinnat, are hatched there. We have no exact information as to the truth of +these reports, but the matter should be taken into serious consideration. + +On the Sacramento there is no doubt of the reduction of the number of +salmon; this is doubtless mainly attributable to over-fishing, but in part +it may be due to the destruction of spawning beds by mining operations and +other causes. + +As to the superiority of the Columbia River salmon, there is no doubt that +the quinnat salmon average larger and fatter in the Columbia than in the +Sacramento and in Puget Sound. The difference in the canned fish is, +however, probably hardly appreciable. The canned salmon from the Columbia, +however, bring a better price in the market than those from elsewhere. The +canners there generally have had a high regard for the reputation of +the river, and have avoided canning fall fish or species other than the +quinnat. In the Frazer's River the blue-back is largely canned, and its +flesh being a little more watery and perhaps paler, is graded below the +quinnat. On Puget Sound various species are canned; in fact, everything +with red flesh. The best canners on the Sacramento apparently take equal +care with their product with those of the Columbia, but they depend largely +on the somewhat inferior fall run. There are, however, sometimes salmon +canned in San Francisco, which have been in the city markets, and for some +reason remaining unsold, have been sent to the canners; such salmon are +unfit for food, and canning them should be prohibited. + +The fact that the hump-back salmon runs only on alternate years in Puget +Sound (1875, 1877, 1879, etc.) is well attested and at present unexplained. +Stray individuals only are taken in other years. This species has a +distinct "run," in the United States, only in Puget Sound, although +individuals (called "lost salmon") are occasionally taken in the Columbia +and in the Sacramento.--_American Naturalist._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE RELATION BETWEEN ELECTRICITY AND LIGHT. + +[Footnote: A lecture by Dr. O. J. Lodge, delivered at the London +Institution on December 16, 1880.] + + +Ever since the subject on which I have the honor to speak to you to-night +was arranged, I have been astonished at my own audacity in proposing to +deal in the course of sixty minutes with a subject so gigantic and so +profound that a course of sixty lectures would be quite inadequate for its +thorough and exhaustive treatment. + +I must indeed confine myself carefully to some few of the typical and most +salient points in the relation between electricity and light, and I must +economize time by plunging at once into the middle of the matter without +further preliminaries. + +Now, when a person is setting off to discuss the relation between +electricity and light, it is very natural and very proper to pull him up +short with the two questions: What do you mean by electricity? and What do +you mean by light? These two questions I intend to try briefly to answer. +And here let me observe that in answering these fundamental questions, I do +not necessarily assume a fundamental ignorance on your part of these two +agents, but rather the contrary; and must beg you to remember that if I +repeat well-known and simple experiments before you, it is for the purpose +of directing attention to their real meaning and significance, not to their +obvious and superficial characteristics; in the same way that I might +repeat the exceedingly familiar experiment of dropping a stone to the earth +if we were going to define what we meant by gravitation. + +Now, then, we will ask first, What is electricity? and the simple answer +must be, We don't know. Well, but this need not necessarily be depressing. +If the same question were asked about matter, or about energy, we should +have likewise to reply, No one knows. + +But then the term Matter is a very general one, and so is the term Energy. +They are heads, in fact, under which we classify more special phenomena. + +Thus, if we were asked, What is sulphur? or what is selenium? we should at +least be able to reply, A form of matter; and then proceed to describe its +properties, _i. e._, how it affected our bodies and other bodies. + +Again, to the question, What is heat? we can reply, A form of energy; and +proceed to describe the peculiarities which distinguish it from other forms +of energy. + +But to the question. What is electricity? we have no answer pat like this. +We can not assert that it is a form of matter, neither can we deny it; on +the other hand, we certainly can not assert that it is a form of energy, +and I should be disposed to deny it. It may be that electricity is an +entity _per se_, just as matter is an entity _per se_. + +Nevertheless, I can tell you what I mean by electricity by appealing to its +known behavior. + +Here is a battery, that is, an electricity pump; it will drive electricity +along. Prof. Ayrtou is going, I am afraid, to tell you, on the 20th of +January next, that it _produces_ electricity; but if he does, I hope you +will remember that that is exactly what neither it nor anything else can +do. It is as impossible to generate electricity in the sense I am trying to +give the word, as it is to produce matter. Of course I need hardly say that +Prof. Ayrton knows this perfectly well; it is merely a question of words, +_i. e._, of what you understand by the word electricity. + +I want you, then, to regard this battery and all electrical machines and +batteries as kinds of electricity pumps, which drive the electricity along +through the wire very much as a water-pump can drive water along pipes. +While this is going on the wire manifests a whole series of properties, +which are called the properties of the current. + +[Here were shown an ignited platinum wire, the electric arc between two +carbons, an electric machine spark, an induction coil spark, and a vacuum +tube glow. Also a large nail was magnetized by being wrapped in the +current, and two helices were suspended and seen to direct and attract each +other.] + +To make a magnet, then, we only need a current of electricity flowing round +and round in a whirl. A vortex or whirlpool of electricity is in fact a +magnet; and _vice versa_. And these whirls have the power of directing and +attracting other previously existing whirls according to certain laws, +called the laws of magnetism. And, moreover, they have the power of +exciting fresh whirls in neighboring conductors, and of repelling them +according to the laws of diamagnetism. The theory of the actions is known, +though the nature of the whirls, as of the simple stream of electricity, is +at present unknown. + +[Here was shown a large electro-magnet and an induction-coil vacuum +discharge spinning round and round when placed in its field.] + +So much for what happens when electricity is made to travel along +conductors, _i. e._, when it travels along like a stream of water in a +pipe, or spins round and round like a whirlpool. + +But there is another set of phenomena, usually regarded as distinct and of +another order, but which are not so distinct as they appear, which +manifest themselves when you join the pump to a piece of glass, or any +non-conductor, and try to force the electricity through that. You succeed +in driving some through, but the flow is no longer like that of water in an +open pipe; it is as if the pipe were completely obstructed by a number of +elastic partitions or diaphragms. The water can not move without straining +and bending these diaphragms, and if you allow it, these strained +partitions will recover themselves, and drive the water back again. [Here +was explained the process of charging a Leyden jar.] The essential thing to +remember is that we may have electrical energy in two forms, the static +and the kinetic; and it is, therefore, also possible to have the rapid +alternation from one of these forms to the other, called vibration. + +Now we will pass to the second question: What do you mean by light? And the +first and obvious answer is, Everybody knows. And everybody that is not +blind does know to a certain extent. We have a special sense organ for +appreciating light, whereas we have none for electricity. Nevertheless, we +must admit that we really know very little about the intimate nature of +light--very little more than about electricity. But we do know this, +that light is a form of energy, and, moreover, that it is energy rapidly +alternating between the static and the kinetic forms--that it is, in fact, +a special kind of energy of vibration. We are absolutely certain that light +is a periodic disturbance in some medium, periodic both in space and time; +that is to say, the same appearances regularly recur at certain equal +intervals of distance at the same time, and also present themselves at +equal intervals of time at the same place; that in fact it belongs to the +class of motions called by mathematicians undulatory or wave motions. The +wave motion in this model (Powell's wave apparatus) results from the simple +up and down motion popularly associated with the term wave. But when +a mathematician calls a thing a wave he means that the disturbance is +represented by a certain general type of formula, not that it is an +up-and-down motion, or that it looks at all like those things on the top of +the sea. The motion of the surface of the sea falls within that formula, +and hence is a special variety of wave motion, and the term wave has +acquired in popular use this signification and nothing else. So that when +one speaks ordinarily of a wave or undulatory motion, one immediately +thinks of something heaving up and down, or even perhaps of something +breaking on the shore. But when we assert that the form of energy called +light is undulatory, we by no means intend to assert that anything whatever +is moving up and down, or that the motion, if we could see it, would be +anything at all like what we are accustomed to in the ocean. The kind of +motion is unknown; we are not even sure that there is anything like motion +in the ordinary sense of the word at all. + +Now, how much connection between electricity and light have we perceived in +this glance into their natures? Not much, truly. It amounts to about +this: That on the one hand electrical energy may exist in either of two +forms--the static form, when insulators are electrically strained by having +had electricity driven partially through them (as in the Leyden jar), which +strain is a form of energy because of the tendency to discharge and do +work; and the kinetic form, where electricity is moving bodily along +through conductors or whirling round and round inside them, which motion +of electricity is a form of energy, because the conductors and whirls can +attract or repel each other and thereby do work. + +And, on the other hand, that light is the rapid alternation of energy +from one of these forms to the other--the static form where the medium is +strained, to the kinetic form when it moves. It is just conceivable, then, +that the static form of the energy of light is _electro_ static, that is, +that the medium is _electrically_ strained, and that the kinetic form of +the energy of light is _electro_-kinetic, that is, that the motion is +not ordinary motion, but electrical motion--in fact, that light is an +electrical vibration, not a material one. + +On November 5, last year, there died at Cambridge a man in the full +vigor of his faculties--such faculties as do not appear many times in a +century--whose chief work has been the establishment of this very fact, the +discovery of the link connecting light and electricity; and the proof--for +I believe it amounts to a proof--that they are different manifestations +of one and the same class of phenomena--that light is, in fact, an +electro-magnetic disturbance. The premature death of James Clerk-Maxwell is +a loss to science which appears at present utterly irreparable, for he was +engaged in researches that no other man can hope as yet adequately to grasp +and follow out; but fortunately it did not occur till he had published his +book on "Electricity and Magnetism," one of those immortal productions +which exalt one's idea of the mind of man, and which has been mentioned by +competent critics in the same breath as the "Principia" itself. + +But it is not perfect like the "Principia;" much of it is rough-hewn, and +requires to be thoroughly worked out. It contains numerous misprints and +errata, and part of the second volume is so difficult as to be almost +unintelligible. Some, in fact, consists of notes written for private use +and not intended for publication. It seems next to impossible now to mature +a work silently for twenty or thirty years, as was done by Newton two and a +half centuries ago. But a second edition was preparing, and much might have +been improved in form if life had been spared to the illustrious author. + +The main proof of the electro-magnetic theory of light is this: The rate at +which light travels has been measured many times, and is pretty well known. +The rate at which an electro-magnetic wave disturbance would travel if such +could be generated (and Mr. Fitzgerald, of Dublin, thinks he has proved +that it can not be generated directly by any known electrical means) can +be also determined by calculation from electrical measurements. The two +velocities agree exactly. This is the great physical constant known as the +ratio V, which so many physicists have been measuring, and are likely to be +measuring for some time to come. + +Many and brilliant as were Maxwell's discoveries, not only in electricity, +but also in the theory of the nature of gases, and in molecular science +generally, I can not help thinking that if one of them is more striking and +more full of future significance than the rest, it is the one I have just +mentioned--the theory that light is an electrical phenomenon. + +The first glimpse of this splendid generalization was caught in 1845, five +and thirty years ago, by that prince of pure experimentalists, Michael +Faraday. His reasons for suspecting some connection between electricity and +light are not clear to us--in fact, they could not have been clear to him; +but he seems to have felt a conviction that if he only tried long enough +and sent all kinds of rays of light in all possible directions across +electric and magnetic fields in all sorts of media, he must ultimately +hit upon something. Well, this is very nearly what he did. With a sublime +patience and perseverance which remind one of the way Kepler hunted down +guess after guess in a different field of research, Faraday combined +electricity, or magnetism, and light in all manner of ways, and at last he +was rewarded with a result. And a most out-of-the-way result it seemed. +First, you have to get a most powerful magnet and very strongly excite it; +then you have to pierce its two poles with holes, in order that a beam of +light may travel from one to the other along the lines of force; then, as +ordinary light is no good, you must get a beam of plane polarized light, +and send it between the poles. But still no result is obtained until, +finally, you interpose a piece of a rare and out-of-the-way material, which +Faraday had himself discovered and made--a kind of glass which contains +borate of lead, and which is very heavy, or dense, and which must be +perfectly annealed. + +And now, when all these arrangements are completed, what is seen is simply +this, that if an analyzer is arranged to stop the light and make the field +quite dark before the magnet is excited, then directly the battery is +connected and the magnet called into action, a faint and barely perceptible +brightening of the field occurs, which will disappear if the analyzer be +slightly rotated. [The experiment was then shown.] Now, no wonder that no +one understood this result. Faraday himself did not understand it at all. +He seems to have thought that the magnetic lines of force were rendered +luminous, or that the light was magnetized; in fact, he was in a fog, +and had no idea of its real significance. Nor had any one. Continental +philosophers experienced some difficulty and several failures before they +were able to repeat the experiment. It was, in fact, discovered too soon, +and before the scientific world was ready to receive it, and it was +reserved for Sir William Thomson briefly, but very clearly, to point +out, and for Clerk-Maxwell more fully to develop, its most important +consequences. [The principle of the experiment was then illustrated by the +aid of a mechanical model.] + +This is the fundamental experiment on which Clerk-Maxwell's theory of +light is based; but of late years many fresh facts and relations between +electricity and light have been discovered, and at the present time they +are tumbling in in great numbers. + +It was found by Faraday that many other transparent media besides heavy +glass would show the phenomenon if placed between the poles, only in a less +degree; and the very important observation that air itself exhibits the +same phenomenon, though to an exceedingly small extent, has just been made +by Kundt and Rontgen in Germany. + +Dr. Kerr, of Glasgow, has extended the result to opaque bodies, and has +shown that if light be passed through magnetized _iron_ its plane is +rotated. The film of iron must be exceedingly thin, because of its opacity, +and hence, though the intrinsic rotating power of iron is undoubtedly very +great, the observed rotation is exceedingly small and difficult to observe; +and it is only by a very remarkable patience and care and ingenuity that +Dr. Kerr has obtained his result. Mr. Fitzgerald, of Dublin, has examined +the question mathematically, and has shown that Maxwell's theory would have +enabled Dr. Kerr's result to be predicted. + +Another requirement of the theory is that bodies which are transparent +to light must be insulators or non-conductors of electricity, and that +conductors of electricity are necessarily opaque to light. Simple +observation amply confirms this; metals are the best conductors, and are +the most opaque bodies known. Insulators such as glass and crystals are +transparent whenever they are sufficiently homogeneous, and the very +remarkable researches of Prof. Graham Bell in the last few months have +shown that even _ebonite_, one of the most opaque insulators to ordinary +vision, is certainly transparent to some kinds of radiation, and +transparent to no small degree. + +[The reason why transparent bodies must insulate, and why conductors must +be opaque, was here illustrated by mechanical models.] + +A further consequence of the theory is that the velocity of light in a +transparent medium will be affected by its electrical strain constant; in +other words, that its refractive index will bear some close but not yet +quite ascertained relation to its specific inductive capacity. Experiment +has partially confirmed this, but the confirmation is as yet very +incomplete. But there are a number of results not predicted by theory, and +whose connection with the theory is not clearly made out. We have the fact +that light falling on the platinum electrode of a voltameter generates a +current, first observed, I think, by Sir W. R. Grove--at any rate, it is +mentioned in his "Correlation of Forces"--extended by Becquerel and Robert +Sabine to other substances, and now being extended to fluorescent and other +bodies by Prof. Minchin. And finally--for I must be brief--we have +the remarkable action of light on selenium. This fact was discovered +accidentally by an assistant in the laboratory of Mr. Willoughby Smith, who +noticed that a piece of selenium conducted electricity very much better +when light was falling upon it than when it was in the dark. The light of +a candle is sufficient, and instantaneously brings down the resistance to +something like one-fifth of its original value. + +I could show you these effects, but there is not much to see; it is an +intensely interesting phenomenon, but its external manifestation is not +striking--any more than Faraday's heavy glass experiment was. + +This is the phenomenon which, as you know, has been utilized by Prof. +Graham Bell in that most ingenious and striking invention, the photophone. +By the kindness of Prof. Silvanus Thompson, I have a few slides to show the +principle of the invention, and Mr. Shelford Bidwell has been kind enough +to lend me his home-made photophone, which answers exceedingly well for +short distances. + +I have now trespassed long enough upon your patience, but I must just +allude to what may very likely be the next striking popular discovery; and +that is the transmission of light by electricity; I mean the transmission +of such things as views and pictures by means of the electric wire. It has +not yet been done, but it seems already theoretically possible, and it may +very soon be practically accomplished. + + * * * * * + + + + +INTERESTING ELECTRICAL RESEARCHES. + + +During the last six years Dr. Warren de la Rue has been investigating, +in conjunction with Dr. Hugo Muller, the various and highly interesting +phenomena which accompany the electric discharge. From time to time the +results of their researches were communicated to the Royal Society, and +appeared in its Proceedings. Early last year Dr. De la Rue being requested +to bring the subject before the members of the Royal Institution, acceded +to the pressing invitation of his colleagues and scientific friends. +The discourse, which was necessarily long postponed on account of the +preparations that had to be made, was finally given on Friday, the 21st of +January, and was one of the most remarkable, from the elaborate nature of +the experiments, ever delivered in the theater of that deservedly famous +institution. + +Owing to the great inconvenience of removing the battery from his +laboratory, Dr. de la Rue, despite the great expenditure, directed Mr. S. +Tisley to prepare, expressly for the lecture, a second series of 14,400 +cells, and fit it up in the basement of the Royal Institution. The +construction of this new battery occupied Mr. Tisley a whole year, while +the charging of it extended over a fortnight. + +The "de la Rue cell," if we may so call one of these elements, consists of +a zinc rod, the lower portion of which is embedded in a solid electrolyte, +viz., chloride of silver, with which are connected two flattened silver +wires to serve as electrodes. When these are united and the silver chloride +moistened, chemical action begins, and a weak but constant current is +generated. + +The electromotive force of such a cell is 1.03 volts, and a current +equivalent to one volt passing through a resistance of one ohm was found to +decompose 0.00146 grain of water in one second. The battery is divided +into "cabinets," which hold from 1,200 to 2,160 small elements each. This +facilitates removal, and also the detection of any fault that may occur. + +It will be remembered that in 1808 Sir Humphry Davy constructed his battery +of 2,000 cells, and thus succeeded in exalting the tiny spark obtained in +closing the circuit into the luminous sheaf of the voltaic arc. He also +observed that the spark passed even when the poles were separated by a +distance varying from 1/40 to 1/30 of an inch. This appears to have been +subsequently forgotten, as we find later physicists questioning the +possibility of the spark leaping over any interpolar distance. Mr. J. +P. Gassiot, of Clapham, demonstrated the inaccuracy of this opinion by +constructing a battery of 3,000 Leclanche cells, which gave a spark of +0.025 inch; a similar number of "de la Rue" cells gives an 0.0564 inch +spark. This considerable increase in potential is chiefly due to better +insulation. + +The great energy of this battery was illustrated by a variety of +experiments. Thus, a large condenser, specially constructed by Messrs. +Varley, and having a capacity equal to that of 6,485 large Leyden jars, +was almost immediately charged by the current from 10,000 cells. Wires of +various kinds, and from 9 inches to 29 inches in length, were instantly +volatilized by the passage of the electricity thus stored up. The current +induced in the secondary wire of a coil by the discharge of the condenser +through the primary, was also sufficiently intense to deflagrate wires of +considerable length and thickness. + +It was with such power at his command that Dr. De la Rue proceeded to +investigate several important electrical laws. He has found, for example, +that the positive discharge is more intermittent than the negative, +that the arc is always preceded by a streamer-like discharge, that its +temperature is about 16,000 deg., and its length at the ordinary pressure +of the atmosphere, when taken between two points, varies as the square +of the number of cells. Thus, with a battery of 1,000 cells, the arc was +0.0051 inch, with 11,000 cells it increased to 0.62 inch. The same law was +found to hold when the discharge took place between a point and a disk; it +failed entirely, however, when the terminals were two disks. + +It was also shown that the voltaic arc is not a phenomenon of conduction, +but is essentially a disruptive discharge, the intervals between the +passage of two successive static sparks being the time required for the +battery to collect sufficient power to leap over the interposed resistance. +This was further confirmed by the introduction of a condenser, when the +intervals were perceptibly larger. + +Faraday proved that the quantity of electricity necessary to produce a +strong flash of lightning would result from the decomposition of a single +grain of water, and Dr. de la Rue's experiments confirm this extraordinary +statement. He has calculated that this quantity of electricity would be +5,000 times as great as the charge of his large condenser, and that a +lightning flash a mile long would require the potential of 3,500,000 cells, +that is to say, of 243 of his powerful batteries. + +In experimenting with "vacuum" tubes, he has found that the discharge is +also invariably disruptive. This is an important point, as many physicists +speak and write of the phenomenon as one of conduction. Air, in every +degree of tenuity, refuses to act as a conductor of electricity. These +experiments show that the resistance of gaseous media diminishes with the +pressure only up to a certain point, beyond which it rapidly increases. +Thus, in the case of hydrogen, it diminishes up to 0.642 mm., 845 +millionths; it then rises as the exhaustion proceeds, and at 0.00065 mm., +8.6 millionths, it requires as high a potential as at 21.7 mm., 28.553 +millionths. At 0.00137 mm., 1.8 millionth, the current from 11,000 cells +would not pass through a tube for which 430 cells sufficed at the pressure +of minimum resistance. At a pressure of 0.0055 mm., 0.066 millionth, the +highest exhaust obtained in any of the experiments, even a one-inch spark +from an induction coil refused to pass. It was also ascertained that there +is neither condensacian nor dilatation of the gas in contact with the +terminals prior to the passage of the discharge. + +These researches naturally led to some speculation about the conditions +under which auroral phenomena may occur. Observers have variously stated +the height at which the aurora borealis attains its greatest brilliancy +as ranging between 124 and 281 miles. Dr. de la Rue's conclusions fix +the upper limit at 124 miles, and that of maximum display at 37 miles, +admitting also that the aurora may sometimes occur at an altitude of a few +thousand feet. + +The aurora was beautifully illustrated by a very large tube, in which the +theoretical pressure was carefully maintained, the characteristic roseate +tinge being readily produced and maintained. + +In studying the stratifications observed in vacuum tubes, Dr. de la Rue +finds that they originate at the positive pole, and that their steadiness +may be regulated by the resistance in circuit, and that even when the least +tremor cannot be detected by the eye, they are still produced by rapid +pulsations which may be as frequent as ten millions per second. + +Dr. de la Rue concluded his interesting discourse by exhibiting some of the +finest tubes of his numerous and unsurpassed collection.--_Engineering_ + + * * * * * + + + + +MEASURING ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE. + + +Coulomb's torsion balance has been adapted by M. Baille to the measurement +of low electromotive forces in a very successful manner, and has been found +preferable by him to the delicate electrometers of Sir W. Thomson. It +is necessary to guard it from disturbances due to extraneous electric +influences and the trembling of the ground. These can be eliminated +completely by encircling the instrument in a metal case connected to +earth, and mounting it on solid pillars in a still place. Heat also has a +disturbing effect, and makes itself felt in the torsion of the fiber and +the cage surrounding the lever. These effects are warded off by inclosing +the instrument in a non-conducting jacket of wood shavings. + +The apparatus of M. Baille consists of an annealed silver torsion wire of +2.70 meters long, and a lever 0.50 meter long, carrying at each extremity +a ball of copper, gilded, and three centimeters in diameter. Similar balls +are fixed at the corners of a square 20.5 meters in the side, and connected +in diagonal pairs by fine wire. The lever placed at equal distances from +the fixed balls communicates, by the medium of the torsion wire, with the +positive pole of a battery, P, the other pole being to earth. + +Owing to some unaccountable variations in the change of the lever or +needle, M. Baille was obliged to measure the change at each observation. +This was done by joining the + pole of the battery to the needle, and one +pair of the fixed balls, and observing the deflection; then the deflection +produced by the other balls was observed. This operation was repeated +several times. + +The battery, X, to be measured consisted of ten similar elements, and one +pole of it was connected to the fixed balls, while the other pole was +connected to the earth. The needle, of course, remained in contact with the ++ pole of the charging battery, P. + +The deflections were read from a clear glass scale, placed at a distance +of 3.30 meters from the needle, and the results worked out from Coulomb's +static formula, + +C a = (4 m m')/d squared, with + + ______________ + / sum((p/g) r squared) + O = / ------------- + \/ C + +[TEX: O = \sqrt{\frac{\sum \frac{p}{g} r^2}{C}}] + +In M. Baillie's experiments, O = 437 cubed, and sum(pr squared)= 32171.6 (centimeter +grammes), the needle having been constructed of a geometrical form. + +The following numbers represent the potential of an element of the +battery--that is to say, the quantity of electricity that the pole of that +battery spreads upon a sphere of one centimeter radius. They are expressed +in units of electricity, the unit being the quantity of electricity which, +acting upon a similar unit at a distance of one centimeter, produces a +repulsion equal to one gramme: + +Volta pile 0.03415 open circuit. +Zinc, sulphate of copper, copper 0.02997 " +Zinc, acidulated water, copper, sulphate of copper 0.03709 " +Zinc, salt water, carbon peroxide of manganese 0.05282 " +Zinc, salt water, platinum, chloride of platinum 0.05027 " +Zinc, acidulated water, carbon nitric acid 0.06285 " + +These results were obtained just upon charging the batteries, and are, +therefore, slightly higher than the potentials given after the batteries +became older. The sulphate of copper cells kept about their maximum value +longest, but they showed variations of about 10 per cent. + + * * * * * + + + + +TELEPHONY BY THERMIC CURRENTS. + + +While in telephonic arrangements, based upon the principle of magnetic +induction, a relatively considerable expenditure of force is required in +order to set the tightly stretched membrane in vibration, in the so-called +carbon telephones only a very feeble impulse is required to produce the +differences in the current necessary for the transmission of sounds. In +order to produce relatively strong currents, even in case of sound-action +of a minimum strength, Franz Kroettlinger, of Vienna, has made an +interesting experiment to use thermo electric currents for the transmission +of sound to a distance. The apparatus which he has constructed is +exceedingly simple. A current of hot air flowing from below upward is +deflected more or less from its direction by the human voice. By its action +an adjacent thermo-battery is excited, whose current passes through the +spiral of an ordinary telephone, which serves as the receiving instrument. +As a source of heat the inventor uses a common stearine candle, the flame +of which is kept at one and the same level by means of a spring similar to +those used in carriage lamps. On one side of the candle is a sheet metal +voice funnel fixed upon a support, its mouth being covered with a movable +sliding disk, fitted with a suitable number of small apertures. On the +other side a similar support holds a funnel-shaped thermo-battery. The +single bars of metal forming this battery are very thin, and of such a +shape that they may cool as quickly as possible. Both the speaking-funnel +and the battery can be made to approach, at will, to the stream of warm air +rising up from the flame. The entire apparatus is inclosed in a tin case +in such a manner that only the aperture of the voice-funnel and the polar +clamps for securing the conducting wires appear on the outside. The inside +of the case is suitably stayed to prevent vibration. On speaking into the +mouth-piece of the funnel, the sound-waves occasion undulations in the +column of hot air which are communicated to the thermo-battery, and in this +manner corresponding differences are produced in the currents in the wires +leading to the receiving instrument.--_Oesterreichische-Ungarische Post._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE TELECTROSCOPE. + +By MONS. SENLECQ, of Ardres. + + +This apparatus, which is intended to transmit to a distance through a +telegraphic wire pictures taken on the plate of a camera, was invented in +the early part of 1877 by M. Senlecq, of Ardres. A description of the first +specification submitted by M. Senlecq to M. du Moncel, member of the +Paris Academy of Sciences, appeared in all the continental and American +scientific journals. Since then the apparatus has everywhere occupied the +attention of prominent electricians, who have striven to improve on it. +Among these we may mention MM. Ayrton, Perry, Sawyer (of New York), +Sargent (of Philadelphia), Brown (of London), Carey (of Boston), Tighe (of +Pittsburg), and Graham Bell himself. Some experimenters have used many +wires, bound together cable-wise, others one wire only. The result has +been, on the one hand, confusion of conductors beyond a certain distance, +with the absolute impossibility of obtaining perfect insulation; and, +on the other hand, an utter want of synchronism. The unequal and slow +sensitiveness of the selenium likewise obstructed the proper working of the +apparatus. Now, without a relative simplicity in the arrangement of the +conducting wires intended to convey to a distance the electric current with +its variations of intensity, without a perfect and rapid synchronism +acting concurrently with the luminous impressions, so as to insure the +simultaneous action of transmitter and receiver, without, in fine, an +increased sensitiveness in the selenium, the idea of the telectroscope +could not be realized. M. Senlecq has fortunately surmounted most of these +main obstacles, and we give to-day a description of the latest apparatus he +has contrived. + + +TRANSMITTER. + +A brass plate, A, whereon the rays of light impinge inside a camera, in +their various forms and colors, from the external objects placed before the +lens, the said plate being coated with selenium on the side intended to +face the dark portion of the camera This brass plate has its entire surface +perforated with small holes as near to one another as practicable. These +holes are filled with selenium, heated, and then cooled very slowly, so as +to obtain the maximum sensitiveness. A small brass wire passes through the +selenium in each hole, without, however, touching the plate, on to the +rectangular and vertical ebonite plate, B, Fig. 1, from under this plate +at point, C. Thus, every wire passing through plate, A, has its point +of contact above the plate, B, lengthwise. With this view the wires are +clustered together when leaving the camera, and thence stretch to their +corresponding points of contact on plate, B, along line, C C. The surface +of brass, A, is in permanent contact with the positive pole of the battery +(selenium). On each side of plate, B, are let in two brass rails, D and E, +whereon the slide hereinafter described works. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1] + +Rail, E, communicates with the line wire intended to conduct the various +light and shade vibrations. Rail, D, is connected with the battery wire. +Along F are a number of points of contact corresponding with those along +C C. These contacts help to work the apparatus, and to insure the perfect +isochronism of the transmitter and receiver. These points of contact, +though insulated one from the other on the surface of the plate, are all +connected underneath with a wire coming from the positive pole of a special +battery. This apparatus requires two batteries, as, in fact, do all +autographic telegraphs--one for sending the current through the selenium, +and one for working the receiver, etc. The different features of this +important plate may, therefore, be summed up thus: + +FIGURE 1. + +D. Brass rail, grooved and connected with the line wire working the +receiver. + +F. Contacts connected underneath with a wire permanently connected with +battery. + +C. Contacts connected to insulated wires from selenium. + +E. Brass rail, grooved, etc., like D. + + +RECEIVER. + +A small slide, Fig. 2, having at one of its angles a very narrow piece of +brass, separated in the middle by an insulating surface, used for setting +the apparatus in rapid motion. This small slide has at the points, D D, a +small groove fitting into the brass rails of plate, B, Fig. 1, whereby it +can keep parallel on the two brass rails, D and E. Its insulator, B, Fig. +2, corresponds to the insulating interval between F and C, Fig. 1. + +A, Fig. 3, circular disk, suspended vertically (made of ebonite or other +insulating material). This disk is fixed. All round the inside of its +circumference are contacts, connected underneath with the corresponding +wires of the receiving apparatus. The wires coming from the seleniumized +plate correspond symmetrically, one after the other, with the contacts of +transmitter. They are connected in the like order with those of disk, A, +and with those of receiver, so that the wire bearing the No. 5 from the +selenium will correspond identically with like contact No. 5 of receiver. + +D, Fig. 4, gutta percha or vulcanite insulating plate, through which pass +numerous very fine platinum wires, each corresponding at its point of +contact with those on the circular disk, A. + +The receptive plate must be smaller than the plate whereon the light +impinges. The design being thus reduced will be the more perfect from the +dots formed by the passing currents being closer together. + +B, zinc or iron or brass plate connected to earth. It comes in contact with +chemically prepared paper, C, where the impression is to take place. It +contributes to the impression by its contact with the chemically prepared +paper. + +In E, Fig. 3, at the center of the above described fixed plate is a +metallic axis with small handle. On this axis revolves brass wheel, F, Fig. +5. + +[Illustration: FIG. 2] + +On handle, E, presses continuously the spring, H, Fig. 3, bringing the +current coming from the selenium line. The cogged wheel in Fig. 5 has at a +certain point of its circumference the sliding spring, O, Fig. 5, intended +to slide as the wheel revolves over the different contacts of disk, A, Fig. +3. + +This cogged wheel, Fig. 5, is turned, as in the dial telegraphs, by a rod +working in and out under the successive movements of the electro-magnet, +H, and of the counter spring. By means of this rod (which must be of a +non-metallic material, so as not to divert the motive current), and of an +elbow lever, this alternating movement is transmitted to a catch, G, which +works up and down between the cogs, and answers the same purpose as the +ordinary clock anchor. + +[Illustration: FIG. 3] + +This cogged wheel is worked by clockwork inclosed between two disks, and +would rotate continuously were it not for the catch, G, working in and out +of the cogs. Through this catch, G, the wheel is dependent on the movement +of electro-magnet. This cogged wheel is a double one, consisting of two +wheels coupled together, exactly similar one with the other, and so fixed +that the cogs of the one correspond with the void between the cogs of the +others. As the catch, G, moves down it frees a cog in first wheel, and both +wheels begin to turn, but the second wheel is immediately checked by catch, +G, and the movement ceases. A catch again works the two wheels, turn half a +cog, and so on. Each wheel contains as many cogs as there are contacts on +transmitter disk, consequently as many as on circular disk, A, Fig. 3, and +on brass disk within camera. + +[Illustration: FIG. 4] + +[Illustration: FIG. 5] + +Having now described the several parts of the apparatus, let us see how it +works. All the contacts correspond one with the other, both on the side of +selenium current and that of the motive current. Let us suppose that the +slide of transmitter is on contact No. 10 for instance; the selenium +current starting from No. 10 reaches contact 10 of rectangular transmitter, +half the slide bearing on this point, as also on the parallel rail, +communicates the current to said rail, thence to line, from the line to +axis of cogged wheel, from axis to contact 10 of circular fixed disk, +and thence to contact 10 of receiver. At each selenium contact of the +rectangular disk there is a corresponding contact to the battery and +electro-magnet. Now, on reaching contact 10 the intermission of the current +has turned the wheel 10 cogs, and so brought the small contact, O, Fig. 5, +on No. 10 of the fixed circular disk. + +As may be seen, the synchronism of the apparatus could not be obtained in +a more simple and complete mode--the rectangular transmitter being placed +vertically, and the slide being of a certain weight to its fall from the +first point of contact sufficient to carry it rapidly over the whole length +of this transmitter. + +The picture is, therefore, reproduced almost instantaneously; indeed, by +using platinum wires on the receiver connected with the negative pole, by +the incandescence of these wires according to the different degrees of +electricity we can obtain a picture, of a fugitive kind, it is true, but +yet so vivid that the impression on the retina does not fade during the +relatively very brief space of time the slide occupies in traveling over +all the contacts. A Ruhmkorff coil may also be employed for obtaining +sparks in proportion to the current emitted. The apparatus is regulated +in precisely the same way as dial telegraphs, starting always from first +contact. The slide should, therefore, never be removed from the rectangular +disk, whereon it is held by the grooves in the brass rails, into which it +fits with but slight friction, without communicating any current to the +line wires when not placed on points of contact. + + * * * * * + +[Continued from SUPPLEMENT No. 274, page 4368.] + + + + +THE VARIOUS MODES OF TRANSMITTING POWER TO A DISTANCE. + +[Footnote: A paper lately read before the Institution of Mechanical +Engineers.] + +By ARTHUR ACHARD, of Geneva. + + +But allowing that the figure of 22 H. P., assumed for this power (the +result in calculating the work with compressed air being 19 H. P.) may be +somewhat incorrect, it is unlikely that this error can be so large that its +correction could reduce the efficiency below 80 per cent. Messrs. Sautter +and Lemonnier, who construct a number of compressors, on being consulted +by the author, have written to say that they always confined themselves in +estimating the power stored in the compressed air, and had never measured +the gross power expended. Compressed air in passing along the pipe, assumed +to be horizontal, which conveys it from the place of production to the +place where it is to be used, experiences by friction a diminution of +pressure, which represents a reduction in the mechanical power stored up, +and consequently a loss of efficiency. + +The loss of pressure in question can only be calculated conveniently on the +hypothesis that it is very small, and the general formula, + + p1 - p 4L + ------- = ---- f(u), + [Delta] D + +[TEX: \frac{p_1 - p}{\Delta} = \frac{4L}{D}f(u)] + +is employed for the purpose, where D is the diameter of the pipe, assumed +to be uniform, L the length of the pipe, p1 the pressure at the entrance, p +the pressure at the farther end, u the velocity at which the compressed air +travels, [Delta] its specific weight, and f(u) the friction per unit of +length. In proportion as the air loses pressure its speed increases, while +its specific weight diminishes; but the variations in pressure are assumed +to be so small that u and [Delta] may be considered constant. As regards +the quantity f(u), or the friction per unit of length, the natural law +which regulates it is not known, audit can only be expressed by some +empirical formula, which, while according sufficiently nearly with the +facts, is suited for calculation. For this purpose the binomial formula, au ++ bu squared, or the simple formula, b1 u squared, is generally adopted; a b and b1 being +coefficients deduced from experiment. The values, however, which are to +be given to these coefficients are not constant, for they vary with the +diameter of the pipe, and in particular, contrary to formerly received +ideas, they vary according to its internal surface. The uncertainty in this +respect is so great that it is not worth while, with a view to accuracy, to +relinquish the great convenience which the simple formula, b1 u squared, offers. +It would be better from this point of view to endeavor, as has been +suggested, to render this formula more exact by the substitution of a +fractional power in the place of the square, rather than to go through +the long calculations necessitated by the use of the binomial au + bu squared. +Accordingly, making use of the formula b1 u squared, the above equation becomes, + + p1 - p 4L + ------- = ---- b1 u squared; + [Delta] D + +[TEX: \frac{p_1 - p}{\Delta} = \frac{4L}{D} b_1 u^2] + +or, introducing the discharge per second, Q, which is the usual figure +supplied, and which is connected with the velocity by the relation, Q = +([pi] D squared u)/4, we have + + p1 - p 64 b1 + ------- = --------- L Q squared. + [Delta] [pi] squared D^5 + +[TEX: \frac{p_1 - p}{\Delta} = \frac{64 b_1}{\pi^2 D^5} L Q^2] + +Generally the pressure, p1, at the entrance is known, and the pressure, p, +has to be found; it is then from p1 that the values of Q and [Delta] are +calculated. In experiments where p1 and p are measured directly, in order +to arrive at the value of the coefficient b1, Q and [Delta] would be +calculated for the mean pressure 1/2(p1 + p). The values given to the +coefficient b1 vary considerably, because, as stated above, it varies with +the diameter, and also with the nature of the material of the pipe. It +is generally admitted that it is independent of the pressure, and it is +probable that within certain limits of pressure this hypothesis is in +accordance with the truth. + +D'Aubuisson gives for this case, in his _Traite d'Hydraulique_, a rather +complicated formula, containing a constant deduced from experiment, whose +value, according to a calculation made by the author, is approximately b1 = +0.0003. This constant was determined by taking the mean of experiments made +with tin tubes of 0.0235 meter (15/16 in.), 0.05 meter (2 in.), and 0.10 +meter (4 in.) diameter; and it was erroneously assumed that it was correct +for all diameters and all substances. + +M. Arson, engineer to the Paris Gas Company, published in 1867, in the +_Memoires de la Societe des Ingenieurs Civils de France_, the results of +some experiments on the loss of pressure in gas when passing through pipes. +He employed cast-iron pipes of the ordinary type. He has represented the +results of his experiments by the binomial formula, au + bu squared, and gives +values for the coefficients a and b, which diminish with an increase in +diameter, but would indicate greater losses of pressure than D'Aubuisson's +formula. M. Deviller, in his _Rapport sur les travaux de percement du +tunnel sous les Alpes_, states that the losses of pressure observed in the +air pipe at the Mont Cenis Tunnel confirm the correctness of D'Aubuisson's +formula; but his reasoning applies to too complicated a formula to be +absolutely convincing. + +Quite recently M. E. Stockalper, engineer-in-chief at the northern end of +the St. Gothard Tunnel, has made some experiments on the air conduit of +this tunnel, the results of which he has kindly furnished to the author. +These lead to values for the coefficient b1 appreciably less than that +which is contained implicitly in D'Aubuisson's formula. As he experimented +on a rising pipe, it is necessary to introduce into the formula the +difference of level, h, between the two ends; it then becomes + + p1 - p 64 b1 + ------- = --------- L Q squared + h. + [Delta] [pi] squared D^5 + +[TEX: \frac{p_1 - p}{\Delta} = \frac{64 b_1}{\pi^2 D^5} L Q^2 + h] + +The following are the details of the experiments: First series of +experiments: Conduit consisting of cast or wrought iron pipes, joined by +means of flanges, bolts, and gutta percha rings. D = 0.20 m. (8 in.); L = +4,600 m. (15,100 ft,); h= 26.77 m. (87 ft. 10 in.). 1st experiment: Q = +0.1860 cubic meter (6.57 cubic feet), at a pressure of 1/2(p1 + p), and a +temperature of 22 deg. Cent. (72 deg. Fahr.); p1 = 5.60 atm., p =5.24 atm. Hence p1 +- p = 0.36 atm.= 0.36 x 10,334 kilogrammes per square meter (2.116 lb. per +square foot), whence we obtain b1=0.0001697. D'Aubuisson's formula would +have given p1 - p = 0.626 atm.; and M. Arson's would have given p1 - p = +0.9316 atm. 2d experiment: Q = 0.1566 cubic meter (5.53 cubic feet), at a +pressure of 1/2(p1 + p), and a temperature of 22 deg. Cent. (72 deg. Fahr.); p1 += 4.35 atm., p = 4.13 atm. Hence p1 - p = 0.22 atm. = 0.22 X 10,334 +kilogrammes per square meter (2,116 lb. per square foot); whence we obtain +b1 = 0.0001816. D'Aubuisson's formula would have given p1 - p = 0.347 atm; +and M. Arson's would have given p1 - p = 0.5382 atm. 3d experiment: Q = +0.1495 cubic meter (5.28 cubic feet) at a pressure of 1/2(p1 + p) and a +temperature 22 deg. Cent. (72 Fahr.); p1 = 3.84 atm., p = 3.65 atm. Hence p1 - +p = 0.19 atm. = 0.19 X 10,334 kilogrammes per square meter (2.116 lb. per +square foot); whence we obtain B1 = 0.0001966. D'Aubuisson's formula would +have given p1 - p = 0.284 atm., and M. Arson's would have given p1 - p = +0.4329 atm. Second series of experiments: Conduit composed of wrought-iron +pipes, with joints as in the first experiments. D = 0.15 meter (6 in.), L +- 0.522 meters (1,712 ft.), h = 3.04 meters (10 ft.) 1st experiments: Q = +0.2005 cubic meter (7.08 cubic feet), at a pressure of 1/2(p1 + p), and a +temperature of 26.5 deg. Cent. (80 deg. Fahr.); p1 = 5.24 atm., p = 5.00 atm. Hence +p1 - p = 0.24 atm. =0.24 x 10,334 kilogrammes per square meter (2,116 lb. +per square foot); whence we obtain b1 = 0.3002275. 2nd experiment: Q = +0.1586 cubic meter (5.6 cubic feet), at a pressure of 1/2(p1 + p), and a +temperature of 26.5 deg. Cent. (80 deg. Fahr.); p1 = 3.650 atm., p = 3.545 atm. +Hence p1 - p = 0.105 atm. = 0.105 x 10,334 kilogrammes per square meter +(2,116 lb. per square foot); whence we obtain b1 = 0.0002255. It is clear +that these experiments give very small values for the coefficient. The +divergence from the results which D'Aubuisson's formula would give is due +to the fact that his formula was determined with very small pipes. It is +probable that the coefficients corresponding to diameters of 0.15 meter +(6 in.) and 0.20 meter (8 in.) for a substance as smooth as tin, would be +still smaller respectively than the figures obtained above. + +The divergence from the results obtained by M. Arson's formula does not +arise from a difference in size, as this is taken into account. The author +considers that it may be attributed to the fact that the pipes for the St. +Gothard Tunnel were cast with much greater care than ordinary pipes, which +rendered their surface smoother, and also to the fact that flanged joints +produce much less irregularity in the internal surface than the ordinary +spigot and faucet joints. + +Lastly, the difference in the methods of observation and the errors which +belong to them, must be taken into account. M. Stockalper, who experimented +on great pressures, used metallic gauges, which are instruments on whose +sensibility and correctness complete reliance cannot be placed; and +moreover the standard manometer with which they were compared was one of +the same kind. The author is not of opinion that the divergence is owing to +the fact that M. Stockalper made his observations on an air conduit, where +the pressure was much higher than in gas pipes. Indeed, it may be assumed +that gases and liquids act in the same manner; and, as will be [1] +explained later on, there is reason to believe that with the latter a rise +of pressure increases the losses of pressure instead of diminishing them. + +[Transcribers note 1: corrected from 'as will we explained'] + +All the pipes for supplying compressed air in tunnels and in headings of +mines are left uncovered, and have flanged joints; which are advantages not +merely as regards prevention of leakage, but also for facility of laying +and of inspection. If a compressed air pipe had to be buried in the ground +the flanged joint would lose a part of its advantages; but, nevertheless, +the author considers that it would still be preferable to the ordinary +joint. + +It only remains to refer to the motors fed with the compressed air. +This subject is still in its infancy from a practical point of view. In +proportion as the air becomes hot by compression, so it cools by expansion, +if the vessel containing it is impermeable to heat. Under these conditions +it gives out in expanding a power appreciably less than if it retained its +original temperature; besides which the fall of temperature may impede the +working of the machine by freezing the vapor of water contained in the air. + +If it is desired to utilize to the utmost the force stored up in the +compressed air it is necessary to endeavor to supply heat to the air during +expansion so as to keep its temperature constant. It would be possible +to attain this object by the same means which prevent heating from +compression, namely, by the circulation and injection of water. It would +perhaps be necessary to employ a little larger quantity of water for +injection, as the water, instead of acting by virtue both of its heat of +vaporization and of its specific heat, can in this case act only by virtue +of the latter. These methods might be employed without difficulty for air +machines of some size. It would be more difficult to apply them to small +household machines, in which simplicity is an essential element; and we +must rest satisfied with imperfect methods, such as proximity to a stove, +or the immersion of the cylinder in a tank of water. Consequently loss of +power by cooling and by incomplete expansion cannot be avoided. The only +way to diminish the relative amount of this loss is to employ compressed +air at a pressure not exceeding three or four atmospheres. + +The only real practical advance made in this matter is M. Mekarski's +compressed air engine for tramways. In this engine the air is made to pass +through a small boiler containing water at a temperature of about 120 deg. +Cent. (248 deg. Fahr.), before entering the cylinder of the engine. It must +be observed that in order to reduce the size of the reservoirs, which +are carried on the locomotive, the air inside them must be very highly +compressed; and that in going from the reservoir into the cylinder it +passes through a reducing valve or expander, which keeps the pressure of +admission at a definite figure, so that the locomotive can continue working +so long as the supply of air contained in the reservoir has not come down +to this limiting pressure. The air does not pass the expander until after +it has gone through the boiler already mentioned. Therefore, if the +temperature which it assumes in the boiler is 100 deg. Cent. (212 deg. Fahr.), and +if the limiting pressure is 5 atm., the gas which enters the engine will be +a mixture of air and water vapor at 100 deg. Cent.; and of its total pressure +the vapor of water will contribute I atm. and the air 4 atm. Thus this +contrivance, by a small expenditure of fuel, enables the air to act +expansively without injurious cooling, and even reduces the consumption of +compressed air to an extent which compensates for part of the loss of power +arising from the preliminary expansion which the air experiences before its +admission into the engine. It is clear that this same contrivance, or what +amounts to the same thing, a direct injection of steam, at a sufficient +pressure, for the purpose of maintaining the expanding air at a constant +temperature, might be tried in a fixed engine worked by compressed air with +some chance of success. + +Whatever method is adopted it would be advantageous that the losses of +pressure in the pipes connecting the compressors with the motors should be +reduced as much as possible, for in this case that loss would represent +a loss of efficiency. If, on the other hand, owing to defective means of +reheating, it is necessary to remain satisfied with a small amount of +expansion, the loss of pressure in the pipe is unimportant, and has only +the effect of transferring the limited expansion to a point a little lower +on the scale of pressures. If W is the net disposable force on the shaft +of the engine which works the compressor, v1 the volume of air at the +compressor, p1. given by the compressor, and at the temperature of the +surrounding air, and p0 the atmospheric pressure, the efficiency of the +compressor, assuming the air to expand according to Boyle's law, is given +by the well-known formula-- + + p1 v1 log (p1 / p0) + -------------------. + W + +[TEX: \frac{p_1 v_1 \log \frac{p_1}{p_0}}{W}] + +Let p2 be the value to which the pressure is reduced by the loss of +pressure at the end of the conduit, and v2 the volume which the air +occupies at this pressure and at the same temperature; the force stored +up in the air at the end of its course through the conduit is p2 v2 +log(p2/p0); consequently, the efficiency of the conduit is + + p2 v2 log(p2/p0) + ---------------- + p1 v1 log(p1/p0) + +[TEX: \frac{p_2 v_2 \log\frac{p_2}{p_0}}{p_2 v_2 \log\frac{p_2}{p_0}}] + +a fraction that may be reduced to the simple form + + log(p2/p0) + ----------, + log(p1/p0) + +[TEX: \frac{\log\frac{p_2}{p_0}}{\log\frac{p_2}{p_0}}] + +if there is no leakage during the passage of the air, because in that cause +p2 v2 = p1 v1. Lastly, if W1 is the net disposable force on the shaft of +the compressed air motor, the efficiency of this engine will be, + + W1 + ---------------- + p2 v2 log(p2/p0) + +[TEX: \frac{W_1}{p_2 v_2 \log \frac{p_2}{p_0}}] + +and the product of these three partial efficiencies is equal to W1/W, the +general efficiency of the transmission. + +III. _Transmission by Pressure Water_.--As transmission of power by +compressed air has been specially applied to the driving of tunnels, so +transmission by pressure water has been specially resorted to for lifting +heavy loads, or for work of a similar nature, such as the operations +connected with the manufacture of Bessemer steel or of cast-iron pipes. +The author does not propose to treat of transmissions established for this +special purpose, and depending on the use of accumulators at high pressure, +as he has no fresh matter to impart on this subject, and as he believes +that the remarkable invention of Sir William Armstrong was described for +the first time, in the "Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical +Engineers." His object is to refer to transmissions applicable to general +purposes. + +The transmission of power by water may occur in another form. The motive +force to be transmitted may be employed for working pumps which raise the +water, not to a fictitious height in an accumulator, but to a real height +in a reservoir, with a channel from this reservoir to distribute the water +so raised among several motors arranged for utilizing the pressure. The +author is not aware that works have been carried out for this purpose. +However, in many towns a part of the water from the public mains serves to +supply small motors--consequently, if the water, instead of being brought +by a natural fall, has been previously lifted artificially, it might be +said that a transmission of power is here grafted on to the ordinary +distribution of water. + +Unless a positive or negative force of gravity is introduced into the +problem, independently of the force to be transmitted, the receivers of +the water pressure must be assumed to be at the same level as the forcing +pumps, or more correctly, the water discharged from the receivers to be at +the same level as the surface of the water from which the pumps draw their +supply. In this case the general efficiency of transmission is the product +of three partial efficiencies, which correspond exactly to those mentioned +with regard to compressed air. The height of lift, contained in the +numerator of the fraction which expresses the efficiency of the pumps, is +not to be taken as the difference in level between the surface of the water +in the reservoir and the surface of the water whence the pumps draw their +supply; but as this difference in level, plus the loss of pressure in the +suction pipe, which is usually very short, and plus the loss in the channel +to the reservoir, which may be very long. A similar loss of initial +pressure affects the efficiency of the discharge channel. The reservoir, if +of sufficient capacity, may become an important store of power, while the +compressed air reservoir can only do so to a very limited extent. + +Omitting the subject of the pumps, and passing on at once to the discharge +main, the author may first point out that the distinction between the +ascending and descending mains of the system is of no importance, for two +reasons: first, that nothing prevents the motors being supplied direct from +the first alone; and second, that the one is not always distinct from the +other. In fact, the reservoir may be connected by a single branch pipe with +the system which goes from the pumps to the motors; it may even be placed +at the extreme end of this system beyond the motors, provided always that +the supply pipe is taken into it at the bottom. The same formula may be +adopted for the loss of initial pressure in water pipes as for compressed +air pipes, viz., + + p1 - p 64 b1 + ------- = --------- L Q squared +- h; + [Delta] [pi] squared D^5 + +[TEX: \frac{p_1 - p}{\Delta} = \frac{64 b_1}{\pi^2 D^5} L Q^2 \pm h] + +h being the difference of level between the two ends of the portion of +conduit of length, L, and the sign + or - being used according as the +conduit rises or falls. The specific weight, [delta], is constant, and the +quotients, p1/[delta] and p/[delta], represent the heights, z and z1, to +which the water could rise above the pipes, in vertical tubes branching +from it, at the beginning and end of the transit. The values assigned to +the coefficient b1 in France, are those determined by D'Arcy. For new +cast-iron pipes he gives b1 - 0.0002535 + 1/D 0.000000647; and recommends +that this value should be doubled, to allow for the rust and incrustation +which more or less form inside the pipes during use. The determination of +this coefficient has been made from experiments where the pressure has +not exceeded four atmospheres; within these limits the value of the +coefficient, as is generally admitted, is independent of the pressure. The +experiments made by M. Barret, on the pressure pipes of the accumulator at +the Marseilles docks, seem to indicate that the loss of pressure would be +greater for high pressures, everything else being equal. This pipe, having +a diameter of 0.127 m. (5 in.), was subjected to an initial pressure of 52 +atmospheres. The author gives below the results obtained for a straight +length 320 m. (1050 ft) long; and has placed beside them the results which +D'Arcy's formula would give. + + Loss of head, in meters or ft. respectively + per 100 meters or ft. run of pipes. + +-----------------^-------------------+ + | | + Calculated loss. + +-----------^-----------+ + | | +Velocity of flow Actual loss + per second. observed. Old pipes. New pipes. +Meters. Feet. Met. or Ft. Met. or Ft. Met. or Ft. +0.25 0.82 1.5 0.12 0.06 +0.50 1.64 2.5 0.48 0.24 +0.75 2.46 3.7 1.08 0.54 +1.00 3.28 5.5 1.92 0.96 +1.25 4.10 6.1 3.00 1.50 +1.50 4.92 7.3 4.32 2.16 +1.75 5.74 8.0 5.88 2.94 +2.00 6.56 10.2 7.68 3.84 +2.25 7.38 11.7 9.72 4.86 +2.50 8.20 14.0 12.00 6.00 + +Moreover, these results would appear to indicate a different law from that +which is expressed by the formula b1 u squared, as is easy to see by representing +them graphically. It would be very desirable that fresh experiments should +be made on water pipes at high pressure, and of various diameters. Of +machines worked by water pressure the author proposes to refer only to two +which appear to him in every respect the most practical and advantageous. +One is the piston machine of M. Albert Schmid, engineer at Zurich. The +cylinder is oscillating, and the distribution is effected, without an +eccentric, by the relative motion of two spherical surfaces fitted one +against the other, and having the axis of oscillation for a common axis. +The convex surface, which is movable and forms part of the cylinder, serves +as a port face, and has two ports in it communicating with the two ends of +the cylinder. The concave surface, which is fixed and plays the part of a +slide valve, contains three openings, the two outer ones serving to admit +the pressure water, and the middle one to discharge the water after it has +exerted its pressure. The piston has no packing. Its surface of contact has +two circumferential grooves, which produce a sort of water packing acting +by adhesion. A small air chamber is connected with the inlet pipe, and +serves to deaden the shocks. This engine is often made with two cylinders, +having their cranks at right angles. + +The other engine, which is much less used, is a turbine on Girard's system, +with a horizontal axis and partial admission, exactly resembling in +miniature those which work in the hydraulic factory of St. Maur, near +Paris. The water is introduced by means of a distributer, which is fitted +in the interior of the turbine chamber, and occupies a certain portion +of its circumference. This turbine has a lower efficiency than Schmid's +machine, and is less suitable for high pressures; but it possesses this +advantage over it, that by regulating the amount of opening of the +distributer, and consequently the quantity of water admitted, the force can +be altered without altering the velocity of rotation. As it admits of great +speeds, it could be usefully employed direct, without the interposition of +spur wheels or belts for driving magneto-electric machines employed for the +production of light, for electrotyping, etc. + +In compressed air machines the losses of pressure due to incomplete +expansion, cooling, and waste spaces, play an important part. In water +pressure machines loss does not occur from these causes, on account of the +incompressibility of the liquid, but the frictions of the parts are the +principal causes of loss of power. It would be advisable to ascertain +whether, as regards this point, high or low pressures are the most +advantageous. Theoretical considerations would lead the author to imagine +that for a piston machine low pressures are preferable. In conclusion, the +following table gives the efficiencies of a Girard turbine, constructed by +Messrs. Escher Wyss & Co., of Zurich, and of a Schmid machine, as measured +by Professor Fliegnor, in 1871: + + ESCHER WYSS & CO'S TURBINE. + +Effective Head of Water. Revolutions Efficiency. + per minute. +Meters. Feet. Revs. Per cent. + 20.7 67.9 628 68.5 + 20.7 67.9 847 47.4 + 24.1 79.0 645 68.5 + 27.6 90.5 612 65.7 + 27.6 90.5 756 68.0 + 31.0 101.7 935 56.9 + 31.0 101.7 1,130 35.1 + + SCHMID MOTOR. + + 8.3 27.2 226 37.4 + 11.4 37.4 182 67.4 + 14.5 47.6 254 53.4 + 17.9 58.7 157 86.2 + 20.7 67.9 166 89.6 + 20.7 67.9 225 74.6 + 24.1 79.0 238 76.7 + 24.1 79.0 389 64.0 + 27.6 90.5 207 83.9 + +It will be observed that these experiments relate to low pressures; it +would be desirable to extend them to higher pressures. + +IV. _Transmission by Electricity._--However high the efficiency of an +electric motor may be, in relation to the chemical work of the electric +battery which feeds it, force generated by an electric battery is too +expensive, on account of the nature of the materials consumed, for a +machine of this kind ever to be employed for industrial purposes. If, +however, the electric current, instead of being developed by chemical +work in a battery, is produced by ordinary mechanical power in a +magneto-electric or dynamo-electric machine, the case is different; and +the double transformation, first of the mechanical force into an electric +current, and then of that current into mechanical force, furnishes a means +for effecting the conveyance of the power to a distance. + +It is this last method of transmission which remains to be discussed. The +author, however, feels himself obliged to restrict himself in this matter +to a mere summary; and, indeed, it is English physicists and engineers who +have taken the technology of electricity out of the region of empiricism +and have placed it on a scientific and rational basis. Moreover, they are +also taking the lead in the progress which is being accomplished in this +branch of knowledge, and are best qualified to determine its true bearings. +When an electric current, with an intensity, i, is produced, either by +chemical or mechanical work, in a circuit having a total resistance, R, a +quantity of heat is developed in the circuit, and this heat is the exact +equivalent of the force expended, so long as the current is not made use of +for doing any external work. The expression for this quantity of heat, per +unit of time, is Ai squaredR; A being the thermal equivalent of the unit of power +corresponding to the units of current and resistance, in which i and R are +respectively expressed. The product, i squaredR, is a certain quantity of power, +which the author proposes to call _power transformed into electricity_. +When mechanical power is employed for producing a current by means of +a magneto-electric or dynamo-electric machine--or, to use a better +expression, by means of a _mechanical generator of electricity_--it is +necessary in reality to expend a greater quantity of power than i squaredR in +order to make up for losses which result either from ordinary friction +or from certain electro magnetic reactions which occur. The ratio of the +quantity, i squaredR, to the power, W, actually expended per unit of time is +called the efficiency of the generator. Designating it by K, we obtain, W += i squaredR/K. It is very important to ascertain the value of this efficiency, +considering that it necessarily enters as a factor into the evaluation of +all the effects to be produced by help of the generator in question. The +following table gives the results of certain experiments made early in +1879, with a Gramme machine, by an able physicist, M Hagenbach, Professor +at the University at Basle, and kindly furnished by him to the author: + +Revolutions per minute 935 919.5 900.5 893 + +Total resistance in Siemens' units 2.55 3.82 4.94 6.06 + +Total resistance in absolute units 2.435 3.648 4.718 5.787 + x10^9 x10^9 x10^9 x10^9 + +Intensity in chemical units 17.67 10.99 8.09 6.28 + +Intensity in absolute units 2.828 1.759 1.295 1.005 + +Work done i squaredR in absolute units 1948.6 1129.2 791.3 584.9 + x10^7 x10^7 x10^7 x10^7 + +Work done i squaredR in kilogrammes 198.6 115.1 80.66 59.62 + +Power expended in kilogrammes 301.5 141.0 86.25 83.25 + +Efficiency, per cent. 65.9 81.6 93.5 71.6 + +M. Hagenbach's dynamometric measurements were made by the aid of a brake. +After each experiment on the electric machine, he applied the brake to the +engine which he employed, taking care to make it run at precisely the same +speed, with the same pressure of steam, and with the same expansion as +during experiment. It would certainly be better to measure the force +expended during and not after the experiment, by means of a registering +dynamometer. Moreover, M. Hagenbach writes that his measurements by means +of the brake were very much prejudiced by external circumstances; doubtless +this is the reason of the divergences between the results obtained. + +About the same time Dr. Hopkinson communicated to this institution the +results of some very careful experiments made on a Siemens machine. He +measured the force expended by means of a registering dynamometer, and +obtained very high coefficients of efficiency, amounting to nearly 90 per +cent. M. Hagenbach also obtained from one machine a result only a little +less than unity. Mechanical generators of electricity are certainly +capable of being improved in several respects, especially as regards their +adaptation to certain definite classes of work. But there appears to +remain hardly any margin for further progress as regards efficiency. Force +transformed into electricity in a generator may be expressed by i [omega] M +C; [omega] being the angular velocity of rotation; M the magnetism of one +of the poles, inducing or induced, which intervenes; and C a constant +specially belonging to each apparatus, and which is independent of +the units adopted. This constant could not be determined except by +an integration practically impossible; and the product, M C, must be +considered indivisible. Even in a magneto-electric machine (with permanent +inducing magnets), and much more in a dynamo-electric machine (inducing by +means of electro-magnets excited by the very current produced) the product, +M C, is a function of the intensity. From the identity of the expressions, +i squaredR and i [omega] M C we obtain the relation M C = IR/[omega] which +indicates the course to be pursued to determine experimentally the law +which connects the variations of M C with those of i. Some experiments made +in 1876, by M. Hagenbach, on a Gramme dynamo-electric machine, appear to +indicate that the magnetism, M C, does not increase indefinitely with the +intensity, but that there is some maximum value for this quantity. If, +instead of working a generator by an external motive force, a current is +passed through its circuit in a certain given direction, the movable part +of the machine will begin to turn in an opposite direction to that in which +it would have been necessary to turn it in order to obtain a current in the +aforesaid direction. In virtue of this motion the electro-magnetic forces +which are generated may be used to overcome a resisting force. The machine +will then work as a motor or receiver. Let i be the intensity of the +external current which works the motor, when the motor is kept at rest. If +it is now allowed to move, its motion produces, in virtue of the laws of +induction, a current in the circuit of intensity, i1, in the opposite +direction to the external current; the effective intensity of the current +traversing the circuit is thus reduced to i - i1. The intensity of the +counter current is given, like that of the generating current, by the +equation, i1 squaredR = i1 [omega]1 M1 C1, or i1R = [omega]1 M1 C1, the index, 1, +denoting the quantities relating to the motor. Here M1 C1 is a function of +i - i1, not of i. As in a generator the force transformed into electricity +has a value, i [omega] M C, so in a motor the force developed by +electricity is (i - i1) [omega]1 M1 C1. On account, however, of the losses +which occur, the effective power, that is the disposable power on the shaft +of the motor, will have a smaller value, and in order to arrive at it a +coefficient of efficiency, K1, must be added. We shall then have W1 = K1 +(i-i1) [omega]1 M1 C1. The author has no knowledge of any experiments +having been made for obtaining this efficiency, K1. Next let us suppose +that the current feeding the motor is furnished by a generator, so that +actual transmission by electricity is taking place. The circuit, whose +resistance is R, comprises the coils, both fixed and movable, of the +generator and motor, and of the conductors which connect them. The +intensity of the current which traverses the circuit had the value, i, when +the motor was at rest; by the working of the motor it is reduced to i - i1. +The power applied to the generator is itself reduced to W-[(i-i1)[omega] +M C]/K. The prime mover is relieved by the action of the counter current, +precisely as the consumption of zinc in the battery would be reduced by the +same cause, if the battery was the source of the current. The efficiency +of the transmission is W1/W. Calculation shows that it is expressed by the +following equations:W1/W = K K1 [([omega]11 M1 C1)/([omega]1 M C)], or = K +K1 [([omega]11 M1 C)/([omega]11 M1 C1 + (i-i1) R)]; expressions in which +it must be remembered M C and M1 C1 are really functions of (i-i1). This +efficiency is, then, the product of three distinct factors, each evidently +less than unity, namely, the efficiency belonging to the generator, the +efficiency belonging to the motor, and a third factor depending on the rate +of rotation of the motor and the resistance of the circuit. The influence +which these elements exert on the value of the third factor cannot be +estimated, unless the law is first known according to which the magnetisms, +M C, M1 C C1, vary with the intensity of the current. + + +GENERAL RESULTS. + +Casting a retrospective glance at the four methods of transmission of power +which have been examined, it would appear that transmission by ropes forms +a class by itself, while the three other methods combine into a natural +group, because they possess a character in common of the greatest +importance. It may be said that all three involve a temporary +transformation of the mechanical power to be utilized into potential +energy. Also in each of these methods the efficiency of transmission is +the product of three factors or partial efficiencies, which correspond +exactly--namely, first, the efficiency of the instrument which converts +the actual energy of the prime mover into potential energy; second, the +efficiency of the instrument which reconverts this potential energy into +actual energy, that is, into motion, and delivers it up in this shape +for the actual operations which accomplish industrial work; third, the +efficiency of the intermediate agency which serves for the conveyance of +potential energy from the first instrument to the second. + +This last factor has just been given for transmission by electricity. It +is the exact correlative of the efficiency of the pipe in the case of +compressed air or of pressure water. It is as useful in the case of +electric transmission, as of any other method, to be able, in studying the +system, to estimate beforehand what results it is able to furnish, and for +this purpose it is necessary to calculate exactly the factors which compose +the efficiency. + +In order to obtain this desirable knowledge, the author considers that the +three following points should form the aim of experimentalists: First, +the determination of the efficiency, K, of the principal kinds of +magneto-electric, or dynamo-electric machines working as generators; +second, the determination of the efficiency, K1, of the same machines +working as motors; third, the determination of the law according to which +the magnetism of the cores of these machines varies with the intensity of +the current. The author is of opinion that experiments made with these +objects in view would be more useful than those conducted for determining +the general efficiency of transmission, for the latter give results only +available under precisely similar conditions. However, it is clear that +they have their value and must not be neglected. + +There are, moreover, many other questions requiring to be elucidated by +experiment, especially as regards the arrangement of the conducting wires: +but it is needless to dwell further upon this subject, which has been ably +treated by many English men of science--for instance, Dr. Siemens and +Professor Ayrton. Nevertheless, for further information the author would +refer to the able articles published at Paris, by M. Mascart, in the +_Journal de Physique_, in 1877 and 1878. The author would gladly have +concluded this paper with a comparison of the efficiencies of the four +systems which have been examined, or what amounts to the same thing--with a +comparison of the losses of power which they occasion. Unfortunately, such +a comparison has never been made experimentally, because hitherto the +opportunity of doing it in a demonstrative manner has been wanting, for the +transmission of power to a distance belongs rather to the future than to +the present time. Transmission by electricity is still in its infancy; it +has only been applied on a small scale and experimentally. + +Of the three other systems, transmission by means of ropes is the only one +that has been employed for general industrial purposes, while compressed +air and water under pressure have been applied only to special purposes, +and their use has been due much more to their special suitableness for +these purposes than from any considerations relative to loss of power. +Thus the effective work of the compressed air used in driving the +tunnels through the Alps, assuming its determination to be possible, was +undoubtedly very low; nevertheless, in the present state of our appliances +it is the only process by which such operations can be accomplished. The +author believes that transmission by ropes furnishes the highest proportion +of useful work, but that as regards a wide distribution of the transmitted +power the other two methods, by air and water, might merit a preference. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE HOTCHKISS REVOLVING GUN. + + +The Hotchkiss revolving gun, already adopted in the French navy and by +other leading European nations, has been ordered for use in the German navy +by the following decree of the German Emperor, dated January 11 last: "On +the report made to me, I approve the adoption of the Hotchkiss revolving +cannon as a part of the artillery of my navy; and each of my ships, +according to their classification, shall in general be armed with this +weapon in such a manner that every point surrounding the vessel may be +protected by the fire of at least two guns at a minimum range of 200 +meters." + + * * * * * + + + + +THALLIUM PAPERS AS OZONOMETERS. + + +Schoene has given the results of an extended series of experiments on the +use of thallium paper for estimating approximately the oxidizing material +in the atmosphere, whether it be hydrogen peroxide alone, or mixed with +ozone, or perhaps also with other constituents hitherto unknown. The +objection to Schoenbein's ozonometer (potassium iodide on starch paper) and +to Houzeau's ozonometer (potassium iodide on red litmus paper) lies in +the fact that their materials are hygroscopic, and their indications vary +widely with the moisture of the air. Since dry ozone does not act on these +papers, they must be moistened; and then the amount of moisture varies the +result quite as much as the amount of ozone. Indeed, attention has been +called to the larger amount of ozone near salt works and waterfalls, and +the erroneous opinion advanced that ozone is formed when water is finely +divided. And Boettger has stated that ozone is formed when ether is +atomized; the fact being that the reaction he observed was due to the +H_2O_2 always present in ether. Direct experiments with the Schoenbein +ozonometer and the psychrometer gave parallel curves; whence the author +regards the former as only a crude hygrometer. These objections do not lie +against the thallium paper, the oxidation to brown oxide by either ozone or +hydrogen peroxide not requiring the presence of moisture, and the color, +therefore, being independent of the hygrometric state of the air. Moreover, +when well cared for, the papers undergo no farther change of color and may +be preserved indefinitely. The author prepares the thallium paper a few +days before use, by dipping strips of Swedish filtering paper in a solution +of thallous hydrate, and drying. The solution is prepared by pouring a +solution of thallous sulphate into a boiling solution of barium hydrate, +equivalent quantities being taken, the resulting solution of thallous +hydrate being concentrated in vacuo until 100 c.c. contains 10 grammes +Tl(OH). For use the strips are hung in the free air in a close vessel, +preferably over caustic lime, for twelve hours. Other papers are used, made +with a two per cent. solution. These are exposed for thirty-six hours. The +coloration is determined by comparison with a scale having eleven degrees +of intensity upon it. Compared with Schoenbein's ozonometer, the results are +in general directly opposite. The thallium papers show that the greatest +effect is in the daytime, the iodide papers that it is at night. Yearly +curves show that the former generally indicate a rise when the latter give +a fall. The iodide curve follows closely that of relative humidity, clouds, +and rain; the thallium curve stands in no relation to it. A table of +results for the year 1879 is given in monthly means, of the two thallium +papers, the ozonometer, the relative humidity, cloudiness, rain, and +velocity of wind.--_G. F. B., in Ber. Berl. Chem. Ces._ + + * * * * * + + + + +THE AUDIPHONE IN ENGLAND. + + +The audiphone has been recently tried in the Board School for Deaf and +Dumb at Turin street, Bethnal Green, with very satisfactory results--so +satisfactory that the report will recommend its adoption in the four +schools which the London Board have erected for the education of the deaf +and dumb. Some 20 per cent. of the pupils in deaf and dumb schools have +sufficient power of hearing when assisted by the audiphone to enable them +to take their places in the classes of the ordinary schools. + + * * * * * + + + + +CONDUCTIVITY OF MOIST AIR. + + +Many physical treatises still assert that moist air conducts electricity, +though Silberman and others have proved the contrary. An interesting +experiment bearing on this has been described lately by Prof. Marangoni. +Over a flame is heated some water in a glass jar, through the stopper of +which passes a bent tube to bell-jar (held obliquely), which thus gets +filled with aqueous vapor. The upper half of a thin Leyden jar charged is +brought into the bell-jar, and held there four or five seconds; it is +then found entirely discharged. That the real cause of this, however, is +condensation of the vapor on the part of the glass that is not coated with +tin foil (the liquid layer acting by conduction) can be proved; for if that +part of the jar be passed several times rapidly through the flame, so as +to heat it to near 100 deg. C., before inserting in the bell-jar, a different +effect will be had; the Leyden jar will give out long sparks after +withdrawal. This is because the glass being heated no longer condenses the +vapor on its surface, and there is no superficial conduction, as in the +previous case. + + * * * * * + + + + +FLOATING PONTOON DOCK. + + +Considerable attention has been given for some years past to the subject of +floating pontoon docks by Mr. Robert Turnbull, naval architect, of South +Shields, Eng., who has devised the ingenious arrangement which forms the +subject of the annexed illustration. The end aimed at and now achieved by +Mr. Turnbull was so to construct floating docks or pontoons that they may +rise and fall in a berth, and be swung round at one end upon a center post +or cylinder--nautically known as a dolphin--projecting from the ground at +a slight distance from the berth. The cylinder is in deep water, and, +when the pontoon is swung and sunk to the desired depth by letting in the +necessary amount of water, a vessel can be floated in and then secured. The +pontoon, with the vessel on it, is then raised by pumping out the contained +water until she is a little above the level of the berth. The whole is then +swung round over the berth, the vessel then being high and dry to enable +repairs or other operations to be conducted. For this purpose, one end of +the pontoon is so formed as to enable it to fit around the cylinder, and +to be held to it as to a center or fulcrum, about which the pontoon can be +swung. The pontoon is of special construction, and has air-chambers at the +sides placed near the center, so as to balance it. It also has chambers at +the ends, which are divided horizontally in order that the operation of +submerging within a berth or in shallow water may be conducted without +risk, the upper chambers being afterwards supplied with water to sink the +pontoon to the full depth before a vessel is hauled in. When the ship is in +place, the pontoon with her is then lifted above the level of the berth in +which it has to be placed, and then swung round into the berth. In some +cases, the pontoon is provided with a cradle, so that, when in berth, the +vessel on the cradle can be hauled up a slip with rails arranged as +a continuation of the cradle-rails of the pontoon, which can be then +furnished with another cradle, and another vessel lifted. + +It is this latter arrangement which forms the subject of our illustration, +the vessel represented being of the following dimensions: Length between +perpendiculars, 350 feet; breadth, moulded, 40 feet; depth, moulded, 32 +feet; tons, B. M., 2,600; tons net, 2,000. At A, in fig. 1, is shown in +dotted lines a portion of the vessel and pontoon, the ship having just been +hauled in and centered over the keel blocks. At B, is shown the pontoon +with the ship raised and swung round on to a low level quay. Going a step +further in the operation, we see at C, the vessel hauled on to the slipways +on the high-level quay. In this case the cylinder is arranged so that +the vessel may be delivered on to the rails or slips, which are arranged +radially, taking the cylinder as the center. There may be any number of +slips so arranged, and one pontoon may be made available for several +cylinders at the deep water parts of neighboring repairing or building +yards, in which case the recessed portion of the pontoon, when arranged +around the cylinder, has stays or retaining bars fitted to prevent it +leaving the cylinder when the swinging is taking place, such as might +happen in a tideway. + +[Illustration: Fig. 1. IMPROVED FLOATING PONTOON DRY DOCK.] + +The arrangements for delivering vessels on radial slips is seen in plan at +fig. 2, where A represents the river or deep water; B is the pontoon with +the vessel; C being the cylinder or turning center; D is the low-level +quay on to which the pontoon carrying the ship is first swung; E is the +high-level quay with the slip-ways; F is an engine running on rails around +the radial slips for drawing the vessels with the cradle off the pontoon, +and hauling them up on to the high-level quay; and G shows the repairing +shops, stores, and sheds. A pontoon attached to a cylinder may be fitted +with an ordinary wet dock; and then the pontoon, before or after the vessel +is upon it, can be slewed round to suit the slips up which the vessel has +to be moved, supposing the slips are arranged radially. In this case, the +pivot end of the pontoon would be a fixture, so to speak, to the cylinder. + +The pontoon may also be made available for lifting heavy weights, by +fitting a pair of compound levers or other apparatus at one end, the +lifting power being in the pontoon itself. In some cases, in order to +lengthen the pontoon, twenty-five or fifty foot lengths are added at +the after end. When not thus engaged, those lengths form short pontoons +suitable for small vessels.--_Iron_. + + * * * * * + + + + +WEIRLEIGH, BRENCHLEY, KENT. + + +Some few years since, Mr. Harrison Weir (whose drawings of natural history +are known probably to a wider circle of the general public than the works +of most artists), wishing to pursue his favorite study of animals and +horticulture, erected on the steep hillside of the road leading from +Paddock Wood to Brenchley, a small "cottage ornee" with detached studio. +Afterward desiring more accommodation, he carried out the buildings shown +in our illustrations. Advantage has been taken of the slope of the hill on +one side, and the rising ground in the rear on the other, to increase the +effect of the buildings and meet the difficulty of the levels. The two +portions--old, etched, and new, shown as black--are connected together by a +handsome staircase, which is carried up in the tower, and affords access to +the various levels. The materials are red brick, with Bathstone dressings, +and weather-tiling on the upper floors. Black walnut, pitch pine, and +sequoias have been used in the staircase, and joiner's work to the +principal rooms. The principal stoves are of Godstone stone only, no iron +or metal work being used. The architects are Messrs. Wadmore & Baker, of 35 +Great St. Helens, E.C.; the builders, Messrs. Penn Brothers, of Pembury, +Kent.--_Building News_. + +[Illustration: ARTISTS HOMES NO 11 "WEIRLEIGH" BRENCHLEY, KENT. THE +RESIDENCE OF HARRISON WEIR ESQ'RE WADMORE & BAKER ARCHITECTS] + + * * * * * + + + + +RAPID BREATHING AS A PAIN OBTUNDER IN MINOR SURGERY, OBSTETRICS, THE +GENERAL PRACTICE OF MEDICINE AND OF DENTISTRY. + +[Footnote: Read before the Philadelphia County Medical Society, May 12, +1880, by W. G. A. Bonwill, M.D., D.D.S., Philadelphia.] + + +Through the kind invitation of your directors, I am present to give you +the history of "rapid breathing" as an analgesic agent, as well as my +experience therein since I first discovered it. It is with no little +feeling of modesty that I appear before such a learned and honorable +body of physicians and surgeons, and I accept the privilege as a high +compliment. I trust the same liberal spirit which prompted you to call this +subject to the light of investigation will not forsake you when you have +heard all I have to say and you sit in judgment thereon. Sufficient time +has now elapsed since the first promulgation of the subject for the shafts +of ridicule to be well nigh spent (which is the common logic used to crush +out all new ideas), and it is to be expected that gentlemen will look upon +it with all the charity of a learned body, and not be too hasty to condemn +what they have had but little chance to investigate; and, of course, have +not practiced with that success which can only come from an intelligent +understanding of its application and _modus operandi_. + +Knowing the history of past discoveries, I was well prepared for the +crucible. I could not hope to be an exception. But, so far, the medical +profession have extended me more favor than I have received at the hands of +the dental profession. + +My first conception of the analgesic property of a pain obtunder in +contradistinction to its anaesthetic effect, which finally led to the +discovery of the inhalation of common air by "rapid breathing," was in 1855 +or 1856, while performing upon my own teeth certain operations which gave +me intense pain (and I could not afford to hurt myself) without a resort to +ether and chloroform. These agents had been known so short a time that no +one was specially familiar with their action. Without knowing whether I +could take chloroform administered by myself, and at the same time perform +with skill the excavation of extremely sensitive dentine or tooth-bone, as +if no anaesthetic had been taken, and not be conscious of pain, was more +than the experience of medical men at that time could assure me. But, +having a love for investigation of the unknown, I prepared myself for the +ordeal. By degrees I took the chloroform until I began to feel very plainly +its primary effects, and knowing that I must soon be unconscious, I applied +the excavator to the carious tooth, and, to my surprise, found no pain +whatever, but the sense of touch and hearing were marvelously intensified. +The small cavity seemed as large as a half bushel; the excavator more the +size of an ax; and the sound was equally magnified. That I might not be +mistaken, I repeated the operation until I was confident that anaesthetics +possessed a power not hitherto known--that of analgesia. To be doubly +certain, I gave it in my practice, in many cases with the same happy +results, which saved me from the risks incident to the secondary effects of +anaesthetics, and which answered for all the purposes of extracting from +one to four teeth. Not satisfied with any advance longer than I could find +a better plan, I experimented with the galvanic current (to and fro) by so +applying the poles that I substituted a stronger impression by electricity +from the nerve centers or ganglia to the peripheries than was made from the +periphery to the brain. This was so much of a success that I threw +aside chloroform and ether in removing the living nerve of a tooth with +instruments instead of using arsenic; and for excavating sensitive caries +in teeth, preparatory to filling, as well as many teeth extracted by it. +But this was short-lived, for it led to another step. Sometimes I would +inflict severe pain in cases of congested pulps or from its hasty +application, or pushing it to do too much, when my patient invariably would +draw or inhale the breath _very forcibly and rapidly_. I was struck with +the repeated coincidence, and was led to exclaim: "Nature's anaesthetic." +This then reminded me of boyhood's bruises. The involuntary action of every +one who has a finger hurt is to place it to the mouth and draw violently in +the air and hold it for an instant, and again repeat it until the pain is +subdued. The same action of the lungs occurs, except more powerfully, +in young children who take to crying when hurt. It will be noticed they +breathe very rapidly while furiously crying, which soon allays the +irritation, and sleep comes as the sequel. Witness also when one is +suddenly startled, how violently the breath is taken, which gives relief. +The same thing occurs in the lower animals when pain is being inflicted at +the hand of man. + +This was advance No. 3, and so sure was I of this new discovery, that I at +once made an application while removing decay from an extremely sensitive +tooth. To be successful, I found I must make the patient take the start, +and I would follow with a thrust from the excavator, which move would be +accomplished before the lungs could be inflated. This was repeated for +at least a minute, until the operation was completed, I always following +immediately or synchronously with the inhalation. + +This led to step No. 4, which resulted in its application to the extracting +of teeth and other operations in minor surgery. + +Up to this time I had believed the sole effect of the rapid inhalation was +due to mere diversion of the will, and this was the only way nature could +so violently exert herself--that of controlling the involuntary action of +the lungs to her uses by the _safety valve_, or the voluntary movement. + +The constant breathing of the patient for thirty seconds to a minute left +him in a condition of body and mind resembling the effects of ether and +chloroform in their primary stages. I could but argue that the prolonged +breathing each time had done it; and, if so, then there must be some +specific effect over and above the mere diversion by the will. To what +could it be due? To the air alone, which went in excess into the lungs in +the course of a minute! Why did I not then immediately grasp the idea of +its broader application as now claimed for it? It was too much, gentlemen, +for that hour. Enough had been done in this fourth step of conception to +rest in the womb of time, until by evolution a higher step could be made at +the maturity of the child. Being self-satisfied with my own baby, I watched +and caressed it until it could take care of itself, and my mind was again +free for another conception. + +The births at first seemed to come at very short intervals; but see how +long it was between the fourth and the fifth birth. It was soon after that +my mind became involved in inventions--a hereditary outgrowth--and the +electric mallet and then the dental engine, the parent of your surgical +engine, to be found in the principal hospitals of this city, took such +possession of my whole soul, that my air analgesic was left slumbering. It +was not until August, 1875--nineteen years after--that it again came up in +full force, without any previous warning. + +This time it was no law of association that revived it; but it seemed +the whispering of some one in the air--some ethereal spirit, if you +please--which instituted it, and advanced the following problem: "Nitrous +oxide gas is composed of the same elements as ordinary air, with a larger +equivalent of oxygen, except it is a chemical compound, not a mechanical +mixture, and its anaesthetic effects are said to be due to the excess of +oxygen. If this be a fact, then why can you not produce a similar effect by +rapid breathing for a minute, more or less, by which a larger quantity of +oxygen is presented in the lungs for absorption by the blood?" + +This query was soon answered by asking myself another: "If the rapid +inhalation of air into the lungs does not increase the heart's action and +cause it to drive the blood in exact ratio to the inhalations, then _I can_ +produce partial anaesthesia from this excess of oxygen brought about by the +voluntary movements over their ordinary involuntary action of the lungs." +The next question was: Will my heart be affected by this excess of air in +the lungs to such an extent that there will be a full reciprocity between +them? Without making any trial of it, I argued that, while there is no +other muscular movement than that of the chest as under the control of the +will, and as nature has given to the will the perfect control over the +lungs to supply more or less air, as is demanded by the pneumogastric nerve +for the immediate wants of the economy, when the _involuntary action_ is +not sufficient; and the heart not being under the control of the will, and +its action never accelerated or diminished except by a specific poison, or +from the general activity of the person in violent running or working, the +blood is forced into the heart faster and must get rid of it, when a larger +supply of oxygen is demanded and rapid breathing must occur, or asphyxia +result. I was not long in deciding that the heart _would not be +accelerated_ but a trifle--say a tenth--and, under the circumstances, I +said: "The air _is_ an anaesthetic." + +From this rapid course of argument, I was so profoundly convinced of its +truth, that without having first tried it upon my own person, I would have +sat where I was, upon the curbstone, and had a tooth removed with the +perfect expectation of absence of pain and of still being conscious of +touch. While yet walking with my children, I commenced to breathe as +rapidly as possible, and, as anticipated, found my steps growing shorter +and shorter, until I came to a stand, showing to my mind clearly that my +argument in advance was right, so far as locomotion was concerned; and, +upon referring to my pulse, I found but little acceleration. + +To what other conclusion could I arrive from this argument, with the +foundation laid nineteen years before, when I established on my own person +by experiment the fact of analgesia as induced from chloroform, with the +many experiments in rapid respiration on tooth bone? + +From this moment until its first application to the extraction of a tooth +you can well imagine my suspense. That I might not fail in the very first +attempt, I compelled myself and others in my household to breathe rapidly +to investigate the phenomenon. This gave me some idea as to the proper +method of proceeding in its administering. + +The first case soon appeared, and was a perfect success, going far beyond +my anticipations, for the effect was such as to produce a partial paralysis +of the hands and arms to the elbow. Again and again I tried it in every +case of extraction and many other experiments, doubting my own senses for +a long time at a result so anomalous and paradoxical. I was reminded just +here of a phenomenon which gave me additional proof--that of blowing a +dull fire to revive it. For a minute or so one blows and blows in rapid +succession until, rising from the effort, a sense of giddiness for a +few moments so overcomes that the upright position is with difficulty +maintained. In this condition you are fitted for having a tooth extracted +or an abscess lanced. + +Believing that I had something new to offer which might be of use to +suffering humanity, I read the first article upon it Nov. 17, 1875, before +the Franklin Institute. Shortly after I was invited before the Northern +Medical Society of this city to address them thereon. A number of medical +gentlemen have been using it in their practice, while the bulk of them have +spurned it as "negative" and preposterous, without an effort at trying it, +which I can _now_ very well understand. + +Unless one is aware of the fact that in the use of any agent which has the +power to suspend the volition, it can be taken to that point where he is +still conscious of _touch and hearing_, and at the same time not cognizant +of pain inflicted, the action of rapid breathing could not be understood. +And I regret to say that of three-fourths of the medical men I have talked +with on the subject they had not been aware of such a possibility from +ether and chloroform. Until this analgesic state could be established in +their minds it was impossible to convince them that the excess of oxygen, +as obtained by rapid breathing, could be made to produce a similar effect. +_I_ should have been as reluctant as any one to believe it, had I not +personally experienced the effect while performing an operation which would +otherwise have been very painful. Such a result could not well be reached +by any course of reasoning. + +Has it proven in my practice what has been claimed for it--a substitute +for the powerful anaesthetics in minor operations in surgery? Most +emphatically, yes! So completely has it fulfilled its humble mission in +my office, that I can safely assert there has not been more than five per +cent. of failures. I have given it under all circumstances of diseased +organs, and have seen no other than the happiest results in its after +effects. It may well be asked just here: Why has it not been more generally +and widely used by the dental profession as well as the medical, if it is +really what is claimed for it? The most satisfactory and charitable answer +to be given is, the failure upon their part to comprehend the _fact_ as +existing in chloroform and ether that there is such a state as analgesia; +or, in other words, that the animal economy is so organized, while the +sense of touch is not destroyed, but rather increased, the mind of the +subject fails to perceive a sense of pain when anaesthetics are given, and +the effects are manifested in the primary stage. As I before intimated, +such is the knowledge possessed by most of those who administer ether and +chloroform. This was enough to cause nearly every one to look upon it as a +bubble or air castle. Many gentlemen told me they tried it upon themselves, +and, while it affected them very seriously by giddiness, they still +_retained consciousness_; and, such being the case, no effect could be +produced for obtunding pain. Others told me they were afraid to continue +the breathing alarmed at the vertigo induced. And the practitioner who has +adopted it more effectively than any other laughed at me when I first told +him of the discovery; but his intimate association with me changed his +views after much explanation and argument between us. + +It was hardly to be expected that without this knowledge of analgesia, +and without any explanation from me as to the _modus operandi_ of rapid +breathing, other than a few suggestions or directions as to how the effect +was induced, even the most liberal of medical men should be able to make +it effective, or have the least disposition to give it a preliminary trial +upon themselves, and, of course, would not attempt it upon a patient. +Notwithstanding, it found a few adherents, but only among my personal +_medical_ friends, with whom I had an opportunity to explain what I +believed its physiological action, and the cases of success in my own +practice. To this I have submitted as among the inevitable in the calendar +of discoveries of all grades. + +My own profession have attempted to _ridicule_ it out of its birthright +and possible existence, which style of argument is not resorted to by true +logicians. + +To all this I can truly say I have not for one moment faltered. I could +afford to wait. The liberality of this society alone fully compensates for +the seeming indisposition of the past, believing that it is proper that +every advance should be confronted, and, if in time found worthy, give it +God speed. + +From its first conception I have diligently labored to solve its _modus +operandi_, and the doubt in my own mind as to whether I could be mistaken +in my observations. I asked the opinion of our best chemical teachers if +air could have such effect. One attributed it to oxygen stimulation, and +the other to nitrogen. Another gentleman told me the medical profession had +come to the conclusion that it was possible for me to thus extract teeth, +but it was due solely to my strong _personal magnetism_ (which power I was +not before aware I possessed). + +Now, from what I have related of the successive and natural steps which +finally culminated in this process or plan of analgesia induced by an +excess of ordinary air taken forcibly into the lungs above what is +necessary for life, and from what I shall state as to the apparently +anomalous or paradoxical effects, with its physiological action, and the +simple tests made upon each of my patients, I shall trust to so convince +you of its plausibility and possibility that it will be made use of in +hundreds of minor operations where ether and chloroform are now used. + +Aside from my assertion and that of its friends, that the effects can be +produced by air alone, you must have some light shed upon the causes of its +physiological action, which will appeal to your _medical_ reason. + +To assign an action to any drug is difficult, and in the cases of ether and +the other anaesthetics a quarter of a century still finds many conflicting +opinions. This being true, you will deal leniently with me for the opinion +I hold as to their analgesic action. Of course it will be objected to, +for the unseen is, to a great extent, unknowable. Enough for my argument, +however; it seems to suit the case very well without looking for another; +and while it was based on the phenomenon resulting from many trials, and +not the trials upon it as a previous theory, I shall be content with it +until a better one can be found. + +What is it I claim as a new discovery, and the facts and its philosophy? + +I have asserted that I can produce, from rapidly breathing common air at +the rate of a hundred respirations a minute, a similar effect to that from +ether, chloroform, and nitrous oxide gas, in their primary stages; and I +can in this way render patients sufficiently insensible to acute pain from +any operation where the time consumed is not over twenty to thirty seconds. +While the special senses are in partial action, the sense of pain is +obtunded, and in many cases completely annulled, consciousness and general +sensibility being preserved. + +To accomplish this, each patient must be instructed how to act and what to +expect. As simple as it may seem, there is a proper and consistent plan to +enable you to reach full success. Before the patient commences to inhale he +is informed of the fact that, while he will be unconscious of pain, he +will know full, or partially well, every touch upon the person; that the +inhalation must be vigorously kept up during the whole operation without +for an instant stopping; that the more energetically and steadily he +breathes, the more perfect the effect, and that if he cease breathing +during the operation, pain will be felt. Fully impress them with this +idea, for the very good reason that they may stop when in the midst of an +operation, and the fullest effects be lost. It is obligatory to do so on +account of its evanescent effects, which demand that the patient be pushed +by the operator's own energetic appeals to "go on." It is very difficult +for any person to respire more than one hundred times to the minute, as he +will become by that time so exhausted as not to be able to breathe at all, +as is evidenced by all who have thus followed my directions. For the next +minute following the completion of the operation the subject will not +breathe more than once or twice. Very few have force enough left to raise +hand or foot. The voluntary muscles have nearly all been subjugated and +overcome by the undue effort at forced inhalation of one hundred over +seventeen, the normal standard. It will be more fully understood further on +in my argument why I force patients, and am constantly speaking to them to +go on. + +I further claim that for the past four years, so satisfactory has been the +result of this system in the extracting of teeth and deadening extremely +sensitive dentine, there was no longer any necessity for chloroform, +ether, or nitrous oxide in the dental office. That such teeth as cannot be +extracted by its aid can well be preserved and made useful, except in a +very few cases, who will not be forced to breathe. + +The anaesthetics, when used in major operations, where time is needed for +the operation, can be made more effective by a lesser quantity when given +in conjunction with "rapid breathing." Drs. Garrettson and Hews, who have +thus tried it, tell me it takes one-half to three-fourths less, and the +after effects are far less nauseating and unpleasant. + +As an agent in labor where an anaesthetic is indicated, it is claimed by +one who has employed it (Dr. Hews) in nearly every case for three years, he +has used "rapid breathing" solely, and to the exclusion of chloroform and +ether. For this I have his assertion, and have no doubt of it whatever, for +if any agent could break down the action of the voluntary muscles of the +parts involved, which prevent the involuntary muscles of the uterus from +having their fullest effect, it is this. The very act of rapid breathing so +affects the muscles of the abdomen as to force the contents of the uterus +downward or outward, while the specific effect of the air at the end of a +minute's breathing leaves the subject in a semi-prostrate condition, giving +the uterus full chance to act in the interim, because free of the will to +make any attempt at withholding the involuntary muscles of the uterus from +doing their natural work. It is self evident; and in this agent we claim +here a boon of inestimable value. And not least in such cases is, there is +no danger of hemorrhage, since the cause of the effect is soon removed. + +In attestation of many cases where it has been tried, I have asked the +mother, and, in some cases, the attendants, whether anything else had been +given, and whether the time was very materially lessened, there has been +but one response, and that in its favor. + +Gentlemen, if we are not mistaken in this, you will agree with me in saying +that it is no mean thing, and should be investigated by intelligent men and +reported upon. From my own knowledge of its effects in my practice, I am +bound to believe this gentleman's record. + +I further claim for it a special application in dislocations. It has +certainly peculiar merits here, as the will is so nearly subjugated by +it as to render the patient quite powerless to resist your effort at +replacing, and at the same time the pain is subdued. + +It is not necessary I should further continue special applications; when +its _modus operandi_ is understood, its adaptation to many contingencies +will of a sequence follow. + +It is well just here, before passing to the next point of consideration, to +answer a query which may arise at this juncture: + +What are the successive stages of effects upon the economy from its +commencement until the full effect is observed, and what proof have I that +it was due to the amount of air inhaled? + +The heart's action is not increased more than from seventy (the average) to +eighty and sometimes ninety, but is much enfeebled, or throwing a lesser +quantity of blood. The face becomes suffused, as in blowing a fire or in +stooping, which continues until the breathing is suspended, when the +face becomes paler. (Have not noticed any purple as from asphyxia by a +deprivation of oxygen.) The vision becomes darkened, and a giddiness soon +appears. The voluntary muscles furthest from the heart seem first to be +affected, and the feet and hands, particularly the latter, have a numbness +at their ends, which increases, until in many cases there is partial +paralysis as far as the elbow, while the limbs become fixed. The hands are +so thoroughly affected that, when open, the patient is powerless to close +them and _vice versa_. There is a vacant gaze from the eyes and looking +into space without blinking of the eyelids for a half minute or more. The +head seems incapable of being held erect, and there is no movement of the +arms or legs as is usual when in great pain. There is no disposition on the +part of the patient to take hold of the operator's hand or interfere with +the operation. + +Many go on breathing mechanically after the tooth is removed, as if nothing +had occurred. Some are aware that the tooth has been extracted, and say +they felt it; others could not tell what had been accomplished. The +majority of cases have an idea of what is being done, but are powerless to +resist. + +With the very intelligent, or those who stop to reason, I have to teach +them the peculiarities of being sensible of touch and not of pain. + +One very interesting case I will state. In extracting seven teeth for a +lady who was very _unwilling_ to believe my statement as to touch and no +pain, I first removed three teeth after having inhaled for one minute, and +when fully herself, she stated that she could not understand why there was +no pain while she was conscious of each one extracted; it was preposterous +to believe such an effect could be possible, as her reason told her that +there is connected with tooth extracting pain in the part, and of severe +character, admitting, though, she felt no pain. She allowed one to be +removed without anything, and she could easily distinguish the change, and +exclaimed, "It is all the difference imaginable!" When the other three were +extracted, there was perfect success again as with the first three. + +One of the most marked proofs of the effects of rapid breathing was that of +a boy of eleven years of age for whom I had to extract the upper and lower +first permanent molars on each side. He breathed for nearly a minute, when +I removed in about twenty seconds all four of the teeth, without a moment's +intermission or the stopping the vigorous breathing; and not a murmur, +sigh, or tear afterward. + +He declared there was no pain, and we needed no such assertion, for there +was not the first manifestation from him that he was undergoing such a +severe operation. + +Another case, the same day, when I had to extract the superior wisdom teeth +on both sides for an intelligent young lady of eighteen years, where I had +to use two pairs of forceps on each tooth (equivalent to extraction of four +teeth), and she was so profoundly affected afterward that she could; not +tell me what had been done other than that I had touched her four times. +She was overcome from its effects for at least a minute afterward. She was +delighted. + +With such severe tests I fear very little the result in any case I can have +them do as I bid. + +There can be no mistake that there is a _specific action_ from something. +It cannot be personal magnetism or mesmeric influence exerted by me, for +such cases are rare, averaging about 10 per cent, only of all classes. +Besides, in mesmeric influence the time has nothing to do with it; whereas, +in my cases, it cannot last over a half minute or minute at most. It cannot +be fear, as such cases are generally more apt to get hurt the worse. It is +not diversion of mind alone, as we have an effect above it. + +There is no better way of testing whether pain has been felt than by taking +the lacerated or contused gums of the patient between the index finger +and thumb and making a gentle pressure to collapse the alveolar borders; +invariably, they will cry out lustily, _that is pain_! This gives undoubted +proof of a specific agent. There is no attempt upon my _own_ part to exert +any influence over my patients in any way other than that they shall +believe what I say in regard to _giving_ them _no pain_ and in the +following of my orders. Any one who knows how persons become mesmerized can +attest that it was not the _operator who forces them under it against +their will_, but it is a peculiar state into which any one who has within +themselves this temperament can _place_ themselves where any one who knows +how can have control. It is not the will of the operator. I therefore +dismiss this as unworthy of consideration in connection with rapid +breathing. + +Then you may now ask, To what do I attribute this very singular phenomenon? + +Any one who followed, in the earlier part of this paper, the course of +the argument in my soliloquy, after twenty years had elapsed from my +observation upon myself of the analgesic effects of chloroform, can almost +give something of an answer. + +That you may the more easily grasp what I shall say, I will ask you, If it +be possible for any human being to make one hundred inhalations in a minute +and the heart's action is not increased more than ten or twenty pulsations +over the normal, what should be the effect upon the brain and nerve +centers? + +If the function of oxygen in common air is to set free in the blood, +either in the capillaries alone, or throughout the whole of the arterial +circulation, carbonic acid gas; and that it cannot escape from the system +unless it do so in the lungs as it passes in the general current--except +a trace that is removed by the skin and kidneys--and that the quantity of +carbonic acid gas set free is in exact relation to the amount of oxygen +taken into the blood, what effect _must be_ manifested where one hundred +respirations in one minute are made--five or six times the normal +number--while the heart is only propelling the blood a very little faster +through the lungs, and _more feebly_--say 90 pulsations at most, when to +be in proportion it should be 400 to 100 respirations to sustain life any +length of time? + +You cannot deny the fact that a definite amount of oxygen can be absorbed +and is absorbed as fast as it is carried into the lungs, even if there be +one hundred respirations to the minute, while the pulsations of the heart +are only ninety! Nature has _made it_ possible to breathe so rapidly to +meet any emergency; and we can well see its beautiful application in the +normal action of both the heart and lungs while one is violently running. + +What would result, and that very speedily, were the act of respiration to +remain at the standard--say 18 or 20--when the heart is in violent action +from this running? Asphyxia would surely end the matter! And why? The +excessive exercise of the whole body is setting free from the tissues such +an amount of excretive matter, and carbon more largely than all the others, +that, without a relative action of the lungs to admit the air that oxygen +may be absorbed, carbonic acid gas cannot be liberated through the lungs +as fast as the waste carbon of the overworked tissues is being made by +disassimilation from this excess of respiration. + +You are already aware how small a quantity of carbonic acid in excess in +the air will seriously affect life. Even 2 to 3 per cent, in a short time +will prove fatal. In ordinary respiration of 20 to the minute the average +of carbonic acid exhaled is 4.35. + +From experiments long ago made by Vierordt--see Carpenter, p. 524--you will +see the relative per cent, of carbonic acid exhaled from a given number of +respirations. When he was breathing six times per minute, 5.5 per cent of +the exhaled air was carbonic acid; twelve times, 4.2; twenty-four times, +3.3; forty-eight times, 3; ninety-six times, 2.6. + +Remember this is based upon the whole number of respirations in the minute +and not each exhalation--which latter could not be measured by the most +minute method. + +Let us deduct the minimum amount, 2.6 per cent, of carbonic acid when +breathing ninety-six times per minute, from the average, at twenty per +minute, or the normal standard, which is recorded in Carpenter, p. 524, as +4.35 per minute, and we have retained in the circulation nearly 2 per cent. +of carbonic acid; that, at the average, would have passed off through the +lungs without any obstruction, and life equalized; but it not having been +thrown off as fast as it should have been, must, of necessity, be left to +prey upon the brain and nerve centers; and as 2 to 3 per cent., we are +told, will so poison the blood, life is imperiled and that speedily. + +It is not necessary we should argue the point as to whether oxygen +displaces carbonic acid in the tissues proper or the capillaries. The +theory of Lavoisier on this point has been accepted. + +We know furthermore, as more positive, that tissues placed in an atmosphere +of oxygen will set free carbonic acid, and that carbonic acid has a +paralyzing effect upon the human hand held in it for a short time. The +direct and speedy effects of this acid upon the delicate nervous element of +the brain is so well known that it must be accepted as law. One of the most +marked effects is the suspension of locomotion of the legs and arms, +and the direct loss of will power which must supervene before voluntary +muscular inactivity, which amounts to partial paralysis in the hands or +feet, or peripheral extremities of the same. + +Now that we have sufficient evidence from the authorities that carbonic +acid can be retained in the blood by excessive breathing, and enough to +seriously affect the brain, and what its effects are when taken directly +into the lungs in excess, we can enter upon what I have held as the most +reasonable theory of the phenomenon produced by rapid breathing for +analgesic purposes; which _theory_ was not _first_ conceived and the +process made to yield to it, but the phenomenon was long observed, and +from the repetition of the effects and their close relationship to that +of carbonic acid on the economy, with the many experiments performed +upon myself, I am convinced that what I shall now state will be found to +substantiate my discovery. Should it not be found to coincide with what +some may say is physiological truth, it will not invalidate the discovery +itself; for of that I am far more positive than Harvey was of the discovery +of the circulation of the blood; or of Galileo of the spherical shape of +the earth. And I ask that it shall not be judged by my theory, but from the +practice. + +It should have as much chance for investigation as the theory of +Julius Robert Mayer, upon which he founded, or which gave rise to the +establishment of one of the most important scientific truths--"the +conservation of energy," and finally the "correlation of forces," which +theory I am not quite sure was correct, although it was accepted, and as +yet, I have not seen it questioned. + +In all due respect to him I quote it from the sketch of that remarkable +man, as given in the _Popular Science Monthly_, as specially bearing on my +discovery: + +"Mayer observed while living in Java, that the _venous blood_ of some of +his patients had a singularly bright red color. The observation riveted +his attention; he reasoned upon it, and came to the conclusion that the +brightness of the color was due to the fact that a less amount of oxidation +was sufficient to keep up the temperature of the body in a hot climate than +a cold one. The darkness of the venous blood he regarded as the visible +sign of the energy of the oxidation." + +My observation leads me to the contrary, that the higher the temperature +the more rapid the breathing to get clear of the excess of carbon, and +hence more oxygenation of the blood which will arterialize the venous +blood, unless there is a large amount of carbonized matter from the tissues +to be taken up. + +Nor must it be denied because of the reasoning as presented to my mind by +some outside influence in my soliloquy when I first exclaimed, "Nature's +anaesthetic," where the argument as to the effects of nitrous oxide gas +being due to an excess of oxygen was urged, and that common air breathed in +excess would do the same thing. + +I am not sure that _it_ was correct, for the effects of nitrous oxide is, +perhaps, due to a deprivation of mechanically mixed air. + +Knowing what I do of theory and practice, I can say with assurance that +there is not a medical practitioner who would long ponder in any urgent +case as to the thousand and one theories of the action of remedies; but +would resort to the _practical_ experience of others and his own finally. +(What surgeon ever stops to ask how narcotics effect their influence?) +After nearly thirty years of association with ether and chloroform, who can +positively answer as to their _modus operandi?_ It is thus with nearly the +whole domain of medicine. It is not yet, by far, among the sciences, with +immutable laws, such as we have in chemistry. Experimentation is giving us +more specific knowledge, and "practice alone has tended to make perfect." +(Then, gentlemen will not set at naught my assertion and practical results. +When I have stated my case in full it is for _you_ to disprove both the +theory and practice annunciated. So far as I am concerned I am responsible +for both.) + +You will please bear with me for a few minutes in my attempt at theory. + +The annulling of pain, and, in some cases, its complete annihilation, +can be accomplished in many ways. Narcotics, anaesthetics--local and +internal--direct action of cold, and mesmeric or physiological influence, +have all their advocates, and each _will surely_ do its work. There is one +thing about which, I think, we can all agree, as to these agencies; unless +the _will_ is partially and in some cases completely subjugated there can +be no primary or secondary effect. The voluntary muscles must become wholly +or partially paralyzed for the time. Telegraphic communication must be cut +off from the brain, that there be no reflex action. It is not necessary +there should be separate nerves to convey pleasure and pain any more than +there should be two telegraphic wires to convey two messages. + +If, then, we are certain of this, it matters little as to whether it was +done by corpuscular poisoning and anaemia as from chloroform or hyperaemia +from ether. + +I think we are now prepared to show clearly the causes which effect the +phenomena in "rapid breathing." + +The first thing enlisted is the _diversion of the will force_ in the act of +forced respiration at a moment when the heart and lungs have been in normal +reciprocal action (20 respirations to 80 pulsations), which act could +not be made and carried up to 100 respirations per minute without such +concentrated effort that ordinary pain could make no impression upon the +brain while this abstraction is kept up. + +Second. There is a specific effect resulting from enforced respiration of +100 to the minute, due to the _excess of carbonic acid gas set free from +the tissues_, generated by this enforced normal act of throwing into the +lungs _five times_ the normal amount of oxygen in one minute demanded, when +the heart has not been aroused to exalted action, which comes from violent +exercise in running or where one is suddenly startled, which excess of +carbonic acid cannot escape in the same ratio from the lungs, since the +heart does not respond to the proportionate overaction of the lungs. + +Third.--Hyperaemia is the last in this chain of effects, which is due to +the excessive amount of air passing into the lungs preventing but little +more than the normal quantity of blood from passing from the heart into +the arterial circulation, but draws it up in the brain with its excess of +carbonic acid gas to act also directly upon the brain as well as throughout +the capillary and venous system, and as well upon the heart, the same as if +it were suspended in that gas outside the body. + +These are evident to the senses of any liberal observer who can witness a +subject rapidly breathing. + +Some ask why is not this same thing produced when one has been running +rapidly for a few minutes? For a very good reason: in this case the rapid +inhalations are preceded by the violent throes of the heart to propel the +carbonized blood from the overworked tissues and have them set free at the +lungs where the air is rushing in at the normal ratio of four to one. This +is not an abnormal action, but is of necessity, or asphyxia would instantly +result and the runner would drop. Such sometimes occurs where the runner +exerts himself too violently at the very outset; and to do so he is +compelled to hold his breath for this undue effort, and the heart cannot +carry the blood fast enough. In this instance there is an approach to +analgesia as from rapid breathing. + +Let me take up the first factor--_diversion of will_--and show that nature +invariably resorts to a sudden inhalation to prevent severe infliction of +pain being felt. It is the panacea to childhood's frequent bruises and +cuts, and every one will remember how when a finger has been hurt it is +thrust into the mouth and a violent number of efforts at rapid inhalation +is effected until ease comes. By others it is subdued by a fit of crying, +which if you will but imitate the sobs, will find how frequently the +respirations are made. + +One is startled, and the heart would seem to jump out of the chest; in +quick obedience to nature the person is found making a number of quick +inhalations, which subdue the heart and pacify the will by diversion from +the cause. + +The same thing is observed in the lower animals. I will relate a case: + +An elephant had been operated upon for a diseased eye which gave him great +pain, for which he was unprepared, and he was wrathy at the keeper and +surgeon. It soon passed off, and the result of the application was so +beneficial to the animal that when brought out in a few days after, to have +another touch of caustic to the part, he was prepared for them; and, just +before the touch, he inflated the lungs to their fullest extent, which +occupied more time than the effect of the caustic, when he made no effort +at resistance and showed no manifestation of having been pained. + +In many cases of extraction of the temporary teeth of children, I make them +at the instant I grasp the tooth take _one_ very violent inhalation, which +is sufficient. Mesmeric anaesthesia can well be classified under diversion +or subjugation of the will, but can be effected in but a small percentage +of the cases. To rely upon this first or primary effect, except in +instantaneous cases, would be failure. + +The second factor is the one upon which I can rely in such of the cases as +come into my care, save when I cannot induce them to make such a number of +respirations as is absolutely necessary. The _whole secret of success lies_ +in the greatest number of respirations that can be effected in from 60 to +90 seconds, and that without any intermission. If the heart, by the _alow +method of respiration_, is pulsating in ratio of four to one respiration, +_no effect can be induced_. + +When the respirations are, say, 100 to the minute, and made with all the +energy the patient can muster, and are kept up while the operation is going +on, there can hardly be a failure in the minor operations. + +It is upon this point many of you may question the facts. Before I tried +it for the first time upon my own person, I arrived at the same conclusion +from a course of argument, that rapid breathing would control the heart's +action and pacify it, and even reduce it below the normal standard under my +urgent respirations. + +In view of the many applications made I feel quite sure in my belief that, +inasmuch as the heart's action is but slightly accelerated, though with +less force from rapid breathing at the rate of 100 to the minute, there is +such an excess of carbonic acid gas set free and crowding upon the heart +and capillaries of the brain, without a chance to escape by the lungs, that +it is the same to all intents as were carbonic acid breathed through the +lungs in common air. Look at the result after this has been kept up for a +minute or more? During the next minute the respirations are not more than +one or two, and the heart has fallen really below, in some cases, the +standard beat, showing most conclusively that once oxygenation has taken +place and that the free carbonic acid gas has been so completely consumed, +that there is no involuntary call through the pneumogastric nerve for a +supply of oxygen. + +If any physiological facts can be proven at all, then I feel quite sure of +your verdict upon my side. + +There is no one thing that goes so far to prove the theory of Lavoisier +regarding the action of oxygen in the tissues and capillaries for +converting carbon into carbonic acid gas instead of the lungs, as held +prior to that time, and still held by many who are not posted in late +experiments. At the time I commenced this practice I must confess I knew +nothing of it. The study of my cases soon led me to the same theory of +Lavoisier, as I could not make the phenomena agree with the old theory of +carbonic acid generated only in the lungs. + +When Vierordt was performing his experiments upon himself in rapid +breathing from six times per minute to ninety-six, I cannot understand +why he failed to observe and record what did certainly result--an extreme +giddiness with muscular prostration and numbness in the peripheries of the +hands and feet, with suffusion of the face, and such a loss of locomotion +as to prevent standing erect without desiring support. Besides, the very +great difference he found in the amount of carbonic acid retained in the +circulation, the very cause of the phenomena just spoken of. + +One thing comes in just here to account for the lack of respiration the +minute after the violent effort. The residual air, which in a normal state +is largely charged with carbonic acid, has been so completely exhausted +that some moments are consumed before there is sufficient again to call +upon the will for its discharge. + +As to hyperaemia you will also assent, now that my second factor is +explained; but it is so nearly allied to the direct effect of excessive +respiration that we can well permit it to pass without argument. If +hyperaemia _is present_, we have a more certain and rather more lasting +effect. + +In conclusion, I will attempt to prognosticate the application of this +principle to the cure of many diseases of chronic nature, and especially +tuberculosis; where from a diminished amount of air going into the lungs +for want of capacity, and particularly for want of energy and inclination +to breathe in full or excess, the tissues cannot get clear of their +excrementitious material, and particularly the carbon, which must go to the +lungs, this voluntary effort can be made frequently during the day to +free the tissues and enable them to take nutritious material for their +restoration to their standard of health. + +Air will be found of far more value than ever before as one of the greatest +of factors in nutrition, and which is as necessary as proper food, and +without which every organization must become diseased, and no true +assimilation can take place without a due amount of oxygen is hourly +and daily supplied by this extra aid of volition which has been so long +overlooked. + +The pure oxygen treatment has certainly performed many cures; yet, when +compared to the mechanical mixture and under the direct control of +the will, at all times and seasons, there is no danger from excessive +oxygenation as while oxygen is given. When every patient can be taught to +rely upon this great safety valve of nature, there will be less need for +medication, and the longevity of our race be increased with but little +dread by mankind for that terrible monster consumption, which seems to have +now unbounded control. + +When this theory I have here given you to-night is fully comprehended by +the medical world and taught the public, together with the kind of foods +necessary for every one in their respective occupation, location, and +climate, we may expect a vast change in their physical condition and a hope +for the future which will brighten as time advances. + +I herewith attach the sphygmographic tracings made upon myself by another, +showing the state of the pulse as compared with the progress of the +respiration. + + +ADDENDA. + +Sphygmographic tracings of the pulse of the essayist. Normal pulse 60 +to the minute. Ten seconds necessary for the slip to pass under the +instrument. + +[Illustration] + +A, A, normal pulse. + +B, pulse taken after breathing rapidly for 15 seconds when +20 respirations had been taken. + +C, rapid breathing for 30 seconds, 43 respirations. + +D, " " 45 " 76 " + +E, " " 60 " 96 " +F, pulse taken after rapid breathing for one minute, as in E, where no +respiration had as yet been taken after the essayist had kept it up for +that one minute. This was after 10 seconds had intervened. + +G, the same taken 50 seconds after, and still no respiration had been +taken, the subject having no disposition to inhale, the blood having been +over oxygenated. + +The pulse in E shows after 96 respirations but 14, or 84 per minute, and +the force nearly as in the normal at A, A1. + +The record in B shows the force more markedly, but still normal in number. + +F and G show very marked diminution in the force, but the number of +pulsations not over 72 per minute; G particularly so, the heart needing the +stimulus of the oxygen for full power. + +The following incident which has but very recently been made known, gives +most conclusive evidence of the truth of the theory and practice of rapid +breathing. + +A Mexican went into the office of a dentist in one of the Mexican cities to +have a tooth extracted by nitrous oxide gas. + +The dentist was not in, and the assistant was about to permit the patient +to leave without removing the tooth, when the wife of the proprietor +exclaimed that she had often assisted her husband in giving the gas, and +that she would do so in this instance if the assistant would agree to +extract the tooth. It was agreed. All being in readiness, the lady turned +on as she supposed the gas, and the Mexican patient was ordered to breathe +as fast as possible to make sure of the full effect and no doubt of the +final success. The assistant was about to extract, but the wife insisted on +his breathing more rapidly, whereupon the patient was observed to become +very dark or purple in the face, which satisfied the lady that the +full effect was manifested, and the tooth was extracted, to the great +satisfaction of all concerned. While the gas was being taken by the Mexican +the gasometer was noticed to rise higher and higher as the patient breathed +faster, and not to sink as was usual when the gas had been previously +administered. This led to an investigation of the reason of such an +anomalous result, when to their utter surprise they found the valve was so +turned by the wife that the Mexican had been breathing nothing but common +air, and instead of exhaling into the surrounding air he violently forced +it into the gasometer with the nitrous oxide gas, causing it to rise and +not sink, which it should have done had the valve been properly turned by +the passage of gas into the lungs of the patient. + +No more beautiful and positive trial could happen, and might not again by +accident or inadvertence happen again in a lifetime. + + * * * * * + + + + +TAP FOR EFFERVESCING LIQUIDS. + + +When a bottle of any liquor charged with carbonic acid under strong +pressure, such as champagne, sparkling cider, seltzer water, etc., is +uncorked, the contents often escape with considerable force, flow out, and +are nearly all lost. Besides this, the noise made by the popping of the +cork is not agreeable to most persons. To remedy these inconveniences +there has been devised the simple apparatus which we represent in the +accompanying cut, taken from _La Nature_. The device consists of a hollow, +sharp-pointed tube, having one or two apertures in its upper extremity +which are kept closed by a hollow piston fitting in the interior of the +tube. This tube, or "tap," as it may be called, is supported on a firm base +to which is attached a draught tube, and a small lever for actuating the +piston. After the tap has been thrust through the cork of the bottle of +liquor the contents may be drawn in any quantity and as often as wanted by +simply pressing down the lever with the finger; this operation raises the +piston so that its apertures correspond with those in the sides of the top, +and the liquid thus finds access to the draught tube through the interior +of the piston. By removing the pressure the piston descends and thus closes +the vents. By means of this apparatus, then, the contents of any bottle of +effervescing liquids may be as easily drawn off as are those contained in +the ordinary siphon bottles in use. + +[Illustration: TAP FOR EFFERVESCING LIQUIDS.] + + * * * * * + + + + +CHEMICAL SOCIETY, LONDON, JAN. 20, 1881. + +PROF. H.E. ROSCOE, President, in the Chair. + + +Mr. Vivian Lewes read a paper on "_Pentathionic Acid_." In March last the +author, at the suggestion of Dr. Debus, undertook an investigation of +pentathionic acid, the existence of which has been denied. The analyses +of the liquid obtained by Wackenroder and others, by passing sulphureted +hydrogen and sulphur dioxide through water, are based on the assumption +that only one acid is present in the solution, and consequently do not +establish the existence of pentathionic acid; as, for example, a mixture of +one molecule of H_2S_4O_6 and one molecule of H_2S_6O_6 would give the same +analytical results as H_2S_5O_6. Moreover, no salt of pentathionic acid has +been prepared in a pure state. The author has succeeded in preparing barium +pentathionate thus: A Wackenroder solution was about half neutralized with +barium hydrate, filtered, and the clear solution evaporated _in vacuo_ over +sulphuric acid. After eighteen days crystals, which proved to be barium +pentathionate + 3 molecules of water, formed. These crystals were +separated, and the liquid further evaporated, when a second crop was +obtained intermediate in composition between the tetra and pentathionate. +These were separated, and the mother-liquor on standing deposited some +oblong rectangular crystals. These on analysis proved to consist of baric +pentathionate with three molecules of water. This salt dissolves readily in +cold water; the solution is decomposed by strong potassic hydrate, baric +sulphite, hyposulphites, and sulphur being formed. By a similar method of +procedure the author obtained potassium pentathionate, anhydrous, and with +one or two molecules of water. The author promises some further results +with some other salts of the higher thionates. + +The president said that the society had to thank the author for a very +complete research on the subject of pentathionic acid. He, however, begged +to differ from him as to his statements concerning the researches of +Messrs. Takamatsu and Smith; in his opinion these authors had proved the +existence of pentathionic acid. He hoped that the crystals (which were very +fine) would be measured. + +Dr. Debus said that no one had previously been able to make the salts of +pentathionic acid, and expressed his sense of the great merit due to the +author for his perseverance and success. The paper opened up some highly +interesting theoretical speculations as to the existence of hexathionic +acid. If potassium tetrathionate was dissolved in water it could be +re-crystallized, but potassium pentathionate under similar circumstances +splits into sulphur and tetrathionate; but a mixture of tetrathionate and +pentathionate can be re-crystallized. It seemed as if the sulphur when +eliminated from the pentathionate combined with the tetrathionate. + +Dr. Dupre asked Dr. Debus how it was that a molecule of pentathionate could +be re-crystallized, whereas two molecules of pentathionate, which should, +when half decomposed, furnish a molecule of tetra and a molecule of +pentathionate, could not. + +Dr. Armstrong then read a _"Preliminary Note on some Hydrocarbons from +Rosin Spirit."_ After giving an account of our knowledge of rosin spirit, +the author described the result of the examination of the mixture of +hydrocarbons remaining after heating it with sulphuric acid and diluting +with half its volume of water and steam distilling. Thus treated rosin +spirit furnishes about one-fourth of its volume of a colorless mobile +liquid, which after long-continued fractional distillation is resolved into +a variety of fractions boiling at temperatures from 95 deg. to over 180 deg.. Each +of the fractions was treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, and the +undissolved portions were then re-fractionated. The hydrocarbons dissolved +by the acid were recovered by heating under pressure with hydrochloric +acid. Besides a cymene and a toluene, which have already been shown to +exist in rosin spirit, metaxylene was found to be present. The hydrocarbons +insoluble in sulphuric acid are, apparently, all members of the C_nH_{2n} +series; they are not, however, true homologues of ethylene, but hexhydrides +of hydrocarbons of the benzene series. Hexhydro-toluene and probably +hex-hydrometaxylene are present besides the hydrocarbon, C_10H_20, but it +is doubtful if an intermediate term is also present. It is by no means +improbable, however, that these hydrocarbons are, at least in part, +products of the action of the sulphuric acid. Cahours and Kraemer's and +Godzki's observations on the higher fractions of crude wood spirit, in +fact, furnish a precedent for this view. Referring to the results obtained +by Anderson, Tilden, and Renard, the author suggests that rosin spirit +perhaps contains hydrides intermediate in composition between those of +the C_nH_{2n-6} and C_nH_{2n} series, also derived like the latter from +hydrocarbons of the benzene series. Finally, Dr Armstrong mentioned that +the volatile portion of the distillate from the non-volatile product of the +oxidation of oil of turpentine in moist air furnishes ordinary cymene when +treated in the manner above described. The fact that rosin spirit yields a +different cymene is, he considers, an argument against the view which +has more than once been put forward, that rosin is directly derived from +terpene. Probably resin and turpentine, though genetically related, are +products of distinct processes. + +The next paper was _"On the Determination of the Relative Weight of Single +Molecules,"_ by E. Vogel, of San Francisco. This paper, which was taken as +read, consists of a lengthy theoretical disquisition, in which the author +maintains the following propositions: That the combining weights of all +elements are one third of their present values; the assumption that equal +volumes of gases contain equal numbers of molecules does not hold good; +that the present theory of valency is not supported by chemical facts, and +that its elimination would be no small gain for chemistry in freeing it +of an element full of mystery, uncertainty, and complication; that the +distinction between atoms and molecules will no longer be necessary; +that the facts of specific heat do not lend any support to the theory of +valency. The paper concludes as follows: "The cause of chemical action is +undoubtedly atmospheric pressure, which under ordinary conditions is equal +to the weight of 76 cubic centimeters of mercury, one of which equals 6.145 +mercury molecules, so that the whole pressure equals 467 mercury molecules. +This force--which with regard to its chemical effect on molecules can be +multiplied by means of heat--is amply sufficient to bring about the highest +degree of molecular specific gravity by the reduction of the molecular +volumes. To it all molecules are exposed and subjected unalterably, and +if not accepted as the cause of chemical action, its influence has to be +eliminated to allow the introduction and display of other forces." + +The next communication was _"On the Synthetical Production of Ammonia, +by the Combination of Hydrogen and Nitrogen in Presence of Heated Spongy +Platinum (Preliminary Notice),"_ by G. S. Johnson. Some experiments, in +which pure nitrogen was passed over heated copper containing occluded +hydrogen, suggested to the author the possibility of the formation of +ammonia; only minute traces were formed. On passing, however, a mixture of +pure nitrogen (from ammonium nitrite) and hydrogen over spongy platinum at +a low red heat, abundant evidence was obtained of the synthesis of ammonia. +The gases were passed, before entering the tube containing the platinum, +through a potash bulb containing Nessler reagent, which remained colorless. +On the contrary, the gas issuing from the platinum rapidly turned Nessler +reagent brown, and in a few minutes turned faintly acid litmus solution +blue; the odor of NH_3 was also perceptible. In one experiment 0.0144 +gramme of ammonia was formed in two hours and a half. The author promises +further experiment as to the effect of temperature, rate of the gaseous +current, and substitution of palladium for platinum. The author synthesized +some ammonia before the Society with complete success. + +The President referred to the synthesis of ammonia from its elements +recently effected by Donkin, and remarked that apparently the ammonia was +formed in much larger quantities by the process proposed by the author of +the present paper. + +Mr. Warington suggested that some HCl gas should be simultaneously passed +with the nitrogen and hydrogen, and that the temperature of the spongy +platinum should be kept just below the temperature at which NH_3 +dissociates, in order to improve the yield of NH_3. + +_"On the Oxidation of Organic Matter in Water"_ by A. Downes. The author +considers that the mere presence of oxygen in contact with the organic +matter has but little oxidizing action unless lowly organisms, as bacteria, +etc. be simultaneously present. Sunlight has apparently considerable +effect in promoting the oxidation of organic matter. The author quotes the +following experiment: A sample of river water was filtered through paper. +It required per 10,000 parts 0.236 oxygen as permanganate. A second portion +was placed in a flask plugged with cotton wool, and exposed to sunlight for +a week; it then required 0.200. A third portion after a week, but excluded +from light, required 0.231. A fourth was boiled for five minutes, plugged, +and then exposed to sunlight for a week; required 0.198. In a second +experiment with well water a similar result was obtained; more organic +matter was oxidized when the organisms had been killed by the addition of +sulphuric acid than when the original water was allowed to stand for an +equal length of time. The author also discusses the statement made by Dr. +Frankland that there is less ground for assuming that the organized and +living matter of sewage is oxidized in a flow of twelve miles of a river +than for assuming that dead organic matter is oxidized in a similar +flow.--_Chem. News._ + + * * * * * + + + + +ROSE OIL, OR OTTO OF ROSES. + +By CHARLES G. WARNFORD LOCK. + + +This celebrated perfume is the volatile essential oil distilled from the +flowers of some varieties of rose. The botany of roses appears to be in a +transition and somewhat unsatisfactory state. Thus the otto-yielding rose +is variously styled _Rosa damascena, R. sempervirens, R. moschata, R. +gallica, R. centifolia, R. provincialis_. It is pretty generally agreed +that the kind grown for its otto in Bulgaria in the damask rose (_R. +damascena_), a variety induced by long cultivation, as it is not to be +found wild. It forms a bush, usually three to four feet, but sometimes six +feet high; its flowers are of moderate size, semi-double, and arranged +several on a branch, though not in clusters or bunches. In color, they are +mostly light-red; some few are white, and said to be less productive of +otto. + +The utilization of the delicious perfume of the rose was attempted, with +more or less success, long prior to the comparatively modern process of +distilling its essential oil. The early methods chiefly in vogue were the +distillation of rose-water, and the infusion of roses in olive oil, the +latter flourishing in Europe generally down to the last century, and +surviving at the present day in the South of France. The butyraceous oil +produced by the distillation of roses for making rose-water in this country +is valueless as a perfume; and the real otto was scarcely known in British +commerce before the present century. + +The profitable cultivation of roses for the preparation of otto is limited +chiefly by climatic conditions. The odoriferous constitutent of the otto +is a liquid containing oxygen, the solid hydrocarbon or stearoptene, with +which it is combined, being absolutely devoid of perfume. The proportion +which this inodorous solid constituents bears to the liquid perfume +increases with the unsuitability of the climate, varying from about 18 per +cent. in Bulgarian oil, to 35 and even 68 per cent. in rose oils distilled +in France and England. This increase in the proportion of stearoptene is +also shown by the progressively heightened fusing-point of rose oils from +different sources: thus, while Bulgarian oil fuses at about 61 deg. to 64 deg. +Fahr., an Indian sample required 68 deg. Fahr.; one from the South of France, +70 deg. to 73 deg. Fahr.; one from Paris, 84 deg. Fahr.; and one obtained in making +rose-water in London, 86 deg. to 891/2 deg. Fahr. Even in the Bulgarian oil, a +notable difference is observed between that produced on the hills and that +from the lowlands. + +It is, therefore, not surprising that the culture of roses, and extraction +of their perfume, should have originated in the East. Persia produced +rose-water at an early date, and the town of Nisibin, north-west of Mosul, +was famous for it in the 14th century. Shiraz, in the 17th century, +prepared both rose water and otto, for export to other parts of Persia, as +well as all over India. The Perso-Indian trade in rose oil, which continued +to possess considerable importance in the third quarter of the 18th +century, is declining, and has nearly disappeared; but the shipments of +rose-water still maintain a respectable figure. The value, in rupees, of +the exports of rose-water from Bushire in 1879, were--4,000 to India, 1,500 +to Java, 200 to Aden and the Red Sea, 1,000 to Muscat and dependencies, 200 +to Arab coast of Persian Gulf and Bahrein, 200 to Persian coast and Mekran, +and 1,000 to Zanzibar. Similar statistics relating to Lingah, in the same +year, show--Otto: 400 to Arab coast of Persian Gulf, and Bahrein; and 250 +to Persian coast and Mekran. And Bahrein--Persian Otto: 2,200 to Koweit, +Busrah, and Bagdad. Rose-water: 200 to Arab coast of Persian Gulf, and +1,000 to Koweit, Busrah, and Bagdad. + +India itself has a considerable area devoted to rose-gardens, as at +Ghazipur, Lahore, Amritzur, and other places, the kind of rose being _R. +damascena_, according to Brandis. Both rose-water and otto are produced. +The flowers are distilled with double their weight of water in clay stills; +the rose-water (_goolabi pani_) thus obtained is placed in shallow vessels, +covered with moist muslin to keep out dust and flies, and exposed all night +to the cool air, or fanned. In the morning, the film of oil, which has +collected on the top, is skimmed off by a feather, and transferred to a +small phial. This is repeated for several nights, till almost the whole of +the oil has separated. The quantity of the product varies much, and three +different authorities give the following figures: (_a_) 20,000 roses to +make 1 rupee's weight (176 gr.) of otto; (_b_) 200,000 to make the same +weight; (_c_) 1,000 roses afford less than 2 gr. of otto. The color ranges +from green to bright-amber, and reddish. The oil (otto) is the most +carefully bottled; the receptacles are hermetically sealed with wax, and +exposed to the full glare of the sun for several days. Rose water deprived +of otto is esteemed much inferior to that which has not been so treated. +When bottled, it is also exposed to the sun for a fortnight at least. + +The Mediterranean countries of Africa enter but feebly into this industry, +and it is a little remarkable that the French have not cultivated it in +Algeria. Egypt's demand for rose-water and rose-vinegar is supplied from +Medinet Fayum, south-west of Cairo. Tunis has also some local reputation +for similar products. Von Maltzan says that the rose there grown for otto +is the dog-rose (_R. canina_), and that it is extremely fragrant, 20 lb. +of the flower yielding about 1 dr. of otto. Genoa occasionally imports a +little of this product, which is of excellent quality. In the south of +France rose gardens occupy a large share of attention, about Grasse, +Cannes, and Nice; they chiefly produce rose-water, much of which is +exported to England. The essence (otto) obtained by the distillation of the +Provence rose (_R. provincialis_) has a characteristic perfume, arising, it +is believed, from the bees transporting the pollen of the orange flowers +into the petals of the roses. The French otto is richer in stearoptene than +the Turkish, nine grammes crystallizing in a liter (13/4 pint) of alcohol at +the same temperature as 18 grammes of the Turkish. The best preparations +are made at Cannes and Grasse. The flowers are not there treated for the +otto, but are submitted to a process of maceration in fat or oil, ten +kilos. of roses being required to impregnate one kilo. of fat. The price of +the roses varies from 50c. to 1 fr. 25c. per kilo. + +But the one commercially important source of otto of roses is a +circumscribed patch of ancient Thrace or modern Bulgaria, stretching along +the southern slopes of the central Balkans, and approximately included +between the 25th and 26th degrees of east longitude, and the 42d and 43d of +north latitude. The chief rose-growing districts are Philippopoli, Chirpan, +Giopcu, Karadshah-Dagh, Kojun-Tepe, Eski-Sara, Jeni-Sara, Bazardshik, and +the center and headquarters of the industry, Kazanlik (Kisanlik), +situated in a beautiful undulating plain, in the valley of the Tunja. The +productiveness of the last-mentioned district may be judged from the fact +that, of the 123 Thracian localities carrying on the preparation of otto in +1877--they numbered 140 in 1859--42 belong to it. The only place affording +otto on the northern side of the Balkans is Travina. The geological +formation throughout is syenite, the decomposition of which has provided a +soil so fertile as to need but little manuring. The vegetation, according +to Baur, indicates a climate differing but slightly from that of the Black +Forest, the average summer temperatures being stated at 82 deg. Fahr. at noon, +and 68 deg. Fahr. in the evening. The rose-bushes nourish best and live longest +on sandy, sun-exposed (south and south-east aspect) slopes. The flowers +produced by those growing on inclined ground are dearer and more esteemed +than any raised on level land, being 50 per cent. richer in oil, and that +of a stronger quality. This proves the advantage of thorough drainage. On +the other hand, plantations at high altitudes yield less oil, which is of a +character that readily congeals, from an insufficiency of summer heat. The +districts lying adjacent to and in the mountains are sometimes visited +by hard frosts, which destroy or greatly reduce the crop. Floods also +occasionally do considerable damage. The bushes are attacked at intervals +and in patches by a blight similar to that which injures the vines of the +country. + +The bushes are planted in hedge-like rows in gardens and fields, at +convenient distances apart, for the gathering of the crop. They are seldom +manured. The planting takes place in spring and autumn; the flowers attain +perfection in April and May, and the harvest lasts from May till the +beginning of June. The expanded flowers are gathered before sunrise, +often with the calyx attached; such as are not required for immediate +distillation are spread out in cellars, but all are treated within the day +on which they are plucked. Baur states that, if the buds develop slowly, +by reason of cool damp weather, and are not much exposed to sun-heat, when +about to be collected, a rich yield of otto, having a low solidifying +point, is the result, whereas, should the sky be clear and the temperature +high at or shortly before the time of gathering, the product is diminished +and is more easily congealable. Hanbury, on the contrary, when distilling +roses in London, noticed that when they had been collected on fine dry +days the rose-water had most volatile oil floating upon it, and that, when +gathered in cool rainy weather, little or no volatile oil separated. + +The flowers are not salted, nor subjected to any other treatment, before +being conveyed in baskets, on the heads of men and women and backs of +animals, to the distilling apparatus. This consists of a tinned-copper +still, erected on a semicircle of bricks, and heated by a wood fire; from +the top passes a straight tin pipe, which obliquely traverses a tub kept +constantly filled with cold water, by a spout, from some convenient +rivulet, and constitutes the condenser. Several such stills are usually +placed together, often beneath the shade of a large tree. The still is +charged with 25 to 50 lb. of roses, not previously deprived of their +calyces, and double the volume of spring water. The distillation is carried +on for about l1/2 hours, the result being simply a very oily rose-water +(_ghyul suyu_). The exhausted flowers are removed from the still, and the +decoction is used for the next distillation, instead of fresh water. +The first distillates from each apparatus are mixed and distilled by +themselves, one-sixth being drawn off; the residue replaces spring water +for subsequent operations. The distillate is received in long-necked +bottles, holding about 11/4 gallon. It is kept in them for a day or two, at a +temperature exceeding 59 deg. Fahr., by which time most of the oil, fluid +and bright, will have reached the surface. It is skimmed off by a small, +long-handled, fine-orificed tin funnel, and is then ready for sale. The +last-run rose-water is extremely fragrant, and is much prized locally for +culinary and medicinal purposes. The quantity and quality of the otto are +much influenced by the character of the water used in distilling. When +hard spring water is employed, the otto is rich in stearoptene, but less +transparent and fragrant. The average quantity of the product is estimated +by Baur at 0.037 to 0.040 per cent.; another authority says that 3,200 +kilos. of roses give 1 kilo. of oil. + +Pure otto, carefully distilled, is at first colorless, but speedily becomes +yellowish; its specific gravity is 0.87 at 72.5 deg. Fahr.; its boiling-point +is 444 deg. Fahr.; it solidifies at 51.8 deg. to 60.8 deg. Fahr., or still higher; it +is soluble in absolute alcohol, and in acetic acid. The most usual and +reliable tests of the quality of an otto are (1) its odor, (2) its +congealing point, (3) its crystallization. The odor can be judged only +after long experience. A good oil should congeal well in five minutes at +a temperature of 54.5 deg. Fahr.; fraudulent additions lower the congealing +point. The crystals of rose-stearoptene are light, feathery, shining +plates, filling the whole liquid. Almost the only material used for +artificially heightening the apparent proportion of stearoptene is said to +be spermaceti, which is easily recognizable from its liability to settle +down in a solid cake, and from its melting at 122 deg. Fahr., whereas +stearoptene fuses at 91.4 deg. Fahr. Possibly paraffin wax would more easily +escape detection. + +The adulterations by means of other essential oils are much more difficult +of discovery, and much more general; in fact, it is said that none of the +Bulgarian otto is completely free from this kind of sophistication. The +oils employed for the purpose are certain of the grass oils (_Andropogon_ +and _Cymbopogon spp._) notably that afforded by _Andropogon, Schoenanthus_ +called _idris-yaghi_ by the Turks, and commonly known to Europeans as +"geranium oil," though quite distinct from true geranium oil. The addition +is generally made by sprinkling it upon the rose-leaves before distilling. +It is largely produced in the neighborhood of Delhi, and exported to +Turkey by way of Arabia. It is sold by Arabs in Constantinople in large +bladder-shaped tinned-copper vessels, holding about 120 lb. As it is +usually itself adulterated with some fatty oil, it needs to undergo +purification before use. This is effected in the following manner: The +crude oil is repeatedly shaken up with water acidulated with lemon-juice, +from which it is poured off after standing for a day. The washed oil +is placed in shallow saucers, well exposed to sun and air, by which it +gradually loses its objectionable odor. Spring and early summer are the +best seasons for the operation, which occupies two to four weeks, according +to the state of the weather and the quality of the oil. The general +characters of this oil are so similar to those of otto of roses--even the +odor bearing a distant resemblance--that their discrimination when mixed is +a matter of practical impossibility. The ratio of the adulteration varies +from a small figure up to 80 or 90 per cent. The only safeguard against +deception is to pay a fair price, and to deal with firms of good repute, +such as Messrs. Papasoglu, Manoglu & Son, Ihmsen & Co., and Holstein & Co. +in Constantinople. + +The otto is put up in squat-shaped flasks of tinned copper, called +_kunkumas_, holding from 1 to 10 lb., and sewn up in white woolen cloths. +Usually their contents are transferred at Constantinople into small gilded +bottles of German manufacture for export. The Bulgarian otto harvest, +during the five years 1867-71, was reckoned to average somewhat below +400,000 _meticals, miskals_, or _midkals_ (of about 3 dwt. troy), or 4,226 +lb. av.; that of 1873, which was good, was estimated at 500,000, value +about L700,000. The harvest of 1880 realized more than L1,000,000, though +the roses themselves were not so valuable as in 1876. About 300,000 +_meticals_ of otto, valued at L932,077, were exported in 1876 from +Philippopolis, chiefly to France, Australia, America, and Germany. + +--_Jour. Soc. of Arts._ + + * * * * * + + + + +A NEW METHOD OF PREPARING METATOLUIDINE. + +By OSKAR WIDMAN. + + +The author adds in small portions five parts metanitro-benzaldehyd to nine +parts of phosphorus pentachloride, avoiding a great rise of temperature. +When the reaction is over, the whole is poured into excess of cold water, +quickly washed a few times with cold water, and dissolved in alcohol. After +the first crystallization the compound melts at 65 deg., and is perfectly pure. + + * * * * * + +A catalogue, containing brief notices of many important scientific papers +heretofore published in the SUPPLEMENT, may be had gratis at this office. + + * * * * * + + + + +THE SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN SUPPLEMENT. + +PUBLISHED WEEKLY. + +TERMS OF SUBSCRIPTION, $5 A YEAR. + +Sent by mail, postage prepaid, to subscribers in any part of the United +States or Canada. 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